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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6
+       "Coucy-le-Château" to "Crocodile"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2010 [EBook #32423]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet
+Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are
+      preceded by an underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in
+      superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article COUNCIL: "Although the Frankish monarchs were not absolute
+      rulers, nevertheless they exercised the right of changing or
+      rejecting synodal decrees which ran counter to the interests of the
+      state." 'absolute' amended from 'abolute'.
+
+    Article COUNCIL: "The last of the Reform councils, that of Basel,
+      approved these principles, and at length passed a sentence of
+      deposition against Pope Eugenius IV." 'approved' amended from
+      'appoved'.
+
+    Article COUNT: "It is difficult to give briefly a clear idea of the
+      functions of the three important officials comes sacrarum
+      largitionum, comes rei privatae and comes sacri patrimonii."
+      'patrimonii' amended from 'partrimonii'.
+
+    Article COVENANT: "The covenant not to sue belongs to the law of
+      contract and needs no explanation." 'explanation' amended from
+      'explantion'.
+
+    Article COWLEY, WELLESLEY: "and also during the excitement and
+      unrest produced by the attempt made in 1858 by Felice Orsini to
+      assassinate the emperor of the French." 'emperor' amended from
+      'emporor'.
+
+    Article CRAIG, JOHN: "James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this
+      compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal
+      chaplains and some others." 'like' amended from 'Like'.
+
+    Article CREEDS: "The confession of the Four Cities, Strassburg,
+      Constance, Memmingen and London, was drawn up by M. Bucer and was
+      presented to Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530." 'Augsburg' amended
+      from 'Ausburg'.
+
+    Article CREEDS: "It was prepared by Dr George Redford of Worcester,
+      and was presented, not as a scholastic or critical confession of
+      faith, but merely such a statement as any intelligent member of the
+      body might offer as containing its leading principles." 'of'
+      amended from 'or'.
+
+    Article CREEK: "a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in a river
+      formed by the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow harbour for
+      small vessels." 'vessels' amended from 'vessles'.
+
+    Article CREIGHTON, MANDELL: "His irrepressible and often daring
+      humour, together with his frank distaste for much conventional
+      religious phraseology, was a stumbling-block to some pious people."
+      'irrepressible' amended from 'irrespressible'.
+
+    Article CRICKET: "The distance that constitutes "good length" is
+      not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; it depends on
+      the condition of the ground, and on the reach of the batsman."
+      'constitutes' amended from 'consistutes'.
+
+    Article CRITICISM: The Poetics of Aristotle (1898); H. L. Havell
+      and Andrew Lang, Longinus on the Sublime (1890). 'Aristotle'
+      amended from 'Artistotle'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VII, SLICE VI
+
+       Coucy-le-Château to Crocodile
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COUCY-LE-CHÂTEAU                   CRANK
+  COUES, ELLIOTT                     CRANMER, THOMAS
+  COULISSE                           CRANNOG
+  COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN          CRANSAC
+  COULOMMIERS                        CRANSTON
+  COUMARIN                           CRANTOR
+  COUMARONES                         CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE
+  COUNCIL                            CRAPE
+  COUNCIL BLUFFS                     CRASH
+  COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR             CRASHAW, RICHARD
+  COUNT                              CRASSULACEAE
+  COUNTER                            CRASSUS
+  COUNTERFEITING                     CRATER
+  COUNTERFORT                        CRATES (Athenian actor)
+  COUNTERPOINT                       CRATES (Greek philosophers)
+  COUNTERSCARP                       CRATES (of Mallus)
+  COUNTERSIGN                        CRATINUS
+  COUNTRY                            CRATIPPUS (Greek historian)
+  COUNTY                             CRATIPPUS (of Mitylene)
+  COUNTY COURT                       CRAU
+  COUPÉ                              CRAUCK, GUSTAVE
+  COUPLET                            CRAUFURD, QUINTIN
+  COUPON                             CRAUFURD, ROBERT
+  COURANTE                           CRAVAT
+  COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE       CRAVEN, PAULINE AGLAÉ
+  COURBET, GUSTAVE                   CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN
+  COURBEVOIE                         CRAWFORD, EARLS OF
+  COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE    CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION
+  COURCI, JOHN DE                    CRAWFORD, THOMAS
+  COURIER, PAUL LOUIS                CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS
+  COURIER                            CRAWFORDSVILLE
+  COURLAND                           CRAWFURD, JOHN
+  COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN          CRAYER, GASPARD DE
+  COURSING                           CRAYFISH
+  COURT, ANTOINE                     CRAYON
+  COURT                              CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD
+  COURT BARON                        CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM
+  COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE          CRÉBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE
+  COURTENAY                          CRÈCHE
+  COURTENAY, RICHARD                 CRÉCY
+  COURTENAY, WILLIAM                 CREDENCE
+  COURTESY                           CREDENTIALS
+  COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN            CREDI, LORENZO DI
+  COURT LEET                         CREDIT
+  COURT-MARTIAL                      CRÉDIT FONCIER
+  COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY   CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA
+  COURTOIS, JACQUES and GUILLAUME    CREDITON
+  COURTRAI                           CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH
+  COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE   CREE
+  COUSCOUS                           CREECH, THOMAS
+  COUSIN, JEAN                       CREEDS
+  COUSIN, VICTOR                     CREEK
+  COUSIN                             CREEK or MUSKOGEE INDIANS
+  COUSINS, SAMUEL                    CREETOWN
+  COUSTOU                            CREEVEY, THOMAS
+  COUTANCES, WALTER OF               CREFELD
+  COUTANCES                          CREIGHTON, MANDEL
+  COUTHON, GEORGES                   CREIL
+  COUTTS, THOMAS                     CRELL NICHOLAS
+  COUTURE, THOMAS                    CREMA
+  COUVADE                            CREMATION
+  COVE                               CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN
+  COVELLITE                          CREMERA
+  COVENANT (mutual agreement)        CRÉMIEUX, ISAAC MOÏSE
+  COVENANT (law term)                CREMONA, LUIGI
+  COVENANTERS                        CREMONA
+  COVENT GARDEN                      CREMORNE GARDENS
+  COVENTRY, SIR JOHN                 CRENELLE
+  COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY          CREODONTA
+  COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM              CREOLE
+  COVENTRY                           CREON (king of Corinth)
+  COVER                              CREON (king of Thebes)
+  COVERDALE, MILES                   CREOPHYLUS
+  COVERTURE                          CREOSOTE
+  COVILHÃ                            CREPUSCULAR
+  COVILHAM PERO                      CRÉQUY
+  COVIN                              CRÉQUY, RENÉE DE FROULLAY
+  COVINGTON                          CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM
+  COWARD                             CRESCENT
+  COWBRIDGE                          CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO
+  COWDENBEATH                        CRESILAS
+  COWELL, JOHN                       CRESOLS
+  COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN              CRESPI, DANIELE
+  COWEN, JOSEPH                      CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  COWES                              CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA
+  COWL                               CRESS
+  COWLEY, ABRAHAM                    CRESSENT, CHARLES
+  COWLEY, HANNAH                     CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL
+  COWLEY, CHARLES WELLESLEY          CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE
+  COWLEY FATHERS                     CREST (town of France)
+  COWPENS                            CREST (plume or tuft)
+  COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER             CRESTON
+  COWPER, WILLIAM                    CRESWICK, THOMAS
+  COWRY                              CRESWICK
+  COW-TREE                           CRETACEOUS SYSTEM
+  COX, DAVID                         CRETE
+  COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM            CRETINISM
+  COX, JACOB DOLSON                  CRETONNE
+  COX, KENYON                        CREUSE
+  COX, RICHARD                       CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP
+  COX, SAMUEL                        CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH
+  COX, SAMUEL HANSON                 CREVASSE
+  COXCIE, MICHAEL                    CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS
+  COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS               CREVILLENTE
+  COXE, WILLIAM                      CREW, NATHANIEL CREW
+  COXSWAIN                           CREW
+  COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY              CREWE, ROBERT CREWE-MILNES
+  COYOTE                             CREWE
+  COYPEL                             CREWKERNE
+  COYPU                              CRIB
+  COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE          CRIBBAGE
+  CRAB                               CRICCIETH
+  CRABBE, GEORGE                     CRICHTON, JAMES
+  CRACKER                            CRICKET (insect)
+  CRACOW                             CRICKET (game)
+  CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT           CRICKHOWELL
+  CRADLE                             CRICKLADE
+  CRADOCK                            CRIEFF
+  CRAFT                              CRIME
+  CRAG                               CRIMEA
+  CRAGGS, JAMES                      CRIMEAN WAR
+  CRAIG, JOHN                        CRIMINAL LAW
+  CRAIG, SIR THOMAS                  CRIMINOLOGY
+  CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA         CRIMMITZSCHAU
+  CRAIK, DINAH MARIA                 CRIMP
+  CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE               CRIMSON
+  CRAIL                              CRINAGORAS
+  CRAILSHEIM                         CRINOLINE
+  CRAIOVA                            CRINUM
+  CRAMBO                             CRIOBOLIUM
+  CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST             CRIPPLE CREEK
+  CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY                CRISA
+  CRÄMER, KARL VON                   CRISPI, FRANCESCO
+  CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY               CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN
+  CRAMP                              CRITIAS
+  CRAMP-RINGS                        CRITICISM
+  CRANACH, LUCAS                     CRITIUS and NESIOTES
+  CRANBERRY                          CRITOLAUS
+  CRANBROOK, GATHORNE-HARDY          CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN
+  CRANBROOK                          CRIVELLI, CARLO
+  CRANDALL, PRUDENCE                 CROATIA-SLAVONIA
+  CRANE, STEPHEN                     CROCIDOLITE
+  CRANE, WALTER                      CROCKET
+  CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY               CROCKETT, DAVID
+  CRANE                              CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD
+  CRANES                             CROCKFORD, WILLIAM
+  CRANIOMETRY                        CROCODILE
+
+
+
+
+COUCY-LE-CHÂTEAU, a village of northern France, in the department of
+Aisne, 18 m. W.S.W. of Laon on a branch of the Northern railway. Pop.
+(1906) 663. It has extensive remains of fortifications of the 13th
+century, the most remarkable feature of which is the Porte de Laon, a
+gateway flanked by massive towers and surmounted by a fine apartment.
+Coucy also has a church of the 15th century, preserving a façade in the
+Romanesque style. The importance of the place is due, however, to the
+magnificent ruins of a feudal fortress (see CASTLE) crowning the
+eminence on the slope of which the village is built. The remains, which
+embrace an area of more than 10,000 sq. yds., form an irregular
+quadrilateral built round a court-yard and flanked by four huge towers.
+The nucleus of the stronghold is a donjon over 200 ft. high and over 100
+ft. in diameter, standing on the south side of the court. Three large
+vaulted apartments, one above the other, occupy its interior. The
+court-yard was surrounded on the ground-floor by storehouses, kitchens,
+&c., above which on the west and north sides were the great halls known
+as the _Salle des preux_ and the _Salle des preuses_. A chapel projected
+from the west wing. The bailey or base-court containing other buildings
+and covering three times the area of the château extended between it and
+the village. The architectural unity of the fortress is due to the
+rapidity of its construction, which took place between 1230 and 1242,
+under Enguerrand III., lord of Coucy. A large part of the buildings was
+restored or enlarged at the end of the 14th century by Louis d'Orléans,
+brother of Charles VI., by whom it had been purchased. The place was
+dismantled in 1652 by order of Cardinal Mazarin. It is now state
+property. In 1856 researches were carried on upon the spot by
+Viollet-le-Duc, and measures for the preservation of the ruins were
+subsequently undertaken.
+
+_Sires de Coucy._--Coucy gave its name to the sires de Coucy, a feudal
+house famous in the history of France. The founder of the family was
+Enguerrand de Boves, a warlike lord, who, at the end of the 11th century
+seized the castle of Coucy by force. Towards the close of his life, he
+had to fight against his own son, Thomas de Marle, who in 1115 succeeded
+him, subsequently becoming notorious for his deeds of violence in the
+struggles between the communes of Laon and Amiens. He was subdued by
+King Louis VI. in 1117, but his son Enguerrand II. continued the
+struggle against the king. Enguerrand III., the Great, fought at
+Bouvines under Philip Augustus (1214), but later he was accused of
+aiming at the crown of France, and he took part in the disturbances
+which arose during the regency of Blanche of Castile. These early lords
+of Coucy remained till the 14th century in possession of the land from
+which they took their name. Enguerrand IV., sire de Coucy, died in 1320
+without issue and was succeeded by his nephew Enguerrand, son of Arnold,
+count of Guines, and Alix de Coucy, from whom is descended the second
+line of the house of Coucy. Enguerrand VI. had his lands ravaged by the
+English in 1339 and died at Crécy in 1346. Enguerrand VII., sire de
+Coucy, count of Soissons and Marle, and chief butler of France, was sent
+as a hostage to England, where he married Isabel, the eldest daughter of
+King Edward III. Wishing to remain neutral in the struggle between
+England and France, he went to fight in Italy. Having made claims upon
+the domains of the house of Austria, from which he was descended through
+his mother, he was defeated in battle (1375-1376). He was entrusted with
+various diplomatic negotiations, and took part in the crusade of Hungary
+against the Sultan Bayezid, during which he was taken prisoner, and died
+shortly after the battle of Nicopolis (1397). His daughter Marie sold
+the fief of Coucy to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1400. The Châtelain de
+Coucy (see above) did not belong to the house of the lords of Coucy, but
+was castellan of the castle of that name.
+
+
+
+
+COUES, ELLIOTT (1842-1899), American naturalist, was born at Portsmouth,
+New Hampshire, on the 9th of September 1842. He graduated at Columbian
+(now George Washington) University, Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at
+the Medical school of that institution in 1863. He served as a medical
+cadet at Washington in 1862-1863, and in 1864 was appointed
+assistant-surgeon in the regular army. In 1872 he published his _Key to
+North American Birds_, which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901,
+has done much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America.
+In 1873-1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the United
+States Northern Boundary Commission, and in 1876-1880 was secretary and
+naturalist to the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of
+the Territories, the publications of which he edited. He was lecturer on
+anatomy in the medical school of the Columbian University in 1877-1882,
+and professor of anatomy there in 1882-1887. He resigned from the army
+in 1881 to devote himself entirely to scientific research. He was a
+founder of the American Ornithologists' Union, and edited its organ,
+_The Auk_, and several other ornithological periodicals. He died at
+Baltimore, Maryland, on the 25th of December 1899. In addition to
+ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy; his book _Fur-Bearing
+Animals_ (1877) being distinguished by the accuracy and completeness of
+its description of species, several of which are already becoming rare.
+In 1887 he became president of the Esoteric Theosophical Society of
+America. Among the most important of his publications, in several of
+which he had collaboration, are _A Field Ornithology_ (1874); _Birds of
+the North-west_ (1874); _Monographs on North American Rodentia_, with J.
+A. Allen (1877); _Birds of the Colorado Valley_ (1878); _A Bibliography
+of Ornithology_ (1878-1880, incomplete); _New England Bird Life_ (1881);
+_A Dictionary and Check List of North American Birds_ (1882); _Biogen, A
+Speculation on the Origin and Motive of Life_ (1884); _The Daemon of
+Darwin_ (1884); _Can Matter Think?_ (1886); and _Neuro-Myology_ (1887).
+He also contributed numerous articles to the Century Dictionary, wrote
+for various encyclopaedias, and edited the _Journals of Lewis and Clark_
+(1893), and _The Travels of Zebulon M. Pike_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+COULISSE (French for "groove," from _couler_, to slide), a term for a
+groove in which a gate of a sluice, or the side-scenes in a theatre,
+slide up and down, hence applied to the space on the stage between the
+wings, and generally to that part of the theatre "behind the scenes" and
+out of view of the public. It is also a term of the Paris Bourse,
+derived from a _coulisse_, or passage in which transactions were carried
+on without the authorized _agents de change_. The name _coulissier_ was
+thus given to unauthorized _agents de change_, or "outside brokers" who,
+after many attempts at suppression, were finally given a recognized
+status in 1901. They bring business to the _agents de change_, and act
+as intermediaries between them and other parties. (See STOCK EXCHANGE:
+Paris.)
+
+
+
+
+COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1736-1806), French natural philosopher, was
+born at Angoulême on the 14th of June 1736. He chose the profession of
+military engineer, spent three years, to the decided injury of his
+health, at Fort Bourbon, Martinique, and was employed on his return at
+Rochelle, the Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. In 1781 he was stationed
+permanently at Paris, but on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he
+resigned his appointment as _intendant des eaux et fontaines_, and
+retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was recalled
+to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new determination of
+weights and measures, which had been decreed by the Revolutionary
+government. Of the National Institute he was one of the first members;
+and he was appointed inspector of public instruction in 1802. But his
+health was already very feeble, and four years later he died at Paris on
+the 23rd of August 1806. Coulomb is distinguished in the history alike
+of mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he published an
+important investigation of the laws of friction (_Théorie des machines
+simples, en ayant regard au frottement de leurs parties et à la roideur
+des cordages_), which was followed twenty years later by a memoir on
+fluid resistance. In 1785 appeared his _Recherches théoriques et
+expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'élasticité des fils de
+métal_, &c. This memoir contained a description of different forms of
+his torsion balance, an instrument used by him with great success for
+the experimental investigation of the distribution of electricity on
+surfaces and of the laws of electrical and magnetic action, of the
+mathematical theory of which he may also be regarded as the founder. The
+practical unit of quantity of electricity, the _coulomb_, is named after
+him.
+
+
+
+
+COULOMMIERS, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Seine-et-Marne, 45 m. E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906)
+5217. It is situated in the fertile district of Brie, in a valley
+watered by the Grand-Morin. The church of St Denis (13th and 16th
+centuries), and the ruins of a castle built by Catherine of Gonzaga,
+duchess of Longueville, in the early 17th century, are of little
+importance. There is a statue to Commandant Beaurepaire, who, in 1792,
+killed himself rather than surrender Verdun to the Prussians.
+Coulommiers is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college. Printing is the chief industry,
+tanning, flour-milling and sugar-making being also carried on. Trade is
+in agricultural products, and especially in cheeses named after the
+town.
+
+
+
+
+COUMARIN, C9H6O2, a substance which occurs naturally in sweet woodruff
+(_Asperula odorata_), in the tonka bean and in yellow melilot
+(_Melilotus officinalis_). It can be obtained from the tonka bean by
+extraction with alcohol. It is prepared artificially by heating
+aceto-ortho-coumaric acid (which is formed from sodium salicyl aldehyde)
+or from the action of acetic anhydride and sodium acetate on salicyl
+aldehyde (Sir W. H. Perkin, _Berichte_, 1875, 8, p. 1599). It can also
+be prepared by heating a mixture of phenol and malic acid with sulphuric
+acid, or by passing bromine vapour at 107° C. over the anhydride of
+melilotic acid. It forms rhombic crystals (from ether) melting at 67° C.
+and boiling at 290° C., which are readily soluble in alcohol, and
+moderately soluble in hot water. It is applied in perfumery for the
+preparation of the _Asperula_ essence. On boiling with concentrated
+caustic potash it yields the potassium salt of coumaric acid, whilst
+when fused with potash it is completely decomposed into salicylic and
+acetic acids. Sodium amalgam reduces it, in aqueous solution, to
+melilotic acid. It forms addition products with bromine and hydrobromic
+acid. By the action of phosphorus pentasulphide it is converted into
+thiocoumarin, which melts at 101° C.; and in alcoholic solution, on the
+addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and soda, it yields coumarin
+oxime.
+
+Ortho-coumaric acid (o-oxycinnamic acid) is obtained from coumarin as
+shown above, or by boiling coumarin for some time with sodium ethylate.
+It melts at 208° C. and is easily soluble in hot water and in alcohol.
+It cannot be converted into coumarin by heating alone, but it is readily
+transformed on heating with acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride. By the
+action of sodium amalgam it is readily converted into _melilotic acid_,
+which melts at 81° C., and on distillation furnishes its lactone,
+_hydrocoumarin_, melting at 25° C. For the relations of coumaric and
+coumarinic acid see _Annalen_, 254, p. 181. The homologues of coumarin
+may be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on phenol and the higher
+fatty acids (propionic, butyric and isovaleric anhydrides), substitution
+taking place at the carbon atom in the [alpha] position to the -CO-
+group, whilst by the condensation of acetoacetic ester and phenols with
+sulphuric acid the [beta] substituted coumarins are obtained.
+
+_Umbelliferone_ or 4-oxycoumarin, occurs in the bark of _Daphne
+mezereum_ and may be obtained by distilling such resins as galbanum or
+asafoetida. It may be synthesized from resorcin and malic anhydride or
+from [beta] resorcyl aldehyde, acetic anhydride and sodium acetate.
+_Daphnetin_ and _Aesculetin_ are dioxycoumarins.
+
+The structural formulae of coumarin and the related substances are:
+
+                            CH
+     / \_CH:CH·CO2H    / \ / \\CH    / \ /CH2·CH2·CO2H
+    |   |             |   |   |     |   |
+    |   |_            |   |   |     |   |
+     \ /  OH           \ / \ / CO    \ / \OH
+                            O
+  Orthocoumaric      Coumarin.    Melilotic
+      acid.                         acid.
+
+         CH2                CH
+    / \ / \ CH2        / \ / \\CH
+   |   |   |          |   |   |
+   |   |   |          |   |   |
+    \ / \ / CO      HO \ / \ / CO
+         O                  O
+ Hydrocoumarin.    Umbelliferone.
+
+
+
+
+COUMARONES or BENZOFURFURANES, organic compounds containing the ring
+system
+
+       CH
+      /\\
+  C6H4   CH.
+      \ /
+       O
+
+This ring system may be synthesized in many different ways, the chief
+methods employed being as follows: by the action of hot alcoholic potash
+on [alpha]-bromcoumarin (R. Fittig, _Ann._, 1883, 216, p. 162),
+
+      CH:C·Br           CH                CH
+      /                 /\\               /\\
+  C6H4        ---> C6H4   C·COOH ---> C6H4   CH;
+      \  .              \ /               \ /
+       O·CO              O                 O
+
+from sodium salts of phenols and [alpha]-chloracetoacetic ester (A.
+Hantzsch, _Ber._, 1886, 19, p. 1292),
+
+       H                           C·CH3
+      /         COCH3             /\\
+  C6H4   --->   .        ---> C6H4  C·COOR;
+      \      Cl·CH·COOR           \ /
+       ONa                         O
+
+or from ortho-oxyaldehydes by condensation with ketones (S. Kostanecki
+and J. Tambor, _Ber._, 1896, 29, p. 237), or with chloracetic acid (A.
+Rossing, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 3000),
+
+      /OH CH3CO·C6H5      /OH
+  C6H4    ----------> C6H4              2 Br
+      \CHO                \CH:CH·COC6H5 ----->
+
+      /OH                KHO      / O \
+  C6H4                  ----> C6H4     C·COC6H5,
+      \CHBr·CHBr·COC6H5           \CH//
+
+      /OH  Cl·CH2·COOH      /CHO       CH3COONa
+  C6H4    ------------> C6H4           -------->
+      \CHO                  \O·CH2·COOH
+
+                                    /CH\\
+                                C6H4     C·COOH.
+                                    \ O /
+
+The parent substance coumarone, C8H6O, is also obtained by heating
+[omega]-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol with concentrated potash solution (G.
+Komppa, _Ber._, 1893, 26. p. 2971),
+
+      /CH:CHCl  KOH      /CH\\
+  C6H4         ----> C6H4     CH.
+      \OH                \ O /
+
+It is a colourless liquid which boils at 171-172° C. and is readily
+volatile in steam, but is insoluble in water and in potash solution.
+Concentrated acids convert it into a resin. When heated with sodium and
+absolute alcohol, it is converted into _hydrocoumarone_, C8H8O, and
+ethyl phenol.
+
+
+
+
+COUNCIL (Lat. _concilium_, from _cum_, together, and the root cal, to
+call), the general word for a convocation, meeting, assembly. The Latin
+word was frequently confused with _consilium_ (from _consulere_, to
+deliberate, cf. _consul_), advice, i.e. counsel, and thus specifically
+an advisory assembly. Du Cange (_Gloss. Med. Infim. Latin._) quotes the
+Greek words [Greek: synodos, synedrion, symboulion] as the equivalent of
+_concilium_. In French the distinction between _conseil_ (from
+_consilium_), advice, and _concile_, council (i.e. ecclesiastical--its
+only meaning) has survived, but the two English derivatives are much
+confused. In the New Testament, "council" is the rendering of the Hebrew
+Sanhedrin, Gr. [Greek: synedrion]. The word is generally used in English
+for all kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for
+administrative and deliberative purposes.[1]
+
+The present article is confined to a history of the development of the
+ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in dispute with the
+civil authority or for the settlement of doctrinal and other internal
+disputes. For details see under separate headings, NICAEA, &c.
+
+From a very early period in the history of the Church, councils or
+synods have been held to decide on matters of doctrine and discipline.
+They may be traced back to the second half of the 2nd century A.D., when
+sundry churches in Asia Minor held consultations about the rise of
+Montanism. Their precise origin is disputed. The common Roman Catholic
+view is that they are apostolic though not prescribed by divine law, and
+the apostolic precedent usually cited is the "council" of Jerusalem
+(Acts xv.; Galatians ii.). Waiving the consideration of vital critical
+questions and accepting Acts xv. at its face value, the assembly at
+Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the technical
+sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the Jerusalem church
+at which delegates from Antioch were heard but apparently had no vote,
+the decision resting solely with the mother church. R. Sohm argues that
+synods grew from the custom of certain local churches which, when
+confronted with a serious problem of their own, augmented their numbers
+by receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood. Hauck,
+however, holds that these augmented church meetings, which dealt with
+the affairs of but a single church, are to be distinguished from the
+synods, which took cognizance of matters of general interest. Older
+Protestant writers have contented themselves with saying either that
+synods were of apostolic origin, or that they were the inevitable
+outcome of the need of the leaders of churches to take counsel together,
+and that they were perhaps modelled on the secular provincial assemblies
+(_concilia provincialia_).
+
+Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church has
+affected the composition and function of synods; but the changes were
+neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout the Roman empire.
+The synods of the 2nd century were extraordinary assemblies which met to
+deliberate upon pressing problems. They had no fixed geographical limits
+for membership, no _ex-officio_ members, nor did they possess an
+authority which did away with the independence of the local church. In
+the course of the 3rd century came the decisive change, which increased
+the prestige of the councils: the right to vote was limited to bishops.
+This was the logical outgrowth of the belief that each local church
+ought to have but one bishop (monarchical episcopate), and that these
+bishops were the sole legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic
+succession), and therefore official organs of the Holy Spirit. Although
+as late as 250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the people
+was still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision
+at Rome and in certain parts of the East, the development had already
+run its course in northern Africa. It was a further step in advance when
+synods began to meet at regular intervals. They were held annually in
+Cappadocia by the middle of the 3rd century, and the council of Nicaea
+commanded in 325 that semiannual synods be held in every province, an
+arrangement which was not systematically enforced, and was altered in
+692, when the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a year.
+
+With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentiation of
+type. In text-books we find clear lines drawn between diocesan,
+provincial, national, patriarchal and oecumenical synods; but the first
+thousand years of church history do not justify the sharpness of the
+traditional distinction. The _provincial_ synods, presided over by the
+metropolitan (archbishop), were usually held at the capital of the
+province, and attempted to legislate on all sorts of questions. The
+state had nothing to do with calling them, nor did their decrees require
+governmental sanction. Various abortive attempts were made to set up
+synods of _patriarchal_ or at least of more than provincial rank. In
+North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and 424; during
+part of the 5th and 6th centuries _primatial_ councils assembled at
+Arles; and the patriarchs of Constantinople were accustomed to invite to
+their "_endemic_ synods" ([Greek: synodoi endêmousai]) all bishops who
+happened to be sojourning at the capital. _Papal_ synods from the 5th
+and especially from the 9th century onward included members such as the
+archbishops of Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia and Grado, who resided outside
+the Roman archdiocese; but the territorial limits from which the
+membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely defined.
+
+Before the form of the provincial synod had become absolutely fixed,
+there arose in the 4th century the _oecumenical_ council. The Greek term
+[Greek: synodos oikoumenikê][2] (1) (used by Eusebius, _Vita
+Constantini_, iii. 6) is preferable to the Latin _concilium universale_
+or _generale_, which has been applied loosely to national and even to
+provincial synods. The oecumenical synods were not the logical outgrowth
+of the network of provincial synods; they were creations of the imperial
+power. Constantine, who had not even been baptized, laid the foundations
+when, in response to a petition of the Donatists, he referred their case
+to a committee of bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius
+calls a synod. After that the emperor summoned the council of Arles to
+settle the matter. For both of these assemblies it was the emperor that
+decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling expenses of the
+bishops, determined where the council should be held and what topics
+should be discussed. He regarded them as temporary advisory bodies, to
+whose recommendations the imperial authority might give the force of
+law. In the same manner he appointed the time and place for the council
+of Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out of the
+public purse, nominated the committee in charge of the order of
+business, used his influence to bring about the adoption of the creed,
+and punished those who refused to subscribe. To be sure, the council of
+Nicaea commanded great veneration, for it was the first attempt to
+assemble the entire episcopate; but no more than the synods of Rome and
+of Arles was it an organ of ecclesiastical self-government--it was
+rather a means whereby the Church was ruled by the secular power. The
+subsequent oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on
+that of Nicaea. Most Protestant scholars maintain that the secular
+authorities decided whether or not they should be convened, and issued
+the summons; that imperial commissioners were always present, even if
+they did not always preside; that on occasion emperors have confirmed or
+refused to confirm synodal decrees; and that the papal confirmation was
+neither customary nor requisite. Roman Catholic scholars to-day tend to
+recede from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago,
+and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical synods was
+vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the pope, and that it
+cannot be proved that the Roman see ever actually had a share in calling
+the oecumenical councils of antiquity. Others, however, while
+acknowledging the futility of seeking historical proofs that the popes
+_formally_ called, directed and confirmed these synods, yet assert that
+the emperor performed these functions not of his own right but in his
+quality as protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the
+request or at least with the permission and approval of the Church, and
+in particular of the pope, and that a special though not a stereotyped
+papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was necessary to their validity.
+
+In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western Empire we
+find _national_ and _diocesan_ synods; provincial synods were unusual.
+National synods were summoned by the king or with his consent to meet
+special needs; and they were frequently _concilia mixta_, at which lay
+dignitaries appeared. Although the Frankish monarchs were not absolute
+rulers, nevertheless they exercised the right of changing or rejecting
+synodal decrees which ran counter to the interests of the state. Clovis
+held the first French national synod at Orleans in 511; Reccared, the
+first in Spain in 589 at Toledo. Under Charlemagne they were
+occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked as
+general synods of the West (Regensburg, 792, Frankfort, 794).
+Contemporaneous with the evolution of the national synod was the
+development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included the priests
+of separate and mutually independent parishes and also the leaders of
+the monastic clergy.
+
+The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of the
+Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran synod of 1059
+on. They grew in importance until at length Calixtus II. summoned to the
+Lateran the synod of 1123 as "_generale concilium_." The powers which
+the pope as bishop of the church in Rome had exercised over its synods
+he now extended to the oecumenical councils. They were more completely
+under his control than the ancient ones had been under the sway of the
+emperor. The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all major synods need papal
+authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were formulated as papal
+edicts.
+
+The absolutist principles cherished by the papal court in the 12th and
+13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the protests of Marsilius
+of Padua and the less radical William of Occam remained barren until the
+Great Schism of 1378. As neither the pope in Rome nor his rival in
+Avignon would give way, recourse was had to the idea that the supreme
+power was vested not in the pope but in the oecumenical council. This
+"conciliar theory," propounded by Conrad of Gelnhausen and championed by
+the great Parisian teachers Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson, proceeded from
+the nominalistic axiom that the whole is greater than its part. The
+decisive revolutionary step was taken when the cardinals independently
+of both popes ventured to hold the council of Pisa (1409). The council
+of Constance asserted the supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered
+that these be convened at regular intervals. The last of the Reform
+councils, that of Basel, approved these principles, and at length passed
+a sentence of deposition against Pope Eugenius IV. Eugenius, however,
+succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council of Florence
+(1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar theory; and this was
+reiterated still more emphatically, on the eve of the Reformation, by
+the fifth Lateran council (1516). Thenceforward the absolutist theories
+of the 13th and 14th centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church.
+The popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 1517 and 1869
+they called but one; at this (Trent, 1545-1563), however, all treatment
+of the question of papal versus conciliar authority was purposely
+avoided. Although the Declaration of the French clergy of 1682
+reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance, since the French
+Revolution this "Gallicanism" has shown itself to be but a passing phase
+of constitutional theory; and in the 19th century the ascendancy of
+Ultramontanism became so secure that Pius IX. could confidently summon
+to the Vatican a synod which set its seal on the doctrine of papal
+infallibility. Yet it would be a misconception to suppose that the
+Vatican decrees mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the
+infallibility of oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be
+regarded as more solemn and more impressive than those of the pope
+alone; their authority is fuller, though not higher. At present it is
+agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical
+councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining the
+order of business and the topics which shall come up. The papal
+confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the stamp without
+which the expression of conciliar opinion lacks legal validity. In other
+words, the oecumenical council is now practically in the position of the
+senate of an absolute monarch. It is in fact an open question whether a
+council is to be ranked as really oecumenical until after its decrees
+have been approved by the pope. (See VATICAN COUNCIL, ULTRAMONTANISM,
+INFALLIBILITY.)
+
+The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called "the pitched
+battles of church history." Summoned to combat heresy and schism, in
+spite of degrading pressure from without and tumultuous disorder within,
+they ultimately brought about a modicum of doctrinal agreement. On the
+one side as time went on they bound scholarship hand and foot in the
+winding-sheet of tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance;
+yet on the other side they fostered the sense of the Church's corporate
+oneness. The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a valuable
+system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of ecclesiastical
+business. They have been held most frequently, however, in times of
+stress and of reform, for instance in the 11th, 16th and 19th centuries;
+at other periods they have lapsed into disuse: it is significant that
+to-day the prelate who neglects to convene them suffers no penalty. At
+present the main function of both provincial and oecumenical synods
+seems to be to facilitate obedience to the wishes of the central
+government of the Church.
+
+The _right to vote_ (_votum definitivum_) has been distinguished from
+early times from the right to be heard (_votum consultativum_). The
+Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to doctors and
+licentiates of theology and of laws, some of them sitting as
+individuals, some as representatives of universities. Roman Catholic
+canonists now confine the right to vote at oecumenical councils to
+bishops, cardinal deacons, generals or vicars general of monastic orders
+and the _praelati nullius_ (exempt abbots, &c.); all other persons, lay
+or clerical, who are admitted or invited, have merely the _votum
+consultativum_--they are chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very
+learned priests. It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed
+to offset the preponderance of Italian bishops dependent on the pope
+when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several groups or
+"nations," each of which had a single vote. In voting, the simple
+majority decides; yet such is the importance attached to a unanimous
+verdict that an irreconcilable minority may absent itself from the final
+vote, as was the case at the Vatican Council.
+
+The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the list most used in
+the Roman Church to-day is that of Hefele (_Conciliengeschichte_, 2nd
+ed., I. 59 f.):
+
+                                                        A.D.
+   1.  Nicaea I.                                        325
+   2.  Constantinople I.                                381
+   3.  Ephesus                                          431
+   4.  Chalcedon                                        451
+   5.  Constantinople II.                               553
+   6.  Constantinople III.                              680
+   7.  Nicaea II.                                       787
+   8.  Constantinople IV.                               869
+   9.  Lateran I.                                      1123
+  10.  Lateran II.                                     1139
+  11.  Lateran III.                                    1179
+  12.  Lateran IV.                                     1215
+  13.  Lyons I.                                        1245
+  14.  Lyons II.                                       1274
+  15.  Vienne                                          1311
+  16.  Constance (in part)                        1414-1418
+  17a. Basel (in part)                                 1431 ff.
+  17b. Ferrara-Florence (a continuation of Basel) 1438-1442
+  18.  Lateran V.                                 1512-1517
+  19.  Trent                                      1545-1563
+  20.  Vatican                                    1869-1870
+
+(Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in
+separate articles.)
+
+By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate synod,
+certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical councils up to
+twenty-two. These standard lists are of the type which became
+established through the authority of Cardinal R. F. Bellarmine
+(1542-1621), who criticized Constance and Basel, while defending
+Florence and the fifth Lateran council against the Gallicans. As late as
+the 16th century, however, "the majority did not regard those councils
+in which the Greek Church did not take part as oecumenical at all"
+(Harnack, _History of Dogma_, vi. 17). The Greek Church accepts only the
+first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan synod of
+692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the sixth oecumenical synod
+of 680. But concerning the first seven councils it should be remarked
+that Constantinople I. was but a general synod of the East; its claim to
+oecumenicity rests upon its reception by the West about two centuries
+later. Similarly the only representatives of the West present at
+Constantinople II. were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the
+decrees till afterwards and they made their way in the West but
+gradually. Just as there have been synods which have come to be
+considered oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been
+synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of recognition: for
+instance Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Constantinople (754). The last
+two received the imperial confirmation and from the legal point of view
+were no whit inferior to the others; their decrees, however, were
+overthrown by subsequent synods. As the Protestant leaders of the 16th
+century held fast the traditional christology, they regarded with
+veneration the dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I.,
+Ephesus and Chalcedon. These four councils had enjoyed a more or less
+fortuitous pre-eminence both in Roman and in canon law, and by many
+Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded, along with the
+three great creeds (Apostles', Nicene, Athanasian), as a sort of
+irreducible minimum of orthodoxy. In the 17th century the liberal
+Lutheran George Calixtus based his attempts at reuniting Christendom on
+this _consensus quinquesaecularis_. Many other Protestants have accepted
+Constantinople II. and III. as supporting the first four councils; and
+still others, notably many Anglican high churchmen, have felt bound by
+all the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church. The common
+Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may err and
+have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliar decisions are the
+sole infallible standard of faith, morals and worship.
+
+_Protestant Councils._--The churches of the Reformation have all had a
+certain measure of synodal life. The Church of England has maintained
+its ancient provincial synods or convocations, though for the greater
+part of the 18th and the first part of the 19th centuries they
+transacted no business. In the Lutheran churches of Germany there was no
+strong agitation in favour of introducing synods until the 19th century,
+when a movement, designed to render the churches less dependent on the
+governmental consistories, won its way, until at length Prussia itself
+fell into line (1873 and 1876). As the powers granted to the German
+synods are very limited, many of their advocates have been
+disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of America, being independent
+of the state, have developed synods both numerous and potent. In the
+Reformed churches outside Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms
+were developed by the Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed
+thence to Scotland and other presbyterian countries. Even many of the
+churches of congregational polity have organized national councils (see
+CONGREGATIONALISM); but here the principle of the independence of the
+local church prevents the decisions from binding those congregations
+which do not approve of the decrees. Moreover, in the last decade of the
+19th century a growing desire for a rapprochement between the Free
+Churches in the United Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of
+the Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting
+the dissenting bodies. This body has no executive or doctrinal authority
+and is rather a conference than a council. In general it may be said
+that synods are becoming more and more powerful in Protestant lands, and
+that they are destined to still greater prominence because of the
+growing sentiment for Christian unity.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--GENERAL COLLECTIONS: _Collectio regia_ (Paris, 1644, 37
+  vols.) (the first very extensive work); P. Labbe (not Labbé) and G.
+  Cossart, _Sacrosancta concilia_ (Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with
+  supplement by Étienne Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above); J.
+  Hardouin (Harduinus), _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ (Paris,
+  1715), 11 tomi in 12 vols, (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious
+  omissions); enlarged edition by N. Coletus (Venice, 1728-1732),
+  supplemented by J. D. Mansi, _Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum nova
+  collectio_ (Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi). Convenient but fallible is Mansi's
+  _Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima collectio_
+  (Florence, 1759-1767; completed Venice, 1769-1798, 31 vols.);
+  facsimile reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding (tom. O)
+  _Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia_, and (tom. 17B and
+  18B) Baluze, _Capitularia regum Francorum_, and continuing to date by
+  reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi's supplement to Coletus, and
+  furnishing (tom. 37 ff.) a new edition of the councils from 1720 on by
+  J. B. Martin and L. Petit. A careful text of Roman Catholic synods
+  from 1682 to 1870 is _Collectio Lacensis_ (_Acta et decreta sacrorum
+  conciliorum recentiorum_, Friburgi, 1870 ff.), 7 vols.
+
+  SPECIAL COLLECTIONS: GREAT BRITAIN: _Concilia Magnae Britanniae et
+  Hiberniae_, ed. D. Wilkins (London, 1737, 4 vols.); _Councils and
+  Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland_, ed.
+  by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (Oxford, 1869 ff., 4 vols.); J. W.
+  Joyce, _Handbook of the Convocations or Provincial Synods of the
+  Church of England_ (London, 1887); _Concilia Scotiae_ (1225-1559), ed.
+  Joseph Robertson (Edinburgh, Bannatyne Club, 1866, 2 tom.).
+
+  UNITED STATES: _Collectio Lacensis_ (Roman Catholic synods); _The
+  American Church History Series_ (New York, 1893 ff. 13 vols.) gives
+  information on the various Protestant synods.
+
+  FRANCE.--_Concilia aevi Merovingici_, rec. F. Maassen (Hanover, 1893)
+  (_Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum sectio_ iii., _Concilia_, tom.
+  i.); _Concilia antiqua Galliae_, cur. J. Sirmond (Paris, 1629, 3
+  vols.); supplement by P. de la Lande (Paris, 1666); L. Odespun,
+  _Concilia novissima Galliae_ (Paris, 1646); _Conciliorum Galliae tam
+  editorum quam ineditorum, stud. congreg. S. Mauri_, tom. i. (Paris,
+  1789). Synods of the Reformed Churches of France are contained in J.
+  Quick, _Synodicon in Gallia reformata_ (London, 1692, 2 vols.); J.
+  Aymon, _Tous les synodes nationaux des églises réformées de France_
+  (La Haye, 1710, 2 vols.); E. Hugues, _Les Synodes du désert_ (Paris,
+  1885 f., 3 vols.). For the synods of other countries see Herzog-Hauck,
+  3rd ed., 19,262 f., and Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed., 3809 f.
+
+  LESS ELABORATE TEXTS: _Canones apostolorum et conciliorum saeculorum_,
+  iv.-vii., rec. H. T. Bruns (Berlin, 1839, 2 vols.) (still useful); J.
+  Fulton, _Index Canonum_ (3rd ed., New York, 1892) (3rd and 4th
+  centuries); W. Bright, _Notes on the Canons of the First Four General
+  Councils_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1892); _Die Kanones der wichtigsten
+  altkirchlichen Conzilien nebst den apostolischen Kanones_, ed. F.
+  Lauchert (Freiburg i. B., 1896); _Enchiridion symbolorum et
+  definitionum, quae de rebus fidei et morum a conciliis oecumenicis et
+  summis pontificibus emanarunt_, ed. H. Denzinger (7th ed., Würzburg,
+  1895); _Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche_,
+  ed. by A. Hahn (3rd edition, revised and enlarged, Breslau, 1897),
+  with variant readings; C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums
+  und des römischen Katholizismus_ (2nd much enlarged ed., Tübingen,
+  1901); E. F. Karl Müller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten
+  Kirche (Leipzig, 1903) (for all countries). These last five are
+  elaborately indexed.
+
+  TRANSLATIONS: John Johnson, _A Collection of the Laws and Canons of
+  the Church of England_ [601-1519], 2 parts (London, 1720; reprinted
+  Oxford, 1850 f., in the _Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology_); P.
+  Schaff, _The Creeds of Christendom_ (New York, 1877, 3 vols.) (texts
+  and translations parallel); _Canons and Creeds of the First Four
+  Councils_, ed. by E. K. Mitchell, in _Translations and Reprints from
+  the Original Sources of European History, published by the Department
+  of History of the University of Pennsylvania_, vol. iv. 2 (1897); H.
+  R. Percival, _The Ecumenical Councils_ (New York, 1900) (_Nicene and
+  Post-Nicene Fathers_, second series, vol. xiv.; translates canons and
+  compiles notes; bibliography in Introduction).
+
+  GENERAL HISTORIES OF COUNCILS: C. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_
+  (Freiburg i. B., 1855); English translation of the earlier volumes to
+  A.D. 787, from A.D. 326 on, based on the second German edition
+  (Edinburgh, 1871 ff.); French, by Delarc (Paris, 1869-1874, 10 vols.).
+  This first edition not entirely superseded by the second, made after
+  the Vatican council, and continued by Knöpfler and by Hergenröther
+  (Freiburg, 1873-1890, 9 vols.); a French translation, with
+  continuation and critical and bibliographical notes, _par un religieux
+  bénédictin de Farnborough_, tome i. 1^re partie (Paris, Létouzey,
+  1907); Paul Viollet, _Examen de l'histoire des conciles de Mgr Hefele_
+  (Paris, 1876) (_Extrait de la Revue historique_); W. P. du Bose, _The
+  Ecumenical Councils_ (New York, 1896) (popular); P. Guérin, _Les
+  Conciles généraux et particuliers_ (Paris, 1868, 3rd impression, 1897,
+  3 tom.); see also A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (Boston, 1895-1900, 7
+  vols.); F. Loofs, _Leitfaden der Dogmengeschichte_ (4th ed., enlarged,
+  Halle, 1906).
+
+  LITERATURE: _Dictionnaire universel et complet des conciles_, rédigé
+  par A. C. Peltier, publié par Migne (Paris, 1847, 2 vols.) (Migne,
+  _Encyclopédie théologique_, vol. 13 f.); Z. Zitelli-Natali, _Epitome
+  historico-canonica conciliorum generalium_ (Rome, 1881); F. X. Kraus,
+  _Realencyklopädie der christlichen Altertümer_, vol. i.
+  (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882) (art. "Concilien" by Funk); William Smith and
+  S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London, 1876-1880,
+  2 vols.) (erudite detail); Wetzer und Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd
+  ed. by Hergenröther and Kaulen (Freiburg i. B., 1882-1903, 13 vols.)
+  (art. "Concil" by Scheeben); _La Grande Encyclopédie_ (Paris, s.d., 31
+  vols.) (numerous articles); P. Hinschius, _Das Kirchenrecht der
+  Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland_, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1883)
+  (fundamental and masterly); R. von Scherer, _Handbuch des
+  Kirchenrechtes_, vol. i. (Graz, 1886) (excellent notes and
+  references); E. H. Landon, _A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic
+  Church_, (revised ed., London, [1893], 2 vols.) (paraphrases chief
+  canons; needs revision); Martigny, _Dictionnaire des antiquités
+  chrétiennes_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1889) (for ceremonial); R. Sohm,
+  _Kirchenrecht_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1892) (brilliant); A. Kneer, _Die
+  Entstehung der konziliaren Theorie_ (Rome, 1893); _Realencyklopädie
+  für protestantische Theologie und Kirche_, begründet von J. J. Herzog,
+  3rd revised ed. by A. Hauck (Leipzig, 1896 ff.) (in vol. 19 Hauck's
+  excellent _Synoden_, 1907); F. X. Funk, _Kirchengeschichtliche
+  Abhandlungen und Untersuchungen_ (Paderborn, 1897); A. V. G. Allen,
+  _Christian Institutions_ (New York, 1897), chap. xi.; C. A. Kneller,
+  "Papst und Konzil im ersten Jahrtausend" (_Zeitschrift für katholische
+  Theologie_, vols. 27 and 28, Innsbruck, 1893 f.); F. Bliemetzrieder,
+  _Das Generalkonzil im grossen abendländischen Schisma_ (Paderborn,
+  1904); Wilhelm and Scannell, _Manual of Catholic Theology_ (3rd ed.,
+  London, 1906, sect. 32); J. Forget, "Conciles," in A. Vacant and E.
+  Mangeot, _Dictionnaire de théologie catholique_, tome 3, 636-676
+  (Paris, 1906 ff.), with elaborate bibliography; _The Catholic
+  Encyclopedia_ (New York, 1907 ff.).     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the Greek Council see BOULE; for the Hebdomadal Council see
+    OXFORD; see also ENGLAND: Local Government.
+
+  [2] From [Greek: hê oikoumenê (gê)]. the inhabited world; Latin
+    _oecumenicus_ or _universalis_. The English forms "oecumenical" and
+    "ecumenical" are both used.
+
+
+
+
+COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city and the county-seat of Pottawattamie county,
+Iowa, U.S.A., about 2½ m. E. of the Missouri river opposite Omaha,
+Nebraska, with which it is connected by a road bridge and two railway
+bridges. Pop. (1890) 21,474; (1900) 25,802, of whom 3723 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 29,292. It is pre-eminently a railway centre, being
+served by the Union Pacific, of which it is the principal eastern
+terminus, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
+Saint Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific, the Chicago Great-Western, the Illinois Central, and the
+Wabash, which together have given it considerable commercial importance.
+It is built for the most part on level ground at the foot of high
+bluffs; and has several parks, the most attractive of which, commanding
+fine views, is Fairmount Park. With the exception of bricks and tiles,
+carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, and the products of its
+railway shops, its manufactures are relatively unimportant, the factory
+product in 1905 being valued at only $1,924,109. Council Bluffs is the
+seat of the Western Iowa Business College, and of the Iowa school for
+the deaf. On or near the site of Council Bluffs, in 1804, Lewis and
+Clark held a council with the Indians, whence the city's name. In 1838
+the Federal government made this the headquarters of the Pottawattamie
+Indians, removed from Missouri. They remained until 1846-1847, when the
+Mormons came, built many cabins, and named the place Kanesville. The
+Mormons remained only about five years, but on their departure for Utah
+their places were speedily taken by new immigrants. During 1849-1850
+Council Bluffs became an important outfitting point for California gold
+seekers--the goods being brought by boat from Saint Louis--and in 1853
+it was incorporated as a city.
+
+
+
+
+COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR, one who gives advice, more particularly in legal
+matters. The term "counsel" is employed in England as a synonym for a
+barrister-at-law, and may refer either to a single person who pleads a
+cause, or collectively, to the body of barristers engaged in a case.
+Counsellor or, more fully, counsellor-at-law, is practically an obsolete
+term in England, but is still in use locally in Ireland as an equivalent
+to barrister. In the United States, a counsellor-at-law is,
+specifically, an attorney admitted to practice in all the courts; but as
+there is no formal distinction of the legal profession into two classes,
+as in England, the term is more often used loosely in the same sense as
+"lawyer," i.e. one who is versed in, or practises law.
+
+
+
+
+COUNT (Lat. _comes_, gen. _comitis_, Fr. _comte_, Ital. _conte_, Span.
+_conde_), the English translation of foreign titles equivalent generally
+to the English "earl."[1] In Anglo-French documents the word _counte_
+was at all times used as the equivalent of earl, but, unlike the
+feminine form "countess," it did not find its way into the English
+language until the 16th century, and then only in the sense defined
+above. The title of earl, applied by the English to the foreign counts
+established in England by William the Conqueror, is dealt with elsewhere
+(see EARL). The present article deals with (1) the office of count in
+the Roman empire and the Frankish kingdom, (2) the development of the
+feudal count in France and under the Holy Roman Empire, (3) modern
+counts.
+
+1. The Latin _comes_ meant literally a companion or follower. In the
+early Roman empire the word was used to designate the companions of the
+emperor (_comites principis_) and so became a title of honour. The
+emperor Hadrian chose senators as companions on his travels and to help
+him in public business. They formed a permanent council, and Hadrian's
+successors entrusted these _comites_ with the administration of justice
+and finance, or placed them in military commands. The designation
+_comes_ thus developed into a formal official title of high officers of
+state, some qualification being added to indicate the special duties
+attached to the office in each case. Thus in the 5th century, among the
+_comites_ attached to the emperor's establishment, we find, e.g., the
+_comes sacrarum largitionum_ and the _comes rei privatae_; while others,
+forming the council, were styled _comites consistorii_. Others were sent
+into the provinces as governors, _comites per provincias constituti_;
+thus in the _Notitia dignitatum_ we find a _comes Aegypti_, a _comes
+Africae_, a _comes Belgicae_, a _comes Lugdunensis_ and others. Two of
+the generals of the Roman province of Britain were styled the _comes
+Britanniae_ and the _comes littoris Saxonici_ (count of the Saxon
+shore).
+
+At Constantinople in the latter Roman empire the Latin word _comes_
+assumed a Greek garb as [Greek: komês] and was declined as a Greek noun
+(gen. [Greek: komêtos]); the _comes sacrarum largitionum_ (count of the
+sacred bounties) was called at Constantinople [Greek: ho komês tôn
+sakrôn largitiônôn] and the _comes rerum privatarum_ (count of the
+private estates) was called [Greek: komês tôn pribatôn]. The count of
+the sacred bounties was the lord treasurer or chancellor of the
+exchequer, for the public treasury and the imperial fisc had come to be
+identical; while the count of the private estates managed the imperial
+demesnes and the privy purse. In the 5th century the "sacred bounties"
+corresponded to the _aerarium_ of the early Empire, while the _res
+privatae_ represented the fisc. The officers connected with the palace
+and the emperor's person included the count of the wardrobe (_comes
+sacrae vestis_), the count of the residence (_comes domorum_), and, most
+important of all, the _comes domesticorum et sacri stabuli_ (graecized
+as [Greek: komês tou stablou]). The count of the stable, originally the
+imperial master of the horse, developed into the "illustrious"
+commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Stilicho, e.g., bore the full
+title as given above), and became the prototype of the medieval
+constable (q.v.).
+
+An important official of the second rank (_spectabilis_, "respectable"
+as contrasted with those of highest rank who were "illustrious") was the
+count of the East, who appears to have had the control of a department
+in which 600 officials were engaged. His power was reduced in the 6th
+century, when he was deprived of his authority over the Orient diocese,
+and became civil governor of Syria Prima, retaining his "respectable"
+rank. Another important officer of the later Roman court was the _comes
+sacri patrimonii_, who was instituted by the emperor Anastasius. In this
+connexion it should be observed that the word _patrimonium_ gradually
+changed in meaning. In the beginning of the 3rd century _patrimonium_
+meant crown property, and _res privata_ meant personal property: at the
+beginning of the 6th century _patrimonium_ meant personal property, and
+_res privata_ meant crown property. It is difficult to give briefly a
+clear idea of the functions of the three important officials _comes
+sacrarum largitionum_, _comes rei privatae_ and _comes sacri
+patrimonii_; but the terms have been well translated by a German author
+as _Finanzminister des Reichsschatzes_ (finance minister of the treasury
+of the Empire), _F. des Kronschatzes_ (of the crown treasury), and _F.
+des kaiserlichen Privatvermögens_ (of the emperor's private property).
+
+The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained the Roman system
+of administration, and under them the word _comes_ preserved its
+original meaning; the _comes_ was a companion of the king, a royal
+servant of high rank. Under the early Frankish kings some _comites_ did
+not exercise any definite functions; they were merely attached to the
+king's person and executed his orders. Others filled the highest
+offices, e.g. the _comes palatii_ and _comes stabuli_ (see CONSTABLE).
+The kingdom was divided for administrative purposes into small areas
+called _pagi_ (_pays_, Ger. _Gau_), corresponding generally to the Roman
+_civitates_ (see CITY).[2] At the head of the _pagus_ was the _comes_,
+corresponding to the German _Graf_ (_Gaugraf_, cf. Anglo-Saxon
+_scire-gerefa_,[3] sheriff). The _comes_ was appointed by the king and
+removable at his pleasure, and was chosen originally from all classes,
+sometimes from enfranchised slaves. His essential functions were
+judicial and executive, and in documents he is often described as the
+king's agent (_agens publicus_) or royal judge (_judex publicus_ or
+_fiscalis_). As the delegate of the executive power he had the right to
+military command in the king's name, and to take all the measures
+necessary for the preservation of the peace, i.e. to exercise the royal
+"ban" (_bannus regis_). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, was
+responsible for the execution of the sentences of the courts, and as the
+king's representative exercised the royal right of protection (_mundium
+regis_) over churches, widows, orphans and the like. He enjoyed a triple
+wergeld, but had no definite salary, being remunerated by the receipt of
+certain revenues, a system which contained the germs of discord, on
+account of the confusion of his public and private estates. He also
+retained a third of the fines which he imposed in his judicial capacity.
+
+Under the early Carolings the title count did not indicate noble birth.
+A _comes_ was generally raised from childhood in the king's palace, and
+rose to be a count through successive stages. The count's office was not
+yet a dignity, nor hereditary; he was not independent nor appointed for
+life, but exercised the royal power by delegation, as under the
+Merovingians. While, however, he was theoretically paid by the king, he
+seems to have been himself one of the sources of the royal revenue. The
+counties were, it appears, farmed out; but in the 7th century the royal
+choice became restricted to the larger landed proprietors, who gradually
+emancipated themselves from royal control, and in the 8th century the
+term _comitatus_ begins to denote a geographical area, though there was
+little difference in its extent under the Merovingian kings and the
+early Carolings. The count was about to pass into the feudatory stage.
+Throughout the middle ages, however, the original official and personal
+connotation of the title was never wholly lost; or perhaps it would be
+truer to say, with Selden, that it was early revived with the study of
+the Roman civil law in the 12th century. The unique dignity of count of
+the Lateran palace,[4] bestowed in 1328 by the emperor Louis IV. the
+Bavarian on Castrucio de' Antelminelli, duke of Lucca, and his heirs
+male, was official as well as honorary, being charged with the
+attendance and service to be performed at the palace at the emperor's
+coronation at Rome (Du Cange, s.v. _Comites Palatii Lateranensis_;
+Selden, op. cit. p. 321). This instance, indeed, remained isolated; but
+the personal title of "count palatine," though honorary rather than
+official, was conferred on officials--especially by the popes on those
+of the Curia--had no territorial significance, and was to the last
+reminiscent of those early comites palatii whose relations to the
+sovereign had been purely personal and official (see PALATINE). A relic
+of the old official meaning of "count" still survives in Transylvania,
+where the head of the political administration of the Saxon districts is
+styled count (_comes_, _Graf_) of the Saxon Nation.
+
+2. _Feudal Counts._--The process by which the official counts were
+transformed into feudal vassals almost independent is described in the
+article FEUDALISM. In the confusion of the period of transition, when
+the title to possession was usually the power to hold, designations
+which had once possessed a definite meaning were preserved with no
+defined association. In France, by the 10th century, the process of
+decomposition of the old organization had gone far, and in the 11th
+century titles of nobility were still very loosely applied. That of
+"count" was, as Luchaire points out, "equivocal" even as late as the
+12th century; any castellan of moderate rank could style himself _comte_
+who in the next century would have been called _seigneur_ (_dominus_).
+Even when, in the 13th century, the ranks of the feudal hierarchy in
+France came to be more definitely fixed, the style of "count" might
+imply much, or comparatively little. In the oldest register of Philip
+Augustus counts are reckoned with dukes in the first of the five orders
+into which the nobles are divided, but the list includes, besides such
+almost sovereign rulers as the counts of Flanders and Champagne,
+immediate vassals of much less importance--such as the counts of
+Soissons and Dammartin--and even one mediate vassal, the count of
+Bar-sur-Seine. The title was still in fact "equivocal," and so it
+remained throughout French history. In the official lists it was early
+placed second to that of duke (Luchaire, _Manuel_, p. 181, note 1), but
+in practice at least the great _comtes-pairs_ (e.g. of Champagne) were
+the equals of any duke and the superiors of many. Thus, too, in modern
+times royal princes have been given the title of count (Paris, Flanders,
+Caserta), the heir of Charles X. actually changing his style, without
+sense of loss, from that of duc de Bordeaux to that of comte de
+Chambord. From the 16th century onwards the equivocal nature of the
+title in France was increased by the royal practice of selling it,
+either to viscounts or barons in respect of their fiefs, or to rich
+_roturiers_.
+
+In Germany the change from the official to the territorial and
+hereditary counts followed at the outset much the same course as in
+France, though the later development of the title and its meaning was
+different. In the 10th century the counts were permitted by the kings to
+divide their benefices and rights among their sons, the rule being
+established that countships (_Grafschaften_) were hereditary, that they
+might be held by boys, that they were heritable by females and might
+even be administered by females. The _Grafschaft_ became thus merely a
+bundle of rights inherent in the soil; and, the count's office having
+become his property, the old counties or _Gauen_ rapidly disappeared as
+administrative units, being either amalgamated or subdivided. By the
+second half of the 12th century the official character of the count had
+quite disappeared; he had become a territorial noble, and the foundation
+had been laid of territorial sovereignty (_Landeshoheit_). The first
+step towards this was the concession to the counts of the military
+prerogatives of dukes, a right enjoyed from the first by the counts of
+the marches (see MARGRAVE), then given to counts palatine (see PALATINE)
+and, finally, to other counts, who assumed by reason of it the style of
+landgrave (_Landgraf_, i.e. count of a province). At first all counts
+were reckoned as princes of the Empire (_Reichsfürsten_); but since the
+end of the 12th century this rank was restricted to those who were
+immediate tenants of the crown,[5] the other counts of the Empire
+(_Reichsgrafen_) being placed among the free lords (_barones_, _liberi
+domini_). Counts of princely rank (_gefürstete Grafen_) voted among the
+princes in the imperial diet; the others (_Reichsgrafen_) were grouped
+in the _Grafenbänke_--originally two, to which two more were added in
+the 17th century--each of which had one vote. In 1806, on the formation
+of the Confederation of the Rhine, the sovereign counts were all
+mediatized (see MEDIATIZATION). Even before the end of the Empire (1806)
+the right of bestowing the title of count was freely exercised by the
+various German territorial sovereigns.
+
+3. _Modern Counts._--Any political significance which the feudal title
+of count retained in the 18th century vanished with the changes produced
+by the Revolution. It is now simply a title of honour and one, moreover,
+the social value of which differs enormously, not only in the different
+European countries, but within the limits of the same country. In
+Germany, for instance, there are several categories of counts: (1) the
+mediatized princely counts (_gefürstete Grafen_), who are reckoned the
+equals in blood of the European sovereign houses, an equality symbolized
+by the "closed crown" surmounting their armorial bearings. The heads of
+these countly families of the "high nobility" are entitled (by a decree
+of the federal diet, 1829) to the style of _Erlaucht_ (illustrious, most
+honourable); (2) Counts of the Empire[6] (_Reichsgrafen_), descendants
+of those counts who, before the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806),
+were _Reichsständisch_ i.e. sat in one of the _Grafenbänke_ in the
+imperial diet, and entitled to a ducal coronet; (3) Counts (a) descended
+from the lower nobility of the old Empire, titular since the 15th
+century, (b) created since; their coronet is nine-pointed (cf. the nine
+points and strawberry leaves of the English earl). The difficulty of
+determining in any case the exact significance of the title of a German
+count, illustrated by the above, is increased by the fact that the title
+is generally heritable by all male descendants, the only exception being
+in Prussia, where, since 1840, the rule of primogeniture has prevailed
+and the bestowal of the title is dependent on a rent-roll of £3000 a
+year. The result is that the title is very widespread and in itself
+little significant. A German or Austrian count may be a wealthy noble of
+princely rank, a member of the Prussian or Austrian Upper House, or he
+may be the penniless cadet of a family of no great rank or antiquity.
+Nevertheless the title, which has long been very sparingly bestowed,
+always implies a good social position. The style _Altgraf_ (old count),
+occasionally found, is of some antiquity, and means that the title of
+count has been borne by the family from time immemorial.
+
+In medieval France the significance of the title of count varied with
+the power of those who bore it; in modern France it varies with its
+historical associations. It is not so common as in Germany or Italy;
+because it does not by custom pass to all male descendants. The title
+was, however, cheapened by its revival under Napoleon. By the decree of
+the 1st of March 1808, reviving titles of nobility, that of count was
+assigned _ex officio_ to ministers, senators and life councillors of
+state, to the president of the Corps Législatif and to archbishops. The
+title was made heritable in order of primogeniture, and in the case of
+archbishops through their nephews. These Napoleonic countships,
+increased under subsequent reigns, have produced a plentiful crop of
+titles of little social significance, and have tended to lower the
+status of the counts deriving from the _ancien régime_. The title of
+marquis, which Napoleon did not revive, has risen proportionately in the
+estimation of the Faubourg St Germain. As for that of count, it is safe
+to say that in France its social value is solely dependent on its
+historical associations.
+
+Of all European countries Italy has been most prolific of counts. Every
+petty Italian prince, from the pope downwards, created them for love or
+money; and, in the absence of any regulating authority, the title was
+also widely and loosely assumed, while often the feudal title passed
+with the sale of the estate to which it was attached. Casanova remarked
+that in some Italian cities all the nobles were _baroni_, in others all
+were _conti_. An Italian _conte_ may or may not be a gentleman; he has
+long ceased, _qua_ count, to have any social prestige, and his rank is
+not recognized by the Italian government. As in France, however, there
+are some Italian _conti_ whose titles are respectable, and even
+illustrious, from their historic associations. The prestige belongs,
+however, not to the title but to the name. As for the papal countships,
+which are still freely bestowed on those of all nations whom the Holy
+See wishes to reward, their prestige naturally varies with the religious
+complexion of the country in which the titles are borne. They are
+esteemed by the faithful, but have small significance for those outside.
+In Spain, on the other hand, the title of _conde_, the earlier history
+of which follows much the same development as in France, is still of
+much social value, mainly owing to the fact that the rule of
+primogeniture exists, and that, a large fee being payable to the state
+on succession to a title, it is necessarily associated with some degree
+of wealth. The Spanish counts of old creation, some of whom are grandees
+and members of the Upper House, naturally take the highest rank; but the
+title, still bestowed for eminent public services or other reasons, is
+of value. The title, like others in Spain, can pass through an heiress
+to her husband. In Russia the title of count (_graf_, fem. _grafinya_),
+a foreign importation, has little social prestige attached to it, being
+given to officials of a certain rank. In the British empire the only
+recognized counts are those of Malta, who are given precedence with
+baronets of the United Kingdom.
+
+  See Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (London, 1672); Du Cange, _Glossarium
+  Med. Lat._ (ed. Niort, 1883) s.v. "Comes"; _La Grande Encyclopédie_,
+  s.v. "Comte"; A. Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions françaises_
+  (Paris, 1892); P. Guilhiermoz, _Essai sur l'origine de la noblesse en
+  France au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1902); Brunner, _Deutsche
+  Rechtsgeschichte_, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The exact significance of a title is difficult to reproduce in a
+    foreign language. Actually, only some foreign counts could be said to
+    be equivalent to English earls; but "earl" is always translated by
+    foreigners by words (_comte_, _Graf_) which in English are
+    represented by "count," itself never used as the synonym of "earl."
+    Conversely old English writers had no hesitation in translating as
+    "earl" foreign titles which we now render "count."
+
+  [2] The changing language of this epoch speaks of _civitates_,
+    subsequently of _pagi_, and later of _comitatus_ (counties).
+
+  [3] The A.S. _gerefa_, however, meaning "illustrious," "chief," has
+    apparently, according to philologists, no connexion with the German
+    _Graf_, which originally meant "servant" (cf. "knight," "valet,"
+    &c.). It is the more curious that the _gerefa_ should end as a
+    servant ("reeve"), the _Graf_ as a noble (count).
+
+  [4] "Count of the Lateran Palace" (_Comes Sacri Lateranensis
+    Palatii_) was later the title usually bestowed by the popes in
+    creating counts palatine. The emperors, too, continued to make counts
+    palatine under this title long after the Lateran had ceased to be an
+    imperial palace.
+
+  [5] Of these there were four who, as counts of the Empire _par
+    excellence_, were sometimes styled "simple counts" (_Schlechtgrafen_),
+    i.e. the counts of Cleves, Schwarzburg, Cilli and Savoy; they were
+    entitled to the ducal coronet. Three of these had become dukes by the
+    17th century, but the count (now prince) of Schwarzburg still styled
+    himself "Of the four counts of the Holy Roman Empire, count of
+    Schwarzburg" (see Selden, ed. 1672, p. 312).
+
+  [6] This title is borne by certain English families, e.g. by Lord
+    Arundell of Wardour. In other cases it has been assumed without due
+    warrant. See J. H. Round, "English Counts of the Empire," in _The
+    Ancestor_, vii. 15 (Westminster, October 1903).
+
+
+
+
+COUNTER. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _conteoir_, modern _comptoir_, from
+Lat. _computare_, to reckon), a round piece of metal, wood or other
+material used anciently in making calculations, and now for reckoning
+points in games of cards, &c., or as tokens representing actual coins or
+sums of money in gambling games such as roulette. The word is thus used,
+figuratively, of something of no real value, a sham. In the original
+sense of "a means of counting money, or keeping accounts," "counter" is
+used of the table or flat-topped barrier in a bank, merchant's office or
+shop, on which money is counted and goods handed to a customer. The term
+was also applied, usually in the form "compter," to the debtors' prisons
+attached to the mayor's or sheriff's courts in London and some other
+boroughs in England. The "compters" of the sheriff's courts of the city
+of London were, at various times, in the Poultry, Bread St., Wood St.
+and Giltspur St.; the Giltspur St. compter was the last to be closed, in
+1854. (2) (From Lat. _contra_, opposite, against), a circular parry in
+fencing, and in boxing, a blow given as a parry to a lead of an
+opponent. The word is also used of the stiff piece of leather at the
+back of a boot or shoe, of the rounded angle at the stern of a ship,
+and, in a horse, of the part lying between the shoulder and the under
+part of the neck. In composition, counter is used to express contrary
+action, as in "countermand," "counterfeit," &c.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERFEITING (from Lat. _contra-facere_, to make in opposition or
+contrast), making an imitation without authority and for the purpose of
+defrauding. The word is more particularly used in connexion with the
+making of imitations of money, whether paper or coin. (See COINAGE
+OFFENCES; FORGERY.)
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERFORT (Fr. _contrefort_), in architecture, a buttress or pier
+built up against the wall of a building or terrace to strengthen it, or
+to resist the thrust of an arch or other constructional feature inside.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERPOINT (Lat. _contrapunctus_, "point counter point," "note against
+note"), in music, the art happily defined by Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley
+as that "of combining" melodies: this should imply that good
+counterpoint is the production of beautiful harmony by a combination of
+well-characterized melodies. The individual audibility of the melodies
+is a matter of which current criticism enormously overrates the
+importance. What is always important is the peculiar life breathed into
+harmony by contrapuntal organization. Both historically and
+aesthetically "counterpoint" and "harmony" are inextricably blended; for
+nearly every harmonic fact is in its origin a phenomenon of
+counterpoint. And if in later musical developments it becomes possible
+to treat chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps with a meaning
+independent of counterpoint, this does not mean that they have really
+changed their nature; but it shows a difference between modern and
+earlier music precisely similar to that between modern English, in which
+metaphorical and abstract expressions are so constantly used that they
+have become a mere shorthand for the literal and concrete expression,
+and classical Greek, where metaphors and abstractions can appear only as
+elaborate similes or explicit philosophical ideas. The laws of
+counterpoint are, then, laws of harmony with the addition of such laws
+of melody as are not already produced by the interaction of harmonic and
+melodic principles. In so far as the laws of counterpoint are derived
+from purely harmonic principles, that is to say, derived from the
+properties of concord and discord, their origin and development are
+discussed in the article HARMONY. In so far as they depend entirely on
+melody they are too minute and changeable to admit of general
+discussion; and in so far as they show the interaction of melodic and
+harmonic principles it is more convenient to discuss them under the head
+of harmony, because they appear in such momentary phenomena as are more
+easily regarded as successions of chords than as principles of design.
+All that remains, then, for the present article is the explanation of
+certain technical terms.
+
+1. _Canto Fermo_ (i.e. plain chant) is a melody in long notes given to
+one voice while others accompany it with quicker counterpoints (the term
+"counterpoint" in this connexion meaning accompanying melodies). In the
+simplest cases the _Canto Fermo_ has notes of equal length and is
+unbroken in flow. When it is broken up and its rhythm diversified, the
+gradations between counterpoint on a _Canto Fermo_ and ordinary forms of
+polyphony, or indeed any kind of melody with an elaborate accompaniment,
+are infinite and insensible.
+
+2. _Double Counterpoint_ is a combination of melodies so designed that
+either can be taken above or below the other. When this change of
+position is effected by merely altering the octave of either or both
+melodies (with or without transposition of the whole combination to
+another key), the artistic value of the device is simply that of the
+raising of the lower melody to the surface. The harmonic scheme remains
+the same, except in so far as some of the chords are not in their
+fundamental position, while others, not originally fundamental, have
+become so. But double counterpoint may be in other intervals than the
+octave; that is to say, while one of the parts remains stationary, the
+other may be transposed above or below it by some interval other than an
+octave, thus producing an entirely different set of harmonies.
+
+_Double Counterpoint in the 12th_ has thus been made a powerful means of
+expression and variety. The artistic value of this device depends not
+only on the beauty and novelty of the second scheme of harmony obtained,
+but also on the change of melodic expression produced by transferring
+one of the melodies to another position in the scale. Two of the most
+striking illustrations of this effect are to be found in the last chorus
+of Brahms's _Triumphlied_ and in the fourth of his variations on a theme
+by Haydn.
+
+_Double Counterpoint in the 10th_ has, in addition to this, the property
+that the inverted melody can be given in the new and in the original
+positions simultaneously.
+
+Double counterpoint in other intervals than the octave, 10th and 12th,
+is rare, but the general principle and motives for it remain the same
+under all conditions. The two subjects of the _Confiteor_ in Bach's B
+minor Mass are in double counterpoint in the octave, 11th and 13th. And
+Beethoven's Mass in D is full of pieces of double counterpoint in the
+inversions of which a few notes are displaced so as to produce momentary
+double counterpoint in unusual intervals, obviously with the intention
+of varying the harmony. Technical treatises are silent as to this
+purpose, and leave the student in the belief that the classical
+composers used these devices, if at all, in a manner as meaningless as
+the examples in the treatises.
+
+3. _Triple, Quadruple and Multiple Counterpoint._--When more than two
+melodies are designed so as to combine in interchangeable positions, it
+becomes increasingly difficult to avoid chords and progressions of which
+some inversions are incorrect. In triple counterpoint this difficulty is
+not so great; although a complete triad is dangerous, as it is apt to
+invert as a "6/4" which requires careful handling. On the other hand, in
+triple counterpoint the necessity for strictness is at its greatest,
+because there are only six possible inversions, and in a long polyphonic
+work most of these will be required. Moreover, the artistic value of the
+device is at its highest in three-part polyphonic harmony, which,
+whether invertible or not, is always a fine test of artistic economy,
+while the inversions are as evident to the ear, especially where the top
+part is concerned, as those in double counterpoint. Triple counterpoint
+(and a fortiori multiple counterpoint) is normally possible only at the
+octave; for it will be found that if three parts are designed to invert
+in some other interval this will involve two of them inverting in a
+third interval which will give rise to incalculable difficulty. This
+makes the fourth of Brahms's variations on a theme of Haydn almost
+miraculous. The plaintive expression of the whole variation is largely
+due to the fact that the flowing semiquaver counterpoint below the main
+theme is on each repeat inverted in the 12th, with the result that its
+chief emphasis falls upon the most plaintive parts of the scale. But in
+the first eight bars of the second part of the variation a third
+contrapuntal voice appears, and this too is afterwards inverted in the
+12th, with perfectly natural and smooth effect. But this involves the
+inversion of two of the counterpoints with each other in the 9th, a kind
+of double counterpoint which is almost impossible. The case is unique,
+but it admirably illustrates the difference between artistic and merely
+academic mastery of technical resource.
+
+_Quadruple Counterpoint_ is not rare with Bach. It would be more
+difficult than triple, but for the fact that of its twenty-four possible
+inversions not more than four or five need be correct. _Quintuple
+counterpoint_ is admirably illustrated in the finale of Mozart's
+_Jupiter Symphony_, in which everything in the successive statement and
+gradual development of the five themes conspires to give the utmost
+effect to their combination in the coda. Of course Mozart has not room
+for more than five of the 120 possible combinations, and from these he
+selects such as bring fresh themes into the outside parts, which are the
+most clearly audible. _Sextuple Counterpoint_ may be found in Bach's
+great double chorus, _Nun ist das Heil_, and in the finale of his
+concerto for three claviers in C, and probably in other places.
+
+4. _Added Thirds and Sixths._--An easy and effective imitation of triple
+and quadruple counterpoint, embodying much of the artistic value of
+inversion, is found in the numerous combinations of themes in thirds and
+sixths which arise from an extension of the principle which we mentioned
+in connexion with double counterpoint in the 10th, namely, the
+possibility of performing it in its original and inverted positions
+simultaneously. The _Pleni sunt coeli_ of Bach's B minor Mass is written
+in this kind of transformation of double into quadruple counterpoint;
+and the artistic value of the device is perhaps never so magnificently
+realized as in the place, at bar 84, where the trumpet doubles the bass
+three octaves and a third above while the alto and second tenor have the
+counter subjects in close thirds in the middle.
+
+Almost all other contrapuntal devices are derived from the principle of
+the _canon_ and are discussed in the article CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS.
+
+As a training in musical grammar and style, the rhythms of 16th-century
+polyphony were early codified into "the five species of counterpoint"
+(with various other species now forgotten) and practised by students of
+composition. The classical treatise on which Haydn and Beethoven were
+trained was Fux's _Gradus ad Parnassum_ (1725). This was superseded in
+the 19th century by Cherubini's, the first of a long series of attempts
+to bring up to date as a dead language what should be studied in its
+original and living form.     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERSCARP ( = "opposite scarp," Fr. _contrescarpe_), a term used in
+fortification for the outer slope of a ditch; see FORTIFICATION and
+SIEGECRAFT.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERSIGN, a military term for a sign, word or signal previously
+arranged and required to be given by persons approaching a sentry, guard
+or other post. In some armies the "countersign" is strictly the reply of
+the sentry to the pass-word given by the person approaching.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. _contre_ or _contrie_, and O. Fr. _cuntrée_;
+Late Lat. _contrata_, showing the derivation from _contra_, opposite,
+over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger.
+_Gegend_, neighbourhood), an extent of land without definite limits, or
+such a region with some peculiar character, as the "black country," the
+"fen country" and the like. The extension from such descriptive
+limitation to the limitation of occupation by particular owners or races
+is easy; this gives the common use of the word for the land inhabited by
+a particular nation or race. Another meaning is that part of the land
+not occupied by towns, "rural" as opposed to "urban" districts; this
+appears too in "country-house" and "country town"; so too "countryman"
+is used both for a rustic and for the native of a particular land. The
+word appears in many phrases, in the sense of the whole population of a
+country, and especially of the general body of electors, as in the
+expression "go to the country," for the dissolution of parliament
+preparatory to a general election.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. _counté_, cf. O. Fr. _cunté_, _conté_, Mod.
+Fr. _comté_, from Lat. _comitatus_, cf. Ital. _comitato_, Prov.
+_comtat_; see COUNT), in its most usual sense the name given to certain
+important administrative divisions in the United Kingdom, the British
+dominions beyond the seas, and the United States of America. The word
+was first introduced after the Norman Conquest as the equivalent of the
+old English "shire," which has survived as its synonym, though
+occasionally also applied to divisions smaller than counties, e.g.
+Norhamshire, Hexhamshire and Hallamshire. The word "county" is also
+sometimes used, alternatively with "countship," to translate foreign
+words, e.g. the French _comté_ and the German _Grafschaft_, which
+connote the territorial jurisdiction of a count (q.v.). The present
+article is confined to a sketch of the origin and development of English
+counties, which have served in a greater or less degree as the model
+for the county organizations in the various countries of the
+English-speaking world which are described under their proper headings.
+
+About one-third of the English counties represent ancient kingdoms,
+sub-kingdoms or tribal divisions, such as Kent, Sussex, Norfolk, Devon;
+but most of the remaining counties take their names from some important
+town within their respective boundaries. The counties to the south of
+the Thames (except Cornwall) already existed in the time of Alfred, but
+those of the midlands seem to have been created during the reign of
+Edward the Elder (901-925) and to have been artificially bounded areas
+lying around some stronghold which became a centre of civil and military
+administration. There is reason, however, for thinking that the counties
+of Bedford, Cambridge, Huntingdon and Northampton are of Danish origin.
+Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were not recognized as
+English counties until some time after the Norman Conquest, the last two
+definitely appearing as fiscal areas in 1177. The origin of Rutland as a
+county is obscure, but it had its own sheriff in 1154.
+
+In the period preceding the Norman Conquest two officers appear at the
+head of the county organization. These are the ealdorman or earl, and
+the _scirgerefa_ or sheriff. The shires of Wessex appear each to have
+had an ealdorman, whose duties were to command its military forces, to
+preside over the county assembly (_scirgemot_), to carry out the laws
+and to execute justice. The name ealdorman gave way to that of earl,
+probably under Danish influence, in the first half of the 11th century,
+and it is probable that the office of sheriff came into existence in the
+reign of Canute (1017-1035), when the great earldoms were formed and it
+was no longer possible for the earl to perform his various
+administrative duties in person in a group of counties. After the Norman
+Conquest the earl was occasionally appointed sheriff of his county, but
+in general his only official connexion with it was to receive the third
+penny of its pleas, and the earldom ceased to be an office and became
+merely a title. In the 12th century the office of coroner was created,
+two or more of them being chosen in the county court as vacancies
+occurred. In the same century verderers were first chosen in the same
+manner for the purpose of holding inquisitions on vert and venison in
+those counties which contained royal forests. It was the business of the
+sheriff (_vicecomes_) as the king's representative to serve and return
+all writs, to levy distresses on the king's behalf, to execute all royal
+precepts and to collect the king's revenue. In this work he was assisted
+by a large staff of clerks and bailiffs who were directly responsible to
+him and not to the king. The sheriff also commanded the armed forces of
+the crown within his county, and either in person or by deputy presided
+over the county court which was now held monthly in most counties. In
+1300 it was enacted that the sheriffs might be chosen by the county,
+except in Worcestershire, Cornwall, Rutland, Westmorland and Lancashire,
+where there were then sheriffs in fee, that is, sheriffs who held their
+offices hereditarily by royal grant. The elective arrangement was of no
+long duration, and it was finally decided in 1340 that the sheriffs
+should be appointed by the chancellor, the treasurer and the chief baron
+of the exchequer, but should hold office for one year only. The county
+was from an early period regarded as a community, and approached the
+king as a corporate body, while in later times petitions were presented
+through the knights of the shire. It was also an organic whole for the
+purpose of the conservation of the peace. The assessment of taxation by
+commissioners appointed by the county court developed in the 13th
+century into the representation of the county by two knights of the
+shire elected by the county court to serve in parliament, and this
+representation continued unaltered save for a short period during the
+Protectorate, until 1832, when many of the counties received a much
+larger representation, which was still further increased by later acts.
+
+The royal control over the county was strengthened from the 14th century
+onward by the appointment of justices of the peace. This system was
+further developed under the Tudors, while in the middle of the 16th
+century the military functions of the sheriff were handed over to a new
+officer, the lord-lieutenant, who is now more prominently associated
+with the headship of the county than is the sheriff. The lord-lieutenant
+now usually holds the older office of _custos rotulorum_, or keeper of
+the records of the county. The justices of the peace are appointed upon
+his nomination, and until lately he appointed the clerk of the peace.
+The latter appointment is now made by the joint committee of quarter
+sessions and county council.
+
+The Tudor system of local government received little alteration until
+the establishment of county councils by the Local Government Act of 1888
+handed over to an elected body many of the functions previously
+exercised by the nominated justices of the peace. For the purposes of
+this act the ridings of Yorkshire, the divisions of Lincolnshire, east
+and west Sussex, east and west Suffolk, the soke of Peterborough and the
+Isle of Ely are regarded as counties, so that there are now sixty
+administrative counties of England and Wales. Between 1373 and 1692 the
+crown granted to certain cities and boroughs the privilege of being
+counties of themselves. There were in 1835 eighteen of these counties
+corporate, Bristol, Chester, Coventry, Gloucester, Lincoln, Norwich,
+Nottingham, York and Carmarthen, each of which had two sheriffs, and
+Canterbury, Exeter, Hull, Lichfield, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Poole,
+Southampton, Worcester and Haverfordwest, each of which had one sheriff.
+All these boroughs, with the exception of Carmarthen, Lichfield, Poole
+and Haverfordwest, which remain counties of themselves, and forty-seven
+others, were created county boroughs by the Local Government Act 1888,
+and are entirely dissociated from the control of a county council. The
+City of London is also a county of itself, whose two sheriffs are also
+sheriffs of Middlesex, while for the purposes of the act of 1888 the
+house-covered district which extends for many miles round the City
+constitutes a county.
+
+The county has always been the unit for the organization of the militia,
+and from about 1782 certain regiments of the regular army were
+associated with particular counties by territorial titles. The army
+scheme of 1907-1908 provided for the formation of county associations
+under the presidency of the lords-lieutenant for the organization of the
+new territorial army.
+
+  See _Statutes of the Realm_; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of
+  England_ (1874-1878); F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
+  (1897); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _History of English Law_
+  (1895); H. M. Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (1905),
+  and _The Victoria History of the Counties of England_.     (G. J. T.)
+
+
+
+
+COUNTY COURT, in England, a local court of civil jurisdiction. The
+county court, it has been said, is at once the most ancient and the most
+modern of English civil tribunals. The Saxon Curia Comitatus, maintained
+after the Norman Conquest, was a local court and a small debts court. It
+was instituted by Alfred the Great, its jurisdiction embracing civil,
+and, until the reign of William I., ecclesiastical matters. The officers
+of the court consisted of the earldorman, the bishop and the sheriff.
+The court was held once in every four weeks, being presided over by the
+earl, or, in his absence, the sheriff. The suitors of the court, i.e.
+the freeholders, were the judges, the sheriff being simply a presiding
+officer, pronouncing and afterwards executing the judgment of the court.
+The court was not one of record. The appointment of judges of assize in
+the reign of Henry II., as well as the expensive and dilatory procedure
+of the court, brought about its gradual disuse, and other local courts,
+termed courts of request or of conscience, were established. These, in
+turn, proved unsatisfactory, owing both to the limited nature of their
+jurisdiction (restricted to causes of debt not exceeding 40s. in value,
+and to the fact that they were confined to particular places).
+Accordingly, with the view of making justice cheaper and more accessible
+the County Courts Act 1846 was passed. This act had the modest title of
+"An Act for the Recovery of Small Debts and Demands in England." The
+original limit of the jurisdiction of the new courts was £20, extended
+in 1850 to £50 in actions of debt, and in 1903 (by an act which came
+into force in 1905) to £100. Thirteen amending acts were passed, by
+which new jurisdiction was from time to time conferred on the county
+courts, and in the year 1888 an act was passed repealing the previous
+acts and consolidating their provisions, with some amendment. This is
+now the code or charter of the county courts.
+
+The grain of mustard-seed sown in 1846 has grown into a goodly tree,
+with branches extending over the whole of England and Wales; and they
+embrace within their ambit a more multifarious jurisdiction than is
+possessed by any other courts in the kingdom. England and Wales were
+mapped out into 59 circuits (not including the city of London), with
+power for the crown, by order in council, to abolish any circuit and
+rearrange the areas comprised in the circuits (sec. 4). There is one
+judge to each circuit, but the lord chancellor is empowered to appoint
+two judges in a circuit, provided that the total number of judges does
+not exceed 60. The salary of a county court judge was originally fixed
+at £1200, but he now receives £1500. He must at the time of his
+appointment be a barrister-at-law of at least seven years' standing, and
+not more than sixty years of age; after appointment he cannot sit as a
+member of parliament or practise at the bar.
+
+Every circuit (except in Birmingham, Clerkenwell, and Westminster) is
+divided into districts, in each of which there is a court, with a
+registrar and bailiffs. The judges are directed to attend and hold a
+court in each district at least once in every month, unless the lord
+chancellor shall otherwise direct (secs. 10, 11). But in practice the
+judge sits several times a month in the large centres of population, and
+less frequently than once a month in the court town of sparsely
+inhabited districts. By sec. 185 of the act of 1888 the judges and
+officers of the city of London court have the like jurisdiction, powers,
+and authority as those of a county court, and the county court rules
+apply to that court.
+
+The ordinary jurisdiction of the county courts may be thus tabulated:--
+
+                                                         Pecuniary limit
+                  Subject matter.                        of jurisdiction.
+
+  Common-law actions, with written consent of both
+    parties                                               Unlimited.
+  Actions founded on contract (except for breach of
+    promise of marriage, in which the county courts have
+    no jurisdiction)                                         £100.
+
+  Actions founded on tort (except libel, slander, and
+    seduction, in which the county courts have no
+    jurisdiction)                                            £100.
+
+  Counter claims (unless plaintiff gives written notice
+    of objection)                                         Unlimited.
+
+  Ejectment or questions of title to reality          £100 annual value.
+
+  Equity jurisdiction                                        £500.
+
+  Probate jurisdiction                                 £200 personalty
+                                                       and £300 realty.
+
+  Admiralty jurisdiction                                     £300.
+
+  Bankruptcy jurisdiction                                 Unlimited.
+
+  Replevin                                                Unlimited.
+
+  Interpleader transferred from High Court                   £500.
+
+  Actions in contract transferred from High Court            £100.
+
+  Actions in tort transferred from High Court             Unlimited.
+
+  Companies (winding up), when the paid-up capital
+    does not exceed                                        £10,000.
+
+There is no discoverable principle upon which these limits of the
+jurisdiction of the county courts have been determined. But the above
+table is not by any means an exhaustive statement of the jurisdiction of
+the county courts. For many years it has been the practice of parliament
+to throw on the county court judges the duty of acting as judges or
+arbitrators for the purpose of new legislation relating to social
+subjects. It is impossible to classify the many statutes which have been
+passed since 1846 and which confer some jurisdiction, apart from that
+under the County Courts Act, on county courts or their judges. Some of
+these acts impose exceptional duties on the judges of the county courts,
+others confer unlimited jurisdiction concurrently with the High Court or
+some other court, others, again, confer limited or, sometimes, exclusive
+jurisdiction. A list of all the acts will be found in the _Annual County
+Courts Practice_. A county court judge may determine all matters of fact
+as well as law, but a jury may be summoned at the option of either
+plaintiff or defendant when the amount in dispute exceeds £5, and in
+actions under £5 the judge may in his discretion, on application of
+either of the parties, order that the action be tried by jury. The
+number of jurymen impanelled and sworn at the trial was, by the County
+Courts Act 1903, increased from five to eight.
+
+There is an appeal from the county courts on matters of law to a
+divisional court of the High Court, i.e. to the admiralty division in
+admiralty cases and to the king's bench division in other cases (sec.
+120 of act of 1888). The determination of the divisional court is final,
+unless leave be given by that court or the court of appeal (Judicature
+Acts 1894). (See further APPEAL.) In proceedings under the Workmen's
+Compensation Act the appeal from a county court judge is to the court of
+appeal, with a subsequent appeal to the House of Lords. In 1908 a
+Committee was appointed by the lord chancellor "to inquire into certain
+matters of county court procedure." The committee presented a report in
+1909 (H.C. 71), recommending the extension of existing county court
+jurisdiction, but a bill introduced to give effect to the
+recommendations was not proceeded with.
+
+  See _Annual County Courts Practice_, also "Fifty Years of the English
+  County Courts," by County Court Judge Sir T. W. Snagge, in _Nineteenth
+  Century_, October 1897.
+
+
+
+
+COUPÉ (French for "cut off"), a small closed carriage of the brougham
+type, with four wheels and seats for two persons; the term is also used
+of the front compartment on a _diligence_ or mail-coach on the continent
+of Europe, and of a compartment in a railway carriage with seats on one
+side only.
+
+
+
+
+COUPLET, a pair of lines of verse, which are welded together by an
+identity of rhyme. The _New English Dict._ derives the use of the word
+from the French _couplet_, signifying two pieces of iron riveted or
+hinged together. In rhymed verse two lines which complete a meaning in
+themselves are particularly known as a couplet. Thus, in Pope's _Eloisa
+to Abelard_:--
+
+  "Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,
+   And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole."
+
+In much of old English dramatic literature, when the mass of the
+composition is in blank verse or even in prose, particular emphasis is
+given by closing the scene in a couplet. Thus, in the last act of
+Beaumont and Fletcher's _Thierry and Theodoret_ the action culminates in
+an unexpected rhyme:--
+
+  "And now lead on; they that shall read this story
+   Shall find that virtue lives in good, not glory."
+
+In French literature, the term couplet is not confined to a pair of
+lines, but is commonly used for a stanza. A "square" couplet, in French,
+for instance, is a strophe of eight lines, each composed of eight
+syllables. In this sense it is employed to distinguish the more emphatic
+parts of a species of verse which is essentially gay, graceful and
+frivolous, such as the songs in a vaudeville or a comic opera. In the
+18th century, Le Sage, Piron and even Voltaire did not hesitate to
+engage their talents on the production of couplets, which were often
+witty, if they had no other merit, and were well fitted to catch the
+popular ear. This signification of the word _couplet_ is not unknown in
+England, but it is not customary; it is probably used in a stricter and
+a more technical sense to describe a pair of rhymed lines, whether
+serious or merry. The normal type, as it may almost be called, of
+English versification is the metre of ten-syllabled rhymed lines
+designated as _heroic couplet_. This form of iambic verse, with five
+beats to each line, is believed to have been invented by Chaucer, who
+employs it first in the Prologue _The Legend of Good Women_ the
+composition of which is attributed to the year 1385. That poem opens
+with the couplet:--
+
+  "A thousand times have I heard man tell
+   That there is joy in heaven and pain in hell."
+
+This is an absolutely correct example of the heroic couplet, which
+ultimately reached such majesty in the hands of Dryden and such
+brilliancy in those of Pope. It has been considered proper for didactic,
+descriptive and satirical poetry, although in the course of the 19th
+century blank verse largely took its place. Epigram often selects the
+couplet as the vehicle of its sharpened arrows, as in Sir John
+Harington's
+
+  "Treason doth never prosper: what's the reason?
+   Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason."
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COUPON (from Fr. _couper_, to cut), a certificate entitling its owner to
+some payment, share or other benefit; more specifically, one of a
+series of interest certificates or dividend warrants attached to a bond
+running for a number of years. The word coupon (a piece cut off)
+possesses an etymological meaning so comprehensive that, while on the
+Stock Exchange it is only used to denote such an interest certificate or
+a certificate of stock of a joint-stock company, it may be as suitably,
+and elsewhere is perhaps more frequently, applied to tickets sold by
+tourist agencies and others. The coupons by means of which the interest
+on a bond or debenture is collected are generally printed at the side or
+foot of that document, to be cut off and presented for payment at the
+bank or agency named on them as they become due. The last portion,
+called a "talon," is a form of certificate, and entitles the holder,
+when all the coupons have been presented, to obtain a fresh coupon
+sheet. They pass by delivery, and are as a rule exempt from stamp duty.
+Coupons for the payment of dividends are also attached to the share
+warrants to bearer issued by some joint-stock companies. The coupons on
+the bonds of most of the principal foreign loans are payable in London
+in sterling as well as abroad.
+
+
+
+
+COURANTE (a French word derived from _courir_, to run), a dance in 3-2
+time march in vogue in France in the 17th century (see DANCE). It is
+also a musical term for a movement or independent piece based on the
+dance. In a _suite_ it followed the Allemande (q.v.), with which it is
+contrasted in rhythm.
+
+
+
+
+COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE (1681-1776), French Roman Catholic
+theological writer, was born at Rouen on the 17th of November 1681.
+While canon regular and librarian of the abbey of St Geneviève at Paris,
+he conducted a correspondence with Archbishop Wake on the subject of
+episcopal succession in England, which supplied him with material for
+his work, _Dissertation sur la validité des ordinations des Anglais et
+sur la succession des évêques de l'Église anglicane, avec les preuves
+justificatives des faits avancés_ (Brussels, 1723; Eng. trans. by D.
+Williams, London, 1725; reprinted Oxford, 1844, with memoir of the
+author), an attempt to prove that there has been no break in the line of
+ordination from the apostles to the English clergy. His opinions exposed
+him to a prosecution, and with the help of Bishop Atterbury, then in
+exile in Paris, he took refuge in England, where he was presented by the
+university of Oxford with a doctor's degree. In 1736 he published a
+French translation of Paolo Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_,
+and dedicated it to Queen Caroline, from whom he received a pension of
+£200 a year. Besides this he translated Sleidan's _History of the
+Reformation_, and wrote several theological works. He died in London on
+the 17th of October 1776, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster
+Abbey. In his will, dated two years before his death, he declared
+himself still a member of the Roman Catholic Church, although dissenting
+from many of its opinions.
+
+
+
+
+COURBET, GUSTAVE (1819-1877), French painter, was born at Ornans (Doubs)
+on the 10th of June 1819. He went to Paris in 1839, and worked at the
+studio of Steuben and Hesse; but his independent spirit did not allow
+him to remain there long, as he preferred to work out his own way by the
+study of Spanish, Flemish and French painters. His first works, an
+"Odalisque," suggested by Victor Hugo, and a "Lélia," illustrating
+George Sand, were literary subjects; but these he soon abandoned for the
+study of real life. Among other works he painted his own portrait with
+his dog, and "The Man with a Pipe," both of which were rejected by the
+jury of the Salon; but the younger school of critics, the neo-romantics
+and realists, loudly sang the praises of Courbet, who by 1849 began to
+be famous, producing such pictures as "After Dinner at Ornans" and "The
+Valley of the Loire." The Salon of 1850 found him triumphant with the
+"Burial at Ornans," the "Stone-Breakers" and the "Peasants of Flazey."
+His style still gained in individuality, as in "Village Damsels" (1852),
+the "Wrestlers," "Bathers," and "A Girl Spinning" (1852). Though
+Courbet's realistic work is not devoid of importance, it is as a
+landscape and sea painter that he will be most honoured by posterity.
+Sometimes, it must be owned, his realism is rather coarse and brutal,
+but when he paints the forests of Franche-Comté, the "Stag-Fight," "The
+Wave," or the "Haunt of the Does," he is inimitable. When Courbet had
+made a name as an artist he grew ambitious of other glory; he tried to
+promote democratic and social science, and under the Empire he wrote
+essays and dissertations. His refusal of the cross of the Legion of
+Honour, offered to him by Napoleon III., made him immensely popular, and
+in 1871 he was elected, under the Commune, to the chamber. Thus it
+happened that he was responsible for the destruction of the Vendôme
+column. A council of war, before which he was tried, condemned him to
+pay the cost of restoring the column, 300,000 francs (£12,000). To
+escape the necessity of working to the end of his days at the orders of
+the State in order to pay this sum, Courbet went to Switzerland in 1873,
+and died at La Tour du Peilz, on the 31st of December 1877, of a disease
+of the liver aggravated by intemperance. An exhibition of his works was
+held in 1882 at the École des Beaux-Arts.
+
+  See Champfleury, _Les Grandes Figures d'hier et d'aujourd' hui_
+  (Paris, 1861); Mantz, "G. Courbet," _Gaz. des beaux-arts_ (Paris,
+  1878); Zola, _Mes Haines_ (Paris, 1879); C. Lemonnier, _Les Peintres
+  de la Vie_ (Paris, 1888).     (H. FR.)
+
+
+
+
+COURBEVOIE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, 5 m.
+W.N.W. of Paris on the railway to Versailles. Pop. (1906) 29,339. It is
+a residential suburb of Paris, and has a fine avenue opening on the
+Neuilly bridge, and forming with it a continuation of the Champs
+Elysées. It carries on bleaching and the manufacture of carriage bodies,
+awnings, drugs, biscuits, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE (1813-1892), French economist, was born
+at Seneuil (Dordogne) on the 22nd of December 1813. Seneuil was an
+additional name adopted from his native place. Devoting himself at first
+to the study of the law, he was called to the French bar in 1835. Soon
+after, however, he returned to Dordogne and settled down as a manager of
+ironworks. He found leisure to study economic and political questions,
+and was a frequent contributor to the republican papers. On the
+establishment of the second republic in 1848 he became director of the
+public domains. After the _coup d'état_ of Napoleon III. in 1851 he went
+to South America, and held the professorship of political economy at the
+National Institute of Santiago, in Chile, from 1853 to 1863, when he
+returned to France. In 1879 he was made a councillor of state, and in
+1882 was elected a member of the _Académie des sciences morales et
+politiques_. He died at Paris on the 29th of June 1892.
+Courcelle-Seneuil, as an economist, was strongly inclined towards the
+liberal school, and was equally partial to the historical and
+experimental methods; but his best energies were directed to applied
+economy and social questions. His principal work is _Traité théorique et
+pratique d'économie politique_ (2 vols., 1858); among his others may be
+mentioned _Traité théorique et pratique des opérations de banque_
+(1853); _Études sur la science sociale_ (1862); _La Banque libre_
+(1867); _Liberté et socialisme_ (1868); _Protection et libre échange_
+(1879); he also translated into French John Stuart Mill's _Principles_.
+
+
+
+
+COURCI, JOHN DE (d. 1219?), Anglo-Norman conqueror of Ulster, was a
+member of a celebrated Norman family of Oxfordshire and Somersetshire,
+whose parentage is unknown, and around whose career a mass of legend has
+grown up. It would appear that he accompanied William Fitz-Aldelm to
+Ireland when the latter, after the death of Strongbow, was sent thither
+by Henry II., and that he immediately headed an expedition from Dublin
+to Ulster, where he took Downpatrick, the capital of the northern
+kingdom. After some years of desultory fighting de Courci established
+his power over that part of Ulster comprised in the modern counties of
+Antrim and Down, throughout which he built a number of castles, where
+his vassals, known as "the barons of Ulster," held sway over the native
+tribes. After the accession of Richard I., de Courci in conjunction with
+William de Lacy appears in some way to have offended the king by his
+proceedings in Ireland. De Lacy quickly made his peace with Richard,
+while de Courci defied him; and the subsequent history of the latter
+consisted mainly in the vicissitudes of a lasting feud with the de
+Lacys. In 1204 Hugh de Lacy utterly defeated de Courci in battle, and
+took him prisoner. De Courci, however, soon obtained his liberty,
+probably by giving hostages as security for a promise of submission
+which he failed to carry out, seeking an asylum instead with the
+O'Neills of Tyrone. He again appeared in arms on hearing that Hugh de
+Lacy had obtained a grant of Ulster with the title of earl; and in
+alliance with the king of Man he ravaged the territory of Down; but was
+completely routed by Walter de Lacy, and disappeared from the scene till
+1207, when he obtained permission to return to England. In 1210 he was
+in favour with King John, from whom he received a pension, and whom he
+accompanied to Ireland. There is some indication of his having sided
+with John in his struggle with the barons; but of the later history of
+de Courci little is known. He probably died in the summer of 1219. Both
+de Courci and his wife Affreca were benefactors of the church, and
+founded several abbeys and priories in Ulster.
+
+A story is told that de Courci when imprisoned in the Tower volunteered
+to act as champion for King John in single combat against a knight
+representing Philip Augustus of France; that when he appeared in the
+lists his French opponent fled in panic; whereupon de Courci, to gratify
+the French king's desire to witness his prowess, "cleft a massive helmet
+in twain at a single blow," a feat for which he was rewarded by a grant
+of the privilege for himself and his heirs to remain covered in the
+presence of the king and all future sovereigns of England. This tale,
+which still finds a place in Burke's _Peerage_ in the account of the
+baron Kingsale, a descendant of the de Courci family, is a legend
+without historic foundation which did not obtain currency till centuries
+after John de Courci's death. The statement that he was created earl of
+Ulster, and that he was thus "the first Englishman dignified with an
+Irish title of honour," is equally devoid of foundation. John de Courci
+left no legitimate children.
+
+  See J. H. Round's art. "Courci, John de," in _Dictionary of National
+  Biography_, vol. xii. (London, 1887), to which is added a bibliography
+  of the original and later authorities for the life of de Courci.
+
+
+
+
+COURIER, PAUL LOUIS (1773-1825), French Hellenist and political writer,
+was born in Paris on the 4th of January 1773. Brought up on his father's
+estate of Méré in Touraine, he conceived a bitter aversion for the
+nobility, which seemed to strengthen with time. He would never take the
+name "de Méré," to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a
+nobleman. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his
+education; his father's teaching had already inspired him with a
+passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed
+considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his
+leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at Châlons,
+however, and immediately on receiving his appointment as sub-lieutenant
+in September 1793 he joined the army of the Rhine. He served in various
+campaigns of the Revolutionary wars, especially in those of Italy in
+1798-99 and 1806-7, and in the German campaign of 1809. He became _chef
+d'escadron_ in 1803.
+
+He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he contributed
+to the _Magasin encyclopédique_ a critique on Johannes Schweighäuser's
+edition of Athenaeus. In the following year appeared his _Éloge
+d'Hélène_, a free imitation rather than a translation from Isocrates,
+which he had sketched in 1798. Courier had given up his commission in
+the autumn of 1808, but the general enthusiasm in Paris over the
+preparations for the new campaign affected him, and he attached himself
+to the staff of a general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the
+carnage at Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there
+was any art in war. He hastily quitted Vienna, escaping the formal
+charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been confirmed.
+The savage independence of his nature rendered subordination intolerable
+to him; he had been three times disgraced for absenting himself without
+leave, and his superiors resented his satirical humour. After leaving
+the army he went to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in
+the Laurentian Library a complete manuscript of Longus's _Daphnis and
+Chloe_, an edition of which he published in 1810. In consequence of a
+misadventure--blotting the manuscript--he was involved in a quarrel
+with the librarian, and was compelled by the government to leave
+Tuscany. He retired to his estate at Véretz (Indre-et-Loire), but
+frequently visited Paris, and divided his attention between literature
+and his farm.
+
+After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of Courier as
+political pamphleteer began. He had before this time waged war against
+local wrongs in his own district, and had been the adviser and helpful
+friend of his neighbours. He now made himself by his letters and
+pamphlets one of the most dreaded opponents of the government of the
+Restoration. The first of these was his _Pétition aux deux chambres_
+(1816), exposing the sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist
+reaction. In 1817 he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute;
+and failing, he took his revenge by publishing a bitter _Lettre à
+Messieurs de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_ (1819). This
+was followed (1819-1820) by a series of political letters of
+extraordinary power published in _Le Censeur Européen_. He advocated a
+liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to see Louis
+Philippe. The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the estate of Chambord for
+the duke of Bordeaux called forth from Courier the _Simple Discours de
+Paul Louis, vigneron de la Chavonnière_, one of his best pieces. For
+this he was tried and condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to
+pay a fine. Before he went to prison he published a _compte rendu_ of
+his trial, which had a still larger circulation than the Discours
+itself. In 1823 appeared the _Livret de Paul Louis_, the _Gazette de
+village_, followed in 1824 by his famous _Pamphlet des pamphlets_,
+called by his biographer, Armand Carrel, his swan-song. Courier
+published in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, _Du commandement de la
+cavalerie et de l'équitation_, and had a share in editing the
+_Collections des romans grecs_. He also projected a translation of
+Herodotus, and published a specimen, in which he attempted to imitate
+archaic French; but he did not live to carry out this plan. In the
+autumn of 1825, on a Sunday afternoon (August 18th), Courier was found
+shot in a wood near his house. The murderers, who were servants of his
+own, remained undiscovered for five years.
+
+The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of his own
+time, are valuable sources of information as to the condition of France
+before, during, and after the Revolution. Sainte-Beuve finds in
+Courier's own words, "peu de matière et beaucoup d'art," the secret and
+device of his talent, which gives his writings a value independent of
+the somewhat ephemeral subject-matter.
+
+  A _Collection complète des pamphlets politiques et opuscules
+  littéraires de P. L. Courier_ appeared in 1826. See editions of his
+  _OEuvres_ (1848), with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel,
+  which is reproduced in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism
+  by F. Sarcey (1876-1877); also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the
+  _Causeries du lundi_ and the _Nouveaux Lundis_.
+
+
+
+
+COURIER (from the O. Fr. _courier_, modern _courrier_, from Lat.
+_currere_, to run), properly a running messenger, who carried despatches
+and letters; a system of couriers, mounted or on foot, formed the
+beginnings of the modern post-office (see POST, and POSTAL SERVICE). The
+despatches which pass between the foreign office and its representatives
+abroad, and which cannot be entrusted to the postal service or the
+telegraph, are carried by special couriers, styled, in the British
+service, King's Messengers. "Courier," more particularly, is applied to
+a travelling attendant, whose duties are to arrange for the carrying of
+the luggage, obtaining of passports, settling of hotel accommodation,
+and generally to look to the comfort and facility of travel. The name
+"courier" and the similar word "_courant_" (Ital. _coranto_) have often
+been used as the title of a newspaper or periodical (see NEWSPAPERS);
+the _Courier_, founded in 1792, was for some time the leading London
+journal.
+
+
+
+
+COURLAND, or KURLAND, one of the Baltic provinces of Russia, lying
+between 55° 45' and 57° 45' N. and 21° and 27° E. It is bounded on the
+N.E. by the river Dvina, separating it from the governments of Vitebsk
+and Livonia, N. by the Gulf of Riga, W. by the Baltic, and S. by the
+province of East Prussia and the Russian government of Kovno. The area
+is 10,535 sq. m., of which 101 sq. m. are occupied by lakes. The surface
+is generally low and undulating, and the coast-lands flat and marshy.
+The interior is characterized by wooded dunes, covered with pine, fir,
+birch and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches between. The
+surface nowhere rises more than 700 ft. above sea-level. The Mitau plain
+divides it into two parts, of which the western is fertile and thickly
+inhabited, except in the north, while the eastern is less fertile and
+thinly inhabited. One-third of the area is still forest.
+
+Courland is drained by nearly one hundred rivers, of which only three,
+the Dvina, the Aa and the Windau, are navigable. They all flow
+north-westwards and discharge into the Baltic Sea. Owing to the numerous
+lakes and marshes, the climate is damp and often foggy, as well as
+changeable, and the winter is severe. Agriculture is the chief
+occupation, the principal crops being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax and
+potatoes. The land is mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863
+laws were issued to enable the Letts, who form the bulk of the
+population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were
+founded to help them. By this means some 12,000 farms were bought by
+their occupants; but the great mass of the population are still
+landless, and live as hired labourers, occupying a low position in the
+social scale. On the large estates agriculture is conducted with skill
+and scientific knowledge. Fruit grows well. Excellent breeds of cattle,
+sheep and pigs are kept. Libau and Mitau are the principal industrial
+centres, with iron-works, agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass
+and soap works. Flax spinning is mostly a domestic industry. Iron and
+limestone are the chief minerals; a little amber is found on the coast.
+The only seaports are Libau, Windau and Polangen, there being none on
+the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. The population was 619,154 in
+1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were women; 714,200 (estimate) in
+1906. Of the whole, 79% are Letts, 8¼% Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1%
+each Poles and Lithuanians. In addition there are about 8% Jews and some
+Lives. The chief towns of the ten districts are Mitau (Doblenskiy
+district), capital of the government (pop. 35,011 in 1897), Bauske
+(6543), Friedrichstadt (5223), Goldingen (9733), Grobin (1489),
+Hasenpoth (3338), Illuxt (2340), Talsen (6215), Tuckum (7542) and Windau
+(7132). The prevailing religion is the Lutheran, to which 76% of the
+population belong; the rest belong to the Orthodox Eastern and the Roman
+Catholic churches.
+
+Anciently Courland was inhabited by the Cours or Kurs, a Lettish tribe,
+who were subdued and converted to Christianity by the Brethren of the
+Sword, a German military order, in the first quarter of the 13th
+century. In 1237 it passed under the rule of the Teutonic Knights owing
+to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the
+Sword. At that time it comprised the two duchies of Courland and
+Semgallen. Under the increasing pressure of Russia (Muscovy) the
+Teutonic Knights in 1561 found it expedient to put themselves under the
+suzerainty of Poland, the grandmaster Gotthard Kettler (d. 1587)
+becoming the first duke of Courland. The duchy suffered severely in the
+Russo-Swedish wars of 1700-9. But by the marriage in 1710 of Kettler's
+descendant, Duke Frederick William (d. 1711), to the princess Anne,
+niece of Peter the Great and afterwards empress of Russia, Courland came
+into close relation with the latter state Anne being duchess of Courland
+from 1711 to 1730. The celebrated Marshal Saxe was elected duke in 1726,
+but only managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next
+year. The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737,
+and the empress Anne now bestowed the dignity on her favourite Biren,
+who held it from 1737 to 1740 and again from 1763 till his death in
+1772. During nearly the whole of the 18th century Courland, devastated
+by continual wars, was a shuttlecock between Russia and Poland; until
+eventually in 1795 the assembly of the nobles placed it under the
+Russian sceptre. The Baltic provinces--Esthonia, Livonia and
+Courland--ceased to form collectively one general government in 1876.
+
+  See H. Hollmann, _Kurlands Agrarverhältnisse_ (Riga, 1893), and E.
+  Seraphim, _Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands_ (2 vols., Reval,
+  1895-1896).
+
+
+
+
+COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1801-1877), French economist and
+mathematician, was born at Gray (Haute-Saône) on the 28th of August
+1801. Trained for the scholastic profession, he was appointed assistant
+professor at the Academy of Paris in 1831, professor of mathematics at
+Lyons in 1834, rector of the Academy of Grenoble in 1835,
+inspector-general of studies in 1838, rector of the Academy of Dijon and
+honorary inspector-general in 1854, retiring in 1862. He died in Paris
+on the 31st of March 1877. Cournot was the first who, with a competent
+knowledge of both subjects, endeavoured to apply mathematics to the
+treatment of economic questions. His _Recherches sur les principes
+mathématiques de la théorie des richesses_ (English trans. by N. T.
+Bacon, with bibliography of mathematics of economics by Irving Fisher,
+1897) was published in 1838. He mentions in it only one previous
+enterprise of the same kind (though there had in fact been
+others)--that, namely, of Nicholas François Canard (c. 1750-1833), whose
+book, _Principes d'économie politique_ (Paris, 1802), was crowned by the
+French Academy, though "its principles were radically false as well as
+erroneously applied." Notwithstanding Cournot's just reputation as a
+writer on mathematics, the _Recherches_ made little impression. The
+truth seems to be that his results are in some cases of little
+importance, in others of questionable correctness, and that, in the
+abstractions to which he has recourse in order to facilitate his
+calculations, an essential part of the real conditions of the problem is
+sometimes omitted. His pages abound in symbols representing unknown
+functions, the form of the function being left to be ascertained by
+observation of facts, which he does not regard as a part of his task, or
+only some known properties of the undetermined function being used as
+bases for deduction. In his _Principes de la théorie des richesses_
+(1863) he abandoned the mathematical method, though advocating the use
+of mathematical symbols in economic discussions, as being of service in
+facilitating exposition. Other works of Cournot's were _Traité
+élémentaire de la théorie des fonctions et du calcul infinitésimal_
+(1841); _Exposition de la théorie des chances et des probabilités_
+(1843); _De l'origine et des limites de la correspondance entre
+l'algèbre et la géométrie_ (1847); _Traité de l'enchaînement des idées
+fondamentales dans les sciences et dans l'histoire_ (1861); and _Revue
+sommaire des doctrines économiques_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+COURSING (from Lat. _cursus_, _currere_, to run), the hunting of game by
+dogs solely by sight and not by scent. From time to time the sport has
+been pursued by various nations against various animals, but the
+recognized method has generally been the coursing of the hare by
+greyhounds. Such sport is of great antiquity, and is fully described by
+Arrian in his _Cynegeticus_ about A.D. 150, when the leading features
+appear to have been much the same as in the present day. Other Greek and
+Latin authors refer to the sport; but during the middle ages it was but
+little heard of. Apart from private coursing for the sake of filling the
+pot with game, public coursing has become an exhilarating sport. The
+private sportsman seldom possesses good strains of blood to breed his
+greyhounds from or has such opportunities of trying them as the public
+courser.
+
+The first known set of rules in England for determining the merits of a
+course were drawn up by Thomas, duke of Norfolk, in Queen Elizabeth's
+reign; but no open trials were heard of until half a century later, in
+the time of Charles I. The oldest regular coursing club of which any
+record exists is that of Swaffham, in Norfolk, which was founded by Lord
+Orford in 1766; and in 1780 the Ashdown Park (Berkshire) meeting was
+established. During the next seventy years many other large and
+influential societies sprang up throughout England and Scotland, the
+Altcar Club (on the Sefton estates, near Liverpool) being founded in
+1825. The season lasts about six months, beginning in the middle of
+September. It was not until 1858 that a coursing parliament, so to
+speak, was formed, and a universally accepted code of rules drawn up. In
+that year the National Coursing Club was founded. It is composed of
+representatives from all clubs in the United Kingdom of more than a
+year's standing, and possessing more than twenty-four members. Their
+rules govern meetings, and their committee adjudicate on matters of
+dispute. A comparative trial of two dogs, and not the capture of the
+game pursued, is the great distinctive trait of modern coursing. A
+greyhound stud-book was started in 1882.
+
+The breeding and training of a successful kennel is a precarious matter;
+and the most unaccountable ups and downs of fortune often occur in a
+courser's career. At a meeting an agreed-on even number of entries are
+made for each stake, and the ties drawn by lot. After the first round
+the winner of the first tie is opposed to the winner of the second, and
+so on until the last two dogs left in compete for victory; but the same
+owner's greyhounds are "guarded" as far as it is possible to do so. A
+staff of beaters drive the hares out of their coverts or other
+hiding-places, whilst the slipper has the pair of dogs in hand, and
+slips them simultaneously by an arrangement of nooses, when they have
+both sighted a hare promising a good course. The judge accompanies on
+horseback, and the six points whereby he decides a course are--(1)
+speed; (2) the go-by, or when a greyhound starts a clear length behind
+his opponent, passes him in the straight run, and gets a clear length in
+front; (3) the turn, where the hare turns at not less than a right
+angle; (4) the wrench, where the hare turns at less than a right angle;
+(5) the kill; (6) the trip, or unsuccessful effort to kill. He may
+return a "no course" as his verdict if the dogs have not been fairly
+tried together, or an "undecided course" if he considers their merits
+equal. The open Waterloo meeting, held at Altcar every spring,--the name
+being taken from its being originated by the proprietor of the Waterloo
+Hotel, Liverpool,--is now the recognized fixture for the decision of the
+coursing championship, and the Waterloo Cup (1836) is the "Blue Riband"
+of the leash. In the United States, several British colonies, and other
+countries, the name has been adopted, and Waterloo Coursing Cups are
+found there as in England. In America an American Coursing Board
+controls the sport, the chief meetings being in North and South Dakota,
+Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota.
+
+  The chief works on coursing are:--Arrian's _Cynegeticus_, translated
+  by the Rev. W. Dansey (1831); T. Thacker, _Courser's Companion and
+  Breeder's Guide_ (1835); Thacker's _Courser's Annual Remembrancer_
+  (1849-1851); D. P. Blaine, _Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports_ (3rd ed.,
+  1870); and J. H. Walsh, _The Greyhound_ (3rd ed., 1875). See also the
+  _Coursing Calendar_ (since 1857); _Coursing and Falconry_ (Badminton
+  Library, 1892); _The Hare_ ("Fur and Feather" series, 1896); and _The
+  Greyhound Stud Book_ (since 1882).
+
+
+
+
+COURT, ANTOINE (1696-1760), French Protestant divine, was born in the
+village of Villeneuve-de-Berg, in the province of the Vivarais. He has
+been designated the "Restorer of Protestantism in France," and was the
+organizer of the "Church of the Desert." He was eight years old when the
+Camisard revolt was finally suppressed, and nineteen when on the 8th of
+March 1715 the edict of Louis XIV. was published, declaring that "he had
+abolished entirely the exercise of the so-called reformed religion"
+("qu'il avait aboli tout exercice de la religion prétendue réformée").
+Antoine, taken to the secret meetings of the persecuted Calvinists,
+began, when only seventeen, to speak and exhort in these congregations
+of "the desert." He came to suspect after a time that many of the
+so-called "inspired" persons were "dupes of their own zeal and
+credulity," and decided that it was necessary to organize at once the
+small communities of believers into properly constituted churches. To
+the execution of this vast undertaking he devoted his life. On the 21st
+of August 1715 he summoned all the preachers in the Cévennes and Lower
+Languedoc to a conference or synod near the village of Monoblet. Here
+elders were appointed, and the preaching of women, as well as pretended
+revelations, was condemned. The village of Monoblet "thus seems entitled
+to the honour of having had the first organized Protestant church after
+the revocation of the edict of Nantes" (H. M. Baird). But there were as
+yet no ordained pastors. Pierre Corteiz was therefore sent to seek
+ordination. He was ordained at Zürich, and from him Court himself
+received ordination. The scene of his labours for fifteen years was
+Languedoc, the Vivarais, and Dauphiné. His beginnings were very small
+prayer-meetings in "the desert." But the work progressed under his wise
+direction, and he was able "to be present, in 1744, at meetings of ten
+thousand souls." In 1724 Louis XV., again assuming that there were no
+Protestants in France, prohibited the most secret exercise of the
+Reformed religion, and imposed severe penalties. It was impossible fully
+to carry out this menace. But persecution raged, especially against the
+pastors. A price was set on the life of Court; and in 1730 he escaped to
+Lausanne. He had already, with the aid of some of the Protestant
+princes, established a theological college ("Seminaire de Lausanne")
+there, and during the remaining thirty years of his life he filled the
+post of director. He had the title of deputy-general of the churches,
+and was really the pillar of their hope. The Seminary of Lausanne sent
+forth all the pastors of the Reformed Church of France till the days of
+the first French Empire. Court formed the design of writing a history of
+Protestantism, and made large collections for the purpose, which have
+been preserved in the Public Library of Geneva; but this he did not live
+to carry out. He died at Lausanne in 1760. He wrote, amongst other
+works, a _Histoire des troubles des Cévennes ou de la guerre des
+Camisards_ (1760). He was the father of the more generally known Antoine
+Court de Gebelin (q.v.).
+
+  For details of his life see Napoléon Peyrat's _Histoire des pasteurs
+  du désert_ (1842; English translation, 1852); Edmond Hugues, _Antoine
+  Court, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en France au
+  XVIII^e siècle_ (2nd ed., 1872), _Les Synodes du désert_ (3 vols.,
+  1885-1886), _Mémoires d'Antoine Court_ (1885); E. and E. Haag, _La
+  France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition); H. M. Baird, _The
+  Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes_ (1895), vol. ii.;
+  cf. _Bulletin de la société de l'histoire du protestantisme français_
+  (1893-1906).
+
+
+
+
+COURT (from the O. Fr. _court_, Late Lat. _cortis_, _curtis_, a popular
+form of class. Lat. _cohors_, gen. _cohortis_; the mod. Fr. form _cour_
+is due to the influence of the Lat. _curia_, the word used in medieval
+documents to translate "court" in the feudal sense), a word originally
+denoting an enclosed place, and so surviving in its architectural sense
+(courtyard, &c.), but chiefly used as a general term for judicial
+tribunals and in the special sense of the household of the king, called
+"the court."[1] All law courts were not, however, purely judicial in
+character; the old county court, for instance, was the assembly of the
+freeholders of the county in which representatives and certain officers
+were elected. Such assemblies in early times exercised political and
+legislative as well as judicial functions. But these have now been
+almost entirely separated everywhere, and only judicial bodies are now
+usually called courts. In every court, says Blackstone, there must be
+three parts,--an _actor_ or plaintiff, _reus_ or defendant, and _judex_,
+or judge.
+
+The language of legal fictions, which English lawyers invariably use in
+all constitutional subjects, makes the king the ultimate source of all
+judicial authority, and assumes his personal presence in all the courts.
+
+  "As by our excellent constitution," says Blackstone, "the sole
+  executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it
+  will follow that all courts of justice, which are the medium by which
+  he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the crown. For
+  whether created by act of parliament or letters patent, or subsisting
+  by prescription (the only methods by which any court of judicature can
+  exist), the king's consent in the two former is expressly, in the
+  latter impliedly given. In all these courts the king is supposed in
+  contemplation of law to be always present; but as that is in fact
+  impossible, he is then represented by his judges, whose power is only
+  an emanation of the royal prerogative."
+
+These words might give a false impression of the historical and legal
+relations of the courts and the crown, if it is not remembered that they
+are nothing more than the expression of a venerable fiction. The
+administration of justice was, indeed, one of the functions of the king
+in early times; the king himself sat on circuit so late as the reign of
+Edward IV.; and even after regular tribunals were established, a reserve
+of judicial power still remained in the king and his council, in the
+exercise of which it was possible for the king to participate
+personally. The last judicial act of an English king, if such it can be
+called, was that by which James I. settled the dispute between the court
+of chancery and courts of common law. Since the establishment of
+parliamentary government the courts take their law directly from the
+legislature, and the king is only connected with them indirectly as a
+member of the legislative body. The king's name, however, is still used
+in this as in other departments of state action. The courts exercising
+jurisdiction in England are divided by certain features which may here
+be briefly indicated.
+
+We may distinguish between (1) superior and inferior courts. The former
+are the courts of common law and the court of chancery, now High Court
+of Justice. The latter are the local or district courts, county courts,
+&c. (2) Courts of record and courts not of record. "A court of record is
+one whereof the acts and judicial proceedings are enrolled for a
+perpetual memory and testimony, which rolls are called the records of
+the court, and are of such high and supereminent authority that their
+truth is not to be called in question. For it is a settled rule and
+maxim that nothing shall be averred against a record, nor shall any plea
+or even proof be admitted to the contrary. And if the existence of the
+record shall be denied it shall be tried by nothing but itself; that is,
+upon bare inspection whether there be any such record or no; else there
+would be no end of disputes. All courts of record are the courts of the
+sovereign in right of the crown and royal dignity, and therefore any
+court of record has authority to fine and imprison for contempt of its
+authority" (Stephen's _Blackstone_). (3) Courts may also be
+distinguished as civil or criminal. (4) A further distinction is to be
+made between courts of first instance and courts of appeal. In the
+former the first hearing in any judicial proceeding takes place; in the
+latter the judgment of the first court is brought under review. Of the
+superior courts, the High Court of Justice in its various divisions is a
+court of first instance. Over it is the court of appeal, and over that
+again the House of Lords. The High Court of Justice is (through
+divisional courts) a court of appeal for inferior courts. (5) There is a
+special class of local courts, which do not appear to fall within the
+description of either superior or inferior courts. Some, while
+administering the ordinary municipal law, have or had jurisdiction
+exclusive of their superior courts; such were the common pleas of Durham
+and Lancaster. Others have concurrent jurisdiction with the superior
+courts; such are the lord mayor's court of London, the passage court of
+Liverpool, &c.
+
+The distribution of judicial business among the various courts of law in
+England may be exhibited as follows.
+
+_Criminal Courts._--(1) The lowest is that of the justice of the peace,
+sitting in petty sessions of two or more, to determine in a summary way
+certain specified minor offences. In populous districts, such as London,
+Manchester, &c., stipendiary magistrates are appointed, generally with
+enlarged powers. Besides punishing by summary conviction, justices may
+commit prisoners for trial at the assizes. (2) The justices in quarter
+sessions are commissioned to determine felonies and other offences. An
+act of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 38) contains a list of offences _not_
+triable at quarter sessions--treason, murder, forgery, bigamy, &c. (see
+QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF). The corresponding court in a borough is
+presided over by a recorder. (3) The more serious offences are reserved
+for the judges of the superior courts sitting under a commission of oyer
+and terminer or gaol delivery for each county. The assize courts, as
+they are called, sit in general in each county twice a year, following
+the division of circuits; but additional assizes are also held under
+acts of 1876 and 1877, which permit several counties to be united
+together for that purpose (see CIRCUIT). London, which occupies an
+exceptional position in all matters of judicature, has a high criminal
+court of its own, established by the Central Criminal Court Act 1834,
+under the name of the central criminal court. Its judges usually present
+are a rota selected from the superior judges of common law, the
+recorder, common serjeant, and the judge of the City of London court.[2]
+The criminal appeal court, to which all persons convicted on indictment
+may appeal, superseded in 1908 (by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907) the
+court for crown cases reserved, to which any question of law arising on
+the trial of a prisoner could after conviction be remitted by the judge
+in his discretion. To the criminal appeal court there is an appeal both
+on questions of fact and of law (see APPEAL).
+
+_Civil Courts._--In certain special cases, civil claims of small
+importance may be brought before justices or stipendiaries. Otherwise,
+and excepting the special and peculiar jurisdictions above mentioned,
+the civil business of England and Wales may be said to be divided
+between the county courts (taking small cases) and the High Court of
+Justice (taking all others).
+
+The effect of the Judicature Acts on the constitution of the superior
+courts may be briefly stated. There is now one Supreme Court of
+Judicature, consisting of two permanent divisions called the High Court
+of Justice and the court of appeal. The former takes the jurisdiction of
+the court of chancery, the three common law courts, the courts of
+admiralty, probate, and divorce, the courts of pleas at Lancaster and
+Durham, and the courts created by commissions of assize, oyer and
+terminer, and gaol delivery. The latter takes the jurisdiction of the
+court of appeal in chancery (including chancery of Lancaster), the court
+of the lord warden of the stannaries, and of the exchequer chamber, and
+the appellate jurisdiction in admiralty and heresy matters of the
+judicial committee; and power is given to the sovereign to transfer the
+remaining jurisdiction of that court to the court of appeal. By the
+Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1876 the House of Lords is enabled to sit
+for the hearing of appeals from the English court of appeal and the
+Scottish and Irish courts during the prorogation and dissolution of
+parliament. The lords of appeal, of whom three must be present, are the
+lord chancellor, the lords of appeal in ordinary, and peers who have
+held "high judicial office" in Great Britain or Ireland. The lords in
+ordinary are an innovation in the constitution of the House. They hold
+the rank of baron for life only, have a right to sit and vote in the
+House during tenure of office only, and a salary of £6000 per annum.
+
+There are also many obsolete or decayed courts, of which the most
+noticeable are dealt with under their individual headings, as COURT
+BARON, COURT LEET, &c.
+
+The history of English courts affords a remarkable illustration of the
+continuity that characterizes English institutions. It might perhaps be
+too much to say that all the courts now sitting in England may be traced
+back to a common origin, but at any rate the higher courts are all
+offshoots from the same original judicature. Leaving out of account the
+local courts, we find the higher jurisdiction after the Norman Conquest
+concentrated along with all other public functions in the king and
+council. The first sign of a separation of the judicial from the other
+powers of this body is found in the recognition of a Curia Regis, which
+may be described as the king's council, or a portion of it, charged
+specially with the management of judicial and revenue business. In
+relation to the revenue it became the exchequer, under which name a
+separate court grew up whose special field was the judicial business
+arising out of revenue cases. By Magna Carta the inconvenience caused by
+the curia following the king's person was remedied, in so far as private
+litigation was concerned, by the order that common pleas (Communia
+Placita) should be held at some fixed place; and hence arose the court
+of common pleas. The Curia Regis, after having thrown off these
+branches, is represented by the king's bench, so that from the same
+stock we have now three courts, differing at first in functions, but
+through competition for business, and the ingenious use of fictions,
+becoming finally the co-ordinate courts of common law of later history.
+But an inner circle of counsellors still surrounded the king, and in his
+name claimed to exercise judicial as well as other power; hence the
+chancellor's jurisdiction, which became, partly in harmony with the
+supra-legal power claimed from which it sprang, and partly through the
+influence of the ecclesiastical chancellors by whom it was first
+administered, the equity of English law. Similar developments of the
+same authority were the court of requests (which was destroyed by a
+decision of the common pleas) and the court of star chamber--a court of
+criminal equity, as it has been called,--which, having been made the
+instrument of tyranny, was abolished in 1641. Even then the productive
+power of the council was not exhausted; the judicial committee of the
+privy council, established in 1832, superseding the previous court of
+delegates, exercises the jurisdiction in appeal belonging to the king in
+council. The appellate jurisdiction of the Lords rests on their claim to
+be the representatives of the ancient great council of the realm.
+
+  See further ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF; APPEAL; CHANCERY; COMMON LAW;
+  COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF; DIVORCE; EQUITY; &c.
+
+_United States._--The Federal judicial system of the United States is
+made by the Constitution independent both of the Legislature and of the
+Executive. It consists of the Supreme Court, the circuit courts, and the
+district courts.
+
+The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, and consisted in 1909
+of nine judges, who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the
+Senate. They hold office during good behaviour, i.e. are removable only
+by impeachment, thus having a tenure even more secure than that of
+English judges. The court sits at Washington from October to July in
+every year. The sessions of the court are held in the Capitol. A rule
+requiring the presence of six judges to pronounce a decision prevents
+the division of the court into two or more benches; and while this
+secures a thorough consideration of every case, it also retards the
+despatch of business. Every case is discussed twice by the whole body,
+once to ascertain the view of the majority, which is then directed to be
+set forth in a written opinion; then again, when the written opinion,
+prepared by one of the judges, is submitted for criticism and adoption
+by the court as its judgment.
+
+The other Federal courts have been created by Congress under a power in
+the Constitution to establish "inferior courts." The circuit courts
+consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting in nine judicial circuits,
+while to each circuit there is also allotted one of the justices of the
+Supreme Court. Circuit courts of appeals, established to relieve the
+Supreme Court, consist of three judges (two forming a quorum), and are
+made up of the circuit and district judges of each circuit and the
+Supreme Court justice assigned to the circuit. Some cases may, however,
+be appealed to the Supreme Court from the circuit court of appeals, and
+others directly from the lower courts. The district courts number (1909)
+ninety, in most cases having a single justice. There is also a special
+tribunal called the court of claims, which deals with the claims of
+private persons against the Federal government. It is not strictly a
+part of the general judicial system, but is a creation of Congress
+designed to relieve that body of a part of its own labours.
+
+The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those cases in
+which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable. All other cases are
+left to the state courts, from which there is no appeal to the Federal
+courts, unless where some specific point arises which is affected by the
+Federal Constitution or a Federal law. The classes of cases dealt with
+by the Federal courts are as follows:--
+
+1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws of
+the United States, and treaties made under their authority;
+
+2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;
+
+3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;
+
+4. Controversies to which the United States shall be a party;
+
+5. Controversies between two or more states, between a state and
+citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, between
+citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different
+states, and between a state or the citizens thereof and foreign states,
+citizens or subjects (_Const._, Art. III., § 2). Part of this
+jurisdiction has, however, been withdrawn by the eleventh Amendment to
+the Constitution, which declares that "the judicial power of the United
+States shall not be construed to extend to any suit commenced or
+prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another
+state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state."
+
+The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases affecting
+ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in other cases it is
+appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the Federal courts is
+exclusive; in others it is concurrent with that of the state courts.
+
+As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts in which
+questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been made whereby due
+respect for the latter is secured by giving the party to a suit who
+relies upon Federal law, and whose contention is overruled by a state
+court, the right of having the suit removed to a Federal court. The
+Judiciary Act of 1789 (as amended by subsequent legislation) provides
+for the removal to the Supreme Court of the United States of "a final
+judgment or decree in any suit rendered in the highest court of a state
+in which a decision could be had, where is drawn in question the
+validity of a treaty or statute of, or an authority exercised under the
+United States, and the decision is against their validity; or where is
+drawn in question the validity of a statute of, or an authority
+exercised under, any state, on the ground of their being repugnant to
+the Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the
+decision is in favour of their validity; or where any title, right,
+privilege or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, or any treaty
+or statute of, or commission held, or authority exercised under the
+United States, and the decision is against the title, right, privilege
+or immunity specially set up or claimed by either party under such
+Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or authority." If the decision
+of the state court is in favour of the right claimed under Federal law
+or against the validity or applicability of the state law set up, there
+is no ground for removal, because the applicability or authority of
+Federal law in the particular case could receive no further protection
+from a Federal court than has in fact been given by the state court.
+
+The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring statutes of
+Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the Executive) to be
+invalid because inconsistent with the Federal Constitution, has been
+deemed by many Europeans a peculiar and striking feature of the American
+system. There is, however, nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the
+Federal Constitution, which emanates directly from the people, is the
+supreme law of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any lower
+authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legislature), which
+contravenes the Constitution, must necessarily be invalid in point of
+law, just as in the United Kingdom a railway by-law which contravened an
+act of parliament would be invalid. Now, the functions of judicial
+tribunals--of all courts alike, whether Federal or state, whether
+superior or inferior--is to interpret the law, and if any tribunal finds
+a Congressional statute or state statute inconsistent with the
+Constitution, the tribunal is obliged to hold such statute invalid. A
+tribunal does this not because it has any right or power of its own in
+the matter, but because the people have, in enacting the Constitution as
+a supreme law, declared that all other laws inconsistent with it are
+_ipso jure_ void. When a tribunal has ascertained that an inferior law
+is thus inconsistent, that inferior law is therewith, so far as
+inconsistent, to be deemed void. The tribunal does not enter any
+conflict with the Legislature or Executive. All it does is to declare
+that a conflict exists between two laws of different degrees of
+authority, whence it necessarily follows that the weaker law is extinct.
+This duty of interpretation belongs to all tribunals, but as
+constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower court, usually
+carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have grown accustomed to
+talk of the Supreme Court as in a special sense the guardian of the
+Constitution.
+
+The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any constitutional
+question unless or until that question is brought before them in the
+form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the Supreme Court is only a judgment on
+the particular case before it, and does not prevent a similar question
+being raised again in another lawsuit, though of course this seldom
+happens, because it may be assumed that the court will adhere to its
+former opinion. There have, however, been instances in which the court
+has virtually changed its view on a constitutional question, and it is
+understood to be entitled so to do.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. the German _Hof_ for court-yard, court of law, and royal
+    court.
+
+  [2] The sittings are held in the court-house in the Old Bailey. The
+    old sessions house was destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780. The
+    building erected in its place, although enlarged from time to time,
+    was very incommodious, and a new structure, occupying the site of
+    Newgate Prison, which was pulled down for the purpose, was completed
+    in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+COURT BARON, an English manorial court dating from the middle ages and
+still in existence. It was laid down by Coke that a manor had two
+courts, "the first by the common law, and is called a court baron," the
+freeholders ("barons") being its suitors; the other a customary court
+for the copyholders. Stubbs adopted this explanation, but the latest
+learning, expounded by Professor Maitland, holds that court baron means
+_curia baronis_, "_la court de seigneur_," and that there is no evidence
+for there being more than one court. The old view that at least two
+freeholders were required for its composition is also now discarded.
+Prof. Maitland's conclusion is that the "court baron" was not even
+differentiated from the "court-leet" at the close of the 13th century,
+but that there was a distinction of jurisdictional rights, some courts
+having only feudal rights, while others had regalities as well. When the
+court-leet was differentiated, the court baron remained with feudal
+rights alone. These rights he was disposed to trace to a lord's
+jurisdiction over his men rather than to his possession of the manor,
+although in practice, from an early date, the court was associated with
+the manor. Its chief business was to administer the "custom of the
+manor" and to admit fresh tenants who had acquired copyholds by
+inheritance or purchase, and had to pay, on so doing, a "fine" to the
+lord of the manor. It is mainly for the latter purpose that the court is
+now kept. It is normally presided over by the steward of the lord of the
+manor, who is a lawyer, and its proceedings are recorded on "the court
+rolls," of which the older ones are now valuable for genealogical as
+well as for legal purposes.
+
+  See _Select Pleas in Manorial and other Seignorial Courts_, vol. i.,
+  and _The Court Baron_ (Selden Society).     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE (1728-1784), French scholar, son of Antoine
+Court (q.v.), was born at Nîmes in 1728. He received a good education,
+and became, like his father, a pastor of the Reformed Church. This
+office, however, he soon relinquished, to devote himself entirely to
+literary work. He had conceived the project of a work which should set
+in a new light the phenomena, especially the languages and mythologies,
+of the ancient world; and, after his father's death, he went to Paris in
+order to be near the necessary books. After long years of research, he
+published in 1775 the first volume of his vast undertaking under the
+title of _Le Monde primitif, analysé et comparé avec le monde moderne_.
+The ninth volume appeared in 1784, leaving the work still unfinished.
+The literary world marvelled at the encyclopaedic learning displayed by
+the author, and supposed that the French Academy, or some other society
+of scholars, must have combined their powers in its production. Now,
+however, the world has well-nigh forgotten the huge quartos. These
+learned labours did not prevent Gebelin from pleading earnestly the
+cause of religious tolerance. In 1760 he published a work entitled _Les
+Toulousaines_, advocating the rights of the Protestants; and he
+afterwards established at Paris an agency for collecting information as
+to their sufferings, and for exciting general interest in their cause.
+He co-operated with Franklin and others in the periodical work entitled
+_Affaires de l'Angleterre et de l'Amérique_ (1776, sqq.), which was
+devoted to the support of American independence. He was also a supporter
+of the principles of the economists, and Quesnay called him his
+well-beloved disciple. In the last year of his life he became acquainted
+with Mesmer, and published a _Lettre sur le magnétisme animal_. He was
+imposed upon by speculators in whom he placed confidence, and was
+reduced to destitution by the failure of a scheme in which they engaged
+him. He died at Paris on the 10th of May 1784.
+
+  See _La France protestante_, by the brothers Haag, tome iv.; Charles
+  Dardier, _Court de Gebelin_ (Nîmes, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+COURTENAY, the name of a famous English family. French genealogists head
+the pedigree of this family with one Athon or Athos, who is said to have
+fortified Courtenay in Gâtinois about the year 1010. His son Josselin
+had, with other issue, Miles, lord of Courtenay, founder of the
+Cistercian abbey of Fontaine-Jean. By his wife Ermengarde, daughter of
+Renaud, count of Nevers, Miles left a son Renaud, one of the magnates
+who followed Louis le Jeune to the Holy Land. This was the last lord of
+Courtenay of the line of Athon. Elizabeth, his elder daughter--a younger
+daughter died without issue,--carried Courtenay and other lordships to
+her husband Pierre, seventh and youngest son of the French king Louis
+VI. the Fat, the marriage taking place about 1150, and the many
+descendants of this royal match bore the surname of Courtenay.
+
+Pierre, the eldest son, was founder of a short-lived dynasty of emperors
+of Constantinople, which ended in 1261 when Baldwin (Baudouin), last of
+the Frankish emperors, fled before Michael Palaeologus from a capital in
+flames. Baldwin's son Philip, however, bore the empty title, and his
+granddaughter Catherine, wife of Charles, count of Valois, was titular
+empress. Other lines of the royal Courtenays, sprung from Pierre of
+France, were lords of Champignolles, Tanlai, Yerre, Bleneau, La Ferté
+Loupière and Chevillon. On the death of Gaspard, sieur de Bleneau, in
+1655, his cousin Louis de Courtenay, comte de Cési (_jure uxoris_) and
+sieur de Chevillon, had Bleneau, and reckoned himself the surviving
+chief of his house. He styled himself Prince de Courtenay and his family
+made attempts to obtain recognition for their royal blood. But their
+laboriously constructed genealogies availed nothing to this impoverished
+race. The last "Prince de Courtenay," an ex-captain of dragoons, died in
+1730; his uncle Roger de Courtenay, abbé des Eschalis, who died in 1733,
+was the last recognized member of the line of Pierre of France.
+
+A younger branch of the first house of Courtenay came from Josselin,
+second son of Josselin, son of Athon. This Josselin, a notable crusader,
+went to the Holy Land with the count of Blois, and held by the sword for
+eleven years the county of Edessa, given him by his cousin King Baldwin
+II. Edessa was won back by the infidel from his son Josselin, who died a
+prisoner in Aleppo in 1147. A grandson, also a Josselin, was seneschal
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+
+In England a house of Courtenay has flourished with varying fortunes
+since the reign of the first Angevin king. The monks of Ford, to whom
+they were benefactors, complacently set down their patrons as the
+offspring of the royal Courtenays, of whose origin they had some dim
+knowledge, deriving them from "Florus," son of Louis the Fat. A
+comparison of dates destroys the story. But they were, doubtless,
+Courtenays of the stock of Athon. Josselin, the first count of Edessa,
+has been suggested by modern writers as their founder, but the name
+Reinaud, borne by the first known ancestor of the English house,
+suggests that they may have sprung from a younger son of Josselin I. of
+Courtenay by his marriage about 1095 with Ermengarde, daughter of
+Reinaud, count of Nevers. It is also notable that the English Courtenays
+have, from the first introduction of armorial bearings, borne with
+various differences the three red roundels in a golden field, the arms
+of the Courtenays in France, the shield of the earls of Devonshire being
+identical with that of the lords of La Ferté Loupière.
+
+Several Courtenays whose kinship cannot be exactly ascertained, appear
+in English records of the 12th century. One of them, Robert de
+Courtenay, married the daughter and heir of Reynold fitz Urse, the
+leader of the murderers of Archbishop Thomas Becket. His son, William, a
+Shropshire baron, held the castle of Montgomery, as heir by his mother
+of Baldwin de Buslers, or Bollers, to whom Henry I. had given it with
+his "niece" Sibil de Falaise. This William married Ada of Dunbar,
+daughter of Patrick, earl of Dunbar, but died in the reign of King John,
+without issue.
+
+Reinaud de Courtenay, ancestor of the main English line, may well have
+been a brother of the Robert above named. The English pedigrees confuse
+him with his son of the same name. He was a favourite with Henry II.,
+his attestations of charters showing him as a constant companion at home
+and abroad of the king, whom he followed to Wexford in the Irish
+expedition of 1172. Henry gave him Berkshire lands at Sutton, still
+known as Sutton Courtenay, by a charter to which the date of 1161 can be
+assigned. In England he had to wife Maude, daughter of Robert fitz Roy
+by Maude of Avranches, the elder Maude being the heir of the house of
+Brionne. By her, who survived him, dying before January 1224, he had no
+issue, but by a wife who may have died before his coming to England he
+had, with other issue, Robert and Reinaud. Robert, who succeeded to
+Sutton about 1192, was husband of Alice de Rumeli, widow of Gilbert
+Pipard, and one of the three sisters and co-heirs of William, the boy of
+Egremond, of whose drowning in the Strid Wordsworth has made a ballad.
+Robert died childless in 1209. Of his brother Reinaud or Reynold de
+Courtenay little is known, save that he was a married man in 1178 when
+he and his wife Hawise were given by the pope a licence to have a free
+chapel at Okehampton. This wife, Hawise de Ayencourt, was, with Maude
+his father's second wife, a daughter and co-heir of Maude of Avranches,
+her father being the lord of Ayencourt, first husband of the last named
+Maude. Her great inheritance included the honour of Okehampton in
+Devonshire of which, as a widow, she had livery about 1205. Her son,
+Robert de Courtenay, succeeded to her land in 1219, having been his
+uncle Robert's heir in Sutton ten years before. Like his father he
+advanced his house by a great marriage, his wife being Mary, the younger
+daughter of William de Vernon, earl of Devon and of the Isle of Wight.
+He was succeeded in 1242 by his son John, who by Isabel, a daughter of
+Hugh de Vere, earl of Oxford, has issue Hugh, whose wife was Eleanor,
+daughter of the earl of Winchester, elder of the two favourites of
+Edward II. The son of this marriage, another Hugh, followed his father
+at Okehampton in 1291. Two years later died Isabel, surviving sister and
+heir of Baldwin de Reviers, earl of Devon, and widow of William de Forz,
+last earl of Aumerle (Albemarle). On her death-bed she had granted her
+lordship of the Wight to the king, but her cousin Hugh de Courtenay
+succeeded her in the unalienated estates of the house of Reviers. He was
+summoned as a baron on the 6th of February 1298/9, and in 1300 he
+displayed his banner before the castle of Caerlaverock. Claiming the
+"third penny" of the county of Devon, he was refused by the exchequer as
+he did not claim in the name of an earl. Following, however, a writ of
+inquiry, a patent of the 22nd of February 1334/5 declared him earl of
+Devon and qualified to take such style as his ancestors, earls of Devon,
+were wont to take. Hugh, his son, the second earl, a warrior who drove
+the French back from their descent on Cornwall in 1339, made another of
+the brilliant marriages of this family, his wife being Eleanor, daughter
+of Humfrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford and Essex, by Elizabeth daughter
+of Edward I. Their eldest son, Sir Hugh de Courtenay, shared in the
+honours of Crécy and Calais, and was one of the knights founders of the
+order of the Garter, the stall-plate of his arms being yet in St
+George's chapel at Windsor. This knight died in the lifetime of the
+earl, as did his only son Hugh, summoned as a baron on the 3rd of
+January 1370/1, a companion at Najara of the Black Prince, whose
+step-daughter Maude of Holland he had married. The earl was therefore
+succeeded by his grandson Edward (son of Edward his third son), earl
+marshal of England in 1385, who died blind in 1419, the year after the
+death of Sir Edward his heir apparent, one of the conquerors at
+Agincourt. Hugh, a second son of Earl Edward, succeeded as fourth earl
+of the Courtenay line. By his wife, a sister of the renowned Talbot,
+earl of Shrewsbury, he had issue Thomas the fifth earl, a partisan of
+Henry VI., whose wife was Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John, earl of
+Somerset. The effigy of this grandaughter of John of Gaunt, with the
+shields of Courtenay and Beaufort above it, is in Colyton church. It is
+less than life size, a fact which has given rise to a village legend
+that it represents "Little choke-a-bone," an infant daughter of the
+tenth earl, who died "choked by a fish bone." In spite of the evidence
+of the shields and the 15th century dress of the effigy, the legend has
+now been strengthened by an inscription upon a brass plate, and in the
+year 1907 ignorance engaged a monumental sculptor to deface the effigy
+by giving its broken features the newly carved face of a young child.
+Both sons of this marriage fell in the Wars of the Roses, Thomas the
+sixth earl being taken at Towton by the Yorkists and beheaded at York in
+1462, his younger brother Henry having the same fate at Salisbury in
+1466.
+
+The earldom being extinguished by attainder, Sir Humphrey Stafford was
+created earl of Devon in 1469, but in the same year, having retired with
+his men from the expedition against Robin of Redesdale, another earl of
+Devon suffered at the headsman's hands, his patent being afterwards
+annulled by a statute of Henry VII. On the restoration of Henry VI. John
+Courtenay, only surviving brother of Thomas and Henry, was restored to
+the earldom by the reversal of attainder. He, too, died in the
+Lancastrian cause, being killed on the 4th of May 1471 at Tewkesbury,
+where he led the rear of the host. The representation of the Reviers
+earls and of the Courtenay barony fell then to his sisters and their
+descendants. Beside him at Tewkesbury died his cousin Sir Hugh Courtenay
+of Boconnoc, son of Hugh, a younger brother of the blind earl, leaving a
+son Edward, who thus became the heir male of the house though not its
+heir general. Joining in the cause which had cost so many of his kinsmen
+their lives, he and his brother Walter shared the duke of Buckingham's
+rising. On its failure they fled into France to the earl of Richmond,
+beside whom Sir Edward fought at Bosworth. By a patent of the 26th of
+October 1485 he was created earl of Devon with remainder to the heirs
+male of his body, and by an act of 1485 he was restored to all honours
+lost in his attainder by the Yorkist parliament. He defended Exeter
+against Warbeck's rebels and was a knight of the Garter in 1489, dying
+twenty years later, when the earldom became again forfeit by his son's
+attainder. That son, William Courtenay, had drawn the jealousy of Henry
+VII. by a marriage with Catherine, sister of the queen and daughter of
+King Edward IV., the Yorkist sovereign whose hand had been so heavy on
+the Courtenays. After the queen's death, Henry sent his wife's
+brother-in-law to the Tower on a charge of corresponding with Edmund
+Pole, an attainder following. But on the accession of Henry VIII., the
+young king released his uncle, who although styled an earl was not fully
+restored in blood at his death in 1511. His son Henry Courtenay obtained
+from parliament in December 1512 a reversal of his father's attainder,
+thus succeeding to the earldom of his grandfather. At the Field of Cloth
+of Gold he ran a course with the king of France. He was knight of the
+Garter and on the 15th of June 1525 had a patent as marquess of Exeter.
+Profiting by the suppression of the monasteries he increased his estate,
+his power being all but supreme in the west country. But Cromwell was
+his enemy and the royal strain in his blood was a dangerous thing.
+Involved in correspondence with Cardinal Pole, he was sent to the Tower
+with his wife and his young son, and on the 9th of December 1538 he was
+beheaded as a traitor. The misfortunes of the house were heavy upon the
+son, who at twelve years old was a prisoner for the sake of his high
+descent. His honours had been forfeited, and release did not come until
+the accession of Queen Mary, who took him into favour. Noailles the
+ambassador found him _le plus beau et le plus agréable gentilhomme
+d'Angleterre_, and he had some hopes of becoming king consort. The queen
+created him earl of Devonshire by a patent of the 3rd of September 1553
+and in the next month he was restored in blood. But, disappointed in his
+hopes, he formed some wild plans for marrying the Lady Elizabeth and
+making her queen. He could raise Devon and Cornwall. Wyat did raise
+Kent, but the plot was soon crushed. The earl was sent back to the Tower
+and thence to Fotheringhay. At Easter of 1555 he was released on parole
+and exiled, dying suddenly at Padua in 1556. His co-heirs were the
+descendants of the four sisters of Earl Edward (d. 1519), the wives of
+four Cornish squires, and with him was extinguished, to the belief of
+all men, the Courtenays' earldom of Devon. His heir male was Sir William
+Courtenay, his sixth cousin once removed, head of a knightly line of
+Courtenays whose seat was Powderham Castle, a line which, during the
+civil wars, stood for the White Rose. Sir William, who is said to have
+been killed at St Quintin in 1557, was succeeded by his son, another Sir
+William, one of the undertakers for the settling of Ireland, where the
+family obtained great estates. William Courtenay of Powderham, of whose
+marriage with the daughter of Sir William Waller (the parliament's
+general) it is remarked that the years of bride and bridegroom added
+together were less than thirty when their first child was born, was
+created a baronet by writ of privy seal in February 1644, the patent
+being never enrolled. His great grandson, Sir William Courtenay, many
+years a member of parliament, was on the 6th of May 1762, ten days
+before his death, created Viscount Courtenay of Powderham Castle.
+
+Since the death at Padua in 1556 of Edward, earl of Devon, that ancient
+title had been twice revived. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, who was
+created earl of Devon in 1603, died without lawful issue in 1606. In
+1618 Sir William Cavendish, son of the famous Bess of Hardwick, was
+given the same title, which is still among the peerage honours of the
+ducal house descending from him. For the Courtenays, who had without
+protest accepted a baronetcy and a viscounty, their earldom was dead. In
+the reign of William IV., the third and last Viscount Courtenay was
+living unmarried in Paris, an exile who for sufficient reasons was
+keeping out of the reach of the English criminal law. In the name of
+this man, his presumptive heir male, William Courtenay, clerk assistant
+of the parliament, succeeded in persuading the House of Lords that the
+Courtenay earldom under the patent of 1553 was still in existence, the
+plea being that the terms of the remainder--to him and his heirs male
+for ever--did not limit the succession to heirs male of the body of the
+grantee. Five other cases wherein the words _de corpore suo_ had been
+omitted from the patent are known to peerage lawyers. In no case had a
+peerage before been claimed by collateral heirs male. "I have often
+rallied Brougham," writes Lord Campbell, "upon his creating William
+Courtenay earl of Devon. He says he consulted Chief Justice Tenterden.
+But Tenterden knew nothing of peerage law." After the death of the exile
+in 1835 the clerk of the parliament succeeded him as an earl by force of
+the House of Lords decision of the 15th of March 1831. His second son,
+the Rev. Henry Hugh Courtenay (1811-1904), succeeded, as 13th earl, a
+nephew whose extravagance had impoverished the estates. He in turn was
+followed, as 14th earl, by his grandson Charles Pepys Courtenay (b.
+1870).
+
+No other recognized branch of this house, once so widely spread in the
+western counties, is now among the landed houses of England. Among its
+cadets were many famous warriors, but three prelates must be reckoned as
+the most eminent of the Courtenays. William, a younger son of the match
+of Courtenay and Bohun, was bishop of Hereford in 1370, bishop of London
+in 1375 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. Proceeding against
+Wycliffe he opposed John of Gaunt, who, taunting him with his trust in
+his great kinsfolk, threatened to drag him out of St Paul's by his hair,
+a threat which roused the angry Londoners in his defence. He died in
+1396 and lies buried at the feet of the Black Prince in his cathedral of
+Canterbury. By his will he left his best mitre to his nephew Richard
+Courtenay--son and pupil, as he styles him--against the time he should
+be a bishop. This Richard, a friend of Henry V. when prince, and
+treasurer of his household, was bishop of Norwich in 1413. Twice
+chancellor of Oxford, he repelled Archbishop Arundel and all his train
+when that primate would have had a visitation of the university,
+although the claim of the university to independence was at last broken
+down. Tall of stature, eloquent and learned, he kept the favour of the
+king, who was with him when he died of dysentery in the host before
+Harfleur. Heir of this bishop was his nephew Sir Philip of Powderham,
+whose younger son Peter Courtenay was the third of the Courtenay
+prelates, being bishop of Exeter from 1478 to 1487, when he was
+translated to Winchester. Although of the Yorkist Courtenays, he was of
+Buckingham's party and, being attainted by Richard III. for joining with
+certain of his kinsfolk in an attempt to raise the west, he escaped to
+Brittany, whence he returned with the first Tudor sovereign, who had him
+in high favour. A fourth prelate of this family was Henry Reginald
+Courtenay, who was bishop of Bristol 1794-1797 and bishop of Exeter from
+1797 to his death in 1803.
+
+  See charter, patent, close, fine and plea rolls, inquests _post
+  mortem_ and other records. G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_; _Dictionary
+  of National Biography_; _Notes and Queries_, series viii. vol. 7; J.
+  H. Round's _Peerage Studies_; _Calendars of State Papers_; Machyn's
+  _Diary_ (Camden Society); Chronicles of Capgrave, Wavrin, Adam of Usk,
+  &c.     (O. BA.)
+
+
+
+
+COURTENAY, RICHARD (d. 1415), English prelate, was a son of Sir Philip
+Courtenay of Powderham Castle, near Exeter, and a grandson of Hugh
+Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377). He was a nephew of William
+Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, and a descendant of Edward I.
+Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, he entered the church, where his
+advance was rapid. He held several prebends, was dean of St Asaph and
+then dean of Wells, and became bishop of Norwich in 1413. As chancellor
+of the university of Oxford, an office to which he was elected in 1407
+and again in 1410, Courtenay asserted the independence of the university
+against Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1411; but the
+archbishop, supported by Henry IV. and Pope John XXIII, eventually
+triumphed. Courtenay was a personal friend of Henry V. both before and
+after he came to the throne; and in 1413, immediately after Henry's
+accession, he was made treasurer of the royal household. On two
+occasions he went on diplomatic errands to France, and he was also
+employed by Henry on public business at home. Having accompanied the
+king to Harfleur in August 1415, Courtenay was attacked by dysentery and
+died on the 15th of September 1415, his body being buried in Westminster
+Abbey.
+
+Another member of this family, PETER COURTENAY (d. 1492), a grandnephew
+of Richard, also attained high position in the English Church. Educated
+at Exeter College, Oxford, Peter became dean of Windsor, then dean of
+Exeter; in 1478 bishop of Exeter; and in 1487 bishop of Winchester in
+succession to William of Waynflete. With Henry Stafford, duke of
+Buckingham, and others he attempted to raise a rebellion against Richard
+III. in 1483, and fled to Brittany when this enterprise failed.
+Courtenay was restored to his dignities and estates in 1485 by Henry
+VII., whom he had accompanied to England, and he died on the 23rd of
+September 1492.
+
+  See J. H. Wylie, _History of England under Henry IV_. (London,
+  1884-1898).
+
+
+
+
+COURTENAY, WILLIAM (c. 1342-1396), English prelate, was a younger son of
+Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377), and through his mother
+Margaret, daughter of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, was a
+great-grandson of Edward I. Being a native of the west of England he was
+educated at Stapledon Hall, Oxford, and after graduating in law was
+chosen chancellor of the university in 1367. Courtenay's ecclesiastical
+and political career began about the same time. Having been made
+prebendary of Exeter, of Wells and of York, he was consecrated bishop of
+Hereford in 1370, was translated to the see of London in 1375, and
+became archbishop of Canterbury in 1381, succeeding Simon of Sudbury in
+both these latter positions. As a politician the period of his activity
+coincides with the years of Edward III.'s dotage, and with practically
+the whole of Richard II.'s reign. From the first he ranged himself among
+the opponents of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; he was a firm
+upholder of the rights of the English Church, and was always eager to
+root out Lollardry. In 1373 he declared in convocation that he would not
+contribute to a subsidy until the evils from which the church suffered
+were removed; in 1375 he incurred the displeasure of the king by
+publishing a papal bull against the Florentines; and in 1377 his decided
+action during the quarrel between John of Gaunt and William of Wykeham
+ended in a temporary triumph for the bishop. Wycliffe was another cause
+of difference between Lancaster and Courtenay. In 1377 the reformer
+appeared before Archbishop Sudbury and Courtenay, when an altercation
+between the duke and the bishop led to the dispersal of the court, and
+during the ensuing riot Lancaster probably owed his safety to the good
+offices of his foe. Having meanwhile become archbishop of Canterbury
+Courtenay summoned a council, or synod, in London, which condemned the
+opinions of Wycliffe; he then attacked the Lollards at Oxford, and urged
+the bishops to imprison heretics. He was for a short time chancellor of
+England during 1381, and in January 1382 he officiated at the marriage
+of Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia, afterwards crowning the queen. In
+1382 the archbishop's visitation led to disputes with the bishops of
+Exeter and Salisbury, and Courtenay was only partially able to enforce
+the payment of a special tax to meet his expenses on this occasion.
+During his concluding years the archbishop appears to have upheld the
+papal authority in England, although not to the injury of the English
+Church. He protested against the confirmation of the statute of
+provisors in 1390, and he was successful in slightly modifying the
+statute of praemunire in 1393. Disliking the extravagance of Richard II.
+he publicly reproved the king, and after an angry scene the royal
+threats drove him for a time into Devonshire. In 1386 he was one of the
+commissioners appointed to reform the kingdom and the royal household,
+and in 1387 he arranged a peace between Richard and his enemies under
+Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester. Courtenay died at Maidstone on
+the 31st of July 1396, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.
+
+  See W. F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv.
+  (London, 1860-1876); and W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vols.
+  ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895-1896).
+
+
+
+
+COURTESY (O. Fr. _curtesie_, later _courtoisie_), manners or behaviour
+that suit a court, politeness, due consideration for others. A special
+application of the word is in the expression "by courtesy," where
+something is granted out of favour and not of right, hence "courtesy"
+titles, i.e. those titles of rank which are given by custom to the
+eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls, usually the second title
+held by the father; to the younger sons and to the daughters of dukes
+and marquesses, viz. the prefix "lord" and "lady" with the Christian and
+surname. For "tenure by the courtesy" see CURTESY. Another form of the
+word, "curtsey" or "curtsy," was early confined to the expression of
+courtesy or respect by a gesture or bow, now only of the reverence made
+by a woman, consisting in a bending of the knees accompanied by a
+lowering of the body.
+
+
+
+
+COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN (1842-   ), English writer and historian of
+poetry, whose father was rector of South Malling, Essex, was born on the
+17th of July 1842. From Harrow school he went to New College, Oxford;
+took first-classes in classical "moderations" and "greats"; and won the
+Newdigate prize for poetry (1864) and the Chancellor's English essay
+(1868). He seemed destined for distinction as a poet, his volume of
+_Ludibria Lunae_ (1869) being followed in 1870 by the remarkably fine
+_Paradise of Birds_. But a certain academic quality of mind seemed to
+check his output in verse and divert it into the field of criticism.
+Apart from many contributions to the higher journalism, his literary
+career is associated mainly with his continuation of the edition of
+Pope's works, begun by Whitwell Elwin (1816-1900), which appeared in ten
+volumes from 1871-1889; his life of Addison (Men of Letters series,
+1882); his _Liberal Movement in English Literature_ (1885); and his
+tenure of the professorship of Poetry at Oxford (1895-1901), which
+resulted in his elaborate _History of English Poetry_ (the first volume
+appearing in 1895), and his _Life in Poetry_ (1901). He deals with the
+history of English poetry as a whole, and in its unity as a result of
+the national spirit and thought in succeeding ages, and attempts to
+bring the great poets into relation with this. In 1887 he was appointed
+a civil service commissioner, being first commissioner in 1892, and
+being made a C.B. He was made an honorary fellow of his old college at
+Oxford in 1896, and was given the honorary degrees of D.Litt. by Durham
+in 1895 and of LL.D. by Edinburgh University in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+COURT LEET, an English petty criminal court for the punishment of small
+offences. It has been usual to make a distinction between court baron
+and court leet[1] as being separate courts, but in the early history of
+the court leet no such distinction can be drawn. At a very early time
+the lords of manors exercised or claimed certain jurisdictional
+franchises. Of these the most important was the "view of frankpledge"
+and its attendant police jurisdiction. Some time in the later middle
+ages the court baron when exercising these powers gained the name of
+_leet_, and, later, of "court leet." The _quo warranto_ proceedings of
+Edward I. established a sharp distinction between the court baron,
+exercising strictly manorial rights, and the court leet, depending for
+its jurisdiction upon royal franchise. The court leet was a court of
+record, and its duty was not only to view the pledges but to present by
+jury all crimes that might happen within the jurisdiction, and punish
+the same. The steward of the court acted as judge, presiding wholly in a
+judicial character, the ministerial acts being executed by the bailiff.
+The court leet began to decline in the 14th century, being superseded by
+the more modern courts of the justices, but in many cases courts leet
+were kept up until nearly the middle of the 19th century. Indeed, it
+cannot be said that they are now actually extinct, as many still survive
+for formal purposes, and by s. 40 of the Sheriffs Act 1887 they are
+expressly kept up.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The history of the word "leet" is very obscure. It appears in
+    Anglo-French documents as _lete_ and in Anglo-Latin as _leta_.
+    Professor W. W. Skeat has connected it with Old English _láetan_, to
+    let, which is very doubtful, though this is the origin of the use of
+    the word in such expressions as "two-" "three-way leet," a place
+    where cross-roads meet. The _New English Dictionary_ suggests a
+    connexion with "lathe," a term which survives as a division of the
+    county of Kent, containing several "hundreds." This is of Old
+    Norwegian origin, and seems to have meant "landed possessions." There
+    is also another Old Norwegian _léith_, a court or judicial assembly,
+    and modern Danish has _laegd_, a division of the country for military
+    purposes. J. H. Round (_Feudal England_, p. 101) points out that the
+    Suffolk hundred was divided for assessment into equal blocks called
+    "leets" (see further F. W. Maitland, _Select Pleas in Manorial
+    Courts_, Selden Soc. Publications I. lxxiii-lxxvi). "Leet" is also
+    used, chiefly in Scotland, for a list of persons nominated for
+    election to an office. This is, apparently, a shortened form of the
+    French _élite_, elected.
+
+
+
+
+COURT-MARTIAL, a court for the trial of offences against military or
+naval discipline, or for the administration of martial law. In England
+courts-martial have inherited part of the jurisdiction of the old _Curia
+militaris_, or court of the chivalry, in which a single marshal and at
+one time the high constable proceeded "according to the customs and
+usages of that court, and, in cases omitted according to the civil law,
+_secundum legem armorum_" (Coke, 4 _Ins._ 17). The modern form of the
+courts was adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., when English
+soldiers were studying the "articles and military laws" of Gustavus
+Adolphus and the Dutch military code of Arnheim; it is first recognized
+by statute in the first Mutiny Act of 1689. The Mutiny Act (with various
+extensions and amendments) and the statutory articles of war continued
+to be the sources of military law which courts-martial administered
+until 1879, when they were codified in the Army Discipline and
+Regulation Act 1879, which was, in turn, superseded by the Army Act
+1881. This act is re-enacted annually by the Army (Annual) Act. The
+constitution of courts-martial, their procedure, &c., are dealt with
+under MILITARY LAW.
+
+_Naval Courts-Martial._--The administration of the barbarous naval law
+of England was long entrusted to the discretion of commanders acting
+under instructions from the lord high admiral, who was supreme over both
+the royal and merchant navy. It was the leaders of the Long Parliament
+who first secured something like a regular tribunal by passing in 1645
+an ordinance and articles concerning martial law for the government of
+the navy. Under this ordinance Blake, Monk and Penn issued instructions
+for the holding general and ship courts-martial with written records,
+the one for captains and commanders, the other for subordinate officers
+and men. Of the latter the mate, gunner and boatswain were members, but
+the admirals reserved a control over the more serious sentences. Under
+an act of 1661 the high admiral again received power to issue
+commissions for holding courts-martial--a power which continues to be
+exercised by the board of admiralty. During the 18th century, under the
+auspices of Anson, the jurisdiction was greatly extended, and the
+Consolidation Act of 1749 was passed in which the penalty of death
+occurs as frequently as the curses in the commination service. The Naval
+Articles of War have always been statutory, and the whole system may now
+be said to rest on the Naval Discipline Act 1866, as amended by the act
+of 1884. The navy has its courts of inquiry for the confidential
+investigation of charges "derogatory to the character of an officer and
+a gentleman." Under the act of 1866 a court-martial must consist of from
+five to nine officers of a certain rank, and must be held publicly on
+board of one of H.M. ships of war, and where at least two such ships are
+together. The rank of the president depends on that of the prisoner. A
+judge-advocate attends, and the procedure resembles that in military
+courts, except that the prisoner is not asked to plead, and the
+sentence, if not one of death, does not require the confirmation of the
+commander-in-chief abroad or of the admiralty at home. The court has a
+large and useful power of finding the prisoner guilty of a less serious
+offence than that charged, which might well be imitated in the ordinary
+criminal courts. The death sentence is always carried out by hanging at
+the yard-arm; Admiral Byng, however, was shot in 1757. The board of
+admiralty have, under the Naval Discipline Acts, a general power of
+suspending, annulling, and modifying sentences which are not capital.
+The jurisdiction extends to all persons belonging to the navy, to land
+forces and other passengers on board, shipwrecked crews, spies, persons
+borne on the books of H.M. ships in commission, and civilians on board
+who endeavour to seduce others from allegiance. The definition of the
+jurisdiction by locality includes harbours, havens or creeks, lakes or
+rivers, in or out of the United Kingdom; all places within the
+jurisdiction of the admiralty; all places on shore out of the United
+Kingdom; the dockyards, barracks, hospitals, &c., of the service
+wherever situated; all places on shore in or out of the United Kingdom
+for all offences punishable under the Articles of War except those
+specified in section 38 of the Naval Discipline Act 1860, which are
+punishable by ordinary law. The Royal Marines, while borne on the books
+of H.M. ships, are subject to the Naval Discipline Acts, and, by an
+order in council, 1882, when they are embarked on board ship for service
+on shore; otherwise they are under the Army Acts. By s. 179, sub.-sec.
+7, of the Army Act, in the application of the act to the Royal Marines
+the admiralty is substituted for military authorities.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Simmons, _On the Constitution and Practice of
+  Courts-Martial_; Clode, _Military and Martial Law_; Stephens, Gifford
+  and Smith, _Manual of Naval Law and Court-Martial Procedure_. The
+  earlier writers on courts-martial are Adye (1796), M'Arthur (1813),
+  Maltby (1813, Boston), James (1820), D'Aguilar (1843), and Hough,
+  _Precedents in Military Law_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY, BARON (1832-   ), English politician
+and man of letters, eldest son of J. S. Courtney, a banker, was born at
+Penzance on the 6th of July 1832. At Cambridge, Leonard Courtney was
+second wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, and was elected a fellow of
+his college, St John's. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in
+1858, was professor of political economy at University College from 1872
+to 1875, and in December 1876, after a previous unsuccessful attempt,
+was elected to parliament for Liskeard in the Liberal interest. He
+continued to represent the borough, and the district into which it was
+merged by the Reform Act of 1885, until 1900, when his attitude towards
+the South African War--he was one of the foremost of the so-called
+"Pro-Boer" party--compelled his retirement. Until 1885 he was a devoted
+adherent of Mr Gladstone, particularly in finance and foreign affairs.
+In 1880 he was under-secretary of state for the home department, in 1881
+for the colonies, and in 1882 secretary to the treasury; but he was
+always a stubborn fighter for principle, and upon finding that the
+government's Reform Bill in 1884 contained no recognition of the scheme
+for proportional representation, to which he was deeply committed, he
+resigned office. He refused to support Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill in
+1885, and was one of those who chiefly contributed to its rejection, and
+whose reputation for unbending integrity and intellectual eminence gave
+solidity to the Liberal Unionist party. In 1886 he was elected chairman
+of committees in the House of Commons, and his efficiency in this office
+seemed to mark him out for the speakership in 1895. A Liberal Unionist,
+however, could only be elected by Conservative votes, and he had made
+himself objectionable to a large section of the party by his independent
+attitude on various questions, on which his Liberalism outweighed his
+party loyalty. He would in any case have been incapacitated by an
+affection of the eyesight, which for a while threatened to withdraw him
+from public life altogether. After 1895 Mr Courtney's divergences from
+the Unionist party on questions other than Irish politics became
+gradually more marked. He became known in the House of Commons
+principally for his candid criticism of the measures introduced by his
+nominal leaders, and he was rather to be ranked among the Opposition
+than as a Ministerialist; and when the crisis with the Transvaal came
+in 1899, Mr Courtney's views, which remained substantially what they
+were when he supported the settlement after Majuba in 1881, had plainly
+become incompatible with his position even as a nominal follower of Lord
+Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain. He gradually reverted to formal membership
+of the Liberal party, and in January 1906 unsuccessfully contested a
+division of Edinburgh as a supporter of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman at
+the general election. Among the birthday honours of 1906 he was elevated
+to the peerage as Baron Courtney of Penwith (Cornwall). Lord Courtney,
+who in 1883 married Miss Catherine Potter (an elder sister of Mrs Sidney
+Webb), was a prominent supporter of the women's movement. In earlier
+years he was a regular contributor to _The Times_, and he wrote numerous
+essays in the principal reviews on political and economic subjects. In
+1901 he published a book on _The Working Constitution of the United
+Kingdom_.
+
+Two of his brothers, John Mortimer Courtney (b. 1838), and William
+Prideaux Courtney (b. 1845), also attained public distinction, the
+former in the government service in Canada (from 1869, retiring in
+1906), rising to be deputy-minister of finance, and the latter in the
+British civil service (1865-1892), and as a prominent man of letters and
+bibliographer.
+
+
+
+
+COURTOIS, JACQUES (1621-1676) and GUILLAUME (1628-1679). The two French
+painters who bore these names are also called by the Italian equivalents
+Giacomo (or Jacopo) Cortese and Guglielmo Cortese. Each of the brothers
+is likewise named, from his native province, Le Bourguignon, or Il
+Borgognone.
+
+Jacques Courtois was born at St Hippolyte, near Besançon, in 1621. His
+father was a painter, and with him Jacques remained studying up to the
+age of fifteen. Towards 1637 he came to Italy, was hospitably received
+at Milan by a Burgundian gentleman, and entered, and for three years
+remained in, the French military service. The sight of some
+battle-pictures revived his taste for fine art. He went to Bologna, and
+studied under the friendly tutelage of Guido; thence he proceeded to
+Rome, where he painted, in the Cistercian monastery, the "Miracle of the
+Loaves." Here he took a house and after a while entered upon his own
+characteristic style of art, that of battle-painting, in which he has
+been accounted to excel all other old masters; his merits were cordially
+recognized by the celebrated Cerquozzi, named Michelangelo delle
+Battaglie. He soon rose from penury to ease, and married a painter's
+beautiful daughter, Maria Vagini; she died after seven years of wedded
+life. Prince Matthias of Tuscany employed Courtois on some striking
+works in his villa, Lappeggio, representing with much historical
+accuracy the prince's military exploits. In Venice also the artist
+executed for the senator Sagredo some remarkable battle-pieces. In
+Florence he entered the Society of Jesus, taking the habit in Rome in
+1655; it was calumniously rumoured that he adopted this course in order
+to escape punishment for having poisoned his wife. As a Jesuit father,
+Courtois painted many works in churches and monasteries of the society.
+He lived piously in Rome, and died there of apoplexy on the 20th of May
+1676 (some accounts say 1670 or 1671). His battle-pieces have movement
+and fire, warm colouring (now too often blackened), and great command of
+the brush,--those of moderate dimensions are the more esteemed. They are
+slight in execution, and tell out best from a distance. Courtois etched
+with skill twelve battle-subjects of his own composition. The Dantzig
+painter named in Italy Pandolfo Reschi was his pupil.
+
+Guillaume Courtois, born likewise at St Hippolyte, came to Italy with
+his brother. He went at once to Rome, and entered the school of Pietro
+da Cortona. He studied also the Bolognese painters and Giovanni
+Barbieri, and formed for himself a style with very little express
+mannerism, partly resembling that of Maratta. He painted the "Battle of
+Joshua" in the Quirinal Gallery, the "Crucifixion of St Andrew" in the
+church of that saint on Monte Cavallo, various works for the Jesuits,
+some also in co-operation with his brother. His last production was
+Christ admonishing Martha. His draughtsmanship is better than that of
+Jacques, whom he did not, however, rival in spirit, colour or
+composition. He also executed some etchings. Guillaume Courtois died of
+gout on the 15th of June 1679.
+
+
+
+
+COURTRAI (Flemish, _Kortryk_), an important and once famous town of West
+Flanders, Belgium, situated on the Lys. Pop. (1904) 34,564. It is now
+best known for its fine linen, which ranks with that of Larne. The lace
+factories are also important and employ 5000 hands. But considerable as
+is the prosperity of modern Courtrai it is but a shadow of what it was
+in the middle ages during the halcyon period of the Flemish communes.
+Then Courtrai had a population of 200,000, now it is little over a sixth
+of that number. On the 11th of July 1302 the great battle of Courtrai
+(see INFANTRY) was fought outside its walls, when the French army, under
+the count of Artois, was vanquished by the allied burghers of Bruges,
+Ypres and Courtrai with tremendous loss. As many as 700 pairs of golden
+spurs were collected on the field from the bodies of French knights and
+hung up as an offering in an abbey church of the town, which has long
+disappeared. There are still, however, some interesting remains of
+Courtrai's former grandeur. Perhaps the Pont de Broel, with its towers
+at either end of the bridge, is as characteristic and complete as any
+monument of ancient Flanders that has come down to modern times. The
+hôtel de ville, which dated from the earlier half of the 16th century,
+was restored in 1846, and since then statues have also been added to
+represent those that formerly ornamented the façade. Two richly and
+elaborately carved chimney-pieces in the hôtel de ville merit special
+notice. The one in the council chamber upstairs dates from 1527 and
+gives an allegorical representation of the Virtues and the Vices. The
+other, three-quarters of a century later, contains an heraldic
+representation of the noble families of the town. The church of St
+Martin dates from the 15th century, but was practically destroyed in
+1862 by a fire caused by lightning. It has been restored. The most
+important building at Courtrai is the church of Notre Dame, which was
+begun by Count Baldwin IX. in 1191 and finished in 1211. The portal and
+the choir were reconstructed in the 18th century. In the chapel behind
+the choir is hung one of Van Dyck's masterpieces, "The Erection of the
+Cross." The chapel of the counts attached to the church dates from 1373,
+and contained mural paintings of the counts and countesses of Flanders
+down to the merging of the title in the house of Burgundy. Most if not
+all of these had become obliterated, but they have now been carefully
+restored. With questionable judgment portraits have been added of the
+subsequent holders of the title down to the emperor Francis II. (I. of
+Austria), the last representative of the houses of Flanders and Burgundy
+to rule in the Netherlands. Courtrai celebrated the 600th anniversary of
+the battle mentioned above by erecting a monument on the field in 1902,
+and also by fêtes and historical processions that continued for a
+fortnight.
+
+Courtrai, the _Cortracum_ of the Romans, ranked as a town from the 7th
+century onwards. It was destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in the
+10th century by Baldwin III. of Flanders, who endowed it with market
+rights and laid the foundation of its industrial importance by inviting
+the settlement of foreign weavers. The town was once more burnt, in
+1382, by the French after the battle of Roosebeke, but was rebuilt in
+1385 by Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy.
+
+
+
+
+COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE (1775-1835), French magistrate and
+politician, was born at Besançon on the 30th of November 1775. During
+the revolutionary period he left the country and served in the army of
+the _émigrés_ and later in that of Austria. In 1801, under the
+Consulate, he returned to France and established himself as an advocate
+at Besançon, being appointed _conseiller-auditeur_ to the court of
+appeal there in 1808. At the Restoration he was made advocate-general by
+Louis XVIII., resigned and left France during the Hundred Days, and was
+reappointed after the second Restoration in 1815. In 1817, after the
+modification of the constitution by the _ordonnance_ of the 5th of
+September, he was returned to the chamber of deputies, where he attached
+himself to the left centre and supported the moderate policy of
+Richelieu and Decazes. He was an eloquent speaker, and master of many
+subjects; and his proved royalism made it impossible for the
+ultra-Royalists to discredit him, much as they resented his consistent
+opposition to their short-sighted violence. After the revolt at Lyons
+in 1817 he was nominated _procureur-général_ of the city, and by his
+sense and moderation did much to restore order and confidence. He was
+again a member of the chamber from 1819 to 1824, and vigorously opposed
+the exceptional legislation which the second administration of Richelieu
+passed under the influence of the ultra-Royalists. In 1824 he failed to
+secure re-election, and occupied himself with his judicial duties until
+his nomination as councillor of state in 1827. On the 8th of August 1829
+he accepted the offer of the portfolio of justice in the Polignac
+ministry, but resigned on the 19th of May 1830, when he realized that
+the government intended to abrogate the Charter and the inevitable
+revolution that would follow. During the trial of the ex-ministers, in
+December, he was summoned as a witness, and paid a tribute to the
+character of his former colleagues which, under the circumstances,
+argued no little courage. He refused to take office under Louis
+Philippe, and retired into private life, dying on the 18th of September
+1835.
+
+
+
+
+COUSCOUS, or KOUS-KOUS (an Arabic word derived from _kaskasa_, to
+pound), a dish common among the inhabitants of North Africa, made of
+flour rubbed together and steamed over a stew of mutton, fowl, &c., with
+which it is eaten.
+
+
+
+
+COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590), French painter, was born at Soucy, near Sens,
+and began as a glass-painter, his windows in the Sainte Chapelle at
+Vincennes being considered the finest in France. As a painter of subject
+pictures he is ranked as the founder of the French school, as having
+first departed from the practice of portraits. His "Last Judgment,"
+influenced by Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a "Descent from the
+Cross" (1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was known
+also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and on wood, his
+wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc's Bible (1596) and other books being his
+best-known work. He also wrote a _Livre de perspective_ (1560), and a
+_Livre de portraiture_ (1571).
+
+  See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, _Étude sur J. Cousin_ (1872), and _Recueil
+  des oeuvres choisies de J. Cousin_ (1873).
+
+
+
+
+COUSIN, VICTOR (1792-1867), French philosopher, the son of a watchmaker,
+was born in Paris, in the Quartier St Antoine, on the 28th of November
+1792. At the age of ten he was sent to the grammar school of the
+Quartier St Antoine, the Lycée Charlemagne. Here he studied until he was
+eighteen. The lycée had a connexion with the university, and when Cousin
+left the secondary school he was "crowned" in the ancient hall of the
+Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there, in the general
+concourse of his school competitors. The classical training of the lycée
+strongly disposed him to literature. He was already known among his
+compeers for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycée he passed to the
+Normal School of Paris, where Laromiguière was then lecturing on
+philosophy. In the second preface to the _Fragmens philosophiques_, in
+which he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his
+life, Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory of the
+day in 1811, when he heard Laromiguière for the first time. "That day
+decided my whole life. Laromiguière taught the philosophy of Locke and
+Condillac, happily modified on some points, with a clearness and grace
+which in appearance at least removed difficulties, and with a charm of
+spiritual _bonhomie_ which penetrated and subdued." Cousin was set
+forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained the
+position of master of conferences (_maître de conférences_) in the
+school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life was the
+teaching of Royer-Collard. This teacher, as he tells us, "by the
+severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his words, turned me by
+degrees, and not without resistance, from the beaten path of Condillac
+into the way which has since become so easy, but which was then painful
+and unfrequented, that of the Scottish philosophy." In 1815-1816 Cousin
+attained the position of _suppléant_ (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the
+history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. There was
+still another thinker who influenced him at this early period,--Maine de
+Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled psychological observer of
+his time in France.
+
+These men strongly influenced both the method and the matter of Cousin's
+philosophical thought. To Laromiguière he attributes the lesson of
+decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was
+inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to
+certain internal laws and principles which it does not itself explain,
+which are superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind. De
+Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him
+to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts
+of consciousness, the fact of voluntary activity, that activity in which
+our personality is truly revealed. It was through this "triple
+discipline," as he calls it, that Cousin's philosophical thought was
+first developed, and that in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of
+philosophy in the Normal School and in the faculty of letters.[1] He
+then took up the study of German, worked at Kant and Jacobi, and sought
+to master the _Philosophy of Nature_ of Schelling, by which he was at
+first greatly attracted. The influence of Schelling may be observed very
+markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. He sympathized with the
+principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so long as it
+was not recognized as grounded in reason. In 1817 he went to Germany,
+and met Hegel at Heidelberg. In this year appeared Hegel's _Encyclopädie
+der philosophischen Wissenschaften_, of which Cousin had one of the
+earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two
+became friends. The following year Cousin went to Munich, where he met
+Schelling for the first time, and spent a month with him and Jacobi,
+obtaining a deeper insight into the _Philosophy of Nature_.
+
+
+  Political troubles.
+
+  Fragmens philosophiques.
+
+The political troubles of France interfered for a time with his career.
+In the events of 1814-1815 he took the royalist side. He at first
+adopted the views of the party known as _doctrinaire_, of which
+Royer-Collard was the philosophical chief. He seems then to have gone
+farther than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left.
+Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821-1822 Cousin was
+deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters and in the
+Normal School. The Normal School itself was swept away, and Cousin
+shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal government the fate of
+Guizot, who was ejected from the chair of history. This enforced
+abandonment of public teaching was not wholly an evil. He set out for
+Germany with a view to further philosophical study. While at Berlin in
+1824-1825 he was thrown into prison, either on some ill-defined
+political charge at the instance of the French police, or on account of
+certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversation.
+Liberated after six months, he continued under the suspicion of the
+French government for three years. It was during this period, however,
+that he thought out and developed what is distinctive in his
+philosophical doctrine. His eclecticism, his ontology and his philosophy
+of history were declared in principle and in most of their salient
+details in the _Fragmens philosophiques_ (Paris, 1826). The preface to
+the second edition (1833) and the _Avertissement_ to the third (1838)
+aimed at a vindication of his principles against contemporary criticism.
+Even the best of his later books, the _Philosophie écossaise_ (4th ed.,
+1863), the _Du vrai, du beau, et du bien_ (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans.,
+3rd ed., Edinburgh, 1854), and the _Philosophie de Locke_ (4th ed.,
+1861) were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period
+from 1815 to 1820. The lectures on Locke were first sketched in 1819,
+and fully developed in the course of 1829.
+
+During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching he produced,
+besides the _Fragmens_, the edition of the works of Proclus (6 vols.,
+1820-1827), and the works of Descartes (11 vols., 1826). He also
+commenced his _Translation of Plato_ (13 vols.), which occupied his
+leisure time from 1825 to 1840.
+
+We see in the _Fragmens_ very distinctly the fusion of the different
+philosophical influences by which his opinions were finally matured. For
+Cousin was as eclectic in thought and habit of mind as he was in
+philosophical principle and system. It is with the publication of the
+_Fragmens_ of 1826 that the first great widening of his reputation is
+associated. In 1827 followed the _Cours de l'histoire de la
+philosophie_.
+
+
+  Career as a lecturer.
+
+In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, minister of public instruction in Martignac's
+ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their professorial positions in
+the university. The three years which followed were the period of
+Cousin's greatest triumph as a lecturer. His return to the chair was the
+symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and was greeted with
+enthusiasm. The hall of the Sorbonne was crowded as the hall of no
+philosophical teacher in Paris had been since the days of Abelard. The
+lecturer had a singular power of identifying himself for the time with
+the system which he expounded and the historical character he portrayed.
+Clear and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his
+subject, he was methodical and vivid in the representation of details.
+In exposition he had the rare art of unfolding and aggrandizing. There
+was a rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence mingled with the speculative
+exposition; his style of expression was clear, elegant and forcible,
+abounding in happy turns and striking antitheses. To this was joined a
+singular power of rhetorical climax. His philosophy exhibited in a
+striking manner the generalizing tendency of the French intellect, and
+its logical need of grouping details round central principles.
+
+There was withal a moral elevation in his spiritual philosophy which
+came home to the hearts of his hearers, and seemed to afford a ground
+for higher development in national literature and art, and even in
+politics, than the traditional philosophy of France had appeared capable
+of yielding. His lectures produced more ardent disciples, imbued at
+least with his spirit, than those of any other professor of philosophy
+in France during the 18th century. Tested by the power and effect of his
+teaching influence, Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of
+professors of philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart
+have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative power.
+Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his writings have in
+some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less remarkable. The
+taste for philosophy--especially its history--was revived in France to
+an extent unknown since the 17th century.
+
+
+  Disciples and followers.
+
+Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may note T. S. Jouffroy,
+J. P. Damiron, Garnier, J. Barthélemy St Hilaire, F. Ravaisson-Mollien,
+Rémusat, Jules Simon and A. Franck. Jouffroy and Damiron were first
+fellow-students and then disciples. Jouffroy, however, always kept firm
+to the early--the French and Scottish--impulses of Cousin's teaching.
+Cousin continued to lecture regularly for two years and a half after his
+return to the chair. Sympathizing with the revolution of July, he was at
+once recognized by the new government as a friend of national liberty.
+Writing in June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his
+political position:--
+
+  "I had the advantage of holding united against me for many years both
+  the sensational and the theological school. In 1830 both schools
+  descended into the arena of politics. The sensational school quite
+  naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theological school
+  became quite as naturally absolutism, safe to borrow from time to time
+  the mask of the demagogue in order the better to reach its ends, as in
+  philosophy it is by scepticism that it undertakes to restore
+  theocracy. On the other hand, he who combated any exclusive principle
+  in science was bound to reject also any exclusive principle in the
+  state, and to defend representative government."
+
+The government was not slow to do him honour. He was induced by the
+ministry of which his friend Guizot was the head to become a member of
+the council of public instruction and counsellor of state, and in 1832
+he was made a peer of France. He ceased to lecture, but retained the
+title of professor of philosophy. Finally, he accepted the position of
+minister of public instruction in 1840 under Thiers. He was besides
+director of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and
+from 1840 a member of the Institute (Academy of the Moral and Political
+Sciences). His character and his official position at this period gave
+him great power in the university and in the educational arrangements
+of the country. In fact, during the seventeen and a half years of the
+reign of Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly moulded the philosophical and
+even the literary tendencies of the cultivated class in France.
+
+
+  Relation to primary education in France.
+
+But the most important work he accomplished during this period was the
+organization of primary instruction. It was to the efforts of Cousin
+that France owed her advance, in primary education, between 1830 and
+1848. Prussia and Saxony had set the national example, and France was
+guided into it by Cousin. Forgetful of national calamity and of personal
+wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording the best example of an
+organized system of national education; and he was persuaded that "to
+carry back the education of Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a
+bloodless) triumph than the trophies of Austerlitz and Jena." In the
+summer of 1831, commissioned by the government, he visited Frankfort and
+Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin. The result was a series of
+reports to the minister, afterwards published as _Rapport sur l'état de
+l'instruction publique dans quelques pays de l'Allemagne et
+particulièrement en Prusse_. (Compare also _De l'instruction publique en
+Hollande_, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on his return to
+France, and soon afterwards through his influence there was passed the
+law of primary instruction. (See his _Exposé des motifs et projet de loi
+sur l'instruction primaire, présentés à la chambre des députés, séance
+du 2 janvier 1833_.)
+
+In the words of the _Edinburgh Review_ (July 1833), these documents
+"mark an epoch in the progress of national education, and are directly
+conducive to results important not only to France but to Europe." The
+_Report_ was translated into English by Mrs Sarah Austin in 1834. The
+translation was frequently reprinted in the United States of America.
+The legislatures of New Jersey and Massachusetts distributed it in the
+schools at the expense of the states. Cousin remarks that, among all the
+literary distinctions which he had received, "None has touched me more
+than the title of foreign member of the American Institute for
+Education." To the enlightened views of the ministries of Guizot and
+Thiers under the citizen-king, and to the zeal and ability of Cousin in
+the work of organization, France owes what is best in her system of
+primary education,--a national interest which had been neglected under
+the Revolution, the Empire and the Restoration (see _Exposé_, p. 17). In
+the first two years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the
+education of the people than had been either sought or accomplished in
+all the history of France. In defence of university studies he stood
+manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844, against the clerical
+party on the one hand and the levelling or Philistine party on the
+other. His speeches on this occasion were published in a tractate
+_Défense de l'université et de la philosophie_ (1844 and 1845).
+
+
+  Philosophical writings.
+
+This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as
+philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures and
+writings, in maturing them for publication or reissue, and in research
+into certain periods of the history of philosophy. In 1835 appeared _De
+la Métaphysique d'Aristote, suivi d'un essai de traduction des deux
+premiers livres_; in 1836, _Cours de philosophie professé à la faculté
+des lettres pendant l'année 1818_, and _Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard_.
+This _Cours de philosophie_ appeared later in 1854 as _Du vrai, du beau,
+et du bien_. From 1825 to 1840 appeared _Cours de l'histoire de la
+philosophie_, in 1829 _Manuel de l'histoire de la philosophie de
+Tennemann_, translated from the German. In 1840-1841 we have _Cours
+d'histoire de la philosophie morale au XVIII^e siècle_ (5 vols.). In
+1841 appeared his edition of the _OEuvres philosophiques de
+Maine-de-Biran_; in 1842, _Leçons de philosophie sur Kant_ (Eng. trans.
+A. G. Henderson, 1854), and in the same year _Des Pensées de Pascal_.
+The _Nouveaux fragments_ were gathered together and republished in 1847.
+Later, in 1859, appeared _Petri Abaelardi Opera_.
+
+
+  Literary studies.
+
+During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh interest to
+those literary studies which he had abandoned for speculation under the
+influence of Laromiguière and Royer-Collard. To this renewed interest we
+owe his studies of men and women of note in France in the 17th century.
+As the results of his work in this line, we have, besides the _Des
+Pensêes de Pascal_, 1842, _Études sur les femmes et la société du XVII^e
+siècle_, 1853. He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal (1844), Madame de
+Longueville (1853), the marquise de Sablé (1854), the duchesse de
+Chevreuse (1856), Madame de Hautefort (1856).
+
+When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a close through the opposition
+of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand for electoral
+reform and through the policy of the Spanish marriages, Cousin, who was
+opposed to the government on these points, lent his sympathy to
+Cavaignac and the Provisional government. He published a pamphlet
+entitled _Justice et charité_, the purport of which showed the
+moderation of his political views. It was markedly anti-socialistic. But
+from this period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased
+to wield the personal influence which he had done during the preceding
+years. After the _coup d'état_ of the 2nd of December, he was deprived
+of his position as permanent member of the superior council of public
+instruction. From Napoleon and the Empire he stood aloof. A decree of
+1852 placed him along with Guizot and Villemain in the rank of honorary
+professors. His sympathies were apparently with the monarchy, under
+certain constitutional safeguards. Speaking in 1853 of the political
+issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his
+lifetime, he says,--"It conducts human societies to the true republic,
+that dream of all generous souls, which in our time can be realized in
+Europe only by constitutional monarchy."[2]
+
+During the last years of his life he occupied a suite of rooms in the
+Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously. The chief feature
+of the rooms was his noble library, the cherished collection of a
+lifetime. He died at Cannes on the 13th of January 1867, in his
+sixty-fifth year. In the front of the Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms
+of the faculty of letters, a tablet records an extract from his will, in
+which he bequeaths his noble and cherished library to the halls of his
+professorial work and triumphs.
+
+_Philosophy._--There are three distinctive points in Cousin's
+philosophy. These are his method, the results of his method, and the
+application of the method and its results to history,--especially to the
+history of philosophy. It is usual to speak of his philosophy as
+eclecticism. It is eclectic only in a secondary and subordinate sense.
+All eclecticism that is not self-condemned and inoperative implies a
+system of doctrine as its basis,--in fact, a criterion of truth.
+Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it is simply a blind and useless
+syncretism. And Cousin saw and proclaimed from an early period in his
+philosophical teaching the necessity of a system on which to base his
+eclecticism. This is indeed advanced as an illustration or confirmation
+of the truth of his system,--as a proof that the facts of history
+correspond to his analysis of consciousness. These three points--the
+method, the results, and the philosophy of history--are with him
+intimately connected; they are developments in a natural order of
+sequence. They become in practice Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism
+in history.
+
+
+  Method.
+
+First, as to method. On no point has Cousin more strongly insisted than
+the importance of method in philosophy. That which he adopts, and the
+necessity of which he so strongly proclaims, is the ordinary one of
+observation, analysis and induction. This observational method Cousin
+regards as that of the 18th century,--the method which Descartes began
+and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied, though
+imperfectly, and which Reid and Kant used with more success, yet not
+completely. He insists that this is the true method of philosophy as
+applied to consciousness, in which alone the facts of experience appear.
+But the proper condition of the application of the method is that it
+shall not through prejudice of system omit a single fact of
+consciousness. If the authority of consciousness is good in one
+instance, it is good in all. If not to be trusted in one, it is not to
+be trusted in any. Previous systems have erred in not presenting the
+facts of consciousness, i.e. consciousness itself, in their totality.
+The observational method applied to consciousness gives us the science
+of psychology. This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology
+or metaphysics--the science of being--and of the philosophy of history.
+To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds induction as the
+complement of his method, by which he means inference as to reality
+necessitated by the data of consciousness, and regulated by certain laws
+found in consciousness, viz. those of reason. By his method of
+observation and induction as thus explained, his philosophy will be
+found to be marked off very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive
+construction of notions of an absolute system, as represented either by
+Schelling or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on hypothesis
+and abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other, from that of
+Kant, and in a sense, of Sir W. Hamilton, both of which in the view of
+Cousin are limited to psychology, and merely relative or phenomenal
+knowledge, and issue in scepticism so far as the great realities of
+ontology are concerned. What Cousin finds psychologically in the
+individual consciousness, he finds also spontaneously expressed in the
+common sense or universal experience of humanity. In fact, it is with
+him the function of philosophy to classify and explain universal
+convictions and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him philosophy,
+nor is it the instrument of philosophy; it is simply the material on
+which the philosophical method works, and in harmony with which its
+results must ultimately be found.
+
+
+  Results.
+
+The three great results of psychological observation are Sensibility,
+Activity or Liberty, and Reason.
+
+These three facts are different in character, but are not found apart in
+consciousness. Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility, are
+necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves. The facts of reason are
+also necessary, and reason is not less independent of the will than the
+sensibility. Voluntary facts alone are marked in the eyes of
+consciousness with the characters of imputability and personality. The
+will alone is the person or _Me_. The me is the centre of the
+intellectual sphere without which consciousness is impossible. We find
+ourselves in a strange world, between two orders of phenomena which do
+not belong to us, which we apprehend only on the condition of our
+distinguishing ourselves from them. Further, we apprehend by means of a
+light which does not come from ourselves. All light comes from the
+reason, and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the
+sensibility which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does
+not constrain. Consciousness, then, is composed of these three integrant
+and inseparable elements. But Reason is the immediate ground of
+knowledge and of consciousness itself.
+
+
+  Spontaneity in will.
+
+But there is a peculiarity in Cousin's doctrine of activity or freedom,
+and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into his system. This
+is the element of spontaneity in volition and in reason. This is the
+heart of what is new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being.
+Liberty or freedom is a generic term which means a cause or being
+endowed with self-activity. This is to itself and its own development
+its own ultimate cause. Free-will is so, although it is preceded by
+deliberation and determination, i.e. reflection, for we are always
+conscious that even after determination we are free to will or not to
+will. But there is a primary kind of volition which has not reflection
+for its condition, which is yet free and spontaneous. We must have
+willed thus spontaneously first, otherwise we could not know, before our
+reflective volition, that we could will and act. Spontaneous volition is
+free as reflective, but it is the prior act of the two. This view of
+liberty of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of
+humanity; it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm
+of the poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the
+ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a rule spontaneously and
+not after reflective deliberation.
+
+
+  Impersonality of reason.
+
+But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive principle
+of the philosophy of Cousin lies. The reason given to us by
+psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness, is
+impersonal in its nature. We do not make it; its character is precisely
+the opposite of individuality; it is universal and necessary. The
+recognition of universal and necessary principles in knowledge is the
+essential point in psychology; it ought to be put first and emphasized
+to the last that these exist, and that they are wholly impersonal or
+absolute. The number of these principles, their enumeration and
+classification, is an important point, but it is secondary to that of
+the recognition of their true nature. This was the point which Kant
+missed in his analysis, and this is the fundamental truth which Cousin
+thinks he has restored to the integrity of philosophy by the method of
+the observation of consciousness. And how is this impersonality or
+absoluteness of the conditions of knowledge to be established? The
+answer is in substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first
+as the criterion of those laws. This brought them within the sphere of
+reflection, and gave as their guarantee the impossibility of thinking
+them reversed; and led to their being regarded as wholly relative to
+human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of the phenomenal,
+incapable of revealing to us substantial reality--necessary, yet
+subjective. But this test of necessity is a wholly secondary one; these
+laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they are each and all given to us,
+given to our consciousness, in an act of spontaneous apperception or
+apprehension, immediately, instantaneously, in a sphere above the
+reflective consciousness, yet within the reach of knowledge. And "all
+subjectivity with all reflection expires in the spontaneity of
+apperception. The reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary
+and free self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or
+to that self in humanity; it belongs not even to humanity. We may say
+with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without its laws
+both would perish."
+
+
+  Laws of reason.
+
+But what is the number of those laws? Kant reviewing the enterprise of
+Aristotle in modern times has given a complete list of the laws of
+thought, but it is arbitrary in classification and may be legitimately
+reduced. According to Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought,
+that of causality and that of substance. From these flow naturally all
+the others. In the order of nature, that of substance is the first and
+causality second. In the order of acquisition of our knowledge,
+causality precedes substance, or rather both are given us in each other,
+and are contemporaneous in consciousness.
+
+These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus
+psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the relative and
+subjective to objective and absolute reality,--enable us, in a word, to
+pass from psychology, or the science of knowledge, to ontology or the
+science of being. These laws are inextricably mixed in consciousness
+with the data of volition and sensation, with free activity and fatal
+action or impression, and they guide us in rising to a personal being, a
+self or free cause, and to an impersonal reality, a not-me--nature, the
+world of force--lying out of us, and modifying us. As I refer to myself
+the act of attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the sensation
+to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is, to an external
+cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my own existence, since
+the phenomenon which suggests it to me is as certain as the phenomenon
+which had suggested my reality, and both are given in each other. I thus
+reach an objective impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the
+variety of my sensations. The relation of these forces or causes to each
+other is the order of the universe.
+
+
+  The infinite or absolute.
+
+But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally
+limitative. As reason has apprehended these two simultaneous phenomena,
+attention and sensation, and led us immediately to conceive the two
+sorts of distinct causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which
+they are related, so, from the notion of this limitation, we find it
+impossible under the same guide not to conceive a supreme cause,
+absolute and infinite, itself the first and last cause of all. This is
+relatively to self and not-self what these are to their proper effects.
+This cause is self-sufficient, and is sufficient for the reason. This is
+God; he must be conceived under the notion of cause, related to humanity
+and the world. He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute
+cause, and his essence lies precisely in his creative power. He thus
+creates, and he creates necessarily.
+
+
+  Charge of Pantheism.
+
+This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to the charge of
+pantheism. This he repels, and his answer may be summed up as follows.
+Pantheism is properly the deification of the law of phenomena, the
+universe God. But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self
+from each other and from the infinite cause. They are not mere
+modifications of this cause or properties, as with Spinoza,--they are
+free forces having their power or spring of action in themselves, and
+this is sufficient for our idea of independent finite reality. I hold
+this, and I hold the relation of these as effects to the one supreme
+cause. The God I plead for is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the
+absolute unity of the Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of
+creation or plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction. The deity I
+maintain is creative, and necessarily creative. The deity of Spinoza and
+the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense. As to the
+necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating, this is the
+highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity, activity
+without deliberation. His action is not the result of a struggle between
+passion and virtue. He is free in an unlimited manner; the purest
+spontaneity in man is but the shadow of the freedom of God. He acts
+freely but not arbitrarily, and with the consciousness of being able to
+choose the opposite part. He cannot deliberate or will as we do. His
+spontaneous action excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will
+and the mechanical operation of necessity.
+
+
+  History of philosophy.
+
+The elements found in consciousness are also to be found in the history
+of humanity and in the history of philosophy. In external nature there
+are expansion and contraction which correspond to spontaneity and
+reflection. External nature again in contrast with humanity expresses
+spontaneity; humanity expresses reflection. In human history the East
+represents the spontaneous stage; the Pagan and Christian world
+represent stages of reflection.
+
+This was afterwards modified, expanded and more fully expressed by
+saying that humanity in its universal development has three principal
+moments. First, in the spontaneous stage, where reflection is not yet
+developed, and art is imperfect, humanity has thought only of the
+immensity around it. It is preoccupied by the infinite. Secondly, in the
+reflective stage, mind has become an object to itself. It thus knows
+itself explicitly or reflectively. Its own individuality is now the only
+or at least the supreme thing. This is the moment of the finite.
+Thirdly, there comes an epoch in which the self or me is subordinated.
+Mind realizes another power in the universe. The finite and the infinite
+become two real correlatives in the relation of cause and product. This
+is the third and highest stage of development, the relation of the
+finite and the infinite. As philosophy is but the highest expression of
+humanity, these three moments will be represented in its history. The
+East typifies the infinite, Greece the finite or reflective epoch, the
+modern era the stage of relation or correlation of infinite and finite.
+In theology, the dominant philosophical idea of each of these epochs
+results in pantheism, polytheism, theism. In politics we have in
+correspondence also with the idea, monarchy, democracy,
+constitutionalism.
+
+
+  Eclecticism.
+
+Eclecticism thus means the application of the psychological method to
+the history of philosophy. Confronting the various systems co-ordinated
+as sensualism, idealism, scepticism, mysticism, with the facts of
+consciousness, the result was reached "that each system expresses an
+order of phenomena and ideas, which is in truth very real, but which is
+not alone in consciousness, and which at the same time holds an almost
+exclusive place in the system; whence it follows that each system is not
+false but incomplete, and that in re-uniting all incomplete systems, we
+should have a complete philosophy, adequate to the totality of
+consciousness." Philosophy, as thus perfected, would not be a mere
+aggregation of systems, as is ignorantly supposed, but an integration of
+the truth in each system after the false or incomplete is discarded.
+
+
+  Relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel.
+
+Such is the system in outline. The historical position of the system
+lies in its relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Cousin was opposed
+to Kant in asserting that the unconditioned in the form of infinite or
+absolute cause is but a mere unrealizable tentative or effort on the
+part of the mind, something different from a mere negation, yet not
+equivalent to a positive thought. With Cousin the absolute as the ground
+of being is grasped positively by the intelligence, and it renders all
+else intelligible; it is not as with Kant a certain hypothetical or
+regulative need.
+
+With Schelling again Cousin agrees in regarding this supreme ground of
+all as positively apprehended, and as a source of development, but he
+utterly repudiates Schelling's method. The intellectual intuition either
+falls under the eye of consciousness, or it does not. If not, how do you
+know it and its object which are identical? If it does, it comes within
+the sphere of psychology; and the objections to it as thus a relative,
+made by Schelling himself, are to be dealt with. Schelling's
+intellectual intuition is the mere negation of knowledge.
+
+Again the pure being of Hegel is a mere abstraction,--a hypothesis
+illegitimately assumed, which he has nowhere sought to vindicate. The
+very point to be established is the possibility of reaching being per se
+or pure being; yet in the Hegelian system this is the very thing assumed
+as a starting-point. Besides this, of course, objections might be made
+to the method of development, as not only subverting the principle of
+contradiction, but as galvanizing negation into a means of advancing or
+developing the whole body of human knowledge and reality. The
+intellectual intuition of Schelling, as above consciousness, the pure
+being of Hegel, as an empty abstraction, unvindicated, illegitimately
+assumed, and arbitrarily developed, are equally useless as bases of
+metaphysics. This led Cousin, still holding by essential knowledge of
+being, to ground it in an analysis of consciousness,--in psychology.
+
+The absolute or infinite--the unconditioned ground and source of all
+reality--is yet apprehended by us as an immediate datum or reality; and
+it is apprehended in consciousness--under its condition, that, to wit,
+of distinguishing subject and object, knower and known. The doctrine of
+Cousin was criticized by Sir W. Hamilton in the _Edinburgh Review_ of
+1829, and it was animadverted upon about the same time by Schelling.
+Hamilton's objections are as follows. The correlation of the ideas of
+infinite and finite does not necessarily imply their correality, as
+Cousin supposes; on the contrary, it is a presumption that finite is
+simply positive and infinite negative of the same--that the finite and
+infinite are simply contradictory relatives. Of these "the positive
+alone is real, the negative is only an abstraction of the other, and in
+the highest generality even an abstraction of thought itself." A study
+of the few sentences under this head might have obviated the trifling
+criticism of Hamilton's objection which has been set afloat recently,
+that the denial of a knowledge of the absolute or infinite implies a
+foregone knowledge of it. How can you deny the reality of that which you
+do not know? The answer to this is that in the case of contradictory
+statements--A and not A--the latter is a mere negation of the former,
+and posits nothing; and the negation of a notion with positive
+attributes, as the finite, does not extend beyond abolishing the given
+attributes as an object of thought. The infinite or non-finite is not
+necessarily known, ere the finite is negated, or in order to negate it;
+all that needs be known is the finite itself; and the contradictory
+negation of it implies no positive. Non-organized may or may not
+correspond to a positive--i.e. an object or notion with qualities
+contradictory of the organized; but the mere sublation of the organized
+does not posit it, or suppose that it is known beforehand, or that
+anything exists corresponding to it. This is one among many flaws in the
+Hegelian dialectic, and it paralyzes the whole of the _Logic_. Secondly,
+the conditions of intelligence, which Cousin allows, necessarily exclude
+the possibility of knowledge of the absolute--they are held to be
+incompatible with its unity. Here Schelling and Hamilton argue that
+Cousin's absolute is a mere relative. Thirdly, it is objected that in
+order to deduce the conditioned, Cousin makes his absolute a relative;
+for he makes it an absolute cause, i.e. a cause existing absolutely
+under relation. As such it is necessarily inferior to the sum total of
+its effects, and dependent for reality on these--in a word, a mere
+potence or becoming. Further, as a theory of creation, it makes creation
+a necessity, and destroys the notion of the divine. Cousin made no reply
+to Hamilton's criticism beyond alleging that Hamilton's doctrine
+necessarily restricted human knowledge and certainty to psychology and
+logic, and destroyed metaphysics by introducing nescience and
+uncertainty into its highest sphere--theodicy.
+
+
+  Criticism of his philosophy. Impersonality of reason.
+
+The attempt to render the laws of reason or thought impersonal by
+professing to find them in the sphere of spontaneous apperception, and
+above reflective necessity, can hardly be regarded as successful. It may
+be that we first of all primitively or spontaneously affirm cause,
+substance, time, space, &c., in this way. But these are still in each
+instance given us as realized in a particular form. In no single act of
+affirmation of cause or substance, much less in such a primitive act, do
+we affirm the universality of their application. We might thus get
+particular instances or cases of these laws, but we could never get the
+laws themselves in their universality, far less absolute impersonality.
+And as they are not supposed to be mere generalizations from experience,
+no amount of individual instances of the application of any one of them
+by us would give it a true universality. The only sure test we have of
+their universality in our experience is the test of their reflective
+necessity. We thus after all fall back on reflection as our ground for
+their universal application; mere spontaneity of apprehension is futile;
+their universality is grounded in their necessity, not their necessity
+in their universality. How far and in what sense this ground of
+necessity renders them personal are of course questions still to be
+solved.
+
+But if these three correlative facts are immediately given, it seems to
+be thought possible by Cousin to vindicate them in reflective
+consciousness. He seeks to trace the steps which the reason has
+spontaneously and consciously, but irreflectively, followed. And here
+the question arises--Can we vindicate in a reflective or mediate process
+this spontaneous apprehension of reality?
+
+The self is found to be a cause of force, free in its action, on the
+ground that we are obliged to relate the volition of consciousness to
+the self as its cause, and its ultimate cause. It is not clear from the
+analysis whether the self is immediately observed as an acting or
+originating cause, or whether reflection working on the principle of
+causality is compelled to infer its existence and character. If self is
+actually so given, we do not need the principle of causality to infer
+it; if it is not so given, causality could never give us either the
+notion or the fact of self as a cause or force, far less as an ultimate
+one. All that it could do would be to warrant a cause of some sort, but
+not this or that reality as the cause. And further, the principle of
+causality, if fairly carried out, as universal and necessary, would not
+allow us to stop at personality or will as the ultimate cause of its
+effect--volition. Once applied to the facts at all, it would drive us
+beyond the first antecedent or term of antecedents of volition to a
+still further cause or ground--in fact, land us in an infinite regress
+of causes.
+
+The same criticism is even more emphatically applicable to the influence
+of a not-self, or world of forces, corresponding to our sensations, and
+the cause of them. Starting from sensation as our basis, causality could
+never give us this, even though it be allowed that sensation is
+impersonal to the extent of being independent of our volition. Causality
+might tell us that a cause there is of sensation somewhere and of some
+sort; but that this cause is a force or sum of forces, existing in
+space, independently of us, and corresponding to our sensations, it
+could never tell us, for the simple reason that such a notion is not
+supposed to exist in our consciousness. Causality cannot add to the
+number of our notions,--cannot add to the number of realities we know.
+All it can do is to necessitate us to think that a cause there is of a
+given change, but _what_ that cause is it cannot of itself inform us, or
+even suggest to us, beyond implying that it must be adequate to the
+effect. Sensation might arise, for aught we know, so far as causality
+leads us, not from a world of forces at all, but from a will like our
+own, though infinitely more powerful, acting upon us, partly furthering
+and partly thwarting us. And indeed such a supposition is, with the
+principle of causality at work, within the limits of probability, as we
+are already supposed to know such a reality--a will--in our own
+consciousness. When Cousin thus set himself to vindicate those points by
+reflection, he gave up the obvious advantage of his other position that
+the realities in question are given us in immediate and spontaneous
+apprehension. The same criticism applies equally to the inference of an
+absolute cause from the two limited forces which he names self and
+not-self. Immediate spontaneous apperception may seize this supreme
+reality; but to vindicate it by reflection as an inference on the
+principle of causality is impossible. This is a mere paralogism; we can
+never infer either absolute or infinite from relative or finite.
+
+The truth is that Cousin's doctrine of the spontaneous apperception of
+impersonal truth amounts to little more than a presentment in
+philosophical language of the ordinary convictions and beliefs of
+mankind. This is important as a preliminary stage, but philosophy
+properly begins when it attempts to co-ordinate or systematize those
+convictions in harmony, to conciliate apparent contradiction and
+opposition, as between the correlative notions of finite and infinite,
+the apparently conflicting notions of personality and infinitude, self
+and not-self; in a word, to reconcile the various sides of consciousness
+with each other. And whether the laws of our reason are the laws of all
+intelligence and being--whether and how we are to relate our
+fundamental, intellectual and moral conceptions to what is beyond our
+experience, or to an infinite being--are problems which Cousin cannot be
+regarded as having solved. These are in truth the outstanding problems
+of modern philosophy.
+
+
+  Volition.
+
+Cousin's doctrine of spontaneity in volition can hardly be said to be
+more successful than his impersonality of the reason through spontaneous
+apperception. Sudden, unpremeditated volition may be the earliest and
+the most artistic, but it is not the best. Volition is essentially a
+free choice between alternatives, and that is best which is most
+deliberate, because it is most rational. Aristotle touched this point in
+his distinction between [Greek: boulêsis] and [Greek: proairesis]. The
+sudden and unpremeditated wish represented by the former is wholly
+inferior in character to the free choice of the latter, guided and
+illumined by intelligence. In this we can deliberately resolve upon what
+is in our power; in that we are subject to the vain impulse of wishing
+the impossible. Spontaneity is pleasing, sometimes beautiful, but it is
+not in this instance the highest quality of the thing to be obtained.
+That is to be found in a guiding and illumining reflective activity.
+
+
+  General estimate.
+
+Eclecticism is not open to the superficial objection of proceeding
+without a system or test in determining the complete or incomplete. But
+it is open to the objection of assuming that a particular analysis of
+consciousness has reached all the possible elements in humanity and in
+history, and all their combinations. It may be asked, Can history have
+that which is not in the individual consciousness? In a sense not; but
+our analysis may not give all that is there, and we ought not at once to
+impose that analysis or any formula on history. History is as likely to
+reveal to us in the first place true and original elements, and
+combinations of elements in man, as a study of consciousness. Besides,
+the tendency of applying a formula of this sort to history is to assume
+that the elements are developed in a certain regular or necessary order,
+whereas this may not at all be the case; but we may find at any epoch
+the whole mixed, either crossing or co-operative, as in the
+consciousness of the individual himself. Further, the question as to how
+these elements may possibly have grown up in the general consciousness
+of mankind is assumed to be non-existent or impossible.
+
+It was the tendency of the philosophy of Cousin to outline things and to
+fill up the details in an artistic and imaginative interest. This is
+necessarily the case, especially in the application to history of all
+formulas supposed to be derived either from an analysis of
+consciousness, or from an abstraction called pure thought. Cousin was
+observational and generalizing rather than analytic and discriminating.
+His search into principles was not profound, and his power of rigorous
+consecutive development was not remarkable. He left no distinctive
+permanent principle of philosophy. But he left very interesting
+psychological analyses, and several new, just, and true expositions of
+philosophical systems, especially that of Locke and the philosophers of
+Scotland. He was at the same time a man of impressive power, of rare and
+wide culture, and of lofty aim,--far above priestly conception and
+Philistine narrowness. He was familiar with the broad lines of nearly
+every system of philosophy ancient and modern. His eclecticism was the
+proof of a reverential sympathy with the struggles of human thought to
+attain to certainty in the highest problems of speculation. It was
+eminently a doctrine of comprehension and of toleration. In these
+respects it formed a marked and valuable contrast to the arrogance of
+absolutism, to the dogmatism of sensationalism, and to the doctrine of
+church authority, preached by the theological school of his day. His
+spirit, while it influenced the youth of France, saved them from these
+influences. As an educational reformer, as a man of letters and
+learning, who trod "the large and impartial ways of knowledge," and who
+swayed others to the same paths, as a thinker influential alike in the
+action and the reaction to which he led, Cousin stands out conspicuously
+among the memorable Frenchmen of the 19th century.
+
+Sir W. Hamilton (_Discussions_, p. 541), one of his most resolute
+opponents, described Cousin as "A profound and original thinker, a lucid
+and eloquent writer, a scholar equally at home in ancient and in modern
+learning, a philosopher superior to all prejudices of age or country,
+party or profession, and whose lofty eclecticism, seeking truth under
+every form of opinion, traces its unity even through the most hostile
+systems."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Barthélemy St Hilaire, _V. Cousin, sa vie et sa
+  correspondence_ (3 vols., Paris, 1895); H. Höffding, _Hist. of Mod.
+  Phil._ ii. 311 (Eng. trans., 1900); C. E. Fuchs, _Die Philosophie
+  Victor Cousins_ (Berlin, 1847); J. Alaux, _La Philos. de M. Cousin_
+  (Paris, 1864); P. Janet, _Victor Cousin et son oeuvre_ (Paris,
+  1885); Jules Simon, _V. Cousin_ (1887); Adolphe Franck, _Moralistes et
+  philosophes_ (1872); J. P. Damiron, _Souvenirs de vingt ans
+  d'enseignement_ (Paris, 1859); H. Taine in _Les Philosophes_ (Paris,
+  1868), pp. 79-202.     (J. V.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Fragmens philosophiques--préface deuxième._
+
+  [2] _Du vrai, du beau, et du bien_ (preface).
+
+
+
+
+COUSIN (Fr. _cousin_, Ital. _cugino_, Late Lat. _cosinus_, perhaps a
+popular and familiar abbreviation of _consobrinus_, which has the same
+sense in classical Latin), a term of relationship. Children of brothers
+and sisters are to each other first cousins, or cousins-german; the
+children of first cousins are to each other second cousins, and so on;
+the child of a first cousin is to the first cousin of his father or
+mother a first cousin once removed.
+
+The word cousin has also, since the 16th century, been used by
+sovereigns as an honorific style in addressing persons of exalted, but
+not equal sovereign, rank, the term "brother" being reserved as the
+style used by one sovereign in addressing another. Thus, in Great
+Britain, dukes, marquesses and earls are addressed by the sovereign in
+royal writs, &c., as "cousin." In France the kings thus addressed
+princes of the blood royal, cardinals and archbishops, dukes and peers,
+the marshals of France, the grand officers of the crown and certain
+foreign princes. In Spain the right to be thus addressed is a privilege
+of the grandees.
+
+
+
+
+COUSINS, SAMUEL (1801-1887), English mezzotint engraver, was born at
+Exeter on the 9th of May 1801. He was preeminently the interpreter of
+Sir Thomas Lawrence, his contemporary. During his apprenticeship to S.
+W. Reynolds he engraved many of the best amongst the three hundred and
+sixty little mezzotints illustrating the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds
+which his master issued in his own name. In the finest of his numerous
+transcripts of Lawrence, such as "Lady Acland and her Sons," "Pope Pius
+VII." and "Master Lambton," the distinguishing characteristics of the
+engraver's work, brilliancy and force of effect in a high key,
+corresponded exactly with similar qualities in the painter. After the
+introduction of steel for engraving purposes about the year 1823,
+Cousins and his contemporaries were compelled to work on it, because the
+soft copper previously used for mezzotint plates did not yield a
+sufficient number of fine impressions to enable the method to compete
+commercially against line engraving, from which much larger editions
+were obtainable. The painter-like quality which distinguished the
+18th-century mezzotints on copper was wanting in his later works,
+because the hardness of the steel on which they were engraved impaired
+freedom of execution and richness of tone, and so enhanced the labour of
+scraping that he accelerated the work by stipple, etching the details
+instead of scraping them out of the "ground" in the manner of his
+predecessors. To this "mixed style," previously used by Richard Earlom
+on copper, Cousins added heavy roulette and rocking-tool textures,
+tending to fortify the darks, when he found that the "burr" even on
+steel failed to yield enough fine impressions to meet the demand. The
+effect of his prints in this method after Reynolds and Millais was
+mechanical and out of harmony with the picturesque technique of these
+painters, but the phenomenal popularity which Cousins gained for his
+works at least kept alive and in favour a form of mezzotint engraving
+during a critical phase of its history. Abraham Raimbach, the line
+engraver, dated the decline of his own art in England from the
+appearance in 1837 of Cousins's print (in the "mixed style") after
+Landseer's "Bolton Abbey." Such plates as "Miss Peel," after Lawrence
+(published in 1833); "A Midsummer Night's Dream," after Landseer (1857);
+"The Order of Release" and "The First Minuet," after Millais (1856 and
+1868); "The Strawberry Girl" and "Lavinia, Countess Spencer," after
+Reynolds; and "Miss Rich," after Hogarth (1873-1877), represent various
+stages of Cousins's mixed method. It reached its final development in
+the plates after Millais's "Cherry Ripe" and "Pomona," published in 1881
+and 1882, when the invention of coating copper-plates with a film of
+steel to make them yield larger editions led to the revival of pure
+mezzotint on copper, which has since rendered obsolete the steel plate
+and the mixed style which it fostered. The fine draughtsmanship of
+Cousins was as apparent in his prints as in his original lead-pencil
+portraits exhibited in London in 1882. In 1885 he was elected a full
+member of the Royal Academy, to which institution he later gave in trust
+£15,000 to provide annuities for superannuated artists who had not been
+so successful as himself. One of the most important figures in the
+history of British engraving, he died in London, unmarried, on the 7th
+of May 1887.
+
+  See George Pycroft, M.R.C.S.E., _Memoir of Samuel Cousins, R.A.,
+  Member of the Legion of Honour_ (published for private circulation by
+  E. E. Leggatt, London, 1899); Algernon Graves, _Catalogue of the Works
+  of Samuel Cousins, R.A._ (published by H. Graves and Co., London,
+  1888); and Alfred Whitman, _Samuel Cousins_ (published by George Bell
+  & Sons, London, 1904), which contains a catalogue, good illustrations,
+  and much detail useful to the collector and dealer.     (G. P. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COUSTOU, the name of a famous family of French sculptors.
+
+NICOLAS COUSTOU (1658-1733) was the son of a wood-carver at Lyons, where
+he was born. At eighteen he removed to Paris, to study under C. A.
+Coysevox, his mother's brother, who presided over the recently-established
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture; and at three-and-twenty he gained the
+Colbert prize, which entitled him to four years' education at the French
+Academy at Rome. He afterwards became rector and chancellor of the Academy
+of Painting and Sculpture. From the year 1700 he was a most active
+collaborator with Coysevox at the palaces of Marly and Versailles. He was
+remarkable for his facility; and though he was specially influenced by
+Michelangelo and Algardi, his numerous works are among the most typical
+specimens of his age now extant. The most famous are "La Seine et la
+Marne," "La Saône," the "Berger Chasseur" in the gardens of the Tuileries,
+the bas-relief "Le Passage du Rhin" in the Louvre, and the "Descent from
+the Cross" placed behind the choir altar of Notre Dame at Paris.
+
+His younger brother, GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1677-1746), was a sculptor of
+still greater merit. He also gained the Colbert prize; but refusing to
+submit to the rules of the Academy, he soon left it, and for some time
+wandered houseless through the streets of Rome. At length he was
+befriended by the sculptor Legros, under whom he studied for some time.
+Returning to Paris, he was in 1704 admitted into the Academy of Painting
+and Sculpture, of which he afterwards became director; and, like his
+brother, he was employed by Louis XIV. His finest works are the famous
+group of the "Horse Tamers," originally at Marly, now in the Champs
+Elysées at Paris, the colossal group "The Ocean and the Mediterranean"
+at Marly, the bronze "Rhône" which formed part of the statue of Louis
+XIV. at Lyons, and the sculptures at the entrance of the Hôtel des
+Invalides. Of these latter, the bas-relief representing Louis XIV.
+mounted and accompanied by Justice and Prudence was destroyed during the
+Revolution, but was restored in 1815 by Pierre Cartellier from Coustou's
+model; the bronze figures of Mars and Minerva, on either side of the
+doorway, were not interfered with.
+
+Another GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1716-1777), the son of Nicolas, also studied
+at Rome, as winner of the Colbert prize. While to a great extent a
+copyist of his predecessors, he was much affected by the bad taste of
+his time, and produced little or nothing of permanent value.
+
+  See Louis Gougenot, _Éloge de M. Coustou le jeune_ (1903); Arsène
+  Houssaye, _Histoire de l'art français au XVIII^e siècle_ (1860); Lady
+  Dilke, _Gazette des beaux-arts_, vol. xxv. (1901) (2 articles).
+
+
+
+
+COUTANCES, WALTER OF (d. 1207), bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of
+Rouen, commenced his career in the chancery of Henry II., was elected
+bishop of Lincoln in 1182, and in 1184 obtained, with the king's help,
+the see of Rouen. Throughout his career he was much employed in
+diplomatic and administrative duties. He started with Richard I. for the
+Third Crusade, but was sent back from Messina to investigate the charges
+which the barons and the official class had brought against the
+chancellor, William Longchamp. There was no love lost between the two;
+and they were popularly supposed to be rivals for the see of Canterbury.
+The archbishop of Rouen sided with the barons and John, and sanctioned
+Longchamp's deposition--a step which was technically warranted by the
+powers which Richard had given, but by no means calculated to protect
+the interests of the crown. The Great Council now recognized the
+archbishop as chief justiciar, and he remained at the head of the
+government till 1193, when he was replaced by Hubert Walter. The
+archbishop did good service in the negotiations for Richard's release,
+but subsequently quarrelled with his master and laid Normandy under an
+interdict, because the border stronghold of Château Gaillard in the
+Vexin had been built on his land without his consent. After Richard's
+death the archbishop accepted John as the lawful heir of Normandy and
+consecrated him as duke. But his personal inclinations leaned to Arthur
+of Brittany, whom he was with difficulty dissuaded from supporting. The
+archbishop accepted the French conquest of Normandy with equanimity
+(1204), although he kept to his old allegiance while the issue of the
+struggle was in doubt. He did not long survive the conquest, and his
+later history is a blank.
+
+  See W. Stubbs's editions of _Benedictus Abbas_, _Hoveden_ and _Diceto_
+  (Rolls series); R. Howlett's edition of "William of Newburgh" and
+  "Richard of Devizes" in _Chronicles, &c., of the Reigns of Stephen,
+  Henry II. and Richard I._ (Rolls series). See also the preface to the
+  third volume of Stubbs's _Hoveden_, pp. lix.-xcviii.; J. H. Round's
+  _Commune of London_, and the French poem on _Guillaume le Maréchal_
+  (ed. P. Meyer, _Soc. de l'Histoire de France_).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+COUTANCES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
+of the department of Manche, 7 m. E. of the English Channel and 58 m. S.
+of Cherbourg on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 6089. Coutances is
+beautifully situated on the right bank of the Soulle on a granitic
+eminence crowned by the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame. The date of
+this church has been much disputed, but while traces of Romanesque
+architecture survive, the building is, in the main, Gothic in style and
+dates from the first half of the 13th century. The slender turrets
+massed round the western towers and the octagonal central tower, which
+forms a lantern within, are conspicuous features of the church. In the
+interior, which comprises the nave with aisles, transept and choir with
+ambulatory and side chapels, there are fine rose-windows with stained
+glass of the 14th century, and other works of art. Of the other
+buildings of Coutances the church of St Pierre, in which Renaissance
+architecture is mingled with Gothic, and that of St Nicolas, of the 16th
+and 17th centuries, demand mention. There is an aqueduct of the 14th
+century to the west of the town. Coutances is a quiet town with winding
+streets and pleasant boulevards bordering it on the east; on the western
+slope of the hill there is a public garden. The town is the seat of a
+bishop, a court of assizes and a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce, a lycée for boys, a communal college and a
+training college for girls, and an ecclesiastical seminary.
+Leather-dressing and wool-spinning are carried on and there is trade in
+live-stock, in agricultural produce, especially eggs, and in marble.
+
+Coutances is the ancient _Cosedia_, which before the Roman conquest was
+one of the chief towns in the country of the Unelli. Towards the end of
+the 3rd century its name was changed to _Constantia_, in honour of the
+emperor Constantius Chlorus, who fortified it. It became the capital of
+the _pagus Constantinus_ (Cotentin), and in the middle ages was the seat
+of a viscount. It has been an episcopal see since the 5th century. In
+the 17th century it was the centre of the revolt of the _Nu-pieds_,
+caused by the imposition of the salt-tax (_gabelle_).
+
+  A good bibliography of general works and monographs on the archaeology
+  and the history of the town and diocese of Coutances is given in U.
+  Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources, &c., Topo-Bibliographie_
+  (Montbéliard, 1894-1899), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+COUTHON, GEORGES (1755-1794), French revolutionist, was born at Orcet, a
+village in the district of Clermont in Auvergne. He studied law, and was
+admitted advocate at Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for
+his integrity, gentle-heartedness and charitable disposition. His health
+was feeble and both legs were paralysed. In 1787 he was a member of the
+provincial assembly of Auvergne. On the outbreak of the Revolution
+Couthon, who was now a member of the municipality of Clermont-Ferrand,
+published his _L'Aristocrate converti_, in which he revealed himself as
+a liberal and a champion of constitutional monarchy. He became very
+popular, was appointed president of the tribunal of the town of Clermont
+in 1791, and in September of the same year was elected deputy to the
+Legislative Assembly. His views had meanwhile been embittered by the
+attempted flight of Louis XVI., and he distinguished himself now by his
+hostility to the king. A visit to Flanders for the sake of his health
+brought him into close intercourse and sympathy with Dumouriez. In
+September 1792 Couthon was elected member of the National Convention,
+and at the trial of the king voted for the sentence of death without
+appeal. He hesitated for a time as to which party he should join, but
+finally decided for that of Robespierre, with whom he had many opinions
+in common, especially in matters of religion. He was the first to demand
+the arrest of the proscribed Girondists. On the 30th of May 1793 he
+became a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and in August was
+sent as one of the commissioners of the Convention attached to the army
+before Lyons. Impatient at the slow progress made by the besieging
+force, he decreed a _levée en masse_ in the department of Puy-de-Dôme,
+collected an army of 60,000 men, and himself led them to Lyons. When the
+city was taken, on the 9th of October 1793, although the Convention
+ordered its destruction, Couthon did not carry out the decree, and
+showed moderation in the punishment of the rebels. The Republican
+atrocities began only after Couthon was replaced, on the 3rd of November
+1793, by Collot d'Herbois. Couthon returned to Paris, and on the 21st of
+December was elected president of the Convention. He contributed to the
+prosecution of the Hébertists, and was responsible for the law of the
+22nd Prairial, which in the case of trials before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal deprived the accused of the aid of counsel or of witnesses or
+their defence, on the pretext of shortening the proceedings. During the
+crisis preceding the 9th Thermidor, Couthon showed considerable courage,
+giving up a journey to Auvergne in order, as he wrote, that he might
+either die or triumph with Robespierre and liberty. Arrested with
+Robespierre and Saint-Just, his colleagues in the triumvirate of the
+Terror, and subjected to indescribable sufferings and insults, he was
+taken to the scaffold on the same cart with Robespierre on the 28th of
+July 1794 (10th Thermidor).
+
+  See Fr. Mège, _Correspondance de Couthon ... suivie de "l'Aristocrate
+  converti," comédie en deux actes de Couthon_ (Paris, 1872); and
+  _Nouveaux Documents sur Georges Couthon_ (Clermont-Ferrand, 1890);
+  also F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la
+  Convention_ (Paris, 1885-1886), ii. 425-443.
+
+
+
+
+COUTTS, THOMAS (1735-1822), English banker and founder of the banking
+house of Coutts & Co., was born on the 7th of September 1735. He was the
+fourth son of John Coutts (1699-1751), who carried on business in
+Edinburgh as a corn factor and negotiator of bills of exchange, and who
+in 1742 was elected lord provost of the city. The family was originally
+of Montrose, but one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about 1696.
+Soon after the death of John Coutts the business was divided into two
+branches, one carried on in Edinburgh, the other in London. The banking
+business in London was in the hands of James and Thomas Coutts, sons of
+John Coutts. From the death of his brother in 1778, Thomas, as surviving
+partner, became sole head of the firm; and under his direction the
+banking house rose to the highest distinction. His ambition was to
+establish his character as a man of business and to make a fortune; and
+he lived to succeed in this aim and long to enjoy his reputation and
+wealth. A gentleman in manners, hospitable and benevolent, he counted
+amongst his friends some of the literary men and the best actors of his
+day. Of the enormous wealth which came into his hands he made munificent
+use. His private life was not without its romantic elements. Soon after
+his settlement in London he married Elizabeth Starkey, a young woman of
+humble origin, who was in attendance on the daughter of his brother
+James. They lived happily together, and had three daughters--Susan,
+married in 1796 to the 3rd earl of Guilford; Frances, married in 1800 to
+John, 1st marquess of Bute; and Sophia, married in 1793 to Sir Francis
+Burdett. Mrs Coutts dying in 1815, her husband soon after married the
+popular actress, Harriet Mellon; and to her he left the whole of his
+immense fortune. He died in London on the 24th of February 1822. His
+widow married in 1827 the 9th duke of St Albans, and died ten years
+later, having bequeathed her property to Angela, youngest daughter of
+Sir Francis Burdett, who then assumed the additional name and arms of
+Coutts. In 1871 this lady was created Baroness Burdett-Coutts (q.v.).
+
+  See C. Rogers, _Genealogical Memoirs of the Families of Colt and
+  Coutts_ (1879); and R. Richardson, _Coutts & Co._ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+COUTURE, THOMAS (1815-1879), French painter, was born at Senlis (Oise),
+and studied under Baron A. J. Gros and Paul Delaroche, winning a Prix de
+Rome in 1837. He began exhibiting historical and _genre_ pictures at the
+Salon in 1840, and obtained several medals. His masterpiece was his
+"Romans in the Decadence of the Empire" (1847), now in the Luxembourg;
+and his "Love of Money" (1844; at Toulouse), "Falconer" (1855), and
+"Damocles" (1872), are also good examples.
+
+
+
+
+COUVADE (literally a "brooding," from Fr. _couver_, to hatch, Lat.
+_cubare_, to lie down), a custom so called in Béarn, prevalent among
+several peoples in different parts of the world, requiring that the
+father, at and sometimes before the birth of his child, shall retire to
+bed and fast or abstain from certain kinds of food, receiving the
+attentions generally shown to women at their confinements. The existence
+of the custom in ancient classical times is testified to by Apollonius
+Rhodius, Diodorus (who refers to its existence among the Corsicans), and
+Strabo (who noticed it among the Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as by
+the Gascons, it has been said to be still observed, though the most
+recent researches entirely discredit this). Travellers, from the time of
+Marco Polo, who relates its observance in Chinese Turkestan, have found
+the custom to prevail in China, India, Borneo, Siam, Africa and the
+Americas. Even in Europe it cannot be said to have entirely disappeared.
+In certain of the Baltic provinces of Russia the husband, on the
+lying-in of the wife, takes to his bed and groans in mock pain. One
+writer believes he found traces of it in the little island of Marken in
+the Zuyder Zee. Even in rural England, notably in East Anglia, a
+curiously obstinate belief survives (the prevalence of which in earlier
+times is proved by references to it in Elizabethan drama) that the
+pregnancy of the woman affects the man, and the young husband who
+complains of a toothache is assailed by pleasantries as to his wife's
+condition. In Guiana the custom is observed in its most typical form.
+The woman works to within a few hours of the birth, but some days before
+her delivery the father leaves his occupations and abstains from certain
+kinds of animal food lest the child should suffer. Thus the flesh of the
+agouti is forbidden, lest the child should be lean, and that of the
+capibara or water-cavy, for fear he should inherit through his father's
+gluttony that creature's projecting teeth. A few hours before delivery
+the woman goes alone, or with one or two women-friends, into the forest,
+where the baby is born. She returns as soon as she can stand, to her
+work, and the man then takes to his hammock and becomes the invalid. He
+must do no work, must touch no weapons, is forbidden all meat and food,
+except at first a fermented liquor and after the twelfth day a weak
+gruel of _cassava_ meal. He must not even smoke, or wash himself, but is
+waited on hand and foot by the women. So far is the comedy carried that
+he whines and groans as if in actual pain. Six weeks after the birth of
+the child he is taken in hand by his relatives, who lacerate his skin
+and rub him with a decoction of the pepper-plant. A banquet is then held
+from which the patient is excluded, for he must not leave his bed till
+several days later; and for six months he must eat the flesh of neither
+fish nor bird. Almost identical ceremonies have been noticed among the
+natives of California and New Mexico; while in Greenland and Kamchatka
+the husband may not work for some time before and after his wife's
+confinement. Among the Larkas of Bengal a period of isolation and
+uncleanness, synchronous with that compulsory on the woman, is
+imperative for the man, on the conclusion of which the child's parentage
+is publicly proclaimed.
+
+No certain explanation can be offered for the custom. The most
+reasonable view is that adopted by E. B. Tylor, who traces in it the
+transition from the earlier matriarchal to the later patriarchal system
+of tribe-organization. Among primitive tribes, and probably in all ages,
+the former order of society, in which descent and inheritance are
+reckoned through the mother alone, as being the earliest form of family
+life, is and was very common, if not universal. The acknowledgment of a
+relationship between father and son is characteristic of the progress of
+society towards a true family life. It may well be that the Couvade
+arose in the father's desire to emphasize the bond of blood between
+himself and his child. It is a fact that in some countries the father
+has to purchase the child from its mother; and in the Roman ceremony of
+the husband raising the baby from the floor we may trace the savage idea
+that the male parent must formally proclaim his adoption of and
+responsibility for the offspring. Max Müller, in his _Chips from a
+German Workshop_, endeavoured to find an explanation in primitive
+"henpecking," asserting that the unfortunate husband was tyrannized over
+by "his female relatives and afterwards frightened into
+superstition,"--that, in fact, the whole fabric of ceremony is reared on
+nothing but masculine hysteria; but this theory can scarcely be taken
+seriously. The missionary, Joseph François Lafitau, suspected a
+psychological reason, assuming the custom to be a dim recollection of
+original sin, the isolation and fast types of repentance. The
+explanation of the American Indians is that if the father engaged in any
+hard or hazardous work, e.g. hunting, or was careless in his diet, the
+child would suffer and inherit the physical faults and peculiarities of
+the animals eaten. This belief that a person becomes possessed of the
+nature and form of the animal he eats is widespread, being as prevalent
+in the Old World as in the New, but it is insufficient to account for
+the minute ceremonial details of La Couvade as practised in many lands.
+It is far more likely that so universal a practice has no trivial
+beginnings, but is to be considered as a mile-stone marking a great
+transitional epoch in human progress.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--E. B. Tylor's _Early History of Man_ (1865; 2nd ed. p.
+  301); F. Max Müller, _Chips from a German Workshop_ (1868-1875), ii.
+  281; Lord Avebury, _Origin of Civilisation_ (1900); Brett's _Indian
+  Tribes of Guiana_; Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl F. P. von Martius,
+  _Travels in Brazil_ (1823-1831), ii. 281; J. F. Lafitau, _Moeurs des
+  sauvages américains_ (1st ed., 1724); W. Z. Ripley, _Races of Europe_
+  (1900); A. H. Keane's _Ethnology_ (1896), p. 368 and footnote; A.
+  Giraud-Teulon, _Les Origines du mariage et de la famille_ (Paris,
+  1884).
+
+
+
+
+COVE, a word mostly used in the sense of a small inlet or sheltered bay
+in a coast-line. In English dialect usage it is also applied to a cave
+or to a recess in a mountain-side. The word in O. Eng. is _cofa_, and
+cognate forms are found in the Ger. _Koben_, Norwegian _kove_, and in
+various forms in other Teutonic languages. It has no connexion with
+"alcove," recess in a room or building, which is derived through the
+Span. _alcoba_ from Arab. _al_, the, and _qubbah_, vault, arch, nor with
+"cup" or "coop," nor with "cave" (Lat. _cava_). The use of the word was
+first confined to a small chamber or cell or inner recess in a room or
+building. From this has come the particular application in architecture
+to any kind of concave moulding, the term being usually applied to the
+quadrantal curve rising from the cornice of a lofty room to the moulded
+borders of the horizontal ceiling. The term "coving" is given in
+half-timbered work to the curved soffit under a projecting window, or in
+the 18th century to that occasionally found carrying the gutter of a
+house. In the Musée Plantin at Antwerp the hearth of the fireplace of
+the upper floor is carved on coving, which forms part of the design of
+the chimney-piece in the room below. The slang use of "cove" for any
+male person, like a "fellow," "chap," &c., is found in the form "cofe"
+in T. Harman's _Caveat for Cursetors_ (1587) and other early quotations.
+This seems to be identical with the Scots word "cofe," a pedlar, hawker,
+which is formed from "coff," to sell, purchase, cognate with the Ger.
+_kaufen_, to buy, and the native English "cheap." The word "cove,"
+therefore, is in ultimate origin the same as "chap," short for
+"chapman," a pedlar.
+
+
+
+
+COVELLITE, a mineral species consisting of cupric sulphide, CuS,
+crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It is of less frequent occurrence
+in nature than copper-glance, the orthorhombic cuprous sulphide.
+Crystals are very rare, the mineral being usually found as compact and
+earthy masses or as a blue coating on other copper sulphides. Hardness
+1½-2; specific gravity 4.6. The dark indigo-blue colour is a
+characteristic feature, and the mineral was early known as indigo-copper
+(Ger. _Kupferindig_). The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, who
+in 1839 observed crystals of cupric sulphide encrusting Vesuvian lava,
+the mineral having been formed here by the interaction of hydrogen
+sulphide and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic
+products. Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing
+veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of other copper
+sulphides, namely chalcopyrite, copper-glance and erubescite. It is
+found in many copper mines; localities which may be specially mentioned
+are Sangerhausen in Prussian Saxony, Butte in Montana, and Chile; in the
+Medicine Bow Mountains of Wyoming a platiniferous covellite is mined,
+the platinum being present as sperrylite (platinum arsenide).
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later _convenant_, from _convenir_, to agree,
+Lat. _convenire_), a mutual agreement of two or more parties, or an
+undertaking made by one of the parties. In the Bible the Hebrew word
+[Hebrew: briia], _b[)e]r[=i]th_, is used widely for many kinds of
+agreements; it is then applied to a contract between two persons or to a
+treaty between two nations, such as the covenant made between Abimelech
+and Isaac, representing a treaty between the Israelites and the
+Philistines (Gen. xxvi. 26, seq.); more particularly to an engagement
+made between God and men, or such agreements as, by the observance of a
+religious rite, regarded God as a party to the engagement. Two
+suggestions have been made for the derivation of _b[)e]r[=i]th_: (1)
+tracing the word from a root "to cut," and the reference is to the
+primitive rite of cutting victims into parts, between which the parties
+to an agreement passed, cf. the Greek [Greek: horkia temnein], and the
+account (Gen. xv. 17) of the covenant between God and Abraham, where "a
+smoking furnace and burning lamp passed between the pieces" of the
+victims Abraham had sacrificed; (2) connecting it with an
+Assyrio-Babylonian _biritu_, fetter, alliance. _B[)e]r[=i]th_ was
+translated in the Septuagint by [Greek: diathêkê], which in classical
+Greek had the meaning of "will"; hence the Vulgate, in the Psalms and
+the New Testament, translates the word by _testamentum_, but elsewhere
+in the Old Testament by _foedus_ or _pactum_; similarly Wycliffe's
+version gives "testament" and "covenant" respectively. The books of
+Scripture dealing with the old or Mosaic, and new or Christian
+dispensation are sometimes known as the Books of the Old and the New
+Covenant. The word appears in the system of theology developed by
+Johannes Cocceius (q.v.), and known as the "Covenant" or "Federal"
+Theology, based on the two Covenants of Works or Life made by God with
+Adam, on condition of obedience, and of grace or redemption, made with
+Christ. In Scottish ecclesiastical history, covenant appears in the two
+agreements signed by the members of the Scottish Church in defence of
+their religious and ecclesiastical systems (see COVENANTERS).
+
+
+
+
+COVENANT, in law, is the English equivalent of the Lat. _conventio_,
+which, although not technical, was the most general word in Roman law
+for "agreement." It was frequently used along with _pactum_, also a
+general term, but applied especially to agreements to settle a question
+without carrying it before the courts of law.
+
+The word "covenant" has been used in a variety of senses in English law.
+
+1. In its strict sense, covenant means an agreement _under seal_, that
+something has or has not already been done, or shall or shall not be
+done hereafter (Shep. _Touchstone_, 160, 162). It is most commonly used
+with reference to sales or leases of land, but is sometimes applied to
+any promise or stipulation, whether under seal or not. The person who
+makes, and is bound to perform, the promise or stipulation is the
+covenantor: the person in whose favour it is made is the covenantee.
+
+2. Covenants have been subdivided into numerous classes, only a few of
+which need to be described. It is unnecessary to do more than mention
+affirmative and negative covenants, joint or several, alternative or
+disjunctive covenants, dependent or independent covenants. As to
+collateral covenants, covenants "running with the land," and covenants
+in leases (including "usual," "proper" and "restrictive" covenants), see
+LANDLORD and TENANT. But there are other classes as to which something
+must be said.
+
+A covenant is said to be _express_ when it is created by the express
+words of the parties to the deed declaratory of their intention. It is
+not indispensable that the word "covenant" should be used. Any word
+which clearly indicates the intention of the parties to covenant will
+suffice. An _implied_ covenant, or _covenant in law_, "depends for its
+existence on the intendment and construction of law. There are some
+words which of themselves do not import an express covenant, yet, being
+made use of in certain contracts, have a similar operation and are
+called covenants in law; and they are as effectually binding on the
+parties as if expressed in the most unequivocal terms" (Platt on
+_Covenants_, p. 40). Thus, the word "demise," used in a lease of deed,
+raises the implication of a covenant both for "quiet enjoyment" and for
+title to let; and it has been judicially suggested that a covenant for
+quiet enjoyment may be implied from any word or words of like import
+(_Budd-Scott_ v. _Daniell_, 1902, 2 K.B. p. 359). The Conveyancing Act
+1881 provides (§ 7) that in a conveyance for valuable consideration,
+other than a mortgage, there shall be implied, as against the person who
+conveys and is expressed to convey as "beneficial owner," certain
+_qualified_ covenants--i.e. covenants extending only to the acts or
+omissions of the vendor, persons through whom he derives title otherwise
+than by purchase for value, and persons claiming under them--for "right
+to convey," "quiet enjoyment," "freedom from incumbrances" and "further
+assurance." Of these statutory covenants for title the only one which
+requires explanation is the covenant for further assurance. It imports
+an agreement on the part of the covenantor to do such reasonable acts,
+in addition to those already performed, as may be necessary for the
+completion of the transfer made (or intended to be made) at the
+requirements of the covenantee (Platt on _Covenants_, p. 341). All these
+statutory implied covenants "run with the land" (see LANDLORD and
+TENANT). Where a mortgagor conveys, and is expressed to convey, as
+"beneficial owner," there are implied _absolute_ covenants--i.e.
+covenants amounting to a warranty against and for the acts and omissions
+of the whole world--that he has a right to convey, that the mortgagee
+shall have quiet enjoyment of the property after default, free from
+incumbrances and for further assurance. Special provisions as to implied
+covenants by the lessor in leases are made in England by § 7 (B) of the
+Conveyancing Act 1881 and in Ireland by the Land Act (Ireland) 1860, §
+41. The distinction between _real_ and _personal_ covenants is that the
+former do, while the latter do not, run with the land. An _inherent_
+covenant is another name for a _real_ covenant (Shep. _Touchstone_, 176;
+Platt, 60). When a covenant relates to an act already done, it is
+usually termed a covenant _executed_; where the performance is future,
+the covenant is termed _executory_. The _covenant for seisin_ was an
+assurance to the grantee that the grantor had the estate which he
+purported to convey. In England it is now included in the covenant for
+right to convey; but is still in separate use in several states in
+America. The _covenant to stand seised to uses_ was an assurance by
+means of which, under the Statute of Uses [1536] (see USES), a
+conveyance of an estate might be effected. When such a covenant is made,
+the legal estate in the land passes at once to the covenantee under the
+statute. The consideration for the covenant must be relationship by
+blood or marriage. It is still occasionally though very rarely employed.
+The _covenant not_ to _sue_ belongs to the law of contract and needs no
+explanation.
+
+  Most of the classes of covenants above mentioned are in use in the
+  United States. In New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Wisconsin and
+  Wyoming the implication of covenants for title has been, with certain
+  exceptions, prohibited by statute. In Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware,
+  Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico,
+  Pennsylvania and Texas the words _grant_, _bargain_ and _sell_, in
+  conveyances in fee, unless specially restricted, amount to qualified
+  covenants that the grantor was seised in fee, free from incumbrances,
+  and for quiet enjoyment (4 Kent, _Commentaries_, § 473; Bouvier, _Law
+  Dictionary_, s.v. Covenant). In some of the states a _covenant of
+  non-claim_, or of _warranty_, an assurance by the grantor that neither
+  he nor his heirs, nor any other person shall claim any title in the
+  premises conveyed, is in general use.
+
+3. An _action of covenant_ lay for breaking covenant. As to the history
+of this action see Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, ii.
+106; and Holmes, _The Common Law_, p. 272. There was also a _writ of
+covenant_. But this remedy had fallen into disuse before 1830 (see Platt
+on _Covenants_, p. 543), and was abolished by the Common Law Procedure
+Acts. Since the Judicature Acts, an action on a covenant follows the
+same course as, and is indistinguishable from, any ordinary action for
+breach of contract. The remedy is by damages, decree of specific
+performance or injunction to prevent the breach.
+
+  The term "covenant" is unknown to Scots law. But its place is filled
+  to some extent by the doctrine of "warrandice." Many of the British
+  colonies have legislated, as to the implication of covenants for
+  title, on the lines of the English Conveyancing Act 1881; e.g.
+  Tasmania, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act 1884 (47 Vict. No. 10).
+
+  As to covenants in restraint of trade see RESTRAINT.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the authorities cited in the text see:
+  _English Law_; Goodeve, _Law of Real Property_ (5th ed., London,
+  1906); C. Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, 1901);
+  Hamilton, _Law of Covenants_ (London); Fawcett, _Law of Landlord and
+  Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, 1905). _American Law: Rawle, Law of
+  Covenants for Title_ (Boston, 1887); _Encyclopaedia of American Law_
+  (3rd ed., 1890), vol. viii., tit. "Covenants."     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COVENANTERS, the name given to a party which, originating in the
+Reformation movement, played an important part in the history of
+Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England, during the 17th
+century. The Covenanters were thus named because in a series of _bands_
+or _covenants_ they bound themselves to maintain the Presbyterian
+doctrine and polity as the sole religion of their country. The first
+"godly band" is dated December 1557; but more important is the covenant
+of 1581, drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts
+which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold upon
+Scotland, and called the King's Confession or National Covenant. Based
+upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the pope
+and the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church in no measured terms. It
+was adopted by the General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his
+household, and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was
+again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. In 1637 Scotland was in a state of
+turmoil. Charles I. and Archbishop Laud had just met with a reverse in
+their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the Scots; and fearing
+further measures on the part of the king, it occurred to Archibald
+Johnston, Lord Warriston, to revive the National Covenant of 1581.
+Additional matter intended to suit the document to the special
+circumstances of the time was added, and the covenant was adopted and
+signed by a large gathering in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinburgh, on the
+28th of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the
+country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by oath to
+maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580, and to
+reject all innovations introduced since that time, while professed
+expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The General Assembly of
+1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the covenant was
+adopted by the parliament, and its subscription was required from all
+citizens. Before this date the Covenanters were usually referred to as
+_Supplicants_, but from about this time the former designation began to
+prevail.
+
+A further development took place in 1643. The leaders of the English
+parliament, worsted in the Civil War, implored the aid of the Scots,
+which was promised on condition that the Scottish system of church
+government was adopted in England. After some haggling a document called
+the Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up. This was practically a
+treaty between England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed
+religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and Ireland
+"according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed
+churches," and the extirpation of popery and prelacy. It was subscribed
+by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the
+English parliament, and with some slight modifications by the
+Westminster Assembly of Divines. Charles I. refused to accept it when he
+surrendered himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important
+concessions in this direction in the "Engagement" made with the Scots in
+December 1647. Charles II. before landing in Scotland in June 1650
+declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants, and this
+was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone in the following
+January.
+
+From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters were the dominant party in Scotland,
+directing her policy both at home and abroad. Their power, however,
+which had been seriously weakened by Cromwell's victory at Dunbar in
+September 1651, was practically destroyed when Charles II. was restored
+nine years later. Firmly seated upon the throne Charles renounced the
+covenants, which in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be
+abjured by all persons holding public offices. Episcopacy was restored,
+the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who refused to
+recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled from their livings.
+Gathering around them many of the Covenanters who clung tenaciously to
+their standards of faith, these ministers began to preach in the fields,
+and a period of persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality
+began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the
+Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle soon assumed
+the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the crown under John
+Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent against them, and although
+the insurgents gained isolated successes, in general they were worsted
+and were treated with great barbarity. They maintained, however, their
+cherished covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in
+1680 the more extreme members of the party signed a document known as
+the "Sanquhar Declaration," and were afterwards called Cameronians from
+the name of their leader, Richard Cameron (q.v.). They renounced their
+allegiance to King James and were greatly disappointed when their
+standards found no place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing
+to hold the belief that the covenants should be made obligatory upon the
+entire nation. The Covenanters had a martyrology of their own, and the
+halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and their
+sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the time of their
+political predominance, is part of the general history of Scotland
+(q.v.).
+
+  The texts of the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant
+  are printed in S. R. Gardiner's _Constitutional Documents of the
+  Puritan Revolution_ (Oxford, 1899). See also J. H. Burton, _History of
+  Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1905); A. Lang, _History of Scotland_
+  (Edinburgh, 1900); S. R. Gardiner, _History of England_ (London,
+  1883-1884); G. Grub, _Ecclesiastical History of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
+  1861); J. Macpherson, _History of the Church in Scotland_ (Paisley,
+  1901); and J. K. Hewison, _The Covenanters_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+COVENT GARDEN, formerly an open space north of the Strand, London,
+England, now occupied by the principal flower, fruit and vegetable
+market in the metropolis. This was originally the so-called "convent
+garden" belonging to the abbey of St Peter, Westminster. In the first
+half of the 17th century the site of the garden was laid out as a square
+by Inigo Jones, with a piazza on two sides; and as early as 1656 it was
+becoming a market place for the same commodities as are now sold in it.
+Covent Garden Theatre (1858) is the chief seat of grand opera in London.
+The site has carried a theatre since 1733, but earlier buildings were
+burnt in 1809 and 1856.
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, SIR JOHN (d. 1682), son of John Coventry, the second son of
+Thomas, Lord Keeper Coventry, was returned to the Long Parliament in
+1640 as member for Evesham. During the Civil War he served for the king,
+and at the Restoration was created a knight. In 1667, and in the
+following parliaments of 1678, 1679 and 1681, he was elected for
+Weymouth, and opposed the government. On the 21st of December 1670,
+owing to a jest made by Coventry in the House of Commons on the subject
+of the king's amours, Sir Thomas Sandys, an officer of the guards, with
+other accomplices, by the order of Monmouth, and (it was said) with the
+approval of the king himself, waylaid him as he was returning home to
+Suffolk Street and slit his nose to the bone. The outrage created an
+extraordinary sensation, and in consequence a measure known as the
+"Coventry Act" was passed, declaring assaults accompanied by personal
+mutilation a felony without benefit of clergy. Sir John died in 1682.
+Sir William Coventry, his uncle, speaks slightingly of him, ridicules
+his vanity and wishes him out of the House of Commons to be "out of
+harm's way."
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY, 1ST BARON (1578-1640), lord keeper of
+England, eldest son of Sir Thomas Coventry, judge of the common pleas (a
+descendant of John Coventry, lord mayor of London in the reign of Henry
+VI.), and of Margaret Jeffreys of Earls Croome, or Croome D'Abitot, in
+Worcestershire, was born in 1578. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in
+1592, and the Inner Temple in 1594, becoming bencher of the society in
+1614, reader in 1616, and holding the office of treasurer from 1617 till
+1621. His exceptional legal abilities were rewarded early with official
+promotion. On the 16th of November 1616 he was made recorder of London
+in spite of Bacon's opposition, who, although allowing him to be "a well
+trained and an honest man," objected that he was "bred by my Lord Coke
+and seasoned in his ways."[1] On the 14th of March 1617 he was appointed
+solicitor-general and was knighted; was returned for Droitwich to the
+parliament of 1621; and on the 11th of January in that year was made
+attorney-general. He took part in the proceedings against Bacon for
+corruption, and was manager for the Commons in the impeachment of Edward
+Floyd for insulting the elector and electress palatine.
+
+On the 1st of November 1625 he was made lord keeper of the great seal;
+in this capacity he delivered the king's reprimand to the Commons on the
+29th of March 1626, when he declared that "liberty of counsel" alone
+belonged to them and not "liberty of control." On the 10th of April 1628
+he received the title of Baron Coventry of Aylesborough in
+Worcestershire. At the opening of parliament in 1628 he threatened that
+the king would use his prerogative if further thwarted in the matter of
+supplies. In the subsequent debates, however, while strongly supporting
+the king's prerogative against the claims of the parliament to executive
+power, he favoured a policy of moderation and compromise. He defended
+the right of the council to commit to prison without showing cause, and
+to issue "general" warrants; though he allowed it should only be
+employed in special circumstances, disapproved of the king's sudden
+dissolution of parliament, and agreed to the liberation on bail of the
+seven imprisoned members on condition of their giving security for their
+good behaviour. He showed less subservience than Bacon to Buckingham,
+and his resistance to the latter's pretensions to the office of lord
+high constable greatly incensed the duke. Buckingham taunted Coventry
+with having gained his place by his favour; to which the lord keeper
+replied, "Did I conceive I had my place by your favour, I would
+presently unmake myself by returning the seal to his Majesty."[2] After
+this defiance Buckingham's sudden death alone probably prevented
+Coventry's displacement. He passed sentence of death on Lord Audley in
+1631, drafted and enforced the proclamation of the 20th of June 1632
+ordering the country gentlemen to leave London, and in 1634 joined in
+Laud's attack on the earl of Portland for peculation. The same year, in
+an address to the judges, he supported the proposed levy of ship-money
+on the inland as well as the maritime counties on the plea of the
+necessity of effectually arming, "so that they might not be enforced to
+fight," "the wooden walls" being in his opinion "the best walls of this
+kingdom."[3] In the Star Chamber Coventry was one of Lilburne's judges
+in 1637, but he generally showed conspicuous moderation, inclining to
+leniency in the cases of Richard Chambers in 1629 for seditious
+speeches, and of Henry Sherfield in 1632 for breaking painted glass in a
+church. He prevented also the hanging of men for resistance to
+impressment, and pointed out its illegality, since the men were not
+subject to martial law. While contributing thirty horse to the Scottish
+expedition in 1638, and lending the king £10,000 in 1639, he gave no
+support to the forced loan levied upon the city in the latter year. He
+died on the 14th of January 1640.
+
+Lord Coventry held the great seal for nearly fifteen years, and was
+enabled to collect a large fortune. He was an able judge, and he issued
+some important orders in chancery, probably alluded to by Wood, who
+ascribes to him a tract on "The Fees of all law Officers."[4] Whitelocke
+accuses him of mediocrity,[4] but his contemporaries in general have
+united in extolling his judicial ability, his quick despatch of business
+and his sound and sterling character. Clarendon in particular praises
+his statesmanship, and compares his capacity with Lord Strafford's,
+adding, however, that he seldom spoke in the council except on legal
+business and had little influence in political affairs; to the latter
+circumstance he owed his exceptional popularity. He describes him as
+having "in the plain way of speaking and delivery a strange power of
+making himself believed," as a man of "not only firm gravity but a
+severity and even some morosity," as "rather exceedingly liked than
+passionately loved."
+
+Lord Coventry married (1) Sarah, daughter of Sir Edward Sebright of
+Besford in Worcestershire, by whom besides a daughter he had one son,
+Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of
+John Aldersley of Spurstow, Cheshire, and widow of William Pitchford, by
+whom he had four sons, John, Francis, Henry and Sir William Coventry,
+the statesman.
+
+Thomas Coventry, 5th baron (d. 1699), was created an earl in 1697 with a
+special limitation, on failure of his own male issue, to that of Walter,
+youngest brother of the lord keeper, from whom the present earl of
+Coventry is descended.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Spedding's _Bacon_. vi. 97.
+
+  [2] Hacket's _Life of Bishop Williams_, ii. 19.
+
+  [3] Rushworth (1680), part ii. vol. i. 294.
+
+  [4] _Ath. Oxon._ ii. 650.
+
+  [5] There is an adverse opinion also expressed in Pepys's _Diary_,
+    August 26, 1666, probably based on little real knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1628-1686), English statesman, son of the lord
+keeper, Thomas, Lord Coventry, by his second wife Elizabeth Aldersley,
+was born about 1628. He matriculated at Queen's College, Oxford, at the
+age of fourteen. Owing to the outbreak of the Civil War he was obliged
+to quit his studies, but according to Sir John Bramston "he had a good
+tutor who made him a scholar, and he travelled and got the French
+language in good perfection." "He was young whilst the war continued,"
+wrote Clarendon, "yet he had put himself before the end of it into the
+army and had the command of a foot company and shortly after travelled
+into France." Here he remained till all hopes of obtaining foreign
+assistance and of raising a new army had to be laid aside, when he
+returned to England and kept aloof from the various royalist intrigues.
+When, however, a new prospect of a restoration appeared in 1660,
+Coventry hastened to Breda, was appointed secretary to James, duke of
+York, lord high admiral of England, and headed the royal procession when
+Charles entered London in triumph.
+
+He was returned to the Restoration parliament of 1661 for Great
+Yarmouth, became commissioner for the navy in May 1662 and in 1663 was
+made D.C.L. at Oxford. His great talents were very soon recognized in
+parliament, and his influence as an official was considerable. His
+appointment was rather that of secretary to the admiralty than of
+personal assistant to the duke of York,[1] and was one of large gains.
+Wood states that he collected a fortune of £60,000. Accusations of
+corruption in his naval administration, and especially during the Dutch
+war, were brought against him, but there is nothing to show that he ever
+transgressed the limits sanctioned by usage and custom in obtaining his
+emoluments. Pepys in his diary invariably testifies to the excellence of
+his administration and to his zeal for reform and economy. His ability
+and energy, however, did little to avert the naval collapse, owing
+chiefly to financial mismanagement and to the ill-advised appointments
+to command. Coventry denied all responsibility for the Dutch War in
+1665, which Clarendon sought to place upon his shoulders, and his
+repudiation is supported by Pepys; it was, moreover, contrary to his
+well-known political opinion. The war greatly increased his influence,
+and shortly after the victory off Lowestoft, on the 3rd of June 1665, he
+was knighted and made a privy councillor (26th of June) and was
+subsequently admitted to the committee on foreign affairs. In 1667 he
+was appointed to the board of treasury to effect financial reforms. "I
+perceive," writes Pepys on the 23rd of August 1667, "Sir William
+Coventry is the man and nothing done till he comes," and on his removal
+in 1669 the duke of Albemarle, no friendly or partial critic, declares
+that "nothing now would be well done." His appointment, however, came
+too late to ward off the naval disaster at Chatham the same year and the
+national bankruptcy in 1672.
+
+Meanwhile Coventry's rising influence had been from the first the cause
+of increasing jealousy to the old chancellor Clarendon, who especially
+disliked and discouraged the younger generation. Coventry resented this
+repression and thought ill of the conduct of the administration. He
+became the chief mover in the successful attack made upon Clarendon, but
+refused to take any part in his impeachment. Two days after Clarendon's
+resignation (on the 31st of August), Coventry announced his intention of
+leaving the duke's service and of terminating his connexion with the
+navy.[2] As the principal agent in effecting Clarendon's fall he
+naturally acquired new power and influence, and the general opinion
+pointed to him as his successor as first minister of the crown. Personal
+merit, patriotism and conspicuous ability, however, were poor passports
+to place and power in Charles II.'s reign. Coventry retained merely his
+appointment at the treasury, and the brilliant but unscrupulous and
+incapable duke of Buckingham, a favourite of the king, succeeded to Lord
+Clarendon. The relations between the two men soon became unfriendly.
+Buckingham ridiculed Sir William's steady attention to business, and was
+annoyed at his opposition to Clarendon's impeachment. Coventry rapidly
+lost influence, was excluded from the cabinet council, and six months
+after Clarendon's fall complains he has scarcely a friend at court.
+Finally, in March 1669, Buckingham having written a play in which Sir
+William was ridiculed, the latter sent him a challenge. Notice of the
+challenge reached the authorities through the duke's second, and Sir
+William was imprisoned in the Tower on the 3rd of March and subsequently
+expelled from the privy council. He was superseded in the treasury on
+the 11th of March by Buckingham's favourite, Sir Thomas Osborne,
+afterwards earl of Danby and duke of Leeds, and was at last released
+from the Tower on the 21st in disgrace. The real cause of his dismissal
+was clearly the final adoption by Charles of the policy of subservience
+to France and desertion of Holland and Protestant interests. Six weeks
+before Coventry's fall, the conference between Charles, James,
+Arlington, Clifford and Arundel had taken place, which resulted a year
+and a half later in the disgraceful treaty of Dover. To such schemes Sir
+William, with his steady hostility to France and active devotion to
+Protestantism, was doubtless a formidable opponent. He now withdrew
+definitely from official life, still retaining, however, his ascendancy
+in the House of Commons, and leading the party which condemned and
+criticized the reactionary and fatal policy of the government, his
+credit and reputation being rather enhanced than diminished by his
+dismissal.[3]
+
+In 1673 was published a pamphlet which went through five editions the
+same year, entitled _England's appeal from the Private Cabal at
+Whitehall to the Great Council of the Nation ... by a true Lover of his
+Country_, an anonymous work universally ascribed to Sir William, which
+forcibly reflects his opinions on the French entanglement. In the great
+matter of the Indulgence, while refusing to discuss the limits of
+prerogative and liberty, he argued that the dispensing power of the
+crown could not be valid during the session of parliament, and
+criticized the manner of the declaration while approving its ostensible
+object. He supported the Test Act, but maintained a statesmanlike
+moderation amidst the tide of indignation rising against the government,
+and refused to take part in the personal attacks upon ministers, drawing
+upon himself the same unpopularity as his nephew Halifax incurred later.
+In the same year he warmly denounced the alliance with France. During
+the summer of 1674 he was again received at court. In 1675 he supported
+the bill to exclude Roman Catholics from both Houses, and also the
+measure to close the House of Commons to placemen; and he showed great
+activity in his opposition to the French connexion, especially
+stigmatizing the encouragement given by the government to the levying of
+troops for the French service. In May 1677 he voted for the Dutch
+alliance. Like most of his contemporaries he accepted the story of the
+popish plot in 1678. Coventry several times refused the highest court
+appointments, and he was not included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled
+council in April 1679. In the exclusion question he favoured at first a
+policy of limitations, and on his nephew Halifax, who on his retirement
+became the leader of the moderate party, he enjoined prudence and
+patience, and greatly regretted the violence of the opposition which
+eventually excited a reaction and ruined everything. He refused to stand
+for the new parliament, and retired to his country residence at Minster
+Lovell near Witney, in Oxfordshire. He died unmarried on the 23rd of
+June 1686, at Somerhill near Tunbridge Wells, where he had gone to take
+the waters, and was buried at Penshurst, where a monument was erected to
+his memory. In his will he ordered his funeral to be at small expense,
+and left £2000 to the French Protestant refugees in England, besides
+£3000 for the liberation of captives in Algiers. He had shortly before
+his death already paid for the liberation of sixty slaves. He was much
+beloved and respected in his family circle, his nephew, Henry Savile,
+alluding to him in affectionate terms as "our dearest uncle" and
+"incomparable friend."
+
+Though Sir William Coventry never filled that place in the national
+administration to which his merit and exceptional ability clearly
+entitled him, his public life together with his correspondence are
+sufficient to distinguish him from amongst his contemporaries as a
+statesman of the first rank. Lord Halifax obviously derived from his
+honoured mentor those principles of government which, by means of his
+own brilliant intellectual gifts, originality and imaginative insight,
+gained further force and influence. Halifax owed to him his interest in
+the navy and his grasp of the necessity to a country of a powerful
+maritime force. He drew his antagonism to France, his religious
+tolerance, wide religious views but firm Protestantism doubtless from
+the same source. Sir William was the original "Trimmer." Writing to his
+nephew Viscount Weymouth, while denying the authorship of _The Character
+of a Trimmer_, he says:--"I have not been ashamed to own myself to be a
+trimmer ... one who would sit upright and not overturn the boat by
+swaying too much to either side." He shared the Trimmer's dislike of
+party, urging Halifax in the exclusion contest "not to be thrust by the
+opposition of his enemies into another party, but that he keep upon a
+national bottom which at length will prevail." His prudence is expressed
+in his "perpetual unwillingness to do things which I cannot undo." "A
+singular independence of spirit, a breadth of mind which refused to be
+contracted by party formulas, a sanity which was proof against the
+contagion of national delirium, were equally characteristic of uncle and
+nephew."[4] Sir William Coventry's conceptions of statesmanship, under
+the guiding hand of his nephew, largely inspired the future revolution
+settlement, and continued to be an essential condition of English
+political growth and progress.
+
+Besides the tract already mentioned Coventry was the author of _A Letter
+to Dr Burnet giving an Account of Cardinal Pool's Secret Powers ..._
+(1685). _The Character of a Trimmer_, often ascribed to him, is now
+known to have been written by Lord Halifax. "Notes concerning the Poor,"
+and an essay "concerning the decay of rents and the remedy," are among
+the Malet Papers (_Hist. MSS. Comm._ Ser. 5th Rep. app. 320 (a)) and
+_Add. MSS._ Brit. Mus. (cal. 1882-1887); an "Essay concerning France"
+(4th Rep. app. 229 (b)) and a "Discourse on the Management of the Navy"
+(230b) are among the MSS. of the marquess of Bath, also a catalogue of
+his library (233(a)).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--No adequate life of Sir William Coventry has been
+  written; the most satisfactory appreciation of his character and
+  abilities is to be found in the several passages relating to him in
+  the _Life of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax_, by Miss A. C.
+  Foxcroft (1898); see also _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 3 and 4 Rep. (Longleat
+  Collection), 5 Rep. (_Malet Collection_ and see Index) now in the
+  Brit. Mus. add. Cal. (1882-1887), Some of his papers being also at
+  Devonshire House; _MSS. of Marquis of Ormond_, iii. of _J. M.
+  Heathcote and Miscellaneous Collections_; Clarendon's _Life and
+  Continuation_ (Oxford, 1857); _Calendar of Clarendon Papers; Burnet's
+  Hist, of His Own Times_ (Oxford, 1823); _Hallam's Constitutional
+  Hist_. (1854), chap. xi.; John Evelyn's _Memoirs_; Pepys's _Diary_ and
+  _Pepysiana_ (ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1903); _Calendar of State Papers,
+  Domestic; Savile Correspondence_ (Camden Society, 1858, vol. lxxi.);
+  A. Grey's _Debates_; Sir John Bramston's _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc.,
+  1845); Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv. 190; _Saturday Review_ (Oct.
+  11, 1873).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Pepysiana_, by H. B. Wheatley (1903), 154.
+
+  [2] Foxcroft, _Life of Sir G. Savile_, i. 54.
+
+  [3] _Savile Correspondence_ (Camden Soc.), 295.
+
+  [4] Foxcroft's _Life of Sir G. Savile_, i. 36.
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Warwickshire,
+England; 94 m. N.W. from London by the London & North Western railway.
+Pop. (1901) 69,978. The Coventry canal communicates with the Trent and
+Mersey and Birmingham canals, and the midland system generally. Coventry
+stands on a gentle eminence, with higher ground lying to the west, and
+is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford Brook, feeders of the Avon,
+which unite within the town. Of its ancient fortifications two gates and
+some portions of the wall are still extant, and several of the older
+streets are picturesque from the number of half-timbered houses
+projecting over the footways.
+
+The most remarkable buildings are the churches; of these the oldest are
+St Michael's, one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular architecture
+in England, with a beautiful steeple rising to a height of 303 ft.; Holy
+Trinity church, a cruciform structure with a lofty steeple at the
+intersection; and St John's, or Bablake church, which is nearly a
+parallelogram on the ground plan, but cruciform in the clerestory with a
+central tower. Christ church dates only from 1832, but it is attached to
+the ancient spire of the Grey Friars' church. Of secular buildings the
+most interesting is St Mary's hall, erected by the united gilds in the
+early part of the 15th century. The principal chamber, situated above a
+fine crypt, is 76 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 34 ft. high; its roof is of
+carved oak, and in the north end there is a large window of old stained
+glass, with a curious piece of tapestry beneath nearly as old as the
+building. In the treasury is preserved a valuable collection of ancient
+muniments. A statue of Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of London
+(1532-1533), founder of St John's College, Oxford, was erected in 1883.
+The cemetery, laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect and landscape
+gardener, and enlarged in 1887, is particularly beautiful. The
+educational institutions include a well-endowed free grammar school,
+founded in the reign of Elizabeth, in modern buildings (1885), a
+technical school, school of art, endowed charity schools, and a county
+reformatory for girls; and among the charitable foundations, which are
+numerous and valuable, Bond's hospital for old men and Ford's hospital
+for old women are remarkable as fine specimens of ancient timber work.
+Swanswell and Spenser Parks were opened in 1883, and a recreation ground
+in 1880.
+
+Coventry was formerly noted for its woollens, and subsequently acquired
+such a reputation for its dyeing that the expression "as true as
+Coventry blue" became proverbial. Existing industries are the making of
+motor cars, cycles and their accessories, for which Coventry is one of
+the chief centres in Great Britain; sewing machines are also produced;
+and carpet-weaving and dyeing, art metal working and watch making are
+carried on. An ancient fair is held in Whit-week. A county of itself
+till 1843, the town became a county borough in 1888. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The parliamentary
+borough returns one member. In 1894 a suffragan bishopric of Coventry
+was established under the see of Worcester, but no longer exists. Area,
+4149 acres.
+
+The village which afterwards became important as Coventry (_Coventreu_,
+_Coventre_) owed its existence to the foundation of a Benedictine
+monastery by Earl Leofric and his wife Godgyfu, the famous Lady Godiva
+(q.v.), in 1043. The manor, which in 1066 belonged to the latter,
+descended to the earls of Chester and to Robert de Montalt, and from him
+passed to Isabella queen of Edward II. and the crown. Ranulf, earl of
+Chester, granted the earliest extant charter to the town in 1153, by
+which his burgesses were to hold of him in free burgage as they held of
+his father, and to have their portmote. This, with further privileges,
+was confirmed by Henry II. in 1177, and by nearly every succeeding
+sovereign until the 17th century. In 1345 Edward III. gave Coventry a
+corporation, mayor and bailiffs empowered to hold pleas and keep the
+town prison. Edward the Black Prince granted the mayor and bailiffs the
+right to hold the town in fee farm of £50 and to build a wall. In 1452
+Henry VI. formed the city and surrounding hamlets into a county, and
+James I. incorporated Coventry in 1622. It first sent two
+representatives to parliament in 1295, but the returns were irregular.
+The prior's market on Fridays was probably of Saxon origin; a second
+market was granted in 1348, while fairs, still held, were obtained in
+1217 for the octave of Holy Trinity, and in 1348 and in 1442 for eight
+days from the Friday after Corpus Christi. As early as 1216 Coventry was
+important for its trade in wool, cloth and caps, its gilds later being
+particularly numerous and wealthy. In 1568 Flemish weavers introduced
+new methods, but the trade was destroyed in the wars of the 17th
+century. During the middle of the 16th century there was a flourishing
+manufacture of blue thread, but this decayed before 1581; in the 18th
+century the manufacture of ribbon was introduced.
+
+The popular phrase "to send to Coventry" (i.e. to refuse to associate
+with a person) is of uncertain derivation. The _New English Dictionary_
+selects the period of the Civil War of the 17th century as that in which
+the origin of the phrase is probably to be found. Clarendon (_History of
+the Great Rebellion_, 1647) states that the citizens of Birmingham rose
+against certain small parties of the king's supporters, and sent the
+prisoners they captured to Coventry, which was then strongly
+parliamentarian.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Warwick_; William Dugdale, _The
+  Antiquities of Coventre, illustrated from records_ (Coventry, 1765).
+
+
+
+
+COVER (from the Fr. _couvert_, from _couvrir_, to cover, Lat.
+_cooperire_), that which hides, shuts in or conceals, a lid to a box or
+vessel, &c., the binding of a book or wrapper of a parcel; as a hunting
+term, the wood or undergrowth which shelters game. As a commercial term,
+the word means in its widest sense a security against loss, but is
+employed more particularly in connexion with stock exchange transactions
+to signify a "deposit made with a broker to secure him from being out of
+pocket in the event of the stocks falling against his client and the
+client not paying the difference" (_In re Cronmire_, 1898, 2 Q.B. 383).
+It is a mode of speculation engaged in almost entirely by persons who
+wish to limit their risk to a small amount, and, as a rule, the
+transactions are largely carried out in England with "outside" brokers,
+i.e. those dealers in securities who are not members of the Stock
+Exchange. The deposit is so much per cent or per share, usually 1% on
+the market value of the securities up to about twice the amount of the
+turn of the market; the client being able to close the transaction at
+any time during the currency of the cover, but the broker only when the
+cover is exhausted or has "run off." Cover is not money deposited to
+abide the event of a wager, but as security against a debt which may
+arise from a gaming contract, and it may be recovered back, if
+unappropriated.
+
+
+
+
+COVERDALE, MILES (1488?-1569), English translator of the Bible and
+bishop of Exeter, was born of Yorkshire parents about 1488, studied
+philosophy and theology at Cambridge, was ordained priest at Norwich in
+1514, and then entered the convent of Austin friars at Cambridge. Here
+he came under the influence of the prior, Robert Barnes, made the
+acquaintance of Sir Thomas More and of Thomas Cromwell, and began a
+thorough study of the Scriptures. He was one of those who met at the
+White Horse tavern to discuss theological questions, and when Barnes was
+arrested on a charge of heresy, Coverdale went up to London to assist
+him in drawing up his defence. Soon afterwards he left the convent,
+assumed the habit of a secular priest, and began to preach against
+confession and the worship of images. In 1531 he graduated bachelor of
+canon law at Cambridge, but from 1528 to 1534 he prudently spent most of
+his time abroad. No corroboration has, however, been found for Foxe's
+statement that in 1529 he was at Hamburg assisting Tyndale in his
+translation of the Pentateuch. In 1534 he published two translations of
+his own, the first Dulichius's _Vom alten und newen Gott_, and the
+second a _Paraphrase upon the Psalms_, and in 1535 he completed his
+translation of the Bible. The venture seems to have been projected by
+Jacob van Meteren, who apparently employed Coverdale to do the
+translation, and Froschover of Zürich to do the printing. No perfect
+copy is known to exist, and the five or six which alone have title-pages
+give no name of publisher or place of publication. The volume is
+dedicated to the king of England, where Convocation at Cranmer's
+instance had, in December 1534, petitioned for an authorized English
+version of the Scriptures. As a work of scholarship it does not rank
+particularly high. Some of the title-pages state that it had been
+translated out of "Douche" (i.e. German) "and Latyn": and Coverdale
+mentions that he used five interpreters, which are supposed to have been
+the Vulgate, the Latin version of Pagninus, Luther's translation, the
+Zürich version, and Tyndale's Pentateuch and New Testament. There is no
+definite mention of the original Greek and Hebrew texts; but it has
+considerable literary merit, many of Coverdale's phrases are retained in
+the authorized version, and it was the first complete Bible to be
+printed in English. Two fresh editions were issued in 1537, but none of
+them received official sanction. Coverdale was, however, employed by
+Cromwell to assist in the production of the Great Bible of 1539, which
+was ordered to be placed in all English churches. The work was done at
+Paris until the French government stopped it, when Coverdale and his
+colleagues returned to England early in 1539 to complete it. He was also
+employed in the same year in assisting at the suppression of
+superstitious usages, but the reaction of 1540 drove him once more
+abroad. His Bible was prohibited by proclamation in 1542, while
+Coverdale himself defied the Six Articles by marrying Elizabeth
+Macheson, sister-in-law to Dr John MacAlpine.
+
+For a time Coverdale lived at Tübingen, where he was created D.D. In
+1545 he was pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabern in the duchy of
+Pfalz-Zweibrücken. In March 1548 he was at Frankfort, when the new
+English Order of Communion reached him; he at once translated it into
+German and Latin and sent a copy to Calvin, whose wife had befriended
+Coverdale at Strassburg. Calvin, however, does not seem to have approved
+of it so highly as Coverdale.
+
+Coverdale was already on his way back to England, and in October 1548 he
+was staying at Windsor Castle, where Cranmer and some other divines,
+inaccurately called the Windsor Commission, were preparing the First
+Book of Common Prayer. His first appointment had been as almoner to
+Queen Catherine Parr, then wife of Lord Seymour; and he preached her
+funeral sermon in September 1548. He was also chaplain to the young king
+and took an active part in the reforming measures of his reign. He was
+one of the most effective preachers of the time. A sermon by him at St
+Paul's on the second Sunday in Lent, 1549, was immediately followed by
+the pulling down of "the sacrament at the high altar." A few weeks later
+he preached at the penance of some Anabaptists, and in January 1550 he
+was put on a commission to prosecute Anabaptists and all who infringed
+the Book of Common Prayer. In 1549 he wrote a dedication to Edward for a
+translation of the second volume of Erasmus's _Paraphrases_; and in 1550
+he translated Otto Wermueller's _Precious Pearl_, for which Protector
+Somerset, who had derived spiritual comfort from the book while in the
+Tower, wrote a preface. He was much in request at funerals: he preached
+at Sir James Wilford's in November 1550, and at Lord Wentworth's before
+a great concourse in Westminster Abbey in March 1551.
+
+Perhaps it was his gift of oratory which suggested his appointment as
+bishop of the refractory men of Devon and Cornwall. He had already, in
+August 1549, at some risk, gone down with Lord Russell to turn the
+hearts of the rebels by preaching and persuasion, and two years later he
+was appointed bishop of Exeter by letters patent, on the compulsory
+retirement of his predecessor, Veysey, who had reached an almost
+mythical age. He was an active prelate, and perhaps the vigorous
+Protestantism of the West in Elizabeth's reign was partly due to his
+persuasive powers. He sat on the commission for the reform of the canon
+law, and was in constant attendance during the parliaments of 1552 and
+1553. On Mary's accession he was at once deprived on the score of his
+marriage, and Veysey in spite of his age was restored. Coverdale was
+called before the privy council on the 1st of September, and required to
+find sureties; but he was not further molested, and when Christian III.
+of Denmark at the instance of Coverdale's brother-in-law, MacAlpine,
+interceded in his favour, he was in February 1555 permitted to leave for
+Denmark with two servants, and his baggage unsearched; one of these
+"servants" is said to have been his wife. He declined Christian's offer
+of a living in Denmark, and preferred to preach at Wesel to the numerous
+English refugees there, until he was invited by Duke Wolfgang to resume
+his labours at Bergzabern. He was at Geneva in December 1558, and is
+said to have participated in the preparation of the Geneva version of
+the Bible.
+
+In 1559 Coverdale returned to England and resumed his preaching at St
+Paul's and elsewhere. Clothed in a plain black gown, he assisted at
+Parker's consecration, in spite of the facts that he had himself been
+deprived, and did not resume his bishopric, and that his original
+appointment had been by the uncanonical method of letters patent.
+Conscientious objections were probably responsible for his
+non-restoration to the see of Exeter, and his refusal of that of
+Llandaff in 1563. He objected to vestments, and in his living of St
+Magnus close to London Bridge, which he received in 1563, he took other
+liberties with the Act of Uniformity. His bishop, Grindal, was his
+friend, and his vagaries were overlooked until 1566, when he resigned
+his living rather than conform. He still preached occasionally, and
+always drew large audiences. He died in February 1568, and was buried on
+the 19th in St Bartholomew's behind the Exchange. When this church was
+pulled down in 1840 to make room for the new Exchange, his remains were
+removed to St Magnus.
+
+  Coverdale's works, most of them translations, number twenty-six in
+  all; nearly all, with his letters, were published in a collected
+  edition by the Parker Soc., 2 vols., 1846. An excellent account is
+  given in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ of his life, with authorities, to
+  which may be added R. W. Dixon's _Church History_, Bishop and
+  Gasquet's _Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer_; Acts of the
+  Privy Council; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; _Lit. Rem. of Edward
+  VI._ (Roxburghe Club); Whittingham's _Brief Discourse of Troubles at
+  Frankfort_; Pocock's _Troubles connected with the Prayer-Book_ (Camden
+  Soc.).     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+COVERTURE (a covering, an old French form of the modern _couverture_), a
+term in English law applied to the condition of a woman during marriage,
+when she is supposed to be under the cover, influence and protection of
+her husband, and so immune in certain cases from punishment for crime
+committed in the presence and on the presumed coercion of her husband.
+(See further HUSBAND AND WIFE.)
+
+
+
+
+COVILHÃ, a town of Portugal, in the district of Castello Branco,
+formerly included in the province of Beira; on the eastern slope of the
+Serra da Estrella, and on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1900)
+15,469. Covilhã, which has been often compared with a collection of
+swallows' nests clinging to the rugged granitic mountain side, is shaped
+like an amphitheatre of closely crowded houses, overlooking the river
+Zezere and its wild valley from a height of 2180 ft. Over 4000
+operatives are employed in the manufacture of _saragoça_, a coarse brown
+cloth worn by the peasantry throughout Portugal. The village of Unhaes
+da Serra (1507), 6 m. W.S.W., is noted for its sulphurous springs and
+baths.
+
+
+
+
+COVILHAM (COVILHÃO, COVILHÃ), PERO or PEDRO DE Portuguese explorer and
+diplomatist (fl. 1487-1525), was a native of Covilhã in Beira. In early
+life he had gone to Castile and entered the service of Alphonso, duke of
+Seville; later, when war broke out between Castile and Portugal, he
+returned to his own country, and attached himself, first as a "groom,"
+then as a "squire," to King Alphonso V. and his successor John II. On
+the 7th of May 1487, he was despatched, in company with Alphonso de
+Payva, on a mission of exploration in the Levant and adjoining regions
+of Asia and Africa, with the special object of learning where "cinnamon
+and other spices could be found," as well as of discovering the land of
+Prester John, by "overland" routes. Bartholomeu Diaz, at this very time,
+went out to find the Prester's country, as well as the termination of
+the African continent and the ocean route to India, by sea. Covilham and
+Payva were provided with a "letter of credence for all the countries of
+the world" and with a "map for navigating, taken from the map of the
+world" and compiled by Bishop Calcadilha, and doctors Rodrigo and
+Moyses. The first two of these were prominent members of the commission
+which advised the Portuguese government to reject the proposals of
+Columbus. The explorers started from Santarem and travelled by Barcelona
+to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of Cosimo
+de' Medici; thence they passed to Rhodes, where they lodged with two
+other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and Cairo, where they posed as
+merchants. In company with certain Moors from Fez and Tlemçen they now
+went by way of Tor to Suakin and Aden, where (as it was now monsoon
+time) they parted, Covilham proceeding to India and Payva to
+Ethiopia--the two companions agreeing to meet again in Cairo. Covilham
+thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, whence he retraced his course to
+Goa and Ormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an excursion on his way
+down the East African coast to Sofala, which he was probably the first
+European to visit. At Cairo he heard of Payva's death, and met with two
+Portuguese Jews--Rabbi Abraham of Beja, and Joseph, a shoe-maker of
+Lamego--who had been sent by King John with letters for Covilham and
+Payva. By Joseph of Lamego Covilham replied with an account of his
+Indian and African journeys, and of his observations on the cinnamon,
+pepper and clove trade at Calicut, together with advice as to the ocean
+way to India. This he truly represented as quite practicable: "to this
+they (of Portugal) could navigate by their coast and the seas of
+Guinea." The first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Sofala
+or the Island of the Moon, our Madagascar--"from each of these lands
+one can fetch the coast of Calicut." With this information Joseph
+returned to Portugal, while Covilham, with Abraham of Beja, again
+visited Aden and Ormuz. At the latter he left the rabbi; and himself
+came back to Jidda, the port of the Arabian holy land, and penetrated
+(as he told Alvarez many years later) even to Mecca and Medina. Finally,
+by Mount Sinai, Tor and the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck
+inland to the court of Prester John (i.e. Abyssinia). Here he was
+honourably received; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him; but he
+was not permitted to leave. When the Portuguese embassy under Rodrigo de
+Lima, including Father Francisco Alvarez, entered Abyssinia in 1520,
+Covilham wept with joy at the sight of his fellow-countrymen. It was
+then forty years since he had left Portugal, and over thirty since he
+had been a prisoner of state in "Ethiopia." Alvarez, who professed to
+know him well, and to have heard the story of his life, both "in
+confession and out of it," praises his power of vivid description "as if
+things were present before him," and his extraordinary knowledge of "all
+spoken languages of Christians, Moors and Gentiles." His services as an
+interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima's embassy; but he never
+succeeded in escaping from Abyssinia.
+
+  See Francisco Alvarez, _Verdadera Informaçam das terras do Preste
+  Joam_, esp. chs. 73, 89, 98, 102-103, 105 (pp. 177, 224, 254, 264,
+  265-270, 275, of the Hakluyt Society's English edition, _The
+  Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia ... 1520-1727_, London, 1881); an
+  abstract of this, with some inaccuracies, is given in Major's _Prince
+  Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1868), pp. 339-340.
+
+
+
+
+COVIN (from the Fr. _covine_, or _couvine_, from Lat. _convenire_, to
+come together), an association of persons, so used in the Statute of
+Labourers of 1360, which, _inter alia_, declared void "all alliances and
+covins of masons and carpenters." The more common use of the term in
+English law was for a secret agreement between persons to cheat and
+defraud, but the word is now obsolete, and has been superseded by
+"collusion" or "conspiracy to cheat and defraud."
+
+
+
+
+COVINGTON, a city and one of the two county-seats of Kenton county,
+Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river opposite Cincinnati, with which it
+is connected by bridges; and at the mouth of the Licking river (also
+spanned by bridges), opposite Newport, Ky. Pop. (1890) 37,371; (1900)
+42,938, of whom 5223 were foreign-born and 2478 were negroes; (1910)
+53,270. In 1900 it ranked second in population among the cities of
+Kentucky. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the
+Louisville & Nashville railways, by interurban electric railways, and by
+steamboat lines to the Ohio river ports. It is built on a plain
+commanding good views and partly shut in by neighbouring hills. Its
+streets, mostly named from eminent Kentuckians, are paved chiefly with
+asphalt, macadam and brick. There are numerous fine residences and
+several attractive public buildings, including that of the United States
+government--modern Gothic in style--the court-house and city hall
+combined, and the public library. Covington is the seat of a Roman
+Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, in the flamboyant Gothic style,
+is one of the finest church buildings in the state. In the city are the
+Academy of Notre Dame and St Joseph's high school for boys, both Roman
+Catholic. The principal charitable institutions are the hospital of
+Saint Elizabeth, a German orphan asylum, a Protestant children's home, a
+home for aged women and a Wayfarers' Rest. Covington is the trade centre
+of an extensive district engaged in agriculture and stock raising, and
+as a manufacturing centre it ranked second in the state in 1905 (value
+of factory products $6,099,715), its products including tobacco, cotton
+goods, structural iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products,
+liquors and cordage. A settlement was established here in 1812, and
+three years later a town was laid out and named in honour of Gen.
+Leonard Covington (1768-1813), who was mortally wounded at Chrystler's
+Field during the War of 1812. In 1834 Covington was chartered as a city;
+and in 1908 it annexed Central Covington (pop. in 1900, 2155).
+
+
+
+
+COWARD, a term of contempt for one who, before danger, pain or trouble,
+shows fear, whether physical or moral. The derivation of the word has
+been obscured by a connexion in sense with the verb "cow," to instil
+fear into, which is derived from old Norse _kuga_, a word of similar
+meaning, and with the verb "cower," to crouch, which is also
+Scandinavian in origin.[1] The true derivation is from the French _coe_,
+an old form of _queue_, a tail, from Lat. _cauda_, hence _couart_ or
+_couard_. The reference to "tail" is either to the expression "turn
+tail" in flight, or to the habit of animals dropping the tail between
+the legs when frightened; in heraldry, a lion in this position is a
+"lion coward." In the fable of _Reynard the Fox_ the name of the hare is
+Coart, Kywart, Cuwaert or other variants.
+
+
+
+
+COWBRIDGE, a market town and a municipal and contributory parliamentary
+borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, with a station on the Taff Vale
+railway branch from Llantrisant to Aberthaw on the coast, distant by
+rail 162½ m. from London, 12 m. W. of Cardiff, 7 m. S.E. of Bridgend,
+and 6 m. S. of Llantrisant station. The population in 1901 was 1202, a
+decrease of over 12% since 1891. Less than one-third of the number was
+Welsh-speaking. The town mainly consists of one long street running east
+and west, and is in a wide valley through which runs the river Thaw
+(Welsh, _Ddawan_), here crossed by a stone bridge.
+
+Cowbridge is probably situated on the Roman road from Cardiff westwards,
+which seems to have kept nearly the course of the present main road.
+Roman coins have been discovered here. It has in fact been suggested,
+mainly on etymological grounds, that the town occupies the site of the
+Roman _Bovium_: the modern Welsh name, y Bontfaen ("stone bridge") is
+probably a corruption of the medieval, Pont y fôn, the precise
+equivalent of "Cowbridge," which is first found in documents of the
+second half of the 13th century as Covbruge and Cubrigg. Others place
+Bovium on a vicinal road, at Boverton near Llantwit Major, about 6 m. to
+the south near the coast, though the most likely site is near Ewenny, 5
+m. to the west of Cowbridge. After the Norman conquest of Glamorgan, the
+town grew up as an appanage of the castle of St Quentin, which occupies
+a commanding position half a mile south-west of the town. It was walled
+round before the 13th century. A tower is mentioned in 1487 when it was
+granted away by the burgesses. Leland in his itinerary (c. 1535)
+describes the town wall as three-quarters of a mile round and as having
+three gates. There was even then a considerable suburb on the west bank
+of the river and outside the walls. The south wall and gateway are still
+standing.
+
+The town was a borough by prescription until 1682, when it received a
+charter of incorporation from Charles II. confirming its previous
+privileges. Under the Unreformed Corporations Act of 1883 the
+corporation was dissolved, but on the petition of the inhabitants a new
+charter was granted in March 1887. During the Tudor and Stuart periods
+Cowbridge was almost if not quite the chief town of Glamorgan, its
+importance being largely due to its central and accessible position in a
+rich agricultural district where a large number of the county gentry
+lived. The great sessions were held here alternately with Cardiff and
+Swansea from 1542 till their abolition in 1830, and the quarter sessions
+were held here once a year down to 1850. From 1536 to 1832 it was one of
+the eight contributory boroughs within the county which returned a
+member to parliament, but since 1832 it has been contributory with
+Cardiff and Llantrisant in returning a member. It has a separate
+commission of the peace. Sir Edward Stradling (1529-1609) established a
+grammar school here, but died before endowing it; it was refounded in
+1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, who provided that it should be administered
+by Jesus College, Oxford, which body erected the present buildings in
+1847. It has throughout its existence been one of the leading schools in
+Wales. An intermediate school for girls was established here by the
+county in 1896. The church of St Mary (formerly chapelry to
+Llanblethian) is of early English style and has a fine embattled tower,
+of the same military type as the towers of Llamblethian and Ewenny.
+There are three Nonconformist chapels. There are a town hall and market
+place. The town is now wholly dependent on agriculture, and has good
+markets and cattle fairs, that on the 4th of May being a charter fair.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A connexion has also been imagined with cow (O. Eng. _cu_; common
+    in Scandinavian languages, and of similar root to Skr. _go_, whence
+    also Gr. [Greek: bous], Lat. _bos_), the female bovine animal, on
+    account of its timidity.
+
+
+
+
+COWDENBEATH, a police burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 5¾ m. N.E. of
+Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 4249; (1901) 7908.
+The principal industry is coal-mining, and the public buildings include
+churches, schools and a hall. Meetings in connexion with the adoption
+and promulgation of the Covenant were held in the old parish church of
+Beath.
+
+
+
+
+COWELL, JOHN (1554-1611), English jurist, was born at Ernsborough,
+Devonshire. He was educated at Eton, and King's College, Cambridge,
+ultimately becoming professor of civil law in that university, and
+master of Trinity Hall. In 1607 he compiled a law dictionary, _The
+Interpreter_, in which he exalted the king's prerogative so much that he
+was prosecuted before the House of Commons by Sir Edward Coke, and saved
+from imprisonment only by the interposition of James I. His book was
+burnt by order of the House of Commons. Dr Cowell also wrote a work
+entitled _Institutiones Juris Anglicani_. He died at Oxford on the 11th
+of October 1611.
+
+
+
+
+COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN (1852-   ), English musical composer, was born at
+Kingston, Jamaica, on the 29th of January 1852. At four years old he was
+brought to England, where his father became treasurer to the opera at
+Her Majesty's theatre, and private secretary to the earl of Dudley. His
+first teacher was Henry Russell, and his first published composition
+appeared when he was but six years old. He studied the piano with
+Benedict, and composition with Goss; in 1865 he was at Leipzig under
+Hauptmann, Moscheles, Reinecke and Plaidy. Returning home on the
+outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, he appeared as a composer for the
+orchestra in an overture played at the Promenade Concerts at Covent
+Garden in September 1866. In the following autumn he went to Berlin,
+where he was under Kiel, at Stern's conservatorium. A symphony and a
+piano concerto were given in St James's Hall in 1869, and from that time
+Cowen has been recognized as primarily a composer, his talents as a
+pianist being subordinate, although his public appearances were numerous
+for some time afterwards. His cantata, _The Rose Maiden_, was given in
+London in 1870, his second symphony by the Liverpool Philharmonic
+Society in 1872, and his first festival work, _The Corsair_, in 1876 at
+Birmingham. In that year his opera, _Pauline_, was given by the Carl
+Rosa Company with moderate success. In 1884 he conducted five concerts
+of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1888, on the resignation of Arthur
+Sullivan, became the regular conductor of the society, resigning the
+post in 1892. In the year of his appointment, 1888, he went to Melbourne
+as the conductor of the daily concerts given in connexion with the
+Exhibition there. In 1896 Cowen was appointed conductor of the Liverpool
+Philharmonic Society and of the Manchester orchestra, in succession to
+Sir Charles Hallé. In 1899 he was reappointed conductor of the
+Philharmonic Society. His works include:--Operettas: _Garibaldi_ (1860)
+and _One Too Many_ (1874); operas: _Pauline_ (1876), _Thorgrim_ (1890),
+_Signa_ (Milan, 1893), and _Harold_ (1895); oratorios: _The Deluge_
+(1878), _St Ursula_ (1881), _Ruth_ (1887), _Song of Thanksgiving_
+(1888), _The Transfiguration_ (1895); cantatas: _The Rose Maiden_
+(1870), _The Corsair_ (1876), _The Sleeping Beauty_ (1885), _St John's
+Eve_ (1889), _The Water Lily_ (1893), _Ode to the Passions_ (1898),
+besides short cantatas for female voices; a large number of songs,
+ranging from the popular "ballad" to more artistic lyrics, anthems,
+part-songs, duets, &c.; six symphonies, among which No 3, the
+"Scandinavian," has had the greatest success; four overtures; suites,
+_The Language of Flowers_ (1880), _In the Olden Times_ (1883), _In
+Fairyland_ (1896); four English dances (1896); a concerto for piano and
+orchestra, and a fantasia for the same played by M. Paderewski (1900); a
+quartet in C minor, and a trio in A minor, both early works; pianoforte
+pieces, &c. Cowen is never so happy as when treating of fantastic or
+fairy subjects; and whether in his cantatas for female voices, his
+charming _Sleeping Beauty_, his _Water Lily_ or his pretty overture,
+_The Butterfly's Ball_ (1901), he succeeds wonderfully in finding
+graceful expression for the poetical idea. His dance music, such as is
+to be found in various orchestral suites, is refined, original and
+admirably instrumented; and if he is seldom as successful in portraying
+the graver aspects of emotion, the vogue of his semi-sacred songs has
+been widespread.
+
+
+
+
+COWEN, JOSEPH (1831-1900), English politician and journalist, son of Sir
+Joseph Cowen, a prominent citizen and mine-owner of Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+was born in 1831, and was educated at Edinburgh University. In 1874 he
+was elected member of parliament for the borough on the death of his
+father, who had held the seat as a Liberal since 1865. Joseph Cowen was
+at that time a strong Radical on domestic questions, an advocate of
+co-operation, an admirer of Garibaldi, Mazzini and Kossuth, a
+sympathizer with Irish Nationalism, and one who in speech, dress and
+manner identified himself with the North-country mining class. Short in
+stature and uncouth in appearance, his individuality first shocked and
+then by its earnestness impressed the House of Commons; and his sturdy
+independence of party ties, combined with a gift of rough but genuine
+eloquence (of which his speech on the Royal Title Bill of 1876 was an
+example), rapidly made him one of the best-known public men in the
+country. He was, moreover, an Imperialist and a Colonial Federationist
+at a time when Liberalism was tied and bound to the Manchester
+traditions; and, to the consternation of the official wire-pullers, he
+vigorously supported Disraeli's foreign policy, and in 1881 opposed the
+Gladstonian settlement with the Boers. His independence (which his
+detractors attributed in some degree to his alleged susceptibility to
+Tory compliments) brought him into collision both with the Liberal
+caucus and with the party organization in Newcastle itself, but Cowen's
+personal popularity and his remarkable powers as an orator triumphed in
+his own birthplace, and he was again elected in 1885 in spite of Liberal
+opposition. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired both from parliament
+and from public life, professing his disgust at the party intrigues of
+politics, and devoted himself to conducting his newspaper, the
+_Newcastle Daily Chronicle_, and to his private business as a
+mine-owner. In this capacity he exercised a wide influence on local
+opinion, and the revolt of the Newcastle electorate in later years
+against doctrinaire Radicalism was largely due to his constant preaching
+of a broader outlook on national affairs. He continued behind the scenes
+to play a powerful part in forming North-country opinion until his death
+on the 18th of February 1900.
+
+  His letters were published by his daughter in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+COWES, a seaport and watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England, 12 m.
+S.S.E. of Southampton. West Cowes is separated from East Cowes by the
+picturesque estuary of the river Medina, the two towns (each of which is
+an urban district) lying on opposite sides of its mouth at the apex of
+the northern coast of the island. Pop. (1901) West Cowes, 8652; East
+Cowes, 3196. The port between them is the chief on the island, and is
+the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 1812); it is in
+regular steamship communication with Southampton and Portsmouth. West
+Cowes is served by the Isle of Wight Central railway. A steam ferry and
+a floating bridge across the Medina, here 600 yds. broad, unite the
+towns. Behind the harbour the houses rise picturesquely on gentle wooded
+slopes, and numerous villas adorn the vicinity. The towns owe their
+origin to two forts or castles, built on each side of the mouth of the
+Medina by Henry VIII. in 1540, for the defence of the coast; the eastern
+one has disappeared, but the west castle remains and is used as the
+club-house of the Yacht Squadron. The marine parade of West Cowes, and
+the public promenade called the Green, are close to the castle. The
+industrial population is chiefly employed in the shipbuilding yards, in
+the manufacture of ships' fittings, and in engineering works. The
+harbour is under an elective body of commissioners. On the opposite side
+of the Medina a broad carriageway leads to East Cowes Castle, a handsome
+edifice built by John Nash, the favourite architect of George IV., in
+1798, and immediately beyond it are the grounds surrounding Osborne
+House (see OSBORNE), built in 1845 after the property had been purchased
+by Queen Victoria, the church of St Mildred, Whippingham, lying a mile
+to the south.
+
+
+
+
+COWL (through Fr. _coule_, from Lat. _cucullus_ or _cuculla_, a
+covering; the word is found in various forms in most European languages,
+cf. Ger. _Kugel_ or _Kigel_, Dutch _kovel_, Irish _cochal_ or _cochull_;
+the ultimate origin may be the root _kal_, found in Lat. _clam_,
+secretly, and Gr. [Greek: kalyptein], to hide, cover up), an outer
+garment worn by both sexes in the middle ages; a part of the monastic
+dress, hence the phrase "to take the cowl," signifying entry upon the
+religious life. The _cucullus_ worn by the early Egyptian anchorites was
+a hood covering the head and neck. Later generations lengthened the
+garment until it reached to the heels, and St Benedict issued a rule
+restricting its length to two cubits. Chapter 55 of his _Institute_
+prescribes the following dress in temperate climates: a cowl and tunic,
+thick in winter and thin in summer, with a scapular for working hours
+and shoes and stockings, all of simple material and make. In the 14th
+century the cowl and the frock were frequently confounded, but the
+council of Vienne defined the former as "a habit long and full without
+sleeves," and the latter as "a long habit with long and wide sleeves."
+While the term thus seems strictly to imply a hooded gown it is often
+applied to the hood alone. It is also used to describe a loose vestment
+worn over the frock in the winter season and during the night office.
+
+The word "cowl" is also applied to a hood-shaped covering to a chimney
+or ventilating shaft, to help down-draught, and to clear the up-current
+of foul air (see VENTILATION).
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667), English poet, was born in the city of
+London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen, who died shortly
+before his birth, was a stationer. His mother was wholly given to works
+of devotion, but it happened that there lay in her parlour a copy of
+_The Faery Queen_. This became the favourite reading of her son, and he
+had twice devoured it all before he was sent to school. As early as
+1628, that is, in his tenth year, he composed his _Tragicall History of
+Piramus and Thisbe_, an epical romance written in a six-line stanza, of
+his own invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most
+astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is marked by no
+great faults of immaturity, and possesses constructive merits of a very
+high order. Two years later the child wrote another and still more
+ambitious poem, _Constantia and Philetus_, being sent about the same
+time to Westminster school. Here he displayed the most extraordinary
+mental precocity and versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year yet
+another poem, the _Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton_. These
+three poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected
+in 1633, and published in a volume entitled _Poetical Blossoms_,
+dedicated to the head master of the school, and prefaced by many
+laudatory verses by schoolfellows. The author at once became famous,
+although he had not, even yet, completed his fifteenth year. His next
+composition was a pastoral comedy, entitled _Love's Riddle_, a
+marvellous production for a boy of sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious
+in language, and rapid in movement. The style is not without resemblance
+to that of Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time
+only just printed. In 1637 Cowley was elected into Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he betook himself with enthusiasm to the study of all
+kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a ripe scholar. It
+was about this time that he composed his scriptural epic on the history
+of King David, one book of which still exists in the Latin original, the
+rest being superseded in favour of an English version in four books,
+called the _Davideis_, which he published a long time after. This his
+most grave and important work is remarkable as having suggested to
+Milton several points which he afterwards made use of. The epic, written
+in a very dreary and turgid manner, but in good rhymed heroic verse,
+deals with the adventures of King David from his boyhood to the smiting
+of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly closes. In 1638 _Love's Riddle_ and
+a Latin comedy, the _Naufragium Joculare_, were printed, and in 1641 the
+passage of Prince Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the
+production of another dramatic work, _The Guardian_, which was acted
+before the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this
+play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed till
+1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the "sons" of Ben
+Jonson, the university wits who wrote more for the closet than the
+public stage.
+
+The learned quiet of the young poet's life was broken up by the Civil
+War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became a fellow of Trinity
+College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the Parliamentarians in 1643. He
+made his way to Oxford, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lord
+Falkland, and was tossed, in the tumult of affairs, into the personal
+confidence of the royal family itself. After the battle of Marston Moor
+he followed the queen to Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve
+years. This period was spent almost entirely in the royal service,
+"bearing a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in
+their affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys
+into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, Holland, or wherever else the king's
+troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony of his
+fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintaining the
+constant correspondence between the late king and the queen his wife. In
+that weighty trust he behaved himself with indefatigable integrity and
+unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered and deciphered with his own hand
+the greatest part of all the letters that passed between their
+majesties, and managed a vast intelligence in many other parts, which
+for some years together took up all his days, and two or three nights
+every week." In spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary
+industry. During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and
+determined to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English. At the
+same time he occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War,
+which he completed as far as the battle of Newbury, but unfortunately
+afterwards destroyed. In 1647 a collection of his love verses, entitled
+_The Mistress_, was published, and in the next year a volume of wretched
+satires, _The Four Ages of England_, was brought out under his name,
+with the composition of which he had nothing to do. In spite of the
+troubles of the times, so fatal to poetic fame, his reputation steadily
+increased, and when, on his return to England in 1656, he published a
+volume of his collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival
+in public esteem. This volume included the later works already
+mentioned, the _Pindarique Odes_, the _Davideis_, the _Mistress_ and
+some _Miscellanies_. Among the latter are to be found Cowley's most
+vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the famous
+aspiration--
+
+  "What shall I do to be for ever known,
+   And make the coming age my own?"
+
+It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William Hervey and
+Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley's finest poems, brilliant,
+sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of _The Chronicle_, giving a
+fictitious catalogue of his supposed amours; various gnomic pieces; and
+some charming paraphrases from Anacreon. The _Pindarique Odes_ contain
+weighty lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses
+of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good throughout, but a
+full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them. The long cadences
+of the Alexandrines with which most of the strophes close, continued to
+echo in English poetry from Dryden down to Gray, but the _Odes_
+themselves, which were found to be obscure by the poet's contemporaries,
+immediately fell into disesteem. _The Mistress_ was the most popular
+poetic reading of the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley's
+works. It was the last and most violent expression of the amatory
+affectation of the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable
+in Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of
+sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it
+represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition of
+literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at least of
+a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately erotic volumes,
+we are told that to the end of his days he never summoned up courage to
+speak of love to a single woman in real life. The "Leonora" of _The
+Chronicle_ is said to have been the only woman he ever loved, and she
+married the brother of his biographer, Sprat.
+
+Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for another
+person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of £1000. In 1658 he
+revised and altered his play of _The Guardian_, and prepared it for the
+press under the title of _The Cutter of Coleman Street_, but it did not
+appear until 1663. Late in 1658 Oliver Cromwell died, and Cowley took
+advantage of the confusion of affairs to escape to Paris, where he
+remained until the Restoration brought him back in Charles's train. He
+published in 1663 _Verses upon several occasions_, in which _The
+Complaint_ is included.
+
+Wearied with the broils and fatigues of a political life, Cowley
+obtained permission to retire into the country; through his friend, Lord
+St Albans, he obtained a property near Chertsey, and here, devoting
+himself to the study of botany, and buried in his books, he lived in
+comparative solitude until his death. He took a great and practical
+interest in experimental science, and he was one of those who were most
+prominent in advocating the foundation of an academy for the protection
+of scientific enterprise. Cowley's pamphlet on _The Advancement of
+Experimental Philosophy_, 1661, led directly to the foundation of the
+Royal Society, to which body Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion of
+Evelyn, addressed an ode which is the latest and one of the strongest of
+his poems. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey, on the 28th of July
+1667, in consequence of having caught a cold while superintending his
+farm-labourers in the meadows late on a summer evening. On the 3rd of
+August Cowley was buried in Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of
+Chaucer and Spenser, where in 1675 the duke of Buckingham erected a
+monument to his memory. His _Poëmata Latina_, including six books
+"Plantarum," were printed in 1668.
+
+Throughout their parallel lives the fame of Cowley completely eclipsed
+that of Milton, but posterity instantly and finally reversed the
+judgment of their contemporaries. The poetry of Cowley rapidly fell into
+a neglect as unjust as the earlier popularity had been. As a prose
+writer, especially as an essayist, he holds, and will not lose, a high
+position in literature; as a poet it is hardly possible that he can
+enjoy more than a very partial revival. The want of nature, the obvious
+and awkward art, the defective melody of his poems, destroy the interest
+that their ingenuity and occasional majesty would otherwise excite. He
+had lofty views of the mission of a poet and an insatiable ambition, but
+his chief claim to poetic life is the dowry of sonorous lyric style
+which he passed down to Dryden and his successors of the 18th century.
+
+  The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat,
+  afterwards bishop of Rochester, brought out a splendid edition in
+  folio, to which he prefixed a graceful and elegant life of the poet.
+  There were many reprints of this collection, which formed the standard
+  edition till 1881, when it was superseded by A. B. Grosart's privately
+  printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey Worthies library. The
+  Essays have frequently been revived with approval.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY, HANNAH (1743-1809), English dramatist and poet, daughter of
+Philip Parkhouse, a bookseller at Tiverton, Devonshire, was born in
+1743. When about twenty-five years old she married Mr Cowley, of the
+East India Company's service, who died in 1797. Some years after her
+marriage, being at the theatre with her husband, she expressed the
+opinion that she could write as good a piece as the one being performed,
+and within a fortnight she had written her first play, _The Runaway_.
+She sent it to Garrick, who produced it at Drury Lane in 1776. Between
+then and 1795 she wrote twelve more plays, all of which (with one
+exception) were produced at Drury Lane or Covent Garden; and _The
+Belle's Stratagem_ (1782), with one or two others, still survives in the
+list of acting plays. Among other, pieces were _Albina_, _Countess
+Raimond_, _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, _More Ways than One_, and _A
+School for Greybeards, or The Mourning Bride_. Mrs Cowley was the author
+of a number of indifferent poems, mainly historical, and under the name
+of "Anna Matilda," which has since become proverbial, she carried on a
+sentimental correspondence in the _World_ with Robert Merry. She died at
+Tiverton on the 11th of March 1809.
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY, 1ST EARL (1804-1884), British
+diplomatist, was the eldest son of Henry Wellesley, 1st Baron Cowley
+(1773-1847), and Charlotte, daughter of Charles, 1st Earl Cadogan, and
+was consequently a nephew of the duke of Wellington and of the marquess
+Wellesley. Born on the 17th of June 1804, he entered the diplomatic
+service in 1824, receiving his first important appointment in 1848, when
+he became minister plenipotentiary to the Swiss cantons; and in the same
+year he was sent to Frankfort to watch the proceedings of the German
+parliament. This was followed by his appointment as envoy extraordinary
+to the new Germanic confederation, a position which he only held for a
+short time, as he was chosen in 1852 to succeed the 1st marquess of
+Normanby as the British ambassador in Paris. Baron Cowley, as Wellesley
+had been since his father's death in 1847, held this important post for
+fifteen years, and the story of his diplomatic life in Paris cannot be
+separated from the general history of England and France. As minister
+during the greater part of the reign of Napoleon III., he conducted the
+delicate negotiations between the two countries during the time of those
+eastern complications which preceded and followed the Crimean War, and
+also during the excitement and unrest produced by the attempt made in
+1858 by Felice Orsini to assassinate the emperor of the French; while
+his diplomatic skill was no less in evidence during the war between
+France and Austria and the subsequent course of events in Italy. In 1857
+he had been created Earl Cowley and Viscount Dangan; in 1866 he was made
+a knight of the Garter; and having assisted Richard Cobden to conclude
+the commercial treaty between Great Britain and France in 1860, he
+retired in 1867 from a position which he had filled with distinction to
+himself and with benefit to his country. In 1863 Cowley had inherited
+the estate of Draycot in Wiltshire from his kinsman the 5th earl of
+Mornington, and he lived in retirement until his death on the 15th of
+July 1884. He had married in 1833 Olivia Cecilia (d. 1885), daughter of
+Charlotte, baroness de Ros and Lord Henry Fitzgerald, by whom he had
+three sons and two daughters, and was succeeded in his titles by his
+eldest son, William Henry, 2nd Earl Cowley (1834-1895), father of Henry
+Arthur Mornington, 3rd earl (b. 1866).
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY FATHERS, the name commonly given to the members of the Society of
+Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist, an Anglican religious
+community, the headquarters of which are in England, at Cowley St John,
+close to Oxford. The society was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M.
+Benson "for the cultivation of a life dedicated to God according to the
+principles of poverty, chastity and obedience." The society, which is
+occupied both with educational and missionary work, has a house in
+London and branch houses at Bombay and Poona in India, at Cape Town and
+at St Cuthbert's, Kaffraria, in South Africa; and at Boston in the
+United States of America. The costume of the Cowley Fathers consists of
+a black frock or cassock confined by a black cord and a long black
+cloak.
+
+
+
+
+COWPENS, a town of Spartanburg county, South Carolina, U.S.A., in the N.
+part of the state. Pop. (1900) 692; (1910) 1101. It is served by the
+Southern railway. In colonial days cattle were rounded up and branded
+here--whence the name. Seven miles N. of the town is the field of the
+battle of Cowpens, fought on the 17th of January 1781, during the War of
+American Independence, between the Americans under Gen. Daniel Morgan
+and the British under Gen. Banastre Tarleton, the British being
+defeated. A monument was erected on the battlefield in 1859, but was
+much defaced during the Civil War. The town of Cowpens was founded in
+1876, and was incorporated in 1880.
+
+
+
+
+COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER, 1ST EARL (c. 1665-1723), lord chancellor of
+England, was the son of Sir William Cowper, Bart., of Ratling Court,
+Kent, a Whig member of parliament of some mark in the two last Stuart
+reigns. Educated at St Albans school, Cowper was called to the bar in
+1688; having promptly given his allegiance to the prince of Orange on
+his landing in England, he was made recorder of Colchester in 1694, and
+in 1695 entered parliament as member for Hertford. He enjoyed a large
+practice at the bar, and had the reputation of being one of the most
+effective parliamentary orators of his generation. He lost his seat in
+parliament in 1702 owing to the unpopularity caused by the trial of his
+brother Spencer on a charge of murder. In 1705 he was appointed lord
+keeper of the great seal, and took his seat on the woolsack without a
+peerage. In the following year he conducted the negotiations between the
+English and Scottish commissioners for arranging the union with
+Scotland. In November of the same year (1706) he succeeded to his
+father's baronetcy; and on the 14th of December he was raised to the
+peerage as Baron Cowper of Wingham, Kent.
+
+When the union with Scotland came into operation in May 1707 the queen
+in council named Cowper lord high chancellor of Great Britain, he being
+the first to hold this office. He presided at the trial of Dr
+Sacheverell in 1710, but resigned the seal when Harley and Bolingbroke
+took office in the same year. On the death of Queen Anne, George I.
+appointed Cowper one of the lords justices for governing the country
+during the king's absence, and a few weeks later he again became lord
+chancellor. A paper which he drew up for the guidance of the new king on
+constitutional matters, entitled _An Impartial History of Parties_,
+marks the advance of English opinion towards party government in the
+modern sense. It was published by Lord Campbell in his _Lives of the
+Lord Chancellors_. Cowper supported the impeachment of Lord Oxford for
+high treason in 1715, and in 1716 presided as lord high steward at the
+trials of the peers charged with complicity in the Jacobite rising, his
+sentences on whom have been censured as unnecessarily severe. He warmly
+supported the septennial bill in the same year. On the 18th of March
+1718 he was created Viscount Fordwich and Earl Cowper, and a month later
+he resigned office on the plea of ill-health, but probably in reality
+because George I. accused him of espousing the prince of Wales's side in
+his quarrel with the king. Taking the lead against his former
+colleagues, Cowper opposed the proposal brought forward in 1719 to limit
+the number of peers, and also the bill of pains and penalties against
+Atterbury in 1723. In his last years he was accused, but probably
+without reason, of active sympathy with the Jacobites. He died at his
+residence, Colne Green, built by himself on the site of the present
+mansion of Panshanger on the 10th of October 1723.
+
+Cowper was not a great lawyer, but Burnet says that "he managed the
+court of chancery with impartial justice and great despatch"; the most
+eminent of his contemporaries agreed in extolling his oratory and his
+virtues. He was twice married--first, about 1686, to Judith, daughter
+and heiress of Sir Robert Booth, a London merchant; and secondly, in
+1706, to Mary, daughter of John Clavering, of Chopwell, Durham. Swift
+(_Examiner_, xvii., xxii.) alludes to an allegation that Cowper had been
+guilty of bigamy, a slander for which there appears to have been no
+solid foundation. His younger brother, Spencer Cowper (1669-1728), was
+tried for the murder of Sarah Stout in 1699, but was acquitted; the
+lady, who had fallen in love with Cowper, having in fact committed
+suicide on account of his inattention. He was one of the managers of the
+impeachment of Sacheverell; was attorney-general to the prince of Wales
+(1714), chief justice of Chester (1717), and judge of the common pleas
+(1727). He was grandfather of William Cowper, the poet.
+
+The 1st earl left two sons and two daughters by his second wife. The
+eldest son, William (1709-1764), who succeeded to the title, assumed the
+name of Clavering in addition to that of Cowper on the death of his
+maternal uncle. His wife was a daughter of the earl of Grantham, and
+grand-daughter of the earl of Ossory. The son of this marriage, George
+Nassau, 3rd Earl Cowper (1738-1789), inherited the estates of the earl
+of Grantham; and in 1778 he was created by the emperor Joseph II. a
+prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The 5th earl (1778-1837) married a
+daughter of Lord Melbourne, the prime minister, by whom he had two sons;
+and his widow married as her second husband Lord Palmerston, who devised
+his property of Broadlands to her second son, William Francis
+Cowper-Temple (1811-1888), who was created Baron Mount Temple in 1880.
+The elder son, George Augustus Frederick (1806-1856), 6th Earl Cowper,
+married Anne Florence, daughter of Thomas Philip, earl de Grey; and this
+lady at her father's death became _suo jure_ baroness Lucas of Cradwell.
+Francis Thomas de Grey, 7th Earl Cowper (1834-1905), in addition to the
+other family titles, became in 1871 10th Baron Dingwall in the peerage
+of Scotland, and 8th Baron Butler of Moore Park in the peerage of
+Ireland as heir-general of Thomas, earl of Ossory, son of the 1st duke
+of Ormonde; the attainder of 1715 affecting those titles having been
+reversed in July 1871. On the death of his mother he also inherited the
+barony of Lucas of Cradwell. On the death without issue in 1905 of the
+7th earl, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland 1880-1882, the earldom and
+barony of Cowper, together with the viscountcy of Fordwich, became
+extinct; the barony of Butler fell into abeyance among his sisters and
+their heirs, and the baronies of Lucas and Dingwall devolved on his
+nephew, Auberon Thomas Herbert (b. 1876).
+
+  See _Private Diary of Earl Cowper_, edited by E. C. Hawtrey for the
+  Roxburghe Club (Eton, 1833); _The Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper_,
+  edited by the Hon. Spencer Cowper (London, 1864); Lord Campbell,
+  _Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal_ (8
+  vols., London, 1845-1869); Edward Foss, _The Judges of England_ (9
+  vols., London, 1848-1864); Gilbert Burnet, _History of his Own Time_
+  (6 vols., Oxford, 1833); T. B. Howell, _State Trials_, vol. xii.-xv.
+  (33 vols., London, 1809-1828); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ (London,
+  1889).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800), English poet, was born in the rectory (now
+rebuilt) of Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire, on the 26th of November
+(O.S. 15th) 1731, his father the Rev. John Cowper being rector of the
+parish as well as a chaplain to George II. On both the father's and the
+mother's side he was of ancient lineage. The father could trace his
+family back to the time of Edward IV. when the Cowpers were Sussex
+landowners, while his mother, Ann, daughter of Roger Donne of Ludham
+Hall, Norfolk, was of the same race as the poet Donne, and the family
+claimed to have Plantagenet blood in its veins. Of more human interest
+were Cowper's immediate predecessors. His grandfather was that Spencer
+Cowper who, after being tried for his life on a charge of murder, lived
+to be a judge of the court of common pleas, while his elder brother
+became lord chancellor and Earl Cowper, a title which became extinct in
+1905. Here is the poet's genealogical tree.
+
+            John Cooper,[1] Alderman of London (d. 1609).
+                                |
+                Sir William Cowper, Bart. (d. 1642).
+                                |
+                John Cowper (died in prison 1643).
+                                |
+              Sir William Cowper, 2nd Bart. (d. 1706).
+                   _____________|__________
+                  |                        |
+  William, Earl Cowper,            Spencer Cowper,
+  Lord Chancellor (d. 1723).       Judge (1669-1728).
+          _________________________________|___________
+         |                       |                     |
+  William Cowper         Rev. John Cowper        Ashley Cowper
+  (d. 1740).               (d. 1756).             (d. 1788).
+                                 |                     |
+                                 |             ________|________
+                         William Cowper,      |                 |
+                            the poet     Lady Hesketh.      Theodora.
+                          (1731-1800).
+
+The Rev. John Cowper was twice married. Cowper's mother, to whom the
+memorable lines were written beginning "Oh that these lips had
+language," was his first wife. She died in 1737 at the age of
+thirty-four, when the poet was but six years old, and she is buried in
+Berkhampstead church. Cowper's stepmother is buried in Bath, and a
+tablet on the walls of the cathedral commemorates her memory. The
+father, who appears to have been a conscientious clergyman with no
+special interest in his sons, died in 1756 and was buried in the Cowper
+tomb at Panshanger. Only one other of his seven children grew to
+manhood--John, who was born in 1737.
+
+The poet appears to have attended a dame's school in earliest infancy,
+but on his mother's death, when he was six years old, he was sent to
+boarding-school, to a Dr Pitman at Markyate, a village 6 m. from
+Berkhampstead. From 1738 to 1741 he was placed in the care of an
+oculist, as he suffered from inflammation of the eyes. In the latter
+year he was sent to Westminster school, where he had Warren Hastings,
+Impey, Lloyd, Churchill and Colman for schoolfellows. It was at the
+Markyate school that he suffered the tyranny that he commemorated in
+_Tirocinium_. His days at Westminster, Southey thinks, were "probably
+the happiest in his life," but a boy of nervous temperament is always
+unhappy at school. At the age of eighteen Cowper entered a solicitor's
+office in Ely Place, Holborn. Here he had Thurlow, the future lord
+chancellor, as a fellow-clerk, and it is stated that Thurlow promised to
+help his less pushful comrade in the days of realized ambition. Three
+years in Ely Place were rendered happy by frequent visits to his uncle
+Ashley's house in Southampton Row, where he fell deeply in love with his
+cousin Theodora Cowper. At twenty-one years of age he took chambers in
+the Middle Temple, where we first hear of the dejection of spirits that
+accompanied him periodically through manhood. He was called to the bar
+in 1754. In 1759 he removed to the Inner Temple and was made a
+commissioner of bankrupts. His devotion to his cousin, however, was a
+source of unhappiness. Her father, possibly influenced by Cowper's
+melancholy tendencies, perhaps possessed by prejudices against the
+marriage of cousins, interposed, and the lovers were separated--as it
+turned out for ever. During three years he was a member of the Nonsense
+Club with his two schoolfellows from Westminster, Churchill and Lloyd,
+and he wrote sundry verses in magazines and translated two books of
+Voltaire's _Henriade_. A crisis occurred in Cowper's life when his
+cousin Major Cowper nominated him to a clerkship in the House of Lords.
+It involved a preliminary appearance at the bar of the house. The
+prospect drove him insane, and he attempted suicide; he purchased
+poison, he placed a penknife at his heart, but hesitated to apply either
+measure of self-destruction. He has told, in dramatic manner, of his
+more desperate endeavour to hang himself with a garter. Here he all but
+succeeded. His friends were informed, and he was sent to a private
+lunatic asylum at St Albans, where he remained for eighteen months under
+the charge of Dr Nathaniel Cotton, the author of _Visions_. Upon his
+recovery he removed to Huntingdon in order to be near his brother John,
+who was a fellow of St Benet's College, Cambridge. John had visited his
+brother at St Albans and arranged this. An attempt to secure suitable
+lodgings nearer to Cambridge had been ineffectual. In June 1765 he
+reached Huntingdon, and his life here was essentially happy. His illness
+had broken him off from all his old friends save only his cousin Lady
+Hesketh, Theodora's sister, but new acquaintances were made, the Unwins
+being the most valued. This family consisted of Morley Unwin (a
+clergyman), his wife Mary, and his son (William) and daughter
+(Susannah). The son struck up a warm friendship which his family shared.
+Cowper entered the circle as a boarder in November (1765). All went
+serenely until in July 1767 Morley Unwin was thrown from his horse and
+killed. A very short time before this event the Unwins had received a
+visit from the Rev. John Newton (q.v.), the curate of Olney in
+Buckinghamshire, with whom they became friends. Newton suggested that
+the widow and her children with Cowper should take up their abode in
+Olney. This was achieved in the closing months of 1767. Here Cowper was
+to reside for nineteen years, and he was to render the town and its
+neighbourhood memorable by his presence and by his poetry. His residence
+in the Market Place was converted into a Cowper Museum a hundred years
+after his death, in 1900. Here his life went on its placid course,
+interrupted only by the death of his brother in 1770, until 1773, when
+he became again deranged. It can scarcely be doubted that this second
+attack interrupted the contemplated marriage of Cowper with Mary Unwin,
+although Southey could find no evidence of the circumstance and Newton
+was not informed of it. J. C. Bailey brings final evidence of this (_The
+Poems of Cowper_, page 15). The fact was kept secret in later years in
+order to spare the feelings of Theodora Cowper, who thought that her
+cousin had remained as faithful as she had done to their early love.
+
+It was not until 1776 that the poet's mind cleared again. In 1779 he
+made his first appearance as an author by the _Olney Hymns_, written in
+conjunction with Newton, Cowper's verses being indicated by a "C." Mrs
+Unwin suggested secular verse, and Cowper wrote much, and in 1782 when
+he was fifty-one years old there appeared _Poems of William Cowper of
+the Inner Temple, Esq.: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's
+Churchyard_. The volume contained "Table Talk," "The Progress of Error,"
+"Truth," "Expostulation" and much else that survives to be read in our
+day by virtue of the poet's finer work. This finer work was the outcome
+of his friendship with Lady Austen, a widow who, on a visit to her
+sister, the wife of the vicar of the neighbouring village of Clifton,
+made the acquaintance of Cowper and Mrs Unwin. The three became great
+friends. Lady Austen determined to give up her house in London and to
+settle in Olney. She suggested _The Task_ and inspired _John Gilpin_ and
+_The Royal George_. But in 1784 the friendship was at an end, doubtless
+through Mrs Unwin's jealousy of Lady Austen. Cowper's second volume
+appeared in 1785;--_The Task: A Poem in Six Books. By William Cowper of
+the Inner Temple, Esq.; To which are added by the same author An Epistle
+to Joseph Hill, Esq., Tirocinium or a Review of Schools, and the History
+of John Gilpin: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's Church
+Yard; 1785._ His first book had been a failure, one critic even
+declaring that "Mr Cowper was certainly a good, pious man, but without
+one spark of poetic fire." This second book was an instantaneous
+success, and indeed marks an epoch in literary history. But before its
+publication--in 1784--the poet had commenced the translation of Homer.
+In 1786 his life at Olney was cheered by Lady Hesketh taking up a
+temporary residence there. The cousins met after an interval of
+twenty-three years, and Lady Hesketh was to be Cowper's good angel to
+the end, even though her letters disclose a considerable impatience with
+Mrs Unwin. At the end of 1786 a removal was made to Weston Underwood,
+the neighbouring village which Cowper had frequently visited as the
+guest of his Roman Catholic friends the Throckmortons. This was to be
+his home for yet another ten years. Here he completed his translation of
+Homer, materially assisted by Mr Throckmorton's chaplain Dr Gregson.
+There are six more months of insanity to record in 1787. In 1790, a year
+before the _Homer_ was published, commenced his friendship with his
+cousin John Johnson, known to all biographers of the poet as "Johnny of
+Norfolk." Johnson also aspired to be a poet, and visited his cousin
+armed with a manuscript. Cowper discouraged the poetry, but loved the
+writer, and the two became great friends. New friends were wanted, for
+in 1792 Mrs Unwin had a paralytic stroke, and henceforth she was a
+hopeless invalid. A new and valued friend of this period was Hayley,
+famous in his own day as a poet and in history for his association with
+Romney and Cowper. He was drawn to Cowper by the fact that both were
+contemplating an edition of "Milton," Cowper having received a
+commission to edit, writing notes and translating the Latin and Italian
+poems. The work was never completed. In 1794 Cowper was again insane and
+his lifework was over. In the following year a removal took place into
+Norfolk under the loving care of John Johnson. Johnson took Cowper and
+Mary Unwin to North Tuddenham, thence to Mundesley, then to Dunham
+Lodge, near Swaffham, and finally in October 1796 they moved to East
+Dereham. In December of that year Mrs Unwin died. Cowper lingered on,
+dying on the 25th of April 1800. The poet is buried near Mrs Unwin in
+East Dereham church.
+
+Cowper is among the poets who are epoch-makers. He brought a new spirit
+into English verse, and redeemed it from the artificiality and the
+rhetoric of many of his predecessors. With him began the "enthusiasm of
+humanity" that was afterwards to become so marked in the poetry of Burns
+and Shelley, Wordsworth and Byron. With him began the deep sympathy with
+nature, and love of animal life, which was to characterize so much of
+later poetry.
+
+Although Cowper cannot rank among the world's greatest poets or even
+among the most distinguished of poets of his own country, his place is a
+very high one. He had what is a rare quality among English poets, the
+gift of humour, which was very singularly absent from others who
+possessed many other of the higher qualities of the intellect. Certain
+of his poems, moreover,--for example, "To Mary," "The Receipt of my
+Mother's Portrait," and the ballad "On the Loss of the Royal
+George,"--will, it may safely be affirmed, continue to be familiar to
+each successive generation in a way that pertains to few things in
+literature. Added to this, one may note Cowper's distinction as a
+letter-writer. He ranks among the half-dozen greatest letter-writers in
+the English language, and he was perhaps the only great letter-writer
+with whom the felicity was due to the power of what he has seen rather
+than what he has read.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first important life of Cowper was by Hayley in
+  1803. In its complete form it appeared in 4 volumes in 1806 and was
+  reprinted in 1809 and 1812. It was reprinted again by the Rev. T. S.
+  Grimshawe with the Correspondence in 8 volumes in 1835. Robert
+  Southey's much more valuable _Life and Letters_ appeared also in 15
+  volumes in 1834-1837. The _Private Correspondence_, edited by John
+  Johnson, appeared in 2 volumes in 1824 and again in 1835. The
+  _Complete Correspondence_, edited by Thomas Wright, was published in
+  1904, but more correspondence appeared in _Notes and Queries_, July,
+  August and September 1904, and in _The Poems of William Cowper_,
+  edited by J. C. Bailey (1905). Edward Dowden unearthed new
+  correspondence with William Hayley in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (1907).
+  Short lives of Cowper have appeared in many quarters, from Thomas
+  Taylor's (1833) to Goldwin Smith's in the "English Men of Letters"
+  series (1880). Another brief biography of great merit is attached to
+  the Globe edition of Cowper's _Works_. Essays by Leslie Stephen,
+  Stopford Brooke, Whitwell Elwin, George Eliot and Walter Bagehot
+  deserve attention. See also St Beuve's _Causeries du Lundi_ (1868),
+  vol. xi.; _Letters of Lady Hesketh to John Johnson_ (1901); _John
+  Newton_, by the Rev. Josiah Bull (1868); _Cowper and Mary Unwin_, by
+  Caroline Gearey (1900); and _A Concordance to the Poetic Works of
+  William Cowper_, by John Neave (1887).     (C. K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+   [1] Alderman Cooper thus spelt his name and all the family from that
+   day to this, including the poet, have so pronounced it.
+
+
+
+
+COWRY, the popular name of the shells of the _Cypraeida_, a family of
+mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized, and they are widely
+distributed over the world--their habitat being the shallow water along
+the sea-shore. The best known is the money cowry or _Cypraea moneta_, a
+small shell about half an inch in length, white and straw-coloured
+without and blue within, which derives its distinctive name from the
+fact that in various countries it has been employed as a kind of
+currency. (See SHELL-MONEY.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the
+Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the shells are in
+demand as fashionable decorations, just as in Germany they were in use
+as an ornament for horses' harness, and were popular enough to acquire
+several native names, such as _Brustharnisch_ or breastplates, and
+_Otterköpfchen_ or little adders' heads. Besides the _Cypraea moneta_
+various species are employed in this decorative use. The _Cypraea
+aurora_ is a mark of chieftainship among the natives of the Friendly
+Islands; the _Cypraea annulus_ is a favourite with the Asiatic
+islanders; and several of the larger kinds have been used in Europe for
+the carving of cameos. The tiger cowry, _Cypraea tigris_, so well known
+as a mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly used by
+the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets; and they have
+also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of several shells into a
+smooth oval ball which they then employ as a bait to catch the
+cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned occur in myriads in
+their respective habitats, the _Cypraea princeps_ and the _Cypraea
+umbilicata_ are extremely rare.
+
+
+
+
+COW-TREE, or MILK-TREE, _Brosimum Galactodendron_ (natural order
+Moraceae), a native of Venezuela. As in other members of the order, the
+stem contains a milky latex, which flows out in considerable quantities
+when a notch is cut in it. The "milk" is sweet and pleasant tasting.
+Another species, _B. Alicastrum_, the bread-nut tree, a native of
+central America and Jamaica, bears a fruit which is cooked and eaten.
+The bread-fruit (_Artocarpus_) is an allied genus of the same natural
+order.
+
+
+
+
+COX, DAVID (1783-1859), English painter, was born on the 29th of April
+1783, in a small house attached to the forge of his father, a
+hardworking master smith, in a mean suburb of Birmingham. Turning his
+hand to what he could get to do, Joseph Cox, the father, was both
+blacksmith and whitesmith, and when the war with France began took to
+the making of bayonets and horse shoes, on wholesale commission, and
+immediately the boy David was thought able to assist he was taken from
+the poor elementary school in the neighbourhood, and set to the anvil.
+The attempt to turn the boy to this kind of labour had, however, been
+made too early; it was too heavy for his strength, and he was sent to
+what was called by the cyclops of Birmingham a "toy trade," making
+lacquered buckles, painted lockets, tin snuff-boxes and other "fancy"
+articles. Here David very soon acquired some power of painting
+miniatures, and his talents might have been misdirected had his master,
+Fieldler by name, not released him from his apprenticeship by dying by
+his own hand; and David found an opening as colour-grinder and
+scene-painter's fag in the theatre then leased, with several others, by
+the father of Macready, the tragedian.
+
+This obscure step, not one of promotion at the time, was really the most
+important incident in the uneventful career of Cox. The boy, who had
+inherited a rather weakly body, and had been trained with care by a
+pious mother, while intellectually negative and unable to cope with any
+kind of learning whatever, had endless perseverance, great strength of
+application, and all through life remained genial, gentle, simple-minded
+and modest, his penetration and self-reliance being wholly professional,
+inspired by his love of nature and his knowledge of his subject. Not
+very quick, and with little versatility, he went step by step in one
+line of study from the time he began to get the smallest remuneration
+for his pictures to the age of seventy-five, when he painted large in
+oil very much the same class of subjects he had of old produced small in
+water-colours, with the same impressive and unaffectedly noble
+sentiment, only increased by the mastery of almost infinite practice. He
+was never led astray by fictitious splendour of any kind, except once
+indeed in 1825, when he imitated Turner, and produced a classic subject
+he called "Carthage, Aeneas, and Achates." He never visited Venice or
+Egypt, or crossed the Channel except for a week or two in Belgium and
+Paris, and never even went to Scotland for painting purposes.
+Bettws-y-Coed and its neighbourhood was everything to him, and
+characteristics most truly English were beloved by him with a sort of
+filial instinct. So completely did he love the country, that even
+London, where it was his interest to live, had few attractions, and did
+not retain him long.
+
+This residence in the metropolis which began in 1804 was, however, of
+the most essential educational advantage to him. The Water-Colour
+Society was established the year after he arrived, and was mainly
+supported by landscape-painters. He was not, of course, admitted at
+first into membership, not till 1813, before which time an attempt to
+establish a rival exhibition had been made. In this Cox joined, the
+result being very serious to him, an entire failure entailing the
+seizure and forced sale of all the pictures. At that time the tightest
+economy was the rule with him, and to save the trifling cost of new
+strainers or stretching boards, he covered up one picture by another.
+When these works were prepared for re-sale, fifty years afterwards, some
+of them yielded picture after picture, peeled off the boards like the
+waistcoats from the body of the gravedigger in Hamlet!
+
+While lodging near Astley's Circus he married his landlady's daughter,
+and then took a modest cottage at Dulwich, where he gradually left off
+scene-painting and became teacher, giving lessons at ten shillings a
+lesson. This entailed walking to the pupils' homes, and the gift of the
+paintings done before the pupils. These have since been frequently sold
+for large sums, but his own price, when lucky enough to sell his best
+works, was never over a few pounds, and more frequently about fifteen
+shillings. Sometimes, indeed, he sold them in quantities at two pounds a
+dozen to be resold to country teachers. By and by he resisted the
+leaving of the work done to the pupil, but with little advantage to
+himself, as he saw no end to the accumulation of his own productions,
+and actually tore them up, and threw them into areas, or pushed them
+into drains during his trudge homeward. A number of years after he
+pointed out a particular drain to a friend, and said, "Many a work of
+mine has gone down that way to the Thames!"
+
+Shortly after he had turned thirty, his stay in London suddenly ended.
+He was offered the enormous sum of £100 per annum, by a ladies' college
+in Hereford, and thither he went. This sum he supplemented by teaching
+in the Hereford grammar school for many years, at six guineas a year,
+and in other schools at better pay, but still, and up to his fortieth
+year, we find his prices for pictures from eight to twenty-five
+shillings. Cox has no history apart from his productions, and these
+particulars as to his remuneration possess an interest almost dramatic
+when we contrast them with the enormous sums realized by his later
+works, and with the "honours and observance, troops of friends," that
+accompanied old age with him, when settled down in his own home at
+Harborne, near his native town, where he died on the 7th of June 1859.
+
+Cox's second short residence in London, dating from 1835 to 1840, marks
+the period of his highest powers. During those years, and for twelve
+years after, his productiveness kept pace with his mastery, and it would
+be difficult to overrate the impressiveness of effect, and high feeling,
+within the narrow range of subject displayed by many of these works. He
+was now surrounded by dealers, and wealth flowed in upon him. Still he
+remained the same, a man with few wants and scarcely any enjoyments
+except those furnished by his brush and his colours. The home at
+Harborne was a pleasant one, but the approach to the front was useless
+as the door was kept fastened up, the only entrance being through the
+garden at the back, and the principal room appropriated as his studio he
+was content to reach by a narrow stair from the kitchen. Neither in it
+nor elsewhere was there any luxury or even taste visible:--no
+_bric-à-brac_, no objects of interest, few or no books, no pictures
+except landscapes by his friends. When in winter, after his wife's
+death, the fire went out, and the cold at last surprised him, he lifted
+his easel into the little dining-room and began again. A union of his
+friends was formed in 1855 to procure a portrait of him, which was
+painted by Sir J. Watson Gordon; and an exhibition of his works was
+opened in London in 1858 and again another in 1859. This was actually
+open when the news of his death arrived.
+
+The number of David Cox's works, great and small, is enormous. He
+produced hundreds annually for perhaps forty-five years. Before his
+death and for ten years thereafter, their prices were remarkable, as
+witness the following obtained at auction--"Going to the Mill," £1575;
+"Old Mill at Bettws-y-Coed," £1575; "Outskirts of a Wood, with Gipsies,"
+£2305; "Peace and War," £3430.
+
+  See Hall, _Biography of David Cox_ (1881).     (W. B. Sc.)
+
+
+
+
+COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902), English divine and scholar, was
+born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares, India, and was educated at
+Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford. In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860
+took a mastership at Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year.
+He had already contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_, and had published
+in 1850 _Poems, Legendary and Historical_ (with E. A. Freeman), and in
+1853 a _Life of St Boniface_. From 1861 he devoted himself entirely to
+literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and comparative
+mythology. Many of his works were avowedly popular in character, and the
+most important, the _History of Greece_, has been superseded and is now
+of little value. His studies in mythology were inspired by Max Müller,
+but his treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme
+supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of myths.
+He also edited (with W. T. Brande) _A Dictionary of Science, Literature
+and Art_ (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded to the baronetcy in 1877)
+was a Broad Churchman, and a prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in
+1863-1865; and five years after Colenso's death he published (1888) his
+_Life_ of the bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but
+was refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham,
+York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a civil list
+pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February 1902.
+
+  WORKS.--_Tales from Greek Mythology_ (1861); _A Manual of Mythology_
+  (1867); _Latin and Teutonic Christendom_ (1870); _The Mythology of the
+  Aryan Nations_ (1870, new ed., 1882); _History of Greece_ (1874);
+  _General History of Greece_ (1876); _History of the Establishment of
+  British Rule in India_, and _An Introduction to the Science of
+  Comparative Mythology_ (1881); _Lives of Greek Statesmen_ (1885);
+  _Concise History of England_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900), American general, political leader and
+educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828 in Montreal,
+Canada. His father, a shipbuilder of German descent (Koch), and his
+mother, a descendant of William Brewster, were natives of New York City,
+where the boy grew up, studying law in an office in 1842-1844, and
+working in a broker's office in 1844-1846, and where, under the
+influence of Charles G. Finney (1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards
+married, he prepared himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin
+College in 1851, having in the meantime given up his theological studies
+in rebellion at Finney's dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was superintendent
+of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted to the Ohio bar, being
+at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in 1859 was elected to the state
+senate, in which with Garfield and James Monroe (1821-1898) he formed
+the "Radical Triumvirate," Cox himself presenting a petition for a
+personal liberty law and urging woman's rights, especially larger
+property rights to married women. Appointed by Governor Dennison one of
+three brigadiers-general of militia in 1860, he eagerly undertook the
+study of tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great
+assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted
+himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children, and
+in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He took part in
+the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the Kanawha region, in
+supreme command after Rosecrans's relief in the spring, until August
+1862, when his troops were ordered to join Burnside's 9th Corps in
+Virginia. After the death at his side of General Reno in the battle of
+South Mountain, and during Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the
+close of the campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general,
+U.S.V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-December 1863 he
+was head of the department of Ohio. In 1864 he took part in the Atlanta
+campaign under Sherman, as a divisional and subsequently
+corps-commander: at the battle of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps,
+and he served at Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman
+into the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at
+Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as such
+advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted area, and
+sympathized with President Johnson's programme of Reconstruction and
+worked for a compromise between Johnson and his opponents, although he
+finally deserted Johnson. In 1868 he was chairman of the Republican
+national convention which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the
+interior in 1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock and urged by
+President Grant; introduced the merit system in his department, and
+resigned in October 1870 because of pressure put on him by politicians
+piqued at his prohibition of campaign levies on his clerks, and because
+of the interference of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan's attempt
+by legal proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California
+mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became president
+in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo & Wabash & Western.
+In 1877-1879 he was a representative in Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he
+was dean of the Cincinnati law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president
+of the University of Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on
+the 4th of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a
+prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for
+microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is best known as
+one of the greatest "civilian" generals of the Civil War, and, with the
+possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the highest American authority of his
+time on military history, particularly the history of the American Civil
+War. He wrote _Atlanta_ (New York, 1882) and _The March to the Sea,
+Franklin and Nashville_ (New York, 1882), both in the series _Campaigns
+of the Civil War_; _The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected with
+the Fitz-John Porter Case_ (Cincinnati, 1882); and the valuable
+_Military Reminiscences of the Civil War_ (2 vols., New York, 1900)
+published posthumously.
+
+  See J. R. Ewing, _Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox_ (Washington,
+  1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran,
+  "Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox," in
+  _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+COX, KENYON (1856-   ), American painter, was born at Warren, Ohio, on
+the 27th of October 1856, being the son of Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was
+a pupil of Carolus-Duran and of J. L. Gérôme in Paris from 1877 to 1882,
+when he opened a studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much
+success in the Art Students' League. His earlier work was mainly of the
+nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat conventional
+colour. Receiving little encouragement for such pictures, he turned to
+mural decorative work, in which he achieved prominence. Among his
+better-known examples are the frieze for the court room of the Appellate
+Court, New York, and decorations for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin
+College; for the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public
+and private buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and
+is the author of the critical reviews, _Old Masters and New_ (1905) and
+_Painters and Sculptors_ (1907), besides some poems. He became a
+National Academician in 1903. His wife, _née_ Louise H. King (b. 1865),
+whom he married in 1892, also became a figure and portrait-painter of
+note.
+
+
+
+
+COX, RICHARD (1500?-1581), dean of Westminster and bishop of Ely, was
+born of obscure parentage at Whaddon, Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500.
+He was educated at the Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near
+Whaddon, at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated
+B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey's invitation he became a member of the
+cardinal's new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A. in 1525, and
+created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in persuading the more
+unruly members of the university to approve of the king's divorce. A
+premature expression of Lutheran views is said to have caused his
+departure from Oxford and even his imprisonment, but the records are
+silent on these sufferings which do not harmonize with his appointment
+as master of the royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author
+of an ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D. at
+Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year subscribing the
+Institution of a Christian Man. In 1540 he was one of the fifteen
+divines to whom were referred crucial questions on the sacraments and
+the seat of authority in the Church; his answers (printed in Pocock's
+_Burnet_, iii. 443-496) indicate a mind tending away from Catholicism,
+but susceptible to "the king's doctrine"; and, indeed, Cox was one of
+the divines by whom Henry said the "King's Book" had been drawn up when
+he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not exclusively
+his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the examination of Barnes,
+subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves, and in that year of reaction
+became archdeacon and prebendary of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was
+employed on other royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected
+bishopric of Southwell, and was made king's chaplain in 1542. In 1543 he
+was employed to ferret out the "Prebendaries' Plot" against Cranmer, and
+became the archbishop's chancellor. In December he was appointed dean of
+Oseney (afterwards Christ Church) Oxford, and in July was made almoner
+to Prince Edward, in whose education he took an active part. He was
+present at Dr Crome's recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and
+insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council.
+
+After Edward's accession, Cox's opinions took a more Protestant turn,
+and he became one of the most active agents of the Reformation. He was
+consulted on the compilation of the Communion office in 1548, and the
+first and second books of Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for
+the reform of the canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford
+(1547-1552) he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was a
+moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some success to
+eradicate everything savouring of popery from the books, MSS.,
+ornaments and endowments of the university, and earned Cox the sobriquet
+of its cancellor rather than its chancellor. He received other rewards,
+a canonry of Windsor (1548), the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the
+deanery of Westminster (1549). He lost these preferments on Mary's
+accession, and was for a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the
+Marshalsea. He was not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he
+remained in obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt's rebellion, and
+then in May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop
+Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1555 he made his way to Frankfort,
+where he played an important part in the first struggle between
+Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the influence of Knox
+and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine and a form of service far
+more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book of 1552. Cox stood up for that
+service, and the exiles were divided into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox
+attacked Cox as a pluralist, Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor
+Charles V. This proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers
+were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored.
+
+In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of Norwich, but
+the queen changed her mind and Cox's destination to Ely, where he
+remained twenty-one years. He was an honest, but narrow-minded
+ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold intolerantly, and was
+always wanting more power to constrain those who differed from him (see
+his letter in _Hatfield MSS._ i. 308). While he refused to minister in
+the queen's chapel because of the crucifix and lights there, and was a
+bitter enemy to the Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with
+the Puritans. He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in
+money matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who
+coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he refused
+to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher Hatton; but the
+well-known letter beginning "Proud Prelate" and threatening to unfrock
+him seems to be an impudent forgery which first saw the light in the
+_Annual Register_ for 1761. It hardly, however, misrepresents the
+queen's meaning, and Cox was forced to give way. These and other trials
+led him to resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it
+remained vacant for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a
+monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely cathedral was
+defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute. Strype (Whitgift, i. 2)
+gives Cox's hot temper and marriage as reasons why he was not made
+archbishop in 1583 in preference to Whitgift, who had been his chaplain;
+but Cox had been dead two years in 1583. His first wife's name is
+unknown; she was the mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married
+the eldest son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of
+William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells.
+
+  Voluminous details about Cox's life are given in Strype's Works,
+  Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._ i. 437-445. See also
+  Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal.
+  Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.;
+  Whittingham's _Troubles at Frankfort_; Machyn's _Diary_; Pocock's
+  _Burnet_; Bentham's _Ely_; Willis's _Cathedrals_; Le Neve's _Fasti_;
+  R. W. Dixon's _Church History_.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+COX, SAMUEL (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine, was born in
+London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years he worked as an
+apprentice in the London docks, and then entered the Baptist College at
+Stepney. In 1851 he became pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea,
+removing in 1855 to Ryde, and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of
+the Baptist Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St
+Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor and was
+the founder and first editor of a monthly journal _The Expositor_
+(1875-1884). Among the best known of his numerous theological
+publications are _Salvator Mundi_ (1877), _A Commentary on the Book of
+Job_ (1880), _The Larger Hope_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793-1880), American Presbyterian divine, was born
+at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793, of Quaker stock. He was
+pastor of the Presbyterian church at Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of
+two churches in New York from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the
+University of the City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor
+of pastoral theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in
+active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat
+affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville, N.Y., on the
+2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a speech made in Exeter
+Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility for slavery in America
+on the British government, made a great impression. It was he who
+described the appellation D.D. as a couple of "semi-lunar fardels."
+
+His son, ARTHUR CLEVELAND COXE (1818-1896), who changed the spelling of
+the family name, graduated at the University of the City of New York in
+1838 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1841. He was rector of
+St John's Church, Hartford, in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in
+1854-1863, and of Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he
+became assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He was
+strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe wrote spirited
+defences of Anglican orders and published several volumes of verse,
+notably _Christian Ballads_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+COXCIE, MICHAEL (1499-1592), Flemish painter, was born at Malines, and
+studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably induced him to visit
+Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in
+the church of Santa Maria dell' Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says
+with truth "that he fairly acquired the manner of an Italian." But
+Coxcie's principal occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable
+of Psyche in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of
+the Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent
+residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice in
+this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed under
+an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie returned in 1539 to
+Malines, where he matriculated, and painted for the chapel of the gild
+of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The
+centre of this altarpiece, by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the
+Virgin; the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision
+of St John in Patmos. At van Orley's death in 1541 Coxcie succeeded to
+the office of court painter to the regent Mary of Hungary, for whom he
+decorated the castle of Binche. He was subsequently patronized by
+Charles V., who often coupled his works with those of Titian; by Philip
+II., who paid him royally for a copy of van Eyck's "Agnus Dei"; and by
+the duke of Alva, who once protected him from the insults of Spanish
+soldiery at Malines. There are large and capital works of his
+(1587-1588) in St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in
+the museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque grafted
+on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it distantly
+recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation and stiffness. He
+died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.
+
+
+
+
+COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS (1811-1881), English librarian and scholar, was
+born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of September 1811. He was
+educated at Westminster school and Worcester College, Oxford.
+Immediately on taking his degree in 1833, he began work in the
+manuscript department of the British Museum, became in 1838
+sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford, and in 1860 succeeded Dr
+Bandinel as head librarian, an office he held until his death in 1881.
+Having proved himself an able palaeographer, he was sent out by the
+British government in 1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries
+of the Levant. He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks
+were too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his
+travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine
+Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under his
+direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was completed.
+He published _Rogeri de Wendover Chronica_, 5 vols. (1841-1844); the
+_Black Prince, an historical poem written in French by Chandos Herald_
+(1842); and _Report on the Greek Manuscripts yet remaining in the
+Libraries of the Levant_ (1858). He was not only an accurate librarian
+but an active and hardworking clergyman, and was for the last
+twenty-five years of his life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near
+Oxford. He was likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi
+Colleges. He died on the 8th of July 1881.
+
+
+
+
+COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr William Coxe,
+physician to the royal household, was born in London on the 7th of March
+1747. Educated at Marylebone grammar school and at Eton College, he
+proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this
+society in 1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited
+many parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various
+noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of
+Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire. He also
+held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 1811 and that of Fovant from
+1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made prebendary of Salisbury, and
+in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire. He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter
+of William Shairp, consul-general for Russia, and widow of Thomas
+Yeldham of St Petersburg. He died on the 8th of June 1828.
+
+During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied in literary
+work. His _Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole_ (London, 1798), _Memoirs of
+Horatio, Lord Walpole_ (London, 1802), _Memoirs of John, duke of
+Marlborough_ (London, 1818-1819), _Private and Original Correspondence
+of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury_ (London, 1821), _Memoirs of the
+Administrations of Henry Pelham_ (London, 1829), are very valuable for
+the history of the 18th century. His _History of the House of Austria_
+(London, 1807, new ed. 1853 and 1873), and _Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings
+of Spain_ (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking work
+on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his works, is
+remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts of his travels:
+_Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State of Switzerland_
+(London, 1779), _Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and
+America_ (London, 1780), _Account of Prisons and Hospitals in Russia,
+Sweden and Denmark_ (London, 1781), _Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden
+and Denmark_ (London, 1784), _Travels in Switzerland_ (London, 1789),
+_Letter on Secret Tribunals of Westphalia_ (London, 1796), _Historical
+Tour in Monmouthshire_ (London, 1801). He also edited Gay's _Fables_,
+and wrote a _Life of John Gay_ (Salisbury, 1797), _Anecdotes of G. F.
+Handel and J. C. Smith_ (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor
+importance. Some of his books have been translated into French, and
+several have gone through two or more editions.
+
+
+
+
+COXSWAIN (properly "cockswain," and pronounced _cox'n_, usually
+shortened to "cox"; from "cock," a small boat, and _swain_, a servant),
+in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship's boat and its crew,
+who steers; the coxswain of the captain's gig takes a special rank among
+petty officers. In the National Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain
+the "coxswain" is a paid permanent official on each station, who has
+charge of the lifeboat and house, is responsible for its care, and
+steers and takes command when afloat. The word is also used, generally,
+of any one who steers a boat.
+
+
+
+
+COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY (1819-1900), English aeronaut, was born at
+Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 1819, the son of a naval officer. He
+was educated for the army, but became a dentist. From a boy he had been
+greatly interested in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first
+ascent was not made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional
+aeronaut, making numerous public ascents in the chief continental
+cities. Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Cremorne and
+subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had made over 400
+ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James Glaisher, he attained the
+greatest height on record, about 7 m. His companion became insensible,
+and he himself, unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the
+gas-valve with his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent.
+The result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher was
+the making of some important contributions to the science of
+meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the practical
+utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says: "I had hammered
+away in _The Times_ for little less than a decade before there was a
+real military trial of ballooning for military purposes at Aldershot."
+His last ascent was made in 1885, and he died on the 5th of January
+1900.
+
+  See his _My Life and Balloon Experiences_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+COYOTE, the Indian name for a North American member of the dog family,
+also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically as _Canis latrans_.
+Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala in the south, and chiefly
+frequenting the open plains on both sides of the chain of the Rocky
+Mountains, the coyote, under all its various local phases, is a smaller
+animal than the true wolf, and may apparently be regarded as the New
+World representative of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf
+(_C. pallipes_), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals. In
+addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the leg
+than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair. The average
+length is about 40 in., and the general tone of colour tawny mingled
+with black and white above and whitish below, the tail having a black
+tip and likewise a dark gland-patch near the root of the upper surface.
+There is, however, considerable local variation both in the matter of
+size and of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures about
+50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The coyote of the
+deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah is, for instance, a
+smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose length is usually about 42 in.
+On this and other local variations a number of nominal species have been
+founded; but it is preferable to regard them in the light of
+geographical phases or races, such as the above-mentioned _C. latrans
+estor_ of Nevada and Utah, _C. l. mearnsi_ of Arizona and Sonora, and
+_C. l. frustor_ of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district.
+
+It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that coyotes
+have received the name of "prairie-wolves"; the two titles indicating
+the nature of the respective habitats of the two species. Coyotes are
+creatures of slinking and stealthy habits, living in burrows in the
+plains, and hunting in packs at night, when they utter yapping cries and
+blood-curdling yells as they gallop. Hares ("jack-rabbits"), chipmunks
+or ground-squirrels, and mice form a large portion of their food; but
+coyotes also kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens
+and other kinds of game-birds. "In the flat lands," write Messrs Witmer
+Stone and W. E. Cram, in their _American Animals_ (1902), "they dig
+burrows for themselves or else take possession of those already made by
+badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the spring the half-dozen or more
+coyote pups are brought forth; and it is said that at this season the
+old ones systematically drive any large game they may be chasing as near
+to their burrow, where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as
+possible before killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it
+any great distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually work
+together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one of the coyotes
+bounds away in pursuit while the other squats on his haunches and waits
+his turn, knowing full well that the hare prefers to run in a circle,
+and will soon come round again, when the second wolf takes up the chase
+and the other rests in his turn.... When hunting antelope (prongbuck)
+and deer the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle,
+endeavouring to surround their game and keep it running inside their
+ring until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote hunts
+successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained pointer
+until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops flat in the grass
+and creeps forward like a cat until close enough for the final spring."
+
+When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat hips,
+juniper-berries and other wild fruits.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+COYPEL, the name of a French family of painters. Noel Coypel
+(1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much influenced by
+Poussin, COYPEL LE POUSSIN, was the son of an unsuccessful artist.
+Having been employed by Charles Errard to paint some of the pictures
+required for the Louvre, and having afterwards gained considerable fame
+by other pictures produced at the command of the king, in 1672 he was
+appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he
+returned to France; and not long after he became director of the Academy
+of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is perhaps his
+finest work.
+
+His son, ANTOINE COYPEL (1661-1772), was still more celebrated than his
+father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom he spent four years
+at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was admitted into the Academy of
+Painting, of which he became professor and rector in 1707, and director
+in 1714. In 1716 he was appointed king's painter, and he was ennobled in
+the following year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary
+education, the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful
+imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that he was
+not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a clever etcher,
+and engraved several of his own works. His _Discours prononcés dans les
+conférences de l' Académie royale de Peinture, &c._; appeared in 1741.
+
+Antoine's half-brother, NOEL NICHOLAS COYPEL (1692-1734), was also an
+exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles Antoine (1694-1752),
+was painter to the king and director of the Academy of Painting. The
+latter published interesting academical lectures in _Le Mercure_ and
+wrote several plays which were acted at court, but were never published.
+
+
+
+
+COYPU, the native name of a large South American aquatic rodent mammal,
+known very generally among European residents in the country as nutria
+(the Spanish word for otter) and scientifically as _Myocastor_ (or
+_Myopotamus_) _coypu_. Its large size, aquatic habits, partially webbed
+hind-toes, and the smooth, broad, orange-coloured incisors, are
+sufficient to distinguish this rodent from the other members of the
+family _Capromyidae_. Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South
+America, even small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs.
+Should the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although subsisting
+to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these rodents frequently
+come ashore to feed, especially in the evening. Several young are
+produced at a birth, which are carried on their mother's back when
+swimming. The fur is of some commercial value, although rather stiff and
+harsh; its colour being reddish-brown. (See RODENTIA.)
+
+
+
+
+COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE (1640-1720), French sculptor, was born at
+Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and belonged to a family which had
+emigrated from Spain. The name should be pronounced Coëzevo. He was only
+seventeen when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable
+merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself by taking
+copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among others from the
+Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he was engaged by the bishop
+of Strassburg, Cardinal Fürstenberg, to adorn with statuary his château
+at Saverne (Zabern). In 1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier,
+Lerambert's niece, who died a year after the marriage. In 1671, after
+four years spent on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in
+1780, he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun
+obtained admission for him to the Académie Royale. A year later he
+married Claude Bourdict.
+
+In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between the years
+1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV. in producing much of the
+decoration and a large number of statues for Versailles; and he
+afterwards worked, between 1701 and 1709, with no less facility and
+success, for the palace at Marly, subsequently destroyed in the
+Revolution.
+
+Among his works are the "Mercury and Fame," first at Marly and
+afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; "Neptune and Amphitrite," in
+the gardens at Marly; "Justice and Force," at Versailles; and statues,
+in which the likenesses are said to have been remarkably successful, of
+most of the celebrated men of his age, including Louis XIV. and Louis
+XV. at Versailles, Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church
+des Quatre-Nations), Condé the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of
+Austria, Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac,
+Fénelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d'Harcourt, Cardinal
+Fürstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre). Coysevox died in Paris
+on the 10th of October 1720.
+
+Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen memorials,
+including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to Cardinal Mazarin (in
+the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in the church of Saint
+Nicholas-du-Chardon).
+
+
+Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou.
+
+  See Henry Jouin, _A. Coysevox, sa vie, son oeuvre_ (1883); Jean du
+  Seigneur, _Revue universelle des arts_, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+CRAB (Ger. _Krabbe_, _Krebs_), a name applied to the Crustacea of the
+order _Brachyura_, and to other forms, especially of the order
+_Anomura_, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance and
+habits.
+
+The _Brachyura_, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-tailed
+lobsters and shrimps which form the order _Macrura_, by the fact that
+the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried folded up under the
+body. In most of them the body is transversely oval or triangular in
+outline and more or less flattened, and is covered by a hard shell, the
+carapace. There are five pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or
+chelae and are usually much more massive than the others which are used
+in walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and can be
+withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace. There are six
+pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxillipeds) enclosed within a "buccal
+cavern," the opening of which is covered by the broad and flattened
+third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is usually narrow and triangular in
+the males, but in the females it is broad and rounded and bears
+appendages to which the eggs are attached after spawning (fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended
+and carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Zoëa of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage.
+r, Rostral spine; s, Dorsal spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic
+feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.)]
+
+As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when newly hatched,
+are very different from their parents. The first larval stage is known
+as a Zoëa, this name having been given to it when it was believed by
+naturalists to be a distinct and independent species of animal. The Zoëa
+is a minute transparent organism, swimming at the surface of the sea. It
+has a rounded body, armed with long spines, and a long segmented tail.
+The eyes are large but not set on stalks, the legs are not yet
+developed, and the foot-jaws form swimming paddles. After casting its
+skin several times as it grows in size, the young crab passes into a
+stage known as the _Megalopa_ (fig. 2), also formerly regarded as an
+independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more crab-like, but
+the abdomen is large and not filled up. After a further moult the
+animal assumes a form very similar to that of the adult. There are a few
+crabs, living on land or in fresh water, which do not pass through a
+metamorphosis but leave the egg as miniature adults.
+
+Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are abundant
+in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally and pass
+through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs living between
+tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the river-crab of southern
+Europe or Lenten crab (_Potamon edule_, better known as _Thelphusa
+fluviatilis_) is an example of the freshwater crabs which are abundant
+in most of the warmer regions of the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by
+gills, which are lodged in a pair of cavities at the sides of the
+carapace, but in the true land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and
+modified so as to act as lungs for breathing air.
+
+Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the peculiar
+sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common shore-crab, is
+characteristic of most members of the group. The crabs of the family
+_Portunidae_, and some others, swim with great dexterity by means of
+their flattened paddle-shaped feet.
+
+Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and act as the
+scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their habits and some
+are content with a vegetable diet.
+
+Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in relations of
+"commensalism" with other animals. The best known examples of this are
+the little "mussel-crabs" (_Pinnotheridae_) which live within the shells
+of mussels and other bivalve mollusca and probably share the food of
+their hosts. Some crabs live among corals, and one species at least
+gives rise to hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the
+"galls" which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another crab
+(_Melia tesselata_) carries in each of its claws a living sea-anemone
+which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and an implement for the
+capture of prey. Many of the sluggish spider-crabs (_Maiidae_) have
+their shells covered by a forest of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and
+sponges, which are "planted" there by the crab itself, and which afford
+it a very effective disguise.
+
+Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The most
+important and valuable are the edible crab of British and European
+coasts (_Cancer pagurus_) and the blue crab of the Atlantic coast of the
+United States (_Callinectes sapidus_).
+
+Among the _Anomura_, the best known are the hermit-crabs, which live in
+the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which they carry about with
+them as portable dwellings. In these, the abdomen is soft-skinned and
+spirally twisted so as to fit into the shells which they inhabit. The
+common hermit-crab of the British coasts (_Pagurus_ or _Eupagurus
+Bernhardus_) is sometimes called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity.
+Small specimens are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of
+periwinkles and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live
+in deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk
+(_Buccinum_). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from time to
+time, often having to fight with its fellows for the possession of an
+empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives inside the shell along with
+the hermit and often the outside is covered with zoophytes. In some
+species, as in the British _Eupagurus prideauxi_, a sea-anemone is
+constantly found attached to the shell, profiting by the active
+locomotion of the crab and probably sharing the crumbs of its food,
+while it affords its host protection by its stinging powers.
+
+In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family _Coenobitidae_ live
+on land, often at considerable distances from the sea, to which,
+however, they return for the purpose of hatching out their spawn. The
+large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of the Indo-Pacific islands (_Birgus
+latro_), which belongs to this family, has given up the habit of
+carrying a portable dwelling, and the upper surface of its abdomen has
+become covered by shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees
+to get the fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even
+photographed in the act.     (W. T. CA.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Gecarcinus ruricola_ (Violet Land Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Portunus puber_ (Velvet Swimming Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. _Podophthalmus vigil_ (Sentinel Spinous Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Eupagurus Bernhardus_ (Soldier Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Pinnotheres pisum_ (Pea Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Corystes Cassivelaunus_ (Masked Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Eupagurus angulatus_ (a Hermit Crab).]
+
+
+
+
+CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832), English poet, was born at Aldeburgh in
+Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family was partly of Norfolk,
+partly of Suffolk origin, and the name was doubtless originally derived
+from "crab." His grandfather, Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family
+to settle at Aldeburgh, where he held the appointment of collector of
+customs. He died in 1734, leaving one son, George, who practised many
+occupations, including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village
+of Orford. Finally the poet's father obtained a small post in the
+customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a publican, and
+had six children, of whom George was the eldest.
+
+The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George Crabbe's
+birthplace, but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden, some
+half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the son was at a
+later date to work with him. At first attending a dame's school in
+Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he was sent to a
+boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school at Stowmarket,
+where he remained two years. His father dreamt of the medical profession
+for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he went to Wickham Brook near
+Newmarket as an apothecary's assistant. In 1771 we find him assisting a
+surgeon at Woodbridge, and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy.
+Crabbe was now only eighteen years of age, but he became "engaged" to
+this lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married. The
+intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which, however,
+not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed assisted him.
+About the time of Crabbe's return from Woodbridge to Aldeburgh he
+published at Ipswich his first work, a poem entitled _Inebriety_ (1775).
+He found his father fallen on evil days. There was no money to assist
+him to a partnership, and surgery for the moment seemed out of the
+question. For a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling
+butter casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however, the
+young man bought on credit "the shattered furniture of an apothecary's
+shop and the drugs that stocked it." This was at Aldeburgh. A year later
+Crabbe installed a deputy in the surgery and paid his first visit to
+London. He lodged in Whitechapel, took lessons in midwifery and walked
+the hospitals. Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months--in 1777--he
+found his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter
+failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his mind. At
+times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he to earn a livelihood.
+After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe paid his second visit to
+London, enabled thereto by the loan of five pounds from Dudley Lang, a
+local magnate. This visit to London, which was undertaken by sea on
+board the "Unity" smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem
+_The Candidate_, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For a
+time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts of
+money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned the great, and the
+publishers also. Everywhere he was refused, but at length a letter which
+reached Edmund Burke in March 1781 led to the careful consideration on
+the part of that great man of Crabbe's many manuscripts. Burke advised
+the publication of _The Library_, which appeared in 1781. He invited him
+to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure
+Crabbe's entry into the church. He was ordained in December 1781 and was
+appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh.
+
+Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk could not
+reverence as priest a man they had known as a day labourer. Crabbe again
+appealed to Burke, who persuaded the duke of Rutland to make him his
+chaplain (1782), and Crabbe took up his residence in Belvoir Castle,
+accompanying his new patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who
+told him he was "as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen") gave him
+the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in Dorsetshire, worth
+together about £200 a year. In May 1783 Crabbe's poem _The Village_ was
+published by Dodsley, and in December of this year he married Sarah
+Elmy. Crabbe continued his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a
+non-resident priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned.
+In 1785 he published _The Newspaper_. Shortly after this he moved with
+his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern, where he took
+the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke, archdeacon of
+Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years. In 1789, through the
+persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now a widow, the duke having died
+in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe
+the two livings of Muston in Leicestershire and West Allington in
+Lincolnshire. At Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years,
+divided by a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his
+wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle's that
+placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall, Parham,
+Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to 1796, leaving
+curates in charge of his two livings. In 1796 the loss of their son
+Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham to Great Glemham Hall,
+Suffolk, where they lived until 1801. In that year Crabbe went to live
+at Rendham, a village in the same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to
+Muston. In 1807 he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the
+publication of _The Parish Register_, in 1810 of _The Borough_, and in
+1812 of _Tales in Verse_. In 1813 Crabbe's wife died, and in 1814 he was
+given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland, a son
+of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted the living
+of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 1814 to his death in 1832
+Crabbe resided at Trowbridge.
+
+These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was a constant
+visitor to London, and in friendship with all the literary celebrities
+of the time. "Crabbe seemed to grow young again," remarks his
+biographer, M. René Huchon. He certainly carried on a succession of mild
+flirtations, and one of his parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have
+married him. The elderly widower had proposed to her and had been
+accepted in 1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed
+to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In his visits
+to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in St James's Place,
+and was a frequent visitor to Holland House, where he met his brother
+poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817 his _Tales of the Hall_ were
+completed, and John Murray offered £3000 for the copyright, Crabbe's
+previous works being included. The offer after much negotiation was
+accepted, but Crabbe's popularity was now on the wane.
+
+In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter Scott. The
+adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of George IV. about the
+same time, is most amusingly described in Lockhart's biography of Scott,
+although one episode--that of the broken wine-glass--is discredited by
+Crabbe's biographer, M. Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of
+February 1832, and was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate
+monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833.
+
+Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous a favourite
+with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to fall into oblivion
+by the public. All the poets of his earlier and his later years, Cowper,
+Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have been reprinted again and
+again. With Crabbe it was long quite otherwise. His works were collected
+into eight volumes, the first containing his life by his son, in 1832.
+The edition was intended to continue with some of his prose writings,
+but the reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging.
+A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has been
+reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of the
+copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe's reputation, and it was not
+until the end of the century that sundry volumes of "selections" from
+his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of Omar Khayyám fame, always a
+loyal admirer, made a "Selection," privately printed by Quaritch, in
+1879. A "Selection" by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C.
+H. Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The _Complete Works_
+were published by the Cambridge University Press in three volumes,
+edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906.
+
+Crabbe's poems have been praised by many competent pens, by Edward
+FitzGerald in his _Letters_, by Cardinal Newman in his _Apologia_, and
+by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _Hours in a Library_, most notably. His
+verses comforted the last hours of Charles James Fox and of Sir Walter
+Scott, while Thomas Hardy has acknowledged their influence on the
+realism of his novels. But his works have ceased to command a wide
+public interest. He just failed of being the artist in words who is able
+to make the same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well
+repay perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once read
+are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of English fiction,
+for even considered as a novelist he makes fascinating reading. He is
+more than this: for there is true poetry in Crabbe, although his most
+distinctively lyric note was attained when he wrote under the influence
+of opium, to which he became much addicted in his later years.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Works of Crabbe_ (8 vols., Murray, 1834; 1 vol.,
+  Murray, 1901), and the _Works_ in the Cambridge Press Classics, edited
+  by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The life by
+  Crabbe's son in one volume, _The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe,
+  LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M._ (1834), has not been
+  separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is
+  _George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Biographical
+  Study_, by René Huchon, translated from the French by Frederick Clarke
+  (1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel ("Great Writers" series) and
+  by Canon Ainger ("English Men of Letters" series) also deserve
+  attention.     (C. K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CRACKER (from "crack," a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _krachen_, Dutch
+_kraken_, meaning to break with a sharp sound), that which "cracks"; it
+is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework so constructed that it explodes
+with several reports and jumps at each explosion, when placed on the
+ground (see FIREWORKS); (2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper
+containing sweets, small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other
+trifles, together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes
+with a "crack" on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit (q.v.); in
+America the general name for a biscuit. In the southern states of
+America, "cracker" is a term of contempt for the "poor" or "mean
+whites," particularly of Georgia and Florida; the term is an old one and
+dates back to the Revolution, and is supposed to be derived from the
+"cracked corn" which formed the staple food of the class to whom the
+term refers.
+
+
+
+
+CRACOW (Pol. _Krakov_; Ger. _Krakau_), a town and episcopal see of
+Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900)
+91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans and the remainder Poles.
+Although in regard to its population it is only the second place in
+Galicia, Cracow is the most interesting town in the whole of Poland. No
+other Polish town possesses so many old and historic buildings, none of
+them contains so many national relics, or has been so closely associated
+with the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the ancient
+capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation.
+
+Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the Vistula
+(which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of great
+strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town and seven
+suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the old town, whose
+place is now occupied by shady promenades, is the Florian's Gate and the
+Rondell, a circular structure, built in 1498. Cracow has 39
+churches--about half the number it formerly had--and 25 convents for
+monks and nuns. Of these the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral,
+in Gothic style, consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky
+eminence to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were
+crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish nation, the
+burial place of its kings and its great men. Here lie the remains of
+John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of Joseph Poniatowski and of
+Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are conserved the remains of St Stanislaus,
+the patron saint of the Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain
+before the altar by King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned
+with many valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such
+artists as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &c. Part
+of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic church of St
+Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century with several chapels
+added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was restored in 1889-1893, and
+decorated with paintings from the designs by Matejko. It contains a huge
+high altar, the masterpiece of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow,
+executed in 1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end
+of the 15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families from
+the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a Gothic building of
+the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a fire in 1850; the
+Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also much modernized; the
+church of St Florian of the 12th century, rebuilt in 1768, which
+contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit Stoss, executed in 1518, during
+his last sojourn in Cracow; the church of St Peter, with a colossal
+dome, built in 1597, after the model of that of St Peter at Rome, and
+the beautiful Augustinian church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all
+worth mentioning. Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle
+(_Zamek Królowsk_), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and
+successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I. Jagiello
+(1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until 1610 the residence
+of the Polish kings. It suffered much from fires and other disasters,
+and from 1846 onward was used as a barracks and a military hospital; it
+has now, however, been cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian
+university, now housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in
+1881-1887, was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors
+and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the second
+oldest university in Europe--the oldest being that of Prague--and was
+famous during the 15th and 16th centuries. It was founded by Casimir the
+Great in 1364, and completed by Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich
+library is now housed in the old university buildings, erected in the
+15th century, in the beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of
+Copernicus was placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in
+1872, is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz, or
+the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the _Tuchhaus_
+(cloth-hall, Pol. _Sukiennice_), a building erected in 1257, several
+times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879, which contains the
+Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a Gothic tower, the only
+relic of the old town hall, demolished in 1820. The Czartoryski museum
+contains a large collection of objects of art, a rich library and a
+precious collection of manuscripts, relating to the history of Poland.
+
+Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural
+implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &c. But Cracow is more important
+as a trading than as an industrial centre. Its position on the Vistula
+and at the junction of several railways makes it the natural mart for
+the exchange of the products of Silesia, Hungary and Russian and
+Austrian Poland. Its trade in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and
+agricultural produce of all kinds is very considerable. In the
+neighbourhood of Cracow there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far
+away lies the village of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2½ m.
+N.W. lies the Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up
+in 1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus
+Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the Vistula,
+united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze (pop. 18,142);
+near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the Kosciuszko Hill, and a
+thousand years older than it, erected in honour of Krakus, the founder
+of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of Cracow is situated Wieliczka (q.v.), with
+its famous salt mines.
+
+_History._--Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the mythical
+Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a stronghold here about
+A.D. 700. Its early history is, however, entirely obscure. In the latter
+part of the 10th century it was annexed to the Bohemian principality,
+but was recaptured by Boleslaus Chrobry, who made it the seat of a
+bishopric, and it became the capital of one of the most important of the
+principalities into which Poland was divided from the 12th century
+onwards. The city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion
+in 1241, but the introduction of German colonists restored its
+prosperity, and in 1257 it received "Magdeburg rights," i.e. a civic
+constitution modelled on that of Magdeburg. In this year the _Tuchhalle_
+was built. The town, however, had yet to pass through many vicissitudes.
+It suffered again from Tatar invasions; in 1290 it was captured by
+Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305,
+the Polish king Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III.
+Ladislaus made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained
+the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after the
+royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-1632) to Warsaw.
+On the third partition of Poland in 1795 Austria took possession of
+Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon wrested it from that power, and
+incorporated it with the duchy of Warsaw, which was placed under the
+rule of the king of Saxony. In the campaign of 1812 the emperor
+Alexander made himself master of this and the other territory which
+formed the duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of
+Europe by the great powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow and the
+adjoining territory should be formed into a free state; and, by the
+Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 1815, "the town of Cracow,
+with its territory, is declared to be for ever a free, independent and
+strictly neutral city, under the protection of Russia, Austria and
+Prussia." In February 1846, however, an insurrection broke out in
+Cracow, apparently a ramification of a widely spread conspiracy
+throughout Poland. The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were
+unable to subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request,
+the city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection
+of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, made
+this a pretext for extinguishing this independent state; and as the
+outcome of a conference at Vienna (November 1846) the three courts,
+contrary to the assurance previously given, and in opposition to the
+expressed views of the British and French governments, decided to
+extinguish the state of Cracow and to incorporate it with the dominions
+of Austria.
+
+
+
+
+CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT (1850-   ), the pen-name of MARY NOAILLES
+MURFREE, American author, who was born near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on
+the 24th of January 1850, the great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree.
+She was crippled in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in
+Nashville and Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of
+eastern Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with
+whose life her writings deal. She contributed to _Appleton's Journal_,
+and, first in 1878, to _The Atlantic Monthly_. No one, apparently,
+suspected that the author of these stories was a woman, and her identity
+was not disclosed until 1885, a year after the publication of her first
+volume of short stories, _In the Tennessee Mountains_. She deals mainly
+with the narrow, stern life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left
+behind in the advance of civilization, live amid traditions and customs,
+and speak a dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in
+exquisite descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: _Where the
+Battle was Fought_ (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristocratic
+southern life; _Down the Ravine_ (1885) and _The Story of Keedon Bluffs_
+(1887) for young people; _The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains_
+(1885), a novel; _In the Clouds_ (1886), a novel; _The Despot of
+Broomsedge Cove_ (1888), a novel; _In the "Stranger-People's" Country_
+(1891); _His Vanished Star_ (1894), a novel; _The Mystery of Witch-Face
+Mountain and Other Stories_ (1895); _The Phantoms of the Footbridge and
+Other Stories_ (1895); _The Young Mountaineers_ (1897), short stories;
+_The Juggler_ (1897); _The Story of Old Fort Loudon_ (1899); _The
+Bushwhackers and Other Stories_ (1899); _The Champion_ (1902); _A
+Spectre of Power_ (1903); _The Frontiersman_ (1904); _The Storm Centre_
+(1905); _The Amulet_ (1906); _The Windfall_ (1907); and _Fair
+Mississippian_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with "crate" and
+"creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of
+rocking, is scouted by the _New English Dictionary_), a child's bed of
+wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed sides, slung upon pivots or mounted
+on rockers. It is a very ancient piece of furniture, but the date when
+it first assumed its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no
+means clear. A miniature in an illuminated _Histoire de la belle
+Hélaine_ in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or
+beginning of the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny
+four-post bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an
+oblong oak box without a lid--originally the rockers appear to have
+been detachable--but, like all other household appliances, it has been
+subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and adornment. It has been
+panelled and carved, supported on Renaissance pillars, inlaid with
+marqueterie or mounted in gilded bronze. The original simple shape
+persisted for two or three centuries--even the hood made its appearance
+very early. In the 18th century, however, cradles were often very
+elaborate--indeed in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but
+the richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for
+purposes of state, being in fact miniature _lits de parade_. In modern
+times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood being very
+often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a carved or shaped
+upright. About the middle of the 19th century iron cradles were
+introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A number of undoubted historic
+cradles have been preserved, together with many others with doubtful
+attributions. Two alleged cradles of Henry V. exist; one which claims to
+have been used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle. That of
+Henry IV. of France, now in the Château de Pau, is mounted upon a large
+tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome ("Napoleon II.") was designed by
+Prud'hon, and along with that of the comte de Chambord is preserved in
+the Garde Meuble. In England a cradle is now often called a "bassinet"
+(i.e. little basket), and the "cot" has to some extent taken its place.
+By analogy, the word "cradle" is also applied to various sorts of
+framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool used in engraving.
+
+
+
+
+CRADOCK, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the Cape
+province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m. by rail N.
+by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one of the chief
+centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also a large trade in
+ostrich feathers, mohair, &c. The town enjoys a reputation as one of the
+best health resorts in the province. It stands at an altitude of 2856
+ft.; the climate is very dry, the average annual rainfall being 14.50
+in. The mean maximum temperature is 77.6° F. Three miles N. of the town
+are sulphur baths (temp. 100° F.) used for the treatment of rheumatism.
+In the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras, now
+protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning of the
+19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock, governor of the Cape
+1811-1813. The division has an area of 3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
+18,803, of whom 41% are white.
+
+
+
+
+CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf.
+Ger. _Kraft_), a word confined in English only, of the Teutonic
+languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power, and used as a
+synonym of "art." It then means skill or ingenuity, especially in the
+manual arts, hence its use in the expression "Arts and Crafts" (q.v.),
+and it is thus applied to the trade or profession in which such skill is
+displayed, to an association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade
+gild, and in particular to Freemasons, "the craft"; the word appears
+also in words such as "handicraft" or "craftsman." Skill applied to
+outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning or trickery, and it
+is this meaning which is implied in such combined words as
+"priestcraft," "witchcraft" and the like. A more particular use of the
+word is in the nautical sense of vessels of transport by water; this is
+probably a colloquially shortened form either of "vessels of a
+fisherman's, lighterman's &c., craft," i.e. "art," or of "vessels of a
+heavier or lighter craft," i.e. burden or capacity; in both cases the
+qualifying words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in
+general.
+
+
+
+
+CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. _creag_, Manx _creg_, and Welsh and
+modern Scots _craig_), a steep rock. The word appears in many
+place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also
+connected with "carrick," a word of similar meaning, also found in
+place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the strata in which a
+shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expression "crag and tail," to
+a formation of hills, in which one side is precipitous and lofty and the
+other slopes or "tails" gradually away, as in the Castle Rock in
+Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+CRAGGS, JAMES (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of Anthony
+Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the 10th of June 1657.
+After following various callings in London, Craggs, who was a person of
+considerable financial ability, entered the service of the duchess of
+Marlborough, and through her influence became in 1702 member of
+parliament for Grampound, retaining his seat until 1713. He was in
+business as an army clothier and held several official positions,
+becoming joint postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his
+opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of money.
+Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the affairs of the South
+Sea Company, but after his death an act of parliament confiscated all
+the property which he had acquired since December 1719. He left an
+enormous fortune when he died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible
+that Craggs committed suicide.
+
+His son, JAMES CRAGGS the younger (1686-1721), was born at Westminster
+on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was spent abroad, where
+he made the acquaintance of George Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards
+King George I. In 1713 he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in
+1717 secretary-at-war, and in the following year one of the principal
+secretaries of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but
+not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the 16th of
+February 1721. Among Craggs's friends were Pope, who wrote the epitaph
+on his monument in Westminster Abbey, Addison and Gay.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIG, JOHN (1512?-1600), Scottish reformer, born about 1512, was the
+son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was killed at Flodden in
+1513. After an education at St Andrews, and acting as tutor to the
+children of Lord Darcy, the English warden of the North, he became a
+Dominican, but was soon in trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way
+to England, but failing to obtain the preferment he desired at
+Cambridge, he went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole,
+who was himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the
+novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he was busy
+travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but a perusal of
+Calvin's _Institutes_ revived his heretical tendencies, and he was
+condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and statesman, Thomas
+Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which broke out on the death of
+Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559, when the mob burst open the prison
+of the Inquisition. After various adventures he reached Vienna, where he
+preached, and was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards
+the emperor) Maximilian II.
+
+In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained minister
+of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox's colleague in the High Church. His
+defence of church property and privilege against the predatory instincts
+of the nobles and the pretensions of the state brought him into conflict
+with Lethington and others; but he seems to have condoned, if he was not
+privy to, Riccio's murder. At first he refused to publish the banns of
+marriage between Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a
+protest that he "abhorred and detested the marriage." He had been
+associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization of the
+church, but he wished to compromise between the two extreme parties.
+From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north, whither he had been sent to
+"illuminate those dark places in Mar, Buchan and Aberdeen." In 1579 he
+was appointed chaplain to the young James VI., and returned to
+Edinburgh. In 1581 episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of
+a commission on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition
+of the _Second Book of Discipline_ and the National Covenant of 1580,
+and in 1581 compiled "Ane Shorte and Generale Confession" called the
+"King's Confession," which was imposed on all parish ministers and
+graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of 1638. He approved of
+the Ruthven raid, and admonished James in terms which made him weep, but
+produced no alteration in his conduct, and before long Craig was
+denouncing the supremacy of Arran. But he was averse from the violence
+of Melville, and was willing to admit the royal supremacy "as far as the
+word of God allows." James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this
+compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal
+chaplains and some others. In 1592 was published Craig's _Catechism_. He
+died on the 12th of December 1600.
+
+  See T. G. Law's Pref. to Craig's _Catechism_ (1885); Bain's _Cal.
+  Scottish State Papers_; Reg. P. C. Scotl.; Hew Scott's _Fasti Eccles._
+  Scot.; Knox's, Calderwood's and Grub's _Eccles. Histories_; McCrie's
+  _Life of Melville_; Hay Fleming's _Mary, Queen of Scots_; Bannatyne's
+  _Memorials_.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CRAIG, SIR THOMAS (c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet, was born
+about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of William Craig
+of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but beyond the fact
+that he was in some way related to the Craigfintray family nothing
+regarding his birth is known with certainty. He was educated at St
+Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in 1555. From St Andrews he went
+to France, to study the canon and the civil law. He returned to Scotland
+about 1561, and was admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was
+appointed justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of
+Argyll; and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials
+of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff-depute of Edinburgh, and
+in 1606 procurator for the church. He never became a lord of session, a
+circumstance that was unquestionably due to his own choice. It is said
+that he refused the honour of knighthood which the king wished to confer
+on him in 1604, when he came to London as one of the Scottish
+commissioners regarding the union between the kingdoms--the only
+political object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with
+James's commands he has always been styled and reputed a knight. Craig
+was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of Lumphoy in Midlothian, by
+whom he had four sons and three daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis
+Craig (1569-1622), was raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other
+descendants are several well-known names in the list of Scottish
+lawyers. He died on the 26th of February 1608.
+
+Except his poems, the only one of Craig's works which appeared during
+his lifetime was his _Jus feudale_ (1603; ed. R. Burnet, 1655; Leipzig,
+1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this treatise was to
+assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but, instead of this, it
+was an important factor in building up and solidifying the law of
+Scotland into a separate system. Other works were _De unione regnorum
+Britanniae tractatus, De jure successionis regni Angliae_ and _De
+hominio disputatio_. Translations of the last two have been published,
+and in 1910 an edition of the _De Unione_ appeared, with translation and
+notes by C. S. Terry. Craig's first poem, an _Epithalamium_ in honour of
+the marriage of Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1565. Most
+of his poems have been reprinted in the _Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum_.
+
+  See P. F. Tytler, _Life of Craig_ (1823); Life prefixed to Baillie's
+  edition of the _Jus feudale_.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA (1867-1906), Anglo-American novelist and
+dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name of "JOHN OLIVER HOBBES," was
+born at Boston, U.S.A., on the 3rd of November 1867. She was the elder
+daughter of John Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris.
+When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie, by whom she
+had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the marriage proved an unhappy
+one, and was dissolved on her petition in July 1895. She was brought up
+as a Nonconformist, but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic
+Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member. Her first
+little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic _Some Emotions and a Moral_,
+was published in 1891 in Mr Fisher Unwin's "Pseudonym Library," and was
+followed by _The Sinner's Comedy_ (1892), _A Study in Temptations_
+(1893), _A Bundle of Life_ (1894), _The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord
+Wickenham_. _The Herb Moon_ (1896), a country love story, was followed
+by _The School for Saints_ (1897), with a sequel, _Robert Orange_
+(1900). Mrs Craigie had already written a one-act "proverb," _Journeys
+end in Lovers Meeting_, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act
+tragedy, "Osbern and Ursyne," printed in the _Anglo-Saxon Review_
+(1899), when her successful piece, _The Ambassador_, was produced at the
+St James's Theatre in 1898. _A Repentance_ (one act, 1899) and _The
+Wisdom of the Wise_ (1900) were produced at the same theatre, and _The
+Flute of Pan_ (1904) first at Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury
+theatre; she was also part author of _The Bishop's Move_ (Garrick
+Theatre, 1902). Later books are _The Serious Wooing_ (1901), _Love and
+the Soul Hunters_ (1902), _Tales about Temperament_ (1902), _The
+Vineyard_ (1904). Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London
+on the 13th of August 1906.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIK, DINAH MARIA (1826-1887), English novelist, better known by her
+maiden name of Mulock, and still better as "the author of _John Halifax,
+Gentleman_," was the daughter of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious
+enthusiast of Irish extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826
+at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister
+of a small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, determined to
+obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with fiction for
+children, advanced steadily until _John Halifax, Gentleman_ (1857),
+placed her in the front rank of the women novelists of her day. _A Life
+for a Life_ (1859), though inferior, maintained a high position, but she
+afterwards wrote little of importance except some very charming tales
+for children. Her most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above,
+were _The Ogilvies_ (1849), _Olive_ (1850), _The Head of the Family_
+(1851), _Agatha's Husband_ (1853). There is much passion and power in
+these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized by
+high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in _Avillion
+and other Tales_ also exhibit a fine imagination. She published some
+poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit, narratives of tours in
+Ireland and Cornwall, and _A Woman's Thoughts about Women_. She married
+Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in the house of Macmillan & Company, in 1864,
+and died at Shortlands, near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866), English man of letters, the son of a
+schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in 1798. He studied at
+the university of St Andrews with the intention of entering the church,
+but, altering his plans, became the editor of a local newspaper, and
+went to London in 1824 to devote himself to literature. He became
+connected with a short-lived literary paper called the _Verulam_; in
+1831 he published his _Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties_ among
+the works of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; he
+contributed a considerable number of biographical and historical
+articles to the _Penny Cyclopaedia_; and he edited the _Pictorial
+History of England_, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he
+published his _History of Literature and Learning in England from the
+Norman Conquest to the Present Time_, illustrated by extracts. Craik is
+best known for his abridged version of this work, _The History of
+English Literature and the English Language_ (1861), which passed
+through several editions. In the next year appeared his _Spenser and his
+Poetry_, an abstract of Spenser's poems, with historical and
+biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his _Bacon, his
+Writings and his Philosophy_, a work of a similar kind. The two
+last-mentioned works appeared among _Knight's Weekly Volumes_. Two years
+later Craik obtained the chair of history and English literature at
+Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he held till his death, which
+took place on the 25th of June 1866. He had married Miss Jeannette
+Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik
+(Mrs A. W. May), wrote over thirty novels, of which _Lost and Won_
+(1859) was the best. Besides the works already noticed, Craik published
+the _History of British Commerce from the Earliest Times_ (1844),
+_Romance of the Peerage_ (1848-1850) and _The English of Shakespeare_
+(1856).
+
+
+
+
+CRAIL (formerly KAREL), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland,
+2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the county, and 11 m.
+S.E. of St Andrews by the North British railway, but 2 m. nearer by
+road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said to have been a town of some note as
+early as the 9th century; and its castle, of which there are hardly any
+remains, was the residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was
+constituted a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and had
+its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in 1553, and by
+Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to St Rufus, a few ruins
+still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the patron saint of Crail, is an
+edifice of great antiquity. Many of the ordinary houses are massive and
+quaint. The public buildings include a library and reading-room and town
+hall. The chief industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs,
+shipping and brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It
+unites with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and
+Cupar in returning one member to parliament.
+
+Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th century.
+Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before her marriage to
+James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th century it passed through
+the hands of various proprietors and was ultimately shorn of much of its
+original size and grandeur. The East Neuk is a term applied more
+particularly to the country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all
+of the peninsula east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to
+Elie. For fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with
+the haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea.
+
+
+
+
+CRAILSHEIM, or KRAILSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the Neckar, at the junction of
+railways to Heilbronn and Fürth. Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two
+Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town
+hall, with a tower 225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include
+extensive tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in
+cattle and agricultural produce.
+
+Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully withstood a
+siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities (1379-1380), a
+feat which is annually celebrated, passed later into the possession of
+the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to
+Bavaria and 1810 to Württemberg.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIOVA, or KRAJOVA, the capital of the department of Doljiu, Rumania,
+situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and on the main Walachian
+railway from Verciorova to Bucharest. Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch
+railway to Calafat facilitates the export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova
+is the chief commercial town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands
+are very rich in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain
+extensive forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close
+by is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the army.
+The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen, pottery, glue
+and leather. In the town, which is the headquarters of the First Army
+Corps, there are military and commercial academies, an appeal court and
+a chamber of commerce, besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman
+Catholic, and Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews.
+
+Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova, was formerly
+the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient _bans_ or military governors
+were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries of Walachia, and the
+district is still styled the banat of Craiova. Among the holders of this
+office were Michael the Brave (1593-1601), and several members of the
+celebrated BASSARAB family (q.v.). The bans had the right of coining
+money stamped with their own effigies, and hence arose the name of
+_bani_ (centimes). The Rumanian franc, or _leu_ ("lion"), so called from
+the image it bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the
+scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan of the
+Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between Turks and Russians.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMBO, an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt (_Sports and
+Pastimes_), was played as early as the 14th century under the name of
+the _ABC of Aristotle_. In the days of the Stuarts it was very popular,
+and is frequently mentioned in the writings of the time. Thus Congreve's
+_Love for Love_, i. 1, contains the passage, "Get the Maids to Crambo in
+an Evening, and learn the knack of Rhiming." Crambo, or capping the
+rhyme, is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the
+others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual word they
+guess but its meaning. Thus one says "I know a word that rhymes with
+_bird_." A second asks "Is it ridiculous?" "No, it is not absurd." "Is
+it a part of speech?" "No, it is not a word." This proceeds until the
+right word is guessed.
+
+
+In _Dumb Crambo_ the guessers, instead of naming the word, express its
+meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as a clue.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1771-1858), English musician, of German
+extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of February 1771. He was
+the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1743-1799). a famous London violinist and
+musical conductor, one of a numerous family who were identified with the
+progress of music during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was
+brought to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part
+of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he studied the
+pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became known as a professional
+pianist both in London and on the continent; he enjoyed a world-wide
+reputation, and was particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in
+London on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing
+Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder in 1824 of
+the London music-publishing house of Cramer & Co. He wrote a number of
+sonatas, &c., for pianoforte, and other compositions; but his _Études_
+is the work by which he lives as a composer. These "studies" have
+appeared in numerous editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple
+pieces in the training of pianists.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY (1793-1848), English classical scholar and
+geographer, was born at Mitlödi in Switzerland. He was educated at
+Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford. He resided in Oxford till 1844,
+during which time he held many important offices, being public orator,
+principal of New Inn Hall (which he rebuilt at his own expense), and
+professor of modern history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of
+Carlisle, which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of
+August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: _A Dissertation
+on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps_, published anonymously with H.
+L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), "a scholar-like work of first-rate ability";
+geographical and historical descriptions of _Ancient Italy_ (1826),
+_Ancient Greece_ (1828), _Asia Minor_ (1832); _Travels of Nicander
+Nucius of Corcyra_ [Greek traveller of the 16th century] _in England_
+(1841); _Catenae Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum_ (1838-1844);
+_Anecdota Graeca_ (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris,
+1839-1841).
+
+
+
+
+CRÄMER, KARL VON (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had a very remarkable
+career, rising gradually from a mere workman in a factory at Doos near
+Nuremberg to the post of manager, and finally becoming part proprietor
+of the establishment. Leaving business in 1870 he devoted his time
+entirely to politics. From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian
+second chamber, at first representing the district of Erlangen-Fürth,
+and afterwards Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of 1866
+as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from 1871 to 1874 to
+the first German _Reichstag_. He sat in these bodies as a member of the
+Progressive party (_Fortschrittspartei_), and in Bavaria was one of the
+leaders of the Liberal (_Freisinnige_) party. His eloquence had a great
+hold upon the masses. As a parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and
+thoroughly understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the
+reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on account of
+his great services in connexion with the Bavarian National Exhibition of
+Nuremberg, the order of the crown of Bavaria was conferred upon him,
+carrying with it the honour of nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the
+31st of December 1902.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828-   ), American shipbuilder, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of May 1828, of German descent,
+his family name having been Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children
+of William Cramp (1807-1869), a pioneer American shipbuilder, who in
+1830 established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia. The
+son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school, after which he
+was employed in his father's shipyards and made himself master of every
+detail of ship construction. He showed especial aptitude as a naval
+architect and designer, and after becoming his father's partner in 1849
+it was to that branch of the work that he devoted himself. His
+inventive capacity and resourcefulness, together with the complete
+success of his innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high
+rank as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that
+industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf boats for the
+landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil War he designed and
+built several ironclads for the United States navy, notably the "New
+Ironsides" in 1862, and the light-draught monitors used in the Carolina
+sounds; and after 1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own
+designs many of the most powerful ships in the "new" navy, including the
+cruisers "Columbia," "Minneapolis" and "Brooklyn," and the battleships
+"Indiana," "Iowa," "Massachusetts," "Alabama" and "Maine." In every
+progressive step in ocean shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail
+to steam, and from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part.
+His fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built warships for
+several foreign navies, among others the "Retvizan" and the "Variag" for
+the Russian government. He also constructed a number of freight and
+passenger steamships for several trans-Atlantic lines.
+
+  See A. C. Buel, _Memoirs of C. H. Cramp_ (Philadelphia, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CRAMP, a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most frequently
+occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain internal organs.
+This disorder belongs to the class of diseases known as local spasms, of
+which other varieties exist in such affections as spasmodic asthma and
+colic. The cause of these painful seizures resides in the nervous
+system, and operates either directly from the great nerve centres, or,
+as is generally the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example,
+when attacks are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs.
+
+In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this disorder comes
+on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient being aroused by an
+agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the leg or back of the thigh,
+accompanied in many instances with a sensation of sickness or faintness
+from the intensity of the suffering. During the paroxysm the muscular
+fibres affected can often be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The
+attack in general lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs,
+the spasmodic contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the
+other hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes or
+even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a rheumatic or
+gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common enough apart from
+this, and are often induced by some peculiar posture which a limb has
+assumed during sleep. Exposure of the limbs to cold will also bring on
+cramp, and to this is probably to be ascribed its frequent occurrence in
+swimmers. Cramp of the extremities is also well known as one of the most
+distressing accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent
+occurrence in the process of parturition, just before delivery.
+
+This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely removed
+by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part with the hand,
+or by anything which makes an impression on the nerves, such as warm
+applications. Even a sudden and vigorous movement of the limb will often
+succeed in terminating the attack.
+
+What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually occurs as a
+symptom in connexion with some form of gastric disorder, such as
+aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease of the mucous membrane
+of the stomach.
+
+The disease known as _Writer's Cramp_, or _Scrivener's Palsy_, is a
+spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the performance of
+acts, the result of education and long usage, and which does not occur
+when the same muscles are employed in acts of a different kind. This
+disorder owes its name to the relative frequency with which it is met in
+persons who write much, although it is by no means confined to them, but
+is liable to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was
+termed by Dr Duchenne _Functional Spasm_.
+
+The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing difficulty
+experienced in conducting the movements required for executing the work
+in hand. Taking, for example, the case of writers, there is a feeling
+that the pen cannot be moved with the same freedom as before, and the
+handwriting is more or less altered in consequence. At an early stage of
+the disease the difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by
+persevering efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in,
+the muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm,
+are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is rendered
+impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being cramped, move in a
+disorderly manner and the pen cannot be grasped, while in other rare
+instances a kind of paralysis affects the muscles of the fingers, and
+they are powerless to make the movements necessary for holding the pen.
+It is to be noted that it is only in the act of writing that these
+phenomena present themselves, and that for all other movements the
+fingers and arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are
+observed and the same remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ in the case of
+musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and many
+mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed, although actually a
+rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles in the body which is
+specially called into action in any particular occupation is exempt from
+liability to this functional spasm.
+
+The exact pathology of writer's cramp has not been worked out, but it is
+now generally accepted that the disease is not a local one of muscles or
+nerves, but that it is an affection of the central nervous system. The
+complaint never occurs under thirty years of age, and is more frequent
+in males than females. Occasionally there is an inherited tendency to
+the disease, but more usually there is a history of alcoholism in the
+parents, or some neuropathic heredity. In its treatment the first
+requisite is absolute cessation from the employment which caused it.
+Usually, however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery
+takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are
+regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity, then
+Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in performing
+the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the wrist.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMP-RINGS, rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and
+"falling-sickness" or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one was
+presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his return from
+Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained to the king. At his
+death it passed into the keeping of the abbot of Westminster, by whom it
+was used medically and was known as St Edward's Ring. From that time the
+belief grew that the successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that
+the rings blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the
+successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday formally to
+bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held; prayers and psalms
+were said; and water "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost" was
+poured over the rings, which were always of gold or silver, and made
+from the metal that the king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The
+ceremony survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the
+curative powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even
+to the present day.
+
+  For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, _The Literary
+  Museum_ (London, 1792); see also _Notes and Queries_, vol. vii., 1853;
+  vol. ix., 1878.
+
+
+
+
+CRANACH, LUCAS (1472-1553), German painter, was born at Cronach in upper
+Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from his father. It has not
+been possible to trace his descent or the name of his parents. We are
+not informed as to the school in which he was taught, and it is a mere
+guess that he took lessons from the south German masters to whom Mathew
+Grunewald owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and
+Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in which
+Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of Cranach's children,
+Cranach signalized his talents as a painter before the close of the 15th
+century. He then drew upon himself the attention of the elector of
+Saxony, who attached him to his person in 1504. The records of
+Wittenberg confirm Gunderam's statement to this extent that Cranach's
+name appears for the first time in the public accounts on the 24th of
+June 1504, when he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as
+_pictor ducalis_. The only clue to Cranach's settlement previous to his
+Wittenberg appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a
+house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the daughter
+of a burgher of that city.
+
+Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture dated
+1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to that date we are
+altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this obscurity is the light
+thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find him active in several branches
+of his profession,--sometimes a mere house-painter, more frequently
+producing portraits and altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of
+copper-plates, and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early
+in the days of his official employment he startled his master's
+courtiers by the realism with which he painted still life, game and
+antlers on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau; his
+pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the duke
+fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to the
+hunting field, where he sketched "his grace" running the stag, or Duke
+John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted several altar-pieces
+for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in competition with Dürer, Burgkmair
+and others; the duke and his brother John were portrayed in various
+attitudes and a number of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were
+published. Great honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the
+Netherlands, and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy
+who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1508 Cranach signed his works with
+the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave him the winged
+snake as a motto, and this motto or _Kleinod_, as it was called,
+superseded the initials on all his pictures after that date. Somewhat
+later the duke conferred on him the monopoly of the sale of medicines at
+Wittenberg, and a printer's patent with exclusive privileges as to
+copyright in Bibles. The presses of Cranach were used by Luther. His
+chemist's shop was open for centuries, and only perished by fire in
+1871. Relations of friendship united the painter with the Reformers at a
+very early period; yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first
+acquaintance with Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer's
+correspondence dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in 1521,
+Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his "Gevatterin," the
+artist's wife. His first engraved portrait by Cranach represents an
+Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520. Five years later the friar dropped
+the cowl, and Cranach was present as "one of the council" at the
+betrothal festival of Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short
+intervals of the electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no
+change in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a
+favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he twice
+(1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Wittenberg. But 1547
+witnessed a remarkable change in these relations. John Frederick was
+taken prisoner at the battle of Mühlberg, and Wittenberg was subjected
+to stress of siege. As Cranach wrote from his house at the corner of the
+market-place to the grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Königsberg to
+tell him of John Frederick's capture, he showed his attachment by
+saying, "I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been robbed of
+our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a true prince to
+us, but God will help him out of prison, for the Kaiser is bold enough
+to revive the Papacy, which God will certainly not allow." During the
+siege Charles bethought him of Cranach, whom he remembered from his
+childhood and summoned him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came,
+reminded his majesty of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his
+knees for kind treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when
+all the dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands
+from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles's bidding came to take the
+likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked Cranach to visit the
+Swabian capital; and here for a few months he was numbered amongst the
+household of the captive elector, whom he afterwards accompanied home in
+1552. He died on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in
+which he lived still stands in the market-place.
+
+The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the "Rest of the Virgin 365
+during the Flight into Egypt," marked with the initials L.C., and the
+date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil. The
+scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses the
+habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of Thuringia.
+There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time; and this would
+point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose stag hunts are
+otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach's art in its prime was doubtless
+influenced by causes which but slightly affected the art of the
+Italians, but weighed with potent consequence on that of the Netherlands
+and Germany. The business of booksellers who sold woodcuts and
+engravings at fairs and markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving
+which arose out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular
+edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates became the
+occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted in Italy to
+productions of the brush were here monopolized for designs on wood or on
+copper. We have thus to account for the comparative unproductiveness as
+painters of Dürer and Holbein, and at the same time to explain the
+shallowness apparent in many of the later works of Cranach; but we
+attribute to the same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect
+effective colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint.
+Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white appears to
+have affected his sight, and caused those curious transitions of pallid
+light into inky grey which often characterize his studies of flesh;
+whilst the mere outlining of form in black became a natural substitute
+for modelling and chiaroscuro. There are, no doubt, some few pictures by
+Cranach in which the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled
+surface, but they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not
+greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he showed some
+freshness in the delineation of incident, though he not unfrequently
+bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates and woodcuts are certainly the
+best outcome of his art; and the earlier they are in date the more
+conspicuous is their power. Striking evidence of this is the "St
+Christopher" of 1506, or the plate of "Elector Frederick praying before
+the Madonna" (1509). It is curious to watch the changes which mark the
+development of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the
+Reformation. At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut
+(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before a
+crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine, a series of
+martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517 he illustrates
+occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also gives expression to some
+of the thoughts of the Reformers. In a picture of 1518 at Leipzig, where
+a dying man offers "his soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly
+goods to his relations," the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven,
+and salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good works.
+Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial delineation.
+Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist and a prophet at the
+foot of a tree. To the left God produces the tables of the law, Adam and
+Eve partake of the forbidden fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft,
+and punishment supervenes in the shape of death and the realm of Satan.
+To the right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize
+redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the Baptist, who
+points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour. There are two examples
+of this composition in the galleries of Gotha and Prague, both of them
+dated 1529. One of the latest pictures with which the name of Cranach is
+connected is the altarpiece which Cranach's son completed in 1555, and
+which is now in the _Stadtkirche_ (city church) at Weimar. It represents
+Christ in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the
+right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John the
+Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream falls on
+the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book the words, "The
+blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin." Cranach sometimes composed
+gospel subjects with feeling and dignity. "The Woman taken in Adultery"
+at Munich is a favourable specimen of his skill, and various repetitions
+of Christ receiving little children show the kindliness of his
+disposition. But he was not exclusively a religious painter. He was
+equally successful, and often comically naïve, in mythological scenes,
+as where Cupid, who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he
+has been stung by a bee (Weimar, 1530; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules
+sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids. Humour and
+pathos are combined at times with strong effect in pictures such as the
+"Jealousy" (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530), where women and children are
+huddled into telling groups as they watch the strife of men wildly
+fighting around them. Very realistic must have been a lost canvas of
+1545, in which hares were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1546,
+possibly under Italian influence, Cranach composed the "Fons Juventutis"
+of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which hags are
+seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received as they issue
+from it with all the charms of youth by knights and pages.
+
+Cranach's chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and we are
+indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features of all the
+German Reformers and their princely adherents. But he sometimes
+condescended to depict such noted followers of the papacy as Albert of
+Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz, Anthony Granvelle and the duke
+of Alva. A dozen likenesses of Frederick III. and his brother John are
+found to bear the date of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach's
+readiness, and a proof that he possessed ample material for mechanical
+reproduction, that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for "sixty
+pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother" in one day. Amongst
+existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of Albert, elector
+of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John, elector of Saxony, at
+Dresden.
+
+Cranach had three sons, all artists:--John Lucas, who died at Bologna in
+1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and Lucas, born in 1515, who
+died in 1586.
+
+  See Heller, _Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs_ (2nd ed., Bamberg, 1844);
+  Chr. Schuchard, _Lukas Cranachs des älteren Leben und Werke_ (3 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1851-1871); Warnecke, _Cranach der ältere_ (Görlitz, 1879);
+  M. B. Lindau, _Lucas Cranach_ (1883); Lippmann, _Lukas Cranach,
+  Sammlung, &c._ (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most notable
+  woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, _Verzeichnis der Dresdener
+  Cranach-Ausstellung von 1899_ (Dresden, 1899); Flechsig, _Tafelbilder
+  Cranach's des ältern und seiner Werkstatt_ (Leipzig, 1900); Muther,
+  _Lukas Cranach_ (Berlin, 1902); Michaelson, _L. Cranach der ältere_
+  (Leipzig, 1902).     (J. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANBERRY, the fruit of plants of the genus _Oxycoccus_, (natural order
+Vacciniaceae), often considered part of the genus _Vaccinium. O.
+palustris_ (or _Vaccinium Oxycoccus_), the common cranberry plant, is
+found in marshy land in northern and central Europe and North America.
+Its stems are wiry, creeping and of varying length; the leaves are
+evergreen, dark and shining above, glaucous below, revolute at the
+margin, ovate, lanceolate or elliptical in shape, and not more than half
+an inch long; the flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and
+stalked, and have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments,
+and anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August and
+September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of currants, are
+crimson in colour and often spotted, and have an acid and astringent
+taste. The American species, _O. macrocarpus_, is found wild from Maine
+to the Carolinas. It attains a greater size than _O. palustris_, and
+bears bigger and finer berries, which are of three principal sorts, the
+_cherry_ or round, the _bugle_ or oblong, and the _pear_ or bell-shaped,
+and vary in hue from light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red
+and white. _O. erythrocarpus_ is a species indigenous in the mountains
+from Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour of
+its berry.
+
+Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the
+cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or
+vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf, and
+having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs renewal
+every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous existence of the
+plants, and serves both to keep the underlying soil cool and damp, and
+to check the growth of grass and weeds. The ground must be thoroughly
+drained, and should be provided with a supply of water and a dam for
+flooding the plants during winter to protect them from frost, and
+occasionally at other seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of
+spring water should be avoided. The flavour of the fruit is found to be
+improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-rotted dung,
+and by supplying them with less moisture than they obtain in their
+natural habitats. Propagation is effected by means of cuttings, of which
+the wood should be wiry in texture, and the leaves of a greenish-brown
+colour. In America, where, in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts,
+the cultivation of the cranberry commenced early in the last century,
+wide tracts of waste land have been utilized for that purpose--low,
+easily flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from $10
+to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or $300 worth of
+the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50 and 400 bushels an acre,
+but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels, is estimated to be the average
+production when the plants have begun to bear well. The approximate
+cranberry crop of the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from
+410,000 to 1,000,000 bushels.
+
+Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise they do not
+keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those which are most
+esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New Jersey in October, at
+the close of the blackberry and whortleberry season, and often lasts
+until the coming in of cold weather. From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be
+collected by good workers. New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore
+are the leading American markets for cranberries, whence they are
+exported to the West Indies, England and France in great quantities.
+England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk with abundance
+of the common cranberry, which it now largely imports from Sweden and
+Russia. The fruit is much used for pies and tarts, and also for making
+an acid summer beverage. The cowberry, or red whortleberry, _Vaccinium
+Vitis-Idaea_, is sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the
+Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of _Astroloma
+humifusum_ and _Lissanthe sapida_, plants of the order _Epacridaceae_.
+
+  For literature of the subject see the _Proceedings of the American
+  Cranberry Growers' Association_ (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good
+  article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopaedia of
+  American Horticulture_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY, 1ST EARL OF (1814-1906), British
+statesman, was born at Bradford on the 1st of October 1814, the son of
+John Hardy, and belonged to a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active
+political life in 1847, eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and
+nine years after his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate
+for Bradford, but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for
+Leominster, and in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he
+became president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby's new
+administration. When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction
+with Mr Disraeli's Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at the home
+office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in 1878 Lord
+Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation of Lord Derby,
+Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became within a month afterwards)
+succeeded him at the India office. At the same time he had assumed the
+additional family surname of Gathorne, which had been that of his
+mother. In Lord Salisbury's administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord
+Cranbrook was president of the council, and upon his retirement from
+public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in 1892 he
+was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of October 1906, being
+succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously
+known as Lord Medway (b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament
+as a conservative for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent.
+
+  See _Gathorne Hardy, 1st earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts
+  from his correspondence_, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy
+  (1910).
+
+
+
+
+CRANBROOK, a market-town in the southern parliamentary division of Kent,
+England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway from Paddock Wood. Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook,
+a feeder of the river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well
+wooded. It has a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St
+Dunstan, which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part
+of the 18th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of
+the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an
+extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present
+condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from the
+14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal seats of the
+broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the old factories still
+exist. The town has a grammar school of Elizabethan foundation, which
+now ranks as one of the smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are
+the ruins of the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built
+in the time of Edward VI.
+
+
+
+
+CRANDALL, PRUDENCE (1803-1889), American school-teacher, was born, of
+Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode Island, on the 3rd of September
+1803. She was educated in the Friends' school at Providence, R. I.,
+taught school at Plainfield, Conn., and in 1831 established a private
+academy for girls at Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By
+admitting a negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on
+the advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-1871), she
+opened a school for "young ladies and little misses of colour." For this
+she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canterbury but throughout
+Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted and socially ostracized;
+measures were taken in the Canterbury town-meeting to break up the
+school, and finally in May 1833 the state legislature passed the
+notorious Connecticut "Black Law," prohibiting the establishment of
+schools for non-resident negroes in any city or township of Connecticut,
+without the consent of the local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to
+submit, was arrested, tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose
+verdict, however, was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals
+in July 1834. Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she
+was finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon afterward
+she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk Falls, Kansas, on
+the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut Black Law was repealed in
+1838. Miss Crandall's attempt to educate negro girls at Canterbury
+attracted the attention of the whole country; and the episode is of
+considerable significance as showing the attitude of a New England
+community toward the negro at that time.
+
+  See J. C. Kimball's _Connecticut Canterbury Tale_ (Hartford, Conn.,
+  1889), and Samuel J. May's _Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery
+  Conflict_ (Boston, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900), American writer, was born at Newark, New
+Jersey, on the 1st of November 1870, and was educated at Lafayette
+College and Syracuse University. His first story, _Maggie, a Girl of the
+Streets_, was published in 1891, but his greatest success was made with
+_The Red Badge of Courage_ (1896), a brilliant and highly realistic,
+though of course imaginary, description of the experiences of a private
+in the Civil War. He was also the author of various other stories, and
+acted as a war correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the
+Spanish American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in
+Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died at
+Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5th of June 1900.
+
+
+
+
+CRANE, WALTER (1845-   ), English artist, second son of Thomas Crane,
+portrait painter and miniaturist, was born in Liverpool on the 15th of
+August 1845. The family soon removed to Torquay, where the boy gained
+his early artistic impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to
+London. He early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and
+was a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs to
+illustrate Tennyson's "Lady of Shalott" gained the approval of William
+James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter Crane was apprenticed
+for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-engraver he had abundant
+opportunity for the minute study of the contemporary artists whose work
+passed through his hands, of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys,
+and of the masters of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more
+influenced by the Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and
+important element in the development of his talent, was the study of
+Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a series of
+toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a picture of his, "The
+Lady of Shalott," was exhibited at the Royal Academy, but the Academy
+steadily refused his maturer work; and after the opening of the
+Grosvenor Gallery in 1877 he ceased to send pictures to Burlington
+House. In 1864 he began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour
+printer, a series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying
+admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited to the use
+of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a delightful series
+begun in 1873, _The Frog Prince, &c._, which showed markedly the
+influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to Italy following on his
+marriage in 1871. _The Baby's Opera_ was a book of English nursery songs
+planned in 1877 with Mr Evans, and a third series of children's books
+with the collective title, _A Romance of the Three R's_, provided a
+regular course of instruction in art for the nursery. In his early "Lady
+of Shalott" the artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design
+in book illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in
+the view that this union of the calligrapher's and the decorator's art
+was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He followed
+the same course in _The First of May: A Fairy Masque_ by his friend John
+R. Wise, text and decoration being in this case reproduced by
+photogravure. The "Goose Girl" illustration taken from his beautiful
+_Household Stories from Grimm_ (1882) was reproduced in tapestry by
+William Morris, and is now in the South Kensington Museum. _Flora's
+Feast, A Masque of Flowers_ had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane's
+line drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in colour
+_The Wonder Book_ of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret Deland's _Old
+Garden_; in 1894 he collaborated with William Morris in the page
+decoration of _The Story of the Glittering Plain_, published at the
+Kelmscott press, which was executed in the style of 16th-century Italian
+and German woodcuts; but in purely decorative interest the finest of his
+works in book illustration is Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ (12 pts.,
+1894-1896) and the _Shepheard's Calendar_. The poems which form the text
+of _Queen Summer_ (1891), _Renascence_ (1891), and _The Sirens Three_
+(1886) are by the artist himself.
+
+In the early 'eighties under Morris's influence he was closely
+associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as Morris himself
+to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With this object in
+view he devoted much attention to designs for textile stuffs, for
+wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he also used his art for the
+direct advancement of the Socialist cause. For a long time he provided
+the weekly cartoons for the Socialist organs, _Justice_ and _The
+Commonweal_. Many of these were collected as _Cartoons for the Cause_.
+He devoted much time and energy to the work of the Art Workers' Guild,
+and to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888.
+His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them "The
+Bridge of Life" (1884) and "The Mower" (1891), were exhibited regularly
+at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the New Gallery. "Neptune's
+Horses," which, with many other of Mr Crane's pictures, came into the
+possession of Herr Ernst Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New
+Gallery in 1893, and with it may be classed his "The Rainbow and the
+Wave."
+
+His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles, stained
+glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of which he
+applied the principle that in purely decorative design "the artist works
+freest and best without direct reference to nature, and should have
+learned the forms he makes use of by heart." An exhibition of his work
+of different kinds was held at the Fine Art Society's galleries in Bond
+Street in 1891, and taken over to the United States in the same year by
+the artist himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German,
+Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest throughout the
+continent.
+
+Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society in 1888; he was
+an examiner of the science and art department at South Kensington;
+director of design at the Manchester Municipal school (1894); art
+director of Reading College (1896); and in 1898 for a short time
+principal of the Royal College of Art. His lectures at Manchester were
+published with illustrated drawings as _The Bases of Design_ (1898) and
+_Line and Form_ (1900). _The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and
+New_ (2nd ed., London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to
+theory.
+
+  A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was exhibited
+  at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive and sumptuously
+  illustrated book on _The Art of Walter Crane_, by P. G. Konody; a
+  monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the _Künstler Monographien_
+  series (Bielefeld and Leipzig); and an account of himself by the
+  artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the _Art Journal_.
+
+
+
+
+CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845-   ), American actor, was born on the 30th of
+April 1845, in Leicester, Massachusetts, and made his first appearance
+at Utica, New York, in Donizetti's _Daughter of the Regiment_ in 1863.
+Later he had a great success as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque
+_Evangeline_ (1873). He made his first hit in the legitimate drama with
+Stuart Robson (1836-1903), in _The Comedy of Errors_ and other
+Shakespearian plays, and in _The Henrietta_ (1881) by Bronson Howard
+(1842-1908). This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subsequently
+Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in such plays as
+_The Senator_ and _David Harum_. In 1904 he turned to more serious work
+and played Isidore Izard in _Business is Business_, an adaptation from
+Octave Mirbeau's _Les Affaires sont les affaires_.
+
+
+
+
+CRANE (in Dutch, _Kraan_; O. Ger. _Kraen_; cognate, as also the Lat.
+_grus_, and consequently the Fr. _grue_ and Span. _grulla_, with the Gr.
+[Greek: geranos]), the _Grus communis_ or _G. cinerea_ of
+ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a native
+of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he had very often
+seen its young ("_earum pipiones saepissime vidi_"). Notwithstanding the
+protection afforded it by sundry acts of parliament, it has long since
+ceased from breeding in England. Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it
+as being found in the open parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray's time it
+was only known as occurring at the same season in large flocks in the
+fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of
+cranes' eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby
+in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an older
+edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest inquiry he
+found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly unacquainted with
+the bird. The crane, however, no doubt then appeared in Britain, as it
+does now, at uncertain intervals and in unwonted places, having strayed
+from the migrating bands whose movements have been remarked from almost
+the earliest ages. Indeed, the crane's aerial journeys are of a very
+extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the Tropic of
+Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return voyage, its flocks
+may be descried passing overhead at a marvellous height, or halting for
+rest and refreshment on the wide meadows that border some great river,
+while the seeming order with which its ranks are marshalled during
+flight has long attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter
+quarters under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in
+spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill polar soils
+of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south of Europe and breed
+in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey. The greater number, however,
+occupy the intermediate zone and pass the summer in Russia, north
+Germany, and Scandinavia. Soon after their arrival in these countries
+the flocks break up into pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied
+by loud and frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of
+each are chosen.
+
+The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open marshes,
+where the herbage is not very high--a tolerably dry spot being selected
+and used apparently year after year. Here the eggs, which are of a rich
+brown colour with dark spots, and always two in number, are laid. The
+young are able to run soon after they are hatched, and are at first
+clothed with tawny down. In the course of the summer they assume nearly
+the same grey plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated
+plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder
+parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear black,
+white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose skin of that
+colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct. During this time
+they keep in the marshes, but as autumn approaches the different
+families unite by the rivers and lakes, and ultimately form the enormous
+bands which after much more trumpeting set out on their southward
+journey.
+
+The crane's power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar trumpet-like
+notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its trachea, which on
+quitting the lower end of the neck passes backward between the branches
+of the furcula and is received into a hollow space formed by the bony
+walls of the carina or keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns,
+and then runs upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the
+whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (_Cygnus musicus_,
+_C. buccinator_ and others), though differing in some not unimportant
+details; but at the same time somewhat similar convolutions of the
+trachea occur in other birds which do not possess, so far as is known,
+the faculty of trumpeting. The crane emits its notes both during flight
+and while on the ground. In the latter case the neck and bill are
+uplifted and the mouth kept open during the utterance of the blast,
+which may be often heard from birds in confinement, especially at the
+beginning of the year.
+
+As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once familiar
+British species is now used in a general sense, and applied to all
+others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists placed near
+or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the cranes have only a
+superficial resemblance and no real affinity to the _Ardeidae_. In fact
+the _Gruidae_ form a somewhat isolated group. Huxley included them
+together with the _Rallidae_ in his _Geranomorphae_; but a more extended
+view of their various characters would probably assign them rather as
+relatives of the Bustards--not that it must be thought that the two
+families have not been for a very long time distinct. _Grus_, indeed, is
+a very ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and
+Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North America.
+In France, too, during the "Reindeer Period" there existed a huge
+species--the _G. primigenia_ of Alphonse Milne-Edwards--which has
+doubtless been long extinct. At the present time cranes inhabit all the
+great zoogeographical regions of the earth, except the Neotropical, and
+some sixteen or seventeen species are discriminated. In Europe, besides
+the _G. communis_ already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane
+(_G. virgo_) is distinguished from every other by its long white
+ear-tufts. This bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and
+Africa, and is said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The
+eastern part of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other
+species that do not frequent Europe (_G. antigone_, _G. japonensis_, _G.
+monachus_, and _G. leucogeranus_), of which the last is perhaps the
+finest of the family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white.
+The Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the
+species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (_G. torquata_
+and _G. indica_, both commonly confounded under the name of _G.
+antigone_). The Australian Region possesses a large species known to the
+colonists as the "native companion" (_G. australis_), while the Nearctic
+is tenanted by three species (_G. americana_, _G. canadensis_ and _G.
+fraterculus_), to say nothing of the possibility of a fourth (_G.
+schlegeli_), a little-known and somewhat obscure bird, finding its
+habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two species (_G. paradisea_
+and _G. carunculata_), which do not occur out of Africa, as well as
+three others forming the group known as "crowned cranes"--differing much
+from other members of the family, and justifiably placed in a separate
+genus, _Balearica_. One of these (_B. pavonina_) inhabits northern and
+western Africa, while another (_B. regulorum_) is confined to the
+eastern and southern parts of that continent. The third (_B. ceciliae_),
+from the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell
+(_P.Z.S._, 1904).
+
+  With regard to the literature of this species, a paper "On the
+  Breeding of the Crane in Lapland" (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 191), by John
+  Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history
+  ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different
+  species was communicated by Blyth to _The Field_ in 1873 (vol. xl. p.
+  631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful
+  picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during one
+  of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf's _Zoological
+  Sketches_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf.
+Gr. [Greek: geranos], Fr. _grue_), machines by means of which heavy
+bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within certain
+defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the arm or jib
+from which the load to be moved is suspended, but it is now used in a
+wider sense to include the whole mechanism by which a load is raised
+vertically and moved horizontally. Machines used for lifting only are
+not called cranes, but winches, lifts or hoists, while the term elevator
+or conveyor is commonly given to appliances which continuously, not in
+separate loads, move materials like grain or coal in a vertical,
+horizontal or diagonal direction (see CONVEYORS). The use of cranes is
+of great antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial
+development of the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive
+powers than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important and
+indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where finished
+goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made, cranes of various
+forms are in universal use.
+
+
+  Classification.
+
+Cranes may be divided into two main classes--revolving and
+non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and then
+moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited at any convenient
+point within the range. The type of this class is the ordinary jib
+crane. In the second class there are, in addition to the lifting motion,
+two horizontal movements at right angles to one another. The type of
+this class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously
+represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular coordinates. Jib
+cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and portable cranes; in the
+former the central-post or pivot is firmly fixed in a permanent
+position, while in the latter the whole crane is mounted on wheels, so
+that it may be transported from place to place.
+
+
+  Motive powers.
+
+The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes--manual,
+steam, hydraulic, electric--give a further classification. Hand cranes
+are extremely useful where the load is not excessive, and the quantities
+to be dealt with are not great; also where speed is not important, and
+first cost is an essential consideration. The net effective work of
+lifting that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken,
+for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb per
+minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2¼ ft. per minute, so
+that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a minute or 9 tons 1
+ft. per minute. It is at once evident that hand power is only suitable
+for cranes of moderate power, or in cases where heavy loads have to be
+lifted only very occasionally. This point is dwelt upon, because the
+speed limitations of the hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers.
+Steam is an extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not
+worked off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense
+advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved (by its
+own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without requiring any
+complicated means of conveying power to it; and it is rapid in work,
+fairly economical, and can be adapted to the most varying circumstances.
+Where, however, there are a number of cranes all belonging to the same
+installation, and these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from
+a central power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and
+continuous, as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other
+warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the power in
+a generating station and distribute it to the cranes. Down to the
+closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic power was practically the
+only system available for working cranes from a power station. The
+hydraulic crane is rapid in action, very smooth and silent in working,
+easy to handle, and not excessive in cost or upkeep,--advantages which
+have secured its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a
+motive power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric
+transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not reached
+by any other method, and the electric motor readily adapts itself to
+cranes. When they are worked from a power station the great advantage is
+gained that the same plant which drives them can be used for many other
+purposes, such as working machine tools and supplying current for
+lighting. For dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making
+rapid strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of the
+cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a motive power
+has already displaced nearly every other method. Cranes driven by
+shafting, or by mechanical power, have been largely superseded by
+electric cranes, principally on account of the much greater economy of
+transmission. For many years the best workshop travellers were those
+driven by quick running ropes; these performed admirable service, but
+they have given place to the more modern electric traveller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+
+    Lifting mechanisms.
+
+  The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or lifting
+  motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or hook, and
+  elevating the hook vertically. There are three typical methods: (1) A
+  direct pull may be applied to the hook, either by screws, or by a
+  cylinder fitted with piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic
+  or other pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. These methods
+  are used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of
+  giving a very short range of lift. (2) The hook may be attached to a
+  rope or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of
+  pulleys around which the rope is led; by these means the lift can be
+  very largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one
+  indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the
+  cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in
+  all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley
+  to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated
+  by the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of
+  overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a
+  special pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the
+  barrel is reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or "sprockets,"
+  which engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but
+  simply passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All
+  the methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or
+  barrel shaft, and this is the important difference between them and
+  the hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating
+  hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third
+  category.
+
+  When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supplemented by
+  systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the traveller
+  crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are interposed
+  between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel (fig. 3).
+
+
+    Brakes.
+
+  When a load is lifted, work has to be done in overcoming the action of
+  gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is lowered, energy
+  is given out. To control the speed and absorb this energy, brakes have
+  to be provided. The hydraulic crane has a great advantage in
+  possessing an almost ideal brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust
+  from the lifting cylinder the speed of descent can be regulated within
+  very wide limits and with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually
+  fitted with band brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction
+  band placed round it, the band being tightened as required. In
+  ordinary cases conduction and convection suffice to dissipate the heat
+  generated by the brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be
+  rapidly performed, or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth,
+  special arrangements have to be provided. An excellent brake for very
+  large cranes is Matthew's hydraulic brake, in which water is passed
+  from end to end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons,
+  cooling jackets being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is
+  to arrange the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo,
+  and, driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current
+  which is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That
+  the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable is
+  seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons
+  descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat
+  sufficient to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60° F. to boiling
+  point. Crane brakes are usually under the direct control of the
+  driver, and they are generally arranged in one of two ways. In the
+  first, the pressure is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed
+  by a spring or weight; this is called "braking on." In the second, or
+  "braking off" method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring
+  or weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of
+  electric cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is
+  energized by the current passing through the motor. When the motor
+  starts the brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases,
+  the brake goes on. The first method is in general use for steam
+  cranes; it allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but
+  is not automatic, as is the second.
+
+  In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving
+  shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with the
+  brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid in
+  working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed at a
+  very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come to rest
+  in order to be reversed. This method of working is very suitable for
+  electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or 7 tons, and
+  for overhead travellers where the height of lift is moderate. Where
+  high speed lowering is not required it is usual to employ a reversing
+  motor and keep it always in gear.
+
+  In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double
+  cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be worked
+  together, or independently as required, reversing friction cones are
+  used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing motion. With
+  the exception of a few special cranes in which friction wheels are
+  employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes, to connect
+  the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed gearing, the
+  gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions. In electric
+  cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a similar
+  manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels give a
+  slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat smoother in
+  its action and entirely silent; the noise of gearing can, however, be
+  considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth, as is now
+  always done, and also by the use of pinions made of rawhide leather or
+  other non-resonant material. When quick-running metal pinions are used
+  they are arranged to run in closed oil-baths. Leather pinions must be
+  protected from rats, which eat them freely. Worm wheel gearing is of
+  very high efficiency if made very quick in pitch, with properly formed
+  teeth perfectly lubricated, and with the end thrust of the worm taken
+  on ball bearings. Much attention has been paid to the improvement of
+  the mechanical details of the lifting and other motions of cranes, and
+  in important installations the gearing is now usually made of cast
+  steel. In revolving cranes ease of slewing can be greatly increased by
+  the use of a live ring of conical rollers.
+
+
+    Power required.
+
+  Electric motors for barrel cranes are not essentially different from
+  those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes the
+  intermittent output has to be taken into consideration. This fact has
+  led to the introduction of the "crane rated" motor, with a given "load
+  factor." This latter gives the ratio of the length of the working
+  periods to the whole time; e.g. a motor rated for a quarter load
+  factor means that the motor is capable of exerting its full normal
+  horse-power for three minutes out of every twelve, the pause being
+  nine minutes, or one minute out of every four, the pause being three
+  minutes. The actual load factor to be chosen depends on the nature of
+  the work and the kind of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with
+  high lifts following one another in rapid succession will require a
+  higher load factor than a workshop traveller with a very short lift
+  and only a very occasional maximum load; and a traveller with a very
+  long longitudinal travel will require a higher load factor for the
+  travelling motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load
+  factor for electric crane motors varies from 1/3 to 1/6. In steam
+  cranes much the same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler;
+  e.g. the engines of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of
+  indicating about 60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is
+  found that, in consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient
+  steam can be supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only 1/3
+  to ¼ of that necessary for the above power, when developed
+  continuously by a stationary engine.
+
+  In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency of
+  the lifting gear may be taken as about 85%; a good electric jib crane
+  will give an efficiency of 72%, i.e. when actually lifting at full
+  speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72% of the
+  electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient rule is
+  to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-tons of work
+  done at the hook: this is equivalent to an efficiency of 66-2/3%, and
+  is well on the safe side.
+
+  The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series wound,
+  continuous current motor, which has many advantages. It has a very
+  large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the inertia of
+  getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a slower
+  speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the action
+  of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in which the
+  cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of the stop-valve.
+  Three-phase motors are also much used for crane-driving, and it is
+  probable that improvements in single and two-phase motors will
+  eventually largely increase their use for this class of work.
+
+  Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric cranes
+  tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very considerable
+  extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic crane falls
+  away very much more rapidly than that of the electric crane when
+  working on smaller loads. This drawback can be corrected to a slight
+  extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with more than one cylinder,
+  and thus compounding it, but the arrangement does not give the same
+  economical range of load as in an electric crane. In first cost the
+  hydraulic crane has the advantage, but the power mains are much less
+  expensive and more convenient to arrange in the electric crane.
+
+
+    Speed.
+
+  The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been mentioned;
+  for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the formula V
+  = 30 + 200/T, where V is the speed of lift in feet per minute, and T
+  the load in tons. Where electric or hydraulic cranes are worked from a
+  central station the speed is greater, and may be roughly represented
+  by V = 5 + 300/T; e.g. a 30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of
+  about 200 ft. per minute, and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8
+  ft. per minute, but these speeds vary with local circumstances. The
+  lifting speed of electric travellers is generally less, because the
+  lift is generally much shorter, and may in ordinary cases be taken as
+  V = 3 + 85/T. The cross-traversing speed of travellers varies from 60
+  to 120 ft. per minute, and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per
+  minute. The speed of these two motions depends much on the length of
+  the span and of the longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to
+  be done; in certain cases, e.g. foundries, it is desirable to be able
+  to lift, on occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the
+  brakes on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially
+  in quick-running electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary
+  motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift or
+  travel, so as to prevent over-running.
+
+  There are many other important points of crane construction too
+  numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the advent
+  of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in consequence great
+  attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and wear, such
+  as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of lubrication; and,
+  as in all other quick-running machinery, great stress has to be laid
+  on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery, thus being of a higher
+  class, requires more protection, and cranes that work in the open are
+  now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or cabins, furnished with
+  weather-tight doors and windows, and more care is taken to provide
+  proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders of access, and also guards
+  for the revolving parts of gearing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+
+    Fixed Cranes.
+
+  _Typical Forms of Cranes._--Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand
+  revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards
+  and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is securely
+  bolted to the foundation, and which carries the strong crane-post, or
+  pillar, around which the crane revolves. The revolving part is made
+  with two side frames of cast iron or steel plates, and to these the
+  lifting gear is attached. The load is suspended from the crane jib;
+  this jib is attached at the lower end to the side frames, and the
+  upper end is supported by tie-rods, connected to the framework, the
+  whole revolving together. This simple form of crane thus embodies the
+  essential elements of foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and
+  gearing.
+
+  Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane.
+  Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished with
+  pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two "back
+  ties," and these are connected to the socket of the bottom pivot by
+  the "sleepers." This is a very good and comparatively cheap form of
+  crane, where a long and variable radius is required, but it cannot
+  slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are made of all powers,
+  from the timber 1-ton hand derrick to the steel 150-ton derrick used
+  in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane introduces a problem for
+  which many solutions have been sought, that of preventing the load
+  from being lifted or lowered when the jib is pivoted up or down to
+  alter the radius. To keep the load level, there are various devices
+  for automatically coupling the jib-raising and the load-lowering
+  motions.
+
+  Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here the
+  place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together at the
+  top and pivoted at the bottom; a third back-leg is connected at the
+  top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut which runs
+  on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement of the lower end
+  of the back leg allows the whole arrangement to assume the position
+  shown in fig. 7, so that a load can be taken out of a vessel and
+  deposited on a quay wall. The same effect can be produced by
+  shortening the back leg by a screw placed in the direction of its
+  length. Sheer legs are generally built in very large sizes, and their
+  use is practically confined to marine work.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  Another type of fixed crane is the "Fairbairn" crane, shown in fig. 8.
+  Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united in one piece,
+  which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at the bottom by
+  a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal rollers. This type
+  of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence of the great
+  clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and requires
+  very heavy foundations.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  The so-called "hammer-headed" crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel
+  braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double cantilever;
+  the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting crab,
+  and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the
+  machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of lifting and
+  revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which
+  the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out
+  along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal
+  movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design; it
+  first became prominent in the so-called "Titan" cranes, mentioned
+  below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are generally constructed in
+  large sizes, up to 200 tons.
+
+  Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy crane
+  (fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned above, and
+  revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by the structure
+  of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy foundation.
+  The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy hammers in a
+  smithy, whence the name.
+
+
+    Portable cranes.
+
+  Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every kind of
+  crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage, fitted with
+  wheels; it is even not unusual to make the Scottish derrick portable
+  by using three trucks, one under the mast, and the others under the
+  two back legs.
+
+  Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the same
+  elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed is
+  mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels. With
+  portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite
+  stability against overturning; this is done by weighting the tail of
+  the revolving part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the boiler
+  is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where the
+  rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking girders
+  are provided across the under side of the truck; these are arranged so
+  that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made to increase the
+  base. In connexion with the stability of portable cranes, it may be
+  mentioned that accidents more often arise from overturning backwards
+  than forwards. In the latter case the overturning tendency begins as
+  soon as the load leaves the ground, but ceases as soon as the load
+  again touches the ground and thus relieves the crane of the extra
+  weight, whereas overturning backwards is caused either by the reaction
+  of a chain breaking or by excessive counterweight. When portable
+  cranes are fitted with springs and axle-boxes, drawgear and buffers,
+  so that they can be coupled to an ordinary railway train, they are
+  called "breakdown" or "wrecking" cranes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+  Dock-side jib cranes for working general cargo are almost always made
+  portable, in order to enable them to be placed in correct position in
+  regard to the hatchways of the vessels which they serve. Fig. 12 shows
+  an ordinary hydraulic dock-side jib crane. This type is usually fitted
+  with a very high jib, so as to lift goods in and out of high-sided
+  vessels. The hydraulic lifting cylinders are placed inside the
+  revolving steel mast or post, and the cabin for the driver is arranged
+  high up in the front of the post, so as to give a good view of the
+  work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of jointed
+  "walking" pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants placed at
+  regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable to have
+  the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible, so as
+  not to interfere with railway traffic; this has led to the
+  introduction of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes
+  also called "portal" cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings run
+  parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so as to
+  span the whole quay; on one side the "long leg" runs on a rail at the
+  quay edge, and on the other the "short leg" runs on a runway placed on
+  the building. Cranes of this type are called "half-portal" cranes.
+  Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class. They give the minimum
+  of interference with quay space and have rapidly come into favour.
+  Where the face of the warehouse is sufficiently close to the water to
+  permit of the crane rope plumbing the hatches without requiring a jib
+  of excessive radius, it is a very convenient plan to place the whole
+  crane on the warehouse roof.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+  A special form of jib crane, designed to meet a particular purpose, is
+  the "Titan" (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of piers and
+  breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the
+  hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent;
+  in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable
+  and the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large
+  portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal
+  movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is designed,
+  viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost a
+  necessity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+
+    Non-revolving cranes.
+
+  As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead traveller
+  worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine worked by
+  electric power. The principal component parts of a traveller are the
+  main cross girders forming the _bridge_, the two _end carriages_ on
+  which the bridge rests, the _running wheels_ which enable the end
+  carriages to travel on the longitudinal gantry girders or _runway_,
+  and the _crab_ or _jenny_, which carries the hoisting mechanism, and
+  moves across the span on rails placed on the bridge girders. There are
+  numerous and important variations of these two types, but the above
+  contain the elements out of which most cranes of the class are built.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a "Goliath" or
+  "Wellington." It is practically a traveller mounted on high legs, so
+  as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the ground
+  level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations and
+  combinations of types, fig. 18 shows a modern design of crane intended
+  to command the maximum of yard space, and having some of the
+  characteristics both of the Goliath and of the revolving jib crane,
+  and fig. 19 depicts a combination of a traveller and a hanging jib
+  crane.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+
+    Transporters.
+
+  When the cross traverse motion of a traveller crab is suppressed, and
+  the longitudinal travelling motion is increased in importance we come
+  to a type of crane, the use of which is rapidly increasing; it goes by
+  the name of "transporter." Transporters can only move the load to any
+  point on a vertical surface (generally a plane surface); they have a
+  lifting motion and a movement of translation. They are of two kinds:
+  (1) those in which the motive power and lifting gear are
+  self-contained on the crab; and (2) those in which the motive power is
+  placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is shown
+  in fig. 20. From the lower flange of a suspended runway, made of a
+  single I section, run wheels, from the axles of which the transporter
+  is suspended. The latter consists of a framework carrying the hoisting
+  barrel, with its driving motor and gearing, and a travelling motor,
+  which is geared to the running wheels in such a manner as to be able
+  to propel the whole machine; a seat is provided for the driver who
+  manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind, when fitted
+  with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal from barges
+  and depositing it in a coal store.
+
+  In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved
+  through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made of
+  single I-sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be
+  lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs on
+  the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient fixed
+  position. In order that only one motor may be used, and also that the
+  load may be lifted by a single part of rope, various devices have been
+  invented. The jib is usually inclined, so as to enable the travel to
+  be performed by gravity in one direction, and the object of the
+  transporter mechanism is to ensure that pulling in or slacking out the
+  lifting rope shall perform the cycle of operations in the following
+  order:--Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of a vessel on to
+  a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the travelling
+  jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving at a certain
+  height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by the continued
+  pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an adjustable
+  stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be lowered out; the
+  hook can then be raised, when the jenny is automatically unlocked, and
+  on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates to its first position,
+  when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated. The jibs of
+  transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up, so as to be
+  out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely used for
+  dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses, and also
+  for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not interfering
+  with the rigging of vessels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+  Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the
+  introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply motive
+  power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically, so that
+  the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding the various
+  motions required by the special circumstances of each case.
+
+  The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one,
+  but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst
+  which may be mentioned _Die Hebezeuge_ by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin,
+  1903), and _Cranes_, by Anton Böttcher, translated with additions by
+  A. Tolhausen (London, 1908).     (W. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRANIOMETRY. The application of precise methods of measurement marks a
+definite phase in the development of most branches of modern science,
+and thus craniometry, a comprehensive expression for all methods of
+measuring the skull (cranium), provides a striking landmark in the
+progress of anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears
+to be twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls
+with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation of
+those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and A. Dürer may be
+mentioned as pioneers in such researches. Again, it is clearly shown in
+the literature of this subject, that anatomists were led to employ
+methods of measurement in their study of the human skull. The
+determining cause of this improvement in method is curious, for it
+appeared at the end of a famous anatomical controversy of the later
+middle ages, namely the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was
+based on the study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the
+description of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains
+that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were devised
+with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and the human
+skull.
+
+The artists did not carry their researches very far. The anatomists on
+the contrary continued to make measurements, and in 1764 Daubenton
+published a noteworthy contribution to craniometry. Six years later,
+Pieter Camper, distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist,
+published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical
+methods, and these may be fairly claimed as having laid the foundation
+of all subsequent work. That work has been described above as
+anthropological, but as the studies thus defined are very varied in
+extent, it is necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they
+naturally fall.
+
+In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contributions
+of artists), it has been explained that the measurements were first made
+with a view to elucidating the comparison of the skulls of men with
+those of other animals. This wide comparison constitutes the first
+subdivision of craniometric studies. And craniometric methods have
+rendered the results of comparison much more clear and comprehensible
+than was formerly the case. It is further remarkable that among the
+first measurements employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the
+name of Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by
+the "facial angle" invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It
+appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which Camper
+describes the general results of the employment of this angle for
+comparative purposes, as will appear from the following brief extract
+from the translation of the original work: "The two extremities of the
+facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from the negro to the Grecian
+antique: make it under 70, and you describe an ourang or an ape: lessen
+it still more, and you have the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and
+you form a fowl, a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly
+parallel with the horizon." (Camper's Works, p. 42, translated by Cogan,
+1821.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of
+a negro, showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by
+Pieter Camper.]
+
+In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature
+of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it is impossible to
+analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names
+of the authors, it must be added that for the purposes of far-reaching
+comparisons of the lower animals with mankind, craniometric methods were
+used by P. P. Broca in France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in
+England, with such genius and success as have not yet been surpassed.
+
+The second division of craniometric studies includes those in which the
+skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are compared. And in
+this domain, the advent of accurate numerical methods of recording
+observations brought about great advances. In describing the facial
+angle, it will be seen that the modern European, the Greek of classical
+antiquity and the Negro are compared. Thus it is that Camper's name
+appears as that of a pioneer in this second main division of the
+subject. Broca and Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields
+of research, but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must
+be added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the
+merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the skull, and
+of a classification based on such comparisons. These indices will be
+further defined below. It is convenient to mention here that the first
+aim of all these investigators was to obtain from the skull reliable
+data having reference to the conformation or size of the brain once
+contained within it. Only in later days did the tendency to overlook
+this, the fundamental aim and end of craniometry, make its appearance;
+such nevertheless was the case, much to the detriment of craniometric
+science, which for a time seems to have become purely empirical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and
+foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain
+native (male); B, a gorilla (male) C, a dog. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal
+angle; _P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramino-basal
+angle. The spheno-ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first
+employed by Huxley.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and
+foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Guinea
+native (male); B, a European woman. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal angle;
+_P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramina-basal angle.]
+
+The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which the
+field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the various
+sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are brought
+together for the purposes of comparison or contrast. But although the
+range of research is thus narrowed and restricted, the guiding
+principles and the methods remain unchanged. In this department of
+craniometry, Anders Retzius has gained the foremost place among the
+pioneers of research. Retzius's name is, as already mentioned,
+associated not with any particular angle or angular measurement, but
+rather with a method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions
+which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus for instance
+one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest width measures 75% of
+its greatest length (i.e. its width is to its length as three to four).
+
+[Illustration: From Tylor's _Anthropology_, by permission of Macmillan &
+Co., Ltd.
+
+FIG. 4.--Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic; (B)
+European, index 80, mesaticephalic; (C) Samoyed, index 85,
+brachycephalic.]
+
+This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index, which in
+such an instance would be described as equal to 75. A skull providing a
+breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess very different proportions
+from another which provides a corresponding index equal to 85. And in
+fact this particular index in human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in
+undistorted examples (fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius's
+system of classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his
+earliest applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden.
+One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in respect of
+the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and their Scandinavian
+neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference was added to the list of
+characters (such as stature, hair-colour and complexion) whereby these
+two types were already distinguished. Since the publication of Retzius's
+studies, the cephalic or breadth-index of the skull has retained a
+premier position among its almost innumerable successors, though it is
+of historical interest to note that, while Retzius had undoubtedly
+devised the method of comparing "breadth-indices," he always qualified
+the results of its use by reference to other data. These qualifications
+were overlooked by the immediate successors of Retzius, much to the
+disadvantage of craniometry. In addition to the researches on the skull
+forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison of Finns
+and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of the form of
+skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess historic interest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Callipers used in Craniometry, Professor
+Martin's (P. Hermann, Zürich) model.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Flower's Craniometer as modified by Dr W. L. H.
+Duckworth.]
+
+Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instruments.
+Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-wires, through which
+skulls were viewed and by means of which accurate drawings could be
+projected on to paper. The methods of Retzius as here described require
+the aid of callipers of various sorts, and such instruments were quickly
+devised and applied to the special needs of the case. Such instruments
+are still in use, and two forms of simple craniometer are shown in the
+accompanying illustrations (figs. 5 and 6). For the more accurate
+comparison required in the study of various European types, delicate
+instruments for measuring angles were invented by Anthelme in Paris
+(1836) and John Grattan in Belfast (1853). These instruments enabled the
+observer to transmit to the plane surface of a sheet of drawing paper a
+correct tracing of the contour of the specimen under investigation. A
+further modification was devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year
+1861, and since that date the number and forms of these instruments have
+been greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance
+of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry, there should
+be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley, Sir W. H. Flower and
+Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de Quatrefages in France, J. C. G.
+Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany. Moreover, the methods have also been
+multiplied, so that in addition to angular and linear measurements,
+those of the capacity or cubical contents of the cranium and those of
+the curvature of its surface demand reference. The masterly work of
+Cleland claims special mention in this connexion. And finally while two
+dimensions are combined in the cephalic index of Retzius, the
+combination of three dimensions (in a formula called a modulus)
+distinguishes some recent work, although the employment of the modulus
+is actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E. von Baer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is
+shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain native (male) 62°; B, a
+gorilla (male) 50°; C, a dog 42°. This angle has now replaced the facial
+angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).]
+
+The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that which
+has just been described, and it deals with the comparison of the
+prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods are exactly
+similar to those employed in the comparison of living races; but in some
+particular instances where the prehistoric individual is represented
+only by a comparatively minute portion of the skull, some special
+modifications of the usual procedures have been necessitated. In this
+field the works of W. His and L. Rütimeyer on the prehistoric races of
+Switzerland, those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of
+Thurnam and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger, W.
+J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to this
+department of craniometry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is
+shown in the crania of:--A, a Guinea native (male) 75°; B, a European
+(woman) 93°; C, a new-born infant (93°).]
+
+Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably increased. In
+the hands of von Török of Budapest, as in those of M. Benedikt of Vienna
+at an earlier date, the number of measurements regarded as necessary for
+the complete "diagnosis" of a skull has reached a colossal total. Of the
+trend and progress of craniometry at the present day, three particular
+developments are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various
+times to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure
+uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that of the
+German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and 8), and that of
+the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association (1906) seem to
+require at least a record. In the second place, the application of the
+methods of statistical science in dealing with large numbers of
+craniometric data has been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson's
+hands. Thirdly, and in connexion with such methods, there may be
+mentioned the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the
+methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the study of
+large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral animals, such as white
+rats or the varieties of the horse. And lastly no account of craniometry
+would be complete without mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian
+anthropologist Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot,
+however, be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of
+Sergi's principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox
+numerical methods.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Tyson, _The Anatomy of a Pygmie_ (London, 1699);
+  Daubenton, "Sur la différence de la situation du tron occipital dans
+  l'homme et dans les animaux," _Comptes rendus de l'académie des
+  sciences_ (Paris, 1764); Camper, _Works_ (1770, translated by Cogan,
+  1821); Broca, _Mémoires_ (1862 and following years); Huxley, _Journal
+  of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, _Über die
+  Schädelformen der Nordbewohner_ (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme,
+  _Physiologie de la pensée_ (Paris, 1836); Grattan, _Ulster Journal of
+  Archaeology_, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, "A System of Craniometry,"
+  _Transactions of the Ethnological Society_ (1861); Flower, Catalogue
+  of the Hunterian Museum, _Osteology_, part 1 (London, 1879); Turner,
+  "'Challenger' Reports," _Zoology_, vol. x. pt. 29, "Human Crania"
+  (1884); de Quatrefages, _Crania ethnica_ (Paris, 1873); Lucae,
+  _Architectur des menschlichen Schädels_ (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker,
+  _Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schädels_ (1862); Cleland, "An
+  Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull," _Phil. Trans. Roy.
+  Society_ (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq.; von Baer, "Crania
+  selecta," Académie impériale des sciences de S. Pétersbourg (1859);
+  His and Rütimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_ (Basel, 1866); Ecker, _Crania
+  Germaniae meridionalis_ (1865); Thurnam and Davis, _Crania
+  Britannica_; von Török, _Craniometrie_ (Stuttgart, 1890); Benedikt,
+  _Manuel technique et pratique d'anthropométrie cranio-céphalique_
+  (Paris, 1889); Pearson, _Biometrika_, from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards;
+  Sergi, "The Varieties of the Human Species," English translation,
+  Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1894); Schwalbe, "Der
+  Neanderthalschädel," _Bonner Jahrbücher_, Heft 106; also _Sonderheft
+  der Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie_; Kramberger, _Der
+  paläolithische Mensch von Krapina_ (Nägele, Stuttgart, 1901); Sollas,
+  "The Cranial Characters of the Neanderthal Race," _Phil. Transactions
+  of the Royal Society_, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908; Klaatsch,
+  "Bericht über einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach London,"
+  _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875.
+
+  _Handbooks._--Topinard, _Éléments d'anthropologie générale_ (Paris,
+  1885); Schmidt, _Anthropologische Methoden_ (Leipzig, 1888);
+  Duckworth, _Morphology and Anthropology_ (Cambridge, 1904).
+
+  _Journals._--_Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris_,
+  _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
+  Ireland_, _Archiv für Anthropologie_, _Zeitschrift für Morphologie und
+  Anthropologie_.     (W. L. H. D.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANK, a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably connected with a
+root meaning "crooked," and appearing in the Ger. _krank_, ill, a
+figurative use of the original word; among other words in English
+containing the same original meaning are "cringe" and "crinkle." In
+mechanics, a crank is a device by which reciprocating motion is
+converted into circular motion or vice versa, consisting of a
+_crank-arm_, one end of which is fastened rigidly at right angles to the
+rotating shaft or axis, while the other end bears a _crank-pin_,
+projecting from it at right angles and parallel to the shaft. When the
+reciprocating part of a machine, as the piston and piston-rod of a steam
+engine, is linked to this crank by a _crank-rod_ or _connecting rod_,
+one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other on a pin in the
+end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro motion of the latter
+imparts a circular motion to the shaft and vice versa. The crank,
+instead of being made up as described above, may be formed by bending
+the shaft to the required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch.
+A _bell-crank_, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change
+the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical or vice
+versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle, say of 90°,
+to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point of junction.
+
+Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in prisons as a
+means of punishment (see TREAD-MILL). Other uses of the word, connected
+with the primary meaning, are for a crooked path, a crevice or chink;
+and a freakish turn of thought or speech, as in Milton's phrase "quips
+and cranks." It is also used as a slang expression, American in origin,
+for a harmless lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one
+idea or hobby becomes a monomania. "Crank" or "crank-sided" is a
+nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from want
+of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical sense is often
+confused with "crank" or "cranky," that is, rickety or shaky, probably
+derived direct from the German _krank_, weak or ill.
+
+
+
+
+CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556), archbishop of Canterbury, born at Aslacton
+or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of July 1489, was the second
+son of Thomas Cranmer and of his wife Anne Hatfield. He received his
+early education, according to Morice his secretary, from "a marvellous
+severe and cruel schoolmaster," whose discipline must have been severe
+indeed to deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster
+bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was initiated
+by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and hawking, which
+formed one of his recreations in after life. To early training he also
+owed the skilful horsemanship for which he was conspicuous. At the age
+of fourteen he was sent by his mother, who had in 1501 become a widow,
+to Cambridge. Little is known with certainty of his university career
+beyond the facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or
+1511, that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his
+marriage to "Black Joan," a relative of the landlady of the Dolphin Inn,
+and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his wife, which
+occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of grace allowed by
+the statutes. During the brief period of his married life he held the
+appointment of lecturer at Buckingham Hall, now Magdalene College. The
+fact of his marrying would seem to show that he did not at the time
+intend to enter the church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to
+qualify for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took
+his doctor's degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was invited
+about this time to become a fellow of the college founded by Cardinal
+Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that there is some reason to doubt
+this. If the offer was made, it was declined, and Cranmer continued at
+Cambridge filling the offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college
+and of public examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting,
+in view of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among
+the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted on a
+thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and rejected several
+candidates who were deficient in this qualification.
+
+It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that transferred
+Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion of the university
+to the din and bustle of the court. In August 1529 the plague known as
+the sweating sickness, which prevailed throughout the country, was
+specially severe at Cambridge, and all who had it in their power forsook
+the town for the country. Cranmer went with two of his pupils named
+Cressy, related to him through their mother, to their father's house at
+Waltham in Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be
+visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief
+counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of
+Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards bishop of
+Hereford, were lodged at Cressy's house. Meeting with Cranmer, they were
+naturally led to discuss the king's meditated divorce from Catherine of
+Aragon. Cranmer suggested that if the canonists and the universities
+should decide that marriage with a deceased brother's widow was illegal,
+and if it were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur,
+her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the ordinary
+ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to Rome was thus
+dispensed with, and this point was at once seen by the king, who, when
+Cranmer's opinion was reported to him, is said to have ordered him to be
+summoned in these terms: "I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out
+of hand. This man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear."
+
+At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king to lay aside
+all other pursuits and to devote himself to the question of the divorce.
+He was to draw up a written treatise, stating the course he proposed,
+and defending it by arguments from scripture, the fathers and the
+decrees of general councils. His material interests certainly did not
+suffer by compliance. He was commended to the hospitality of Anne
+Boleyn's father, the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place
+he resided for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton
+and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice, the
+name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished Cranmer was
+called upon to defend its argument before the universities of Oxford and
+Cambridge, which he visited, accompanied by Fox and Gardiner.
+Immediately afterwards he was sent to plead the cause before a more
+powerful if not a higher tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of
+Wiltshire at its head, was despatched to Rome in 1530, that "the matter
+of the divorce should be disputed and ventilated," and Cranmer was an
+important member of it. He was received by the Pope with marked
+courtesy, and was appointed "Grand Penitentiary of England," but his
+argument, if he ever had the opportunity of stating it, did not lead to
+any practical decision of the question.
+
+Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he received a
+second commission from the king appointing him "Conciliarius Regius et
+ad Caesarem Orator." In the summer of 1531 he accordingly proceeded to
+Germany as sole ambassador to the emperor. He was also to sound the
+Lutheran princes with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal
+of some restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became acquainted
+with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological position he probably
+found to be in many points analogous to his own. Both were convinced
+that the old order must change; neither saw clearly what the new order
+should be to which it was to give place. They had frequent interviews,
+which had doubtless an important influence on Cranmer's opinions. But
+Osiander's house had another attraction of a different kind from
+theological sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and
+in 1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage
+corroboration of Cranmer's statement that he never expected or desired
+the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he had foreseen how
+soon the primacy was to be forced upon him, he would have avoided a
+disqualification which it was difficult to conceal and dangerous to
+disclose.
+
+Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a very few
+months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop Warham died, and the
+king almost immediately afterwards intimated to Cranmer, who had
+accompanied the emperor in his campaign against the Turks, his
+nomination to the vacant see. Cranmer's conduct was certainly consistent
+with his profession that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the
+dangerous promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own
+return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made. The
+papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March 1533, and the
+consecration took place on the 30th March. One peculiarity of the
+ceremony had occasioned considerable discussion. It was the custom for
+the archbishop elect to take two oaths, the first of episcopal
+allegiance to the pope, and the second in recognition of the royal
+supremacy. The latter was so wide in its scope that it might fairly be
+held to supersede the former in so far as the two were inconsistent.
+Cranmer, however, was not satisfied with this. He had a special protest
+recorded, in which he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the
+pope only in so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the
+king. The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it
+seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration of what
+the two oaths implied. It was the course that would readily suggest
+itself to a man of timid nature who wished to secure himself against
+such a fate as Wolsey's. It showed weakness, but it added nothing to
+whatever immorality there might be in successively taking two
+incompatible oaths.
+
+In the last as in the first step of Cranmer's promotion Henry had been
+actuated by one and the same motive. The business of the divorce--or
+rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn's expected issue--had now
+become very urgent, and in the new archbishop he had an agent who might
+be expected to forward it with the needful haste. The celerity and skill
+with which Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully
+satisfied his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat
+almost from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in
+relation to Catherine's marriage with Henry as affected by her previous
+marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the object of
+the king were given on these questions, though even the despotism of the
+most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure absolute unanimity. The
+next step was taken by Cranmer, who wrote a letter to the king, praying
+to be allowed to remove the anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible
+case of disputed succession, by finally determining the validity of the
+marriage in his archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request
+was prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of
+course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and to
+suit her convenience the court was held at the priory of Dunstable in
+the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to appear, she was declared
+contumacious, and on the 23rd of May the archbishop gave judgment
+declaring the marriage null and void from the first, and so leaving the
+king free to marry whom he pleased. The Act of Appeals had already
+prohibited any appeal from the archbishop's court. Five days later he
+pronounced the marriage between Henry and Anne--which had been secretly
+celebrated about the 25th of January 1533--to be valid. On the 1st of
+June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of September stood
+godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth.
+
+The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in England to the
+royal supremacy had been practically achieved before Cranmer's
+appointment as archbishop: and he had little to do with the other
+constitutional changes of Henry's reign. But his position as chief
+minister of Henry's ecclesiastical jurisdiction forced him into
+unpleasant prominence in connexion with the king's matrimonial
+experiences. In 1536 he was required to revise his own sentence in
+favour of the validity of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the
+17th of May the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this
+sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne's sister, Mary Boleyn, had
+been Henry VIII.'s mistress; this by canon law was a bar to his marriage
+with Anne--a bar which had been removed by papal dispensation in 1527,
+but now the papal power to dispense in such cases had been repudiated,
+and the original objection revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal
+and unjust. With Anne's condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer had
+nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the king, as he had
+done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks of Christchurch. His
+share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was less prominent than that of
+Gardiner, though he did preside over the Convocation in which nearly all
+the dignitaries of the church signified their approval of that measure.
+To his next and last interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the
+king no discredit attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the
+charges against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the
+king was obvious, though painful.
+
+Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy which has
+associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that of any other
+ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its most important feature
+on the theological as distinct from the political side was the endeavour
+to promote the circulation of the Bible in the vernacular, by
+encouraging translation and procuring an order in 1538 that a copy of
+the Bible in English should be set up in every church in a convenient
+place for reading. Only second in importance to this was the
+re-adjustment of the creed and liturgy of the church, which formed
+Cranmer's principal work during the latter half of his life. The
+progress of the archbishop's opinion towards that middle Protestantism,
+if it may be so called, which he did so much to impress on the
+formularies of the Church of England, was gradual, as a brief
+enumeration of the successive steps in that progress will show. In 1538
+an embassy of German divines visited England with the design, among
+other things, of forming a common confession for the two countries. This
+proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer had with the
+theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a great influence in
+modifying his views. Both in parliament and in Convocation he opposed
+the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood almost alone. During the period
+between 1540 and 1543 the archbishop was engaged at the head of a
+commission in the revision of the "Bishop's Book" (1537) or
+_Institutions of a Christian Man_, and the preparation of the _Necessary
+Erudition_ (1543) known as the "King's Book," which was a modification
+of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine. In June
+1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the same as that now
+in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical English style.
+
+The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation exposed him to
+the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or "men of the old
+learning," of whom Gardiner and Bonner were leaders, and on various
+occasions--notably in 1543 and 1545--conspiracies were formed in the
+council or elsewhere to effect his overthrow. The king, however,
+remained true to him, and all the conspiracies signally failed. It
+illustrates a favourable trait in the archbishop's character that he
+forgave all the conspirators. He was, as his secretary Morice testifies,
+"a man that delighted not in revenging."
+
+Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547). By the will of
+the king he was nominated one of a council of regency composed of
+sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the arrangement by which Somerset
+became lord protector. He officiated at the coronation of the boy king
+Edward VI., and is supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the
+order of the ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was
+made to appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent
+consent of the people. But Edward's title had been expressly sanctioned
+by act of parliament, so that there was no more room for election in his
+case than in that of George I., and the real motive of the changes was
+to shorten the weary ceremony for the frail child.
+
+During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid progress, the
+sympathies both of the Protector and of the young king being decidedly
+Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled without let or hindrance to
+complete the preparation of the church formularies, on which he had been
+for some time engaged. In 1547 appeared the _Homilies_ prepared under
+his direction. Four of them are attributed to the archbishop
+himself--those on Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of
+Scripture. His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas,
+known as Cranmer's Catechism, appeared in the following year. Important,
+as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the _Defence of the
+True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament_, which he published in
+1550. It was immediately answered from the side of the "old learning" by
+Gardiner. The first prayer-book of Edward VI. was finished in November
+1548, and received legal sanction in March 1549; the second was
+completed and sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the
+work of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward VI.
+published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely to the hand
+of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he was employed was the
+revision of his codification of the canon law, which had been all but
+completed before the death of Henry. The task was one eminently well
+suited to his powers, and the execution of it was marked by great skill
+in definition and arrangement. It never received any authoritative
+sanction, Edward VI. dying before the proclamation establishing it could
+be made, and it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin
+translation by Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the
+title _Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum_. It laid down the lawfulness
+and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most
+absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher to the flames.
+But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as tolerant as any in that
+age.
+
+Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by that of his
+father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to take a step
+against his own convictions. He had pledged himself to respect the
+testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which the succession devolved
+upon Mary, and now he violated his oath by signing Edward's "device" of
+the crown to Lady Jane Grey. On grounds of policy and morality alike
+the act was quite indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his
+perjury that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying
+man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days' queen when the
+others who had with him signed Edward's device deserted her. On the
+accession of Mary he was summoned to the council--most of whom had
+signed the same device--reprimanded for his conduct, and ordered to
+confine himself to his palace at Lambeth until the queen's pleasure was
+known. He refused to follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate
+that was clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any
+chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in the
+council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity of the
+queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother's divorce and her
+own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1553 he was sent to the Tower,
+where Ridley and Latimer were also confined. The immediate occasion of
+his imprisonment was a strongly worded declaration he had written a few
+days previously against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard,
+had been re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to publish
+this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the council, and it
+could not be ignored. In November, with Lady Jane Grey, her husband, and
+two other Dudleys, Cranmer was condemned for treason. Renard thought he
+would be executed, but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an
+ecclesiastic put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular
+court, and Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the
+highest of clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had
+restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he and his
+two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were removed to
+Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or common prison. Ridley
+and Latimer were unflinching, and suffered bravely at the stake on the
+16th of October 1555. Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over
+which Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555. Brooks
+had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome, where Cranmer was
+summoned, but not permitted, to attend. On the 25th of November he was
+pronounced contumacious by the pope and excommunicated, and a commission
+was sent to England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This
+was done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church, Oxford,
+on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed over to the secular
+power. About the same time Cranmer subscribed the first two of his
+"recantations." His difficulty consisted in the fact that, like all
+Anglicans of the 16th century, he recognized no right of private
+judgment, but believed that the state, as represented by monarchy,
+parliament and Convocation, had an absolute right to determine the
+national faith and to impose it on every Englishman. All these
+authorities had now legally established Roman Catholicism as the
+national faith, and Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist.
+His early "recantations" are merely recognitions of his lifelong
+conviction of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led
+him into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his
+whole career and the Reformation. This is what the government wanted.
+Northumberland's recantation had done much to discredit the Reformation,
+Cranmer's, it was hoped, would complete the work. Hence the enormous
+effect of Cranmer's recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he
+was taken to St Mary's church, and asked to repeat his recantation in
+the hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all he
+declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently done
+troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his whole life;
+that he renounced and refused all his recantations as things written
+with his hand, contrary to the truth which he thought in his heart; and
+that as his hand had offended, his hand should be first burned when he
+came to the fire. As he had said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed
+to the flames. The calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met
+his fate show that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that
+his recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not to
+be repented of.
+
+It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of infirmity
+of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his character is
+well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to Bullinger, that he
+was "too fearful about what might happen to him." This weakness was the
+worst blot on Cranmer's character, but it was due in some measure to his
+painful capacity for seeing both sides of a question at the same time, a
+temperament fatal to martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class
+him. As early as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of
+Transubstantiation; by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence
+(Pref. to his _Answer to Dr Richard Smith_). But here he used the term
+"real" somewhat unguardedly, for in his _Defence_ he asserts a real
+presence, but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he
+repudiates the idea that the bread and wine were "bare tokens." His
+views on church polity were dominated by his implicit belief in the
+divine right of kings (not of course the divine _hereditary_ right of
+kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to set up against the
+divine right of popes. He set practically no limits to the
+ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully the
+representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly
+distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were one.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vols. iv.-xx.: _Acts
+  of the Privy Council, 1542-1556_; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. and
+  Foreign_; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_; Strype's _Memorials of Cranmer_
+  (1694); _Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer_, by Ralph
+  Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden Society's
+  publications); _Remains of Thomas Cranmer_, by Jenkyns (1833); _Lives
+  of Cranmer_, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in Hook's _Lives
+  of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vols. vi. and vii. (1868), by Canon
+  Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904); Froude's
+  _History_; R. W. Dixon's _History_; J. Gairdner's _History of the
+  Church, 1485-1558_; Bishop Cranmer's _Recantacyons_, ed. Gairdner
+  (1885). R. E. Chester Waters's _Chesters of Chicheley_ (1877) contains
+  a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer which has only
+  been used by one of his biographers.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANNOG (Celt. _crann_, a tree), the term applied in Scotland and
+Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient times in the
+lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings in
+Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a fellow of the Society
+of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to George Chalmers, the
+author of _Caledonia_, in 1813, describing two crannogs, or fortified
+islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the first discovered in Ireland,
+was examined and described by Sir William Wilde in 1840. But it was not
+until after the discovery of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in
+1853, had drawn public attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that
+the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated.
+
+The results of these investigations show that they have little in common
+with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are placed in lakes. Few
+examples are known in England, although over a hundred and fifty have
+been examined in Ireland, and more than half that number in Scotland. As
+a rule they have been constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs,
+which have been adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or
+double lines of stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge
+the area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary, layers of
+logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on the shallow, and
+consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all there was laid a layer of
+earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of flagstones. In rare instances
+the body of the work is entirely of stones, the stockaded defence and
+the huts within its enclosure being the only parts constructed of
+timber. Occasionally a bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a
+communication with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and
+from the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains of
+huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the enclosure.
+Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, examined by Lord Lovaine
+in 1863, were found to be constructed of layers of fern and birch and
+hazel branches, mixed with boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while
+above all there was a surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of
+the stockade round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into
+horizontal bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog
+of Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in 1878,
+was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound by
+horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an area 60
+ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square, bounded by the
+remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with split logs. A partition
+divided it into two equal parts, one of which had a doorway opening to
+the south, and close by it an extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of
+the other part was a stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former
+hearths underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of the
+loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of trees with
+the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed transversely or
+obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in Loch-an-Dhugael,
+Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same explorer in 1893,
+revealed a substructure similar to that at Lochlee, with a double row of
+piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft. in diameter, within which was a
+circular construction 32 ft. in diameter, which had been supported by a
+large central post and about twenty uprights ranged round the
+circumference.
+
+From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and logs built
+up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as fascine-dwellings,
+to distinguish them from the typical pile-dwellings of the earlier
+periods in Switzerland, whose platforms are supported by piles driven
+into the bed of the lake. The crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had
+a triple stockade of oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and
+enclosing an area 130 ft. in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In
+the crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 150 cartloads of
+bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the food of
+the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county Antrim, iron
+swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with scrolls
+characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron
+spear-head 16½ in. in length, and pieces of what are called large
+caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of lacustrine
+settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive of the typical
+crannog structure. The most important of these is the Glastonbury lake
+village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and Mr St George Gray. It consists
+of more than sixty separate dwellings, grouped within a triangular
+palisaded defence, formed in the midst of a marsh now partially
+reclaimed. The dwellings were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter,
+the substructure formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and
+clay, and outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake.
+The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work, supported
+by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart. The floors are of
+clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often showing several
+renewals over the original. The relics recovered show unmistakably that
+the occupation must be dated within the Iron Age, but probably
+pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact with Roman civilization has been
+discovered. The stage of civilization indicated is nevertheless not a
+low one. Besides the implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae
+and brooches of bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze
+mirror and tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented
+with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with bosses,
+the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve spokes, and a dug-out
+canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire, examined by Mr Boynton in
+1881, yielded evidence of fascine construction, with suggestions of
+occupation in the latter part of the Bronze Age. Similar indications are
+adduced by Professor Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the
+other hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and Irish
+crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and stone are
+found, they are commonly such as were in use in the Iron Age. Crannogs
+are frequently referred to in the Irish annals. Under the year 848 the
+_Annals of the Four Masters_ record the burning of the island of Lough
+Gabhor (the crannog of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as
+again destroyed by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded
+that Turlough O'Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough Leisi,
+and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the succeeding
+centuries. In the register of the privy council of Scotland, April 14,
+1608, it is ordered that "the haill houssis of defence, strongholds, and
+_crannokis_ in the Yllis (the western isles) pertaining to Angus
+M'Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector M'Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit
+to His Majestie." Judging from the historical evidence of their late
+continuance, and from the character of the relics found in them, the
+crannogs may be included among the latest prehistoric strongholds,
+reaching their greatest development in early historic times, and
+surviving through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has
+assigned their range approximately to the period between the 9th and
+16th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast majority of them,
+both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only inhabited, but
+constructed during the Iron Age, and that their period of greatest
+development was as far posterior to Roman civilization as that of the
+Swiss _Pfahlbauten_ was anterior to it. (See LAKE DWELLINGS.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Dr R. Munro, _The Lake Dwellings of Europe: being the
+  Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888_ (with a bibliography of the
+  subject) (London, 1890); _Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings or Crannogs_
+  (Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, _The Lake-Dwellings of
+  Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin, commonly called
+  Crannogs_ (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, _Descriptive Catalogue of the
+  Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy_, article
+  "Crannogs," pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart, "Scottish
+  Artificial Islands or Crannogs," in the _Proceedings of the Society of
+  Antiquaries of Scotland_, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A. Bulleid, "The
+  Lake Village near Glastonbury," in _Proceedings of the Somersetshire
+  Archaeological Society_, vol. xl. (1894).     (J. AN.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANSAC, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron, 28m.
+N.W. of Rodez by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988; commune, 6953. The town
+is a coal-mining centre and has cold mineral springs, known in the
+middle ages. There are iron-mines in the neighbourhood. Hills to the
+north of the town contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for
+centuries. About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance château of
+Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of
+Bournazel, about 1545. The barony of Bournazel became a marquisate in
+1624.
+
+
+
+
+CRANSTON, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., adjoining
+the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890) 8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910)
+21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railway. The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W.
+part is somewhat rolling. Within the city are several villages,
+including Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The
+inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the growing
+of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden produce; in the several
+villages cotton and print goods, fuses for electrical machinery, and
+automatic fire-protection sprinklers are manufactured. The value of
+Cranston's factory product increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to
+$2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%. The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S.
+part of the city; on this are the state prison, the Providence county
+jail, the state workhouse and the house of correction, the state
+almshouse, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for
+boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls--the last two being departments
+of the state reform school. The post-office address of all these state
+institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled as a part of Providence
+about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams, and in 1754 was incorporated
+as a separate township, but in 1868, in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it
+were reannexed to Providence. The township is said to have been named in
+honour of Samuel Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from
+1698 until his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910.
+
+
+
+
+CRANTOR, a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born, probably
+about the middle of the 4th century B.C., at Soli in Cilicia. He was a
+fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xenocrates at Athens, and was
+the first commentator on Plato. He is said to have written some poems
+which he sealed up and deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog.
+Laërtius iv. 5. 25). Of his celebrated work _On Grief_ ([Greek: Peri
+penthous]), a letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death
+of his children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch's
+_Consolatio ad Apollonium_ and in the _De consolatione_ of Cicero, who
+speaks of it (_Acad._ ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (_aureolus et ad
+verbum ediscendus_). Crantor paid especial attention to ethics, and
+arranged "good" things in the following order--virtue, health, pleasure,
+riches.
+
+  See F. Kayser, _De Crantore Academico_ (1841); M. H. E. Meier,
+  _Opuscula academica_, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, _Geschichte der
+  griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_, i. (1891), p. 118.
+
+
+
+
+CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE, BARON (1790-1868), lord chancellor of
+England, elder son of the Rev. E. Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk,
+on the 18th of December 1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester,
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's
+Inn in 1816, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He represented
+Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his promotion to the
+bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he was appointed a
+vice-chancellor and created Baron Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord
+chancellor in Aberdeen's ministry. He continued to hold the
+chancellorship in the administration of Palmerston until the latter's
+resignation in 1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to
+office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he
+accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall of
+the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London on the 26th
+of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer, Cranworth's name is
+associated in the statute book with only one small measure on
+conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue to hold first rank. His
+judgments were marked by sound common sense, while he himself was
+remarkably free from the prejudices of his profession. Few men of his
+day enjoyed greater personal popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue
+and the title became extinct on his death.
+
+  See _The Times_, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, _The Builders of our
+  Law_ (1904); E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); J. B.
+  Atlay, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRAPE (an anglicized version of the Fr. _crêpe_), a silk fabric of a
+gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. It is woven
+of hard spun silk yarn "in the gum" or natural condition. There are two
+distinct varieties of the textile--soft, Canton or Oriental crape, and
+hard or crisped crape. The wavy appearance of Canton crape results from
+the peculiar manner in which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two
+bobbins being twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven
+is smooth and even, having no _crêpé_ appearance, but when the gum is
+subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and the weft,
+losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure which constitutes
+its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are used, either white or
+coloured, for ladies' scarves and shawls, bonnet trimmings, &c. The
+Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp
+and elastic structure of hard crape is not produced either in the
+spinning or in the weaving, but is due to processes through which the
+gauze passes after it is woven. What the details of these processes are
+is known to only a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their
+secret that, in some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are
+conducted in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are
+distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes,
+according to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture. They are
+almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning dress, and among
+Roman Catholic communities for nuns' veils, &c. In Great Britain hard
+crapes are made at Braintree in Essex, Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and
+Glasgow. The crape formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp
+and worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into
+bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in
+Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria crape.
+
+
+
+
+CRASH, a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow towels,
+from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian origin, the
+simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as "Russia crash."
+The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns, and sometimes from
+boiled yarns. The simple term "crash" is given to all these narrow
+cloths, but the above distinction is very convenient, as also are the
+following: grey, boiled, bleached, plain, twilled and fancy crash. A
+large variety obtains with and without fancy borders, while of late
+years cotton has been introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute
+yarns for weft. After the cloth has passed through all the finishing
+operations, it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn
+together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller; for
+this reason it is often termed "roller towelling."
+
+
+
+
+CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613-1650), English poet, styled "the divine," was
+born in London about 1613. He was the son of a strongly anti-papistical
+divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-1626), who distinguished himself, even
+in those times, by the excessive acerbity of his writings against the
+Catholics. In spite of these opinions, however, he was attracted by
+Catholic devotion, for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits.
+Richard Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in
+July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took
+the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of Herbert's _Temple_ in
+1633 seems to have finally determined the bias of his genius in favour
+of religious poetry, and next year he published his first book,
+_Epigrammatum sacrorum liber_, a volume of Latin verses. In March 1636
+he removed to Peterhouse, was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and
+proceeded M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the
+acquaintance and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley. He
+was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk Nicholas Ferrar,
+and frequently visited him at his religious house at Little Gidding. In
+1641 he is said to have gone to Oxford, but only for a short time; for
+when in 1643 Cowley left Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw
+remained behind, and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644.
+In the confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he
+finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had long been
+tending.
+
+During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected by an
+anonymous friend, and published under the title of _Steps to the Temple_
+and _The Delights of the Muses_, in one volume, in 1646. The first part
+includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of Marini's _Sospetto d'
+Herode_. This same year Cowley found him in great destitution at Paris,
+and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to extend towards him what influence
+she still possessed. At her introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he
+became attendant to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two
+Latin hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the
+cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his retinue
+contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour was a source of
+ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English mystic. At last his
+denunciation of their excesses became so public that the animosity of
+those persons was excited against him, and in order to shield him from
+their revenge he was sent by the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he
+was made a canon of the Holy House. In less than three weeks, however,
+he sickened of fever, and died on the 25th of August, not without grave
+suspicion of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at
+Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled _Carmen Deo
+nostro_, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at the dead poet's
+desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings, the countess of
+Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen engravings after Crashaw's
+own designs.
+
+Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments; besides
+being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an intimate knowledge
+of Italian and Spanish; and his skill in music, painting and engraving
+was no less admired in his lifetime than his skill in poetry. Cowley
+embalmed his memory in an elegy that ranks among the very finest in our
+language, in which he, a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on
+the minds of contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic
+poet:--
+
+  "His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might
+   Be wrong; his life, I'm sure, was in the right:
+   And I, myself, a Catholic will be,
+   So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee!"
+
+The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can with
+most success free themselves from the bondage of a traditional sense of
+the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted the use of
+images and phrases which we now justly condemn as incongruous and
+unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw carried this licence to
+excess. At the same time his verse is studded with fiery beauties and
+sudden felicities of language, unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own
+time and Shelley's. There is no religious poetry in English so full at
+once of gross and awkward images and imaginative touches of the most
+ethereal beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate
+and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost hysterical,
+passion about him, even when his ardour is most exquisitely expressed,
+and his adoring addresses to the saints have an effeminate falsetto that
+makes their ecstasy almost repulsive. The faults and beauties of his
+very peculiar style can be studied nowhere to more advantage than in the
+_Hymn to Saint Teresa_. Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are
+_Music's Duel_, which deals with that strife between the musician and
+the nightingale which has inspired so many poets, and _Wishes to his
+supposed Mistress_. In his latest sacred poems, included in the _Carmen
+Deo nostro_, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting, but the
+mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesiastical mannerism
+more harsh and repellent. The themes of Crashaw's verses are as distinct
+as possible from those of Shelley's, but it may, on the whole, be said
+that at his best moments he reminds the reader more closely of the
+author of _Epipsychidion_ than of any earlier or later poet.
+
+  Crashaw's works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by W. B.
+  Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for private
+  subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition was edited
+  (1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R. Waller.
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CRASSULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons, containing 13
+genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan distribution, but most
+strongly developed in South Africa. The plants are herbs or small
+shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems and leaves, adapted for life
+in dry, especially rocky places. The fleshy leaves are often reduced to
+a more or less cylindrical structure, as in the stonecrops (_Sedum_), or
+form closely crowded rosettes as in the house-leek (_Sempervivum_).
+Correlated with their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is
+succulent, forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by
+evaporation by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy
+secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The flowers
+are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and are
+markedly regular with the same number of parts in each series. This
+number is, however, very variable, and often not constant in one and the
+same species. The sepals and petals are free or more or less united, the
+stamens as many or twice as many as the petals; the carpels, usually
+free, are equal to the petals in number, and form in the fruit follicles
+with two or more seeds. Opposite each carpel is a small scale which
+functions as a nectary. Means of vegetative propagation are general.
+Many species spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or
+as in house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal
+leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves give
+rise to new plants by budding, as in _Bryophyllum_, where buds develop
+at the edges of the leaf and form new plants.
+
+[Illustration: Stonecrop (_Sedum acre_) slightly reduced. 1, Horizontal
+plan of arrangement of flower of stonecrop; 2, flower of _Sedum
+rubens_.]
+
+The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and has but few
+representatives in South America; it is otherwise very generally
+distributed. The largest genus, _Sedum_, contains about 140 species in
+the temperate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere; eight occur
+wild in Britain, including _S. Telephium_ (orpine) and _S. acre_ (common
+stonecrop) (see fig.). The species are easily cultivated and will thrive
+in almost any soil. They are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or
+divisions. _Crassula_ has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape.
+_Cotyledon_, a widely distributed genus with about 90 species, is
+represented in the British Isles by _C. Umbilicus_, pennywort, or
+navelwort, which takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It
+grows profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western
+coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers. The
+_Echeveria_ of gardens is now included in this genus. _Sempervivum_ has
+about 50 species in the mountains of central and southern Europe, in the
+Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries and Madeira; _S. tectorum_,
+common house-leek, is seen often growing on tops of walls and
+house-roofs. The hardy species will grow well in dry sandy soil, and are
+suitable for rockeries, old walls or edgings. They are readily
+propagated by offsets or by seed.
+
+The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is
+distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels.
+
+
+
+
+CRASSUS (literally "dense," "thick," "fat"), a family name in the Roman
+gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of the name are the
+following:
+
+1. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, surnamed _Dives Mucianus_, Roman statesman,
+orator and jurist, consul, 131 B.C. He was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola
+(consul 175) and was adopted by a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate
+friend of Tiberius Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his
+place on the agrarian commission (see GRACCHUS). In 131 when Crassus was
+consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son of
+Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which had been
+bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls were anxious to obtain
+the command against him; Crassus was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a
+flamen of Mars. Crassus declared that Flaccus could not neglect his
+sacred office, and imposed a conditional fine on him in the event of his
+leaving Rome. The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was
+ordered to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded to
+Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade the
+pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his military
+operations. But in the following year, when he was making preparations
+to return, he was surprised near Leucae. He was himself taken prisoner
+by a Thracian band, and provoked his captors, who were ignorant of his
+identity, to put him to death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed
+much military ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his
+knowledge of law and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a
+mastery of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in
+Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any of the
+dialects in use.
+
+  Cicero, _De oratore_, i. 50; _Philippics_, xi. 8; Plutarch, _Tib.
+  Gracchus_, 21; Livy, _Epit._ 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6;
+  Vell. Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10.
+
+2. LUCIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (140-91 B.C.), the orator, of unknown
+parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he made his reputation
+by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the friend of the Gracchi. The
+law passed by him and his colleague Q. Mucius Scaevola during their
+consulship (95), to prevent those passing as Roman citizens who had no
+right to the title, was one of the prime causes of the Social War
+(Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, xxi., _De officiis_, iii. 11). During his
+censorship Crassus suppressed the newly founded schools of Latin
+rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by
+his passionate speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had
+insulted the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the _De
+oratore_ of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his
+speeches.
+
+3. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, called _Dives_, father of the triumvir.
+Little is known of him before he became consul in 97, except that he
+proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table, which met with
+general approval. During his consulship the practice of magic arts was
+condemned by a decree of the senate, and human sacrifice was abolished.
+He was subsequently governor of Spain for some years, during which he
+gained several successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93
+was honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with L.
+Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain of the
+Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the Romans, but the
+proceedings seem to have been interrupted by certain irregularities.
+They also forbade the introduction of foreign wines and unguents.
+Crassus committed suicide in 87, to avoid falling into the hands of the
+Marian party.
+
+  Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_,
+  ii. 13; Livy, _Epit._ 80; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 3; Appian, _Bell.
+  Civ._ i. 72; Festus, under _Referri_.
+
+4. MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (c. 115-53 B.C.), the Triumvir, surnamed
+_Dives_ (rich) on account of his great wealth. His wealth was acquired
+by traffic in slaves, the working of silver mines, and judicious
+purchases of lands and houses, especially those of proscribed citizens.
+The proscription of Cinna obliged him to flee to Spain; but after
+Cinna's death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where he
+ingratiated himself with Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he
+gained a decisive victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon
+afterwards he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his
+wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and distributing
+sufficient corn to last each family three months. In 65 he was censor,
+and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the coalition known as the
+first triumvirate. In 55 he was again consul with Pompey, and a law was
+passed, assigning the provinces of the two Spains and Syria to the two
+consuls for five years. Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised
+to be an inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates he
+hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was defeated at
+Carrhae (53 B.C.) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the Parthian general,
+who put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. His head
+was cut off and sent to Orodes, the Parthian king. Crassus was a man of
+only moderate abilities, and owed his importance to his great wealth.
+
+  See Plutarch's _Life_; also CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS; POMPEY; ROME:
+  _History_, II. "The Republic."
+
+
+
+
+CRATER, the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually
+funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name, from
+the Gr. [Greek: kratêr], a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single
+crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters on
+its flanks: the latter are sometimes called "adventitious craters" or
+"craterlets." Much of the loose ejected material, falling in the
+neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner wall of the crater, and
+thus produces a stratification with an inward dip. The crater in an
+active volcano is kept open by intermittent explosions, but in a volcano
+which has become dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the
+bowl-shaped cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a
+crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a _Maar_. In some basaltic
+cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may be a broad
+shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with horizontal
+stratification. Such hollows are consequently called pit-craters. The
+name _caldera_ (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested for such pits by Capt.
+C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as having been formed by subsidence of
+the walls. The term caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in
+Spanish-speaking countries. (See VOLCANO.)
+
+
+
+
+CRATES, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished about 470 B.C.
+He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy proper, since he
+abandoned political lampoons on individuals, and introduced more general
+subjects and a well-developed plot (Aristotle, _Poëtica_, 5). He is
+stated to have been the first to represent the drunkard on the stage
+(Aristophanes, _Knights_, 37 ff.).
+
+  Fragments in Meineke, _Poëtarum Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta_, i.
+
+
+
+
+CRATES, the name of two Greek philosophers.
+
+1. CRATES, of Athens, successor of Polemo as leader of the Old Academy.
+
+2. CRATES, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of the 4th
+century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the last great
+representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his ample fortune
+owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more probable story is that he
+sacrificed it in accordance with his principles, directing the banker,
+to whom he entrusted it, to give it to his sons if they should prove
+fools, but to the poor if his sons should prove philosophers. He gave up
+his life to the attainment of virtue and the propagation of ascetic
+self-control. His habit of entering houses for this purpose, uninvited,
+earned him the nickname [Greek: Thyrepanoiktês] ("Door-opener"). His
+marriage with Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in
+curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by the
+nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and ugliness,
+she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her father's commands.
+The date of his death is unknown, though he seems to have lived into the
+3rd century. His writings were few. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he
+was the author of a number of letters on philosophical subjects; but
+those extant under the name of Crates (R. Hercher, _Epistolographi
+Graeci_, 1873) are, spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes
+Laërtius credits him with a short poem, [Greek: Paignia], and several
+philosophic tragedies. Plutarch's life of Crates is lost. The great
+importance of Crates' work is that he formed the link between Cynicism
+and the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil.
+
+  See N. Postumus, _De Cratete Cynico_ (1823); F. Mullach, _Frag.
+  Philosophorum Graecorum_, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and
+  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_; Diog. Laërt. vi. 85-93, 96-98.
+
+
+
+
+CRATES, of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher
+of the 2nd century B.C., leader of the literary school and head of the
+library of Pergamum. His principles were opposed to those of
+Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian school. He was the chief
+representative of the allegorical theory of exegesis, and maintained
+that Homer intended to express scientific or philosophical truths in the
+form of poetry. About 170 B.C. he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus
+II., king of Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to
+stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the first
+impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans
+(Suetonius, _De grammaticis_, 2). His chief work was a critical and
+exegetical commentary on Homer.
+
+  See C. Wachsmuth, _De Cratete Mallota_ (1860), containing an account
+  of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of
+  Class. Schol._ i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CRATINUS (c. 520-423 B.C.), Athenian comic poet, chief representative of
+the old, and founder of political, comedy. Hardly anything is known of
+his life, and only fragments of his works have been preserved. But a
+good idea of their character can be gained from the opinions of his
+contemporaries, especially Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly
+distinguished by their direct and vigorous political satire, a marked
+exception being the burlesque [Greek: Odysseis], dealing with the story
+of Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was
+in force forbidding all political references on the stage. They were
+also remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius
+calls the author "the bold," and even Pericles at the height of his
+power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the _Nemesis_ and
+_Archilochi_, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently
+deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus was in
+sympathy. The _Panoptae_ was a satire on the sophists and omniscient
+speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last comedy the plot has
+come down to us. It was occasioned by the sneers of Aristophanes and
+others, who declared that he was no better than a doting drunkard.
+Roused by the taunt, Cratinus put forth all his strength, and in 423
+B.C. produced the [Greek: Pytinê], or _Bottle_, which gained the first
+prize over the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes. In this comedy, good-humouredly
+making fun of his own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as
+the faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival--the
+bottle--has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from the archon;
+but her husband's love is not dead and he returns penitent to her side.
+In Grenfell and Hunt's _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, iv. (1904), containing a
+further instalment of their edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by
+them in 1896-1897, one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper
+bearing the argument of a play by Cratinus,--the _Dionysalexandros_
+(i.e. Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the
+epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of Cratinus
+has been likened to that of Aeschylus; and Aristophanes, in the
+_Knights_, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to have been
+fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most successful in the
+lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the popular festal songs
+of his day. According to the statement of a doubtful authority, which is
+not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus increased the number of actors in
+comedy to three. He wrote 21 comedies and gained the prize nine times.
+
+  Fragments in Meineke, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, or Kock,
+  _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_. A younger Cratinus flourished in the
+  time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that some of the
+  comedies ascribed to the elder Cratinus were really the work of the
+  younger.
+
+
+
+
+CRATIPPUS (fl. c. 375 B.C.), Greek historian. There are only three or
+four references to him in ancient literature, and his importance is due
+to the fact that he has been identified by several scholars (e.g. Blass)
+with the author of the historical fragment discovered by Grenfell and
+Hunt, and published by them in _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. It may be
+regarded as a fairly certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (_De
+Gloria Atheniensium_, p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was
+an Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and
+Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides, from
+the point at which the latter historian stopped (410 B.C.) down to the
+battle of Cnidus (394 B.C.).
+
+  The fragments are published in C. Müller's _Fragmenta Historicorum
+  Graecorum_. For authorities see under THEOPOMPUS.
+
+
+
+
+CRATIPPUS, of Mitylene (1st century B.C.), Peripatetic philosopher,
+contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at Athens, and by whom he
+is praised in the _De officiis_ as the greatest of his school. He was
+the friend of Pompey also and shared his flight after the battle of
+Pharsalia, for the purpose, it is said, of convincing him of the justice
+of providence. Brutus, while at Athens after the assassination of
+Caesar, attended his lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon
+him by Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to him
+is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be gauged by the
+fact that in 44 B.C. the Areopagus invited him to succeed Andronicus of
+Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have held that, while motion, sense and
+appetite cannot exist apart from the body, thought reaches its greatest
+power when most free from bodily influence, and that divination is due
+to the direct action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human
+soul which is not dependent on the body.
+
+  Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52; _De officiis_, i.
+  1, iii. 2; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 24.
+
+
+
+
+CRAU (from a Celtic root meaning "stone"), a region of southern France,
+comprised in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and bounded W. by the
+canal from Arles to Port du Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the
+Alpines separating it from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by
+the hills around Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of
+the Mediterranean Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is
+a low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden
+inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the Durance,
+according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface is formed chiefly
+of stones varying in size from an egg to a man's head; these, mixed with
+a proportion of fine soil, overlie a subsoil formed of stones cemented
+into a hard mass by deposits of calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed
+of loose stones, once the sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime,
+the Crau is adapted for agriculture by the process of warping, carried
+out by means of the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of
+the 16th century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east
+has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the Durance.
+The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation and the application
+of artificial manures. By these aids, uncultivated land, which before
+supplied only rough and scanty pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted
+for the growth of the vine, olive and other fruits; where irrigation is
+practicable, water-meadows have been formed. The dryness of the climate
+is unfavourable to the production of cereals.
+
+
+
+
+CRAUCK, GUSTAVE (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born and died at
+Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works was erected in his
+honour. Though little known to the world at large during his long life,
+he ranks among the best modern sculptors of France. At Paris his
+"Coligny" monument is in the rue de Rivoli; his "Victory" in the Place
+des Arts et Métiers; and "Twilight" in the Avenue de l'Observatoire.
+Among his finest works is his "Combat du Centaure," on which he was
+engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been modelled
+after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibition of his works was
+held in the École des Beaux-Arts.
+
+
+
+
+CRAUFURD, QUINTIN (1743-1819), British author, was born at Kilwinnock on
+the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he went to India, where he
+entered the service of the East India Company. Returning to Europe
+before the age of forty with a handsome fortune, he settled in Paris,
+where he gave himself to the cultivation of literature and art, and
+formed a good library and collection of paintings, coins and other
+objects of antiquarian interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the
+French court, especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who
+arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in 1792 he
+returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal prisoners. He lived
+among the French _émigrés_ until the peace of Amiens made it possible to
+return to Paris. Through Talleyrand's influence he was able to remain in
+Paris after the war was renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of
+November 1819.
+
+  He wrote, among other works, _The History, Religion, Learning and
+  Manners of the Hindus_ (1790), _Secret History of the King of France
+  and his Escape from Paris_ (first published in 1885), _Researches
+  concerning the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and
+  Modern India_ (1817), _History of the Bastille_ (1798), _On Pericles
+  and the Arts in Greece_ (1815), _Essay on Swift and his Influence on
+  the British Government_ (1808), _Notice sur Marie Antoinette_ (1809),
+  _Mémoires de Mme du Hausset_ (1808).
+
+
+
+
+CRAUFURD, ROBERT (1764-1812), British major-general, was born at Newark,
+Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As
+captain in the 75th regiment he first saw active service against Tippoo
+Sahib in 1790-92. The next year he was employed, under his brother
+Charles, with the Austrian armies operating against the French.
+Returning to England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a
+lieutenant-colonel, on Lake's staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later
+he was British commissioner on Suvarov's staff when the Russians invaded
+Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition. From
+1801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament for East
+Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with Whitelock in the
+unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was almost the only one of the
+senior officers who added to his reputation in this affair, and in 1808
+he received a brigade command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were
+heavily engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not
+present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they returned
+to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula, Brigadier-General
+Craufurd was three marches or more in rear of Wellesley's army when a
+report came in that a great battle was in progress. The march which
+followed is one almost unparalleled in military annals. The three
+battalions of the "Light Brigade" (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full
+marching order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of
+Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning their
+career with this famous march, these regiments and their chief, under
+whom served such men as Charles and William Napier, Shaw and Colborne,
+soon became celebrated as one of the best corps of troops in Europe, and
+every engagement added to their laurels. Craufurd's operations on the
+Coa and Agueda in 1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew
+the quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though
+Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time increased
+his force to a division by the addition of two picked regiments of
+Portuguese _Caçadores_. The conduct of the renowned "Light Division" at
+Busaco is described by Napier in one of his most vivid passages. The
+winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in England, and his division was
+commanded in the interim by another officer, who did not display much
+ability. He reappeared on the field of the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro
+amidst the cheers of his men, and nothing could show his genius for war
+better than his conduct on this day, in covering the strange
+readjustment of his line which Wellington was compelled to make in the
+face of the enemy. A little later he obtained major-general's rank; and
+on the 19th of January 1812, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad
+Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell mortally
+wounded. His body was carried out of action by his staff officer,
+Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see SHAW KENNEDY), and, after lingering
+four days, he died. He was buried in the breach of the fortress where he
+had met his death, and a monument in St Paul's cathedral commemorates
+Craufurd and Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of
+Ciudad Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are
+amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and Portuguese
+armies. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not the very first,
+of Wellington's generals, he had a fiery temper, which rendered him a
+difficult man to deal with, but to the day of his death he possessed the
+confidence and affection of his men in an extraordinary degree.
+
+His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir CHARLES CRAUFURD (1761-1821),
+entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made captain in the Queen's Bays
+in 1785, he became the equerry and intimate friend of the duke of York.
+He studied in Germany for some time, and, with his brother Robert's
+assistance, translated Tielcke's book on the Seven Years' War (_The
+Remarkable Events of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from
+1756 to 1763_). As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the
+French War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the Austrian
+headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden, Caesar's Camp,
+Famars, Landrecies, &c. Major in 1793, and lieutenant-colonel in 1794,
+he returned to the English army in the latter year, and on one occasion
+distinguished himself at the head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and
+1000 prisoners. When the British army left the continent Craufurd was
+again attached to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on
+the Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At the last
+battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further service, and cut
+short a promising career. He succeeded his brother Robert as member of
+parliament for East Retford (1806-1812). He died in 1821, having become
+a lieutenant-general and a G.C.B.
+
+
+
+
+CRAVAT (from the Fr. _cravate_, a corruption of "Croat"), the name given
+by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the scarf worn by the
+Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian regiment. Made of linen
+or muslin with broad edges of lace, it became fashionable, and the name
+was applied both in England and France to various forms of neckerchief
+worn at different times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long
+flowing ends, called a "Steinkirk" from the battle of 1692 of that name,
+to the elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric
+neckcloth worn during the period of Beau Brummell.
+
+
+
+
+CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAÉ (1808-1891), French author, the
+daughter of an _émigré_ Breton nobleman, was born in London on the 12th
+of April 1808. Her father, the comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a
+close friend of the duc de Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to
+France in 1814. He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X.
+at the Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the duc de Berri made
+retirement imperative to the count's sense of honour. He was appointed
+ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became foreign minister in
+Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in brilliant surroundings, but her
+strongest impressions were those which she derived from the group of
+Catholic thinkers gathered round Lamennais, and her ardent piety
+furnishes the key of her life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and
+Pauline, at the suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first
+literary essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a
+visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la Ferronays
+resigned his position, and retired with his family to Naples. Here
+Pauline met her future husband, Augustus Craven, who was then attaché to
+the British embassy. His father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known
+supporter of Queen Caroline, objected to his son's marriage with a
+Catholic; but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the
+marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman Catholic
+Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in the _Récit d'une
+soeur_ was especially tender and intimate, suffered several severe
+bereavements in the years following on her marriage. The Cravens lived
+abroad until 1851, when the death of Keppel Craven made his son
+practically independent of his diplomatic career, in which he had not
+been conspicuously successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to
+parliament for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private
+life. They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to write
+the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between 1830 and
+1836, its incidents being grouped round the love story of her brother
+Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the _Récit d'une soeur_
+(1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically received and was awarded
+a prize by the French Academy. Straitened circumstances made it
+desirable for Mrs Craven to earn money by her pen. _Anne Sévérin_
+appeared in 1868, _Fleurange_ in 1871, _Le Mot d'énigme_ in 1874, _Le
+Valbriant_ (Eng. trans., _Lucia_) in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works
+may be mentioned _La Soeur Natalie Narischkin_ (1876), _Deux Incidents
+de la question catholique en Angleterre_ (1875), _Lady Georgiana
+Fullerton, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1888). Mrs Craven's charming
+personality won her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord
+Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in Paris on the
+1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884, translated the
+correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the Prince Consort into French.
+
+
+  See _Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven_ (1894), by her friend Mrs Mary
+  Catherine Bishop; also _Paolina Craven_, by T. F. Ravaschieri Fieschi
+  (1892). There is a biography of Mrs Craven's father, "En Emigration,"
+  in Étienne Lamy's _Témoins des jours passés_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN, EARL OF (1608-1697), eldest son of Sir William
+Craven, lord mayor of London, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman
+William Whitmore, was born in June 1608, matriculated at Trinity
+College, Oxford, in 1623, and joined the society of the Middle Temple in
+1624. He had already inherited his father's vast fortune by the latter's
+death in 1618, and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in
+the military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was
+knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire in
+1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of the unfortunate king
+and queen of Bohemia, driven from their dominions, and in 1632 joined
+Frederick in a military expedition to recover the Palatinate, meeting
+Gustavus Adolphus at Höchst, whose praise he gained by being the first,
+though wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on the
+22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to allow the
+elector an independent command for the defence of the Palatinate, and
+Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he was placed on the council of
+Wales. In 1637 he took part in a second expedition in aid of the
+palatine family on the Lower Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis
+and his brother Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of
+£30,000, but their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded
+and taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom in
+1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen Elizabeth at
+the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously with funds on the
+cessation of her English pension owing to the outbreak of the Civil War.
+He contributed also large sums in aid of Charles I., and, after his
+execution, of Charles II., the amount bestowed upon the latter being
+alone computed at £50,000,[1] notwithstanding that since 1651 the
+greater part of his estates had been confiscated by the parliament and
+his house at Caversham reduced to ruins.[2] At the Restoration he
+accompanied Charles to England, regained his estates, and was rewarded
+with offices and honours. He was made colonel of several regiments
+including the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high
+steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy councillor,
+but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William Temple's remodelled
+council.[3] In 1668 he became a governor of the Charterhouse, was
+appointed lord-lieutenant of Middlesex, and master of the Trinity House
+in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner for Tangier. He was one of the lords
+proprietors of Carolina and a member of the Fishery Committee.
+
+In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven. Meanwhile his
+devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia was unceasing, and on
+her return to England he offered her hospitality at his house in Drury
+Lane, where she remained till February 1662. At her death, within a
+fortnight afterwards, she bequeathed to Craven her papers and her
+valuable collection of portraits, but there is no foundation for the
+belief entertained later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the
+guardian of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms,
+Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and
+lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at the
+age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall on the 17th
+of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived. He refused to withdraw
+them at the bidding of Count Solms, the Dutch commander, but obeyed
+later James's own orders to retire. His public career now closed and he
+filled no office after the revolution. Although his claims upon the
+gratitude of the Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been
+considered a possible candidate for high political place. His ability
+was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect in the
+_Verney Papers_ and by the electress Sophia in her _Memoirs_. The latter
+retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and Pepys was
+disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery Board, where his
+"very confused and very ridiculous proceedings" are also censured.[4]
+His military prowess, however, his generosity and his public spirit are
+undoubted. He showed great activity during the plague and fire of
+London. He was a patron of letters and a member of the Royal Society. He
+inherited Combe Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased
+Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of
+Heidelberg Castle.
+
+He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom became
+extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his cousin William,
+2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven (the earldom being revived
+in 1801) is descended from John, a younger brother of the latter. The
+first Lord Craven's brother John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton
+in Shropshire and who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven
+scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first
+was awarded in 1649.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (and
+  Errata); _Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest
+  daughter of James I.)_, vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); _Memoirs
+  of Elizabeth Stuart_, by Miss Benger (1825); _Memoiren der Herzogin
+  Sophie_, ed. by A. Köcher in _Publ. aus den k. preussischen
+  Staatsarchiven_, Bd. iv. (1879); "Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart" in
+  _Bibliothek des litterarischen Vereins_ (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157;
+  G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_ (1889), ii. 404; _Lives and Characters
+  of the Most Illustrious Persons_ (1713), p. 546; Macaulay's _Hist. of
+  England_, ii. 584 (1858); _Verney Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1853); _Cal.
+  of St. Pap. Dom._; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate
+  in Cat. of the British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists
+  in the Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Verney Papers_, 189 note.
+
+  [2] Evelyn's _Diary_, June 8th, 1654.
+
+  [3] _Hist. MSS. Com.; Various Collections_, ii. 394.
+
+  [4] _Diary_, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. The house of Lindsay, of which the earl of Crawford
+is the head, traces its descent back to the barons of Crawford who
+flourished in the 12th century, and has included a number of men who
+have played leading parts in the history of Scotland. It is said that
+"though other families in Scotland may have been of more historic, none
+can in genealogical importance equal that of Lindsay," and the Lindsays
+claim that "the predecessors of the 1st earl of Crawford were barons at
+the period of the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact,
+they were never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among
+the _pares_, of which kings are _primi_, from the commencement of
+recorded history." Again we are told, "the earldom of Crawford,
+therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others of
+the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an
+_imperium in imperio_." Moreover, the earls "had also a _concilium_, or
+petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom, with
+whose advice they acted on great and important occasions."
+
+Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanarkshire, was
+the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c. 1357), and was
+related to King Robert II.; he was descended from Sir Alexander Lindsay
+of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained Crawford and other estates in 1297
+and who was high chamberlain of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at
+Otterburn, and Froissart tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was
+succeeded by his cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir
+Alexander Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who
+married a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford.
+
+The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th and the
+5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the 4th earl (d. 1454), called the "tiger
+earl," was, like his father David the 3rd earl, who was killed in 1446,
+one of the most powerful of the Scottish nobles; for some time he was in
+arms against King James II., but he submitted in 1452. His son David,
+the 5th earl (c. 1440-1495), was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain;
+he went frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of
+Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son. Montrose
+fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and his son John,
+the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden.
+
+David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of Alexander, the 7th
+earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of Crawford (d. 1542),
+called the "wicked master," who quarrelled with his father and tried to
+kill him. Consequently he was sentenced to death, and the 8th earl
+conveyed the earldom to his kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558),
+a descendant of the 3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and
+his descendants, and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the
+9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked master's
+son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the earldom came back to
+the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl being called the
+"interpolated earl."
+
+David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574), was a supporter of Mary
+Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David (c. 1547-1607) as 11th
+earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal Beaton, was concerned in some
+of the risings under James VI.; he was converted to Roman Catholicism
+and was in communication with the Spaniards about an invasion of
+England. After his death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621),
+a lawless ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or
+Charteris (d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry's three
+sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic, succeeding
+in 1639.
+
+Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part in the
+strange plot of 1641 called the "incident." Having joined Charles I. at
+Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at Newbury and elsewhere
+during the Civil War; in 1644, just after Marston Moor, the Scottish
+parliament declared he had forfeited his earldom, and, following the
+lines laid down when this was regranted in 1642, it was given to John
+Lindsay, 1st earl of Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in
+1644 and was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out,
+and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served until the
+surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in Ireland and in Spain
+and he died probably in France in 1652. He left no issue.
+
+The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman, belonged to the
+family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the Lindsays descended from
+Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c. 1355), the grandfather of the 1st
+earl of Crawford. Sir David's descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres
+(d. 1482), was created a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres
+in 1445, and his son David, the 2nd lord (d. 1490), fought for James
+III. at the battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this
+line was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of John
+the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the reforming
+party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish nobles to join the
+reformers, and he was also one of the most violent. He fought against
+the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the French; then during a temporary
+reconciliation he assisted Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern
+rebels at Corrichie in 1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he
+took part in the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against
+Bothwell, whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at
+Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and ally of the
+regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and obtained her
+signature to the deed of abdication; he fought against her at Langside,
+and after Murray's murder he was one of the chiefs of the party which
+supported the throne of James VI. In 1578, however, he was among those
+who tried to drive Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the
+person of the king in the plot called the "raid of Ruthven," afterwards
+escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when he died on
+the 11th of December 1589. His successor was his son, James the 7th lord
+(d. 1601).
+
+Patrick's great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford and 1st
+earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert Lindsay, 9th Lord
+Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as 10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he
+was created earl of Lindsay, and having become a leader of the
+Covenanters he marched with the Scottish army into England in 1644 and
+was present at Marston Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of
+Crawford in the manner already mentioned. In the same year he became
+lord high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the
+parliament. Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of
+Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647 he signed
+the "engagement" for the release of Charles I., losing all his offices
+by the act of classes when his enemy, the marquess of Argyll, obtained
+the upper hand. After the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar, however,
+Crawford regained his influence in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to
+1660 he was a prisoner in England. In 1661 he was restored to his former
+dignities, but his refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to
+resign them two years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and
+2nd earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent
+covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parliament. Mr
+Andrew Lang says this earl was "very poor, very presbyterian, and his
+letters, almost alone among those of the statesmen of the period, are
+rich in the texts and unctuous style of an older generation."
+
+William's grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and 4th earl of
+Lindsay (1702-1749), won a high reputation as a soldier. He held a
+command in the Russian army, seeing service against the Turk, and he
+also served against the same foe under Prince Eugene. Having returned to
+the English army he led the life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished
+himself at Fontenoy; later he served against France in the Netherlands.
+He left no sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George
+Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a descendant of
+the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and 5th earl of Lindsay.
+When George's son, George, the 22nd earl (1758-1808), died unmarried in
+January 1808, the earldoms of Crawford and Lindsay were separated,
+George's kinsman, David Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord
+Lindsay of the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his
+successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the House of
+Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune, Bart. (1827-1894), also a
+descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, was entitled to the
+earldom. In 1894 John's cousin, David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became
+11th earl of Lindsay.
+
+The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when this separation
+took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords adjudged it to James
+Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres.
+
+The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord Menmuir
+(1552-1598), a younger son of David Lindsay, 9th earl of Crawford. John,
+who bought the estate of Balcarres in Fifeshire, became a lord of
+session as Lord Menmuir in 1581; he was a member of the Scottish privy
+council and one of the commissioners of the treasury called the
+Octavians. He had great influence with James VI., helping the king to
+restore episcopacy after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy
+seal and a secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual
+attainments, left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the family
+estates on his brother's death in 1601. David (c. 1586-1641), a notable
+alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres in 1633, and in 1651
+his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres.
+
+Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the "Rupert of the
+Covenant," fought against Charles I. at Marston Moor, at Alford and at
+Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists, signing the "engagement" for
+the release of the king in 1647, and having been created earl of
+Balcarres took part in Glencairn's rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks
+very highly of the earl, who died at Breda in August 1659. His son
+Charles (d. 1662) became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin
+(c. 1654-1722), became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most trusted
+of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable _Memoirs touching the
+Revolution in Scotland, 1688-1690_; these were first published in 1714,
+and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the 25th earl of Crawford in
+1841. Having been allowed to return to Scotland after an exile in
+France, the earl joined the Jacobite rising in 1715. His successor was
+his son Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another
+son, James, the 5th earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at
+Sheriffmuir. Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army,
+serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some _Memoirs of
+the Lindsays_, which were completed by his son Alexander, the 6th earl
+(1752-1825). Alexander was with the English troops in America during the
+struggle for independence, and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to
+1801, filling a difficult position with great credit to himself. He
+became a general in 1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he
+had received through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the
+27th of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford,
+although he became earl _de jure_ in 1808, but in 1843 his son James
+Lindsay (1783-1869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by the
+House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl of Crawford and 7th earl of
+Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the United Kingdom as
+Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall.
+
+His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of Crawford
+(1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland, on the 16th of
+October 1812, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. He travelled much in
+Europe and the East, and was most learned in genealogy and history. His
+more important works include _Lives of the Lindsays_ (3 vols., 1849),
+_Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land_ (1838), _Sketches of the
+History of Christian Art_ (1847 and 1882), _Etruscan Inscriptions
+Analysed_ (1872), and _The Earldom of Mar during 500 years_ (1882). He
+succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence on the
+13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered that the family
+vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the body stolen. It was not
+until the 18th of July 1882 that the police, acting on the confession of
+an eye-witness of the desecration, found the remains, which were then
+reinterred at Haigh Hall, Wigan.
+
+His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford (1847-   ),
+British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye,
+France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated at Eton and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, he devoted himself to astronomy, in which he early achieved
+distinction. In 1870 he went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun,
+and, in 1874, to Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. In the
+interval, with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory
+at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented, together with his
+unique library of astronomical and mathematical works, to the New Royal
+Observatory on Blackford Hill, Edinburgh, where they were installed in
+1895. His services to science were recognized by his election to the
+presidentship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in
+succession to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal
+Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh
+University in 1882, and in the following year was nominated honorary
+associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. An enthusiastic
+bibliophile, he became a trustee of the British Museum, and acted for a
+term as president of the Library Association. To the free library of
+Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a series of oriental and English MSS. of the
+9th to the 19th centuries in illustration of the progress of
+handwriting, while for the use of specialists and students he issued the
+invaluable _Bibliotheca Lindesiana_. He represented Wigan in the House
+of Commons from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880.
+
+Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir Alexander
+Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in 1590, being a younger
+son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd Lord Spynie was Alexander's
+son, Alexander (d. 1646), who served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus
+and assisted Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd
+lord was the latter's son, George. When George, a royalist who was taken
+prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 1671 this title became
+extinct.
+
+The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of the 5th earl
+of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in the Graham family,
+was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of Crawford, but in 1853 the House
+of Lords gave judgment against the earl.
+
+The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several prelates.
+John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow; Alexander Lindsay (d.
+1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay
+(d. c. 1641) was bishop of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too,
+was deposed in 1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay
+(1566-1644), bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow
+from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay prelates was
+David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the 9th earl of Crawford.
+David, who married James VI. to Anne of Denmark at Upsala, was one of
+the leaders of the Kirk party; he became bishop of Ross under the new
+scheme for establishing episcopacy in 1600.
+
+  See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), _Lives of the Lindsays_
+  (1849); A. Jervise, _History and Traditions of the Land of the
+  Lindsays_ (1882); G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); H.
+  T. Folkard, _A Lindsay Record_ (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul's edition of
+  the _Scots Peerage_ of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909), American author, was born at Bagni
+di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August 1854, being the son of the
+American sculptor Thomas Crawford (q.v.), and the nephew of Julia Ward
+Howe, the American poet. He studied successively at St Paul's school,
+Concord, New Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome. In
+1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited the
+Allahabad _Indian Herald_. Returning to America he continued to study
+Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year, contributed to various
+periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first novel, _Mr Isaacs_, a
+brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life mingled with a touch of
+Oriental mystery. This book had an immediate success, and its author's
+promise was confirmed by the publication of _Dr Claudius_ (1883). After
+a brief residence in New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy,
+where he made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact
+that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford's books stand apart
+from any distinctively American current in literature. Year by year he
+published a number of successful novels: _A Roman Singer_ (1884), _An
+American Politician_ (1884), _To Leeward_ (1884), _Zoroaster_ (1885), _A
+Tale of a Lonely Parish_ (1886), _Marzio's Crucifix_ (1887),
+_Saracinesca_ (1887), _Paul Patoff_ (1887), _With the Immortals_ (1888),
+_Greifenstein_ (1889), _Sant' Ilario_ (1889), _A Cigarette-maker's
+Romance_ (1890), _Khaled_ (1891), _The Witch of Prague_ (1891), _The
+Three Fates_ (1892), _The Children of the King_ (1892), _Don Orsino_
+(1892), _Marion Darche_ (1893), _Pietro Ghisleri_ (1893), _Katharine
+Lauderdale_ (1894), _Love in Idleness_ (1894), _The Ralstons_, (1894),
+_Casa Braccio_ (1895), _Adam Johnston's Son_ (1895), _Taquisara_ (1896),
+_A Rose of Yesterday_ (1897), _Corleone_ (1897), _Via Crucis_ (1899),
+_In the Palace of the King_ (1900), _Marietta_ (1901), _Cecilia_ (1902),
+_Whosoever Shall Offend_ (1904), _Soprano_ (1905), _A Lady of Rome_
+(1906). He also published the historical works, _Ave Roma Immortalis_
+(1898), _Rulers of the South_ (1900)--renamed _Sicily, Calabria and
+Malta_ in 1904,--and _Gleanings from Venetian History_ (1905). In these
+his intimate knowledge of local Italian history combines with the
+romancist's imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in
+contemporary literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted narrator,
+and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and dramatic
+characterization, became widely popular among readers to whom the
+realism of "problems" or the eccentricities of subjective analysis were
+repellent, for he could unfold a romantic story in an attractive way,
+setting his plot amid picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the
+reader's intelligence by a style at once straightforward and
+accomplished. The _Saracinesca_ series shows him perhaps at his best. _A
+Cigarette-maker's Romance_ was dramatized, and had considerable
+popularity on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an
+original play from his pen, _Francesco da Rimini_, was produced in Paris
+by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of April 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814-1857), American sculptor, was born of Irish
+parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814. He showed at an early age
+great taste for art, and learnt to draw and to carve in wood. In his
+nineteenth year he entered the studio of a firm of monumental sculptors
+in his native city; and in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became
+a pupil of Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known as
+a man of genius was his group of "Orpheus entering Hades in Search of
+Eurydice," executed in 1839. This was followed by other poetical
+sculptures, among which were the "Babes in the Wood," "Flora," "Hebe and
+Ganymede," "Sappho," "Vesta," the "Dancers," and the "Hunter." Among his
+statues and busts are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy,
+executed for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the
+equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the statue of
+Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing and Henry Clay,
+and the colossal figure of "Armed Liberty" for the Capitol at
+Washington. For this building he executed also the figures for the
+pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the bronze doors, which were
+afterwards completed by W. H. Rinehart. The groups of the pediment
+symbolize the progress of civilization in America. Crawford's works
+include a large number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from
+both the Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he
+visited several times his native land--first in 1844 (in which year he
+married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He died in
+London on the 10th of October 1857.
+
+  See _Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner_, to
+  which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, including
+  that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868); Thomas Hicks, _Eulogy
+  on Thomas Crawford_ (New York, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772-1834), American statesman, was born in
+Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of February 1772. When he was
+seven his parents moved into Edgefield district, South Carolina, and
+four years later into Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father
+in 1788 left the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what
+he could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at Carmel
+Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one of the largest
+schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the bar. From 1800 to
+1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a digest of the laws of Georgia
+from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to 1807 he was a member of the State House
+of Representatives, becoming during this period the leader of one of two
+personal-political factions in the state that long continued in bitter
+strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he killed
+his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist. From 1807 to
+1813 he was a member of the United States Senate, of which he was
+president _pro tempore_ from March 1812 to March 1813. In 1813 he
+declined the offer of the post of secretary of war, but from that year
+until 1815 was minister to the court of France. He was then secretary of
+war in 1815-1816, and secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In
+1816 in the congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the
+presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a majority being at
+first in his favour, but when the vote was finally cast 65 were for
+Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824, when the congressional caucus was
+fast becoming extinct, Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted
+that it should be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of
+these, 64 voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew
+Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise put in the
+field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken with paralysis, and
+when the electoral vote was cast Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford
+41, and Clay 37. It remained for the house of representatives to choose
+from Jackson, Adams and Crawford, and through Clay's influence Adams
+became president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as secretary
+of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health sufficiently to
+become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state, but died while on
+circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of September 1834. In his day
+he was undoubtedly one of the foremost political leaders of the country,
+but his reputation has not stood the test of time. He was of imposing
+presence and had great conversational powers; but his inflexible
+integrity was not sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of
+his winning general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful
+political organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of
+his time--Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of Albert
+Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the movement in 1811 to
+recharter the Bank of the United States; he earned the condemnation of
+posterity by his authorship in 1820 of the four-years-term law, which
+limited the term of service of thousands of public officials to four
+years, and did much to develop the "spoils system." He was a Liberal
+Democrat, and advised the calling of a constitutional convention as
+preferable to nullification or secession.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county,
+Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890)
+6089; (1900) 6649, including 230 negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910)
+9371. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the
+Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Vandalia railways,
+and by interurban electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832
+by Presbyterian missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27
+instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes. Among
+manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages, acetylene lights,
+wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and electrical machinery.
+North-east of the city there are valuable mineral springs, from which
+the city obtains its water-supply. Crawfordsville, named in honour of W.
+H. Crawford, was first settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in
+1823, and was chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the
+home of Gen. Lew Wallace.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFURD, JOHN (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was born in the island
+of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783. After studying at
+Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India Company's service. He
+afterwards resided for some time at Penang, and during the British
+occupation of Java from 1811 to 1817 his local knowledge made him
+invaluable to the government. In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and
+Cochin-China, and in 1823 became governor of Singapore. His last
+political service in the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827.
+In 1861 he was elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at
+South Kensington on the 11th of May 1868.
+
+  Crawfurd wrote a _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (1820),
+  _Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_
+  (1856), _Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827_ (1829),
+  _Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China,
+  exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms_ (1830),
+  _Inquiry into the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior
+  of India_, an attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper
+  entitled _Taxes on Knowledge_ (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and
+  dictionary (1852).
+
+
+
+
+CRAYER, GASPARD DE (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp,
+and learnt the art of painting from Raphael Coxcie. He matriculated in
+the guild of St Luke at Brussels in 1607, resided in the capital of
+Brabant till after 1660, and finally settled at Ghent. Amongst the
+numerous pictures which he painted in Ghent, one in the town museum
+represents the martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A° 1668
+aet. 86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most
+conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to Rubens in
+vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly equalling both in
+most of the essentials of painting. He was well known and always well
+treated by Albert and Isabella, governors of the Netherlands. The
+cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a court-painter. His pictures abound
+in the churches and museums of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely
+a country chapel in Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more
+of his canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native country;
+and some important pictures of his composition are to be found as far
+south as Aix in Provence and as far east as Amberg in the Upper
+Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist is shown in the panels
+executed for a triumphal arch at the entry of Cardinal Ferdinand into
+the Flemish capital, some of which are publicly exhibited in the museum
+of Ghent. Crayer died at Ghent. His best works are the "Miraculous
+Draught of Fishes" in the gallery of Brussels, the "Judgment of Solomon"
+in the gallery of Ghent, and "Madonnas with Saints" in the Louvre, the
+Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His portrait by Vandyck
+was engraved by P. Pontius.
+
+
+
+
+CRAYFISH (Fr. _écrevisse_), the name of freshwater crustaceans closely
+allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them, belonging to the
+order Macrura. They are divided into two families, the _Astacidae_ and
+_Parastacidae_, inhabiting respectively the northern and the southern
+hemispheres.
+
+The crayfishes of England and Ireland (_Astacus_, or _Potamobius_,
+_pallipes_) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or
+brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They are
+abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a calcareous
+nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which they dig for
+themselves in the banks and coming out at night in search of food. They
+are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating insects, snails, frogs and
+other animals, and devouring any carrion that comes in their way. It is
+stated that they sometimes come on land in search of vegetable food.
+
+[Illustration: Crayfish (_Cambarus_ sp.) from the Mississippi River.
+(After Morse.)]
+
+On the continent of Europe, _Astacus pallipes_ occurs chiefly in the
+west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan
+Peninsula. It is known in France as _écrevisse à pattes blanches_ and in
+Germany as _Steinkrebs_, and is little used as food. The larger _Astacus
+fluviatilis_ (_écrevisse à pattes rouges_, _Edelkrebs_) is not found in
+Britain, but occurs in France and Germany, southern Sweden, Russia, &c.
+It is distinguished, among other characters, by the red colour of the
+under side of the large claws. It is the species most highly esteemed
+for the table. Other species of the genus are found in central and
+eastern Europe and as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs
+in the distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the
+Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending into
+northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky Mountains, the genus
+_Astacus_ again appears, but east of the watershed it is replaced by the
+genus _Cambarus_, which is represented by very numerous species, ranging
+from the Great Lakes to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the
+subterranean waters of caves. The best known is _Cambarus pellucidus_,
+found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
+
+The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or
+_Parastacidae_ is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of the
+northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come into contact
+or overlap in Central America. None is found in any part of Africa,
+though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are absent also from the
+oriental region of zoologists, but reappear in Australia and New
+Zealand. Some of the Australian species, such as the "Murray River
+lobster" (_Astacopsis spinifer_), are of large size and are used for
+food. In South America crayfishes are found in southern Brazil,
+Argentina and Chile.     (W. T. CA.)
+
+
+
+
+CRAYON (Fr. _craie_, chalk, from Lat. _creta_), a coloured material for
+drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but sometimes also
+as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and stony friable
+substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a base of pipe or
+china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion, umber and other
+pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and compounds of magnesium, bismuth and
+lead are occasionally used as bases. The required shades of tints are
+obtained by adding varying amounts of colouring matter to equal
+quantities of the base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings
+of colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and
+rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in
+crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger, with the
+assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is produced by
+cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in crayon or pastel is
+supposed to have originated in Germany in the 17th century. By Johann
+Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was carried to great perfection, and in
+France it was early practised with much success. Amongst the earlier
+pastellists may be mentioned Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), W. Hoare
+(1707-1792), F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in
+recent years the art has been successfully revived. (See PASTEL.)
+
+
+
+
+CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878), English historian, was born at
+Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He
+became a fellow of King's College in 1834, and having been called to the
+bar at Lincoln's Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the
+Westminster sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of modern
+and ancient history in the university of London, and in 1860 became
+chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down in health he returned
+to England in 1870, and after a further but short stay in Ceylon died in
+London on the 27th of January 1878. Creasy's most popular work is his
+_Fifteen decisive Battles of the World_, which, first published in 1851,
+has passed through many editions. He also wrote _The History of the
+Ottoman Turks_ (London, 1854-1856); _History of England_ (London,
+1869-1870); _Rise and Progress of the English Constitution_ (London,
+1853, and other editions); _Historical and Critical Account of the
+several Invasions of England_ (London, 1852); a novel entitled _Old Love
+and the New_ (London, 1870); and various other works.
+
+
+
+
+CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM. Traducianism is the doctrine about the
+origin of the soul which was taught by Tertullian in his _De
+anima_--that souls are generated from souls in the same way and at the
+same time as bodies from bodies: creatianism is the doctrine that God
+creates a soul for each body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted
+the upholders of original sin with holding Tertullian's opinion, and
+called them Traduciani (from _tradux_: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name
+which was perhaps suggested by a metaphor in _De an._ 19, where the soul
+is described "velut surculus quidam ex matrice Adam in propaginem
+deducta." Hence we have formed "traducianist," "traducianism," and by
+analogy "creatianist," "creatianism." Augustine denied that traducianism
+was necessarily connected with the doctrine of original sin, and to the
+end of his life was unable to decide for or against it. His letter to
+Jerome (_Epist. Clas._ iii. 166) is a most valuable statement of his
+difficulties. Jerome condemned it, and said that creatianism was the
+opinion of the Church, though he admitted that most of the Western
+Christians held traducianism. The question has never been
+authoritatively determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed
+in the East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians, and
+Peter Lombard's _creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo creat_ was
+an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was undecided, but
+Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists. Calvin favoured
+creatianism.
+
+  Peter Lombard's phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it was felt
+  that some union of the two opinions was needed, and Augustine's
+  toleration pointed in the same direction, for the traducianism he
+  thought possible was one in which God _operatur institutas
+  administrando non novas instituendo naturas_ (_Ep._ 166. 5. 11).
+  Modern psychologists teach that while "personality" can be discerned
+  in its "becoming," nothing is known of its origin. Lotze, however, who
+  may be taken as representing the believers in the immanence of the
+  divine Being, puts forth--but as a "dim conjecture"--something very
+  like creatianism (_Microcosmus_, bk. iii. chap. v. ad fin.). It is
+  still, as in the days of Augustine, a question whether a more exact
+  division of man into body, soul _and spirit_ may help to throw light
+  on this subject.
+
+  See indices to _Augustine_, vol. xi., and _Jerome_, vol. xi. in
+  Migne's _Patrologia_, s.v. "Anima"; Franz Delitzsch, _Biblical
+  Psychology_, ii. § 7; G. P. Fisher, _History of Chr. Doct._ pp. 187
+  ff.; A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (passim; see Index); Liddon,
+  _Elements of Religion_, Lect. iii.; Mason, _Faith of the Gospel_, iv.
+  §§ 3, 4, 9, 10.     (A. N.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRÉBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE (1674-1762), French tragic poet, was born
+on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon, where his father, Melchior Jolyot,
+was notary-royal. Having been educated at the Jesuits' school of the
+town, and at the Collège Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed
+in the office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encouragement
+of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron's, he produced a _Mort
+des enfants de Brutus_, which, however, he failed to bring upon the
+stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with _Idoménée_; in 1707 his _Atrée et
+Thyeste_ was repeatedly acted at court; _Électre_ appeared in 1709; and
+in 1711 he produced his finest play, the _Rhadamiste et Zénobie_, which
+is his masterpiece and held the stage for a long period, although the
+plot is so complicated as to be almost incomprehensible. But his
+_Xerxes_ (1714) was only once played, and his _Sémiramis_ (1717) was an
+absolute failure. In 1707 Crébillon had married a girl without fortune,
+who had since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had
+died, insolvent. His three years' attendance at court had been
+fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him.
+Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he surrounded
+himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens, which he had befriended;
+he became utterly careless of cleanliness or food, and solaced himself
+with constant smoking. But in 1731, in spite of his long seclusion, he
+was elected member of the French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal
+censor; and in 1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of
+1000 francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage in
+1726 with a successful play, _Pyrrhus_; in 1748 his _Catilina_ was
+played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he was
+eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, _Le Triumvirat_. Crébillon
+died on the 17th of June 1754. The enemies of Voltaire maintained that
+Crébillon was his superior as a tragic poet. The spirit of rivalry thus
+provoked induced Voltaire to take the subjects of no less than five of
+Crébillon's tragedies--_Sémiramis_, _Électre_, _Catilina_, _Le
+Triumvirat_, _Atrée_--as subjects for tragedies of his own. The
+so-called _Éloge de Crébillon_ (1762), really a depreciation, which
+appeared in the year of the poet's death, is generally attributed to
+Voltaire, though he strenuously denied the authorship. Crébillon's drama
+is marked by a force too often gained at the expense of scenes of
+unnatural horror; his pieces show lack of culture and a want of care
+which displays itself even in the mechanism of his verse, though fine
+isolated passages are not infrequent.
+
+  There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be noticed:
+  _OEuvres_ (1772), with preface and "éloge," by Joseph de la Porte;
+  _OEuvres_ (1828), containing D'Alembert's _Éloge de Crébillon_ (1775);
+  and _Théâtre complet_ (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu. A complete
+  bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his _Étude sur la vie et
+  le théâtre de Crébillon_ (1895).
+
+His only son, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT CRÉBILLON (1707-1777), French
+novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February 1707. His life was
+spent almost entirely in Paris, but the publication of _L'Écumoire, ou
+Tanzaï et Neadarné, histoire japonaise_ (1734), which contained veiled
+attacks on the bull _Unigenitus_, the cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse
+du Maine, brought Crébillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and
+afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and elsewhere.
+With Alexis Piron and Charles Collé he founded in 1752 the gay society
+which met regularly to dine at the famous "Caveau," where many good
+stories were elaborated. From 1759 onwards he was to be found at the
+Wednesday dinners of the Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes
+were sometimes guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble
+family, Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from
+1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection and
+mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than that
+between Crébillon's private life and the tone of his novels, the
+immorality of which lent irony to the author's tenure of the office of
+censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of Mme de Pompadour.
+He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777. The most famous of his
+numerous novels are: _Les Amours de Zéokinizul, roi des Kofirans_
+(1740), in which "Zéokinizul" and "Kofirans" may be translated Louis
+XIV. and the French respectively; and _Le Sopha, conte moral_ (1740),
+where the moral is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given
+by some authorities as the reason for his imprisonment.
+
+  His _OEuvres_ were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of
+  Crébillon prefixed to O. Uzanne's edition of his _Contes dialogués_ in
+  the series of _Conteurs du XVIII^e siècle_. Crébillon's novels might
+  be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two
+  writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this
+  particular. André Robert de Nerciat (1739-1800) produced under a false
+  name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by Donatien,
+  marquis de Sade.
+
+
+
+
+CRÈCHE (Fr. for a "crib" or cradle), the name given to a day-nursery, a
+public institution for the feeding and care of infants while the mothers
+are engaged in work outside their homes, or are otherwise prevented from
+giving them proper attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a
+month old, and are kept till they are capable of looking after
+themselves. The advantages of such institutions are that the attention
+of skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is
+better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their homes,
+the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of discipline and
+cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases, react on the mothers.
+The nurseries are usually under medical supervision, and the small fees
+charged, which average in London from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the
+continent of Europe about 2d., are much less than the cost to the mother
+who places her young children under the care of neighbours when at work
+or away from home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in
+1844, and have been established in the majority of the large towns on
+the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and Germany
+they have helped to check infantile mortality. The state or municipality
+in nearly every case grants subsidies, but few are maintained entirely
+by public authorities; voluntary contributions are depended upon for the
+main support, and the organization and management are left in the hands
+of private societies and charitable institutions, although some outside
+official supervision with regard to the number of infants admitted to
+each institution, air-space, and ventilation and general hygienic
+conditions is considered useful. In Great Britain the establishment of
+such institutions has been left almost entirely to private initiative;
+and in comparison with the continent the provision is inadequate and
+unsatisfactory, Paris having nearly double the proportion of
+accommodation for infants to the population that is provided in London.
+The National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the
+purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of good
+methods of founding and managing a crèche.
+
+  See the _Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School
+  Attendance of Children below the Age of Five_, issued by the Board of
+  Education (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRÉCY (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department of Somme,
+on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road. It is famous in
+history for the great victory gained here on the 26th of August 1346 by
+the English under Edward III. over the French of King Philip of Valois.
+After its campaign in northern France, the English army retired into
+Ponthieu, and encamped on the 25th of August at Crécy, the French king
+in the meantime marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th
+Edward's army took up its position for battle, and Philip's, hearing of
+this, moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much
+disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle. The
+English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their right in
+front of the village of Crécy, their left resting on Wadicourt. Two of
+the three divisions or "battles" were in first line, that of the young
+prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the right, that of the earls of
+Northampton and Arundel on the left; the third, under the king's own
+command, in reserve, and the baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle
+consisted of a centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two
+wings of archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English
+archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the
+second gives a different estimate). The French were far stronger, having
+at least 12,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen (Genoese),
+perhaps 20,000 of the _milice des communes_, besides a certain number of
+foot of the feudal levy. Along with these served a Luxemburg contingent
+of horse under John, king of Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy
+Roman Empire, and the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong.
+
+[Illustration: CRECY (Map of the Battle)]
+
+The day was far advanced when the French came upon the English position.
+Philip, near Estrées, decided to halt and bivouac, deferring the battle
+until the army was better closed up, but the indiscipline of his army
+committed him to an immediate action, and he ordered forward the Genoese
+crossbowmen, while a line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind
+them; the rest of the army was still marching in an irregular column of
+route along the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a
+short delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle.
+Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English long-bow
+proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbowmen, completely
+outmatched, were driven back with enormous loss. Thereupon the first
+line of French knights behind them charged down upon the "faint-hearted
+rabble" of their own fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the
+French were a mere mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The
+archers did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly
+into the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was made by
+another large body of knights which had arrived, and served but to
+increase the number of the casualties, though here and there a few
+charged up to the English line and fell near it, among them the blind
+king of Bohemia, who with a party of devoted knights penetrated, and was
+killed amongst, the ranks of the prince of Wales's men-at-arms. The
+battle was now one long series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a
+fresh onslaught being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the
+scene. The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles
+had been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held back, so
+that the whole line resembled a "herse" or harrow with three points
+formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive body of the French
+sought to come to close quarters with the men-at-arms, and exposed
+themselves therefore at short range to the arrows on either flank. Under
+these circumstances there could be but one issue of the battle. Though
+sixteen distinct attacks were made, and the fighting lasted until long
+after dark, no impression was made on the English line. At one moment
+the prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for
+aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere handful of
+knights to the prince's battle, saying, "Let the boy win his spurs." The
+left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat to the rear, moved up into
+line with the prince, and the French attack slackened. By midnight the
+army of France was practically annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood
+were left dead on the field and counted by Edward's heralds, the losses
+of the remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the
+battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen king of
+Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes of Wales lacks
+foundation (see JOHN, KING OF BOHEMIA). A memorial to the French and
+their allies was erected, by public subscription in France, Luxemburg
+and Bohemia, in 1905.
+
+  See H. B. George, _Battles of English History_ (London, 1895), and C.
+  W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages_ (London,
+  1898).
+
+
+
+
+CREDENCE, or CREDENCE TABLE, a small side-table, originally an article
+of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble houses, at
+which the ceremony of the _praegustatio_, Italian _credenziare_, the
+"assay" or tasting of food and drink for poisons was performed by an
+official of the household, the _praegustator_ or _credentiarius_ as he
+was called in Medieval Latin. Both the ceremony and the table were known
+as _credentia_ (Lat. _credere_, to believe, trust), Ital. _credenza_,
+Fr. _crédence_. After the need for the ceremony had disappeared the name
+still survived, and the table developed a back and several shelves for
+the display of plate, and gradually merged into the buffet (q.v.). It
+is, however, as an article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence
+table is most familiar. It takes the form of a small table of wood or
+stone, sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the
+piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the altar,
+and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the cruets
+containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks to be
+carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the ceremony of
+the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier the name of
+_paratorium_ or _oblationarium_ was given, appears to have come into use
+when the personal presentation of the oblations at the Mass became
+obsolete. When the pope celebrates Mass a special credence table on the
+Gospel side of the altar is used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison
+in the unconsecrated elements is still observed. In some churches in
+England the old credence tables still exist, as at the church of St
+Cross near Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example;
+more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina. There
+are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being with a
+semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a lower shelf.
+The formal use of the credence table for the unconsecrated elements and
+the holy vessels before the celebration has been revived in the English
+Church.
+
+
+
+
+CREDENTIALS (_lettres de créance_), a document which ambassadors,
+ministers plenipotentiary, and chargés d'affaires hand to the government
+to which they are accredited, for the purpose, chiefly, of communicating
+to the latter the envoy's diplomatic rank. It also contains a request
+that full credence be accorded to his official statements. Until his
+credentials have been presented and found in proper order, an envoy
+receives no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or
+minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those of
+a chargé d'affaires by the foreign minister.
+
+
+
+
+CREDI, LORENZO DI (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose surname was
+Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least gifted of three artists
+who began life as journeymen with Andrea del Verrocchio. Though he was
+the companion and friend of Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely
+allied in style to both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the
+facility of the other. We admire in Da Vinci's heads a heavenly
+contentment and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and
+smoothness of finish. Credi's faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his
+pigments have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his
+creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities which
+hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-known form of
+tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of the old Umbrian school.
+Peculiarities of movement and attitude become stereotyped in his
+compositions; but when put on his mettle, he could still exhibit power,
+passion, pathos. Credi often repeated himself in Perugino's way; but
+being of a pious and resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his
+pictures a feeling which is yielding and gentle to the verge of
+coldness. Credi had a respectable local practice at Florence. He was
+consulted on most occasions when the opinion of his profession was
+required on public grounds, e.g. in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498
+as to the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place
+due to Michelangelo's "David." He never painted frescoes; at rare
+intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The greater
+part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he expended
+minute and patient labour. But he worked with such industry that numbers
+of his Madonnas exist in European galleries. The best of his
+altar-pieces is that which represents the Virgin and Child with Saints
+in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine example of his easel rounds is in
+the gallery of Mainz. Credi rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment
+to Savonarola; but he felt no inclination for the retirement of a
+monastery. Still, in his old age, and after he had outlived the perils
+of the siege of Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the
+hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery,
+London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him.
+
+
+
+
+CREDIT (Lat. _credere_, to believe), in a general sense, belief or
+trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person has,
+or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense credit is
+the promise to pay at a future time for valuable consideration in the
+present: hence, a reputation of solvency and ability to make such
+payments is also termed credit. In bookkeeping credit is the side of the
+account on which payments are entered; hence, sometimes, the payments
+themselves.
+
+  The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of wealth
+  is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference may be
+  made to K. Knies, _Geld und Kredit_ (1873-1879), and H. D. Macleod,
+  _Theory of Credit_ (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers, _The Meaning
+  of Money_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+CRÉDIT FONCIER, in France, an institution for advancing money on
+mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to the initiative of
+the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by virtue of a governmental
+decree of the 28th of February 1852. This decree empowered the issue of
+loans at a low rate of interest, secured by mortgage bonds, extending
+over a long period, and repayable by annuities, including instalments of
+capital. On its inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took
+the title of Banque Foncière de Paris. The parent institution in Paris
+was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles. These two
+were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the title of Crédit
+Foncier de France. The capital was increased to 60,000,000 francs, the
+government giving a subvention of 10,000,000 francs, and exercising
+control over the bank by directly appointing the governor and two
+deputy-governors. The administration was vested in a council chosen by
+the shareholders, but its decisions have no validity without the
+approval of the governor. The Crédit Foncier has the right to issue
+bonds, repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of
+interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The loans must not
+exceed half the estimated value of the property mortgaged, upon which
+the bank has the first mortgage. The bank also makes advances to local
+bodies, departmental and communal, for short or long periods, and with
+or without mortgage. Its capital amounts to £13,500,000. Its charter was
+renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years.
+
+In 1860 the Crédit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of an
+organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural and
+allied industries. This Crédit Agricole rendered but trifling services
+to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into speculation. Between
+1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to the Egyptian government,
+obtaining the money by opening credit with the Crédit Foncier and
+depositing with it the securities of the Egyptian government. On the
+failure of the Egyptian government to meet its payments the Crédit
+Agricole went into liquidation, and the Crédit Foncier suffered severely
+in consequence. The impracticability of the credit system to aid
+agriculture as worked by the Crédit Agricole was very marked, and, as a
+consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is now entirely
+in the hands of the Banque de France.
+
+The _Crédit Mobilier_ is an institution for advancing loans on personal
+or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the liquidation of the
+Société Générale de Crédit Mobilier, founded in 1852, which it absorbed.
+
+
+
+
+CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, a construction company whose operations in
+connexion with the building of the Union Pacific Railroad gave rise to
+the most serious political scandal in the history of the United States
+Congress. The company was originally chartered as the Pennsylvania
+Fiscal Agency in 1859. In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock
+was secured by Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific
+Railroad Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the
+adoption of the name Crédit Mobilier of America. Durant proposed to
+utilize it as a construction company, pay it an extravagant sum for the
+work, and thus secure for the stockholders of the Union Pacific, who now
+controlled the Crédit Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States
+government. The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage
+bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05, slightly
+more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction. According to
+the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee, the Crédit Mobilier
+received in addition, in the form of stock, income bonds, and land grant
+bonds, $23,000,000--a profit of about 48%. The defenders of the company
+assert that several items of expense were not included in this report,
+and that the real net profit was considerably smaller, although they
+admit that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the
+years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse
+legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames
+(q.v.), a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter of
+the Crédit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among congressmen
+and senators to influence their attitude. Shares were sold at par when a
+few dividends repaid a purchaser at this price. Some in fact received
+dividends without any initial outlay at all. As the result of a lawsuit
+between Ames and H. S. McComb, some private letters were brought out in
+September 1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House
+appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the Wilson
+committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames and James Brooks
+of New York were formally censured by the House, the former for
+disposing of the stock and the latter for improperly using his official
+position to secure part of it. Charges were also made against Schuyler
+Colfax, then vice-president but Speaker of the House at the time of the
+transaction, James A. Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A.
+Logan, and several other members either of the House or of the Senate.
+The Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the
+charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of February
+1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of James W. Patterson,
+of New Hampshire; but as his term expired within five days no action was
+taken. The evidence was exaggerated by the Democrats for partisan
+purposes, but the investigation showed clearly that many of those
+accused were at least indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself
+was merely a type of the construction companies by which it was the
+custom to build railways between 1860 and about 1880.
+
+  See J. B. Crawford, _The Crédit Mobilier of America_ (Boston, 1880),
+  and R. Hazard, _The Crédit Mobilier of America_ (Providence, 1881),
+  both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific
+  Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White
+  (Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James Ford
+  Rhodes, _History of the United States_, vol. vii. (New York, 1906).
+  The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in _House of
+  Representatives Reports_, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78,
+  and the report of the Senate Committee in _Senate Reports_, 42nd
+  Congress, 3rd session, No. 519.
+
+
+
+
+CREDITON, a market town in the South Molton parliamentary division of
+Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter by the London & South-Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3974. It is situated in the
+narrow vale of the river Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between
+two steep hills, and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and
+the west or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is
+a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other early
+portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school, founded by
+Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has exhibitions to Oxford and
+Cambridge universities. Shoe-making, tanning, agricultural trade,
+tin-plating, and the manufacture of confectionery and cider have
+superseded the former large woollen and serge industries. In 1897
+Crediton was made the seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of
+Exeter.
+
+The first indication of settlement at Crediton (_Credington_,
+_Cryditon_, _Kirton_) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was
+born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent of the
+parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909 the seat of
+the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably only a village in
+1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested Leo IX. to transfer
+the see to Exeter, as Crediton was "an open town and much exposed to the
+incursions of pirates." At the Domesday Survey much of the land was
+still uncultivated, but its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of
+the twelve prebends of the collegiate church had a house and farmland
+within the parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the
+Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other rights;
+in 1351 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of judgments of
+1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam, view of frank pledge, the
+gallows and assize of bread and ale. Two years later there was a serious
+riot against the increase of copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that
+the prescriptive borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are
+mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to parliament in
+1306-1307, though never afterwards represented. A borough seal dated
+1469 is extant, but the corporation is not mentioned in the grant made
+by Edward VI. of the church to twelve principal inhabitants. The borough
+and manor were granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but
+there is no indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the
+18th century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the bishop
+obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow of St
+Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was established by 1249
+and certainly continued until 1630, when the market for kersies is
+mentioned in conjunction with a saying "as fine as Kirton spinning."
+
+
+  See Rev. Preb. Smith, "Early History of Credition," in _Devonshire
+  Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art,
+  Transactions_, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, "The
+  Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition," in _Exeter
+  Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions_, vol. iv. (Exeter,
+  1878).
+
+
+
+
+CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1809-1876), German geologist, was born
+at Waltershausen near Gotha, on the 13th of March 1809. He investigated
+the geology of the Thüringer Waldes, of which he published a map in
+1846. He was author of a work entitled _Über die Gliederung der oberen
+Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen Deutschland_
+(Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover (1865). He died at
+Halle on the 28th of September 1876.
+
+His son, CARL HERMANN CREDNER (1841-   ), was born at Gotha on the 1st
+of October 1841, educated at Breslau and Göttingen, and took the degree
+of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In 1870 he was appointed professor of
+geology in the university of Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the
+Geological Survey of Saxony. He is author of numerous publications on
+the geology of Saxony, and of an important work, _Elemente der Geologie_
+(2 vols., 1872; 7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in
+Germany. He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts.
+
+
+
+
+CREE, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They are
+still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and living chiefly in
+Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan river.
+They gave trouble by their constant attacks upon the Sioux and
+Blackfeet, but are now peaceable and orderly.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700), English classical scholar, was born at
+Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his early education from
+Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne school. In 1675 he entered Wadham
+College, Oxford, and obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls'. He was
+headmaster of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he
+received a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The
+immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty, though
+according to some it was a love disappointment; both of these
+circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe primarily due to
+an already pronounced melancholia. Creech's fame rests on his
+translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed heroic couplets, in which,
+according to Otway, the pure ore of the original "somewhat seems
+refined." He also published a version of Horace (1684), and translated
+the _Idylls of Theocritus_ (1684), the _Thirteenth Satire_ of Juvenal
+(1693), the _Astronomicon_ of Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch,
+Virgil and Ovid.
+
+
+
+
+CREEDS (Lat. _credo_, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH. We are
+accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, i.e. reasoned
+statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected with the
+history of Christianity. But the new study of comparative religion has
+something to teach us even here. The saying _lex orandi lex credendi_ is
+true of all times and of all peoples. And since we must reckon praise as
+the highest form of prayer, such an early Christian hymn as is found in
+1 Tim. iii. 16 must be acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: "He
+who was manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of
+angels, preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received
+up in glory." It justifies the expansion of the second article of the
+developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest Christian
+tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our survey of
+creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and beliefs. The pendulum
+has swung back. Rather than despise the faulty presentation of truth
+which we find in heathen religions and their more or less degraded
+rites, we follow the apostle Paul in his endeavour to trace in them
+attempts "to feel after God" (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great
+teacher of the West, was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians,
+when he wrote (_Ep._ 166): "Let every good and true Christian understand
+that truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to _his_ Lord."
+
+We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest forms of
+recorded religious consciousness such as animism, or totemism, or
+fetishism, were themselves degradations of a primitive revelation or
+not.[1] We are only concerned with the fact of experience that the human
+soul yearns to express its belief. The hymn to the rising and setting
+sun in the _Book of the Dead_ (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists
+to be the oldest poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn
+of history.
+
+  "Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent.... Glorious is
+   thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are
+   illumined by thy rays.... Hail to thee, Ra, when thou
+   returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty."
+
+In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as "the good god beloved, maker of
+men, creator of beasts, maker of things below and above, lord of mercy
+most loving." A similar note is struck in the Indian Vedas. In the more
+ethical religion of the Avesta the creator is more clearly distinguished
+from the creature: "I desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my
+praise, the lofty eternal, and the holy two."[2] The Persian poet is not
+far from the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered.
+
+The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the gradual
+purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews did not
+outgrow their religion, but their interest was always ethical and not
+speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists and the most fervent
+appeals of the prophets were progressively directed to the great end of
+praising and preaching the One true God, everlasting, with sincere and
+pure devotion. The creed of the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the
+well-remembered words, which have been ever on his lips, living or
+dying: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord" (Deut. vi. 4).
+
+The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course is the
+strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to the fluid
+character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the chaos of
+conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks and Romans. As Dr
+J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely: "The physical speculations of
+the Ionians and Atomists rendered a God superfluous, and the
+metaphysical and logical reasoning of the Eleatics declared Him to be
+unknowable."[3] Plato regarding the world as an embodiment of eternal,
+archetypal ideas, which he groups under the central idea of Good,
+identified with the divine reason, at the same time uses the ordinary
+language of the day, and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way
+towards the conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth
+again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not "a
+clear conception of human personality." They were followed by an age of
+philosophizing which did little to advance speculation. The Stoics, for
+example, were more successful in criticizing the current creed than in
+explaining the underlying truth which they recognized in polytheism. The
+final goal of Greek philosophy was only reached when the great thinkers
+of the early Christian Church, who had been trained in the schools of
+Alexandria and Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of
+the Christian idea of God. "In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity
+was the synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew
+and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric touch
+of the Incarnation."[4]
+
+Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough has been
+said to introduce the direct study of the ancient creeds of Christendom.
+
+I. THE ANCIENT CREEDS OF CHRISTENDOM.--The three creeds which may be
+called oecumenical, although the measure of their acceptance by the
+universal church has not been uniform, represent three distinct types
+provided for the use of the catechumen, the communicant, and the church
+teacher respectively. The Apostles' Creed is the ancient baptismal
+creed, held in common both by East and West, in its final western form.
+The Nicene Creed is the baptismal creed of an eastern church enlarged in
+order to combine theological interpretation with the facts of the
+historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the undivided Church has
+been continued since the great schism, although the Eastern Church
+protests against the interpolation of the words "And the Son" in clause
+9. The Athanasian Creed is an instruction designed to confute heresies
+which were current in the 5th century.
+
+
+  Apostles' Creed.
+
+1. _The Apostles' Creed._--The increased interest which has been shown
+in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the 19th
+century is due in a great measure to the work of the veteran pioneer,
+Professor P. Caspari of Christiania, who began the herculean task of
+classifying the enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered
+from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England we owe much
+to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In Germany the monumental
+work of Professor Kattenbusch has overshadowed all other books on the
+subject, providing even his most ardent critics with an indispensable
+record of the literature of the subject.
+
+The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal creed in
+the New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as the Lord, _or_
+the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the apostles were
+agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17) which included the
+doctrine of God, the person and work of Christ, and the person and work
+of the Holy Spirit, it does not appear that they provided any summary,
+which would cover this ground, as an authoritative statement of their
+belief. The tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the
+germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 ff.), and no
+doubt included also teaching on conduct, "the way of a Christian life"
+(1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its forms lies behind
+worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and behind ethics, to which
+it supplies a motive power which the pre-Christian system so manifestly
+lacked. Whether the first creed of the primitive Church was of the
+simple Christological character which confession of Jesus as the Lord
+expresses, or of an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt.
+xxviii. 19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which
+overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which strove for
+utterance. "With the heart man believeth unto righteousness, and with
+the mouth confession is made unto salvation" (Rom. x. 10).
+
+When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession before
+many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than confession of Christ
+as king. He calls it "the beautiful confession" to which Christ Jesus
+had borne witness before Pontius Pilate, and charges Timothy before God,
+who quickeneth all things, to keep this commandment. Some writers,
+notably Professor Zahn,[5] piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13,
+ii. 8, iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles' Creed of Antioch,
+the city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But
+there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a reference
+to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which would prove the
+apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imaginable as the parent of
+the later Eastern and Western forms. The eunuch's creed interpolated in
+Acts viii. 57, "I believe that Jesus is the Son of God," since the
+reading was known to Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal
+confession used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the
+type of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence of
+the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14).
+
+From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of
+creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early hymns (1
+Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv. 1 ff.). The
+following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St Paul is an
+artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching, which naturally
+reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no attestation in the
+later creeds of particular churches which would prove its claim to be
+their parent form:
+
+  "The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ, born
+  of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the
+  scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according
+  to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the
+  right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power
+  being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven
+  with power and great glory."
+
+The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement (_Cor._
+lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula (Matt.
+xxviii. 19). Polycarp (_Ep._ 7) echoes St John. But Ignatius might seem
+to offer in the following passage some confirmation of Zahn's theory of
+a primitive creed of Antioch (_Trall._ 9): "Be ye deaf, therefore, when
+any man speaketh to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of
+David, who was the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank,
+was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and died
+in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those under the
+earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead, His Father having
+raised Him, who in the like fashion will so raise us also who believe on
+Him--His Father, I say, will raise us--in Christ Jesus, apart from whom
+we have not true life."
+
+The differences, however, which divide this from the later creed forms
+are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement, and the evidence of
+the Ignatian epistles generally (_Eph_. xviii.; _Smyrn._ i.), while it
+confirms the conclusion that instruction was given in Antioch on all
+points characteristic of the developed creed, e.g. the Miraculous Birth,
+Crucifixion, Resurrection, the Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the
+hope of resurrection, does not prove that this teaching was as yet
+combined in a Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under
+the work of the Holy Ghost.
+
+At this point a word must be said on the important question of
+interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on the history
+of the different types of creed forms, there can be no hope of agreement
+on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit between Unitarian and
+Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow Harnack explain "holy spirit" as
+the gift of impersonal influence, and between wide limits of difference
+agree in regarding Christ as Son of God by adoption and not by nature.
+Amid the chaos of conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of
+Jesus, the Gospel within the Gospel, the central question "What think ye
+of Christ?" emerges as the test of all theories. "No man can say that
+Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost" (1 Cor. xii. 3). Belief in the
+fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is stated in the
+words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the later creeds, stands or
+falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the guide alike of their
+convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal influence, but a living
+voice.
+
+If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare imitation of
+the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as Buddhists accept the
+religion of Buddha, still it cannot be denied that the early Christians
+put their trust in Christ rather than his religion. "I am the life," not
+"I teach the life," "I am the truth," not merely "I teach the truth,"
+are not additions of Johannine theology but the central aspect of the
+presentation of Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and
+bodies, which the most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as
+the residuum of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would
+be out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce
+the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the meaning of
+the theological teaching both of the New Testament and of the earliest
+creeds.
+
+To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom Harnack is in
+general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed, which comes to light in
+the 4th century, as the parent of all developed forms, whether Eastern
+or Western. Marcellus, the exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by
+Epiphanius as presenting it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. A.D. 340.
+Ussher's recognition of the fact that this profession of faith by
+Marcellus was the creed of Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of
+modern discussions of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later
+Rufinus, a priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his
+native city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is
+probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the Roman
+Church must always have been bilingual in its early days. It was as
+follows:
+
+    I. 1. I believe in God (the) Father almighty;
+   II. 2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord,
+       3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,
+       4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried
+       5. the third day He rose from the dead,
+       6. He ascended into heaven,
+       7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father,
+       8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead.
+  III. 9. And in the Holy Ghost,
+      10. (the) holy Church,
+      11. (the) remission of sins,
+      12. (the) resurrection of the flesh.
+
+This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of Bishops Felix
+and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of Tertullian in the 2nd
+century.
+
+Tertullian calls the creed the "token" which the African Church shares
+with the Roman (_de Praescr._ 36): "The Roman Church has made a common
+token with the African Churches, has recognized one God, creator of the
+universe, and Christ Jesus, of the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator,
+and the resurrection of the flesh." The reference is to the earthenware
+token which two friends broke in order that they might commend a
+stranger for hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their
+creed became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could
+obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals. The
+passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the Roman Creed,
+which reappears also in the following (_de Virg. vel._ i.):
+
+  "The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God
+  Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of
+  Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day raised
+  from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the right hand
+  of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead through the
+  resurrection also of the flesh."
+
+There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the Gnostic
+Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be dated A.D. 145. He
+seems to have still held to the Roman creed interpreted in his own way.
+An ingenious conjecture by Zahn enables us to add the words "holy
+Church" to our reconstruction of the creed from the writings of
+Tertullian. In his revised New Testament Marcion speaks of "the covenant
+which is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to
+which we have vowed allegiance." He uses a word used by Ignatius of the
+oath taken on confession of the Christian faith. It follows that the
+words "holy Church" were contained in the Roman Creed.[6]
+
+While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest years
+of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all similar
+Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its relation to
+Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the Roman Creed reached Gaul
+and Africa in the course of the 2nd century, and perhaps all districts
+of the West that possessed Christian congregations, also the western end
+of Asia Minor possibly in connexion with Polycarp's visit to Rome A.D.
+154. He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
+Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern creeds
+which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or may be traced
+back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-point. He concludes
+that the Roman Creed was accepted at Antioch after the fall of Paul of
+Samosata in A.D. 272, and was adapted to the dogmatic requirements of
+the time, all the later creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being
+dependent on it.
+
+On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find evidence of the
+existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal or greater antiquity and
+distinguished from the Roman by such phrases as "One" (God), "Maker of
+heaven and earth," "suffered," "shall come again in glory." Thus Kunze
+reconstructs a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it
+is independent of the Roman Creed.
+
+
+_Creed of Antioch._
+
+   I. 1. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty, maker
+           of all things, visible and invisible.
+
+  II. 2. And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten and
+           first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all the
+           ages, through whom also the ages were established, and all
+           things came into existence;
+      3. Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the Virgin.
+      4. And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried,
+      5. And the third day rose according to the scriptures,
+      6. and ascended into heaven.
+      7.
+      8. And is coming again to judge quick and dead.
+      9. [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.]
+     10.
+     11. Remission of sins.
+     12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting.
+
+Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds which go
+back to a date preceding the Nicene Council.
+
+A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene Council.
+
+B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem.
+
+C. Creed of Antioch quoted by Cassian.
+
+D. Creed of Antioch quoted in the Apostolic Constitutions.
+
+E. Creed of Lucian the Martyr (Antioch).
+
+F. Creed of Arius (Alexandria).
+
+   1. One (God), A, B, C, D, E, F.
+      Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible
+        (or a like phrase), A, B, C, D, E.
+   2. Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only begotten (or a like phrase),
+        A, B, C, D, E, F.
+   3. Crucified under Pontius Pilate, B, C, D (A, E, F omit because
+        they are theological creeds. Loofs thinks that the baptismal
+        creeds on which they are based may have contained the words).
+   5. Rose the third day, A, B, D, E (F omits "the third day" being
+        a theological creed; the translation of C is uncertain).
+   6. Went up, A, B, D, E, F.
+      + and ... and ... and, A, B, C, D, E, F.
+   8. And is coming, B, C, D, E, F; and is about to come, A;
+      + again, A, C, D, E, F(B?); + in glory, A, B; with glory, D, E.
+  10. + Catholic, B, D, F (A, C, E?)
+  12. + life eternal, B, C; + life of the age to come, D, F.
+
+Sanday (_Journal Theol. Studies_, iii. 1) does not attempt a
+reconstruction on this elaborate scale, but contents himself with
+pointing out evidence, which Kattenbusch seems to him to have missed,
+for the existence of creeds of Egypt, Cappadocia and Palestine before
+the time of Aurelian. He criticizes Harnack's theory that there existed
+in the East, that is, in Asia Minor, or in Asia Minor and Syria as far
+back as the beginning of the 2nd century, a Christological instruction
+([Greek: mathêma]) organically related to the second article of the
+Roman Creed, and formulas which taught that the "One God" was "Creator
+of heaven and earth," and referred to the holy prophetic spirit, and
+lasted on till they influenced the course of creed-development in the
+4th century. He asks, is it not simpler to believe that there was a
+definite type in the background?
+
+Another English student, the Rev. T. Barns, engaged specially in work
+upon the history of the creed of Cappadocia, points out the importance
+of the extraordinary influence of Firmilian of Caesarea in the affairs
+of the church of Antioch in the early part of the 3rd century. He is led
+to argue that the creed of Antioch came rather from Cappadocia than
+Rome. Whether his conclusion is justified or not, it helps to show how
+strongly the trend of contemporary research is setting against the
+theory of Kattenbusch that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch
+became the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate
+against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from Rome to
+Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century. It is evidently
+impossible to arrive at a final decision until much more spade work has
+been done in the investigation of early Eastern creeds. Connolly's study
+of the early Syrian creed (_Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche
+Wissenschaft_, 1906, p. 202) deserves careful consideration. His
+reconstruction of the creed of Aphraates is interesting in relation to
+the other traces of a Syriac creed form existing prior to the 4th
+century.
+
+  [I believe] in God the Lord of all, that made the heavens and the
+  earth and the seas and all that in them is; [And in our Lord Jesus
+  Christ] [the Son of God,] God, Son of God, King, Son of the King,
+  Light from Light, (Son and Counsellor, and Guide, and Way, and
+  Saviour, and Shepherd, and Gatherer, and Door, and Pearl, and Lamb,)
+  and first-born of all creatures, who came and put on a body from Mary
+  the Virgin (of the seed of the house of David, from the Holy Spirit),
+  and put on our manhood, and suffered, _or_ and was crucified, went
+  down to the place of the dead, _or_ to Sheol, and lived again, and
+  rose the third day, and ascended to the height, _or_ to heaven, and
+  sat on the right hand of His Father, and He is the Judge of the dead
+  and of the living, who sitteth on the throne; [And in the Holy
+  Spirit;] [And I believe] in the coming to life of the dead; [and] in
+  the mystery of Baptism (of the remission of sins).
+
+The probable battle-ground of the future between the opposing theories
+lies in the writings of Irenaeus. He has most of the characteristic
+expressions of the Eastern creeds. He inserts "one" in clause 1 and 2.
+He has the phrases "Maker of heaven and earth," "suffered," and
+"crucified," with "under Pontius Pilate" after instead of before it.
+Probably also he had "in glory" in clause 8. But there is always the
+possibility to be faced that Irenaeus drew his creed from Rome rather
+than Asia Minor. Kattenbusch does not shrink from suggesting that he
+shows acquaintance with the Roman Creed, and that Justin Martyr also
+knew it, in which case all the so-called Eastern characteristics have
+been imprinted on the original Roman form, and are not derived from an
+Eastern archetype. But the ordinary reader need not feel concern about
+the future victory of either theory. The plain fact is that the same
+facts were taught in Palestine, Asia Minor and Gaul, whether gathered up
+in a parallel creed form or not. The contrast which Rufinus draws
+between the Roman Creed and others, both of the East and the West, is
+justified. In comparison with them it was guarded more carefully from
+change.[7] We have yet to inquire how it received the additions which
+distinguish the derived form now in use as the baptismal creed of all
+Western Christendom. Some had already found an entrance into Western
+creeds. We find "suffered" in the creed of Milan, "descended into hell"
+in the creed of Aquileia, the Danubian lands and Syria; the words "God"
+and "almighty" were shortly added to clause 7 in the Spanish creed;
+"life everlasting" had stood from an early date in the African creed.
+The creed of Caesarius of Arles (d. 543) proves that these variations
+had all been united in one Gallican creed together with "catholic" and
+"communion of saints," but this Gallican form still lacked "Maker of
+heaven and earth" and the additions in clause 7.
+
+Two newly-discovered creeds help us greatly to narrow down the limits of
+the problem. The creed of Niceta of Remesiana in Dacia proves that c.
+A.D. 400 the Dacian church had added to the Roman Creed "maker of heaven
+and earth," "suffered," "dead," "Catholic," "communion of saints" and
+"life everlasting." Parallel to it is the Faith of St Jerome discovered
+in 1903 by Dom. Morin.[8]
+
+  _The Faith of St Jerome_.
+
+  "I believe in one God the Father almighty, maker of things visible and
+  invisible. I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, born of
+  God, God of God, Light of Light, almighty of almighty, true God of
+  true God, born before the ages, not made, by whom all things were made
+  in heaven and in earth. Who for our salvation descended from heaven,
+  was conceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered by
+  suffering under Pontius Pilate, under Herod the King, crucified,
+  buried, descended into hell, trod down the sting of death, rose again
+  the third day, appeared to the apostles. After this He ascended into
+  heaven, sitteth at the right of God the Father, thence shall come to
+  judge the quick and the dead. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, God not
+  unbegotten nor begotten, not created nor made, but co-eternal with the
+  Father and the Son. I believe (that there is) remission of sins in the
+  holy catholic church, communion of saints, resurrection of the flesh
+  unto eternal life. Amen."
+
+This creed may be the form which Jerome mentions in one of his letters
+(_Ep._ 17, n. 4) as sent to Cyril of Jerusalem. It is important as
+connecting the creeds of East and West. Since Jerome was born in
+Pannonia we may conjecture that he is inserting Nicene phrases from the
+Jerusalem creed into his baptismal creed, and that this form added to
+Niceta's creed proves that the creed of the Danube lands possessed the
+clauses "maker of heaven and earth" and "communion of saints."
+
+The first occurrence of the completed form is in a treatise
+(_Scarapsus_) of the Benedictine missionary Pirminius, abbot of
+Reichenau (c. A.D. 730). The difficulty hitherto has been to trace the
+source from which the clause "maker of heaven and earth" has come into
+it. It has been known that the forms in use in the south of France
+approximated to it but without those words. In the 6th century we find
+creed forms in use in Gaul which include them, but include also other
+variations distinguishing them from the form which we seek. The missing
+link which has hitherto been lacking in the evidence has been found by
+Barns in the influence of Celtic missionaries who streamed across from
+Europe until they came in touch with the remnants of the Old Latin
+Christianity of the Danube. The chief documents of the date A.D. 700,
+which contain forms almost identical with the received text, are
+connected with monasteries founded by Columban and his friends: Bobbio,
+Luxeuil, S. Gallen, Reichenau. From one of these monasteries the
+received text seems to have been taken to Rome. Certainly it was from
+Rome that it was spread. We can trace the use of the received text along
+the line of the journeys both of Pirminius and Boniface, and there is
+little doubt that they received it from the Roman Church, with which
+Boniface was in frequent communication. Pope Gregory II. sent him
+instructions to use what seems to have been an official Roman order of
+Baptism, which would doubtless include a Roman form of creed. Pirminius,
+who was far from being an original writer, made great use of a treatise
+by Martin of Braga, but substituted a Roman form of Renunciation, and
+refers to the Roman rite of Unction in a way which leads us to suppose
+that the form of creed which he substituted for Martin's form was also
+Roman. It seems clear, therefore, that the received text was either made
+or accepted in Rome, c. A.D. 700, and disseminated through the
+Benedictine missionaries. At the end of the 8th century Charlemagne
+inquired of the bishops of his empire as to current forms. The reply of
+Amalarius of Trier is important because it shows that he not only used
+the received text, but also connected it with the Roman order of
+Baptism. The emperor's wish for uniformity doubtless led in a measure to
+its eventual triumph over all other forms.
+
+
+  Nicene Creed.
+
+2. _The Nicene Creed_ of the liturgies, often called the
+Constantinopolitan creed, is the old baptismal creed of Jerusalem
+revised by the insertion of Nicene terms. The idea that the council
+merely added to the last section has been disproved by Hort's famous
+dissertation in 1876.[9] The text of the creed of the Nicene Council was
+based on the creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a comparison of the four
+creeds side by side proves to demonstration their distinctness, in spite
+of the tendency of copyists to confuse and assimilate the forms.[10]
+
+  _Creed of Eusebius, A.D. 325      | _Revision by the Council of Nicaea,
+          (Caesarea)._              |          A.D. 325._
+                                    |
+           We believe               |          We believe
+               I.                   |              I.
+  1. In one God the Father          | 1. In one God the Father Almighty,
+      Almighty, the maker of all    |     visible the maker of all things
+      things visible and invisible. |     and invisible.
+                                    |
+               II.                  |              II.
+  2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,  | 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,
+      the Word of God.              |     the Son of God, begotten of the
+                                    |     Father, only begotten, that is
+     God of God, Light of Light,    |     of the substance of the Father,
+      (Life of Life,) only begotten |     God of God, Light of Light, very
+      Son (first-born of all        |     God of very God, begotten not
+      creation, before all worlds   |     made, of one substance with the
+      begotten of God the Father),  |     Father, by whom all things were
+      by whom all things were made; |     made, both those in heaven and
+      all things were made;         |     those on earth.
+  3. Who for our Salvation was      | 3. Who for us men and for our
+      incarnate (and lived as a     |     salvation came down and was
+      citizen amongst men),         |     incarnate, was made man,
+  4. And Suffered,                  | 4. And suffered,
+  5. And rose the third day,        | 5. And rose the third day,
+  6. And ascended (to the Father),  | 6. Ascended into Heaven,
+  7. And shall come again (in glory)| 7. Is coming to judge quick and
+      to judge quick and dead.      |     dead.
+                                    |
+               III.                 |              III.
+  8. And (we believe) in (one) Holy | 8. And in the Holy Ghost.
+      Ghost.                        |
+                                    |
+                                    | _Revision by Cyril, A.D. 362.
+                                    |   Council of Constantinople, A.D.
+  _Creed of Jerusalem, A.D. 348._   |   381. Council of Chalcedon, A.D.
+                                    |   451._
+                                    |
+        I (or We) believe           |         We believe
+               I.                   |              I.
+  1. In one God the Father,         | 1. In one God the Father Almighty,
+      Almighty, maker of heaven     |     maker of heaven and earth, and
+      and earth, and of all things  |     of all things visible and
+      visible and invisible.        |     invisible.
+                                    |
+               II.                  |              II.
+  2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,  | 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,
+      the only begotten Son of God, |     the only begotten Son of God,
+      begotten of His Father,       |     begotten of His Father before
+                                    |     all worlds, [God of God,]
+                                    |     Light of Light,
+      very God before all worlds,   |     very God of very God,
+                                    |     begotten, not made, being of
+                                    |     one substance with the Father,
+      by whom all things were made; |     by whom all things were made;
+  3.                                | 3. Who for us men and for our
+                                    |     salvation came down from
+      was incarnate,                |     heaven and incarnate of the
+                                    |     Holy Ghost and the Virgin
+      and was made Man,             |     Mary, and was made Man.
+  4. Crucified and buried.          | 4. And was crucified also for us
+                                    |     under Pontius Pilate, and
+                                    |     suffered and
+  5. Rose again the third day,      | 5. He rose again the third day,
+                                    |     according to the Scriptures,
+  6. And ascended into heaven and   | 6. And ascended into heaven and
+      _sat_ on the right hand of    |     sitteth on the right hand of
+      the Father,                   |     the Father,
+  7. And shall come _in glory_      | 7. And He shall come again to
+      to judge the quick and the    |     judge the quick and the
+      dead, whose kingdom shall     |     dead, whose kingdom shall
+      have no end.                  |     have no end.
+                                    |
+               III.                 |              III.
+  8. And in _One_ Holy Ghost,       |  8. And in the Holy Ghost, the
+      _the Paraclete_,              |      Lord and Giver of Life. who
+                                    |      proceedeth from the Father
+                                    |      [_and the Son_], who with the
+                                    |      Father and the Son together is
+                                    |      worshipped and glorified,
+      who spake _in_ the Prophets,  |      who spake by the Prophets,
+  9. And in one baptism of          |  9. In the Catholic and Apostolic
+      repentance for remission of   |    Church.
+      sins,                         |
+ 10. And in one holy Catholic       | 10. We acknowledge one baptism
+       Church,                      |      for remission of sins.
+ 11. And in resurrection _of the    | 11. We look for the resurrection
+      flesh_,                       |      of the dead,
+ 12. And in life eternal.           | 12. And in the life of the world
+                                    |      to come.
+
+The revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted by Epiphanius in his treatise
+_The Anchored One_, c. A.D. 374, some years before the council of
+Constantinople (A.D. 381). We gather that it had already been introduced
+into Cyprus as a baptismal creed. Hort's identification of it as the
+work of Cyril of Jerusalem is now generally accepted. On his return from
+exile in A.D. 362 Cyril would find "a natural occasion for the revision
+of the public creed by the skilful insertion of some of the conciliar
+language, including the term which proclaimed the restoration of full
+communion with the champions of Nicaea, and other phrases and clauses
+adapted for impressing on the people positive truth." Some of Cyril's
+personal preferences expressed in his catechetical lectures find
+expression, e.g. "resurrection of the _dead_" for "flesh."
+
+The weak point in Hort's theory was the suggestion that the creed was
+brought before the council by Cyril in self justification. The election
+of Meletius of Antioch as the first president of the council carried
+with it the vindication of his old ally Cyril. Kunze's suggestion is far
+more probable that it was used at the baptism of Nektarius, praetor of
+the city, who was elected third president of the council while yet
+unbaptized. Unfortunately the acts of the council have been lost, but
+they were quoted at the council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451, and the
+revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted as "the faith of the 150 Fathers,"
+that is, as confirmed in some way by the council of Constantinople,
+while at the time it was distinguished from "the faith of the 318
+Fathers" of Nicaea. One of the signatories of the Definition of Faith
+made at Chalcedon, in which both creeds were quoted in full, Kalemikus,
+bishop of Apamea in Bithynia, refers to the council of Constantinople as
+having been held at the ordination of the most pious Nektarius the
+bishop. Obviously there was some connexion in his mind between the creed
+and the ordination.
+
+The reasons which brought the revised creed into prominence at Chalcedon
+are still obscure. It is possible that Leo's letter to Flavian gave the
+impulse to put it forward because it contained a parallel to words which
+Leo quoted from the Old Roman Creed, "born of the Holy Ghost and the
+Virgin Mary," "crucified and buried," which do not occur in the first
+Nicene Creed. If, as is probable, it was from the election of Nektarius
+the baptismal creed of Constantinople, we may even ask whether the pope
+did not refer to it when he wrote emphatically of the "common and
+indistinguishable confession" of all the faithful. Kattenbusch supposes
+that Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, or his archdeacon Aetius, who
+read the creed at the 2nd session of the council, took up the idea that
+through its likeness to the Roman Creed it would be a useful weapon
+against Eutyches and others who were held to interpret the Nicene Creed
+in an Apollinarian sense. But Kunze thinks that it was not used as a
+base of operations against Eutyches because there is some evidence that
+Monophysites were willing to accept it. Certainly it won its way to
+general acceptance in the East as the creed of the church of the
+imperial city; regarded as an improved recension of the Nicene Faith.
+The history of the introduction of the creed into liturgies is still
+obscure. Peter Fullo, bishop of Antioch, was the first to use it in the
+East, and in the West a council held by King Reccared at Toledo in 589.
+The theory of Probst that it had been used in Rome before this time has
+not been confirmed. King Reccared's council is usually credited with the
+introduction of the words "And the Son" into clause 9 of the creed. But
+some MSS.[11] omit them in the creed-text while inserting them in a
+canon of the faith drawn up at the time. Probably they were interpolated
+in the creed by mistake of copyists. When attention was called to the
+interpolation in the 9th century it became one cause of the schism
+between East and West. Charlemagne was unable to persuade Pope Leo III.
+to alter the text used in Rome by including the words. But it was so
+altered by the pope's successor.
+
+The interpolation really witnessed to a deep-lying difference between
+Eastern and Western theology. Eastern theologians expressed the
+mysterious relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son in
+such phrases as "Who proceedeth from the Father and receiveth from the
+Son," rightly making the Godhead of the Father the foundation and
+primary source of the eternally derived Godhead of the Son and the
+Spirit. Western theologians approached the problem from another point of
+view. Hilary, starting from the thought of Divine self-consciousness as
+the explanation of the coinherence of the Father in the Son and the Son
+in the Father, says that the Spirit receives of both. Augustine teaches
+that the Father and the Son are the one principle of the Being of the
+Spirit. From this it is a short step to say with the _Quicumque vult_
+that the Spirit proceeds from the Son, while guarding the idea that the
+Father is the one fountain of Deity. Since Eastern theologians would be
+willing to say "proceeds from the Father through the Son," it is clear
+that the two views are not irreconcilable.
+
+
+  Athanasian Creed.
+
+3. _The Athanasian Creed_, so called because in many MSS. it bears the
+title "The Faith of S. Athanasius," is more accurately designated by its
+first words _Quicumque vult_.[12] Its history has been the subject of
+much controversy for years past, but no longer presents an insoluble
+problem. Critics indeed agree on the main outline. Until 1870 the
+standard work on the subject was Waterland's _Critical History of the
+Athanasian Creed_, first published in 1723. Having traced "the opinions
+of the learned moderns" from Gerard Vossius, A.D. 1642, "who led the way
+to a more strict and critical inquiry," Waterland passed in review all
+the known MSS. and commentaries, and after a searching investigation
+concluded that the creed was written in Gaul between 420 and 430,
+probably by Hilary of Arles.
+
+In 1870 the controversy on the use of the creed in the Book of Common
+Prayer led to fresh investigation of the MSS., and a theory known as the
+"Two-portion theory" was started by C. A. Swainson, developed by J. R.
+Lumby, and adopted by Harnack. Swainson thought that the _Quicumque_ was
+brought into its present shape in the 9th century. The so-called
+profession of Denebert, bishop-elect of Worcester, in A.D. 798 presented
+to the archbishop of Canterbury (which includes clauses 1, 3-6, 20-22,
+24, 25), and the Trèves fragment (a portion of a sermon in _Paris bibl.
+nat. Lat._ 3836, _saec._ viii., which quoted clauses 27-34, 36-40),
+seemed to him to represent the component parts of the creed as they
+existed separately. He conjectured that they were brought together in
+the province of Rheims c. 860.
+
+This theory, however, depended upon unverified assumptions, such as the
+supposed silence of theologians about the creed at the beginning of the
+9th century; the suggestion that the completed creed would have been
+useful to them if they had known it as a weapon against the heresy of
+Adoptianism; the assertion that no MS. containing the complete text was
+of earlier date than c. 813. This was Lumby's revised date, but the
+progress of palaeographical studies has made it possible to demonstrate
+that MSS. of the 8th century do exist which contain the complete creed.
+
+The two-portion theory was vigorously attacked by G. D. W. Ommanney, who
+was successful in the discovery of new documents, notably early
+commentaries, which contained the text of the creed embedded in them,
+and thus supplied independent testimony to the fact that the creed was
+becoming fairly widely known at the end of the 8th century. Other new
+MSS. and commentaries were found and collated by the Rev. A. E. Burn and
+Dom Morin. In 1897 Loofs, summing up the researches of 25 years in his
+article _Athanasianum_ (_Realencyclopädie f. prot. Theol. u. Kirche_,
+3rd ed. ii. p. 177), declared that the two-portion theory was dead.
+
+This conclusion has never been seriously challenged. It has been greatly
+strengthened by the discovery of a MS. which was presented by Bishop
+Leidrad of Lyons with an autograph inscription to the altar of St
+Stephen in that town, some time before 814. As M. Delisle at once
+pointed out (_Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, 1898), this MS.
+supplies a fixed date from which palaeographers can work in dating MSS.
+The _Quicumque_ occurs in a collection of materials forming an
+introduction to the psalter. The suggestion has been made that Leidrad
+intended to use the _Quicumque_ in his campaign against the Adoptianists
+in 798. But the phrases of the creed seem to have needed sharpening
+against the Nestorian tendency of the Adoptianists. It is more probable
+that Leidrad was interested in the growing use of the creed as a
+canticle, and was consulted in the preparation of the famous Golden
+Psalter, now at Vienna, which contains the same collection of documents
+as an introduction. This MS. may now without hesitation be assigned to
+the date 772-788. The earliest known MS. is at Milan (_Cod. Ambros._ O,
+212, _sup._), and is dated by Traube as early as c. 700.
+
+There is a reference to the _Quicumque_ in the first canon of the fourth
+council of Toledo of the year 633, which quotes part or the whole of
+clauses 4, 20-22, 28 f., 31, 33, 35 f., 40. The council also quoted
+phrases from the so-called _Creed of Damasus_, a document of the 4th
+century, which in some cases they preferred to the phrases of the
+_Quicumque_. Their quotations form a connecting link in the chain of
+evidence by which the use of the creed may be traced back to the
+writings of Caesarius, bishop of Arles (503-543). Dom Morin has now
+demonstrated ("Le Symbole d'Athanase et son premier témoin S. Césaire
+d'Arles," _Rev. Bénédictine_, Oct. 1901) that Caesarius used the creed
+continually as a sort of elementary catechism. The fact that it exactly
+reproduces both the qualities and the literary defects of Caesarius is a
+strong argument in favour of Morin's suggestion that he may have been
+the author. Further, Caesarius was in the habit of putting some words of
+a distinguished writer at the head of his compositions, which would
+account for the fact that the name of Athanasius was subsequently
+attached to the creed.
+
+The use, however, of the _Quicumque_ by Caesarius as a catechism may be
+explained by the suggestion that it had been taught him in his youth, so
+that his style had been moulded by it. He was not an original thinker.
+Moreover, the creed is quoted by his rival Avitus, bishop of Vienne
+490-523, who quotes clause 22, as from the Rule of Catholic Faith, but
+was not likely to value a composition of Caesarius so highly. Morin does
+not deal fully with the arguments from internal evidence which point
+back to the beginning of the 5th century as the date of the creed. If
+the creed-phrases needed sharpening against the revived Nestorian error
+of the Adoptianists, it is scarcely likely to have been written during
+the generation following the condemnation of Nestorius in 431. Burn
+suggests that it was written to meet the Sabellian and Apollinarian
+errors of the Spanish heretic Priscillian, possibly by Honoratus, bishop
+of Arles (d. 429). He suggests further that the _Creed of Damasus_ was
+the reply of that pope to Priscillian's appeal. This would explain the
+quotation of the two documents together by the council of Toledo, since
+the heresy lasted on for a long time in Spain. But the theory has been
+carried to extravagant lengths by Künstle, who thinks that the creed was
+written in Spain in the 5th century, and soon taken to the monastery of
+Lerins. There are phrases in the writings of Vincentius of Lerins and of
+Faustus, bishop of Riez, which are parallel to the teaching of the
+creed, though they cannot with any confidence be called quotations. They
+tend in any case to prove that the _Quicumque_ comes to us from the
+school of Lerins, of which Honoratus was the first abbot, and to which
+Caesarius also belonged.
+
+The earliest use of the _Quicumque_ was in sermons, in which the clauses
+were quoted, as by the council of Toledo without reference to the creed
+as a whole. From the 8th century, if not from earlier times,
+commentaries were written on it. The writer of the Oratorian Commentary
+(Theodulf of Orleans?) addressing a synod which instructed him to
+provide an exposition of this work on the faith, writes of it, as "here
+and there recited in our churches, and continually made the subject of
+meditation by our priests." It was soon used as a canticle. Angilbert,
+abbot of St Riquier (c. 814), records that it was sung by his school in
+procession on rogation days. It passed into the office of Prime,
+apparently first at Fleury. In the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. it
+was "sung or said" after the Benedictus on the greater feasts, and this
+use was extended in the second Prayer Book. In 1662 the rubric was
+altered and it was substituted for the Apostles' Creed. It has no place
+in the offices of the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is found, without the
+words "And the Son" of clause 22, in the appendix of many modern
+editions. In the Russian service books it appears at the beginning of
+the psalter.
+
+The controversy on its use in modern times has turned mainly on the
+interpretation of the warning clauses. No new translation can put an end
+to the difficulty. While it is true that the Church has never condemned
+individuals, and that the warnings refer only to those who have received
+the faith, and do not touch the question of the unbaptized, there is a
+growing feeling that they go beyond the teaching of Holy Scripture on
+the responsibility of intellect in matters of faith.[13]
+
+On the other hand the creed is a valuable statement of Catholic faith on
+the Trinity and the Incarnation, and its use for students and teachers
+at least is by no means obsolete. The special characteristic of its
+theology is in the first part where it owes most to the teaching of
+Augustine, who in his striving after self-knowledge analysed the mystery
+of his own triune personality and illustrated it with psychological
+images, "I exist and I am conscious that I exist, and I love the
+existence and the consciousness; and all this independently of any
+external influence." Such a riper analysis of the mystery of his own
+personality enabled him to arrive at a clearer conception of the idea of
+divine personality, "whose triunity has nothing potential or unrealized
+about it; whose triune elements are eternally actualized, by no outward
+influence, but from within; a Trinity in Unity."[14]
+
+II. MODERN CONFESSIONS OF FAITH.--The second great creed-making epoch of
+Church history opens in the 16th century with the Confession of
+Augsburg. The famous theses which Luther nailed to the door of the
+church at Wittenberg in 1517 cannot be called a confession, but they
+expressed a protest which could not rest there. Some reconstruction of
+popular beliefs was needed by many consciences. There is a striking
+contrast between the crudeness of much and widely accepted medieval
+theology and the decrees of the council of Trent. Even from the Roman
+Catholic standpoint such a need was felt. Luther himself had a gift of
+words which through his catechisms made the reformed theology popular in
+Germany. In 1530 it became necessary to define his position against both
+Romanists and Zwinglians.
+
+
+  Augsburg confession.
+
+1. _The Confession of Augsburg_ was drawn up by Melanchthon, revised by
+Luther, and presented to the emperor Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg.
+Some 21 of its articles dealt with doctrine, 7 with ecclesiastical
+abuses. It expounded in terse and significant teaching the doctrine (1)
+of God, (2) of original sin, (3) of the Son of God, (4) of
+justification..., (21) of the worship of saints. The abuses which it was
+maintained had been corrected by Lutheranism were discussed in articles
+(1) on Communion in both kinds, (2) on the marriage of clergy, (3) on
+the Mass, &c. (see AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF).
+
+The main difference between these, the first of a long series of
+articles of religion and the ancient creeds, lies in the fact that they
+are manifestoes embodying creeds and answering more than one purpose.
+This is the reason of their frequent failure to convey any sense of
+proportion in the expression of truth. The disciplinary question of
+clerical marriage is not of the same primary importance as the doctrinal
+questions involved in the restoration of the cup to the laity, or
+discussed in the subsequent article on the mass. As has been well said
+by a learned Baptist theologian, Dr Green: "It was by a true divine
+instinct that the early theologians made Christ Himself, in His
+divine-human personality, their centre of the creeds."[15] The
+fundamental questions of Christianity, exhibited in the Apostles' Creed,
+should be marked off as standing on a higher plane than others. In this
+respect catechisms of modern times, from Luther's down to the recent
+Evangelical catechism of the Free Churches, and including from their
+respective points of view both the catechism of the Church of England
+and the catechism of the council of Trent, are markedly superior to
+articles and synodical decrees. The failure of the latter was really
+inevitable. In the 16th century a spirit of universal questioning was
+rife, and it is this utter unsettlement of opinion which is reflected in
+the discussions of doubts on matters only remotely connected with "the
+faith once for all delivered unto the saints" (Jude 3). Moreover, fresh
+complications arose from the confusion in which the question of the
+duties and rights of the civil power was entangled. In an age when the
+foundations of the system on which society had rested for centuries were
+seriously shaken, such subjects as the right of the magistrate to
+interfere with the belief of the individual, and the limits of his
+authority over conscience, naturally assumed a prominence hitherto
+unknown.[16]
+
+2. _Other Lutheran Formularies._--For the purpose of classification it
+will be convenient to discuss Lutheran, Zwinglian and Calvinistic
+confessions separately.
+
+
+  Lutheran.
+
+An elaborate _Apology_ for the confession of Augsburg was drawn up by
+Melanchthon in reply to Roman Catholic criticisms. This, together with
+the confession, the articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther in
+1536, Luther's catechisms, and the Formula of Concord which was an
+attempt to settle doctrinal divisions promulgated in 1580, sum up what
+is called "the confessional theology of Lutheranism." Of less influence
+in the subsequent history of Lutheranism, but of interest as used by
+Archbishop Parker in the preparation of the Elizabethan articles of
+1563, is the confession of Württemberg. It was presented to the council
+of Trent by the ambassador of the state of Württemberg in 1552. Its
+thirty-five articles contain a moderate statement of Lutheran teaching.
+
+
+  Zwinglian and Calvinist.
+
+3. _Zwinglian and Calvinistic Confessions._--The confession of the Four
+Cities, Strassburg, Constance, Memmingen and London, was drawn up by M.
+Bucer and was presented to Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530. These cities
+were inclined to follow Zwingli in his sacramental teaching which was
+more fully expressed in the Confession of Basel (1534) and the First
+Helvetic Confession (1536). Calvin's views were expressed in the
+Gallican Confession, containing forty articles, which was drawn up in
+1559, and was presented both to Francis II. of France and to Charles IX.
+On the same lines the Belgian Confession of 1561, written by Guido de
+Brès in French, and translated into Dutch was widely accepted in the
+Netherlands and confirmed by the synod of Dort (1619). The second
+Helvetic Confession was the work of Bullinger, published at the request
+of the Elector Palatine Frederick III. in 1566, and was held in repute
+in Switzerland, Poland and France as well as the Palatinate. It was
+sanctioned in Scotland and was well received in England.
+
+These confessions teach the root idea of Calvin's theology, the
+immeasurable awfulness of God, His eternity, and the immutability of His
+decrees. Such strict Calvinism was the strength also of the Westminster
+Confession (see below), but was soon weakened in Germany. This same
+Elector Frederick invited two young divines, Zacharias Ursinus and
+Caspar Olevianus, to prepare the afterwards celebrated Heidelberg
+catechism, which in 1563 superseded Calvin's catechism in the
+Palatinate. While Calvin began sternly with the question: "What is the
+chief end of human life?" Ans.: "That men may know God by whom they were
+created,"--the Heidelberg catechism has: "What is thy only comfort in
+life and death?" Ans.: "That I with body and soul, both in life and
+death, am not my own, but belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ."
+This catechism has been called the charter of the German Reformed
+Church. It contains three divisions dealing with (1) man's sin, misery,
+redemption, (2) the Trinity, (3) thankfulness, under which is included
+all practical Christian life lived in gratitude for mercies received.
+
+
+  Articles of religion.
+
+4. _English Articles of Religion._--The ten articles of 1536 were drawn
+up by Convocation at the bidding of Henry VIII. "to stablysh Christian
+Quietnes and Unitie." They exhibit a traditional character, a compromise
+between the old and the new learning. Thus the doctrine of the Real
+Presence is asserted, but no mention is made of Transubstantiation.
+Medieval ceremonies are described as useful but without power to remit
+sins. Two years later, after negotiations with the Lutheran princes, a
+conference on theological matters was held at Lambeth with Lutheran
+envoys. Thirteen articles were drawn up, which, though never published
+(they were found among Cranmer's papers at the beginning of the 19th
+century), had some influence on the forty-two articles. Some of them
+were taken from the confession of Augsburg, but the sections on Baptism,
+the Eucharist and penance, show that the English theologians desired to
+lay more emphasis on the character of sacraments as channels of grace.
+The Statute of the Six Articles (1539), "the whip with six strings," was
+the outcome of the retrograde policy which distinguished the latter
+years of Henry VIII.
+
+With the accession of Edward VI. liturgical reforms were set on foot
+before an attempt was made to systematize doctrinal teaching. But as
+early as 1549 Cranmer had in hand "Articles of Religion" to which he
+required all preachers and lecturers to subscribe. In 1552 they were
+revised by other bishops and were laid before the council and the royal
+chaplains. They were then published as "Articles agreed on by the
+bishops and other learned men in the Synod of London." But there is
+considerable doubt whether they really received the sanction of
+Convocation (Gibson, p. 15). They were not devised as a complete scheme
+of doctrine, but only as a guide in dealing with current errors of (i.)
+the Medievalists and (ii.) the Anabaptists. Under (i.) they condemned
+the doctrine of the school authors on congruous merit (Art. xii.), the
+doctrine of grace _ex opere operato_ (xxvi.). Transubstantiation
+(xxix.). Under (ii.) they laid stress on the fundamental articles of the
+faith (Art. i.-iv.), affirmed the Three Creeds (vii.), since many
+Anabaptists held Arian and Socinian opinions which were rife in
+Switzerland, Italy and Poland, condemning also their views on original
+sin (viii.), community of goods (xxxvii.), and on other subjects in
+articles which do not mention them by name.
+
+The revision undertaken in 1563 by Archbishop Parker, aided by Edm.
+Guest, bishop of Rochester, shows "an attempt to give greater
+completeness to the formulary," and to make clearer the Catholic
+position of the Church of England. For the clause (Art. xxviii.) which
+denied the Real Presence was substituted one by Guest with the desire
+"not to deny the reality of the presence of the Body of Christ in the
+Supper, but only the grossness and sensibleness in the receiving
+thereof." At the same time the substitution of "Romish doctrine" for
+"doctrine of School authors" (Art. xxii.) marks an effort to define the
+line of the Church of England sharply against current Roman teaching.
+The revision was passed by Convocation and again revised in 1571, when
+the queen had been excommunicated by papal bull, and an act was passed
+ordering all clergy to subscribe to them. They have remained unchanged
+ever since, though the terms of subscription have been modified.
+
+An attempt was made to add nine articles of a strong Calvinistic tone,
+which were drawn up by Dr Whitaker, regius professor of divinity at
+Cambridge, and submitted to Archbishop Whitgift. They were rejected both
+by Queen Elizabeth, and, after the Hampton Court Conference petitioned
+about them, by King James I.
+
+The first Scottish confession dates from 1560. It is a memorial of the
+intellectual power and enthusiasm of John Knox. It exhibits the leading
+features of the Reformed theology, but "disclaims Divine authority for
+any fixed form of church government or worship." It also asks that "if
+anyone shall note in this our confession any articles or sentence
+repugnant of God's Holy Word, that it would please him of his gentleness
+and for Christian charity's sake, to admonish of the same in writing,"
+promising that if the teaching cannot be proved, to reform it. Between
+this and the Westminster Confession must be noted the first Baptist
+confession, published in Amsterdam in 1611. It shows the influence of
+Arminian theology against Calvinism, which was vigorously upheld in the
+_Quin-particular_ formula, put forward by the synod of Dort in 1619 to
+uphold the five points of Calvinism, after heated discussion, in which
+English delegates took part, of the problems of divine omniscience and
+human free-will.
+
+
+  Westminster Confession.
+
+5. _The Westminster Confession_ (1648), with its two catechisms, is
+perhaps the ablest of the reformed confessions from the standpoint of
+Calvinism. Its keynote is sovereignty. "The Decrees of God are His
+eternal Purpose according to the Counsel of His Will, whereby for His
+Own Glory He hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass." Man's part is
+to accept them with submission. As the Anglican divines soon ceased to
+attend the assembly, and the Independents were few in number, it was the
+work of Presbyterians only, the Scottish members carrying their proposal
+to make it an independent document and not a mere revision of the
+Thirty-nine Articles. After discussions lasting for two years it was
+debated in parliament, finished on the 22nd of March 1648, and was
+adopted by the Scottish parliament in the following year. It is the only
+confession which has been imposed by authority of parliament on the
+whole of the United Kingdom. This lasted in England for ten years. In
+Scotland its influence has continued to the present day, contributing
+not a little to mould the high qualities of religious insight and
+courage and perseverance which have honourably distinguished Scottish
+Presbyterians all the world over. This was the last great effort in
+constructive theology of the Reformation period. When Cromwell before
+his death in 1658 allowed a conference to prepare a new confession of
+faith for the whole commonwealth, the Westminster Confession was
+accepted as a whole with an added statement on church order and
+discipline. We must note, however, that the Baptist divines who were
+excluded from the Westminster Assembly issued a declaration of their
+principles under the title, "A Confession of Faith of seven
+Congregations or Churches in London which are commonly but unjustly
+called Anabaptists, for the Vindication of the Truth and Information of
+the Ignorant."
+
+Two other declarations may be quoted to show how necessary such
+confessions are even to religious societies which refuse to be bound by
+them. In 1675 Robert Barclay published an "Apology for the Society of
+Friends," in which he declared what they held concerning revelation,
+scripture, the fall, redemption, the inward light, freedom of
+conscience.
+
+In 1833 the Congregational Union published a Declaration or Confession
+of Faith, Church Order and Discipline. It was prepared by Dr George
+Redford of Worcester, and was presented, not as a scholastic or critical
+confession of faith, but merely such a statement as any intelligent
+member of the body might offer as containing its leading principles. It
+deals with the Bible as the final appeal in controversy, the doctrines
+of God, man, sin, the Incarnation, the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus
+Christ, "both the Son of man and the Son of God," the work of the Holy
+Spirit, justification by faith, the perpetual obligation of Baptism and
+the Lord's Supper, final judgment, the law of Christian fellowship. The
+same principles have been lucidly stated in the Evangelical Free Church
+catechism.
+
+
+  Greek church.
+
+6. _Confessions in the Eastern Orthodox Church._--The Eastern Church has
+no general doctrinal tests beyond the Nicene Creed, but from time to
+time synods have approved expositions of the faith such as the
+Athanasian Creed (without the words "And the Son"), and the Orthodox
+Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church. This was the
+work of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev, and other theologians. It
+was written in 1640 in Russian, was translated into Greek, and approved
+by the council of Jassy and the patriarchs of Constantinople,
+Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. It was affirmed by the council of
+Jerusalem in 1672, which also affirmed the Confession of Dositheus,
+patriarch of Jerusalem. Both of these confessions were drawn up to
+confute the teaching of a remarkable man who had been patriarch of
+Constantinople, Cyril Lucar. He was a student of Western theology, a
+correspondent of Archbishop Laud, and had travelled in Germany and
+Switzerland. In 1629 he published a confession in which he attempted to
+incorporate ideas of the reformers while preserving the leading ideas of
+Eastern traditional theology. The controversy chiefly turned on the
+question of the necessity of episcopacy. Dositheus taught that the
+existence of bishops is as necessary to the Church as "breath to a man
+and the sun to the world." Christ is the universal and perpetual Head of
+the Church, but he exercises his rule by means of "the holy Fathers,"
+that is, the bishops whom the Holy Ghost has appointed to be in charge
+of local churches.
+
+Mention may also be made of the longer catechism of the Orthodox
+Catholic Church compiled by Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow, revised
+and adopted by the Russian Holy Synod in 1839. The Church is defined as
+"a divinely-instituted community of men, united by the orthodox faith,
+the law of God, the hierarchy and the sacraments."
+
+
+  Roman Catholic.
+
+7. _Roman Catholic Formularies._--For our present purpose the distinctive
+features of Roman Catholicism may be said to be summed up in the decrees
+of the council of Trent and the creed of Pope Pius IV. The council sat at
+intervals from 1545-1563, but there was a marked divergence between the
+opinions advocated by prominent members of the council and its final
+decrees. Cardinal Pole had to leave the council because he advocated the
+doctrine of justification by faith. Even at the later sessions the
+cardinal of Lorraine with the French prelates supported the German
+representatives in requests for the cup for the laity, the permission of
+the marriage of priests, and the revision of the breviary. Finally the
+decisions of the council were promulgated in a declaration of XII.
+articles, usually called the Creed of Pius IV., which reaffirmed the
+Nicene Creed, and dealt with the preservation of the apostolic and
+ecclesiastical traditions, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures
+"according to the sense which our Holy Mother Church has held," the seven
+sacraments, the offering of the mass, transubstantiation, purgatory, the
+veneration of saints, relics, images, the efficacy of indulgences, the
+supremacy of the Roman Church and of the bishop of Rome as vicar of
+Christ. To this summary of doctrine should be added the dogmas of the
+immaculate conception of the Blessed Virgin declared in 1854, and of
+papal infallibility decreed by the Vatican council of 1870.
+
+_Conclusion._--In this survey of Christian confessions it has been
+impossible to do more than barely name many which deserve discussion.
+This is a subject which has grown in importance and is likely to grow
+further. The very intensity of that phase of modern thought which
+declaims fervently against all creeds, and would maintain what George
+Eliot called "the right of the individual to general haziness," is
+likely to draw all Christian thinkers nearer to one another in sympathy
+through acceptance of the Apostles' Creed as the common basis of
+Christian thought. In the words of Hilary of Poitiers, "Faith gathers
+strength through opposition."
+
+The question at once arises. Can the simple historic faith be maintained
+without adding theological interpretations, those arid wastes of dogma
+in which the springs of faith and reverence run dry? The answer is No.
+We cannot ask to be as if through nineteen centuries no one had ever
+asked a question about the relation of the Lord Jesus Christ to the
+Father and the Holy Spirit. If we could come back to the Bible and use
+biblical terms only, as Cyril of Jerusalem wished in his early days, we
+know from experience that the old errors would reappear in the form of
+new questions, and that we should have to pass through the dreary
+wilderness of controversy from implicit to explicit dogma, from "I
+believe that Jesus is the Lord" to the confession that the Only Begotten
+Son is "of one substance with the Father." In the words of Hilary again:
+
+  "Faithful souls would be contented with the word of God which bids us:
+  'Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of
+  the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' But also we are drawn by the faults of
+  our heretical opponents to do things unlawful, to scale heights
+  inaccessible, to speak out what is unspeakable, to presume where we
+  ought not. And whereas it is by faith alone that we should worship the
+  Father and reverence the Son, and be filled with the Spirit, we are
+  now obliged to strain our weak human language in the utterance of
+  things beyond its scope; forced into this evil procedure by the evil
+  procedure of our foes. Hence what should be matter of silent religious
+  meditation must now needs be imperilled by exposition in words."
+
+The province of reverent theology is to aid accurate thinking by the use
+of metaphysical or psychological terms. Its definitions are no more an
+end in themselves than an analysis of good drinking water, which by
+itself leaves us thirsty but encourages us to drink. So the Nicene Creed
+is the analysis of the river of the water of life of which the Sermon on
+the Mount is a description, flowing on from age to age, freely offered
+to the thirsty souls of men.
+
+This justification of the ancient creeds carries with it the
+justification of later confessions so far as they answered questions
+which would be fatal to religion if they were not answered. As Principal
+Stewart puts it very clearly: "The answer given is based on the
+philosophy or science of the period. It does not necessarily form part
+of the religion itself, but is the best which with the materials at its
+command, in its own defence and in its love for truth, the religion (and
+its advocates) can give. But the answers may be superseded by better
+answers, or they may be rendered unnecessary because the questions are
+no longer asked. Thus the Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries
+elaborated answers to questions, which if no attempt had been made to
+answer them, would have perplexed earnest souls and condemned the
+system; but many parts of the system are now obsolete, because the
+conditions which suggested the questions which they sought to answer no
+longer exist or have no longer any interest or importance."
+
+  LITERATURE.--See J. Pearson, _Exposition of the Creed_ (new ed.,
+  1849); A. E. Burn, _Introduction to the Creeds_ (1899), and _The
+  Athanasian Creed_ in vol. iv. of _Texts and Studies_ (1896); H. B.
+  Swete, _The Apostles' Creed_ (1899); F. Kattenbusch, _Das apostolische
+  Symbol_ (1894-1900); C. A. Heurtley, _Harmonia Symbolica_ (1858): C.
+  P. Caspari, _Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und der
+  Glaubensregel_ (Christiania, 1866); and _Alte und neue Quellen_
+  (1879). T. Zahn, _Das apostolische Symbolum_ (1893); C. A. Swainson,
+  _The Nicene and Apostles' Creed_ (1875); G. D. W. Ommanney, _The
+  Athanasian Creed_ (1897); B. F. Westcott, _The Historic Faith_ (1882);
+  J. Jayne, _The Athanasian Creed_ (1905); J. A. Robinson, _The
+  Athanasian Creed_ (1905); E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_ (1908);
+  F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_ (1876); D. Waterland, _Crit. Hist._
+  edited by E. King (Oxford, 1870); F. Loofs and A. Harnack articles in
+  Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ ("Athanasianum" and
+  "Konstantino-politanisches Symbol") (1896), &c.; K. Künstle,
+  _Antipriscilliana_ (Freiburg i. B., 1905); A. Stewart, _Croall
+  Lectures_ (in the press); S. G. Green, _The Christian Creed_ (1898);
+  P. Hall, _Harmony of Protestant Confessions_ (London, 1842); F.
+  Kattenbusch, _Confessionskunde_ (Freiburg i. B., 1890); Winex's
+  _Confessions of Christendom_ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1865); A.
+  Seeberg, _Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit_ (Leipzig, 1903); F.
+  Wiegand, _Die Stellung des apostolischen Symbols_ (Leipzig, 1899); H.
+  Goodwin, _The Foundations of the Creed_ (London, 1889); T. H. Bindley,
+  _The Oecumenical Documents of the Faith_ (London, 1906); J. Kunze,
+  _Das nicänisch-konstantinopolitanische Symbol_; S. Baeumer, _Das
+  apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis_ (Mainz, 1893); B. Döxholt, _Das
+  Taufsymbol. der alten Kirche_ (Paderborn, 1898); L. Hahn, _Bibliothek
+  der Symbole u. Glaubensregeln_ (Breslau, 1897); A. C. McGiffert, _The
+  Apostles' Creed_ (Edinburgh, 1902); and F. Loofs, _Symbolik_ (Leipzig,
+  1902).     (A. E. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Jevons, _Introd. to the History of Religion_, p. 394.
+
+  [2] _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxi.
+
+  [3] _Personality, Human and Divine_ (cheap edition), p. 36.
+
+  [4] Ib. p. 38.
+
+  [5] _Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit_, p. 85. Zahn's reasoned
+    argument stands in contrast to the blind reliance on tradition shown
+    by Macdonald, _The Symbol of the Apostles_, and the fanciful
+    reconstruction of the primitive creed by Baeumer, Harnack or Seeberg.
+
+  [6] McGiffert, on the other hand, argues that the Roman Creed was
+    composed to meet the errors of Marcion, p. 58 ff. He omits, however,
+    to mention this, which is Zahn's strongest argument.
+
+  [7] It is probable that "one" has dropped out of the first clause.
+    Zahn acutely suggests that it was omitted in the time of Zephyrinus
+    to counteract Monarchian teaching such as the formula: "believe in
+    one God, Jesus Christ."
+
+  [8] _Anecdota Maredsolana_, iii. iii. p. 199.
+
+  [9] Dörholt has shown that Petavius (d. 1652) was the first to remark
+    that the so-called Constantinopolitan form was quoted by Epiphanius
+    before the Council met, but was not able to explain the fact.
+
+  [10] Burn, "Note on the Old Latin text," _Journal of Theol. Studies._
+
+  [11] e.g. Cod. Escurial J.c. 12, _saec._ x. xi. In Cod. Matritensis,
+    p. 21 (1872), _saec._ x. xi., and Cod. Matritensis 10041 (begun in
+    the year A.D. 948), the words are omitted under the heading council of
+    Constantinople but inserted under the heading council of Toledo, in
+    the former MS., above the line and in a later hand, which shows
+    conclusively how the interpolation crept in.
+
+  [12] The first person who doubted the authorship seems to have been
+    Joachim Camerarius, 1551, who was so fiercely attacked in consequence
+    that he omitted the passage from his Latin edition. _Zeitschrift für
+    K.G._ x. (1889), p. 497.
+
+  [13] In response to an invitation issued by the archbishop of
+    Canterbury, acting on a resolution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908,
+    a committee of eminent scholars met in April and May 1909 for the
+    purpose of preparing a new translation. Their report, issued on the
+    18th of October, stated that they had "endeavoured to represent the
+    Latin original more exactly in a large number of cases." The general
+    effect of the new version is to make the creed more comprehensible,
+    e.g. by the substitution of "infinite" and "reasoning" for such
+    archaisms as "incomprehensible" and "reasonable." The sense of the
+    damnatory clauses has, however, not been weakened. [Ed.]
+
+  [14] Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_, p. 40.
+
+  [15] _The Christian Creed and the Creeds of Christendom_, p. 181.
+
+  [16] Gibson, _The Thirty-nine Articles_, p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+CREEK (Mid. Eng. _crike_ or _creke_, common to many N. European
+languages), a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in a river formed by
+the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow harbour for small vessels.
+In America and Australia especially there are many long streams which
+can be everywhere forded and sometimes dry up, and are navigable only at
+their tidal estuaries, mere brooks in width which are of great economic
+importance. They form complete river-systems, and are the only supply of
+surface water over many thousand square miles. They are at some seasons
+a mere chain of "water-holes," but occasionally they are strongly
+flooded. Since exploration began at the coast and advanced inland, it is
+probable that the explorers, advancing up the narrow inlets or "creeks,"
+used the same word for the streams which flowed into these as they
+followed their courses upward into the country. The early settlers would
+use the same word for that portion of the stream which flowed through
+their own land, and in Australia particularly the word has the same
+local meaning as brook in England. On a map the whole system is called a
+river, e.g. the river Wakefield in South Australia gives its name to
+Port Wakefield, but the stream is always locally called "the creek."
+
+
+
+
+CREEK or MUSKOGEE (MUSCOGEE) INDIANS (Algonquin _maskoki_, "creeks," in
+reference to the many creeks and rivulets running through their
+country), a confederacy of North American Indians, who formerly occupied
+most of Alabama and Georgia. The confederacy seems to have been in
+existence in 1540, and then included the Muskogee, the ruling tribe,
+whose language was generally spoken, the Alabama, the Hichiti, Koasati
+and others of the Muskogean stock, with the Yuchi and the Natchez, a
+large number of Shawano and the Seminoles of Florida as a branch. The
+Creeks were agriculturists living in villages of log houses. They were
+brave fighters, but during the 18th century only had one struggle, of
+little importance, with the settlers. The Creek War of 1813-14 was,
+however, serious. The confederacy was completely defeated in three
+hard-fought battles, and the peace treaty which followed involved the
+cession to the United States government of most of the Creek country. In
+the Civil War the Creeks were divided in their allegiance and suffered
+heavily in the campaigns. The so-called Creek nation is now settled in
+Oklahoma, but independent government virtually ceased in 1906. In 1904
+they numbered some 16,000, some two-thirds being of pure or mixed Creek
+blood.
+
+
+
+
+CREETOWN, a seaport of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 991. It
+is situated near the head of Wigtown Bay, 18 m. W. of Castle Douglas,
+but 23½ m. by the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Railway. The granite
+quarries in the vicinity constitute the leading industry, the stone for
+the Liverpool docks and other public works having been obtained from
+them. The village dates from 1785, and it became a burgh of barony in
+1792. Sir Walter Scott laid part of the scene of _Guy Mannering_ in this
+neighbourhood. Dr Thomas Brown, the metaphysician (1778-1820), was a
+native of the parish (Kirkmabreck) in which Creetown lies.
+
+
+
+
+CREEVEY, THOMAS (1768-1838), English politician, son of William Creevey,
+a Liverpool merchant, was born in that city in March 1768. He went to
+Queen's College, Cambridge, and graduated as seventh wrangler in 1789.
+The same year he became a student at the Inner Temple, and was called to
+the bar in 1794. In 1802 he entered parliament through the duke of
+Norfolk's nomination as member for Thetford, and married a widow with
+six children, Mrs Ord, who had a life interest in a comfortable income.
+Creevey was a Whig and a follower of Fox, and his active intellect and
+social qualities procured him a considerable intimacy with the leaders
+of this political circle. In 1806, when the brief "All the Talents"
+ministry was formed, he was given the office of secretary to the Board
+of Control; in 1830, when next his party came into power, Creevey, who
+had lost his seat in parliament, was appointed by Lord Grey treasurer of
+the ordnance; and subsequently Lord Melbourne made him treasurer of
+Greenwich hospital. After 1818, when his wife died, he had very slender
+means of his own, but he was popular with his friends and was well
+looked after by them; Greville, writing of him in 1829, remarks that
+"old Creevey is a living proof that a man may be perfectly happy and
+exceedingly poor. I think he is the only man I know in society who
+possesses nothing." He died in February 1838. He is remembered through
+the _Creevey Papers_, published in 1903 under the editorship of Sir
+Herbert Maxwell, which, consisting partly of Creevey's own journals and
+partly of correspondence, give a lively and valuable picture of the
+political and social life of the late Georgian era, and are
+characterized by an almost Pepysian outspokenness. They are a useful
+addition and correction to the _Croker Papers_, written from a Tory
+point of view. For thirty-six years Creevey had kept a "copious diary,"
+and had preserved a vast miscellaneous correspondence with such people
+as Lord Brougham, and his step-daughter, Elizabeth Ord, had assisted
+him, by keeping his letters to her, in compiling material avowedly for a
+collection of Creevey Papers in the future. At his death it was found
+that he had left his mistress, with whom he had lived for four years,
+his sole executrix and legatee, and Greville notes in his _Memoirs_ the
+anxiety of Brougham and others to get the papers into their hands and
+suppress them. The diary, mentioned above, did not survive, perhaps
+through Brougham's success, and the papers from which Sir Herbert
+Maxwell made his selection came into his hands from Mrs Blackett Ord,
+whose husband was the grandson of Creevey's eldest step-daughter.
+
+
+
+
+CREFELD, or KREFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
+on the left side of and 3 m. distant from the Rhine, 32 m. N.W. from
+Cologne, and 15 m. N.W. from Düsseldorf, with which it is connected by a
+light electric railway. Pop. (1875) 62,905; (1905) 110,410. The town is
+one of the finest in the Rhine provinces, being well and regularly
+built, and possessing several handsome squares and attractive public
+gardens. A striking point about the inner town is that it forms a large
+rectangle, enclosed by four wide boulevards or "walls." This feature,
+rare in German towns, is due to the fact that Crefeld was always an
+"open place," and that therefore the circular form of a fortress town
+could be dispensed with. It has six Roman Catholic and four Evangelical
+churches (of which the Gothic Friedenskirche with a lofty spire, and the
+modern church of St Joseph, in the Romanesque style, are alone worth
+special mention); there are also a Mennonite and an Old Catholic church.
+The town hall, decorated with frescoes by P. Janssen (b. 1844), and the
+Kaiser Wilhelm Museum are the most noteworthy secular buildings. In the
+promenades are monuments to Moltke, Bismarck and Karl Wilhelm, the
+composer of the _Wacht am Rhein_. Among the schools and scientific
+institutions of the town the most important is the higher grade
+technical school for the study of the textile industries, which is
+attended by students from all parts of the world. Connected with this
+are subsidiary schools, notably one for dyeing and finishing.
+
+Crefeld is the most important seat of the silk and velvet manufactures
+in Germany, and in this industry the larger part of the population of
+town and neighbourhood is employed. There are upwards of 12,000 silk
+power-looms in operation, and the value of the annual output in this
+branch alone is estimated at £3,000,000. A special feature is the
+manufacture of silk for covering umbrellas; while of its velvet
+manufacture that of velvet ribbon is the chief. The other industries of
+the town, notably dyeing, stuff-printing and stamping, are very
+considerable, and there are also engineering and machine shops,
+chemical, cellulose, soap, and other factories, breweries, distilleries
+and tanneries. The surrounding fertile district is almost entirely laid
+out in market gardens. Crefeld is an important railway centre, and has
+direct communication with Cologne, Rheydt, München-Gladbach and Holland
+(via Zevenaar).
+
+Crefeld is first mentioned in records of the 12th century. From the
+emperor Charles IV. it received market rights in 1361 and the status of
+a town in 1373. It belonged to the counts of Mörs, and was annexed to
+Prussia, with the countship, in 1702. It remained a place of little
+importance until the 17th century, when religious persecution drove to
+it a number of Calvinists and Separatists from Jülich and Berg (followed
+later by Mennonites), who introduced the manufacture of linen. The
+number of such immigrants still further increased in the 18th century,
+when, the silk industry having been introduced from Holland, the town
+rapidly developed. The French occupation in 1795 and the resulting
+restriction of trade weighed for a while heavily upon the new industry;
+but with the termination of the war and the re-establishment of Prussian
+rule the old prosperity returned.
+
+
+
+
+CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843-1901), English historian and bishop of London,
+was born at Carlisle on the 5th of July 1843, being the eldest son of
+Robert Creighton, a well-to-do upholsterer of that city. He was educated
+at Durham grammar school and at Merton College, Oxford, where he was
+elected to a postmastership in 1862. He obtained a first-class in
+_literae humaniores_, and a second in law and modern history in 1866. In
+the same year he became tutor and fellow of Merton. He was ordained
+deacon, on his fellowship, in 1870, and priest in 1873; in 1872 he had
+married Louise, daughter of Robert von Glehn, a London merchant (herself
+a writer of several successful books of history). Meanwhile he had
+published several small historical works; but his college and university
+duties left little time for writing, and in 1875 he accepted the
+vicarage of Embleton, a parish on the coast of Northumberland, near
+Dunstanburgh, with an ancient and beautiful church and a fortified
+parsonage house, and within reach of the fine library in Bamburgh Keep.
+Here he remained for nearly ten years, acquiring that experience of
+parochial work which afterwards stood him in good stead, taking private
+pupils, studying and writing, as well as taking an active part in
+diocesan business. Here too he planned and wrote the first two volumes
+of his chief historical work, the _History of the Papacy_; and it was in
+part this which led to his being elected in 1884 to the newly-founded
+Dixie professorship of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge, where he
+went into residence early in 1885. At Cambridge his influence at once
+made itself felt, especially in the reorganization of the historical
+school. His lectures and conversation classes were extraordinarily good,
+possessing as he did the rare gift of kindling the enthusiasm without
+curbing the individuality of his pupils. In 1886 he combined with other
+leading historians to found the _English Historical Review_, of which he
+was editor for five years. Meanwhile the vacations were spent at
+Worcester, where he had been nominated a canon residentiary in 1885. In
+1891 he was made canon of Windsor; but he never went into residence,
+being appointed in the same year to the see of Peterborough. He threw
+himself with characteristic energy into his new work, visiting,
+preaching and lecturing in every part of his diocese. He also found time
+to preach and lecture elsewhere, and to deliver remarkable speeches at
+social functions; he worked hard with Archbishop Benson on the Parish
+Councils Bill (1894); he became the first president of the Church
+Historical Society (1894), and continued in that office till his death;
+he took part in the Laud Commemoration (1895); he represented the
+English Church at the coronation of the tsar (1896). He even found time
+for academical work, delivering the Hulsean lectures (1893-1894) and the
+Rede lecture (1894) at Cambridge, and the Romanes lecture at Oxford
+(1896).
+
+In 1897, on the translation of Dr Temple to Canterbury, Bishop Creighton
+was transferred to London. During Dr Temple's episcopate ritual
+irregularities of all kinds had grown up, which left a very difficult
+task to his successor, more especially in view of the growing public
+agitation on the subject, of which he had to bear the brunt. As was only
+natural, his studied fairness did not satisfy partisans on either side;
+and his efforts towards conciliation laid him open to much
+misunderstanding. His administration, none the less, did much to preserve
+peace. He strained every nerve to induce his clergy to accept his ruling
+on the questions of the reservation of the Sacrament and of the
+ceremonial use of incense in accordance with the archbishop's judgment in
+the Lincoln case; but when, during his last illness, a prosecutor brought
+proceedings against the clergy of five recalcitrant churches, the bishop,
+on the advice of his archdeacons, interposed his veto. One other effort
+on behalf of peace may be mentioned. In accordance with a vote of the
+diocesan conference, the bishop arranged the "Round Table Conference"
+between representative members of various parties, held at Fulham in
+October 1900, on "the doctrine of the Holy Eucharist and its expression
+in ritual," and a report of its proceedings was published with a preface
+by him. The true work of his episcopate was, however, positive, not
+negative. He was an excellent administrator; and his wide knowledge,
+broad sympathies, and sound common sense, though they placed him outside
+the point of view common to most of his clergy, made him an invaluable
+guide in correcting their too often indiscreet zeal. He fully realized
+the special position of the English Church in Christendom, and firmly
+maintained its essential teaching. Yet he was no narrow Anglican. His
+love for the English Church never blinded him to its faults, and no man
+was less insular than he. As he was a historian before he became a
+bishop, so it was his historical sense which determined his general
+attitude as a bishop. It was this, together with a certain native taste
+for ecclesiastical pomp, which made him--while condemning the
+unhistorical extravagances of the ultra-ritualists--himself a ritualist.
+He was the first bishop of London, since the Reformation, to
+"pontificate" in a mitre as well as the cope, and though no man could
+have been less essentially "sacerdotal" he was always careful of correct
+ceremonial usage. His interests and his sympathies, however, extended far
+beyond the limits of the church. He took a foremost part in almost every
+good work in his diocese, social or educational, political or religious;
+while he found time also to cultivate friendly relations with thinking
+men and women of all schools, and to help all and sundry who came to him
+for advice and assistance. It was this multiplicity of activities and
+interests that proved fatal to him. By degrees the work, and especially
+the routine work, began to tell on him. He fell seriously ill in the late
+summer of 1900, and died on the 14th of January 1901. He was buried in St
+Paul's cathedral, where a statue surmounts his tomb.
+
+He was a man of striking presence and distinguished by a fine courtesy
+of manner. His irrepressible and often daring humour, together with his
+frank distaste for much conventional religious phraseology, was a
+stumbling-block to some pious people. But beneath it all lay a deep
+seriousness of purpose and a firm faith in what to him were the
+fundamental truths of religion.
+
+Bishop Creighton's principal published works are: _History of the Papacy
+during the Period of the Reformation_ (5 vols., 1882-1897, new ed.);
+_History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome_ (6
+vols., 1897); _The Early Renaissance in England_ (1895); _Cardinal
+Wolsey_ (1895); _Life of Simon de Montfort_ (1876, new ed. 1895); _Queen
+Elizabeth_ (1896). He also edited the series of _Epochs of English
+History_, for which he wrote "The Age of Elizabeth" (13th ed., 1897);
+_Historical Lectures and Addresses by Mandell Creighton, &c._, edited by
+Mrs Creighton, were published in 1903.
+
+  See _Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, &c._, by his wife (2
+  vols., 1904); and the article "Creighton and Stubbs" in _Church
+  Quarterly Review_ for Oct. 1905.
+
+
+
+
+CREIL, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 32 m. N. of
+Paris on the Northern railway, on which it is an important junction.
+Pop. (1906) 9234. The town is situated on the Oise, on which it has a
+busy port. The manufacture of machinery, heavy iron goods and nails, and
+copper and iron founding, are important industries, and there are
+important metallurgical and engineering works at Montataire, about 2 m.
+distant; bricks and tiles and glass are also manufactured, and the
+Northern railway has workshops here. The church (12th to 15th centuries)
+is in the Gothic style. There are some traces of a castle in which
+Charles VI. resided during the period of his madness. Creil played a
+part of some importance in the wars of the 14th, 15th and 16th
+centuries.
+
+
+
+
+CRELL (or KRELL), NICHOLAS (c. 1551-1601), chancellor of the elector of
+Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the university of his native
+town. About 1580 he entered the service of Christian, the eldest son of
+Augustus I., elector of Saxony, and when Christian succeeded his father
+as elector in 1586, became his most influential counsellor. Crell's
+religious views were Calvinistic or Crypto-Calvinistic, and both before
+and after his appointment as chancellor in 1589 he sought to substitute
+his own form of faith for the Lutheranism which was the accepted religion
+of electoral Saxony. Calvinists were appointed to many important
+ecclesiastical and educational offices; a translation of the Bible with
+Calvinistic annotations was brought out; and other measures were taken by
+Crell to attain his end. In foreign politics, also, he sought to change
+the traditional policy of Saxony, acting in unison with John Casimir,
+administrator of the Rhenish Palatinate, and promising assistance to
+Henry IV. of France. These proceedings, coupled with the jealousy felt at
+Crell's high position and autocratic conduct, made the chancellor very
+unpopular, and when the elector died in October 1591 he was deprived of
+his offices and thrown into prison by order of Frederick William, duke of
+Saxe-Altenburg, the regent for the young elector Christian II. His trial
+was delayed until 1595, and then, owing partly to the interference of the
+imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_), dragged on for six
+years. At length it was referred by the emperor Rudolph II. to a court
+of appeal at Prague, and sentence of death was passed. This was carried
+out at Dresden on the 9th of October 1601.
+
+  See A. V. Richard, _Der kurfürstliche sächsische Kanzler Dr Nicolaus
+  Krell_ (Frankfort, 1860); B. Bohnenstädt, _Das Prozessverfahren gegen
+  den kursächsischen Kanzler Dr Nikolaus Krell_ (Halle, 1901); F.
+  Brandes, _Der Kanzler Krell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus_ (Leipzig,
+  1873); and E. L. T. Henke, _Caspar Peucer und Nicolaus Krell_
+  (Marburg, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+CREMA, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Cremona, 26 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Cremona. Pop. (1901) town,
+8027; commune, 9609. It is situated on the right bank of the Serio, 240
+ft. above sea-level, in the centre of a rich agricultural district. The
+cathedral has a fine Lombard Gothic façade of the second half of the
+14th century; the campanile belongs to the same period; the rest of the
+church has been restored in the baroque style. The clock tower opposite
+dates from the period of Venetian dominion in the 16th and 17th
+centuries. The castle, which was one of the strongest in Italy, was
+demolished in 1809. The church of S. Maria, ¾ m. E. of the town, was
+begun in 1490 by Giov. Batt. Battaggio; it is in the form of a Greek
+cross, with a central dome, and the exterior is a fine specimen of
+polychrome Lombard work (E. Gussalli in _Rassegna d' arte_, 1905, p.
+17).
+
+The date of the foundation of Crema is uncertain. In the 10th century it
+appears to have been the principal place of the territory known as Isola
+Fulcheria. In the 12th century it was allied with Milan and attacked by
+Cremona, but was taken and sacked by Barbarossa in 1160. It was rebuilt
+in 1185. It fell under the Visconti in 1338, and joined the Lombard
+republic in 1447; but was taken by the Venetians in 1449, and, except
+from 1509 to 1529, remained under their dominion until 1797.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION (Lat. _cremare_, to burn), the burning of human corpses. This
+method of disposal of the dead may be said to have been the general
+practice of the ancient world, with the important exceptions of Egypt,
+where bodies were embalmed, Judaea, where they were buried in
+sepulchres, and China, where they were buried in the earth. In Greece,
+for instance, so well ascertained was the law that only suicides,
+unteethed children, and persons struck by lightning were denied the
+right to be burned. At Rome, one of the XII. Tables said, "Hominem
+mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito"; and in fact, from the close of
+the republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, burning on the
+pyre or rogus was the general rule.[1] Whether in any of these cases
+cremation was adopted or rejected for sanitary or for superstitious
+reasons, it is difficult to say. Embalming would probably not succeed in
+climates less warm and dry than the Egyptian. The scarcity of fuel might
+also be a consideration. The Chinese are influenced by the doctrine of
+Feng-Shui, or incomprehensible wind water; they must have a properly
+placed grave in their own land, and with this view their corpses are
+sent home from long distances abroad. Even the Jews used cremation in
+the vale of Tophet when a plague came; and the modern Jews of Berlin and
+the Spanish and Portuguese Jews at Mile End cemetery were among the
+first to welcome the lately revived process. Probably also, some nations
+had religious objections to the pollution of the sacred principle of
+fire, and therefore practised exposure, suspension, throwing into the
+sea, cave-burial, desiccation or envelopment.[2] Some at least of these
+methods must obviously have been suggested simply by the readiest means
+at hand. Cremation is still practised over a great part of Asia and
+America, but not always in the same form. Thus, the ashes may be stored
+in urns, or buried in the earth, or thrown to the wind, or (as among the
+Digger Indians) smeared with gum on the heads of the mourners. In one
+case the three processes of embalming, burning and burying are gone
+through; and in another, if a member of the tribe die at a great
+distance from home, some of his money and clothes are nevertheless
+burned by the family. As food, weapons, &c., are sometimes buried with
+the body, so they are sometimes burned with the body, the whole ashes
+being collected.[3] The Siamese have a singular institution, according
+to which, before burning, the embalmed body lies in a temple for a
+period determined by the rank of the dead man,--the king for six months,
+and so downwards. If the poor relatives cannot afford fuel and the other
+necessary preparations, they bury the body, but exhume it for burning
+when an opportunity occurs.
+
+There can be little doubt that the practice of cremation in modern
+Europe was at first stopped, and has since been prevented in great
+measure, by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body;
+partly also by the notion that the Christian's body was redeemed and
+purified.[4] Some clergymen, however, as the late Mr Haweis in his
+_Ashes to Ashes, a Cremation Prelude_ (London, 1874), have been
+prominent in favour of cremation. The objection of the clergy was
+disposed of by the philanthropist Lord Shaftesbury when he asked, "What
+would in such a case become of the blessed martyrs?" The very general
+practice of burying bodies in the precincts of a church in order that
+the dead might take benefit from the prayers of persons resorting to the
+church, and the religious ceremony which precedes both European burials
+and Asiatic cremations, have given the question a religious aspect. It
+is, however, in the ultimate resort, really a sanitary one. The
+disgusting results of pit-burial made cemeteries necessary. But
+cemeteries are equally liable to overcrowding, and are often nearer to
+inhabited houses than the old churchyards. It is possible, no doubt, to
+make a cemetery safe approximately by selecting a soil which is dry,
+close and porous, by careful drainage, and by rigid enforcement of the
+rules prescribing a certain depth (8 to 10 ft.) and a certain
+superficies (4 yds.) for graves. But a great mass of sanitary objections
+may be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries. A
+dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas, is the
+worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is strikingly
+illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs to absorb the
+carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins, even when sawdust
+charcoal is used, is still more dangerous than ordinary burial. It must
+also be remembered that the cemetery system can only be temporary. The
+soil is gradually filled with bones; houses crowd round; the law itself
+permits the reopening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. We
+shall not, indeed, as Browne says, "be knaved out of our graves to have
+our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned into pipes!" But on
+this ground of sentiment cremation would certainly prevent any
+interruption of that "sweet sleep and calm rest" which the old prayer
+that the earth might lie lightly has associated with the grave. And in
+the meantime we should escape the horror of putrefaction and of the
+"small cold worm that fretteth the enshrouded form."
+
+In Europe Christian burial was long associated entirely with the
+ordinary practice of committing the corpse to the grave. But in the
+middle of the 19th century many distinguished physicians and chemists,
+especially in Italy, began prominently to advocate cremation. In 1874, a
+congress called to consider the matter at Milan resolved to petition the
+Chamber of Deputies for a clause in the new sanitary code, permitting
+cremation under the supervision of the syndics of the commune. In
+Switzerland Dr Vegmann Ercolani was the champion of the cause (see his
+_Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead_, 4th ed.,
+Zurich, 1874). So long ago as 1797 cremation was seriously discussed by
+the French Assembly under the Directory, and the events of the
+Franco-Prussian War again brought the subject under the notice of the
+medical press and the sanitary authorities. The military experiments at
+Sédan, Chalons and Metz, of burying large numbers of bodies with
+quicklime, or pitch and straw, were not successful, but very dangerous.
+The matter was considered by the municipal council of Paris in connexion
+with the new cemetery at Méry-sur-Oise; and the prefect of the Seine in
+1874 sent a circular asking information to all the cremation societies
+in Europe. In Britain the subject had slumbered for two centuries, since
+in 1658 Sir Thomas Browne published his quaint _Hydriotaphia, or
+Urn-burial_, which was mainly founded on the _De funere Romanorum_ of
+the learned Kirchmannus. In 1817 Dr J. Jamieson gave a sketch of the
+"Origin of Cremation" (_Proc. Royal Soc. Edin._, 1817), and for many
+years prior to 1874 Dr Lord, medical officer of health for Hampstead,
+continued to urge the practical necessity for the introduction of the
+system.
+
+It was Sir Henry Thompson, however, who first brought the question
+prominently before the public. Thompson's problem was--"Given a dead
+body, to resolve it into carbonic acid, water and ammonia, rapidly,
+safely and not unpleasantly." To solve this problem, experiments were
+made by Dr Polli at the Milan gas works, fully described in Dr Pietra
+Santa's book, _La Crémation des morts en France et à l'étranger_, and by
+Professor Brunetti, who exhibited an apparatus at the Vienna Exhibition
+of 1873, and who stated his results in _La Cremazione dei cadaveri_
+(Padua, 1873). Polli obtained complete incineration or calcination of
+dogs by the use of coal-gas mixed with atmospheric air, applied to a
+cylindrical retort of refracting clay, so as to consume the gaseous
+products of combustion. The process was complete in two hours, and the
+ashes weighed about 5% of the weight before cremation. Brunetti used an
+oblong furnace of refracting brick with side-doors to regulate the
+draught, and above a cast-iron dome with movable shutters. The body was
+placed on a metallic plate suspended on iron wire. The gas generated
+escaped by the shutters, and in two hours carbonization was complete.
+The heat was then raised and concentrated, and at the end of four hours
+the operation was over; 180 lb. of wood costing 2s. 4d. sterling was
+burned. In a reverberating furnace used by Sir Henry Thompson a body,
+weighing 144 lb., was reduced in fifty minutes to about 4 lb. of lime
+dust. The noxious gases, which were undoubtedly produced during the
+first five minutes of combustion, passed through a flue into a second
+furnace and were entirely consumed. In the ordinary Siemens regenerative
+furnace (which was adapted by Reclam in Germany for cremation, and also
+by Sir Henry Thompson) only the hot-blast was used, the body supplying
+hydrogen and carbon; or a stream of heated hydrocarbon mixed with heated
+air was sent from a gasometer supplied with coal, charcoal, peat or
+wood,--the brick or iron-cased chamber being thus heated to a high
+degree before cremation begins.
+
+Steps were at once taken to form an English society to promote the
+practice of cremation. A declaration of its objects was drawn up and
+signed on the 13th January 1874 by the following persons--Shirley
+Brooks, William Eassie, Ernest Hart, the Rev. H. R. Haweis, G. H.
+Hawkins, John Cordy Jeaffreson, F. Lehmann, C. F. Lord, W. Shaen, A.
+Strahan, (Sir) Henry Thompson, Major Vaughan, Rev. C. Voysey and (Sir)
+T. Spencer Wells; and they frequently met to consider the necessary
+steps in order to attain their object. The laws and regulations having
+been thoroughly discussed, the membership of the society was constituted
+by an annual contribution for expenses, and a subscription to the
+following declaration:--
+
+  "We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and desire to
+  substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the body into its
+  component elements by a process which cannot offend the living, and
+  shall render the remains absolutely innocuous. Until some better
+  method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually known as
+  cremation."
+
+Finally, on 29th April a meeting was held, a council was formed, and Sir
+H. Thompson was elected president and chairman. Mr Eassie (who in 1875
+published a valuable work on _Cremation of the Dead_) was at the same
+time appointed honorary secretary.[5] In 1875 the following were
+added:--Mrs Rose Mary Crawshay, Mr Higford Burr, Rev. J. Long, Mr W.
+Robinson and the Rev. Brooke Lambert. Subsequently followed Lord
+Bramwell, Sir Chas. Cameron, Dr Farquharson, Sir Douglas Galton, Lord
+Playfair, Mr Martin Ridley Smith, Mr James A. Budgett, Mr Edmund Yates,
+Mr J. S. Fletcher, Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, the duke of Westminster
+(on Lord Bramwell's death), and Sir Arthur Arnold. These may be
+considered the pioneers of the movement for reform.
+
+On account of difficulties and prejudices[6] the council was unable to
+purchase a freehold until 1878, when an acre was obtained at Woking, not
+far distant from the cemetery. At this time the furnace employed by
+Professor Gorini of Lodi, Italy, appeared to be the best for working
+with on a small scale; and he was invited to visit England to
+superintend its erection. This was completed in 1879, and the body of a
+horse was cremated rapidly and completely without any smoke or effluvia
+from the chimney. No sooner was this successful step taken than the
+president received a communication from the Home Office, which resulted
+in a personal interview with the home secretary; the issue of which was
+that if the society desired to avoid direct hostile action, an assurance
+must be given that no cremation should be attempted without leave first
+obtained from the minister. This of course was given, no further
+building took place, and the society's labours were confined to
+employing means to diffuse information on the subject. Sir Spencer Wells
+brought it before the annual meeting of the British Medical Association
+in 1880, when a petition to the home secretary for permission to adopt
+cremation was largely signed by the leading men in town and country, but
+without any immediate result. The next important development was an
+application to the council in 1882, by Captain Hanham in Dorsetshire, to
+undertake the cremation of two deceased relatives who had left express
+instructions to that effect. The home secretary was applied to, and
+refused. The bodies were preserved, and Captain Hanham erected a
+crematorium on his estate, and the cremation took place there. He
+himself, dying a year later, was cremated also; in both cases the result
+was attained under the supervision of Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, who
+succeeded Mr Eassie in 1888 as honorary secretary to the society. The
+government took no notice. But in 1883 a cremation was performed in
+Wales by a man on the body of his child, and legal proceedings were
+taken against him. Mr Justice Stephen, in February 1884, delivered his
+well-known judgment at the Assizes there, declaring cremation to be a
+legal procedure, provided no nuisance were caused thereby to others. The
+council of the society at once declared themselves absolved from their
+promise to the Home Office, and publicly offered to perform cremation,
+laying down strict rules for careful inquiry into the cause of death in
+every case. They stated that they were fully aware that the chief
+practical objection to cremation was that it removed traces of poison or
+violence which might have caused death. Declining to trust the very
+imperfect statement generally made respecting the cause of death in the
+ordinary death certificate (unless a coroner's inquest had been held),
+they adopted a system of very stringent inquiry, the result of which in
+each case was to be submitted to the president, to be investigated and
+approved by him before cremation could take place, with the right to
+decline or require an inquest if he thought proper; and this course has
+been followed ever since the first cremation.
+
+It was on 26th March 1885 that the first cremation at Woking took place,
+the subject being a lady.[7] In 1888 it became necessary, nearly 100
+bodies having been by this date cremated, to build a large hall for
+religious service, as well as waiting-rooms, in connexion with the
+crematorium there. The dukes of Bedford and Westminster headed the
+appeal for funds, each with £105. The former (the 9th duke of Bedford)
+especially took great interest in the progress of the society, and
+offered to furnish further donations to any extent necessary. During the
+next two years he generously defrayed costs to the amount of £3500, and
+built a smaller crematorium adjacent for himself and family. The latter
+building was first used on the 18th of January 1891, a few days after
+the duke's own death. The number of cremations slowly increased year by
+year, and the total at the end of 1900 was 1824. Many of these were
+persons of distinction--by rank, or by attainments in art, literature
+and science, or in public life.
+
+
+  Death certification.
+
+The council next turned their attention to the need for a national system
+of death certification, to be enforced by law as an essential and
+much-needed reform in connexion with cremation. On the 6th of January 1893
+the duke of Westminster introduced a deputation to the secretary of state
+for the home department, Mr Asquith, and the president of the Cremation
+Society opened the case, showing that no less than 7% of the burials in
+England took place without any certificate, while in some districts it was
+far greater. In consequence of this the home secretary appointed a select
+committee of the House of Commons, which was presided over by Sir Walter
+Foster, of the Local Government Board, to "inquire into the sufficiency of
+the existing law as to the disposal of the dead ... and especially for
+detecting the causes of death due to poison, violence, and criminal
+neglect." After a prolonged inquiry and careful consideration of the
+evidence, a full report and conclusions drawn therefrom were unanimously
+agreed to, and published as a blue-book in the autumn of 1893.[8]
+
+  The following conclusions are quoted from this volume:--Page iii. "So
+  far as affording a record of the true cause of death and the detection
+  of it in cases where death may have been due to violence, poison, or
+  where criminal neglect is concerned, the class of certified deaths
+  leaves much to be desired." Page iv. Certification is extremely
+  important as a deterrent of crime, and numerous proofs are given at
+  length in support of the statement.... "Contrast this class with that
+  of uncertified deaths, when the result is such as to force upon your
+  Committee the conviction that vastly more deaths occur annually from
+  foul play and criminal neglect than the law recognizes." Page vii.
+  Great uncertainty in resorting to the coroner's court, and want of
+  system in connexion with the practice of it, are affirmed to exist.
+  Page x. It is stated that the opportunity for perpetrating crime is
+  great in the considerable class of uncertified cases ... "in short,
+  the existing procedure plays into the hands of the criminal classes."
+  "Your Committee are much impressed with the serious possibilities
+  implied in a system which permits death and burial to take place
+  without the production of satisfactory medical evidence of the cause
+  of death." Page xii. "Your Committee have arrived at the conclusion
+  that the appointment of medical officials, who should investigate all
+  cases of death which are not certified by a medical practitioner in
+  attendance, is a proposal which deserves their support."
+
+  In considering cremation, the committee reported as follows:--Page
+  xxii. "Your Committee are of opinion that there is only one question
+  in connexion with this method of disposing of a dead body to which it
+  is necessary for them to refer. That question is the supposed danger
+  to the community arising from the fact that with the destruction of
+  the body the possibility of obtaining evidence of the cause of death
+  by _post-mortem_ examination also disappears." The mode of proceeding
+  adopted by the Cremation Society of England having been described,
+  "your Committee are of opinion that with the precautions adopted in
+  connexion with cremation, as carried out by the Cremation Society,
+  there is little probability that cases of crime would escape
+  detection, but inasmuch as these precautions are purely voluntary,
+  your Committee consider that in the interests of public safety such
+  regulations should be enforced by law."
+
+The Cremation Society felt that this report much strengthened the case
+for legislation amending the law of death certification. In August 1894
+the president of the society laid the results of the select committee
+before the British Medical Association at Bristol, and a unanimous vote
+was obtained in favour of the suggestions made by it. In November a
+second deputation waited on Mr Asquith, in which the president of the
+society begged him to carry out the system recommended. The home
+secretary replied that the business belonged to the department of the
+Local Government Board, and that it was already dealing with the
+question and bringing it to a satisfactory solution. Soon afterwards,
+however, the government changed, other questions became pressing and
+further consideration of the subject was postponed.
+
+  With reference to the recommendations of the select committee before
+  mentioned, the regulations necessary for registration of death and the
+  disposal of the dead may be outlined as follows:--(1) That no body
+  should be buried, cremated, or otherwise disposed of without a medical
+  certificate of death signed, after personal knowledge and observation,
+  or by information obtained after investigation made by a qualified
+  medical officer appointed for the purpose. (2) A qualified medical man
+  should be appointed as official certifier in every parish, or district
+  of neighbouring parishes, his duty being to inquire into all cases of
+  death and report the cause in writing, together with such other
+  details as may be deemed necessary. This would naturally fall within
+  the duties of the medical officer of health for the district, and
+  registration should be made at his office. (3) If the circumstances of
+  death obviously demand a coroner's inquest, the case should be
+  transferred to his court and the cause determined, with or without
+  autopsy. If there appears to be no ground for holding an inquest, and
+  autopsy be necessary to the furnishing of a certificate, the official
+  certifier should make it, and state the result in his report. (4) No
+  person or company should be henceforth permitted to construct or use
+  an apparatus for cremating human bodies without license from the Local
+  Government Board or other authority. (5) No crematory should be so
+  employed unless the site, construction, and system of management have
+  been approved after survey by an officer appointed by government for
+  the purpose. But the licence to construct or use a crematory should
+  not be withheld if guarantees are given that the conditions required
+  are or will be complied with. All such crematories to be subject at
+  all times to inspection by an officer appointed by the government. (6)
+  The burning of a human body, otherwise than in an officially
+  recognized crematory, should be illegal, and punishable by penalty.
+  (7) No human body should be cremated unless the official examiner
+  added the words "Cremation permitted." This he should be bound to do
+  if, after due inquiry, he can certify that the deceased has died from
+  natural causes, and not from ill-treatment, poison or violence.
+
+The Cremation Act 1902 (2 Ed. VII. ch. 8), and the regulations[9] made
+thereunder by the home secretary, have since given legislative effect to
+some of the foregoing recommendations and have laid down a code of laws
+applicable and binding where cremation is resorted to. But the
+amendments in the law of death certification generally, so long pressed
+for by the Cremation Society of England and recommended by the select
+committee, are none the less necessary.
+
+Undoubtedly in populous communities and in crowded districts the burial
+of dead bodies is liable to be a source of danger to the living. As
+early as 1840 a commission had been appointed, including some of the
+earliest authorities on sanitary science,--namely, Drs Southwood Smith,
+Chadwick, Milroy, Sutherland, Waller Lewis and others,--to conduct a
+searching inquiry into the state of the burial-grounds of London and
+large provincial towns. By the report[10] the existence of such a danger
+was strikingly demonstrated, and intramural interments were in
+consequence made illegal. The advocates of burial then declared that
+interment in certain light soils would safely and efficiently decompose
+the putrefying elements which begin to be developed the moment death
+takes place, and which rapidly become dangerous to the living, still
+more so in the case of deaths from contagious disease. But these light
+dry soils and elevated spots are precisely those best adapted for human
+habitation; to say nothing of their value for food-production. Granted
+the efficiency of such burial, it only effects in the course of a few
+years what exposure to a high temperature accomplishes with absolute
+safety in an hour. In a densely populated country the struggle between
+the claims of the dead and the living to occupy the choicest sites
+becomes a serious matter. All decaying animal remains give off
+effluvia--gases--which are transferred through the medium of the
+atmosphere to become converted into vegetable growth of some
+kind--trees, crops, garden produce, grass, &c. Every plant absorbs these
+gases by its leaves, each one of which is provided with hundreds of
+stomata--open mouths--by which they fix or utilize the carbon to form
+woody fibre, and give off free oxygen to the atmosphere. Thus it is that
+the air we breathe is kept pure by the constant interaction between the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may be taken as certain that the
+gaseous products arising from a cremated body--amounting, although
+invisible, to no less than 97% of its weight, 3% only remaining as
+solids, in the form of a pure white ash--become in the course of a few
+hours integral and active elements in some form of vegetable life. The
+result of this reasoning has been that, by slow degrees, crematoria have
+been constructed at many of the populous cities in Great Britain and
+abroad (see _Statistics_ below).
+
+The subject of employing cremation for the bodies of those who die of
+contagious disease is a most important one. Sir H. Thompson advocated
+this course in a paper read before the International Congress of Hygiene
+held in London in 1891; and a resolution strongly approving the practice
+was carried unanimously at a large meeting of experts and medical
+officers of health. Such diseases are small-pox, scarlet fever,
+diphtheria, consumption, malignant cholera, enteric, relapsing and
+puerperal fevers, the annual number of deaths from which in the United
+Kingdom is upwards of 80,000. Complete disinfection takes place by means
+of the high temperature to which the body is exposed. At the present day
+it is compulsory to report any case in the foregoing list, whenever it
+occurs, to the medical officer of health for the district; and it is
+customary to disinfect the rooms themselves, as well as the clothes and
+furniture used by the patient if the case be fatal; but the body, which
+is the source and origin of the evil, and is itself loaded with the
+germs of a specific poison, is left to the chances which attach to its
+preservation in that condition, when buried in a fit or unfit soil or
+situation.
+
+The process of preparing a body for cremation requires a brief notice.
+The plan generally adopted is to place it (in the usual shroud) in a
+light pine shell, discarding all heavy oak or other coffin, and to
+introduce it into the furnace in that manner. Thus there is no handling
+or exposure of the body after it reaches the crematorium. The type of
+furnace in general use is on the reverberatory principle, the body being
+consumed in a separate chamber heated to over 2000° Fahr. by a coke
+fire. In a few instances a furnace burning ordinary illuminating gas
+instead of coke is in use.     (H. TH.)
+
+_Statistics._--The following statistics show the history of modern
+cremation and its progress at home and abroad:--
+
+  _Foreign Countries._--The first experiment in Italy was made by
+  Brunetti in 1869, his second and third in 1870. Gorini and Polli
+  published their first cases in 1872. Brunetti exhibited his at Vienna
+  in 1873. All were performed in the open air. The next in Europe was a
+  single case at Breslau in 1874. Soon after, an English lady was
+  cremated in a closed apparatus (Siemens) at Dresden. The next
+  cremation in a closed receptacle took place at Milan in 1876. In the
+  same year a Cremation Society was formed, a handsome building was
+  erected, and two Gorini furnaces were at work in 1880. In 1899 the
+  total number of cremations was 1355. In Italy 28 crematoria exist,
+  viz. at Alessandria, Asti, Bologna, Bra, Brescia, Como, Cremona,
+  Florence, Genoa, Leghorn, Lodi, Mantua, Milan, Modena, Novara, Padua,
+  Perugia, Pisa, Pistoia, Rome, San Remo, Siena, Spezia, Turin, Udine,
+  Verona and Venice. The total number of cremations in Italy in 1906 was
+  440.
+
+  In Germany the first crematorium was erected at Gotha; it was opened
+  in 1878, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907,
+  numbered 4584. At Ohlsdorf, Hamburg, the crematorium was opened in
+  November 1892, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907,
+  numbered 2521. At Heidelberg the crematorium was opened in 1891, and
+  the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907, numbered 1741.
+  Throughout the German empire there are, in addition to the above,
+  crematoria at Bremen, Eisenach, Jena, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Mainz,
+  Offenbach, Heilbronn, Ulm, Chemnitz and Stuttgart, besides over eighty
+  societies for promoting cremation. The total number of cremations
+  which took place in Germany in 1906 was 2057, making a total of 13,614
+  down to September 1st, 1907.
+
+  Other societies exist in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Norway and
+  Switzerland. At the crematorium at Copenhagen 77 bodies were cremated
+  in 1906, the total being 500. The Stockholm crematorium was opened in
+  October 1887, and the cremations in 1906 numbered 56. The Gothenburg
+  crematorium (also in Sweden) was opened in January 1890, and the
+  cremations there in 1906 were 14. Switzerland has four crematoria,
+  viz. at Basel, Geneva, Zurich and St Gallen--524 cremations took place
+  in that country in 1906.
+
+  In Paris a cremation society was founded in 1880, and in 1886-1887 a
+  large crematorium was constructed by the municipal council at Père
+  Lachaise, containing three Gorini furnaces. It was first used in
+  October 1887 for two men who died of small-pox. The demand became
+  large; an improved furnace was soon devised, the unclaimed bodies at
+  the hospitals and the remains at the dissecting rooms being cremated
+  there, besides a large number of embryos. In 1906 the number,
+  including the last-named class, was 6906. The total number of
+  incinerations at Père Lachaise down to December 31st, 1906 (including
+  both classes) was 86,962; but the employment of cremation for the
+  purposes named has deterred a resort to it by many. Had a separate
+  establishment been organized for the public, its success would have
+  been greater. A magnificent edifice has been constructed by the
+  municipality of Paris for the conservation of the ashes of persons who
+  have been cremated. Crematoria have been established also at Rouen,
+  Rheims and Marseilles, and the construction of crematoria in other of
+  the great provincial centres of France was in contemplation.
+
+  In Buenos Aires, since 1844, the bodies of all persons dying of
+  contagious disease are cremated, and there is also a separate
+  establishment for the use of the public.
+
+  At Tokio in Japan no fewer than 22 crematoria exist, and about an
+  equal number of cremations and burials in earth take place.
+
+  At Calcutta a crematorium was opened in 1906.
+
+  At Montreal, Canada, there is a crematorium which began operations in
+  1902, and completed 44 cremations up to the 31st of December 1905.
+
+  _United States._--There were 33 crematoria in the United States on
+  September 1st, 1907. At Fresh Pond, New York, erected in 1885, the
+  total number of cremations to December 31st, 1906, being 8514. At
+  Buffalo, N.Y., the first cremation taking place in 1885, and the total
+  number down to December 31st, 1905, being 787. At Troy (Earl
+  Crematorium), N. Y., the first cremation taking place in 1890, and the
+  total number down to December 31st, 1905, 249. At Swinburne Island,
+  N.Y., cremations beginning in 1890, total to December 31st, 1905, 123.
+  At Waterville, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1893, total to December
+  31st, 1906, 62. At St Louis, Missouri, cremations beginning in 1888,
+  total to September 1st, 1907, 2151. At Philadelphia, Penn., cremations
+  beginning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, 1685. At San
+  Francisco, Cal., "Odd Fellows," opened in 1895, total to December
+  31st, 1906, 6151. Also at San Francisco, Cal., "Cypress Lawn," opened
+  in 1893, total to December 31st, 1905, 1492. At Los Angeles, Cal., No.
+  1, Rosedale, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 866; No. 2,
+  Evergreen, opened in 1902, total to December 31st, 1905, 413; No. 3,
+  Gower Street, opened in 1907 with 54 down to September 1st. At Boston,
+  Mass., opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2493. At
+  Cincinnati, Ohio, opened in 1887, total to September 1st, 1907, 1245.
+  At Chicago, opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2188. At
+  Detroit, Michigan, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 689.
+  At Pittsburg, Penn., opened in 1886, total to September 1st, 1907,
+  377. At Baltimore, opened in 1889, total to December 31st, 1905, 263.
+  At Lancaster, Penn., opened in 1884, total to December 31st, 1906,
+  106. At Davenport, Iowa, opened in 1891, total to September 1st, 1907,
+  331. At Milwaukee, opened in 1896, total to October 1905, 442. At
+  Washington, opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, 275. The Le
+  Moyne (Washington, Pa.) crematory, the first in the United States, was
+  erected by Dr F. Julius le Moyne in 1876, for private use. The first
+  cremation was that of the baron de Palin, of New York, December 6th,
+  1876. Dr F. Julius le Moyne died October 1879, and his remains were
+  cremated in his own crematory. Total number of cremations (to 1907)
+  41. At Pasadena, Cal., opened in 1895, total to September 1st, 1907,
+  491. At St. Paul, Minn., opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905,
+  145. At Fort Wayne, Ind., opened in 1897, total to September 1st,
+  1907, 41. At Cambridge, Mass., opened in 1900, total to September 1st,
+  1907, 1090. At Cleveland, Ohio, opened in 1901, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 283. At Denver, Col., opened in 1904, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 109. At Indianapolis, opened in 1904, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 32. At Oakland, Cal., opened in 1902, total to September
+  1st, 1907, 2196. At Portland, Ore., opened in 1901, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 327. At Seattle, Washington, opened in 1905, with 21 to
+  the end of that year.
+
+  _United Kingdom._--There were 13 crematoria in operation in the United
+  Kingdom on September 1st, 1907. The oldest is that at Woking, Surrey,
+  which was first used for the cremation of human remains in 1885. In
+  that year three cremations took place there, the number gradually
+  increasing each year until in 1901 301 bodies were cremated. Up to
+  September 1st, 1907, the total number of cremations at Woking was
+  2939. Then followed the crematorium at Manchester, opened in 1892 with
+  90 in 1906 and a total of 1085; at Glasgow, opened in 1895 with 45 in
+  1906 and a total of 252; at Liverpool, opened in 1896, with 46 in 1906
+  and a total of 374; at Hull, opened in 1901 (the first municipal
+  crematorium), with 17 in 1906 and a total of 116; at Darlington, also
+  opened in 1901, with 13 in 1906 and a total of 33. The Leicester
+  Corporation crematorium was opened in 1902, with 12 in 1906 and a
+  total of 50. Next in order came the Golder's Green crematorium,
+  Hampstead, London, which was opened in December 1902. In 1906 298
+  cremations took place there, making a total of 1091. After this
+  followed the Birmingham crematorium, opened in 1903, with 21 in 1906
+  and a total of 84; the City of London crematorium at Little Ilford,
+  opened in 1905, with 23 for 1906 and a total of 46; the Leeds
+  crematorium, opened in 1905, with 15 in 1906 and a total of 42; the
+  Bradford Corporation crematorium, opened in 1905, with 13 in 1906, and
+  a total of 20; and the Sheffield Corporation crematorium, opened in
+  1905, with 6 in 1906 and a total of 26. Thus there were 739
+  cremations in the United Kingdom in 1906, making a total at the above
+  crematoria down to September 1st, 1907, of 6158. The Golder's Green
+  crematorium, situated on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath,
+  stands in its own grounds of 12 acres, and is but 35 minutes' drive
+  from Oxford Circus. London thus has two crematoria within driving
+  distance of its centre, and the Woking crematorium within easy reach
+  of the south-west suburbs.     (J. C. S.-H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger
+    Theodosius (Gibbon v. 411).
+
+  [2] The Colchians, says Sir Thos. Browne, made their graves in the
+    air, i.e. on trees.
+
+  [3] In the case of a great man there was often a burnt offering of
+    animals and even of slaves (see Caesar, _De bell. Gall._ iv.).
+
+  [4] A temple of the Holy Ghost (see Tertullian, _De anima_, c. 51,
+    cited in Müller, _Lex. des Kirchenrechts_, s.v. "Begräbniss").
+
+  [5] This was the first society formed in Europe for the promotion of
+    cremation.
+
+  [6] For a full account of these, see _Modern Cremation: Its History
+    and Practice to the Present Date_, by Sir H. Thompson, Bart.,
+    F.R.C.S., &c. (4th ed., Smith, Elder, Waterloo Place, 1901).
+
+  [7] _The Times_, 27th March 1885.
+
+  [8] _Reports on Death Certification_ (1893), Eyre & Spottiswoode,
+    London (373,472).
+
+  [9] _Statutory Rules and Orders_, 1903, No. 286, Eyre & Spottiswoode.
+
+  [10] _A Special Inquiry into the Practice of Interment in Towns_, by
+    Edwin Chadwick (London, 1843), is replete with evidence, and should
+    be read by those who desire to pursue the inquiry further.
+
+
+
+
+CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN (1837-1880), Dutch novelist, born at Arnhem in
+September 1837, started life as a painter, but soon exchanged the brush
+for the pen. The great success of his first novelettes (_Betuwsche
+Novellen_ and _Overbetuwsche Novellen_), published about 1855--reprinted
+many times since, and translated into German and French--showed Cremer
+the wisdom of his new departure. These short stories of Dutch provincial
+life are written in the quaint dialect of the Betuwe, the large flat
+Gelderland island, formed by the Rhine, the name recalling the presumed
+earliest inhabitants, the Batavi. Cremer is strongest in his delineation
+of character. His picturesque humour, coming out, perhaps, most forcibly
+in his numerous readings of the Betuwe novelettes, soon procured him the
+name of the "Dutch Fritz Reuter." In his later novels Cremer abandons
+both the language and the slight love-stories of the Betuwe, depicting
+the Dutch life of other centres in the national tongue. The principal
+are: _Anna Rooze_ (1867), _Dokter Helmond en zijn Vrouw_ (1870), _Hanna
+de Freule_ (1873), _Daniel Sils_, &c. Cremer was less successful as a
+playwright, and his two comedies, _Peasant and Nobleman_ and _Emma
+Bertholt_, did not enhance his fame; nor did a volume of poems,
+published in 1873. He died at the Hague in June 1880. His collected
+novels have appeared at Leiden. An English novel, founded by Albert
+Vandam upon _Anna Rooze_, considered by many his best work, was
+published in London (1877, 3 vols.) under the title of _An Everyday
+Heroine_.
+
+
+
+
+CREMERA (mod. _Fosso della Valchetta_), a small stream in Etruria which
+falls into the Tiber about 6 m. N. of Rome. The identification with the
+Fosso della Valchetta is fixed as correct by the account in Livy ii. 49,
+which shows that the Saxa Rubra were not far off, and this we know to be
+the Roman name of the post station of Prima Porta, about 7 m. from Rome
+on the Via Flaminia. It is famous for the defeat of the three hundred
+Fabii, who had established a fortified post on its banks.
+
+
+
+
+CRÉMIEUX, ISAAC MOÏSE [known as ADOLPHE] (1796-1880), French statesman,
+was born at Nîmes, of a rich Jewish family. He began life as an advocate
+in his native town. After the revolution of 1830 he came to Paris,
+formed connexions with numerous political personages, even with King
+Louis Philippe, and became a brilliant defender of Liberal ideas in the
+law courts and in the press,--witness his _Éloge funèbre_ of the bishop
+Grégoire (1830), his _Mémoire_ for the political rehabilitation of
+Marshal Ney (1833), and his plea for the accused of April (1835).
+Elected deputy in 1842, he was one of the leaders in the campaign
+against the Guizot ministry, and his eloquence contributed greatly to
+the success of his party. On the 24th of February 1848 he was chosen by
+the Republicans as a member of the provisional government, and as
+minister of justice he secured the decrees abolishing the death penalty
+for political offences, and making the office of judge immovable. When
+the conflict between the Republicans and Socialists broke out he
+resigned office, but continued to sit in the constituent assembly. At
+first he supported Louis Napoleon, but when he discovered the prince's
+imperial ambitions he broke with him. Arrested and imprisoned on the 2nd
+of December 1851, he remained in private life until November 1869, when
+he was elected as a Republican deputy by Paris. On the 4th of September
+1870 he was again chosen member of the government of national defence,
+and resumed the ministry of justice. He then formed part of the
+Delegation of Tours, but took no part in the completion of the
+organization of defence. He resigned with his colleagues on the 14th of
+February 1871. Eight months later he was elected deputy, then life
+senator in 1875. He died on the 10th of February 1880. Crémieux did much
+to better the condition of the Jews. He was president of the Universal
+Israelite Alliance, and while in the government of the national defence
+he secured the franchise for the Jews in Algeria. This famous _Décret
+Crémieux_ was the origin of the anti-Semitic movement in Algiers.
+Crémieux published a _Recueil_ of his political cases (1869), and the
+_Actes de la délégation de Tours et de Bordeaux_ (2 vols., 1871).
+
+
+
+
+CREMONA, LUIGI (1830-1903), Italian mathematician, was born at Pavia on
+the 7th of December 1830. In 1848, when Milan and Venice rose against
+Austria, Cremona, then only a lad of seventeen, joined the ranks of the
+Italian volunteers, and remained with them, fighting on behalf of his
+country's freedom, till, in 1849, the capitulation of Venice put an end
+to the hopeless campaign. He then returned to Pavia, where he pursued
+his studies at the university under Francesco Brioschi, and determined
+to seek a career as teacher of mathematics. His first appointment was as
+elementary mathematical master at the gymnasium and lyceum of Cremona,
+and he afterwards obtained a similar post at Milan. In 1860 he was
+appointed to the professorship of higher geometry at the university of
+Bologna, and in 1866 to that of higher geometry and graphical statics at
+the higher technical college of Milan. In this same year he competed for
+the Steiner prize of the Berlin Academy, with a treatise entitled
+"Memoria sulle superficie de terzo ordine," and shared the award with J.
+C. F. Sturm. Two years later the same prize was conferred on him without
+competition. In 1873 he was called to Rome to organize the college of
+engineering, and was also appointed professor of higher mathematics at
+the university. Cremona's reputation had now become European, and in
+1879 he was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society. In the
+same year he was made a senator of the kingdom of Italy. He died on the
+10th of June 1903.
+
+As early as 1856 Cremona had begun to contribute to the _Annali di
+scienze matematiche e fisiche_, and to the _Annali di matematica_, of
+which he became afterwards joint editor. Papers by him have appeared in
+the mathematical journals of Italy, France, Germany and England, and he
+has published several important works, many of which have been
+translated into other languages. His manual on _Graphical Statics_ and
+his _Elements of Projective Geometry_ (translated by C. Leudesdorf),
+have been published in English by the Clarendon Press. His life was
+devoted to the study of higher geometry and reforming the more advanced
+mathematical teaching of Italy. His reputation mainly rests on his
+_Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle curve piane_, which
+proclaims him as a follower of the Steinerian or synthetical school of
+geometricians. He notably enriched our knowledge of curves and surfaces.
+
+
+
+
+CREMONA, a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the capital of the
+province of Cremona, situated on the N. bank of the Po, 155 ft. above
+sea-level, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Milan. Pop. (1901) town, 31,655;
+commune, 39,344. It is oval in shape, and retains its medieval
+fortifications. The line of the streets is as a rule irregular, but the
+town as a whole is not very picturesque.
+
+The finest building is the cathedral, in the Lombard Romanesque style,
+begun in 1107 and consecrated in 1190. The wheel window of the main
+façade dates from 1274. The transepts, added in the 13th and 14th
+centuries (before 1370), have picturesque brick façades, with fine
+terra-cotta ornamentation. The great Torrazzo, a tower 397 ft. high,
+which stands by the cathedral, and is connected with it by a series of
+galleries, dates from 1267-1291. It is square below, with an octagonal
+summit of a slightly later period. The main façade of the cathedral was
+largely altered in 1491, to which date the statues upon it belong; the
+portico in front was added in 1497. The building would be much improved
+by isolation, which it is hoped may be effected. The interior is fine,
+and is covered with frescoes by Cremonese masters of the 16th century
+(Boccaccio Boccaccino, Romanino, Pordenone, the Campi, &c.), which are
+not of first-rate importance. The choir has fine stalls of 1489-1490,
+upon one of which there is a view of the façade of the cathedral before
+its alteration in 1491. The treasury contains a richly worked silver
+crucifix 9 ft. high, of 1478, the base of which was added in 1774-1775.
+It contains 408 statues and busts altogether, the central three of which
+belong to an earlier cross of 1231. Adjacent to the cathedral is the
+octagonal baptistery of 1167, 92 ft. in height and 75 ft. in external
+diameter, also in the Lombard Romanesque style. The so-called Campo
+Santo, close to the baptistery, contains a mosaic pavement with
+emblematic figures belonging probably to the 8th and 9th centuries, and
+running under the cathedral. Of the other churches, S. Michele has a
+simple and good Lombard Romanesque 13th-century façade, and a plain
+interior of the 10th century; and S. Agata a good campanile in the
+former style. Many of them contain paintings by the later Cremonese
+masters, especially Galeazzo Campi (d. 1536) and his sons Giulio and
+Antonio. The latter are especially well represented in S. Sigismondo, 1½
+m. outside the town to the E. On the side of the Piazza del Comune
+opposite to the cathedral are two 13th-century Gothic palaces in brick,
+the Palazzo Comunale and the former Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, now the
+seat of the commissioners for the water regulation of the district.
+Another palace of the same period is now occupied by the Archivio
+Notarile. The modern Palazzo Ponzoni contains a museum and a technical
+institute. In front of it is a statue of the composer Amilcare
+Ponchielli, who was a native of Cremona. The Palazzo Fodri, now the
+Monte di Pietà, has a beautiful 15th-century frieze of terra-cotta
+bas-reliefs, as have some other palaces in private hands.
+
+Cremona was founded by the Romans in 218 B.C. (the same year as
+Placentia) as an outpost against the Gallic tribes. It was strengthened
+in 190 B.C. by the sending of 6000 new settlers and soon became one of
+the most flourishing towns of upper Italy. It probably acquired
+municipal rights in 90 B.C., but Augustus, owing to the fact that it did
+not support him, assigned a part of its territory to his veterans in 41
+B.C., and henceforth it is once more called _colonia_. It remained
+prosperous (we may note that Virgil came here to school from Mantua)
+until it was taken and destroyed by the troops of Vespasian after the
+second battle of Betriacum (Bedriacum) in A.D. 69; the temple of Mefitis
+alone being left standing (see Tacitus, _Hist._ iii. 15 seq.). One of
+the bronze plates which decorated the exterior of the war-chest of the
+_legio III. Macedonica_, one of the legions which had been defeated at
+Betriacum, has been found near Cremona itself (F. Barnabei in _Notiz.
+scavi_, 1887, p. 210). Vespasian ordered its immediate reconstruction,
+but it never recovered its former prosperity, though its position on the
+N. bank of the Po, at the meeting-point of roads from Placentia, Mantua
+(the Via Postumia in both cases), Brixellum (where the roads from
+Cremona and Mantua to Parma met and crossed the river), Laus Pompeia and
+Brixia, still gave it considerable importance. It was destroyed once
+more by the Lombards under Agilulf in A.D. 605, and rebuilt in 615, and
+was ruled by dukes; but in the 9th century the bishops of Cremona began
+to acquire considerable temporal power. Landulf, a German to whom the
+see was granted by Henry II., was driven out in 1022, and his palace
+destroyed, but other Germans were invested with the see afterwards. The
+commune of Cremona is first mentioned in a document of 1098, recording
+its investiture by the countess Matilda with the territory known as
+Isola Fulcheria. It had to sustain many wars with its neighbours in
+order to maintain itself in its new possessions. In the war of the
+Lombard League against Barbarossa, Cremona, after having shared in the
+destruction of Crema in 1160 and Milan in 1162, finally joined the
+league, but took no part in the battle of Legnano, and thus procured
+itself the odium of both sides. In the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles
+Cremona took the latter side, and defeated Parma decisively in 1250. It
+was during this period that Cremona erected its finest buildings. There
+was, however, a Guelph reaction in 1264; the city was taken and sacked
+by Henry VII. in 1311, and was a prey to struggles between the two
+parties, until Galeazzo Visconti took possession of it in 1322. In 1406
+it fell under the sway of Cabrino Fondulo, who received with great
+festivities both the emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII., the latter
+on his way to the council at Constance; he, however, handed it over to
+Filippo Maria Visconti in 1419. In 1499 it was occupied by Venetians,
+but in 1512 it came under Massimiliano Sforza. In 1535, like the rest of
+Lombardy, it fell under Spanish domination, and was compelled to
+furnish large money contributions. The population fell to 10,000 in
+1668. The surprise of the French garrison on the 2nd of February 1702,
+by the Imperialists under Prince Eugene, was a celebrated incident of
+the War of the Spanish Succession. The Imperialists were driven from
+Cremona after a sharp struggle, but captured Marshal Villeroi, the
+French commander. Hence the celebrated verse:
+
+  "Français, rendons grâce à Bellone;
+   Notre bonheur est sans égal;
+   Nous avons conservé Cremoneé,
+   Et perdu notre général."
+
+In the 18th century the prosperity of Cremona revived. In the Italian
+republic it was the capital of the department of the upper Po. Like the
+rest of Lombardy it fell under Austria in 1814, and became Italian in
+1859.
+
+  See _Guida di Cremona_ (Cremona, 1904).     (T. AS.)
+
+
+
+
+CREMORNE GARDENS, formerly a popular resort by the side of the Thames in
+Chelsea, London, England. Originally the property of the earl of
+Huntingdon (c. 1750), father of Steele's "Aspasia," who built a mansion
+here, the property passed through various hands into those of Thomas
+Dawson, Baron Dartrey and Viscount Cremorne (1725-1813), who greatly
+beautified it. It was subsequently sold and converted into a proprietary
+place of entertainment, being popular as such from 1845 to 1877. It
+never, however, acquired the fashionable fame of Vauxhall, and finally
+became so great an annoyance to residents in the neighbourhood that a
+renewal of its licence was refused; and the site of the gardens was soon
+built over. The name survives in Cremorne Road.
+
+
+
+
+CRENELLE (an O. Fr. word for "notch," mod. _créneau_; the origin is
+obscure; cf. "cranny"), a term generally considered to mean an embrasure
+of a battlement, but really applying to the whole system of defence by
+battlements. In medieval times no one could "crenellate" a building
+without special licence from his supreme lord.
+
+
+
+
+CREODONTA, a group of primitive early Tertiary Carnivora, characterized
+by their small brains, the non-union in most cases of the scaphoid and
+lunar bones of the carpus, and the general absence of a distinct pair of
+"sectorial" teeth (see CARNIVORA). In many respects the Lower Eocene
+creodonts come very close to the primitive ungulates, or Condylarthra
+(see PHENACODUS), from which, however, they are distinguished by the
+approximation in the form of the skull to the carnivorous type, the more
+trenchant teeth (at least in most cases) and the more claw-like
+character of the terminal joints of the toes. The general character of
+the dentition in the more typical forms, such as _Hyaenodon_ (see fig.),
+recalls that of the carnivorous marsupials, this being especially the
+case with the Patagonian species, which have been separated as a
+distinct group under the name of Sparassodonta (q.v.). The skull,
+however, is not of the marsupial type, and in the European forms at any
+rate there is a complete replacement of the milk-molars by pre-molars,
+while the minute structure of the enamel of the teeth is of the
+carnivorous as distinct from the marsupial type. The head is large in
+proportion to the body, the lumbar region is unusually rigid, owing to
+the complexity of the articulations, and the tail and hind-limbs are
+relatively long and powerful. In life the tail probably passed almost
+imperceptibly into the body, as in the Tasmanian thylacine.
+
+[Illustration: Dentition of _Hyaenodon leptorhynchus_, from the Lower
+Oligocene of France. The last upper molar is concealed by the
+penultimate tooth.]
+
+That the Creodonta are the ancestors of the modern Carnivora is now
+generally admitted. They are apparently the most generalized and
+primitive of all (placental?) mammals, and probably the direct
+descendants of the mammal-like anomodont or theromorphous reptiles of
+the Triassic epoch; the evolution from that group having perhaps taken
+place in Africa or in the lost area connecting that continent with
+India. The relationship of the creodonts to the carnivorous marsupials
+is not yet determined, but it seems scarcely probable that the
+remarkable resemblance existing between the teeth of the two groups can
+be solely due to parallelism; and it has been suggested by Dr L. Wortman
+that both creodonts and marsupials are descended from a common
+non-placental stock. In other words, the latter are a side-branch from
+the anomodont-creodont line of descent. Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out
+that certain of the Egyptian creodonts appear to have been aquatic or
+subaquatic in their habits; and it is possible that from such types are
+derived the true seals, or _Phocidae_.
+
+With the exception of Australasia, and perhaps South Africa, creodonts
+(on the supposition that the Patagonian forms are rightly included)
+appear to have had a nearly world-wide distribution. In Europe and North
+America they date from the Lowest Eocene and lived till the early
+Oligocene, while in India they apparently survived till a much later
+epoch. Some of the Oligocene forms, alike as regards dentition, the
+union of the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and the complexity of the
+brain, approximated to modern Carnivora.
+
+As regards classification Mr W. D. Matthew includes in the typical
+family _Hyaenodontidae_ not only the widely spread genera _Hyaenodon_
+and _Pterodon_, but likewise _Sinopa_ (_Stypolophus_), _Cynohyaenodon_
+and _Proviverra_; but _Viverravus_ (_Didymictis_) and _Vulpavus_
+(_Miacis_) are assigned to a separate family (_Viverravidae_). It is
+these latter forms which come nearest to modern Carnivora, most of them
+being of Oligocene age. The American and European _Oxyaena_ apparently
+represents a family by itself, as does the American _Oxyclaena_; and
+_Palaeonictis_ and _Patriofelis_ are assigned to yet another family;
+while the North American Lower Eocene and Eocene _Arctocyon_ typifies a
+family characterized by the somewhat bear-like type of dentition.
+_Mesonyx_ is also a very distinct type, from the North American Eocene
+and Oligocene. Some of the species of _Patriofelis_ and _Hyaenodon_
+attained the size of a tiger, although with long civet-like skulls. In
+the earlier forms the claws often retained somewhat of a hoof-like
+character.
+
+The South American _Borhyaenidae_ include _Borhyaena_, _Prothylacinus_,
+_Amphiproviverra_, and allied forms from the Santa Cruz beds of
+Patagonia, and have been referred to a distinct group, the
+Sparassodonta, mainly on account of the alleged replacement of some only
+of the milk-molars by premolars. By their first describer, Dr F.
+Ameghino, they were regarded as nearly related to the marsupials, to
+which group they were definitely referred in 1905 by Mr W. J. Sinclair,
+by whom they are considered near akin to _Thylacinus_, but this view
+seems to be disproved by the investigations of Mr C. S. Tomes into the
+structure of the dental enamel.
+
+It should be added that Dr J. L. Wortman transfers _Viverravus_ and its
+allies, together with _Palaeonictis_, to the true Carnivora, the latter
+genus being regarded as the ancestral type of the sabre-toothed cats
+(see MACHAERODUS).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Wortman, "Eocene Mammalia in the Peabody Museum,
+  pt. i. Carnivora," _Amer. J. Sci._ vols. xi.-xiv. (1901-1902); W. D.
+  Matthew, "Additional Observations on the Creodonta," _Bull. Amer.
+  Mus._ vol. xiv. p. i. (1901); C. W. Andrews, _Descriptive Catalogue of
+  the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum_, British Museum (1906); W. J.
+  Sinclair, "The Marsupial Fauna of the Santa Cruz Beds," _Proc. Amer.
+  Phil. Soc._ vol. xlix. p. 73 (1905).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CREOLE (the Fr. form of _criollo_, a West Indian, probably a negro
+corruption of the Span, _criadillo_, the dim. of _criado_, one bred or
+reared, from _criar_, to breed, a derivative of the Lat. _creare_, to
+create), a word used originally (16th century) to denote persons born in
+the West Indies of Spanish parents, as distinguished from immigrants
+direct from Spain, aboriginals, negroes or mulattos. It is now used of
+the descendants of non-aboriginal races born and settled in the West
+Indies, in various parts of the American mainland and in Mauritius,
+Reunion and some other places colonized by Spain, Portugal, France, or
+(in the case of the West Indies) by England. In a similar sense the name
+is used of animals and plants. The use of the word by some writers as
+necessarily implying a person of mixed blood is totally erroneous; in
+itself "creole" has no distinction of colour; a Creole may be a person
+of European, negro, or mixed extraction--or even a horse.
+
+Local variations occur in the use of the word as applied to people. In
+the West Indies it designates the descendants of any European race; in
+the United States the French-speaking native portion of the white race
+in Louisiana, whether of French or Spanish origin. The French Canadians
+are never termed creoles, nor is the word now used of the South
+Americans of Spanish or Portuguese descent, but in Mexico whites of pure
+Spanish extraction are still called creoles. In all the countries named,
+when a non-white creole is indicated the word negro is added. In
+Mauritius, Reunion, &c., on the other hand, creole is commonly used to
+designate the black population, but is also occasionally used of the
+inhabitants of European descent. The difference in type between the
+white creoles and the European races from whom they have sprung, a
+difference often considerable, is due principally to changed
+environment--especially to the tropical or semi-tropical climate of the
+lands they inhabit. The many patois founded on French and Spanish, and
+used chiefly by creole negroes, are spoken of as creole languages, a
+term extended by some writers to include similar dialects spoken in
+countries where the word creole is rarely used.
+
+  See G. W. Cable, _The Creoles of Louisiana_ (1884); A. Coelho, "Os
+  Dialetos romanicos on neo latinos na Africa, Asia e America," _Bol.
+  Soc. Geo. Lisboa_ (1884-1886), with bibliography. For the Creole
+  French of Haiti see an article by Sir H. H. Johnston in _The Times_,
+  April 10th, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CREON, in Greek legend, son of Lycaethus, king of Corinth and father of
+Glauce or Creusa, the second wife of Jason.
+
+
+
+
+CREON, in Greek legend, son of Menoeceus, king of Thebes after the death
+of Laius, the husband of his sister Jocasta. Thebes was then suffering
+from the visitation of the Sphinx, and Creon offered his crown and the
+hand of the widowed queen to whoever should solve the fatal riddle.
+Oedipus, the son of Laius, ignorant of his parentage, successfully
+accomplished the task and married Jocasta, his mother. By her he had two
+sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, who agreed after their father's death to
+reign in alternative years. Eteocles first ascended the throne, being
+the elder, but at the end of the year refused to resign, whereupon his
+brother attacked him at the head of an army of Argives. The war was to
+be decided by a single combat between the brothers, but both fell.
+Creon, who had resumed the government during the minority of Leodamas,
+the son of Eteocles, commanded that the Argives, and above all
+Polyneices, the cause of all the bloodshed, should not receive the rites
+of sepulture, and that any one who infringed this decree should be
+buried alive. Antigone, the sister of Polyneices, refused to obey, and
+sprinkled dust upon her brother's corpse. The threatened penalty was
+inflicted; but Creon's crime did not escape unpunished. His son, Haemon,
+the lover of Antigone, killed himself on her grave; and he himself was
+slain by Theseus. According to another account he was put to death by
+Lycus, the son or descendant of a former ruler of Thebes (Euripides,
+_Herc. Fur._ 31; Apollodorus iii. 5, 7; Pausanias ix. 5).
+
+
+
+
+CREOPHYLUS of Samos, one of the earliest Greek epic poets. According to
+an epigram of Callimachus (quoted in Strabo xiv. p. 638) he was the
+author of a poem called [Greek: Oichalias halôsis], which told the story
+of the conquest of Oechalia by Heracles. Creophylus was said to have
+been a friend or relative of Homer, who, according to another
+tradition, was himself the author of the [Greek: Halôsis], and presented
+it to Creophylus in return for the latter's hospitality.
+
+  See F. G. Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882).
+
+
+
+
+CREOSOTE, CREASOTE or KREASOTE (from Gr. [Greek: kreas], flesh, and
+[Greek: sôzein], to preserve), a product of the distillation of coal,
+bone oil, shale oil, and wood-tar (more especially that made from
+beech-wood). The creosote is extracted from the distillate by means of
+alkali, separated from the filtered alkaline solution by sulphuric acid,
+and then distilled with dilute alkali; the distillate is again treated
+with alkali and acid, till its purification is effected; it is then
+redistilled at 200° C., and dried by means of calcium chloride. It is a
+highly refractive, colourless, oily liquid, and was first obtained in
+1832 by K. Reichenbach from beech-wood tar. It consists mainly of a
+mixture of phenol, cresol, guaiacol, creosol, xylenol, dimethyl
+guaiacol, ethyl guaiacol, and various methyl ethers of pyrogallol.
+Creosote has a strong odour and hot taste, and burns with a smoky flame.
+It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins, and many acids and colouring
+matters; and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and carbon disulphide, and in
+80 parts by volume of water. It is distinguished from carbolic acid by
+the following properties:--it rotates the plane of polarized light to
+the right, forms with collodion a transparent fluid, and is nearly
+insoluble in glycerin; whereas carbolic acid has no effect on polarized
+light, gives with about two-thirds of its volume of collodion a
+gelatinous mass, and is soluble in all proportions in glycerin; further,
+alcohol and ferric chloride produce with creosote a green solution,
+turned brown by water, with carbolic acid a brown, and on the addition
+of water a blue solution. Creosote, like carbolic acid, is a powerful
+antiseptic, and readily coagulates albuminous matter; wood-smoke and
+pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar owe to its presence their efficacy in
+preserving animal and vegetable substances from putrefaction.
+
+_Creosote oil_ is the name generally applied to the fraction of the coal
+tar distillate which boils between 200° and 300° C. (see COAL TAR). It
+is a greenish-yellow fluorescent liquid, usually containing phenol,
+cresol, naphthalene, anthracene, pyridine, quinoline, acridine and other
+substances. Its chief use is for the preservation of timber.
+
+_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--Creosote derived from wood-tar is
+given medicinally in doses of from one to five minims, either suspended
+in mucilage, or in capsules. It should always be administered after a
+meal, when the gastric contents dilute it and prevent irritation.
+Creosote and carbolic acid (q.v.) have a very similar pharmacology; but
+there is one conspicuous exception. Beech-wood creosote alone should be
+used in medicine, as its composition renders it much more valuable than
+other creosotes. Its constituents circulate unchanged in the blood and
+are excreted by the lungs. Although carbolic acid has no value in
+phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) or in any other bacterial condition of
+the lungs, creosote, having volatile constituents which are excreted in
+the expired air and which are powerfully antiseptic, may well be of much
+value in these conditions. In phthisis creosote is now superseded by
+both its carbonate (creosotal)--given in the same doses--which causes
+less gastric disturbance, and by guaiacol itself, which may be given in
+doses up to thirty minims in capsules. The phosphate (phosote or
+phosphote), phosphite (phosphotal), and valerianate (eosote) also find
+application. Similarly the carbonate of guaiacol may be given in doses
+even as large as a drachm. Creosote may also be used as an inhalation
+with a steam atomizer. It is applicable not only in phthisis but in
+bronchiectasis, bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, lobar pneumonia and all
+other bacterial lung diseases. Like carbolic acid, creosote may be used
+in toothache, and the local antiseptic and anaesthetic action which it
+shares with that substance is often of value in relieving gastric pain
+due to simple ulcer or cancer, and in those forms of vomiting which are
+due to gastric irritation.
+
+  For the determination and separation of the various constituents of
+  creosote see F. Tiemann, _Ber._ (1881), 14, p. 2005; A. Béhal and C.
+  Choay, _Comptes rendus_ (1893), 116, p. 197; and L. F. Kebler, _Amer.
+  Jour. Pharm._ (1899), p. 409.
+
+
+
+
+CREPUSCULAR (from Lat. _crepusculum_, twilight), of or belonging to the
+twilight, hence indistinct or glimmering; in zoology the word is used of
+animals that appear before sunrise or nightfall.
+
+
+
+
+CRÉQUY, a French family which originated in Picardy, and took its name
+from a small lordship in the present Pas-de-Calais. Its genealogy goes
+back to the 10th century, and from it originated the noble houses of
+Blécourt, Canaples, Heilly and Royon. Henri de Créquy was killed at the
+siege of Damietta in 1240; Jacques de Créquy, marshal of Guienne, was
+killed at Agincourt with his brothers Jean and Raoul; Jean de Créquy,
+lord of Canaples, was in the Burgundian service, and took part in the
+defence of Paris against Joan of Arc in 1429, received the order of the
+Golden Fleece in 1431, and was ambassador to Aragon and France; Antoine
+de Créquy was one of the boldest captains of Francis I., and died in
+consequence of an accident at the siege of Hesdin in 1523. Jean VIII.,
+sire de Créquy, prince de Poix, seigneur de Canaples (d. 1555), left
+three sons, the eldest of whom, Antoine de Créquy (1535-1574), inherited
+the family estates on the death of his brothers at St Quentin in 1557.
+He was raised to the cardinalate, and his nephew and heir, Antoine de
+Blanchefort, assumed the name and arms of Créquy.
+
+Charles I. de Blanchefort, marquis de Créquy, prince de Poix, duc de
+Lesdiguières (1578-1638), marshal of France, son of the last-named, saw
+his first fighting before Laon in 1594, and was wounded at the capture
+of Saint Jean d'Angély in 1621. In the next year he became a marshal of
+France. He served through the Piedmontese campaign in aid of Savoy in
+1624 as second in command to the constable, François de Bonne, duc de
+Lesdiguières, whose daughter Madeleine he had married in 1595. He
+inherited in 1626 the estates and title of his father-in-law, who had
+induced him, after the death of his first wife, to marry her half-sister
+Françoise. He was also lieutenant-general of Dauphiné. In 1633 he was
+ambassador to Rome, and in 1636 to Venice. He fought in the Italian
+campaigns of 1630, 1635, 1636 and 1637, when he helped to defeat the
+Spaniards at Monte Baldo. He was killed on the 17th of March 1638 in an
+attempt to raise the siege of Crema, a fortress in the Milanese. He had
+a quarrel extending over years with Philip, the bastard of Savoy, which
+ended in a duel fatal to Philip in 1599; and in 1620 he defended
+Saint-Aignan, who was his prisoner of war, against a prosecution
+threatened by Louis XIII. Some of his letters are preserved in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and his life was written by N. Chorier
+(Grenoble, 1683).
+
+His eldest son, François, comte de Sault, due de Lesdiguières
+(1600-1677), governor and lieutenant-general of Dauphiné, took the name
+and arms of Bonne. The younger, Charles II. de Créquy, seigneur de
+Canaples, was killed at the siege of Chambéry in 1630, leaving three
+sons--Charles III., sieur de Blanchefort, prince de Poix, duc de Créquy
+(1623?-1687); Alphonse de Créquy, comte de Canaples (d. 1711), who
+became on the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1702 duc
+de Lesdiguières, and eventually succeeded also to his younger brother's
+honours; and François, chevalier de Créquy and marquis de Marines,
+marshal of France (1625-1687).
+
+The last-named was born in 1625, and as a boy took part in the Thirty
+Years' War, distinguishing himself so greatly that at the age of
+twenty-six he was made a _maréchal de camp_, and a lieutenant-general
+before he was thirty. He was regarded as the most brilliant of the
+younger officers, and won the favour of Louis XIV. by his fidelity to
+the court during the second Fronde. In 1667 he served on the Rhine, and
+in 1668 he commanded the covering army during Louis XIV.'s siege of
+Lille, after the surrender of which the king rewarded him with the
+marshalate. In 1670 he overran the duchy of Lorraine. Shortly after this
+Turenne, his old commander, was made marshal-general, and all the
+marshals were placed under his orders. Many resented this, and Créquy,
+in particular, whose career of uninterrupted success had made him
+over-confident, went into exile rather than serve under Turenne. After
+the death of Turenne and the retirement of Condé, he became the most
+important general officer in the army, but his over-confidence was
+punished by the severe defeat of Conzer Brück (1675) and the surrender
+of Trier and his own captivity which followed. But in the later
+campaigns of this war (see DUTCH WARS) he showed himself again a cool,
+daring and successful commander, and, carrying on the tradition of
+Turenne and Condé, he was in his turn the pattern of the younger
+generals of the stamp of Luxembourg and Villars. He died in Paris on the
+3rd of February 1687.
+
+Alphonse de Créquy had not the talent of his brothers, and lost his
+various appointments in France. He went to London in 1672, where he
+became closely allied with Saint Évremond, and was one of the intimates
+of King Charles II.
+
+Charles III. de Créquy served in the campaigns of 1642 and 1645 in the
+Thirty Years' War, and in Catalonia in 1649. In 1646, after the siege of
+Orbitello, he was made lieutenant-general by Louis. By faithful service
+during the king's minority he had won the gratitude of Anne of Austria
+and of Mazarin, and in 1652 he became duc de Créquy and a peer of
+France. The latter half of his life was spent at court, where he held
+the office of first gentleman of the royal chamber, which had been
+bought for him by his grandfather. In 1659 he was sent to Spain with
+gifts for the infanta Maria Theresa, and on a similar errand to Bavaria
+in 1680 before the marriage of the dauphin. He was ambassador to Rome
+from 1662 to 1665, and to England in 1677; and became governor of Paris
+in 1675. He died in Paris on the 13th of February 1687. His only
+daughter, Madeleine, married Charles de la Trémoille (1655-1709).
+
+The marshal François de Créquy had two sons, whose brilliant military
+abilities bade fair to rival his own. The elder, François Joseph,
+marquis de Créquy (1662-1702), already held the grade of
+lieutenant-general when he was killed at Luzzara on the 13th of August
+1702; and Nicolas Charles, sire de Créquy, was killed before Tournai in
+1696 at the age of twenty-seven.
+
+A younger branch of the Créquy family, that of Hémont, was represented
+by Louis Marie, marquis de Créquy (1705-1741), author of the _Principes
+philosophiques des saints solitaires d'Égypte_ (1779), and husband of
+the marquise separately noticed below, and became extinct with the death
+in 1801 of his son, Charles Marie, who had some military reputation.
+
+  For a detailed genealogy of the family and its alliances see Moreri,
+  _Dictionnaire historique; Annuaire de la noblesse française_ (1856 and
+  1867). There is much information about the Créquys in the _Mémoires_
+  of Saint-Simon.
+
+
+
+
+CRÉQUY, RENÉE CAROLINE DE FROULLAY, MARQUISE DE (1714-1803), was born on
+the 19th of October 1714, at the château of Monfleaux (Mayenne), the
+daughter of Lieutenant-General Charles François de Froullay. She was
+educated by her maternal grandmother, and married in 1737 Louis Marie,
+marquis de Créquy (see above), who died four years after the marriage.
+Madame de Créquy devoted herself to the care of her only son, who
+rewarded her with an ingratitude which was the chief sorrow of her life.
+In 1755 she began to receive in Paris, among her intimates being
+D'Alembert and J. J. Rousseau. She had none of the frivolity generally
+associated with the women of her time and class, and presently became
+extremely religious with inclinations to Jansenism. D'Alembert's visits
+ceased when she adopted religion, and she was nearly seventy when she
+formed the great friendship of her life with Sénac de Meilhan, whom she
+met in 1781, and with whom she carried on a correspondence (edited by
+Édouard Fournier, with a preface by Sainte-Beuve in 1856). She commented
+on and criticized Meilhan's works and helped his reputation. She was
+arrested in 1793 and imprisoned in the convent of Les Oiseaux until the
+fall of Robespierre (July 1794). The well-known _Souvenirs de la
+marquise de Créquy_ (1710-1803), printed in 7 volumes, 1834-1835, and
+purporting to be addressed to her grandson, Tancrède de Créquy, was the
+production of a Breton adventurer, Cousin de Courchamps. The first two
+volumes appeared in English in 1834 and were severely criticized in the
+_Quarterly Review_.
+
+  See the notice prefixed by Sainte-Beuve to the _Lettres_; P. L. Jacob,
+  _Énigmes et découvertes bibliographiques_ (Paris, 1866); Quérard,
+  _Superchéries littéraires_, s.v. "Créquy"; _L'Ombre de la marquise de
+  Créquy aux lecteurs des souvenirs_ (1836) exposes the forgery of the
+  _Mémoires_.
+
+
+
+
+CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM (1340-1410), Spanish philosopher. His work,
+_The Light of the Lord_ (_'Or 'Adonai_), deeply affected Spinoza, and
+thus his philosophy became of wide importance. Maimonides (q.v.) had
+brought Jewish thought entirely under the domination of Aristotle. The
+work of Crescas, though it had no immediate success, ended in effecting
+its liberation. He refused to base Judaism on speculative philosophy
+alone; there was a deep emotional side to his thought. Thus he based
+Judaism on love, not on knowledge; love was the bond between God and
+man, and man's fundamental duty was love as expressed in obedience to
+God's will. Spinoza derived from Crescas his distinction between
+attributes and properties; he shared Crescas's views on creation and
+free will, and in the whole trend of his thought the influence of
+Crescas is strongly marked.
+
+  See E. G. Hirsch, _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, iv. 350.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+CRESCENT (Lat. _crescens_, growing), originally the waxing moon, hence a
+name applied to the shape of the moon in its first quarter. The crescent
+is employed as a charge in heraldry, with its horns vertical; when they
+are turned to the dexter side of the shield, it is called increscent,
+when to the sinister, decrescent. A crescent is used as a difference to
+denote the second son of a house; thus the earls of Harrington place a
+crescent upon a crescent, as descending from the second son of a second
+son. An order of the crescent was instituted by Charles I. of Naples and
+Sicily in 1268, and revived by René of Anjou in 1464. A Turkish order or
+decoration of the crescent was instituted by Sultan Selim III. in 1799,
+in memory of the diamond crescent which he had presented to Nelson after
+the battle of the Nile, and which Nelson wore on his coat as if it were
+an order.
+
+The crescent is the military and religious symbol of the Ottoman Turks.
+According to the story told by Hesychius of Miletus, during the siege of
+Byzantium by Philip of Macedon the moon suddenly appeared, the dogs
+began to bark and aroused the inhabitants, who were thus enabled to
+frustrate the enemy's scheme of undermining the walls. The grateful
+Byzantines erected a statue to "torch-bearing" Hecate, and adopted the
+lunar crescent as the badge of the city. It is generally supposed that
+it was in turn adopted by the Turks after the capture of Constantinople
+in 1453, either as a badge of triumph, or to commemorate a partial
+eclipse of the moon on the night of the final attack. In reality, it
+seems to have been used by them long before that event. Ala ud-din, the
+Seljuk sultan of Iconium (1245-1254), and Ertoghrul, his lieutenant and
+the founder of the Ottoman branch of the Turkish race, assumed it as a
+device, and it appeared on the standard of the janissaries of Sultan
+Orkhan (1326-1360). Since the new moon is associated with special acts
+of devotion in Turkey--where, as in England, there is a popular
+superstition that it is unlucky to see it through glass--it may
+originally have been adopted in consequence of its religious
+significance. According to Professor Ridgeway, however, the Turkish
+crescent, like that seen on modern horse-trappings, has nothing to do
+with the new moon, but is the result of the base-to-base conjunction of
+two claw or tusk amulets, an example of which has been brought to light
+during the excavations of the site of the temple of Artemis Orthia at
+Sparta (see _Athenaeum_, March 21, 1908). There is nothing distinctively
+Turkish in the combination of crescent and star which appears on the
+Turkish national standard; the latter is shown by coins and inscriptions
+to have been an ancient Illyrian symbol, and is of course common in
+knightly and decorative orders. It is doubtful whether any opposition
+between crescent and cross, as symbols of Islam and Christianity, was
+ever intended by the Turks; and it is an historical error to attribute
+the crescent to the Saracens of crusading times or the Moors in Spain.
+
+Crescent is also the name of a Turkish musical instrument. In
+architecture, a crescent is a street following the arc of a circle; the
+name in this sense was first used in the Royal Crescent at Bath.
+
+
+
+
+CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO (1663-1728), Italian critic and poet, was
+born at Macerata in 1663. Having been educated by a French priest at
+Rome, he entered the Jesuits' college of his native town, where he
+produced a tragedy on the story of Darius, and versified the
+_Pharsalia_. In 1679 he received the degree of doctor of laws, and in
+1680 he removed again to Rome. The study of Filicaja and Leonico having
+convinced him that he and all his contemporaries were working in a wrong
+direction, he resolved to attempt a general reform. In 1690, in
+conjunction with fourteen others, he founded the celebrated academy of
+the Arcadians, and began the contest against false taste and its
+adherents. The academy was most successful; branch societies were opened
+in all the principal cities of Italy; and the influence of Marini,
+opposed by the simplicity and elegance of such models as Costanzo, soon
+died away. Crescimbeni officiated as secretary to the Arcadians for
+thirty-eight years. In 1705 he was made canon of Santa Maria; in 1715 he
+obtained the chief curacy attached to the same church; and about two
+months before he died (1728) he was admitted a member of the order of
+Jesus.
+
+  His principal work is the _Istoria della volgar poesia_ (Rome, 1698),
+  an estimate of all the poets of Italy, past and contemporary, which
+  may yet be consulted with advantage. The most important of his
+  numerous other publications are the _Commentarij_ (5 vols., Rome,
+  1702-1711), and _La Bellezza della volgar poezia_ (Rome, 1700).
+
+
+
+
+CRESILAS, a Cretan sculptor of Cydonia. He was a contemporary of
+Pheidias, and one of the sculptors who vied in producing statues of
+amazons at Ephesus (see GREEK ART) about 450 B.C. As his amazon was
+wounded (_volnerata_; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 75), we may safely
+identify it with the figure, of which several copies are extant, who is
+carefully removing her blood-stained garment from a wound under the
+right breast. Another work of Cresilas of which copies survive is the
+portrait of Pericles, the earliest Greek portrait which has been with
+certainty identified, and which fully confirms the statement of ancient
+critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and added nobility to
+men of noble type. An extant portrait of Anacreon is also derived from
+Cresilas.
+
+
+
+
+CRESOLS or METHYL PHENOLS, C7H8O or C6H4·CH3·OH. The three isomeric
+cresols are found in the tar obtained in the destructive distillation of
+coal, beech-wood and pine. The crude cresol obtained from tar cannot be
+separated into its different constituents by fractional distillation,
+since the boiling points of the three isomers are very close together.
+The pure substances are best obtained by fusion of the corresponding
+toluene sulphonic acids with potash.
+
+Ortho-cresol, CH3(1)·C6H4·OH(2), occurs as sulphate in the urine of the
+horse. It may be prepared by fusion of ortho-toluene sulphonic acid with
+potash; by the action of phosphorus pentoxide on carvacrol; or by the
+action of zinc chloride on camphor. It is a crystalline solid, which
+melts at 30° C. and boils at 190.8° C. Fusion with alkalis converts it
+into salicylic acid.
+
+Meta-cresol, CH3(1)·C6H4·OH(3), is formed when thymol
+(para-isopropyl-meta-cresol) is heated with phosphorus pentoxide.
+Propylene is liberated during the reaction, and the phosphoric acid
+ester of meta-cresol which is formed is then fused with potash. It can
+also be prepared by distilling meta-oxyuvitic acid with lime, or by the
+action of air on boiling toluene in the presence of aluminium chloride
+(C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, _Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1888 [6], 14, p. 436).
+It solidifies in a freezing mixture, on the addition of a crystal of
+phenol, and then melts at 3°-4° C. It boils at 202°.8 C. Its aqueous
+solution is coloured bluish-violet by ferric chloride.
+
+Para-cresol, CH3(1)·C6H4·OH(4), occurs as sulphate in the urine of the
+horse. It is also found in horse's liver, being one of the putrefaction
+products of tyrosine. It may be prepared by the fusion of para-toluene
+sulphonic acid with potash; by the action of nitrous acid on
+para-toluidine; or by heating para-oxyphenyl acetic acid with lime. It
+crystallizes in prisms which melt at 36° C. and boil at 201°.8 C. It is
+soluble in water, and the aqueous solution gives a blue coloration with
+ferric chloride. When treated with hydrochloric acid and potassium
+chlorate, no chlorinated quinones are obtained (M. S. Southworth, _Ann._
+(1873), 168, p. 271), a behaviour which distinguishes it from ortho- and
+meta-cresol.
+
+  On the composition of commercial cresylic acid see A. H. Allen, _Jour.
+  Soc. Chem. Industry_ (1890), 9, p. 141. See also CREOSOTE.
+
+
+
+
+CRESPI, DANIELE (1590-1630), Italian historical painter, was born near
+Milan, and studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi and Giulio Procaccini.
+He was an excellent colourist; his drawing was correct and vigorous, and
+he grouped his compositions with much ability. His best work, a series
+of pictures from the life of Saint Bruno, is in the monastery of the
+Carthusians at Milan. Among the most famous of his paintings is a
+"Stoning of St Stephen" at Brera, and there are several excellent
+examples of his work in the city of his birth and at Pavia.
+
+
+
+
+CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1557-1663), called Il Cerano, Italian
+painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano in the Milanese. He
+was a scholar of considerable attainments, and held a position of
+dignity in his native city. He was head of the Milanese Academy founded
+by Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo, and he was the teacher of Guercino. He
+is most famous as a painter; and, though his figures are neither natural
+nor graceful, his colouring is good, and his designs full of ideal
+beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (1665-1747), Italian painter, called "Lo
+Spagnuolo" from his fondness for rich apparel, was born at Bologna, and
+was trained under Angelo Toni, Domenico Canuti and Carlo Cignani. He
+then went through a course of copying from Correggio and Barocci; this
+he followed up with a journey to Venice for the sake of Titian and Paul
+Veronese; and late in life he proclaimed himself a follower of Guercino
+and Pietro da Cortona. He was a good colourist and a facile executant,
+and was wont to employ the camera obscura with great success in the
+treatment of light and shadow; but he was careless and unconscientious.
+He was a clever portrait-painter and a brilliant caricaturist; and his
+etchings after Rembrandt and Salvator are in some demand. His greatest
+work, a "Massacre of the Innocents," is at Bologna; but the Dresden
+gallery possesses twelve examples of him, among which is his celebrated
+series of the Seven Sacraments.
+
+
+
+
+CRESS, in botany. "Garden Cress" (_Lepidium sativum_) is an annual plant
+(nat. ord. Cruciferae), known as a cultivated plant at the present day
+in Europe, North Africa, western Asia and India, but its origin is
+obscure. Alphonse de Candolle (_L'Origine des plantes cultivées_) says
+its cultivation must date from ancient times and be widely diffused, for
+very different names for it exist in the Arab, Persian, Albanian,
+Hindustani and Bengali tongues. He considered the plant to be of Persian
+origin, whence it may have spread after the Sanskrit epoch (there is no
+Sanskrit name for it) into the gardens of India, Syria, Greece and North
+Africa. It is used in salads, the young plants being cut and eaten while
+still in the seed-leaf, forming, along with plants of the white mustard
+in the same stage of growth, what is commonly called "small salad." The
+seeds should be sown thickly broadcast or in rows in succession every
+ten or fourteen days, according to the demand. The sowings may be made
+in the open ground from March till October, the earliest under
+hand-glasses, and the summer ones in a cool moist situation, where water
+from trees, shrubs, walls, &c., cannot fall on or near them. The grit
+thrown up by falling water pierces the tender tissues of the cress, and
+cannot be thoroughly removed by washing. During winter they must be
+raised on a slight hotbed, or in shallow boxes or pans placed in any of
+the glass-houses where there is a temperature of 60° or 65°. Cress is
+subject to the attack of a fungus (_Pythium debaryanum_) if kept too
+close and moist. The pest very quickly infects a whole sowing. There is
+no cure for it; preventive measures should therefore be taken by keeping
+the sowings fairly dry and well ventilated. The seed should be sown on
+new soil, and should not be covered.
+
+The "Golden" or "Australian" cress is a dwarf, yellowish-green,
+mild-flavoured sort, which is cut and eaten when a little more advanced
+in growth but while still young and tender. It should be sown at
+intervals of a month from March onwards, the autumn sowing, for winter
+and spring use, being made in a sheltered situation.
+
+The "curled" or "Normandy" cress is a very hardy sort, of good flavour.
+In this, which is allowed to grow like parsley, the leaves are picked
+for use while young; and, being finely cut and curled, they are well
+adapted for garnishing. It should be sown thinly, in drills, in good
+soil in the open borders, in March, April and May, and for winter and
+spring use at the foot of a south wall early in September, and about the
+middle of October.
+
+_Water-cress._--"Water-cress" (_Nasturtium officinale_) is a member of
+the same natural order, and a native of Great Britain. Although now so
+largely used, it does not appear to have been cultivated in England
+prior to the 19th century, though in Germany, especially near Erfurt, it
+had been grown long previously. Its flavour is due to an essential oil
+containing sulphur. Water-cress is largely cultivated in shallow
+ditches, prepared in wet, low-lying meadows, means being provided for
+flooding the ditches at will. Where the amount of water available is
+limited, the ditches are arranged at successively higher levels, so as
+to allow of the volume admitted to the upper ditch being passed
+successively to the others. The ditches are usually puddled with clay,
+which is covered to the depth of 9 to 12 in. with well-manured soil.
+
+A stock of plants may be raised in two ways--by cuttings, and by seeds.
+If a stock is to be raised from cuttings, the desired quantity of young
+shoots is gathered--those sold in bunches for salad serve the purpose
+well--and reduced where necessary to about 3 in. in length, the basal
+and frequently rooted portion being rejected. They are dibbled thickly
+into one of the ditches, and only enough water admitted to just cover
+the soil. If the start is made in late spring, the cuttings will be
+rooted in a week. They are allowed to remain for another week or two,
+and are then taken up and dropped about 9 in. apart into the other
+ditches, which have been slightly flooded to receive them. There is no
+need to plant them--the young roots will very soon be securely anchored.
+The volume of water is increased as the plants grow. If raised from
+seed, the seed-bed is prepared as for cuttings, and seed sown either in
+drills or broadcast. No flooding is done until the seedlings are up.
+Water is then admitted, the level being raised as the plants grow. When
+5 or 6 in. high, they are taken up and dropped into their permanent
+quarters precisely like those raised from cuttings.
+
+Cultivated as above described, the plants afford frequent cuttings of
+large clean cress of excellent flavour for market purposes. Sooner or
+later growth will become less vigorous and flowering shoots will be
+produced. This will be accompanied by a pronounced deterioration of the
+remaining vegetative shoots. These signs will be interpreted by the
+grower to mean that his plants, as a market crop, are worn out. He will
+therefore take steps to repeat the routine of culture above described.
+In the winter the ditches are flooded to protect the cress from frost.
+
+The best-flavoured water-cress is produced in the pure water of running
+streams over chalk or gravel soil. Should the water be contaminated by
+sewage or other undesirable matter, the plants not only absorb some of
+the impurities but also serve to anchor much of the solid particles
+washed as scum among them. This is extremely difficult to dislodge by
+washing, and renders the cress a source of danger as food.
+
+Water-cress for domestic use may be raised as a kitchen-garden crop if
+frequently watered overhead. Beds to afford cress during the summer
+should be made in broad trenches on a border facing north. It may also
+be raised in pots or pans stood in saucers of water and frequently
+watered overhead.
+
+In recent years in America attention has been paid to the injury done to
+water-cress beds by the "water-cress sow-bug" (_Mancasellus
+brachyurus_), and the "water-cress leaf-beetle" (_Phaedon aeruginosa_).
+Another species of _Phaedon_ is known in England as "blue beetle" or
+"mustard beetle," and is a pest also of mustard, cabbage and kohlrabi
+(see F. H. Chittenden, in _Bulletin_ 66, part ii. of Bureau of
+Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, 1907).
+
+The name "nasturtium" is applied in gardens, but incorrectly, to species
+of _Tropaeolum_.
+
+
+
+
+CRESSENT, CHARLES (1685-1768), French furniture-maker, sculptor and
+_fondeur-ciseleur_. As the second son of François Cressent, _sculpteur
+du roi_, and grandson of Charles Cressent, a furniture-maker of Amiens,
+who also became a sculptor, he inherited the tastes and aptitudes which
+were likely to make a finished designer and craftsman. Even more
+important perhaps was the fact that he was a pupil of André Charles
+Boulle. Trained in such surroundings, it is not surprising that he
+should have reached a degree of achievement which has to a great extent
+justified the claim that he was the best decorative artist of the 18th
+century. Cressent's distinction is closely connected with the regency,
+but his earlier work had affinities with the school of Boulle, while his
+later pieces were full of originality. He was an artist in the widest
+sense of the word. He not only designed and made furniture, but created
+the magnificent gilded enrichments which are so characteristic of his
+work. He was likewise a sculptor, and among his plastic work is known to
+have been a bronze bust of Louis, duc d'Orléans, the son of the regent,
+for whom Cressent had made one of the finest examples of French
+furniture of the 18th century--the famous _médaillier_ now in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale. Cressent's bronze mounts were executed with a
+sharpness of finish and a grace and vigour of outline which were hardly
+excelled by his great contemporary Jacques Caffieri. His female figures
+placed at the corners of tables are indeed among the most delicious
+achievements of the great days of the French metal worker. Much of
+Cressent's work survives, and can be identified; the Louvre and the
+Wallace collection are especially rich in it, and his commode at
+Hertford House with gilt handles representing Chinese dragons is perhaps
+the most elaborate piece he ever produced. The work of identification is
+rendered comparatively easy in his case by the fact that he published
+catalogues of three sales of his work. These catalogues are highly
+characteristic of the man, who shared in no small degree the personal
+_bravoura_ of Cellini, and could sometimes execute almost as well. He
+did not hesitate to describe himself as the author of "a clock worthy to
+be placed in the very finest cabinets," "the most distinguished
+bronzes," or pieces of "the most elegant form adorned with bronzes of
+extra richness." He worked much in marqueterie, both in tortoiseshell
+and in brilliant coloured woods. He was indeed an artist to whom colour
+appealed with especial force. The very type and exemplar of the
+"feeling" of the regency, he is worthy to have given his own name to
+some of the fashions which he deduced from it.
+
+
+
+
+CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL (1794-1863), English judge, was a descendant of
+an old Northumberland family, and was born at Newcastle in 1794. He was
+educated at the Charterhouse and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He
+graduated B.A. in 1814, and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the
+profession of the law he studied at the Middle Temple, and was called to
+the bar in 1819. He joined the northern circuit, and was not long in
+earning a distinguished position among his professional brethren. In
+1837 he entered parliament as Conservative member for Liverpool, and he
+soon gained a reputation as an acute and learned debater on all
+constitutional questions. In January 1842 he was made a judge of the
+court of common pleas, being knighted at the same time; and this post he
+occupied for sixteen years. When the new court for probate, divorce and
+matrimonial causes was established (1858), Sir Cresswell Cresswell was
+requested by the Liberal government to become its first judge and
+undertake the arduous task of its organization. Although he had already
+earned a right to retire, and possessed large private wealth, he
+accepted this new task, and during the rest of his life devoted himself
+to it most assiduously and conscientiously, with complete satisfaction
+to the public. In one case only, out of the very large number on which
+he pronounced judgment, was his decision reversed. His death was sudden.
+By a fall from his horse on the 11th of July 1863 his knee-cap was
+injured. He was recovering from this when on the 29th of the same month
+he died of disease of the heart.
+
+  See Foss's _Lives of the Judges_; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_
+  (1904).
+
+
+
+
+CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE (c. 1605-1674), English Benedictine monk, whose
+religious name was Serenus, was born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, about
+1605. He went to Oxford at the age of fourteen, and in 1626 became a
+fellow of Merton College. Having taken orders, he rose to the dignity of
+dean of Leighlin, Ireland, and canon of Windsor. He also acted as
+chaplain to Lord Wentworth, afterwards the celebrated earl of Strafford.
+For some time he travelled abroad as tutor to Lord Falmouth, and in
+1646, during a visit to Rome, joined the Roman Catholic Church. In the
+following year he published his _Exomologesis_ (Paris, 1647), or account
+of his conversion, which was highly valued by Roman Catholics as an
+answer to William Chillingworth's attacks. Cressy entered the
+Benedictine Order in 1649, and for four years resided at Somerset House
+as chaplain to Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II. He died at
+West Grinstead on the 10th of August 1674. Cressy's chief work, _The
+Church History of Brittanny or England, from the beginning of
+Christianity to the Norman Conquest_ (1st vol. only published, Rouen,
+1668), gives an exhaustive account of the foundation of monasteries
+during the Saxon heptarchy, and asserts that they followed the
+Benedictine rule, differing in this respect from many historians. The
+work was much criticized by Lord Clarendon, but defended by Antony à
+Wood in his _Athenae Oxoniensis_, who supports Cressy's statement that
+it was compiled from original MSS. and from the _Annales Ecclesiae
+Britannicae_ of Michael Alford, _Dugdale's Monasticon_, and the _Decem
+Scriptores Historiae Anglicanae_. The second part of the history, which
+has never been printed, was discovered at Douai in 1856. To Roman
+Catholics Cressy's name is familiar as the editor of Walter Hilton's
+_Scale of Perfection_ (London, 1659); of Father A. Baker's _Sancta
+Sophia_ (2 vols., Douai, 1657); and of Juliana of Norwich's _Sixteen
+Revelations on the Love of God_ (1670). These books, which would have
+been lost but for Cressy's zeal, have been frequently reprinted, and
+have been favourably regarded by a section of the Anglican Church.
+
+  For a complete list of Cressy's works see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of
+  Eng. Catholics_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+CREST, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Drôme, on
+the right bank of the Drôme, 20 m. S.S.E. of Valence by rail. Pop.
+(1906) town, 3971; commune, 5660. It carries on silk-worm breeding,
+silk-spinning, and the manufacture of woollens, paper, leather and
+cement. There is trade in truffles. On the rock which commands the town
+stands a huge keep, the sole survival of a castle (12th century) to
+which Crest was indebted for its importance in the middle ages and the
+Religious Wars. The rest of the castle was destroyed in the first half
+of the 17th century, after which the keep was used as a state prison.
+Crest ranked for a time as the capital of the duchy of Valentinois, and
+in that capacity belonged before the Revolution to the prince of Monaco.
+The communal charter, graven on stone and dating from the 12th century,
+is preserved in the public archives. Ten miles south-east of Crest lies
+the picturesque Forest of Saon.
+
+
+
+
+CREST (Lat. _crista_, a plume or tuft), the "comb" on an animal's head,
+and so any feathery tuft or excrescence, the "cone" of a helmet (by
+transference, the helmet itself), and the top or summit of anything. In
+heraldry (q.v.) a crest is a device, originally borne as a cognizance on
+a knight's helmet, placed on a wreath above helmet and shield in
+armorial bearings, and used separately on a seal or on articles of
+property.
+
+_Cresting_, in architecture, is an ornamental finish in the wall or
+ridge of a building, which is common on the continent of Europe. An
+example occurs at Exeter cathedral, the ridge of which is ornamented
+with a range of small _fleurs-de-lis_ in lead.
+
+
+
+
+CRESTON, a city and the county-seat of Union county, Iowa, U.S.A., about
+60 m. S.W. of Des Moines, at the crossing of the main line and two
+branches of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway. Pop. (1890) 7200;
+(1900) 7752; (1905, state census) 8382 (753 foreign-born); (1910) 6924.
+The city is on the crest of the divide between the Mississippi and the
+Missouri basins at an altitude of about 1310 ft.--whence its name. It is
+situated in a fine farming and stock-raising region, for which it is a
+shipping point. The site was chosen in 1869 by the Burlington & Missouri
+River Railroad Company (subsequently merged in the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy Railroad Company) for the location of its shops. Creston was
+incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1871.
+
+
+
+
+CRESWICK, THOMAS (1811-1869), English landscape-painter, was born at
+Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham. At Birmingham he
+first began to paint. His earliest appearance as an exhibitor was in
+1827, at the Society of British Artists in London; in the ensuing year
+he sent to the Royal Academy the two pictures named "Llyn Gwynant,
+Morning," and "Carnarvon Castle." About the same time he settled in
+London; and in 1836 he took a house in Bayswater. He soon attracted some
+attention as a landscape-painter, and had a career of uniform and
+encouraging, though not signal success. In 1842 he was elected an
+associate, and in 1850 a full member of the Royal Academy, which, for
+several years before his death, numbered hardly any other full members
+representing this branch of art. In his early practice he set an
+example, then too much needed, of diligent study of nature out of doors,
+painting on the spot all the substantial part of several of his
+pictures. English and Welsh streams may be said to have formed his
+favourite subjects, and generally British rural scenery, mostly under
+its cheerful, calm and pleasurable aspects, in open daylight. This he
+rendered with elegant and equable skill, colour rather grey in tint,
+especially in his later years, and more than average technical
+accomplishment; his works have little to excite, but would, in most
+conditions of public taste, retain their power to attract. Creswick was
+industrious and extremely prolific; he produced, besides a steady
+outpouring of paintings, numerous illustrations for books. He was
+personally genial--a dark, bulky man, somewhat heavy and graceless in
+aspect in his later years. He died at his house in Bayswater, Linden
+Grove, on the 28th of December 1869, after a few years of declining
+health. Among his principal works may be named "England" (1847); "Home
+by the Sands, and a Squally Day" (1848); "Passing Showers" (1849); "The
+Wind on Shore, a First Glimpse of the Sea, and Old Trees" (1850); "A
+Mountain Lake, Moonrise" (1852); "Changeable Weather" (1865); also the
+"London Road, a Hundred Years ago"; "The Weald of Kent"; the "Valley
+Mill" (a Cornish subject); a "Shady Glen"; the "Windings of a River";
+the "Shade of the Beech Trees"; the "Course of the Greta"; the "Wharfe";
+"Glendalough," and other Irish subjects, 1836 to 1840; the "Forest
+Farm." Frith for figures, and Ansdell for animals, occasionally worked
+in collaboration with Creswick.
+
+  In 1873 T. O. Barlow, the engraver, published a catalogue of
+  Creswick's works.
+
+
+
+
+CRESWICK, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia. 85½ m. by
+rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3060. It is the centre of a mining,
+pastoral and agricultural district. Gold is found both in alluvial and
+quartz formations, the quartz being especially rich. The surrounding
+country is fertile and well-timbered, and there is a government
+plantation and nursery in connexion with the forests department.
+
+
+
+
+CRETACEOUS SYSTEM, in geology, the group of stratified rocks which
+normally occupy a position above the Jurassic system and below the
+oldest Tertiary deposits; therefore it is in this system that the
+closing records of the great Mesozoic era are to be found. The name
+furnishes an excellent illustration of the inconvenience of employing a
+local lithological feature in the descriptive title of a wide-ranging
+rock-system. The white chalk (Lat. _creta_), which gives its name to the
+system, was first studied in the Anglo-Parisian basin, where it takes a
+prominent place; but even in this limited area there is a considerable
+thickness and variety of rocks which are not chalky, and the Cretaceous
+system as a whole contains a remarkable diversity of types of sediment.
+
+_Classification._--The earlier subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks were
+founded upon the uncertain ground of similarity in lithological
+characters, assisted by observed stratigraphical sequence. This method
+yielded poor results even in a circumscribed area like Great Britain,
+and it breaks down utterly when applied to the correlation of rocks of
+similar age in Europe and elsewhere. Study of the fossils, however, has
+elicited the fact that certain forms characterize certain "zones," which
+are preceded and succeeded by other zones each bearing a peculiar
+species or distinctive assemblage of species. By these means the
+Cretaceous rocks of the world have now been correlated zone with zone,
+with a degree of exactitude proportional to the palaeontological
+information gained in the several areas of occurrence.
+
+The Cretaceous system falls naturally into two divisions, an upper and a
+lower, in all but a few limited regions. In the table on page 288 the
+names of the principal stages are enumerated; these are capable of
+world-wide application. The sub-stages are of more local value, and too
+much importance must not be attached to them for the correlation of
+distant deposits. The general table is designed to show the relative
+position in the system of some of the more important and better-known
+formations; but it must be remembered that the Cretaceous rocks of
+Europe can now be classified in considerable detail by their fossils,
+the most accurate group for this purpose being the cephalopods. The
+smaller table was compiled by T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury to
+show the main subdivisions of the North American Cretaceous rocks. The
+correlation of the minor subdivisions of Europe and America are only
+approximate.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Cretaceous Rocks]
+
+_Relation of the Cretaceous Strata to the Systems above and below._--In
+central and northern Europe the boundary between the Cretaceous and
+Tertiary strata is sharply defined by a fairly general unconformity,
+except in the Danian and Montian beds, where there is a certain
+commingling of Tertiary with Cretaceous fossils. The relations with the
+underlying Jurassic rocks are not so clearly defined, partly because the
+earliest Cretaceous rocks are obscured by too great a thickness of
+younger strata, and partly because the lowest observable rocks of the
+system are not the oldest, but are higher members of the system that
+have overlapped on to much older rocks. However, in the south of
+England, in the Alpine area, and in part of N.W. Germany the passage
+from Jurassic to Cretaceous is so gradual that there is some divergence
+of opinion as to the best position for the line of separation. In the
+Alpine region this passage is formed by marine beds, in the other two by
+brackish-water deposits. In a like manner the Potomac beds of N. America
+grade downwards into the Jurassic; while in the Laramie formation an
+upward passage is observed into the Eocene deposits. There is a very
+general unconformity and break between the Lower and Upper Cretaceous;
+this has led Chamberlin and Salisbury to suggest that the Lower
+Cretaceous should be regarded as a separate period with the title
+"Comanchean."
+
+_Physiographical Conditions and Types of Deposit._--With the opening of
+the Cretaceous in Europe there commenced a period of marine
+transgression; in the central and western European region this took
+place from the S. towards the N., slow at first and local in effect, but
+becoming more decided at the beginning of the upper division. During the
+earlier portion of the period, S. England, Belgium and Hanover were
+covered by a great series of estuarine sands and clays, termed the
+Wealden formation (q.v.), the delta of a large river or rivers flowing
+probably from the N.W. Meanwhile, in the rest of Europe alternations of
+marine and estuarine deposits were being laid down; but over the Alpine
+region lay the open sea, where there flourished coral reefs and great
+banks of clam-like molluscs. The sea gradually encroached upon the
+estuarine Wealden area, and at the time of the Aptian deposits uniform
+marine conditions prevailed from western Europe through Russia into
+Asia. This extension of the sea is illustrated in England by the overlap
+of the Gault over the Lower Greens and on to the older rocks, and by
+similar occurrences in N. France and Germany.
+
+Almost throughout the Upper Cretaceous period the marine invasion
+continued, varied here and there by slight movements in the opposite
+sense which did not, however, interfere with the quiet general advance
+of the sea. This marine extension made itself felt over the old central
+plateau of France, the N. of Great Britain, the Spanish peninsula, the
+Armorican peninsula, and also in the Bavarian Jura and Bohemia; it
+affected the northern part of Africa and East Africa; in N. America the
+sea spread over the entire length of the Rocky Mountain region; and in
+Brazil, eastern Asia and western Australia, Upper Cretaceous deposits
+are found resting directly upon much older rocks. Indeed, at this time
+there happened one of the greatest changes in the distribution of land
+and water that have been recorded in geological history.
+
+We have seen that in early Cretaceous times marine limestones were being
+formed in southern Europe, while estuarine sands and muds were being
+laid down in the Anglo-German delta, and that beds of intermediate
+character were being made in parts of N. France and Germany. During
+later Cretaceous times this striking difference between the northern and
+southern facies was maintained, notwithstanding the fact that the later
+deposits were of marine origin in both regions. In the northern region
+the gradual deepening and accompanying extension of the sea caused the
+sandy deposits to become finer grained in N.W. Europe. The sandy beds
+and clays then gave way to marly deposits, and in these early stages
+glauconitic grains are very characteristically present both in the sand
+and in the marls. In their turn these marly deposits in the
+Anglo-Parisian basin were succeeded gradually and somewhat
+intermittently by the purer, soft limestone of the chalk sea, and by
+limestones, similar in character, in N. France, extra-Alpine Germany, S.
+Scandinavia, Denmark and Russia. Meanwhile, the S. European deposits
+maintained the characters already indicated; limestones (not chalk)
+prevailed, except in certain Alpine and Carpathian tracts where detrital
+sandstones were being laid down.
+
+The great difference between the lithological characters of the northern
+and southern deposits is accompanied by an equally striking difference
+between their respective organic contents. In the north, the genera
+_Inoceramus_ and _Belemnitella_ are particularly abundant. In the south,
+the remarkable, large, clam-like, aberrant pelecypods, the
+_Hippuritidae_, _Rudistes_, _Caprotina_, &c., attained an extraordinary
+development; they form great lenticular banks, like the clam banks of
+warm seas, or like our modern oyster-beds; they appear in successive
+species in the different stages of the Cretaceous system of the south,
+and can be used for marking palaeontological horizons as the cephalopods
+are used elsewhere. Certain genera of ammonites, _Haploceras_,
+_Lytoceras_, _Phylloceras_, rare in the north, are common in the south;
+and the southern facies is further characterized by the peculiar group
+of swollen belemnites (_Dumontia_), by the gasteropods _Actionella_,
+_Nerinea_, &c., and by reef-building corals. The southern facies is far
+more widespread and typical of the period than is the chalk; it not only
+covers all southern Europe, but spreads eastwards far into Asia and
+round the Mediterranean basin into Africa. It is found again in Texas,
+Alabama, Mexico, the West Indies and Colombia; though limestones of the
+chalk type are found in Texas, New Zealand, and locally in one or two
+other places. The marine deposits are organically formed limestones, in
+which foraminifera and large bivalve mollusca play a leading part, marls
+and sandstones; dolomite and oolitic and pisolitic limestones are also
+known.
+
+  +-----------+--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+  |           |    European Classification.    |                     | Germany, &c., several |
+  |           +--------------+-----------------+       Britain.      | other parts of Europe.|
+  |           |    Stages.   |   Sub-stages.   |                     |                       |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  |           |Montian.      |(placed by some  |                     | Marls and pisolitic   |
+  |           |              |in the Tertiary).|                     |  Limestone of Meudon. |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  |           |Danian.       |                 |Chalk of Trimingham. | Limestone of Saltholm |
+  |           |              |Maestrichtian    |                     |  and Faxö (Denmark).  |
+  |           |              |  (Dordonian).   |Upper Chalk with     |                       |
+  |           |Aturian.   \  |                 |  Flints.            |Upper Quader Sandstone.|
+  |           |            | |Campanian.       |                     |                       |
+  |   Upper   |    Senonian. |                 |                     |                       |
+  |Cretaceous.|            | |Santonian.       |                     | Quader Marls and      |
+  |           |Emscherian./  |                 |                     |  Pläner Marls.        |
+  |           |              |Coniacian.       |                     |                       |
+  |           |              |                 |Middle Chalk without |                       |
+  |           |              |Angoumian.       |  Flints.            | Upper Pläner.         |   \
+  |           |Turonian.     |                 |                     |                       |    \
+  |           |              |Ligerian.        |                     |                       |     |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |     |
+  |           |              |Carentonian.     |Grey Chalk.          | Lr. Pläner and Lr.    |     |
+  |           |Cenomanian.   |                 |Chalk marl.          |  Quader.              | Hippurite
+  |           |              |Rothomagian.     |Cambridge Greensand. |                       | limestones
+  |           |              |                 +---------------------+ Tourtia of Mons, &c.  | of
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------| Selbornian.         +-----------------------+ Southern
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       | France
+  |           |              |                 |     Gault and Upper |                       | and
+  |           |              |                 |       Greensand.    |                       | Mediterranean
+  |           |Albian.       |Gault.           |                     | Flammen mergel. Clay  | Region
+  |           |              |                 +---------------------+  of N. Germany.       |     |
+  |           |              |Gargasian.       |                     | Urgonian              |     |
+  |           |Aptian.       |                 |Lower Greensand.     | Requienia             |     |
+  |   Lower   |              |Bedoulian.       |                     |  (caprotina) Kalk     |    /
+  |Cretaceous.|              |                 |                     |  or Schrattenkalk.    |   /
+  |           |Barremian.    |                 |Weald Clay           |                       |
+  |           |              |Hauterivian.     |    and              |                       |
+  |           |Neocomian.    |                 |Hastings sands.      |         North         |
+  |           |              |Valangian.       |                     |        German         |
+  |           |              |                 |       Marine        |         Hills         |
+  |           |              |Berriasian.      |      Beds of        |       formation       |
+  |           |              |                 |      Specton.       |                       |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+
+
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |           |                Upper Cretaceous.                 :           Lower Cretaceous.         |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |           | Aptychenkalk in E. Alps ... Cretaceous Flysch... : ... Cretaceous Flysch ...           |
+  |           | Biancone of S. Alps.                             : Carpathian and Vienna Sandstones,   |
+  |  Alpine   |                                                  :   Gosau formation of E. Alps.       |
+  |  Region.  |                                                  : Seewan beds of N. Alps.             |
+  |           |                                                  : Scaglia of S. Alps.                 |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |  Africa.  |                          Nubian Sandstone of ... : ... N. Africa and Syria.            |
+  |           | Uitenhage Beds S. Africa.                        :           Pondoland Beds S. Africa. |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |  India.   | Oomia and Utatur Group.                          :        Arialoor Beds (Deccan Trap). |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |Australia. | Rolling Down Formation.                          :                   Desert Sandstone. |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |    New    | Thick conglomeratic Series with Bitumous coals.  : Waipara Beds and Limestones, Chalk, |
+  |  Zealand. |                                                  :   with Flints, Marls and Greensand. |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |S. America.| Puegiredon Series.                  Belgrano ... : ... Series.  San Martin Series.     |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |   Japan.  | Torinosa Limestone and Ryoseki Series.           : Izumi Sandstone and Hokkaido Series.|
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |Greenland. | Kome Group.                                      : Atani Group.  Patoot Group (part).  |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+
+    _Note to Tables._
+
+  Montian      from Mons in Belgium.
+  Danian         "  Denmark = _Garumnien_ of Leymerie.
+  Aturian        "  Adour.
+  Maestrichtian  "  Maestricht.
+  Campanian      "  Champagne.
+  Emscherian     "  Emscher river in Westphalia.
+  Santonian      "  Saintonge.
+  Coniacian      "  Cognac.
+  Senonian       "  Sens in department of Yonne.
+  Turonian       "  Touraine.
+  Angoumian      "  Angoumois.
+  Ligerian       "  the Loire.
+  Cenomanian     "  Le Mans (Cenomanum).
+  Carentonian    "  Charente.
+  Rothomagian    "  Rouen (_Rothomagus_).
+  Albian         "  dept. of Aube.
+  Selbornian     "  Selborne in Hampshire.
+  Aptian         "  Apt in Vaucluse.
+  Gargasian      "  Gargas near Apt.
+  Bedoulian      "  la Bedoule (Var) = _Rhodanien_ of Renevie
+  Barremian      "  Barrême in Basses Alpes.
+  Hauterivian    "  Hauterive on Lake of Neuchâtel.
+  Valangian      "  Château de Valangin near Neuchâtel.
+  Neocomian      "  Neuchâtel (_Neocomum_).
+  Berriasian     "  Berrias (_Ardéche_) near Besseges.
+  Urgonian       "  Orgon near Arles.
+
+The Cretaceous seas were probably comparatively shallow; this was
+certainly the case where the deposits are sandy, and in the regions
+occupied by the hippuritic fauna. Much discussion has taken place as to
+the depth of the chalk sea. Stress has been laid upon the resemblance of
+this deposit to the modern deep-sea globigerina-ooze; but on the whole
+the evidence is in favour of moderate depth, perhaps not more than 1000
+fathoms; the freedom of the deposit from detrital matter being regarded
+as due to the low elevation of the surrounding land, and the main lines
+of drainage being in other directions. Sandy and shore deposits are
+common throughout the system in every region. Besides the Weald, there
+were great lacustrine and terrestrial deposits in N. America (the
+Potomac, Kootenay, Morrison, Dakota and Laramie formations) as well as
+in N. Spain, and in parts of Germany, &c. The general distribution of
+land and sea is indicated in the map.
+
+_Earth Movements and Vulcanicity._--During the greater part of the
+Cretaceous period crustal movements had been small and local in effect,
+but towards the close a series of great deformative movements was
+inaugurated and continued into the next period. These movements make it
+possible to discriminate between the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,
+because the conditions of sedimentation were profoundly modified by
+them, and in most parts of the world there resulted a distinct break in
+the sequence of fossil remains. Great tracts of our modern continental
+land areas gradually emerged, and several mountainous tracts began to be
+elevated, such as the Appalachians, parts of the Cordilleras, and the
+Rocky Mountains, and their northern continuation, and indeed the greater
+part of the western N. American continent was intensely affected; the
+uplifting was associated with extensive faulting. Volcanic activity was
+in abeyance in Europe and in much of Asia, but in America there were
+many eruptions and intrusions of igneous rock towards the close of the
+period. Diabases and peridotites had been formed during the Lower
+Cretaceous in the San Luis Obispo region. Great masses of ash and
+conglomerate occur in the Crow's Nest Pass in Canada; porphyries and
+porphyritic tuffs of later Cretaceous age are important in the Andes;
+while similar rocks are found in the Lower Cretaceous of New Zealand. It
+is, however, in the Deccan lava flows of India that we find eruptions on
+a scale more vast than any that have been recorded either before or
+since. These outpourings of lava cover 200,000 sq. m. and are from 4000
+to 6000 ft. thick. They lie upon an eroded Cenomanian surface and are to
+some extent interbedded with Upper Cretaceous sediments.
+
+  +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+  |           |Atlantic Coast.|Eastern Gulf|  Western Gulf  |  Western Interior. | Pacific Coast.|  European.  |
+  |           |               |   Region.  |     Region.    |                    |               |             |
+  +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+  |       /   | Manasquan.    |            |                |Denver, Livingstone,|               |             |
+  |      |    |               |   ......   |     ......     |  (possibly Eocene).| Not           |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |  &c.               | differentiated|             |
+  |      |    | Rancocas.     |            |                | Laramie.           | or wanting.   | Danian.     |
+  |      |    +---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+  |      |    |               | Ripley.    |                | Montana Series     |               |             |
+  |CRETACEOUS | Monmouth.     |            | Montana Series |  2. Fox Hills.     |               | Senonian.   |
+  |      |    |               | Selma.     | Navarro.       |  1. Fort Pierre and|               |             |
+  |   Upper   |               |            |                |    Belly River.    |               |             |
+  |Cretaceous.| Matawan.      | Eutaw.     | Colorado Series| Colorado Series.   |               |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |  2. Austin     |  2. Niobrara.      | Chico.        | Turonian.   |
+  |      |    |               |            |  1. Eagle Ford |  1. Benton.        |               |             |
+  |      |    +---------------+------------+----------------|--------------------+               +-------------+
+  |      |    |               |            | Dakota.        | Dakota.            |               | Cenomanian. |
+  |      |    |    ......     |   ......   | Woodbine.      |                    |               | Albian.     |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |                    |               | Unconformity|
+  |       \   |               |     U n c o|n f o r m i t y.|                    |               |   in places.|
+  |           |...............|............|................|....................|...............|.............|
+  |       /   |               |            |                |                    | Horsetown     | Aptian.     |
+  |      |    |               |            | Washita.       |                    |               |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |                    | Knoxville.    | Urgonian.   |
+  |      |    |               | Tuskaloosa | Fredericksburg.| Kootenay and       | \__  ___/     |             |
+  |COMANCHEAN |               |    Series. |                |   Morrison (or     |    \/         | Neocomian.  |
+  |      |    |Potomac Series.|            |                |   Como).           |  Shastan.     | Wealden.    |
+  |  Lower    |  4. Raritan.  |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |Cretaceous.|  3. Patapsco. |            | Trinity.       |                    |               |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |      |    |      Jurassic?|            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |       \   | 2. Arundel    |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |           | 1. Patuxent   |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+
+_Economic Products of Cretaceous Rocks._--Coal is one of the most
+important products of the rocks of this system. The principal Cretaceous
+coal-bearing area is in the western interior of N. America, where an
+enormous amount of coal--mostly lignitic, but in places converted into
+anthracite--lies in the rocks at the foot of the Rocky Mountains; most
+of this is of Laramie age. Similar beds occur locally in Montana. Coal
+seams of Lower Cretaceous age are found in the Black Hills (S. Dakota),
+Alaska, Greenland, and in New Zealand; and the "Upper Quader" of
+Löwenberg in Silesia also contains coal seams. Coals also occur in the
+brackish and fresh-water deposits of Carinthia, Dalmatia and Istria,
+while unimportant lignitic beds are known in many other regions. The
+Fort Pierre beds are oil-bearing at Boulder, Colorado; and the Trinity
+formation bears asphalt and bitumen. Important clay deposits are worked
+in the Raritan formation of New Jersey, &c., and pottery clays are found
+in the Löwenberg district in Germany. The Washita beds yield the
+well-known hone stone. Great beds of gypsum exist in the Cretaceous
+rocks of S. America. Near Salzburg a variety of the hippuritic limestone
+is quarried for marble. Lithographic stone occurs in the Pyrenees. The
+economic products peculiar to the chalk are mentioned in the article
+CHALK. Beds of iron ore are found in the Lower Cretaceous of Germany and
+England.
+
+_The Life of the Cretaceous Period._--The fossils from the Cretaceous
+series comprise marine, fresh-water and terrestrial animals and plants.
+Foremost in interest and importance is the appearance in the Lower
+Potomac (Lower Cretaceous) of eastern and central N. America of the
+earliest representatives of angiospermous dicotyledons, and undoubted
+monocotyledons, the progenitors of our modern flowering plants. The
+angiosperms spread outward from the Atlantic coast region of N. America,
+and first appeared in Europe in the Aptian of Portugal; towards the
+close of the Lower Cretaceous period they occupied parts of Greenland,
+the remaining land areas of N. America, and were steadily advancing in
+every quarter of the globe. At first the Jurassic plants, the Cycads,
+ferns and conifers, lived on and were the dominant plant forms.
+Gradually, however, they took a subordinate place, and by the close of
+the Cretaceous period the angiosperms had gained the upper hand. The
+earliest of these fossil angiosperms is not in a true sense a primitive
+form, and no records of such types have yet been discovered. Some of the
+early forms of the Lower Cretaceous are distinctly similar to modern
+genera, such as _Ficus_, _Sassafras_ and _Aralia_; others bore leaves
+closely resembling our elm, maple, willow, oak, eucalyptus, &c. Before
+the close of the period many other representatives of living genera had
+appeared, beech, walnut, tamarisk, plane, laurel (_Laurus_), cinnamon,
+ivy, ilex, viburnum, buckthorn, breadfruit, oleander and others; there
+were also junipers, thujas, pines and sequoias and monocotyledons such
+as _Potamogeton_ and _Arundo_. This flora was widely spread and uniform;
+there was great similarity between that of Europe and N. America, and in
+parts of the United States (Virginia and Maryland) the plants were very
+like those in Greenland. The general aspect of the flora was
+sub-tropical; the eucalyptus and other plants then common in Europe and
+N. America are now confined to the southern hemisphere.
+
+The marine fauna comprised foraminifera which must have swarmed in the
+Chalk and some of the limestone seas; their shells have formed great
+thickness of rock. Common forms are the genera _Alveolina_,
+_Cristellaria_, _Rotalia_, _Textularia_, _Orbitolina_, _Globigerina_.
+Radiolarians were doubtless abundant, but their remains are rare.
+Sponges with calcareous (_Peronidilla_, _Barroisia_) and siliceous
+skeletons (_Siphonia_, _Coeloptychium_, _Ventriculites_) were very
+numerous in certain of the Cretaceous waters. Corals were comparatively
+rare, _Trochosmilia_, _Parasmilia_, _Holocystis_ being typical genera;
+reefs were formed in the Maestricht beds of Denmark and Faxoe, in the
+Neocomian and Turonian of France, in the Turonian of the Alps and
+Pyrenees, and also in the Gosau beds and in the Utatur group of India.
+Sea-urchins were a conspicuous feature, and many nearly allied forms are
+still living; _Cidaris_, _Micraster_, _Discoidea_ are examples. Crinoids
+were represented by _Marsupites_, _Uintacrinus_ and _Bourgueticrinus_;
+starfish (_Calliderma_ and _Pentagonaster_) were not uncommon. Polyzoa
+were abundant; brachiopods were fairly common, though subordinate to the
+pelecypods; they were mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, which
+lived side by side with the ancient forms, like _Crania_ and _Discina_.
+The bivalve mollusca were very important during this period,
+_Inoceramus_, _Ostrea_, _Spondylus_, _Gervillia_, _Exogyra_, _Pecten_,
+_Trigonia_ being particularly abundant in the northern seas, while in
+the southern waters the remarkable _Hippurites_, _Radiolites_,
+_Caprotina_, _Caprina_, _Monopleura_ and _Requienia_ prevailed.
+Gasteropods were well represented and included many modern genera.
+Cephalopods were important as a group, but the ammonites, so vigorous in
+the foregoing period, were declining and were assuming curious
+degenerate forms, often with a tendency to uncoil the shell;
+_Baculites_, _Hoplites_, _Turrilites_, _Ptychoceras_, _Hamites_ are some
+of the typical genera, while _Belemnites_ and _Belemnitella_ were
+abundant in the northern seas.
+
+The vertebrate fauna of the Cretaceous period differed in many features
+from that of the present day; mammals appear to have been only poorly
+represented by puny forms, related to Triassic and Jurassic types; they
+were mainly marsupials (_Batodon_, _Cimolestes_) with a few
+monotreme-like forms; carnivores, rodents and ungulates were still
+unknown. As in Jurassic times, reptiles were the dominant forms, and not
+a few genera lived on from the former period into the Cretaceous; but,
+on the whole, the reptilian assemblage was no longer so varied, and most
+of the distinctive mesozoic types had passed away before the close of
+this period. Dinosaurs were represented by herbivorous and carnivorous
+genera as in the Jurassic period, but the latter were less abundant than
+before. The _Iguanodon_ of the Sussex-Weald and Bernissart in Belgium is
+perhaps the best-known genus; but there were many others, their remains
+being particularly abundant and well-preserved in the Cretaceous
+deposits of N. America. _Titanosaurus_, _Acanthopholis_, _Megalosaurus_
+and _Hypsilophodon_ may be mentioned, some of these being of great size,
+while _Diclonius_ was a curious duck-billed creature; but most
+remarkable in appearance must have been the horned Dinosaurs, _Ceratops_
+and _Triceratops_, gross, unwieldy creatures, 25 to 30 ft. long, whose
+huge heads were grotesquely armed with horns and bony frills.
+
+Coincident, perhaps, with the widespread extension of the sea was the
+development of aquatic habits and structures suitable thereto amongst
+all the reptilian groups including also the birds. The foremost place
+was undoubtedly taken by the pythonomorphs or sea-serpents, including
+_Mosasaurus_ and many others; these were enormously elongated creatures,
+reaching up to 75 ft., with swimming flappers and powerful swimming
+tails, and they lived a predatory life in the open sea. Ichthyosaurians
+soon disappeared from Cretaceous waters; but the plesiosaurians
+(_Cimoliosaurus_ and others) reached their maximum development in this
+period. The remarkable flying lizards, pterosaurs, likewise attained
+their great development and then passed away; they ranged in size from
+that of a pigeon to creatures with a wing-spread of 25 ft.; notable
+genera are _Pteranodon_, _Ornithocheirus_, _Nyctiosaurus_. Ordinary
+lizard-like forms were represented by _Coniosaurus_, _Dolichosaurus_,
+&c.; and true crocodiles, _Goniopholis_, _Suchosaurus_, appeared in this
+period, and continued to approximate to modern genera. The earliest
+known river turtles are found in the Belly River deposits of Canada;
+marine turtles also made their first appearance and were widely
+represented, some of them, _Archelon_ and _Protostega_, being of great
+size. True snakes appeared later in the period.
+
+The birds, as far as existing evidence goes, were aquatic; some, like
+_Ichthyornis_, were built for powerful flight; others, like
+_Hesperornis_, were flightless. _Enaliornis_ is a form well known from
+the Cambridge Greensand. They were toothed birds having structural
+affinities with the Dinosaurs and Pterodactyles.
+
+Fish remains of this period show that a marked change was taking place;
+teleosteans (with bony internal skeleton) were taking a more prominent
+place, and although ganoids were still represented (_Macropoma_,
+_Lepidotus_, _Amiopris_, &c.) they had quite ceased to be the dominant
+types before the close of Cretaceous times. Sharks and rays were of the
+modern types, though distinct in species. Amongst the early forms of
+Cretaceous teleosteans may be mentioned _Elopopsis_, _Ichthyodectes_,
+_Diplomystus_ (herring), _Haplopteryx_ and _Urenchelys_ (eel).
+
+  For further information see the articles CHALK; GREENSAND; WEALDEN.
+  Sir A. Geikie's _Text-book of Geology_, vol. ii. (4th ed., 1903),
+  contains in addition to a full general account of the system very full
+  references to the literature.
+
+
+
+
+CRETE (Gr. [Greek: Krêtê]; Turk. _Kirid_, Ital. _Candia_), after Sicily,
+Sardinia and Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situated
+between 34° 50' and 35° 40' N. lat. and between 23° 30' and 26° 20' E.
+long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about 110 m.
+from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being partly filled by the
+islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western, Cape Grabusa, is
+within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea. Crete thus forms the natural
+limit between the Mediterranean and the Archipelago. The island is of
+elongated form; its length from E. to W. is 160 m., its breadth from N.
+to S. varies from 35 to 7½ m., its area is 3330 sq. m. The northern
+coast-line is much indented. On the W. two narrow mountainous
+promontories, the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa (ancient
+Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bay of Kisamos; beyond
+the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rocky peninsula of Akrotiri shelters
+the magnificent natural harbour of Suda (8½ sq. m.), the only completely
+protected anchorage for large vessels which the island affords. Farther
+E. are the bays of Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay
+of Sitia. The south coast is less broken, and possesses no natural
+harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a wall from the
+sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmost point of the
+island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messará on the W. Immediately to
+the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of Kali Liménes or Fair Havens,
+where the ship conveying St Paul took refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the
+islands in the neighbourhood of the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo
+(ancient Clauda, Acts xxvii. 16), about 25 m. from the south coast at
+Sphakia, in the middle ages the see of a bishop. On the N. side the
+small island of Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a
+convenient shelter against northerly gales. Three small islands on the
+northern coast--Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at the entrance to
+Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay--remained for some time
+in the possession of Venice after the conquest of Crete by the Turks.
+Grabusa, long regarded as an impregnable fortress, was surrendered in
+1692, Suda (where the flags of Turkey and the four protecting powers are
+now hoisted) and Spinalonga in 1715.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Crete]
+
+_Natural Features._--The greater part of the island is occupied by
+ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In the western
+portion rises the massive range of the White Mountains (_Aspra Vouna_),
+directly overhanging the southern coast with spurs projecting towards
+the W. and N.W. (highest summit, Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the
+centre is the smaller, almost detached mass of Psiloriti ([Greek:
+Hypsiloreition], ancient Ida), culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the
+highest summit in the island. To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with
+Aphenti Christos (7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with
+Aphenti Kavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separate
+the central plain of Messará from the southern coast. The isolated peak
+of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia, was regarded with
+veneration in antiquity as the burial-place of Zeus. The principal
+groups are for the greater part of the year covered with snow, which
+remains in the deeper clefts throughout the summer; the intervals
+between them are filled by connecting chains which sometimes reach the
+height of 3000 ft. The largest plain is that of Monofatsi and Messará, a
+fertile tract extending between Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range,
+about 37 m. in length and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather
+slope, adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianú, through which the
+Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty and fertility. A
+peculiar feature is presented by the level upland basins which furnish
+abundant pasturage during the summer months; the more remarkable are the
+Omalo in the White Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean
+outlets ([Greek: katábothra]), Nida ([Greek: eis tên Idan]) in Psiloriti
+(between 5000 and 6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a
+more extensive area, on which are several villages. Another remarkable
+characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines ([Greek: pharángia]),
+bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous
+districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates. Numerous
+large caves exist in the mountains; among the most remarkable are the
+famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves of Melidoni, in Mylopotamo,
+and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered hundreds of refugees after the
+insurrection of 1866, and the Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place
+of Zeus. The so-called Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a
+subterranean quarry from which the city was built. The principal rivers
+are the Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of
+Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively of the
+Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards from the White
+Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes)
+flowing northwards from Psiloriti to the sea E. of Retimo.
+
+  _Geology._[1]--The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a series
+  some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied composition. They
+  include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a basic series
+  of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines). Glaucophane
+  rocks are widely spread. In the centre of the folds fossiliferous beds
+  with crinoids have been found, and the black slates at the top of the
+  series contain _Myophoria_ and other fossils, indicating that the
+  rocks are of Triassic age. It is, however, not impossible that the
+  metamorphic series includes also some of the Lias. The later beds of
+  the island belong to the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary systems. At
+  the western foot of the Ida massif calcareous beds with corals,
+  brachiopods (_Rhynchonella inconstans_, &c.) have been found, the
+  fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimmeridge clay. Lower
+  Cretaceous limestones and schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc
+  extensively developed; and in many parts of the island Upper
+  Cretaceous limestones with _Rudistes_ and Eocene beds with nummulites
+  have been found. All these are involved in the earth movements to
+  which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the Miocene
+  beds (with _Clypeaster_) and later deposits lie almost undisturbed
+  upon the coasts and the low-lying ground. With the Jurassic beds is
+  associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks (gabbro, peridotite,
+  serpentine, diorite, granite, &c.); they are chiefly of Jurassic age,
+  but the eruptions may have continued into the Lower Cretaceous.
+
+  The structure of the island is complex. In the west the folds run from
+  north to south, curving gradually westward towards the southern and
+  western coasts; but in the east the folds appear to run from west to
+  east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric folds of the Balkan
+  peninsula. The structure is further complicated by a great
+  thrust-plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds
+  upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.
+
+_Vegetation._--The forests which once covered the mountains have for the
+most part disappeared and the slopes are now desolate wastes. The
+cypress still grows wild in the higher regions; the lower hills and the
+valleys, which are extremely fertile, are covered with olive woods.
+Oranges and lemons also abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing
+almost the whole supply of continental Greece and Constantinople.
+Chestnut woods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the
+valonia oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundant
+and supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples,
+quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines;
+the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which they
+possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cotton succeed well
+in the plains and low grounds, though not at present cultivated to any
+great extent.
+
+_Animals._--Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat or _agrimi
+(Capra aegagrus)_ alone need be mentioned; it is still found in
+considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and the White
+Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasus and Mount Taurus,
+and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin of the Alps. Crete, like
+several other large islands, enjoys immunity from dangerous serpents--a
+privilege ascribed by popular belief to the intercession of Titus, the
+companion of St Paul, who according to tradition was the first bishop of
+the island, and became in consequence its patron saint. Wolves also are
+not found in the island, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The
+native breed of mules is remarkably fine.
+
+_Population._--The population of Crete under the Venetians was estimated
+at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest it greatly diminished, but
+afterwards gradually rose, till it was supposed to have attained to
+about 260,000, of whom about half were Mahommedans, at the time of the
+outbreak of the Greek revolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from
+1821 to 1830, and the emigration that followed, caused a great
+diminution, and the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only
+about 130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased; it
+was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000. According to
+the census taken in 1881, the complete publication of which was
+interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population of the island was
+279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre. Of this total, 141,602 were
+males, 137,563 females; 33,173 were literate, 242,114 illiterate;
+205,010 were orthodox Christians, 73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other
+religious persuasions. The Moslem element predominated in the principal
+towns, of which the population was--Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812;
+Retimo, 9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the population
+of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased to 267,266,
+while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. The Moslems, as well as the
+Christians, are of Greek origin and speak Greek.
+
+_Towns._--The three principal towns are on the northern coast and
+possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught. Candia,
+the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete (pop. in 1900,
+22,501), is officially styled Herákleion; it is surrounded by remarkable
+Venetian fortifications and possesses a museum with a valuable
+collection of objects found at Cnossus, Phaestus, the Idaean cave and
+elsewhere. It has been occupied since 1897 by British troops. Canea
+(Xaviá), the seat of government since 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in
+the Italian style; its walls and interesting galley-slips recall the
+Venetian period. The residence of the high commissioner and the
+consulates of the powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo [Greek:
+Rethumnos] is, like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other
+towns, Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant.
+
+  _Production and Industries._--Owing to the volcanic nature of its
+  soil, Crete is probably rich in minerals. Recent experiments lead to
+  the conclusion that iron, lead, manganese, lignite and sulphur exist
+  in considerable abundance. Copper and zinc have also been found. A
+  large number of applications for mining concessions have been received
+  since the establishment of the autonomous government. The principal
+  wealth of the island is derived from its olive groves; notwithstanding
+  the destruction of many thousands of trees during each successive
+  insurrection, the production is apparently undiminished, and will
+  probably increase very considerably owing to the planting of young
+  trees and the improved methods of cultivation which the Government is
+  endeavouring to promote. The orange and lemon groves have also
+  suffered considerably, but new varieties of the orange tree are now
+  being introduced, and an impulse will be given to the export trade in
+  this fruit by the removal of the restriction on its importation into
+  Greece. Agriculture is still in a primitive condition; notwithstanding
+  the fertility of the arable land the supply of cereals is far below
+  the requirements of the population. A great portion of the central
+  plain of Monofatsi, the principal grain-producing district, is lying
+  fallow owing to the exodus of the Moslem peasantry. The cultivation of
+  silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing industry, has greatly declined in
+  recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it. There are
+  few manufactures. Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the
+  principal towns, and there are two distilleries of cognac at Candia.
+
+  _Commerce._--The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded by
+  many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the harbours,
+  the want of direct steamship lines to England and other countries, and
+  the deficiency of internal communications. The total value of imports
+  in the four years 1901-1904 was £1,756,888, of exports £1,386,777;
+  excess of imports over exports, £370,111. Exports in 1904 were valued
+  at £419,642, the principal items being agricultural products (oranges,
+  lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes, valonia, &c.), value £153,858, olives
+  and products of olives (oil, soap, &c.), £134,788, and wines and
+  liquors, £48,544. The countries which accept the largest share of
+  Cretan produce are Turkey, England, Egypt, Austria and Russia. Imports
+  in 1904 were valued at £549,665, including agricultural products
+  (mainly flour and corn), value £162,535, and textiles, £129,349.
+  Cereals are imported from the Black Sea and Danube ports, ready-made
+  clothing from Austria and Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and
+  France, and cotton textiles from England. Imports are charged 8%,
+  exports 1% _ad valorem_ duty. According to a law published in 1899,
+  Turkish merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of
+  foreign nations.
+
+_Constitution and Government._--During the past half-century the affairs
+of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention of Europe. Owing to the
+existence of a strong Mussulman minority among its inhabitants, the
+warlike character of the natives, and the mountainous configuration of
+the country, which enabled a portion of the Christian population to
+maintain itself in a state of partial independence, the island has
+constantly been the scene of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which
+the numerical superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the
+aid rendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappy state of
+affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues set on foot at
+Constantinople against successive governors of the island, the conflicts
+between the Palace and the Porte, the duplicity of the Turkish
+authorities, the dissensions of the representatives of the great powers,
+the machinations of Greek agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians,
+and prolonged financial mismanagement. A long series of
+insurrections--those of 1821, 1833, 1841, 1858, 1866-1868, 1878, 1889
+and 1896 may be especially mentioned--culminated in the general
+rebellion of 1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the
+intervention of the great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish
+authorities, and the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government
+under the suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomous
+constitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in Prince George of
+Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting powers. The
+authority thus conferred was confided exclusively to the prince, and was
+declared liable to modification by law in the case of his successor. The
+modified constitution of February 1907 curtailed the large exceptional
+legislative and administrative powers then accorded. The high
+commissioner is irresponsible, but his decrees, except in certain
+specified cases, must be countersigned by a member of his council. He
+convokes, prorogues and dissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises
+the right of pardon in case of political offences, represents the island
+in its foreign relations and is chief of its military forces. The
+chamber ([Greek: boulê]), which is elected in the proportion of one
+deputy to every 5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two
+months. New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercises a
+complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed without its
+consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administration by a
+cabinet of three members, styled "councillors" ([Greek: symbouloi]), who
+superintend the departments of justice, finance, education, public
+security and the interior. The councillors, who are nominated and
+dismissed by the high commissioner, are responsible to the chamber,
+which may impeach them before a special tribunal for any illegal act or
+neglect of duty.
+
+In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative
+spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems established in
+Greece and the Balkan States. A further point of difference is the more
+liberal payment of public functionaries in Crete. For administrative
+purposes the departmental divisions existing under the Turkish
+government have been retained. There are 5 _nomoi_ or prefectures
+(formerly _sanjaks_) each under a prefect ([Greek: nomárchos]), and 23
+eparchies (formerly _kazas_) each under a sub-prefect ([Greek:
+éparchos]). All these functionaries are nominated by the high
+commissioner. The prefects are assisted by departmental councils. The
+system of municipal and communal government remains practically
+unchanged. The island is divided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an
+assistant-mayor, and a communal council elected by the people. The
+councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes, maintain
+roads, bridges, &c., and generally superintend local affairs. Public
+order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie ([Greek: chôrophulakê])
+organized and at first commanded by Italian officers, who were replaced
+by Greek officers in December 1906. The constitution authorizes the
+formation of a militia ([Greek: politophulakê]) to be enrolled by
+conscription, but in existing circumstances the embodiment of this force
+seems unnecessary.
+
+_Justice._--The administration of justice is on the French model. A
+supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions of a court
+of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts at Canea and
+Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard to serious offences
+([Greek: kakourgêmata ]). Minor offences ([Greek: plêmmelêmata]) and
+civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the five
+departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whose decision are
+referred slight contraventions of the law ([Greek: ptaismata]) and civil
+causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs. These
+functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various communes. The
+judges are chosen without regard to religious belief, and precautions
+have been taken to render them independent of political parties. They
+are appointed, promoted, transferred or removed by order of the council
+of justice, a body composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries,
+sitting at Canea. An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon
+a conviction for some specified offence before a court of law. The jury
+system has not been introduced. The Greek penal code has been adopted
+with some modifications. The Ottoman civil code is maintained for the
+present, but it is proposed to establish a code recently drawn up by
+Greek jurists which is mainly based on Italian and Saxon law. The
+Mussulman cadis retain their jurisdiction in regard to religious
+affairs, marriage, divorce, the wardship of minors and inheritance.
+
+_Religion and Education._--The vast majority of the Christian population
+belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which is governed by a synod of
+seven bishops under the presidency of the metropolitan of Candia. The
+Cretan Church is not, strictly speaking, autocephalous, being dependent
+on the patriarchate of Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek
+churches in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques,
+4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education is nominally
+compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools (527 Christian and 20
+Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools (all Christian). About £20,000 is
+granted annually by the state for the purposes of education.
+
+  _Finance._--Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections,
+  the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the districts
+  formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population, and the
+  drain of gold resulting from the sale of Moslem lands and emigration
+  of the former proprietors, together with other causes, the financial
+  situation has been unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding the advance of
+  £160,000 made by the four protecting powers after the institution of
+  autonomous government and the profits (£61,937) derived from the issue
+  of a new currency in 1900, there was at the beginning of 1906 an
+  accumulated deficit of £23,470, which represents the floating debt. In
+  addition to the above-mentioned debt to the powers, the state
+  contracted a loan of £60,000 in 1901 to acquire the rights and
+  privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the salt monopoly has been
+  conceded for 20 years. In the budgets for 1905 and 1906 considerable
+  economies were effected by the curtailment of salaries, the abolition
+  of various posts, and the reduction of the estimates for education and
+  public works. The estimated revenue and expenditure for 1906 were as
+  follows:--
+
+           Revenue.                           Expenditure.
+                 Drachmae (gold).                      Drachmae (gold).
+
+    Direct taxes    1,494,000     High Commissioner        200,000
+    Indirect taxes  1,715,000     Financial
+                                     administration        694,670
+    Stamp dues        351,700     Interior (including
+                                     gendarmerie)        1,678,566
+    Other sources     780,967     Education and Justice  1,453,500
+                    ---------                            ---------
+                    4,341,667                            4,026,736
+                    ---------                            ---------
+
+  The salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000
+  drachmae.
+
+  Improved communications are much needed for the transport of
+  agricultural produce, but the state of the treasury does not admit of
+  more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public works.
+  On these the average yearly expenditure between 1898 and 1905 was
+  £13,404. The prosperity of the island depends on the development of
+  agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits by the people, and
+  the abandonment of political agitation. The Cretans were in 1906 more
+  lightly taxed than any other people in Europe. The tithe had been
+  replaced by an export tax on exported agricultural produce levied at
+  the custom-houses, and the smaller peasant proprietors and shepherds
+  of the mountainous districts were practically exempt from any
+  contribution to the state. The communal tax did not exceed on the
+  average two francs annually for each family. The poorer communes are
+  aided by a state subvention.     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+_Archaeology._
+
+  Early, Middle and Late "Minoan" periods.
+
+The recent exploration and excavation of early sites in Crete have
+entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its remote past, and afforded
+the most astonishing evidence of the existence of a highly advanced
+civilization going far back behind the historic period. Great "Minoan"
+palaces have been brought to light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together
+with a minor but highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada near
+Phaestus. "Minoan" towns, some of considerable extent, have been
+discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro, and at Zakro. The
+cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus has been explored, and throughout
+the whole length and breadth of the island a mass of early materials has
+now been collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the discovery
+of Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan palaces covers
+the close of the third and the first half of the second millennium
+before our era. But the contents of early tombs and dwellings and
+indications supplied by such objects as stone vases and seal-stones show
+that the Cretans had already attained to a considerable degree of
+culture, and had opened out communication with the Nile valley in the
+time of the earliest Egyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of
+the indigenous culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable,
+is known as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first
+half of the third millennium B.C. The succeeding period, to which the
+first palaces are due and to which the name of Middle Minoan is
+appropriately given, roughly coincides with the Middle Empire of Egypt.
+An extraordinary perfection was at this time attained in many branches
+of art, notably in the painted pottery, often with polychrome
+decoration, of a class known as "Kamares" from its first discovery in a
+cave of that name on Mount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were
+found by Flinders Petrie among XIIth Dynasty remains at Kahun. The
+beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to the Middle
+Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts as gem engraving show
+great advance. By the close of this period a manufactory of fine faience
+was attached to the palace of Cnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan
+period, best illustrated by the later palace at Cnossus and that at
+Hagia Triada, corresponds in Egypt with the Hyksos period and the
+earlier part of the New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan
+civilization attains its acme, and the succeeding style already shows
+much that may be described as rococo. The later phase, which follows on
+the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds with the
+diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and elsewhere, is already
+partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finest aspect is best
+illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wall paintings, and _gesso
+duro_ reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stucco designs at Hagia Triada,
+and the steatite vases found on the same site with zones in reliefs
+exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors, toreadors, gladiators,
+wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal throng perhaps representing a
+kind of "harvest home." Of the more conventional side of Late Minoan
+life a graphic illustration is supplied by the remains of miniature wall
+paintings found in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies
+in curiously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades of
+a sanctuary. A grand "palace style" of vase painting was at the same
+time evolved, in harmony with the general decoration of the royal halls.
+
+
+  Minoan script.
+
+It had been held till lately that the great civilization of prehistoric
+Greece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann's discoveries at Mycenae,
+was not possessed of the art of writing. In 1893, however, Arthur Evans
+observed some signs on seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe
+that a hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times.
+Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for the
+purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the island,
+fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear as well as a
+semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the island at a very
+early period ("Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script," _Journ.
+of Hellenic Studies_, xiv. pt. 11). In 1895 he obtained a libation-table
+from the Dictaean cave with a linear dedication in the prehistoric
+writing ("Further Discoveries," &c., _J.H.S._ xvii.). Finally in 1900
+all scepticism in the learned world was set at rest by his discovery in
+the palace of Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets
+inscribed both in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of
+the Minoan script (Evans, "Palace of Knossos," _Reports of Excavation,
+1900-1905_; _Scripta Minoa_, vol. i., 1909). Supplementary finds of
+inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada (F. Halbherr,
+_Rapporto, &c., Monumenti antichi_, 1903) and elsewhere (Palaikastro,
+Zakro and Gournia). It thus appears that a highly developed system of
+writing existed in Minoan Crete some two thousand years earlier than the
+first introduction under Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this,
+as in so many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking
+confirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved by Diodorus (v.
+74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but simply altered their
+forms.
+
+
+  Earlier pictographic script.
+
+There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and pictorial
+signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary with the first
+Egyptian dynasties. It is, however, during the Middle Minoan age, the
+centre point of which corresponds with the XIIth Egyptian dynasty,
+according to the Sothic system of dating, c. 2000-1850 B.C., that a
+systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes its appearance
+which is common both to signets and clay tablets. During the Third
+Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of which approach 1600 B.C., this
+pictographic script finally gives way to a still more developed linear
+system--which is itself divided into an earlier and a later class. The
+earlier class (A) is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus
+belonging to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the
+palace, and this class is specially well represented in the tablets of
+Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class (B) of the linear
+script is that used on the great bulk of the clay tablets of the
+Cnossian palace, amounting in number to nearly 2000.
+
+These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and business
+documents. Their general purport is shown in many cases by pictorial
+figures relating to various objects which appear on them--such as
+chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases, arms and implements, stores
+of corn, &c., flocks and herds. Many showing human figures apparently
+contain lists of personal names. A decimal system of numeration was
+used, with numbers going up to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet
+undeciphered, though it is clear that certain words have changing
+suffixes, and that there were many compound words. The script also
+recurs on walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes
+ink-written; and from the number of seals originally attached to
+perishable documents it is probable that parchment or some similar
+material was also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where the
+aboriginal "Eteocretan" element survived to historic times (Praesus,
+Palaikastro), later inscriptions have been discovered belonging to the
+5th and succeeding centuries B.C., written in Greek letters but in the
+indigenous language (Comparetti, _Mon. Ant._ iii. 451 sqq.; R. S.
+Conway, _British School Annual_, viii. 125 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a
+remarkable discovery was made by the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a
+clay disk with imprinted hieroglyphic characters belonging to a
+non-Cretan system and probably from W. Anatolia.
+
+
+  Character of Minoan religion.
+
+The remains of several shrines within the building, and the religious
+element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a considerable part of
+the Palace of Cnossus was devoted to purposes of cult. It is clear that
+the rulers, as so commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well
+as royal functions. The evidence supplied by this and other Cretan sites
+shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a kind of _Magna Mater_, a
+Great Mother or nature goddess, with whom was associated a male
+satellite. The cult in fact corresponds in its main outlines with the
+early religious conceptions of Syria and a large part of Anatolia--a
+correspondence probably explained by a considerable amount of ethnic
+affinity existing between a large section of the primitive Cretan
+population and that of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is
+sometimes seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more
+celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of her
+religious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in that of
+Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, _Ariadne_ ( = the exceeding holy),
+takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under her native name,
+Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, she approaches Artemis
+and Leto, again associated with an infant god, and this Cretan virgin
+goddess was worshipped in Aegina under the name of Aphaea. It is
+noteworthy that whereas, in Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme
+position, the old superiority of the Mother Goddess is still visible in
+the Cretan traditions of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus.
+
+Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the principal
+objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic class; in many
+cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and mountain peaks, with
+their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida or of Dicte. Trees and
+curiously shaped stones were also worshipped, and artificial pillars of
+wood or stone. These latter, as in the well-known case of the Lion's
+Gate at Mycenae, often appear with guardian animals as their supporters.
+The essential feature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial
+spirit by proper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the
+dove perched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is a
+primitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by the
+pillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally "Bethel" or the "House
+of God." The story of the _baetylus_, or stone swallowed by Saturn under
+the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus, seems to cover the same
+idea and has been derived from the same Semitic word.
+
+A special form of this "baetylic" cult in Minoan Crete was the
+representation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form by
+double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in the palace of
+Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small palace at Gournia, and
+many specimens of the sacred emblem occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of
+Dicte, the mythical birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of
+worship in which libations are poured before the Sacred Axes are,
+moreover, given on a fine painted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada.
+
+
+  Labyrinth and Minotaur.
+
+The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case of Zeus
+Labrandeus, whose name is derived from _labrys_, the native name for the
+double axe, and it had already been suggested on philological grounds
+that the Cretan "labyrinthos" was formed from a kindred form of the same
+word. The discovery that the great Minoan foundation at Cnossus was at
+once a palace and a sanctuary of the Double Axe and its associated
+divinities has now supplied a striking and it may well be thought an
+overwhelming confirmation of this view. We can hardly any longer
+hesitate to recognize in this vast building, with its winding corridors
+and subterranean ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a
+matter of fact a maze pattern recalling the conventional representation
+of the Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of
+the corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not to connect
+the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace illustrating the
+cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in which girls as well as youths
+took part, with the legend of the Minotaur, or bull of Minos, for whose
+grisly meals Athens was forced to pay annual tribute of her sons and
+daughters. It appears certain from the associations in which they are
+found at Cnossus, that these Minoan bull sports formed part of a
+religious ceremony. Actual figures of a monster with a bull's head and
+man's body occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other
+Cretan sites.
+
+
+  Historic substratum of Cretan myths.
+
+It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may have been
+interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they have a solid
+substratum of reality. With such remains before us it is no longer
+sufficient to relegate Minos to the regions of sun-myths. His legendary
+presentation as the "Friend of God," like Abraham, to whom as to Moses
+the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls up indeed just such a
+priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuary of Cnossus itself
+presupposes. It seems possible even that the ancient tradition which
+recorded an earlier or later king of the name of Minos may, as suggested
+above, cover a dynastic title. The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus
+and Phaestus, and the interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a
+succession of dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it
+is certainly convenient to apply the name "Minoan." It is interesting,
+as bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat, that
+an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the later
+palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two official signets
+with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the "associations"
+on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear that the later traditions
+in many respects accurately summed up the performances of the "Minoan"
+dynast who carried out the great buildings now brought to light. The
+palace, with its wonderful works of art, executed for Minos by the
+craftsman Daedalus, has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The
+extraordinary architectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science
+revealed in details of the building, bring us at the same time face to
+face with the power of mechanical invention with which Daedalus was
+credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic control visible in the
+clay documents of the palace point to a highly developed legal
+organization. The powerful fleet and maritime empire which Minos was
+said to have established will no doubt receive fuller illustration when
+the sea-town of Cnossus comes to be explored. The appearance of ships on
+some of the most important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to
+show how widely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouring
+Mediterranean regions.
+
+
+  Early relations with Egypt.
+
+  The Kefts and Philistines.
+
+  Early relations with Cyprus and N. Aegean.
+
+The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other fabrics of
+the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime activity on the part of
+the islanders going back to the days of the first Egyptian dynasties. In
+a deposit at Kahun, belonging to the XIIth Dynasty, c. 2000 B.C., were
+already found imported polychrome vases of "Middle Minoan" fabric. In
+the same way the important part played by Cretan enterprise in the days
+of the New Egyptian empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late
+Minoan pottery on Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover,
+belonging to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the
+representatives of the Kefts or peoples of "The Ring" and of the "Lands
+to the West" in the fashionable costume of the Cnossian court, bearing
+precious vessels and other objects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to
+the east the recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer
+have brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the
+later palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known in
+the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the Minoan name
+and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at Gaza to the latest
+classical days. Similar evidence of Minoan contact, and indeed of
+wholesale colonization from the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The
+culture of the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us by the
+excavations of the British School at Phylakopi in Melos, also attest a
+growing influence from the Cretan side, which, about the time of the
+later palace at Cnossus, becomes finally predominant.
+
+
+  Minoan influence on mainland of Greece.
+
+Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing remains of
+a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which Schliemann first
+brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae, and which from those discoveries
+received the general name of "Mycenaean," in the main represent a
+transmarine offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlier remains both at
+Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectly investigated, show that this
+Cretan influence goes back to the Middle Minoan age, with its
+characteristic style of polychrome vase decoration. The contents of the
+royal tombs, on the other hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with
+the fabrics of the first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan
+age, as illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the
+later palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada.
+The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to be slightly
+lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the painted vases and gold
+cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta, with their marvellous reliefs
+showing scenes of bull-hunting, represent the late palace style at
+Cnossus in its final development.
+
+The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are thus
+indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites are similar, and
+the religious representations show an identical form of worship. At the
+same time the local traditions and conditions differentiate the
+continental from the insular branch. In Crete, in the later period, when
+the rulers could trust to the "wooden walls" of the Minoan navy, there
+is no parallel for the massive fortifications that we see at Tiryns or
+Mycenae. The colder winter climate of mainland Greece dictated the use
+of fixed hearths, whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been
+of a portable kind, and the different usage in this respect again
+reacted on the respective forms of the principal hall or "Megaron."
+
+
+  Minoan influences in N. Greece.
+
+Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on the
+Acropolis at Athens,--a corroboration of the tradition which made the
+Athenians send their tribute children to Minos. Similar traces extend
+through a large part of northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to
+Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near mod. Volo), the
+legendary embarking place of the Argonauts. This circumstance deserves
+attention owing to the special connexion traditionally existing between
+the Minyans of Iolcus and those of Orchomenus, the point of all others
+on this side where the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken
+root. The Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest
+period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between the
+name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race, and that
+of Minos.
+
+
+  Adriatic and Italian extension.
+
+Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is
+perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its
+traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It is well marked
+throughout southern Italy from Taranto to Naples. It was with Sicily,
+however, that the later history of Minos and his great craftsman
+Daedalus was in a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as
+in Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx, and it
+was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western campaign, was said
+to have met with a violent death at the hands of the native king Kokalos
+(Cocalus) and his daughters. His name is preserved in the Sicilian
+Minoa, and his tomb was pointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum,
+with a shrine above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the
+dove; and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx
+perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of the
+worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed to us in the
+palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancient indications of a Minoan
+connexion with Sicily have now received interesting confirmation in the
+numerous discoveries, principally due to the recent excavations of P.
+Orsi, of arms and painted vases of Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age
+tombs of the provinces of Syracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging
+to the late Bronze Age. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of
+swords and vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals
+going back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age.
+
+
+  Minoan crisis: c. 1400 B.C.
+
+The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preserved by
+Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of the Greeks in
+Crete to a widespread desolation that had fallen on the central regions.
+It is certain that by the beginning of the 14th century B.C., when the
+signs of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the imported
+pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna, some heavy
+blows had fallen on the island power. Shortly before this date the
+palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus had undergone a great destruction,
+and though during the ensuing period both these royal residences were
+partially reoccupied it was for the most part at any rate by poorer
+denizens, and their great days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere
+at Cnossus, in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the
+town houses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followed by
+an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again at Palaikastro
+and other early settlements in the east of Crete. At the same time, to
+whatever cause this serious setback of Minoan civilization was owing, it
+would be very unsafe to infer as yet any large displacement of the
+original inhabitants by the invading swarms from the mainland or
+elsewhere. The evidence of a partial restoration of the domestic quarter
+of the palace of Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic
+continuity. There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the
+indigenous language did not die out during this period, and that
+therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not yet. The
+recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to the close of the great
+palace period, and in a greater degree to the age succeeding the
+catastrophe, has now conclusively shown that there was no real break in
+the continuity of Minoan culture. This third Late Minoan period--the
+beginning of which may be fixed about 1400--is an age of stagnation and
+decline, but the point of departure continued to be the models supplied
+by the age that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, and
+its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives of the
+great palace style. Not only the native form of writing, but the
+household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious rites remain
+substantially the same. The third Late Minoan age corresponds generally
+with the Late Mycenaean stage in the Aegean world (see AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION). It is an age indeed in which the culture as a whole,
+though following a lower level, attains the greatest amount of
+uniformity. From Sicily and even the Spanish coast to the Troad,
+southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and Palestine,--from the Nile valley to the
+mouth of the Po, very similar forms were now diffused. Here and there,
+as in Cyprus, we watch the development of some local schools. How far
+Crete itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonably be
+ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It is certain
+that towards the close of this third and concluding Late Minoan period
+in the island certain mainland types of swords and safety-pins make
+their appearance, which are symptomatic of the great invasion from that
+side that was now impending or had already begun.
+
+
+_Principal Minoan Sites._
+
+It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more important
+Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan sites.
+
+  _Cnossus._--The palace of Cnossus is on the hill of Kephala about 4 m.
+  inland from Candia. As a scene of human settlement this site is of
+  immense antiquity. The successive "Minoan" strata, which go well back
+  into the fourth millennium B.C., reach down to a depth of about 17 ft.
+  But below this again is a human deposit, from 20 to 26 ft. in
+  thickness, representing a long and gradual course of Neolithic or
+  Later Stone-Age development. Assuming that the lower strata were
+  formed at approximately the same rate as the upper, we have an
+  antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the first
+  Neolithic settlement on this spot. The hill itself, like a Tell of
+  Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements. The
+  palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way
+  communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill. This
+  road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal armoury,
+  and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two sides (theatral
+  area). The palace itself approximately formed a square with a large
+  paved court in the centre. It had a N.S. orientation. The principal
+  entrance was to the north, but what appears to have been the royal
+  entrance opened on a paved court on the west side. This entrance
+  communicated with a corridor showing frescoes of a processional
+  character. The west side of the palace contained a series of 18
+  magazines with great store jars and cists and large hoards of clay
+  documents. A remarkable feature of this quarter is a small council
+  chamber with a gypsum throne of curiously Gothic aspect and lower
+  stone benches round. The walls of the throne room show frescoes with
+  sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile landscape, and a
+  small bath chamber--perhaps of ritual use--is attached. This quarter
+  of the palace shows the double axe sign constantly repeated on its
+  walls and pillars, and remains of miniature wall-paintings showing
+  pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes stuck into the wooden
+  columns. Here too were found the repositories of an early shrine
+  containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs, including a snake
+  goddess--another aspect of the native divinity--and her votaries. The
+  central object of cult in this shrine was apparently a marble cross.
+  Near the north-west angle of the palace was a larger bath chamber, and
+  by the N. entrance were remains of great reliefs of bull-hunting
+  scenes in painted _gesso duro_. South of the central court were found
+  parts of a relief in the same material, showing a personage with a
+  fleur-de-lis crown and collar. The east wing of the palace was the
+  really residential part. Here was what seems to have been the basement
+  of a very large hall or "Megaron," approached directly from the
+  central court, and near this were found further reliefs, fresco
+  representations of scenes of the bull-ring with female as well as male
+  toreadors, and remains of a magnificent gaming-board of gold-plated
+  ivory with intarsia work of crystal plaques set on silver plates and
+  blue enamel (_cyanus_). The true domestic quarter lay to the south of
+  the great hall, and was approached from the central court by a
+  descending staircase, of which three flights and traces of a fourth
+  are preserved. This gives access to a whole series of halls and
+  private rooms (halls "of the Colonnades," "of the Double Axes,"
+  "Queen's Megaron" with bath-room attached and remains of the fish
+  fresco, "Treasury" with ivory figures and other objects of art),
+  together with extensive remains of an upper storey. The drainage
+  system here, including a water-closet, is of the most complete and
+  modern kind. Near this domestic quarter was found a small shrine of
+  the Double Axes, with cult objects and offertory vessels in their
+  places. The traces of an earlier "Middle Minoan" palace beneath the
+  later floor-levels are most visible on the east side, with splendid
+  ceramic remains. Here also are early magazines with huge store jars.
+  At the foot of the slope on this side, forming the eastern boundary of
+  the palace, are massive supporting walls and a bastion with descending
+  flights of steps, and a water-channel devised with extraordinary
+  hydraulic science (Evans, "Palace of Knossos," "Reports of Excavations
+  1900-1905," in _Annual of British School at Athens_, vi. sqq.; _Journ.
+  R.I.B.A._ (1902), pt. iv. For the palace pottery see D. Mackenzie,
+  _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxiii.). The palace site occupies nearly
+  six acres. To the N.E. of it came to light a "royal villa" with
+  staircase, and a basilica-like hall (Evans, _B.S. Annual_, ix. 130
+  seq.). To the N.W. was a dependency containing an important hoard of
+  bronze vessels (ib. p. 112 sqq.). The building on the hill to the W.
+  approached by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller
+  palace (_B.S. Annual_, xii., 1906). Many remains of private houses
+  belonging to the prehistoric town have also come to light (Hogarth,
+  _B.S.A._ vi. [1900], p. 70 sqq.). A little N. of the town, at a spot
+  called Zafer Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated
+  in 1904 (Evans, _The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus_, 1906), and on a
+  height about 2 m. N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square
+  chamber, which originally had a pointed vault of "Cyclopaean"
+  structure approached by a forehall or rock-cut passage. This
+  monumental work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age,
+  but has been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans,
+  _Archaeologia_, 1906, p. 136 sqq.). It is possibly the traditional
+  tomb of Idomeneus. (For later discoveries see further CNOSSUS.)
+
+  _Phaestus._--The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan
+  Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara. On the eastern hill
+  of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F. Halbherr on behalf of
+  the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out by L.
+  Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much resembling
+  on a somewhat smaller scale that of Cnossus. The plan here too was
+  roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing to the erosion of
+  the hillside a good deal of the eastern quarter has disappeared. The
+  Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods, and the earlier or
+  "Middle Minoan" part is better preserved than at Cnossus. The west
+  court and entrance belonging to the earlier building show many
+  analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court was commanded to the
+  north by tiers of stone benches like those of the "theatral area" at
+  Cnossus on a larger scale. Magazines with fine painted store jars came
+  to light beneath the floor of the later "propylaeum." The most
+  imposing block of the later building is formed by a group of
+  structures rising from the terrace formed by the old west wall. A fine
+  paved corridor running east from this gives access to a line of the
+  later magazines, and through a columnar hall to the central court
+  beyond, while to the left of this a broad and stately flight of steps
+  leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper terrace. North of the
+  central court is a domestic quarter presenting analogies with that of
+  Cnossus, but throughout the later building there was a great dearth of
+  the frescoes and other remains such as invest the Cnossian palace with
+  so much interest. There are also few remaining traces here of upper
+  storeys. It is evident that in this case also the palace was overtaken
+  by a great catastrophe, followed by a partial reoccupation towards the
+  close of the Late Minoan age (L. Pernier, _Scavi della missione
+  italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti antichi_, xii. and xiv.).
+
+  About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near the village
+  of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light in 1901,
+  belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni, _Necropoli
+  di Phaestos_, 1905).
+
+  _Hagia Triada._--On a low hill crowned by a small church of the above
+  name, about 3 m. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a small palace
+  or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavated by the Italian
+  Mission. In its structure and general arrangements it bears a general
+  resemblance to the palace of Phaestus and Cnossus on a smaller scale.
+  The buildings themselves, with the usual halls, bath-rooms and
+  magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother Goddess, occupy two
+  sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a higher level approached
+  by flights of stairs. Repositories also came to light containing
+  treasure in the shape of bronze ingots. In contrast to the palace of
+  Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved exceptionally rich,
+  and derive a special interest from the fact that the catastrophe which
+  overwhelmed the building belongs to a somewhat earlier part of the
+  Late Minoan age than that which overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus. Clay
+  tablets were here found belonging to the earlier type of the linear
+  script (Class A), together with a great number of clay sealings with
+  religious and other devices and incised countermarks. Both the signet
+  types and the other objects of art here discovered display the fresh
+  naturalism that characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan
+  period. A remarkable wall-painting depicts a cat creeping over
+  ivy-covered rocks and about to spring on a pheasant. The steatite
+  vases with reliefs are of great importance. One of these shows a
+  ritual procession, apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the
+  sound of a sistrum. On another a Minoan warrior prince appears before
+  his retainers. A tall funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a
+  considerable part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing
+  bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume,
+  the whole executed in a most masterly manner. The small palace was
+  reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level. To a
+  period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian palace
+  must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging to a neighbouring
+  cemetery. The chest is of limestone coated with stucco, adorned with
+  life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with the sacred
+  Double Axes of Minoan cult. There have also come to light remains of a
+  great domed mortuary chamber of primitive construction containing
+  relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr, _Monumenti Antichi_,
+  xiii. (1903), p. 6 sqq., and _Memorie del instituto lombardo_, 1905;
+  Paribeni, _Lavori eseguiti della missione italiana nel Palazzo e nella
+  necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti_, &c., xi. and xii.; Savignoni,
+  _Il Vaso di Haghia Triada_).
+
+  _Palaikastro._--Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of
+  Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a
+  considerable Minoan town. The buildings here show a stratification
+  analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus. The town was traversed by
+  a well-paved street with a stone sewer, and contained several
+  important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been a
+  small palace. Among the more interesting relics found were ivory
+  figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric. On an adjacent
+  hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times a
+  temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich deposits
+  of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the
+  religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back
+  to prehistoric times. On the neighbouring height of Petsofà, by a
+  rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to
+  light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interesting
+  votive offerings of terra-cotta, many of them apparently relating to
+  cures or to the warding off of diseases (R. C. Bosanquet, _British
+  School Annual_, viii. 286 sqq., ix. 274 sqq.; R. M. Dawkins, ibid. ix.
+  290 sqq., x.; J. L. Myres, ibid. ix. 356 sqq.).
+
+
+PLATE I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--PALACE OF CNOSSUS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM
+THE EAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--VIEW OF PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF
+COLONNADES (WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUS).]
+
+(_By permission of Dr A. J. Evans._)
+
+
+PLATE II.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--LARGE OIL-JARS IN EAST MAGAZINES (CNOSSUS).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE ON WALL)
+(CNOSSUS).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).]
+
+(_By permission of Dr A. J. Evans._)
+
+  _Gournia._--Near this hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in
+  east Crete, the American archaeologist Miss Harriet Boyd has excavated
+  a great part of another Minoan town. It covers the sides of a long
+  hill, its main avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small
+  palace. It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was
+  rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and
+  pottery for household use. The bulk of the remains belong here, as at
+  Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but there
+  are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age. The remains
+  supply detailed information as to the everyday life of a Cretan
+  country town about the middle of the second millennium B.C. (H. Boyd,
+  _Excavations at Gournia_).
+
+  _Zakro._--Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast
+  important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia
+  were explored by D. G. Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits
+  containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety
+  of seal impressions. The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known
+  port of call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds
+  of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same stead to the
+  Minoan shipping (D. G. Hogarth, _Annual of the British School_, vii.
+  121 sqq., and _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. 76 sqq. and 333
+  sqq.).
+
+  _Dictaean Cave._--Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range,
+  answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with
+  the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. This cavern also shared
+  with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos,
+  Moses-like, received the law from Zeus. The exploration begun by the
+  Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found here
+  the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by Hogarth in
+  1900. Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern, which served as
+  the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a lower sanctuary
+  going down deep into the bowels of the earth. Great quantities of
+  votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish double axes and
+  stone tables of offering, were found both above and below. In the
+  lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite had been used as
+  objects of worship, and bronze votive objects thrust into their
+  crevices (Halbherr, _Museo di antichità classica_, ii. pp. 906-910;
+  Evans, _Further Discoveries_, &c., p. 350 sqq., _Myc. Tree and Pillar
+  Cult_, p. 14 sqq.; Hogarth, "The Dictaean Cave," _Annual of British
+  School at Athens_, vi. 94 sqq.).
+
+  _Pseira and Mochlos._--On these two islets on the northern coast of E.
+  Crete, R. Seager, an American explorer, has found striking remains of
+  flourishing Minoan settlements. The contents of a series of tombs at
+  Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of the Early
+  Minoan age.
+
+
+  Third Late Minoan period.
+
+The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea of the extent to
+which the remains of the great Minoan civilization are spread throughout
+the island. The "hundred cities" ascribed to Crete by Homer are in a
+fair way of becoming an ascertained reality. The great days of Crete lie
+thus beyond the historic period. The period of decline referred to above
+(Late Minoan III.), which begins about the beginning of the 14th century
+before our era, must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of
+considerable duration. As to the character of the invading elements that
+hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary
+Egyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu who represented
+Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period of the Cnossian palace
+(Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on Egyptian monuments towards the end
+of the XVIIIth Dynasty (c. 1350 B.C.), and their place is taken by the
+"Peoples of the Sea." The Achaeans, under the name _Akaiusha_, already
+appear among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of Rameses III.
+(c. 1200 B.C.) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall, "Keftiu and the
+Peoples of the Sea," _Annual of British School at Athens_, viii. 157
+sqq.).
+
+
+  Greek settlementsin Crete.
+
+About the same time the evidences of imports of Late Minoan or
+"Mycenaean" fabrics in Egypt definitely cease. In the _Odyssey_ we
+already find the Achaeans together with Dorians settled in central
+Crete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal
+"Eteocretan" element, however, as represented respectively by the
+Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions written in
+Greek characters show that the old language survived to the centuries
+immediately preceding the Christian era.
+
+
+  The dark ages.
+
+The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic changes in
+Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of widespread destruction and
+by a considerable break in the continuity of the insular civilization.
+New burial customs, notably the rite of cremation in place of the older
+corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier tombs were
+pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use of iron for arms and
+implements now finally triumphed over bronze. Northern forms of swords
+and safety-pins are now found in general use. A new geometrical style of
+decoration like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan
+models. The civic foundations which belong to this period, and which
+include the greater part of the massive ruins of Goulas and Anavlachos
+in the province of Mirabello and of Hyrtakina in the west, affect more
+or less precipitous sites and show a greater tendency to fortification.
+The old system of writing now dies out, and it is not till some three
+centuries later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a
+Semitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilization is
+awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true dark ages
+of Greece.
+
+It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were
+preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced to a subject
+condition, and that these finally leavened the whole lump, so that once
+more--this time under a Hellenic guise--Crete was enabled to anticipate
+mainland Greece in nascent civilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhöfer
+(_Anfänge der Kunst_) had called attention to certain remarkable
+examples of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery of
+the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and notably the
+shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that by the 8th century
+B.C. Cretan technique in metal not only held its own beside imported
+Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctly ahead of that of the rest of
+Greece (Halbherr, _Bronzi del antro di Zeus Ideo_). The recent
+excavations by the British School on the site of the Dictaean temple at
+Palaikastro bear out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of
+Apollo found at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at
+fault in recording the existence of a very early school of Greek
+sculpture in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and
+Scyllis.
+
+The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed descent
+from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their sanction in the laws
+which Minos was said to have received from the hands of the Cretan Zeus.
+The great monument of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius
+(_Monumenti antichi_, iii.) is the most important monument of early law
+hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world.
+
+
+  Greek remains.
+
+Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned, besides the
+great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian Apollo at Gortyna,
+a plain square building with a _pronaos_ added in later times, excavated
+by Halbherr, 1885 and 1887 (_Mon. Ant._ iii. 2 seqq.), the Hellenic
+bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city walls of
+Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the rock-cut throne
+of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a temple. The most
+interesting record, however, that has been preserved of later Hellenic
+civilization in the island is the coinage of the Cretan cities (J. N.
+Svoronos, _Numismatique de la Crete ancienne_; W. Wroth, _B. M. Coin
+Catalogue, Crete, &c._; P. Gardner, _The Types of Greek Coins_), which
+during the good period display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style
+distinct from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes
+indicative of a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these
+artistic efforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses into
+barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions.
+
+
+  Roman remains.
+
+Under the _Pax Romana_, the Cretan cities again enjoyed a large measure
+of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices still existing at the
+time of the Venetian occupation. A good account of these is preserved
+in a MS. description of the island drawn up under the Venetians about
+1538, and existing in the library of St Mark (published by Falkener,
+_Museum of Classical Antiquities_, ii. pp. 263-303). Very little of all
+this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest and the ravages caused
+by the incessant insurrections of the last two centuries. The ruin-field
+of Gortyna still evokes something of the importance that it possessed in
+Imperial days, and at Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple
+of Aesculapius and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this
+city. At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Roman
+monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly disappeared.
+Among the early Christian remains of the island far and away the most
+important is the church of St Titus at Gortyna, which perhaps dates from
+the Constantinian age.
+
+  LITERATURE.--See the authorities already quoted, for further details.
+  Previous to the extensive excavations referred to above, Crete had
+  been carefully examined and explored by Tournefort, Pococke, Olivier
+  and other travellers, e.g. Pashley (_Travels in Crete_, 2 vols.,
+  London, 1837) and Captain Spratt (_Travels and Researches in Crete_, 2
+  vols., London, 1865). A survey sufficiently accurate as regards the
+  maritime parts was also executed, under the orders of the British
+  admiralty, by Captain Graves and Captain (afterwards Admiral) Spratt.
+  Most that can be gathered from ancient authors concerning the
+  mythology and early history of the island is brought together by
+  Meursius (_Creta_, &c., in the 3rd vol. of his works) and Hoeck
+  (_Kreta_, 3 vols., Göttingen, 1823-1829), but the latter work was
+  published before the researches which have thrown so much light on the
+  topography and antiquities of the island. Much new material,
+  especially as to the western provinces of Crete, has been recently
+  collected by members of the Italian Archaeological Mission (_Monumenti
+  Antichi_, vol. vi. 154 seqq., ix. 286, 1899; xi. 286 seqq.). (A. J.
+  E.)
+
+
+_History._
+
+_Ancient._--Lying midway between three continents, Crete was from the
+earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the passage of early
+culture from Egypt and the East to mainland Greece. On all this the
+recent archaeological discoveries (see the section on ARCHAEOLOGY) have
+thrown great light, but the earliest written history of Crete, like that
+of most parts of continental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and
+fable to so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any
+clear conclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimed for
+their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parent of all
+the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the Olympian
+deities. But passing from this region of pure mythology to the
+semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early legends and
+traditions of the island grouped around the name of Minos. According to
+the received tradition, Minos was a king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a
+son of Zeus, and enjoyed through life the privilege of habitual
+intercourse with his divine father. It was from this source that he
+derived the wisdom which enabled him to give to the Cretans the
+excellent system of laws and governments that earned for him the
+reputation of being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same
+time he was reported to have been the first monarch who established a
+naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks the
+_Thalassocracy_, or dominion of the sea.
+
+This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact both by
+Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few years received
+striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recently brought to light
+on Cretan soil tend to show that already some 2000 years before the
+Dorian conquest the island was exercising a dominant influence in the
+Aegean world. The great palaces now excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus,
+as well as the royal villa of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive
+phases of a brilliant primitive civilization which had already attained
+mature development by the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty. To this
+civilization as a whole it is convenient to give the name "Minoan," and
+the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover a dynastic
+even more than a personal significance in much the same way as such
+historic terms as "Pharaoh" or "Caesar."
+
+The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual existence
+of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as Sicily and on the
+other as the coast of Canaan. The historic tradition which identifies
+with the Cretans the principal element of the Philistine confederation,
+and places the tomb of Minos himself in western Sicily, thus receives
+remarkable confirmation. Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked
+by the occurrence of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of
+Minoan fabric among the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlier
+dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian fabrics
+to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in the Homeric
+poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan civilization was
+already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only Greek people who
+attempted to compete with the Phoenicians as bold and adventurous
+navigators. In the Homeric age the population of Crete was of a very
+mixed character, and we are told in the _Odyssey_ (xix. 175) that
+besides the Eteocretes, who, as their name imports, must have been the
+original inhabitants, the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and
+Dorians. Subsequently the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by
+fresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during the historical
+period all the principal cities of the island were either Dorian
+colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect and institutions. It is
+certain that at a very early period the Cretan cities were celebrated
+for their laws and system of government, and the most extensive monument
+of early Greek law is the great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884.
+The origin of the Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but
+they had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as well
+as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed, according to
+one tradition, copied in great measure from those already existing in
+Crete.[2]
+
+It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have possessed
+for the internal regulation of the different cities, they had the one
+glaring defect, that they made no provision for any federal bond or
+union among them, or for the government of the island as a whole. It was
+owing to the want of this that the Cretans scarcely figure in Greek
+history as a people, though the island, as observed by Aristotle, would
+seem from its natural position calculated to exercise a preponderating
+influence over Greek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the
+Persian or in the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil
+contests in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were
+engaged. At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on
+this account that the few notices we find of them in history always
+represent them as engaged in local wars among one another; and Polybius
+tells us that the history of Crete was one continued series of civil
+wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosity exceeding all that
+was known in the rest of Greece.
+
+In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took the
+lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of _hegemony_ or supremacy over the
+whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia. But besides these
+three, there were many other independent cities, which, though they
+generally followed the lead of one or other of these more powerful
+rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy, and were able to shift at will from
+one alliance to another. Among the most important of these were--Lyttus
+or Lyctus, in the interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between
+Cnossus and Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna
+and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the island;
+Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda; Eleutherna and Axus, on
+the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and Lappa, between the White Mountains
+and the sea. Phalasarna on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north,
+seem to have been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia
+and Lyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains just above
+the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island were Praesus in
+the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east, while Hierapytna
+on the south coast was the only place of importance on the side facing
+Africa, and on this account rose under the Romans to be one of the
+principal cities of the island.     (A. J. E.)
+
+_Medieval to 19th Century._--Though it was continually torn by civil
+dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the various
+Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but having incurred the
+enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the great Mithradates, and
+afterwards by taking active part with their neighbours, the pirates of
+Cilicia, the Cretans were at length attacked by the Roman arms, and,
+after a resistance protracted for more than three years, were finally
+subdued by Q. Metellus, who earned by this success the surname of
+Creticus (67 B.C.). The island was now reduced to a Roman province, and
+subsequently united for administrative purposes with the district of
+Cyrenaica or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This
+arrangement lasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete was
+incorporated in the prefecture of Illyria. It continued to form part of
+the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fell into the hands
+of the Saracens (823). It then became a formidable nest of pirates and a
+great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of the Byzantine sovereigns
+to recover it till the year 960, when it was reconquered by Nicephorus
+Phocas. In the partition of the Greek empire after the capture of
+Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface,
+marquis of Montferrat, but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus
+passed under the dominion of that great republic, to which it continued
+subject for more than four centuries.
+
+Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally built by the
+Saracens, and called by them "Khandax," became the seat of government,
+and not only rose to be the capital and chief city of the island, but
+actually gave name to it, so that it was called in the official language
+of Venice "the island of Candia," a designation which from thence passed
+into modern maps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however,
+always retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its
+place in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Crete by the
+Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies, very
+arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous insurrections were the
+consequence. Daru, in his history of Venice, mentions fourteen between
+the years 1207 and 1365, the most important being that of 1361-1364,--a
+revolt not of the natives against the rule of their Venetian masters,
+but of the Venetian colonists against the republic. But with all its
+defects their administration did much to promote the material prosperity
+of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it is
+probable that the island was more prosperous than at any subsequent
+time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to the islanders external
+tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks were content to leave
+them in undisturbed possession of this opulent and important island for
+nearly two centuries after the fall of Constantinople. The Cretans
+themselves, however, were eager for a change, and, disappointed in the
+hope of a Genoese occupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of
+a Venetian commissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that
+of the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at any
+rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that the Turks made
+any serious attempt to effect the conquest of the island; but in that
+year they landed with an army of 50,000 men, and speedily reduced the
+important city of Canea. Retimo fell the following year, and in 1648
+they laid siege to the capital city of Candia. This was the longest
+siege on record, having been protracted for more than twenty years; but
+in 1667 it was pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand
+vizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled to surrender
+(September 1669). Its fall was followed by the submission of the whole
+island. Venice was allowed to retain possession of Grabusa, Suda and
+Spinalonga on the north, but in 1718 these three strongholds reverted to
+the Turks, and the island was finally lost to Venice.
+
+From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule without
+interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution. After the
+conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced Mahommedanism, and
+thus secured to themselves the chief share in the administration of the
+island. But far from this having a favourable effect upon the condition
+of the population, the result was just the contrary, and according to R.
+Pashley (_Travels in Crete_, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province
+of the Turkish empire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero
+of which was "Master" John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with great
+cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinople were wholly
+unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, who exercised without
+restraint every kind of violence and oppression. In 1813 the ruthless
+severity of the governor-general, Haji Osman, who obtained the
+co-operation of the Christians, broke the power of the janissaries; but
+after Osman had fallen a victim to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete
+again came under their control. When in 1821 the revolution broke out in
+continental Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a
+massacre at Canea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They
+carried on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves
+masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks and
+Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities. The sultan
+then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, who
+despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilities continued with no
+decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of further reinforcements
+enabled the Turkish commander to reduce the island to submission. In
+1827 the battle of Navarino took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February)
+Greece was declared independent. The allied powers (France, England and
+Russia) decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the
+islands annexed to the newly-formed kingdom of Greece; but recognizing
+that some change was necessary, they obtained from the sultan Mahmud II.
+its cession to Egypt, which was confirmed by a firman of the 20th of
+December 1832. This change of masters brought some relief to the
+unfortunate Cretans, who at least exchanged the licence of local misrule
+for the oppression of an organized despotism; and the government of
+Mustafa Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for
+a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and intelligent
+than that of most Turkish governors. He encouraged agriculture, improved
+the roads, introduced an Albanian police, and put down brigandage. The
+period of his administration has been called the "golden age" of Crete.
+
+In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced under the
+dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still retained his
+governorship until he left for Constantinople to become grand vizier in
+1852. Four years later an insurrection broke out, owing to the violation
+of the provisions of an imperial decree (February 1856), whereby liberty
+of conscience and equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been
+conferred upon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms
+until a firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised
+concessions. These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the
+inhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up for
+presentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan's reply was
+couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were ordered to render
+unquestioning obedience to the authorities. After a period of great
+distress and cruel oppression, in 1866, on the demand for reforms being
+again refused, a general insurrection took place, which was only put
+down by great exertions on the part of the Porte. It was followed by the
+concession of additional privileges to the Christians of the island and
+of a kind of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in
+what is known as the "Organic Statute" of 1868. (J. H. F.)
+
+
+  Pact of Halepa.
+
+  Insurrection of 1896-97.
+
+_Modern Constitutional._--Cretan constitutional history may be said to
+date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrection which had
+extended over three years, the Turkish government consented to grant a
+certain measure of autonomy to the island. The privileges now accorded
+were embodied in what is known as the Organic Statute, an instrument
+which eventually obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by
+Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be
+introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Various privileges
+already acquired by the Christian population were confirmed; a general
+council, or representative body, was brought into existence, composed of
+deputies from every district in the island; mixed tribunals were
+introduced, together with a highly elaborate administrative system,
+under which all the more important functionaries, Christian and
+Mussulman, were provided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The new
+constitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failed to
+satisfy either section of the population. The Christians were ready for
+another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government, finding Hellenic
+aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano, gave the signal for
+agitation in the island. During the insurrection which followed, the
+usual barbarities were committed on both sides; the Christians betook
+themselves to the mountains, and the Mussulman peasants crowded into the
+fortified towns. Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of
+England, which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was ready
+to accept, and the convention known as the Pact of Halepa was drawn up
+in 1878 under the auspices of Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and
+Adossides Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan
+population. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute were
+confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and administrative
+systems were maintained; the judges were declared independent of the
+executive, and an Assembly composed of forty-nine Christian and
+thirty-one Mussulman deputies took the place of the former general
+council. A parliamentary régime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare
+for a time took the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems
+attaching themselves to one or other of the political factions which now
+made their appearance among the Christians. The material interests of
+the island were neglected in the scramble for place and power; the
+finances fell into disorder, and the party which came off worst in the
+struggle systematically intrigued against the governor-general of the
+day and conspired with his enemies at Constantinople. A crisis came
+about in 1889, when the "Conservative" leaders, finding themselves in a
+minority in the chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains.
+Though the outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latent
+fanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island once more
+became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the two preceding
+movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourably for the
+Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greek government to persuade
+the insurgents not to oppose the occupation of several strategic posts,
+despatched a military governor to the island, proclaimed martial law,
+and issued a firman abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa
+Pact. The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the number of
+its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had hitherto been
+shared with the island, was appropriated by the Turkish treasury. The
+firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it violated a convention possessing a
+quasi-international sanction, but the Christians were unable to resist,
+and the powers abstained from intervention. The elections held under the
+new system proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls,
+and for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a
+succession of Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad to worse,
+the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, which received no
+pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied. In 1894 the Porte, at
+the instance of the powers, nominated a Christian, Karatheodory Pasha,
+to the governorship, and the Christians, mollified by the concession,
+agreed to take part in the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked;
+no steps, however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which
+became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. The refusal
+of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been illegally
+diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction a loan to meet
+immediate requirements caused no little exasperation in the island,
+which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory (March 1895). Before
+that event an Epitropé, or "Committee of Reform," had appeared in the
+mountains--the harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the
+emancipation of Crete. The Epitropé was at first nothing more than a
+handful of discontented politicians who had failed to find places in the
+administration, but some slight reverses which it succeeded in
+inflicting on the Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians
+to its side, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest
+the important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantry now flocked
+to the fortified towns and civil war began. Serious disturbances broke
+out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were only quelled by the arrival of
+foreign warships. The foreign consuls intervened in the hope of bringing
+about a peaceful settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment
+of force, and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of
+that town with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detachment
+through the western districts, where other garrisons were besieged, was
+marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000 Christian peasants took
+refuge on the desolate promontory of Spada, where they suffered extreme
+privations. These events, which produced much excitement in Greece,
+quickened the energies of the powers. An international blockade of the
+island was proposed by Austria but rejected by England. The ambassadors
+at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the Porte, and the Sultan,
+alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian outbreak, began to display a
+conciliatory disposition. The Pact of Halepa was restored, the troops
+were withdrawn from the interior, financial aid was promised to the
+island, a Christian governor-general was appointed, the assembly was
+summoned, and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an
+arrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderate scheme of
+reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a few exceptions, were
+approved by the powers and eventually sanctioned by the sultan.
+
+
+  Greek Intervention.
+
+  Decision of the powers.
+
+On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted the new
+constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers for their
+intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the arrangement, which
+the powers undertook to guarantee, and, notwithstanding some symptoms of
+discontent at Candia, there was every reason to hope that the island was
+now entering upon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident,
+however, that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of
+the new reforms. Several months passed without any step being taken
+towards this realization; difficulties were raised with regard to the
+composition of the international commissions charged with the
+reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial system; intrigues were set
+on foot against the Christian governor-general; and the presence of a
+special imperial commissioner, who had no place under the constitution,
+proved so injurious to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers
+demanded his immediate recall. The indignation of the Christians
+increased, a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants
+refused to return to their homes. A new factor now became apparent in
+Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek government had
+loyally co-operated with the powers in their efforts for the
+pacification of the island, but towards the close of the year a secret
+society known as the Ethniké Hetaeria began to arrogate to itself the
+direction of Greek foreign policy. The aim of the society was a war with
+Turkey with a view to the acquisition of Macedonia, and it found a ready
+instrument for its designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan
+Christians. Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large
+consignments of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the
+island was practically in a state of insurrection. On the 21st of
+January the Greek fleet was mobilized. Affairs were brought to a climax
+by a series of conflicts which took place at Canea on the 4th of
+February; the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration
+broke out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge on
+the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government now despatched an
+ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were followed a few days later by
+a torpedo flotilla commanded by Prince George. The prince soon retired
+to Melos, but on the night of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary
+force under Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its
+commander issued a proclamation announcing the occupation of the island
+in the name of King George. On the same day Georgi Pasha, the Christian
+governor-general, took refuge on board a Russian ironclad, and, on the
+next, naval detachments from the warships of the powers occupied Canea.
+This step paralysed the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few
+slight engagements with the Turks remained practically inactive in the
+interior. The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and
+their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st February).
+The intervention of Greece caused immense excitement among the Christian
+population, and terrible massacres of Moslem peasants took place in the
+eastern and western districts. The forces of the powers shortly
+afterwards occupied Candia and the other maritime towns, while the
+international fleet blockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were
+followed by the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and
+Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the decision of the powers
+that (1) Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to
+Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of
+the reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomous
+administration, intended to secure to it a separate government, under
+the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at the same time summoned to
+remove its army and fleet from the island, while the Turkish troops were
+to be concentrated in the fortresses and eventually withdrawn. The
+cabinet of Athens, however, declined to recall the expeditionary force,
+which remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the
+Greek reverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its
+return. Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March). After
+the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who had hitherto
+demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced in the decision of the
+powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under its president Dr Sphakianakis,
+a man of good sense and moderation, co-operated with the international
+commanders in the maintenance of order. The pacification of the island,
+however, was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the
+inability of the powers to agree in the choice of a new
+governor-general. The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the
+withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish
+pretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the remaining
+powers divided the island into four departments, which they severally
+undertook to administer. An attack made by the Moslems of Candia on the
+British garrison of that town, with the connivance of the Turkish
+authorities, brought home to the powers the necessity of removing the
+Ottoman troops, and the last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the
+14th of November 1898.
+
+
+  Prince George's administration.
+
+On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince George of Greece as
+high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a period of three years
+(renewed in 1901) was formally announced, and on the 21st of December
+the prince landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea amid
+enthusiastic demonstrations. For some time after his arrival complete
+tranquillity prevailed in the island, but the Moslem population, reduced
+to great distress by the prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large
+numbers. On the 27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was
+voted by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local
+administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the international
+authorities. The extensive powers conferred by the constitution upon
+Prince George were increased by subsequent enactments. In 1901 M.
+Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy part in the last insurrection, was
+dismissed from the post of councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards
+became leader of a strong opposition party, which denounced the
+arbitrary methods of the government. During the next four years party
+spirit ran high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and
+politicians addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the
+following year a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised the
+standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. The insurgents,
+who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis, proclaimed the union of
+the island with Greece (March 1905), and their example was speedily
+followed by the assembly at Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their
+decision to maintain the _status quo_, and increased their military and
+naval forces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia, and
+some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place, the
+international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie. In the
+autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtained an amnesty, laid
+down their arms. A commission appointed by the powers to report on the
+administrative and financial situation drew up a series of
+recommendations in January 1906, and a constituent assembly for the
+revision of the constitution met at Canea in the following June. On the
+25th of July the powers announced a series of reforms, including the
+reorganization of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a
+preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international troops, and
+the extension to Crete of the system of financial control established in
+Greece. On the 14th of September, under an agreement dated the 14th of
+August, they invited King George of Greece, in the event of the high
+commissionership becoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post,
+to be nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the
+25th of September Prince George left the island. He had done much for
+the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party struggles and his
+attitude towards the representatives of the powers had rendered his
+position untenable. His successor, M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime
+minister of Greece, arrived in Crete on the 1st of October.
+     (J. D. B.)
+
+On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner, took the
+oath to the new constitution elaborated after much debate by the Cretan
+national assembly. His position was one of singular difficulty. Apart
+from the rivalry of the factions within the Assembly, there was the
+question of the Mussulman minority, dwindling it is true,[3] but still a
+force to be reckoned with. The high commissioner, true to his reputation
+as a prudent statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in
+dealing with the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitude
+of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to identify
+himself with any faction. In such matters as appointments to the
+judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartiality offended both parties;
+but on the whole his administration was a marked success, and the
+cessation of the chronic state of disturbance in the island justified
+the powers in preparing for the withdrawal of their troops. In spite of
+the admission of their co-religionists to high office in the government,
+the Mussulmans, it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment
+having for its object their expatriation; but these complaints were
+declared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parliament, to
+be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed the conditions
+preliminary to evacuation--(1) the organization of a native gendarmerie,
+(2) the maintenance of the tranquillity of the island, (3) the complete
+security of the Mussulman population. On the 20th of March 1908 M.
+Zaimis called the attention of the powers to the fact that these
+conditions had been fulfilled, and on the 11th of May the powers
+announced to the high commissioner their intention of beginning the
+evacuation at once and completing it within a year. The first withdrawal
+of the troops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan
+Christians, led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves
+abandoned to their fate.
+
+Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards the annexation of
+the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where he arranged for a loan
+with the Greek National Bank and engaged Greek officers for the new
+gendarmerie. The issue was precipitated by the news of the revolution in
+Turkey. On the 12th of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the
+union with Greece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis--who had gone for a
+holiday to Santa Maura--elected a committee of six to govern the island
+in the name of the king of Greece.
+
+Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandum addressed
+to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs. His reply, while
+stating that his government would safeguard the interests of the
+Mussulmans, left open the question of the attitude of the powers,
+complicated now by sympathy with reformed Turkey. The efforts of
+diplomacy were directed to allaying the resentment of the "Young Turks"
+on the one hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and
+meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably in the name
+of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powers announced to the
+Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance, their decision to withdraw
+their remaining troops from Crete by July 26 and to station four
+war-ships off the island to protect the Moslems and to safeguard "the
+supreme rights" of the Ottoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly
+carried out, was avowedly "provisional" and satisfied neither party,
+leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional crises
+of 1909 and 1910.     (W. A. P.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Pashley, _Travels in Crete_ (2 vols., Cambridge and
+  London, 1837); Spratt, _Travels and Researches in Crete_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1867); Raulin, _Description physique de l'île de Crète_ (3
+  vols, and Atlas, Paris, 1869); W. J. Stillman, _The Cretan
+  Insurrection of 1866-68_ (New York, 1874); Edwardes, _Letters from
+  Crete_ (London, 1887); Stavrakis, [Greek: Statistikê tou plêthysmou
+  tês Krêtês] (Athens, 1890); J. H. Freese, _A Short Popular History of
+  Crete_ (London, 1897); Bickford-Smith, _Cretan Sketches_ (London,
+  1897); Laroche, _La Crète ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1898); Victor
+  Berard, _Les Affaires de Crète_ (Paris, 1898); _Monumenti Veneti dell'
+  isola de Creta_ (published by the Venetian Institute), vol. i. (1906),
+  vol. ii. (1908). See also Mrs Walker, _Eastern Life and Scenery_
+  (London, 1886), and _Old Tracks and New Landmarks_ (London, 1897); H.
+  F. Tozer, _The Islands of the Aegean_ (Oxford, 1890); J. D. Bourchier,
+  "The Stronghold of the Sphakiotes," _Fortnightly Review_ (August
+  1890); E. J. Dillon, "Crete and the Cretans," _Fortnightly Review_
+  (May 1897).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See L. Cayeux, "Les Lignes directrices des plissements de l'île
+    de Crète," _C.R. IX. Cong. géol. internat. Vienna_, pp. 383-392
+    (1904).
+
+  [2] Among the features common to the two were the _syssitia_, or
+    public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common. Indeed, the
+    Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at training
+    up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens of more
+    mature age, in all their habits and relations of life. The supreme
+    governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi, answering
+    in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was nothing
+    corresponding to the two kings at Sparta. These Cretan institutions
+    were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but receive only
+    qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle (_Polit._
+    ii. 10).
+
+  [3] The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000 in
+    1907, and the emigration was still continuing. The loss to the
+    country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has been
+    very serious.
+
+
+
+
+CRETINISM, the term given to a chronic disease, either sporadic or
+endemic, arising in early childhood, and due to absence or deficiency of
+the normal secretion of the thyroid gland. It is characterized by
+imperfect development both of mind and body. The thyroid gland is either
+congenitally absent, imperfectly developed, or there is definite goitre.
+The origin of the word is doubtful. Its southern French form _Chrestiaa_
+suggested to Michel a derivation from _cresta_ (_crête_), the goose foot
+of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots, however,
+were not cretins. The word is usually explained as derived from
+_chrétien_ (Christian) in the sense of "innocent." But _Christianus_
+(which appears in the Lombard _cristanei_; compare the Savoyard
+_innocents_ and _gens du bon dieu_) is probably a translation of the
+older _cretin_, and the latter is probably connected with _creta_
+(_craie_)--a sallow or yellow-earthy complexion being a common mark of
+cretinism.
+
+The endemic form of cretinism prevails in certain districts, as in the
+valleys of central Switzerland, Tirol and the Pyrenees. In the United
+Kingdom cretins have been found in England at Oldham, Sholver Moor,
+Crompton, Duffield, Cromford (near Matlock), and other points in
+Derbyshire; endemic goitre has been seen near Nottingham, Chesterfield,
+Pontefract, Ripon, and the mountainous parts of Staffordshire and
+Yorkshire, the east of Cumberland, certain parts of Worcester, Warwick,
+Cheshire, Monmouth, and Leicester, near Horsham in Hampshire, near
+Haslemere in Surrey, and near Beaconsfield in Buckingham. There are
+cretins at Chiselborough in Somerset. In Scotland cretins and cases of
+goitre have been seen in Perthshire, on the east coast of Fife, in
+Roxburgh, the upper portions of Peebles and Selkirk, near Lanark and
+Dumfries, in the east of Ayrshire, in the west of Berwick, the east of
+Wigtown, and in Kirkcudbright. The disease is not confined to Europe,
+but occurs in North and South America, Australia, Africa and Asia.
+Wherever endemic goitre is present, endemic cretinism is present also,
+and it has been constantly observed that when a new family moves into a
+goitrous district, goitre appears in the first generation, cretinism in
+the second. The causation of goitre has now been shown to be due to
+drinking certain waters, though the particular impurity in the water
+which gives rise to this condition has not been determined (see GOITRE).
+The causation of the sporadic form of cretinism is, however, obscure.
+
+Cretinism usually remains unrecognized until the child reaches some
+eighteen months or two years, when its lack of mental development and
+uncouth bodily form begin to attract attention. Occasionally the child
+appears to be normal in infancy, but the cretinoid condition develops
+later, any time up to puberty. The essential point in the morbid anatomy
+of these cases is the absence or abnormal condition of the thyroid gland
+(see METABOLIC DISEASES). It may be congenitally absent, atrophied, or
+the seat of a goitre, though this last condition is very rare in cases
+of sporadic cretinism. The skeleton shows arrested growth, most marked
+in the case of the long bones. The skull in the endemic form of
+cretinism is usually brachycephalic, but in the sporadic cases it is
+more commonly dolichocephalic. The pathology of cretinism and its allied
+condition myxoedema (q.v.) has now been conclusively worked out, and its
+essential cause has been shown to be loss of function of the thyroid
+gland.
+
+The condition has existed and been described in far back ages, but
+mingled with so many other entirely different deformities and
+degenerations that it is now often almost impossible to classify them
+satisfactorily. The following is a vivid picture by Beaupré
+(_Dissertation sur les crétins_, translated in Blackie on _Cretinism_,
+Edin., 1855):--
+
+  "I see a head of unusual form and size, a squat and bloated figure, a
+  stupid look, bleared hollow and heavy eyes, thick projecting eyelids,
+  and a flat nose. His face is of a leaden hue, his skin dirty, flabby,
+  covered with tetters, and his thick tongue hangs down over his moist
+  livid lips. His mouth, always open and full of saliva, shows teeth
+  going to decay. His chest is narrow, his back curved, his breath
+  asthmatic, his limbs short, misshapen, without power. The knees are
+  thick and inclined inward, the feet flat. The large head drops
+  listlessly on the breast; the abdomen is like a bag."
+
+When fully grown the height rarely exceeds 4 ft., and is often less than
+3 ft. The skin feels doughy from thickening of the subcutaneous tissues,
+and it hangs in folds over the abdomen and the bends of the joints. Very
+frequently there is an umbilical hernia. The hair has a far greater
+resemblance to horse-hair than to that of a human being, and is usually
+absent on the body of an adult cretin. The temperature is subnormal, and
+the exposed parts tend to become blue in cold weather. The blood is
+usually deficient in haemoglobin, which is often only 40-50% of the
+normal. The mental capacity varies within narrow limits; an intelligent
+adult cretin may reach the intellectual development of a child 3-4 years
+of age, though more often the standard attained is even below this. The
+child cretin learns neither to walk nor talk at the usual time. Often it
+is unable even to sit without support. Some years later a certain power
+of movement is acquired, but the gait is waddling and clumsy. Speech is
+long delayed, or in bad cases may be almost entirely lacking. The voice
+is usually harsh and unpleasant. Of the senses smell and taste are but
+slightly developed, more or less deafness is generally present, and only
+the sight is fairly normal. In the adult the genital organs remain
+undeveloped. If the cretin is untreated he rarely has a long life,
+thirty years being an exceptional age. Death results from some
+intercurrent disease.
+
+Cretinism has to be distinguished from the state of a Mongolian idiot,
+in whom there is no thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, and much
+greater alertness of mind; from achondroplasia, in which condition there
+is usually no mental impairment; and from infantilism, which covers a
+group of symptoms whose only common point is that the primary and
+secondary sexual characteristics fail to appear at the proper time.
+
+Before 1891 there was no treatment for this disease. The patients lived
+in hopeless imbecility until their death. But in that year Dr George
+Murray published his discovery of the effect of hypodermic injections of
+thyroid gland extract in cases of myxoedema. In the following year Drs
+Hector Mackenzie, E. L. Fox of Plymouth, and Howitz of Copenhagen, each
+working independently, showed the equally potent effect of the gland
+administered by the mouth. The remedy was soon after applied to
+cretinism and its effects were found to be even more wonderful. It has
+to be used, however, with the greatest care and discrimination, since
+personal idiosyncrasy seems to be a very variable factor. Even small
+doses, if beyond the patient's power, may produce fever, excitement,
+headache, insomnia and vomiting. The administration must be persisted in
+throughout life, otherwise myxoedematous symptoms appear. The first most
+apparent results are those of growth, and this may supervene even in
+patients up to 25-30 years of age. Once started, 4 to 6 in. may be
+gained in stature in the first year's treatment, though this is usually
+in inverse ratio to the age of the patient, and also diminishes in later
+stages of treatment. In young adolescents it may be so rapid that the
+patient has to be kept lying down to prevent permanent bending of the
+long bones of the leg, softened by their rapid growth. A very typical
+case under Dr Hector Mackenzie, showing what can be expected from early
+treatment, is that of a cretin aged 11 years in 1893, when thyroid
+treatment was started. He grew very rapidly and became a normal child,
+passed through school, and in 1908 was at one of the universities.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sardinian Commission, "Relazione della commissione di
+  Sardegna per studiare il cretinismo" (Torino, 1848); C. Hilton Fagge,
+  "On Sporadic Cretinism occurring in England," _Med. Chir. Trans._
+  (London, 1870); Vincenzo Allara, "Sulla causa del cretinesimo," studio
+  (Milano, 1892); Victor Horsley, "Remarks on the Function of the
+  Thyroid Gland," _Brit. Med. Journ._ (1892); "The Treatment of
+  Myxoedema and Cretinism, being a Review of the Treatment of those
+  Diseases by Thyroid Gland," _Journ. Ment. Sc._ (London, 1893); W.
+  Osler, "On Sporadic Cretinism in America," _Am. Journ. of Med. Sc._
+  (1893); C. A. Ewald, _Die Erkrankungen der Schilddrüse, Myxödeme und
+  Cretinismus_ (Wien, 1896); G. R. Murray, _Diseases of the Thyroid
+  Gland_, part i. (1900); R. Virchow, "Über Cretinismus," _Würzburger
+  Verhand._; Hector Mackenzie, "Organotherapy," _Textbook of
+  Pharmacology and Therapeutics_ (1901); Weygandt, _Der heutige Stand
+  der Lehre vom Kretinismus_ (Halle, 1903); Hector Mackenzie,
+  "Cretinism," Allbutt & Rolleston's _System of Medicine_, part iv.
+  (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRETONNE, originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen warp and linen
+weft. The word is said to be derived from Creton, a village in Normandy
+where the manufacture of linen was carried on. It is now applied to a
+strong, printed cotton cloth, stouter than chintz but used for very much
+the same purposes. It is usually unglazed and may be printed on both
+sides and even with different patterns. Frequently the cretonne has a
+woven fancy pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed
+design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste.
+
+
+
+
+CREUSE, a department of central France, comprising the greater portion
+of the old province of Marche, together with portions of Berry,
+Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Limousin and Poitou. Area, 2164 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 274,094. It lies on the north-western border of the central
+plateau and is bounded N. by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by
+Allier and Puy-de-Dôme, S. by Corrèze and W. by Haute-Vienne. The
+surface is hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the
+direction of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of
+Auvergne and Limousin, branches of which project into the south of the
+department. The chief of these starts from the Plateau de Gentioux, and
+under the name of the Mountains of Marche extends along the left bank of
+the Creuse. The highest point is in the forest of Châteauvert (3050 ft.)
+in the extreme south-east of the department. Rivers, streams and lakes
+are numerous, but none are navigable; the principal is the Creuse, which
+rises on the north side of the mass of Mount Odouze on the border of the
+department of Corrèze, and passes through the department, dividing it
+into two nearly equal portions, receiving the Petite Creuse from the
+right, and afterwards flowing on to join the Vienne. The valleys of the
+head-streams of the Cher and of its tributary the Tardes, which near
+Évaux passes under a fine viaduct 300 ft. in height, occupy the eastern
+side; those of the heads of the Vienne and its tributary the Thaurion,
+and of the Gartempe joining the Creuse, are in the west of the
+department. The climate is in general cold, moist and variable; the
+rigorous winter covers the higher cantons with snow; rain is abundant in
+spring, and storms are frequent in summer, but the autumn is fine.
+Except in the valleys the soil is poor and infertile, and agriculture
+is also handicapped by the dearness of labour, due to the annual
+emigration of from 15,000 to 20,000 of the inhabitants to other parts of
+France, where they serve as stonemasons, &c. The produce of cereals,
+chiefly rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat, is not sufficient for home
+consumption. The chestnut abounds in the north and west; hemp and
+potatoes are also grown. Cattle-rearing and sheep-breeding are the chief
+industries of the department, which supplies Poitou and Vendée with
+draught oxen. Coal is mined to some extent, chiefly in the basin of
+Ahun. There are thermal springs at Évaux in the east of the department,
+where remains of Roman baths are preserved. The chief industrial
+establishments are the manufactories of carpets and hangings and the
+dyeworks of Aubusson and Felletin. Saw-mills and the manufacture of
+wooden shoes and hats have some importance. Exports include carpets,
+coal, live-stock and hats; imports comprise raw materials for the
+manufactures and food-supplies. The department is served by the Orléans
+railway company, whose line from Montluçon to Périgueux traverses it
+from east to west. It is divided into the four arrondissements of
+Guéret, the capital Aubusson, Bourganeuf, and Boussac, and further into
+25 cantons and 266 communes. With Haute-Vienne, Creuse forms the diocese
+of Limoges, where also is its court of appeal. It forms part of the
+académie (educational division) of Clermont and of the region of the
+XII. army corps. The principal towns are Guéret and Aubusson. La
+Souterraine, Chambon-sur-Voueize and Bénévent-l'Abbaye possess fine
+churches of the 12th century. At Moutier-d'Ahun there is a church, which
+has survived from a Benedictine abbey. The nave of the 15th century with
+a fine portal, and the choir with its carved stalls of the 17th century,
+are of considerable interest. The small industrial town of Bourganeuf
+has remains of a priory, including a tower (15th century) in which
+Zizim, brother of the sultan Bajazet II., is said to have been
+imprisoned.
+
+
+
+
+CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP, COUNT (1729-1785), Swedish poet, was born in
+Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in Åbo he received a post
+in the court of chancery at Stockholm in 1751. Here he met Count
+Gyllenborg, with whom his name is indissolubly connected. They were
+closely allied with Fru Nordenflycht, and their works were published in
+common; to their own generation they seemed equal in fame, but posterity
+has given the palm of genius to Creutz. His greatest work is contained
+in the 1762 volume, the idyll of _Atis och Camilla_; the exquisite
+little pastoral entitled "Daphne" was published at the same time, and
+Gyllenborg was the first to proclaim the supremacy of his friend. In
+1763 Creutz practically closed his poetical career; he went to Spain as
+ambassador, and after three years to Paris in the same capacity. In 1783
+Gustavus III. recalled him and heaped honours upon him, but he died soon
+after, on the 30th of October 1785. _Atis och Camilla_ was long the most
+admired poem in the Swedish language; it is written in a spirit of
+pastoral which is now to some degree faded, but in comparison with most
+of the other productions of the time it is freshness itself. Creutz
+introduced a melody and grace into the Swedish tongue which it lacked
+before, and he has been styled "the last artificer of the language."
+
+  See _Creutz och Gyllenborgs Vitterhetsarbeten_ (Stockholm, 1795).
+
+
+
+
+CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1771-1858), German philologist and
+archaeologist, was born on the 10th of March 1771, at Marburg, the son
+of a bookbinder. Having studied at Marburg and Jena, he for some time
+lived at Leipzig as a private tutor; but in 1802 he was appointed
+professor at Marburg, and two years later professor of philology and
+ancient history at Heidelberg. The latter position he held for nearly
+forty-five years, with the exception of a short time spent at the
+university of Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch
+climate. He was one of the principal founders of the Philological
+Seminary established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Academy of Inscriptions
+of Paris appointed him one of its members, and from the grand-duke of
+Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor. He died on the 16th
+of February 1858. Creuzer's first and most famous work was his _Symbolik
+und Mythologie der alten Völker, besonders der Griechen_ (1810-1812),
+in which he maintained that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from
+an Eastern source through the Pelasgians, and was the remains of the
+symbolism of an ancient revelation. This work was vigorously attacked by
+Hermann in his _Briefen über Homer und Hesiod_, and in his letter,
+addressed to Creuzer, _Über das Wesen und die Behandlung der
+Mythologie_; by J. H. Voss in his _Antisymbolik_; and by Lobek in his
+_Aglaophamos_. Of Creuzer's other works the principal are an edition of
+Plotinus; a partial edition of Cicero, in preparing which he was
+assisted by Moser; _Die historische Kunst der Griechen_ (1803); _Epochen
+der griech. Literaturgeschichte_ (1802); _Abriss der römischen
+Antiquitäten_ (1824); _Zur Geschichte altrömischer Cultur am Oberrhein
+und Neckar_ (1833); _Zur Gemmenkunde_ (1834); _Das Mithreum von
+Neuenheim_ (1838); _Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker_ (1839); _Zur
+Geschichte der classischen Philologie_ (1854).
+
+  See the autobiographical _Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors_
+  (Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his
+  death _Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors_
+  (Frankfort, 1858); also Starck, _Friederich Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang
+  und seine bleibende Bedeutung_ (Heidelberg, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+CREVASSE, a French word used in two senses. (1) In French Switzerland,
+and thence universally in high mountain regions, it designates a fissure
+in a glacier caused by gigantic cracks in the ice-mass, sometimes of
+great depth, into which climbers frequently fall through a light bridge
+of snow which conceals the crevasse. (2) Adopted from the French of
+Louisiana, it signifies locally a wide crack or breach in the bank of a
+canal or river, and particularly of the "levee" of the Mississippi.
+
+
+
+
+CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1693-1765), French author, was born at
+Paris, where his father was a printer. He studied under Rollin and held
+the professorship of rhetoric in the college of Beauvais for twenty
+years. He completed Rollin's _Histoire romaine_ by the addition of six
+volumes (1750-1756); he also published two editions of Livy, with notes;
+_L'Histoire des empereurs des Romains, jusqu'à Constantin_ (1749);
+_Histoire de l'Université de Paris_, and a _Rhétorique françoise_, which
+enjoyed much popularity.
+
+
+
+
+CREVILLENTE, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante, and
+on the Murcia-Alicante railway. Pop. (1900) 10,726. Crevillente is a
+picturesque old town built among the eastern foothills of the Sierra de
+Crevillente. Its flat-roofed Moorish houses are enclosed by gardens of
+cactus, dwarf palm, orange and other subtropical plants, interspersed
+with masses of rock. The surrounding country, though naturally sterile,
+is irrigated from two adjacent springs, which differ in temperature by
+no less than 25° F. The district is famous for its melons, and also
+produces wine, olives, wheat and esparto grass. Local industries include
+the manufacture of coarse cloth, esparto fabrics, oil and flour.
+
+
+
+
+CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633-1721), bishop of Durham, was a son
+of John Crew (1598-1679), who was created Baron Crew of Stene in 1661,
+and a grandson of Sir Thomas Crew (1565-1634), speaker of the House of
+Commons. Born on the 31st of January 1633, Nathaniel was educated at
+Lincoln College, Oxford, and was appointed rector of the college in
+1668. He became dean and precentor of Chichester in 1669, clerk of the
+closet to Charles II. shortly afterwards, bishop of Oxford in 1671, and
+bishop of Durham in 1674. He owed his rapid preferment to James, then
+duke of York, whose favour he had gained by conniving at the duke's
+leanings to the Roman Church. After the accession of James II. Crew
+received the deanery of the Chapel Royal. He served in 1686 on the
+revived ecclesiastical commission which suspended Compton, bishop of
+London, and then shared the administration of the see of London with
+Sprat, bishop of Rochester. In 1687 he was a member of another
+ecclesiastical commission, which suspended the vice-chancellor of the
+university of Cambridge for refusing the degree of M.A. to a monk who
+would not take the customary oath. On the decline of James's power Crew
+dissociated himself from the court, and made a bid for the favour of the
+new government by voting for the motion that James had abdicated. He was
+excepted from the general pardon of 1690, but afterwards was allowed to
+retain his see. He left large estates to be devoted to charitable ends,
+and his benefaction to Lincoln College and to Oxford University is
+commemorated in the annual Crewian oration. In 1697 Crew succeeded his
+brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Crew, He died on the 18th of September 1721,
+when the barony became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O.
+Icel. _krú_, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of
+_accrue_, _accrewe_, used in the 16th century in the sense of a
+reinforcement, O. Fr. _acreue_, from _accroître_, to grow, increase), a
+band or body of men associated for a definite purpose, a gang who
+jointly carry out a particular piece of work, and especially those who
+man a ship, exclusive of the captain, and sometimes also of the
+officers.
+
+
+
+
+CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES, 1st Earl of (1858-   ),
+English statesman and writer, was born on the 12th of January 1858,
+being the son of Lord Houghton (q.v.), and was educated at Harrow and
+Trinity, Cambridge. In 1880 he married Sibyl Marcia Graham, who died in
+1887, leaving him with two daughters. He inherited his father's literary
+tastes, and published _Stray Verses_ in 1890, besides other
+miscellaneous literary work. A Liberal in politics, he became private
+secretary to Lord Granville when secretary of state for foreign affairs
+(1883-1884), and in 1886 was made a lord-in-waiting. In the Liberal
+administration of 1892-1895 he was lord-lieutenant for Ireland, having
+Mr John Morley as chief secretary. In 1895 he was created 1st earl of
+Crewe, his maternal grandfather, the 2nd Baron Crewe, having left him
+his heir. In 1899 he married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of the 5th
+earl of Rosebery. In 1905 he became lord president of the council in the
+Liberal government; and in 1908, in Mr Asquith's cabinet, he became
+secretary of state for the colonies and Liberal leader in the House of
+Lords.
+
+
+
+
+CREWE, a municipal borough in the Crewe parliamentary division of
+Cheshire, England, 158 m. N.W. of London, on the main line of the London
+& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 42,074. The town was built on an
+estate called Oak Farm in the parish of Monk's Coppenhall, and takes its
+name from the original stations having been placed in the township of
+Crewe, in which the seat of Lord Crewe is situated. It is a railway
+junction where lines converge from London, Manchester, North Wales and
+Holyhead, North Stafford and Hereford. It is inhabited principally by
+persons in the employment of the London & North-Western railway company,
+and was practically created by that corporation, at a point where in
+1841 only a farmhouse stood in open country. Crewe is not only one of
+the busiest railway stations in the world, but is the locomotive
+metropolis of the London & North-Western company, which has centred here
+enormous workshops for the manufacture of the material and plant used in
+railways. In 1901 the 4000th locomotive was turned out of the works. A
+series of subterranean ways extending many miles have been constructed
+to enable merchandise traffic to pass through without interfering with
+passenger trains on the surface railways. The company possesses one of
+the finest electric stations in the world, and electrical apparatus for
+the working of train signals is in operation. The station is fitted with
+an extensive suite of offices for the interchange of postal traffic, the
+chief mails to and from Ireland and Scotland being stopped here and
+arranged for various distributing centres. Its enormous railway
+facilities and its geographical situation as the junction of the great
+trunk lines running north and south, tapping also the Staffordshire
+potteries on the one side and the great mineral districts of Wales on
+the other, constitute Crewe station one of the most important links of
+railway and postal communication in the kingdom. The railway company
+built its principal schools, provided it with a mechanics' institute,
+containing library, science and art classes, reading rooms, assembly
+rooms, &c. Victoria Park, also the gift of the company, was opened in
+1888. The municipal corporation built the technical school and school of
+art. The borough incorporated in 1877, is under a mayor, 7 aldermen and
+21 councillors. Area, 2185 acres.
+
+
+
+
+CREWKERNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
+Somersetshire, England, 132 m. W.S.W. of London by the London &
+South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4226. It is
+pleasantly situated in a wooded hollow, in the upper valley of the river
+Parret. The church of St Bartholomew, one of the finest in the county,
+is in the Perpendicular style characteristic of the district. The
+ornamentation throughout is beautiful, and the west front especially
+notable. The grammar school dates from 1499, but occupies modern
+buildings. Sail-cloth, horsehair, cloth and webbing are manufactured.
+
+
+
+
+CRIB (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _krib_ and
+Ger. _Krippe_; it has a common origin with the O. Eng. "cratch," a
+manger or crib, cf. Fr. _crêche_), a manger or framework receptacle for
+holding fodder for cattle and horses, and so, from early times in
+English, particularly the manger in which Jesus was laid. It is thus
+used of a "cradle," from which in form it should be distinguished as
+being a small bed with high closed-in sides. The word has many
+transferred meanings, as a rough, small hut or dwelling, from which
+comes the slang use of "crib" as a berth or situation, or, as a
+burglar's term for a house to be broken into; also, technically, in
+engineering for a timber framework for masonry constructed with a
+caisson in laying foundations below water, or in mining for a timber
+lining to a shaft. "Crib-biting" is a vicious habit in horses, probably
+due in the first instance to indigestion; the horse seizes the manger or
+other object in its teeth, and draws in the breath, known as
+"wind-sucking"; the habit may be checked by the use of a throat-strap.
+The slang meaning of the verb "crib," to steal, especially used of petty
+thefts, is probably derived from an obsolete use of the substantive for
+a small wicker basket; this meaning occurs in the expression
+"time-cribbing," used of an illicit increase of the hours of labour in a
+factory or workshop, especially by the running of machinery each day
+slightly beyond the time of ceasing work. "Crib" and "cribbing" in this
+sense are also applied to any unacknowledged appropriation or plagiarism
+from an author, and particularly to the secret copying by a schoolboy of
+another's work or from a book, and also to the secret use of a
+translation and to such translation itself. "Crib," in the game of
+cribbage, of which it is a shortened form, is the term for the cards
+thrown away by each player and scored by the dealer.
+
+
+
+
+CRIBBAGE, a game of cards. A very similar game called "Noddy" was
+formerly played, the game being fifteen or twenty-one up, marked with
+counters, occasionally by means of a noddy board. Cribbage seems to be
+an improved form of Noddy. According to John Aubrey (_Brief Lives_) it
+was invented by Sir John Suckling (1609-1642).
+
+A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage board for
+scoring, drilled with sixty holes for each player and one hole (called
+"the game hole") at each end, the players usually scoring from opposite
+ends. Each player has two scoring pegs. The game is marked by inserting
+the pegs in the holes, one after the other, as the player makes a fresh
+score, commencing with the outer row at the game-hole end and going up
+the board. When the thirtieth hole is reached the player comes down the
+board, using the inner row of holes, until he places his foremost peg in
+the game-hole. If the losing player fails to obtain half the holes, his
+adversary wins a "lurch," or double game.
+
+The game may be played by two players, five or six cards being dealt to
+each, and each putting out two for what is called "crib"; or by three
+players (with a triangular scoring board), five cards being dealt to
+each, each putting out one for crib, and a card from the top of the pack
+being dealt to complete the crib; or by four players (two being partners
+against the other two, sitting and playing as at whist, and one partner
+scoring for both), five cards being dealt to each, and each putting out
+one card for crib.
+
+Two-handed five-card cribbage was formerly considered the most
+scientific game, but this verdict has now been reversed in favour of the
+six-card game. In six-card cribbage both hands and crib contain four
+cards, and 121 holes are scored.
+
+The players cut for deal, the lowest dealing. If more than one game is
+played, the winner of the last game deals. The cards rank from king
+(highest) to the ace (lowest). At the two-handed five-card game, the
+non-dealer scores three holes (called "three for last") at any time
+during the game, but usually while the dealer is dealing the first hand.
+This is not part of the six-card game, which we take as our example.
+
+The dealer deals six cards to each, singly. The undealt cards are placed
+face downwards on the table. The players then look at their hands and
+"lay out," each putting two cards face downwards on the table, on the
+side of the board nearest to the dealer, for the "crib." A player must
+not take back into his hand a card he has laid out if the cards have
+been covered, nor must the crib be touched during the play of his hand.
+
+After laying out, the non-dealer (when more than two play, the player to
+the dealer's left) cuts the pack, and the dealer turns up the top card
+of the lower packet, called the "start," or "turn-up." If this is a
+knave, the dealer marks two "for his heels." This score is forfeited if
+not marked before the dealer plays a card.
+
+The non-dealer plays first by laying face upwards on the table on his
+side of the board any card from his hand; the dealer then does the same,
+and so on alternately. When more than two play, the player to the
+leader's left plays the second card, and so on. As soon as the first
+card is laid down the player calls out the number of pips on it; if a
+picture card, ten. When the second card is laid down, the player calls
+out the sum of the pips on the two cards played, and so on until all the
+cards are played, or until neither player can play without passing the
+number thirty-one. If one player has a card or cards that will come in
+and the other has not, he is at liberty to play them; at the six-card
+game he must play as long as they can come in, and he can score runs or
+make pairs, &c., with them. If one player's cards are exhausted, the
+adversary plays out his own, and can score with them. When more than two
+play, the player next in rotation is bound to play, and so on until no
+one can come in. At the two-handed five-card game, when neither can come
+in the play stops; at the other games the cards are played turned down,
+and the remainder of the cards are played in rotation, and so on until
+all are played out.
+
+The object of the play is to make _pairs_, _fifteens_, _sequences_, and
+the "go," and to prevent the adversary from scoring.
+
+  _Pairs._--If a card is put down of the same denomination as the one
+  last played, the player pairing scores two holes. If a third card of
+  the same denomination is next played, a "pair royal" (abbreviated to
+  "prial") is made, and the maker scores six holes. If a fourth card of
+  the same denomination is next played, twelve holes are scored for the
+  "double pair royal." Kings pair only with kings, queens with queens,
+  and so with knaves and tens, notwithstanding that they all count ten
+  in play.
+
+  _Fifteens._--If either player during the play reaches fifteen exactly,
+  by reckoning the values of all the played cards, he marks two.
+
+  _Sequences._--If during the play of the hand three or more cards are
+  consecutively played which make an ascending or descending sequence,
+  the maker of the sequence marks one hole for each card forming the
+  sequence or run. King, queen, knave and ten reckon in sequence in this
+  order, notwithstanding that they are all tenth cards in play; the
+  other cards according to the number of their pips. The ace is not in
+  sequence with king, queen. If one player obtains a run of three, his
+  adversary can put down a card in sequence and mark four, and so on.
+  And, if there is a break in the sequence, and the break is filled up
+  during the play, without the intervention of a card not in sequence,
+  the player of the card that fills the break scores a run. Thus the
+  cards are played in this order: A-4, B-3, A-2, B-ace, A gets a run of
+  three, B a run of four. Had B's last card been a five, he would
+  similarly have scored a run of four, as there is no break. Had B's
+  last card been a four, he would have scored a run of three. The cards
+  need not be played in order. Thus the cards being played in this
+  order, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-6, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-5, B-6, B takes
+  a run of four for the fourth card played, but there is no run for any
+  one else, as the second five intervenes. Again, if the cards at
+  six-card cribbage are thus played, A-4, B-2, A-3, B-ace, A-5, B-2,
+  A-4, B-ace, A takes a run of three, B a run of four, A a run of five.
+  B then playing the deuce has no run, as the deuce previously played
+  intervenes.
+
+  The "go," end hole or last card is scored by the player who approaches
+  most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles to a score of
+  one. If thirty-one is reached exactly, it is a go of two instead of
+  one. After a go no card already played can be counted for pairs or
+  sequences.
+
+  _Compound Scores._--More than one of the above scores can be made at
+  the same time. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will come
+  in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a
+  sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together.
+
+  When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud. The
+  non-dealer has first show and scores and marks first; the dealer
+  afterwards counts, scores and marks what he has in hand, and then
+  takes what is in crib. In counting both hands and crib the "start" is
+  included, so that five cards are involved.
+
+  The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are fifteen,
+  pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes and "his nob."
+
+  _Fifteens._--All the combinations of cards that, taken together, make
+  fifteen exactly, count two. For example, a ten (King, Queen, Knave or
+  Ten) card and a five reckon two, called as "fifteen two." Another five
+  in the hand or turned up would again combine with the ten card, and
+  entitle to another fifteen ("fifteen four"); if the other cards were a
+  two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted ("fifteen six,"
+  "fifteen eight")--one for the combination of the three and two with
+  the ten card, and one for the combination of the two fives with the
+  three and two. Similarly two ten cards and two fives reckon eight; a
+  nine and three threes count six; and so on for other cards.
+
+  _Pairs._--Pairs are reckoned as in play.
+
+  _Sequences._--Three or more cards in sequence count one for each card.
+  If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the same
+  denomination, the sequence reckons again. For example, 3,4,5 and a 3
+  turned up reckon two sequences of three; with another 3 there would be
+  three sequences of three, and so on.
+
+  _Flushes._--If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is
+  reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one is
+  reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned unless the start
+  is of the same suit as the cards in crib.
+
+  _His Nob._--If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up for the
+  start he counts one "for his nob."
+
+  A dialogue will illustrate the technical conversation of the game, in
+  a game at six-card cribbage. The cards for crib having been discarded,
+  A holds knave of hearts, a four and a pair of twos: B holds a pair of
+  nines, a six and a four. Two of hearts is turned up by B. The hand
+  might be played thus. A lays down a two and says "Two": B plays a nine
+  and says "Eleven": A follows with a four, saying "Fifteen two";
+  pegging two holes at once: B plays his four and says "Nineteen; two
+  for a pair," and pegs: A putting on his knave, "Twenty-nine"; B says
+  "Go." A lays down his two, his last card, and says "Thirty-one; good
+  for two." B plays his nine and six, saying "Fifteen two, and one for
+  my last--three." The points are marked as they are made. A then counts
+  his hand aloud. "Six for a pair-royal" or "Three twos--good for six,"
+  and "One for his nob--seven," and throws down his hand for B's
+  inspection. B, "Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight,
+  and a pair are ten." B then looks at his crib and counts it. It
+  contains, say, king, eight, three, ace and the "start" is also
+  reckoned. B counts "Fifteen two and a run of three--five."
+
+  After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are shuffled
+  and dealt again, and so on alternately until the game is won.
+
+  The highest possible score in hand is 29--three fives and a knave,
+  with a five, of the same suit as the knave, turned up.
+
+
+
+
+CRICCIETH, a watering-place and contributory parliamentary borough of
+Carnarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan Bay, served by the Cambrian railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 1406. It is interesting for its high
+antiquity and the ruined castle, a fortress on an eminence where a neck
+of land ends, projecting into the sea. Portions of two towers are on the
+very verge of the rock. A double fosse and vallum, with the outer and
+inner court lines, can be traced. Apparently British, the castle was
+repaired later, probably in the time of Edward I. Across the bay is seen
+Harlech castle, backed by the Merionethshire hills. An old county-family
+mansion near Criccieth is Gwynfryn (happy hill), the seat of the
+Nanneys, situated near the stream Dwyfawr and within some 7 m. of
+Pwllheli. Not far is a tumulus, _Tomen fawr_. At a distance of 5 m. is
+Tremadoc (which owes its name. Town of Madocks--as does Portmadoc--to Mr
+W. Madocks, of Morfa Lodge, who made the embankment here). Criccieth has
+become a favourite watering-place, as well as a centre of excursions.
+The neighbourhood is agreeable, and the Cardigan Bay shore is shelving
+and suitable for safe bathing. Cantref y Gwaelod (the hundred of the
+bottom) is the Welsh literary name of this bay, on the shores of which
+geological depression has certainly taken place. Mythical history
+relates how Seithennin's drunkenness inundated the land now covered by
+the bay, and how King Arthur's ship was wrecked upon Meisdiroedd Enlli
+near Bardsey. The _Mabinogion_ tell how Harlech was a port. Similarly,
+in Carnarvon Bay, about 2 m. seaward, at low water, are visible the
+ruins of Caerarianrhod (fortified town of the silver wheel), a submerged
+town--due to another geological depression.
+
+
+
+
+CRICHTON, JAMES (1560-? 1582), commonly called the "Admirable Crichton,"
+was the son of Robert Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland in the reign
+of Mary and James VI., and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stewart
+of Beath, through whom he claimed royal descent. He was born probably at
+Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1560, and when ten years old was sent to St
+Salvator's College, St Andrews, where he took his B.A. in 1574 and his
+M.A. in 1575. In 1577 Crichton was undoubtedly in Paris, but his career
+on the continent is difficult to follow. That he displayed considerable
+classical knowledge, was a good linguist, a ready and versatile writer
+of verse, and above all that he possessed an astounding memory, seems
+certain, not only from the evidence of men of his own time, but from the
+fact that even Joseph Scaliger (_Prima Scaligerana_, p. 58, 1669) speaks
+of his attainments with the highest praise. But those works of his which
+have come down to us show few traces of unusual ability; and the
+laudation of him as a universal genius by Sir Thomas Urquhart and Aldus
+Manutius requires to be discounted. Urquhart (in his _Discovery of a
+most exquisite jewel_) states that while in Paris Crichton successfully
+held a dispute in the college of Navarre, on any subject and in twelve
+languages, and that the next day he won a tilting match at the Louvre.
+There is, however, no contemporary evidence for this, the only certain
+facts being that for two years Crichton served in the French army, and
+that in 1579 he arrived in Genoa. The latter event is proved by a Latin
+address (of no particular merit) to the Doge and Senate entitled _Oratio
+J. Critonii Scoti pro Moderatorum Genuensis Reipubl. electione coram
+Senatu habita...._ (Genoa, 1579). The next year Crichton was in Venice,
+and won the friendship of Aldus Manutius by his Latin ode _In appulsu ad
+urbem Venetam de Proprio statu J. Critonii Scoti Carmen ad Aldum
+Manuccium...._ (Venice, 1580). The best contemporary evidence for
+Crichton's stay in Venice is a handbill printed by the Guerra press in
+1580 (and now in the British Museum), giving a short biography and an
+extravagant eulogy of his powers; he speaks ten languages, has a command
+of philosophy, theology, mathematics; he improvises Latin verses in all
+metres and on all subjects, has all Aristotle and his commentators at
+his fingers' ends; is of most beautiful appearance, a soldier from top
+to toe, &c. This work is undoubtedly by Manutius, as it was reprinted
+with his name in 1581 as _Relatione della qualità di ... Crettone_, and
+again in 1582 (reprinted Venice, 1831).
+
+In Venice Crichton met and vanquished all disputants except Giacomo
+Mazzoni, was followed from place to place by crowds of admirers, and won
+the affection of the humanists Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati. In
+March 1581 he went to Padua, where he held two great disputations. In
+the first he extemporized in succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught
+on Aristotelian ignorance, and an oration in praise of ignorance. In the
+second, which took place in the Church of St John and St Paul, and
+lasted three days, he undertook to refute innumerable errors in
+Aristotelians, mathematicians and schoolmen, to conduct his dispute
+either logically or by the secret doctrine of numbers, &c. According to
+Aldus, who attended the debate and published an account of it in his
+dedication to Crichton prefixed to Cicero's "Paradoxa" (1581), the young
+Scotsman was completely successful. In June Crichton was once more in
+Venice, and while there wrote two Latin odes to his friends Lorenzo
+Massa and Giovanni Donati, but after this date the details of his life
+are obscure. Urquhart states that he went to Mantua, became the tutor of
+the young prince of Mantua, Vincenzo di Gonzaga, and was killed by the
+latter in a street quarrel in 1582. Aldus in his edition of Cicero's _De
+universitate_ (1583), dedicated to Crichton, laments the 3rd of July as
+the fatal day; and this account is apparently confirmed by the Mantuan
+state papers recently unearthed by Mr Douglas Crichton (_Proc. Soc. of
+Antiquaries of Scotland_, 1909). Mr Sidney Lee (_Dict. Nat. Biog._)
+argued against this date, on the ground that in 1584 and 1585 Crichton
+was alive and in Milan, as certain works of his published in that year
+testified, and regarded it as probable that he died in Mantua c.
+1585/6. But these later works seem to have been by another man of the
+same name. The epithet "admirable" (_admirabilis_) for Crichton first
+occurs in John Johnston's _Heroes Scoti_ (1603). It is probably
+impossible to recover the whole truth either as to Crichton's death or
+as to the extent of his attainments, which were so quickly elevated into
+legendary magnitude.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir Thomas Urquhart's _Discovery of a most excellent
+  jewel_ (1652; reprinted in the Maitland Club's edition of Urquhart's
+  Works in 1834) is written with the express purpose of glorifying
+  Scotland. The panegyrics of Aldus Manutius require to be received with
+  some caution, since he was given to exaggerating the merits of his
+  friend, and uses almost the same language about a young Pole named
+  Stanilaus Niegosevski; see John Black's _Life of Torquato Tasso_, ii.
+  413-451 (1810), for a criticism. The _Life of Crichton_, by P. Fraser
+  Tytler (2nd ed., 1823), contains many extracts from earlier writers;
+  see also "Notices of Sir Robert Crichton of Cluny and of his son
+  James," by John Stuart, in _Proceedings Soc. of Antiquaries of
+  Scotland_, vol. ii. pp. 103-118 (1855); and the article by Andrew
+  Lang, "The death of the Admirable Crichton," in the _Morning Post_
+  (London), Feb. 25, 1910. W. Harrison-Ainsworth in his novel _Crichton_
+  (new ed., 1892) reprints and translates some documents relating to
+  Crichton, as well as some of his poems.
+
+
+
+
+CRICKET (_Gryllidae_), a family of saltatory Orthopterous Insects,
+closely related to the Locustidae. The wings when folded form long
+slender filaments, which often reach beyond the extremity of the body,
+and give the appearance of a bifid tail, while in the male they are
+provided with a stridulating apparatus by which the well-known chirping
+sound, to which the insect owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of
+the female ends in a long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not
+exserted in the mole cricket. The house cricket (_Gryllus domesticus_)
+is of a greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses,
+especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat monotonous,
+chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of the fireplace. It is
+particularly fond of warmth, and is thus frequently found in bakeries,
+where its burrows are often sunk to within a few inches of the oven. In
+the hot summer it goes out of doors, and frequents the walls of gardens,
+but returns again to its place by the hearth on the first approach of
+cold, where, should the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes
+dormant. It is nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search
+of food, which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen.
+The field cricket (_Gryllus campestris_) is a larger insect than the
+former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a depth of
+from 6 to 12 in., and in the evening the male may be observed sitting at
+the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until a female approaches,
+"when," says Bates, "the louder notes are succeeded by a more subdued
+tone, whilst the successful musician caresses with his antennae the mate
+he has won." The musical apparatus in this species consists of upwards
+of 130 transverse ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the
+wing cover, which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure
+on the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs--about 200 in
+number--on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which resemble the
+perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form burrows for
+themselves in which they pass the winter. The mole cricket (_Gryllotalpa
+vulgaris_) owes its name to the striking analogy in its habits and
+structure to those of the common mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical
+in shape, and it burrows by means of its front legs, which are short and
+greatly flattened out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched
+so as somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy ground in
+which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft from which long
+horizontal galleries are given off; and in making those excavations it
+does immense injury to gardens and vineyards by destroying the tender
+roots of plants, which form its principal food. It also feeds upon other
+insects, and even upon the weak of its own species in the absence of
+other food. It is exceedingly fierce and voracious, and is usually
+caught by inserting a stem of grass into its hole, which being seized,
+is retained till the insect is brought to the surface. The female
+deposits her eggs in a neatly constructed subterranean chamber, about
+the size of a hen's egg, and sufficiently near the surface to allow of
+the eggs being hatched by the heat of the sun.
+
+
+
+
+CRICKET. The game of cricket may be called the national summer pastime
+of the English race. The etymology of the word itself is the subject of
+much dispute. The _Century Dictionary_ connects with O. Fr. _criquet_,
+"a stick used as a mark in the game of bowls," and denies the connexion
+with A.S. _crice_ or _cryce_, a staff. A claim has also been made for
+_cricket_, meaning a stool, from the stool at which the ball was bowled,
+while in the wardrobe account of King Edward I. for the year 1300 (p.
+126) is found an allusion to a game called _creag_. Skeat, in his
+_Etymological Dictionary_, states that the word is probably derived from
+A.S. _crice_ (repudiated by the first authority quoted), the meaning of
+which is a staff, and suggests that the "et" is a diminutive suffix; the
+word is of the same origin as "crutch." Finally the _New English
+Dictionary_ traces the O. Fr. _criquet_, defined by Littré as "_jeu
+d'addresse_," to M. Flem. _Krick, Krüke, baston à s'appuyer, quinette,
+potence_.
+
+_History._--In a MS. of the middle of the 13th century, in the King's
+library, 14 Bv, entitled _Chronique d'Angleterre, depuis Ethelberd
+jusqu'à Hen. III._, there is found a grotesque delineation of two male
+figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is undoubtedly the
+first known drawing of what was destined to develop into the scientific
+cricket of modern times. The left-hand figure is that of the batsman,
+who holds his weapon upright in the right hand with the handle
+downwards. The right-hand figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at
+once apparent by the extension of his hands. In another portion of the
+same MS., however, there is a male figure pointing a bat towards a
+female figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. In a
+Bodleian Library MS., No. 264, dated the 18th of April 1344, and
+entitled _Romance of the Good King Alexander_, fielders for the first
+time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the players are
+monks (not female figures, as Strutt misinterprets their dress in his
+_Sports and Pastimes_), and on the extreme left of the picture, the
+bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the right hand with the arm
+nearly horizontal. The batsman comes next with his cowl down, a little
+way only to the right, standing sideways to the bowler with a long
+roughly-hewn and slightly-curved bat, held upright, handle downwards in
+the left hand. On the extreme right come four figures--with cowls
+alternately down and up, and all having their hands raised in an
+attitude to catch the ball. It has been argued that the bat was always
+held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of the
+same MS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and also holding
+a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement in his left hand; but it is
+unsafe to assume that the accuracy of the artist can be trusted.
+
+The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages certain games
+on account of their interfering with the practice of archery, where the
+game of cricket is probably included among the pastimes denounced as
+"ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut valentes." In this instance
+cricket was clearly considered fit for the lower orders only, though it
+is evident from the entry in King Edward's wardrobe account, already
+mentioned, that in 1300 the game of _creag_ was patronized by the
+nobility. Judging from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the
+game consisted of bowling, batting and fielding, though it is known that
+there was an in-side and an out-side, for sometime during the 15th
+century the game was called "Hondyn or Hondoute," or "Hand in and Hand
+out." Under this title it was interdicted by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3
+(1477-1478), as one of those illegal games which still continued to be
+so detrimental to the practice of archery. By this statute, any one
+allowing the game to be played on his premises was liable to three
+years' imprisonment and £20 fine, any player to two years' imprisonment
+and £10 fine, and the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in
+and hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the Hon.
+Daines Barrington's _Observations on the more Ancient Statutes from
+Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27_. Writing in 1766, he comments thus
+on the above statute, viz.: "This is, perhaps, the most severe law ever
+made against gaming, and some of these forbidden sports seem to have
+been manly exercises, particularly the _handyn_ and _handoute_, which I
+should suppose to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still
+retained in that game."
+
+The word "cricket" occurs about the year 1550. In Russell's _History of
+Guildford_ it appears there was a piece of waste land in the parish of
+Holy Trinity in that city, which was enclosed by one John Parish, an
+innholder, some five years before Queen Elizabeth came to the throne. In
+35 Elizabeth (1593) evidence was taken before a jury and a verdict
+returned, ordering the garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed.
+Amongst other witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H.M.'s coroners
+for Surrey, _aetat._ fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for
+fifty years or more, and "when he was a scholler in the free school of
+Guildford, he and several of his fellowes did runne and play there at
+_crickett_ and other plaies." In the original edition of Stow's _Survey
+of London_ (1598) the word does not occur, though he says, "The ball is
+used by noblemen and gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the
+meaner sort in the open fields and streets."
+
+Some noteworthy references to the game may be cited. In Giovanni
+Florio's dictionary _A Worlde of Wordes most Copious and Exact_,
+published in Italy in 1595 and in London three years later, _squillare_
+is defined as "to make a noise as a cricket, to play cricket-a-wicket
+and be merry." Sir William Dugdale states that in his youth Oliver
+Cromwell, who was born in 1599, threw "himself into a dissolute and
+disorderly course," became "famous for football, cricket, cudgelling and
+wrestling," and acquired "the name of royster." In Randle Cotgrave's
+_Dictionary of French and English_, dated 1611, _Crosse_ is translated
+"crosier or bishop's staffe wherewith boys play at cricket," and
+_Crosser_ "to play at cricket."
+
+Among the earliest traces of cricket at public schools is an allusion to
+be found in the _Life of Bishop Ken_ by William Lisle Bowles (1830).
+Concerning the subject of this biography, who was admitted to Winchester
+on the 13th of January 1650/1, it is said "on the fifth or sixth day,
+our junior ... is found for the first time attempting to wield a cricket
+bat." In 1688 a "ram and bat" is charged in an Etonian's school bill,
+but it is possible this may only refer to a cudgel used for ram-baiting.
+In _The Life of Thomas Wilson, Minister of Maidstone_, published
+anonymously in 1672, Wilson having been born in 1601 and dying in or
+about 1653, occurs the following passage (p. 40): "Maidstone was
+formerly a very profane town, in as much as I have seen morrice-dancing,
+cudgel-playing, stool-ball, crickets, and many other sports openly and
+publicly indulged in on the Lord's Day." Cricket is found enumerated as
+one of the games of Gargantua in _The Works of Rabelais_, translated in
+1653 by Sir Thomas Urchard (Urquhart), vol. i. ch. xxii. p. 97. In a
+poem entitled _The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence or the Arts of Wooing
+and Complimenting_ (1658), by Edward Phillips, John Milton's nephew, the
+mistress of a country bumpkin when she goes to a fair with him says
+"Would my eyes had been beaten out of my head with a cricket ball." The
+St Alban's Cricket Club was founded in 1661, one of its earliest
+presidents being James Cecil, 4th earl of Salisbury (1666-1694).
+
+In 1662 John Davies of Kidwelly issued his translation of Adam Olearius'
+work entitled _The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors from the Duke
+of Holstein to the Grand Duke of Muscovy, and the King of Persia. Begun
+in the year 1633 and finished in 1639_. On page 297 is a description of
+the exercises indulged in by the Persian grandees in 1637, and the
+statement is made that "They play there also at a certain game, which
+the Persians call _Kuitskaukan_, which is a kind of _Mall_, or
+_Cricket_." In the Clerkenwell parish book of 1668 the proprietor of the
+Rum Inn, Smithfield, is found rated for a cricket field.
+
+The chaplain of H.M.S., "Assistance," Rev. Henry Teonge, states in his
+diary that during a visit to Antioch on the 6th of May 1676, several of
+the ship's company, accompanied by the consul, rode out of the city
+early and amongst other pastimes indulged in "krickett." During the
+first half of the 18th century the popularity of the game increased and
+is frequently mentioned by writers of the time, such as Swift, who
+alludes sneeringly to "footmen at cricket," D'Urfey, Pope, Soame
+Jenyns, Strype in his edition of Stow's _Survey of London_, and
+Arbuthnot in _John Bull_, iv. 4, "when he happened to meet with a
+football or a match at cricket."
+
+In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game under the
+statute 9 Anne, cap. 19, the court of king's bench holding "that it was
+a very manly game, not bad in itself, but only in the ill use made of it
+by betting more than ten pounds on it; but that was bad and against the
+law." Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal
+injuries caused by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden
+House. Games at this period were being played for large stakes, ground
+proprietors and tavern-keepers farming and advertising matches, the
+results of which were not always above suspicion. The old Artillery
+Ground at Finsbury was one of the earliest sites of this type of
+fixture. Here it was that the London Club--formed about 1700--played its
+matches. The president was the prince of Wales, and many noblemen were
+among its supporters. It flourished for more than half a century. One of
+the very earliest full-scores kept in the modern fashion is that of the
+match between Kent and All England, played on the Artillery Ground on
+the 18th of June 1744.
+
+Cricket, however, underwent its most material development in the
+southern counties, more especially in the hop-growing districts. It was
+at the large hop-fairs, notably that of Weyhill, to which people from
+all the neighbouring shires congregated, that county matches were
+principally arranged.
+
+The famous Hambledon Club lasted approximately from 1750 to 1791. Its
+matches were played on Broad Half-Penny and Windmill Downs, and in its
+zenith the club frequently contended with success against All England.
+The chief players were more or less retainers of the noblemen and other
+wealthy patrons of cricket. The original society was broken up in 1791
+owing to Richard Nyren, their "general," abandoning the game, of which
+in consequence "the head and right arm were gone." The dispersion of the
+players over the neighbouring counties caused a diffusion of the best
+spirit of the game, which gradually extended northward and westward
+until, at the close of the 18th century, cricket became established as
+the national game, and the custom became general to play the first game
+of each year on Good Friday.
+
+The M.C.C. (or Marylebone Cricket Club), which ranks as the leading club
+devoted to the game in any part of the globe, sprang from the old
+Artillery Ground Club, which played at Finsbury until about 1780, when
+the members migrating to White Conduit Fields became the White Conduit
+Cricket Club. In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title,
+and moved to Lord's ground, then on the site of what is now Dorset
+Square; thence in 1811 to Lord's second ground nearer what is now the
+Regent's Canal; and in 1814, when the canal was cut, to what is now
+Lord's ground in St John's Wood. Thomas Lord, whose family were obliged
+to leave their native Scotland on account of their participation in the
+rebellion of 1745, was born in Thirsk, Yorkshire, in 1757, and is first
+heard of as an attendant at the White Conduit Club, London, in 1780.
+Soon afterwards he selected and superintended a cricket ground for the
+earl of Winchilsea and other gentlemen, which was called after his name.
+He died in 1832 on a farm at West Meon, Hampshire, of which he took the
+management two years before. Lord took away the original turf of his
+cricket-ground at each migration and relaid it. In 1825 the pavilion was
+burnt down, invaluable early records of the game being destroyed; and in
+the same year the ground would have been broken up into building plots
+had not William Ward purchased Lord's interest. Dark bought him out in
+1836, selling the remainder of his lease to the club in 1864. Meanwhile,
+in 1860, the freehold had been purchased at public auction by a Mr
+Marsden--_né_ Moses--for £7000, and he sold it to the club six years
+later for nearly £18,500, a similar sum being paid in 1887 for
+additional ground. In 1897 the Great Central railway company conveyed a
+further portion to the club, making the ground complete as it now is;
+the total area is about 20 acres, including the site of various villas
+adjoining the ground which are part of the property. The number of
+members now considerably exceeds five thousand.
+
+_Laws._--The oldest laws of cricket extant are those drawn up by the
+London Club in 1744. These were amended at the "Star and Garter" in Pall
+Mall, London, in 1755, and again in 1774, and were also revised by the
+M.C.C. in 1788. From this time the latter club has been regarded as the
+supreme authority, even though some local modifications have in recent
+years been effected in Australia. Alterations and additions have been
+frequently made, and according to the present procedure they have to be
+approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members present at the
+annual general meeting of the whole club; the administration being in
+the hands of a president, annually nominated by his outgoing
+predecessor, a treasurer and a committee composed of sixteen members,
+four annually retiring, in conjunction with a secretary and a large
+subordinate staff.
+
+_Implements._--Concerning the implements of the game, in the 1744 rules
+it was declared that the weight of the ball must be "between five and
+six ounces," and it was not until 1774 that it was decided that it
+"shall weigh not less than five ounces and a half nor more than five
+ounces and three-quarters," as it is to the present day. Not until 1838
+however came the addition, "it shall measure not less than nine inches
+nor more than nine inches and a quarter in circumference." The materials
+out of which the old balls were made are not on record. At present a
+cube of cork forms the foundation, round which layers of fine twine and
+thin shavings of cork are accumulated till the proper size and shape are
+attained, when a covering of red leather is sewn on with six parallel
+seams. Various "compositions" have been tried as a substitute for cork
+and leather, but without taking their place.
+
+For the bat, English willow has been proverbially found the best wood.
+The oldest extant bats resemble a broad and curved hockey stick, and it
+has been claimed to be an evolution of the club employed in the Irish
+game of "hurley." The straight blade was adopted as soon as the bowler
+began to pitch the ball up, an alteration which took place about 1750,
+but pictures show slightly curved bats almost to the time of the battle
+of Waterloo. The oldest were all made in one piece and were so used
+until the middle of the 19th century, when handles of ash were spliced
+into the blade, and the whole cane-handle was introduced about 1860. No
+limit was set to the length of the bat until 1840, though the width was
+restricted to 4¼ in. "in the widest part" by the laws of 1788, and a
+gauge was made for the use of the Hambledon Club. The length of the bat
+is now restricted to 38 in., 36 being more generally used, as a rule the
+handle being 14 in. long and the blade 22 in. As to weight, though there
+is no restriction, 2 lb. 3 oz. is considered light, 2 lb. 6 oz. fairly
+heavy; but W. Ward (1787-1849) used a bat weighing 4 lb.
+
+At present the wicket consists of three stumps (round straight pieces of
+wood) of equal thickness, standing 27 in. upright out of the ground. On
+the top are two "bails," short pieces of wood which fit into grooves
+made in the top of the stumps so as not to project more than half an
+inch above them. But the evolution of the wicket has been very gradual,
+and the history of it is very obscure, since different types of wickets
+seem to have existed simultaneously. If early pictures are to be
+trusted, no wicket was required in primitive times: the striker was
+either caught out, or run out, the fieldsman having to put the ball into
+a hole scooped in the ground, before the batsman could put his bat into
+it. A single stump, it is supposed, was sometimes substituted for the
+hole to save collision between the bat and the fieldsman's fingers. In
+due course, but at an unknown date, a wicket--a "skeleton gate"--was
+raised over the hole; it consisted of two stumps each 12 in. high, set
+24 in. apart, with a third laid on the top of them. John Nyren, however,
+writing in 1833, and discussing some memoranda given him by Mr W. Ward,
+says apropos of these dimensions, "There must be a mistake in this
+account of the width of the wicket." Undoubtedly such wickets were all
+against the bowler, who must have bowled over or through the wicket
+twenty times for every occasion when he succeeded in hitting either the
+uprights or the cross stump. In pictures of cricket played about 1743 we
+find only two stumps and a cross stump, or bail, the wicket varying
+apparently both in height and width. In a picture, the property of H.M.
+the King, entitled "A Village Match in 1768," three stumps and a bail
+are distinctly shown. Two stumps are shown as used in 1779, afterwards
+three always with one exception. Two prints, advertisements,
+representing matches played between women on consecutive days in 1811,
+show, one of them a wicket of three stumps, the other a wicket of two.
+The addition of the third stump, as is universally agreed, was due to an
+incident which occurred in a match of the Hambledon Club in 1775. "It
+was observed at a critical point in the game, that the ball passed three
+times between Mr Small's two stumps without knocking off the bail; and
+then, first a third stump was added, and seeing that the new style of
+balls which rise over the bat also rise over the wicket, then but 1 ft.
+high, the wicket was altered to the dimensions of 22 in. by 8, and to
+its present dimensions of 27 in. by 8 in 1817." So writes the Rev. J.
+Pycroft (1813-1895), quoting fairly closely from Nyren, who wrote many
+years after the event; but Pycroft is wrong in writing 22 by 8, which
+should really be 22 by 6. It is hard to believe that the 12 by 24 wicket
+lasted as long as 1775, for in the laws issued after the meeting held at
+the "Star and Garter," Pall Mall, where many "noblemen and gentlemen"
+attended "finally to settle" the laws of the game, we read that the
+stumps are to be 22 in. and the bail 6. "N.B.--It is lately settled to
+use three stumps instead of two to each wicket, the bail the same length
+as before." Regarding all the circumstances one is tempted to believe
+that Small defended a wicket of two stumps, 22 in. high and 6 in. apart,
+strange as is the circumstance that the ball should thrice in a short
+innings--for Small only made 14 runs--pass through them without
+dislodging the bail, even though the diameter of the ball is a trifle
+less than 3 in. Allusion is also found to a wicket 12 in. by 6, but it
+is hard to believe in its existence, unless it was used as a form of
+handicap. It should be recorded that in advertisements of matches about
+this time (1787) the fact that three stumps will be used "to shorten the
+game" is especially mentioned, and that the _Hampshire Chronicle_ of the
+15th of July 1797 records that "The earl of Winchilsea has made an
+improvement in the game of cricket, by having four stumps instead of
+three, and the wickets 2 in. higher. The game is thus rendered shorter
+by easier bowling out." In 1788, however, when the M.C.C. revised the
+laws, reference is made to stumps (no number given, but probably three)
+22 in. high and a bail of 6 in. Big scoring in 1796 caused the addition
+next year of 2 in. to the height and of 1 to the breadth, making the
+wicket 24 in. by 7. That three stumps were employed is shown by a print
+of the medallion of the Oxfordshire County C.C. 1797, forming the
+frontispiece to Taylor's _Annals of Lord's_ (1903). In 1817 the
+dimensions now in use were finally settled, three stumps 27 in. high,
+and a wicket 8 in. wide. Larger wickets have occasionally been used by
+way of handicap or experiment. The distance between the wickets seems
+always, or at least as far back as 1700, to have been 22 yds.--one
+chain.
+
+_The Game._--Cricket is defined in the _New English Dictionary_ as "an
+open-air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two sides of eleven
+players each; the batsman defends his wicket against the ball which is
+bowled by a player of the opposing side, the other players of this side
+being stationed about the field in order to catch or stop the ball." The
+laws define that the score shall be reckoned by runs. The side which
+scores the greatest number of runs wins the match. Each side has two
+innings taken alternately, except that the side which leads by 150 runs
+in a three days' match or by 100 runs in a two days' match or by 75 runs
+in a one day match shall have the option of requiring the other side to
+"follow their innings." In England cricket is invariably played on turf
+wickets, but in the Colonies matting wickets are often employed, and
+sometimes matches have taken place on sand, earth and other substances.
+The oldest form of the game is probably single wicket, which consists of
+one batsman defending one wicket, but this has become obsolete, though
+it was very popular in the time when matches were played for money with
+only one or two, or perhaps four or five, players on a side. Matches
+between an unequal number of players are still sometimes arranged, but
+mainly in the case of local sides against touring teams, or "colts"
+playing against eleven experienced cricketers. In any case two umpires
+are always appointed, and for English first-class county cricket these
+are now annually chosen beforehand by the county captains. Two scorers
+are officially recognized. All the arrangements as to scoreboards, and
+accommodation for players, members of the club and general spectators,
+vary considerably according to local requirements. Between six and seven
+acres forms the most suitable area for a match, but the size of a
+cricket ground has never been defined by law.
+
+The wickets are pitched opposite and parallel to one another at a
+distance of 22 yds.; the "bowling crease" being marked with whitewash on
+the turf on a line with the stumps 8 ft. 8 in. in length, with short
+"return creases" at right angles to it at each end; but the "popping
+crease," marked parallel to the wicket and 4 ft. in front of it, is
+deemed of unlimited length. The captains of the opposing sides toss for
+choice of innings, and the winner of the toss, though occasionally,
+owing to the condition of the ground or the weather prospects, electing
+to put his adversaries in first, as a general rule elects for his own
+side to bat first. The captain of the batting side sends his eleven (or
+whatever the number of his team may be) in to bat in any order he thinks
+best, and much judgment is used in deciding what this order shall be.
+Two batsmen with strong defensive powers and good nerve are usually
+selected to open the innings, the most brilliant run-getters immediately
+following them, and the weakest batsmen going in last. As there must
+always, except in the obsolete single-wicket cricket, be two batsmen in
+together, it follows that when ten of the side (in a side of eleven)
+have been put out, one of the final pair must be "not out"; that is to
+say, his innings is terminated without his getting out because there is
+none of his side left to become his partner. The batsman who is thus
+"not out" is said to "carry his bat," a phrase that recalls a period
+when two bats sufficed for the whole side, each retiring batsman leaving
+the implement on the ground for the use of his successor, till at the
+close of the innings the "not out" man carried it back to the tent or
+pavilion. As the phrase is not also applied to the last batsman to get
+out, who would of course have carried the second bat off the ground, it
+was possibly at one time restricted to a player who going in first
+survived through the whole innings. It should be observed that the term
+"wicket" is used by cricketers in a number of different senses. Besides
+being the name given to the set of three stumps with their two bails
+when pitched for a match, it is in an extended sense applied to that
+portion of the ground, also called the "pitch," on which the stumps are
+pitched, as when it is described as being "a fast wicket," a "sticky
+wicket" and so forth. It also in several idiomatic expressions signifies
+the getting out of a batsman and even the batsman himself, as in the
+phrases: "Grace lost his wicket without scoring," "Grace went in first
+wicket down," "when Grace got out England lost their best wicket,"
+"England beat Australia by two wickets."
+
+The umpires are required to decide questions arising in the course of
+play and to call the "overs," the "over" being a series of successive
+deliveries of the ball (usually six) by the bowler from one end of the
+pitch, the rest of the "out" side, or fielders, being stationed in
+various positions in the field according to well-defined principles.
+When an "over" has been bowled from one end a different bowler then
+bowls an "over" from the opposite end, the alternation being continued
+without interruption throughout the innings, and the bowlers being
+selected and changed from time to time by the captain of their side at
+his discretion. At the end of every over the fielders "change over" or
+otherwise rearrange their places to meet the batting from the other end.
+An over from which no runs are made off the bat is called a "maiden." A
+"run" is made when the two batsmen change places, each running from his
+own to the opposite wicket without being "run out." The aim of the
+batting side is to make as many runs as possible, while the object of
+the fielding side is to get their opponents out, and to prevent their
+making runs while in.
+
+There are nine ways in which the batsman, or "striker," can be put out.
+Of these the following five are the most important. (1) The striker is
+"bowled" out if the bowler hits the wicket with the ball, when bowling,
+and dislodges the bail; (2) he is "caught" out if the ball after
+touching his bat or hand be held by any member of the fielding side
+before it touches the ground; (3) he is "stumped" out if the
+wicket-keeper dislodges the bail with the ball, or with his hand holding
+the ball, at a moment when the striker in playing at the ball has no
+part of his person or bat in contact with the ground behind the popping
+crease, i.e. when the batsman is "out of his ground"; (4) he is out
+"l.b.w." (leg before wicket) if he stops with any part of his person
+other than his hand, or arm below the elbow, a ball which in the
+umpire's judgment pitched straight between the wickets, and would have
+bowled the striker's wicket; (5) if when the batsmen are attempting to
+make a run a wicket is put down (i.e. the bail dislodged) by the ball,
+or by the hand of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a moment when
+neither batsman has any part of his person or bat on the ground behind
+the popping crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket so put
+down is "run out." The remaining four ways in which a batsman may be
+dismissed are (6) hit wicket, (7) handling the ball, (8) hitting the
+ball more than once "with intent to score," and (9) obstructing the
+field.
+
+The positions of the fieldsmen are those which experience proves to be
+best adapted for the purpose of saving runs and getting the batsmen
+caught out. During the middle of the 19th century these positions became
+almost stereotyped according to the pace of the bowler's delivery and
+whether the batsmen were right or left handed. A certain number of
+fielders stood on the "on" side, i.e. the side of the wicket on which
+the batsman stands, and a certain number on the opposite or "off" side,
+towards which the batsman faces. "Point" almost invariably was placed
+square with the striker's wicket some ten or a dozen yards distant on
+the "off" side; "cover point" to the right of "point" (as he is looking
+towards the batsman) and several yards deeper; "mid on" a few yards to
+the right of the bowler, and "mid off" in a corresponding position on
+his left, and so forth. Good captains at all times exercised judgment in
+modifying to some extent the arrangement of the field according to
+circumstances, but in this respect much was learnt from the Australians,
+who on their first visit to England in 1878 varied the positions of the
+field according to the idiosyncrasies of the batsmen and other
+exigencies to a degree not previously practised in England. The
+perfection of wicket-keeping displayed by the Australian, McCarthy
+Blackham (b. 1855), taught English cricketers that on modern grounds the
+"long stop" could be altogether dispensed with; and this position, which
+in former days was considered a necessary and important one, has since
+been practically abolished. In many matches at the present day, owing to
+the character of modern bowling, no more than a single fieldsman is
+placed on the "on" side, while the number and positions of those "in the
+slips," i.e. behind the wicket on the "off" side, are subject to no sort
+of rule, but vary according to the nature of the bowling, the state of
+the ground, or any other circumstances that may influence the judgment
+of the captain of the fielding side. Charts such as were once common,
+showing the positions of the fielders for fast, slow and medium bowling
+respectively, would therefore to-day give no true idea of the actual
+practice; and much of the skill of modern captaincy is shown in placing
+the field.
+
+The score is compiled by runs made by the batsman and by the addition of
+"extras," the latter consisting of "byes," "leg-byes," "wides" and
+"no-balls." All these are included in the designation "runs," of which
+the total score is composed, though neither "wides" nor "no-balls"
+involve any actual run on the part of the batsmen. They are called by
+the umpire on his own initiative, in the one case if the bowler's
+delivery passes the batsman beyond the reach of his bat ("wide"), and in
+the other if he delivers the ball without having either foot touching
+the ground behind the "bowling crease" and within the "return crease,"
+or if the ball be jerked or thrown instead of being _bona fide_
+"bowled." "Wides" and "no-balls" count as one "run" each, and all
+"extras" are added to the score of the side without being credited to
+any individual batsman. The batsman may, however, hit a "no-ball" and
+make runs off it, the runs so made being scored to the striker's credit
+instead of the "no-ball" being entered among the "extras." The batsman
+may be "run out" in attempting a run off a "no-ball," but cannot be put
+out off it in any other way. "Byes" are runs made off a ball which
+touches neither the bat nor the person of the batsman, "leg-byes" off a
+ball which, without touching the bat or hand, touches any other part of
+his person. With the exception of these "extras" the score consists
+entirely of runs made off the bat.
+
+
+  Batting.
+
+Batting is the most scientific feature of the game. Proficiency in it,
+as in golf and tennis, depends in the first instance to a great extent
+on the player assuming a correct attitude for making his stroke, the
+position of leg, shoulder and elbow being a matter of importance; and
+although a quick and accurate eye may occasionally be sufficient by
+itself to make a tolerably successful run-getter, good style can never
+be acquired, and a consistently high level of achievement can seldom be
+gained, by a batsman who has neglected these rudiments. Good batting
+consists in a defence that is proof against all the bowler's craft,
+combined with the skill to seize every opportunity for making runs that
+the latter may inadvertently offer. If the batsman's whole task
+consisted in keeping the ball out of his wicket, the accomplishment of
+his art would be comparatively simple; it is the necessity for doing
+this while at the same time he must prevent the ball from rising off his
+bat into the air in the direction of any one of eleven skilfully-placed
+fielders, each eager to catch him out, that offers scope for the science
+of a Grace, a MacLaren or a Trumper. In early days when the wickets were
+low and the ball was trundled along the ground, the curved bats of the
+old pictures were probably well adapted for hitting, defence being
+neglected; but when the height of the wickets was raised, and bowlers
+began to pitch the ball closer to the batsman so that it would reach the
+wicket on the first bound, defence of the wicket became more necessary
+and more difficult. Hence the modern straight-bladed bat was produced,
+and a more scientific method of batting became possible. Batting and
+bowling have in fact developed together, a new form of attack requiring
+a new form of defence. One of the first principles a young batsman has
+to learn is to play with a "a straight bat" when defending his wicket
+against straight balls. This means that the whole blade of the bat
+should be equally opposite to the line on which the ball is travelling
+towards him, in order that the ball, to whatever height it may bound
+from the ground, may meet the bat unless it rises altogether over the
+batsman's hands; the tendency of the untutored cricketer being on the
+contrary to hold the bat sloping outwards from the handle to the point,
+as the golf-player holds his "driver," so that the rise of the ball is
+apt to carry it clear of the blade. Standing then in a correct position
+and playing with a straight bat, the batsman's chief concern is to
+calculate accurately the "length" of the ball as soon as he sees it
+leave the bowler's hand. The "length" of the ball means the distance
+from the batsman at which it pitches, and "good length" is the first
+essential of the bowler's art. The distance that constitutes "good
+length" is not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; it
+depends on the condition of the ground, and on the reach of the batsman.
+A "good-length ball" is one that pitches too far from the batsman for
+him to reach out to meet it with the bat at the moment it touches the
+ground or immediately it begins to rise, in the manner known as "playing
+forward"; and at the same time not far enough from him to enable him to
+wait till after it has reached the highest point in its bound before
+playing it with the bat, i.e. "playing back." When, owing to the good
+length of the ball, the batsman is unable to play it in either of these
+two ways, but is compelled to play at it in the middle of its rise from
+the ground, he is almost certain, if he does not miss it altogether, to
+send it up in the air with the danger of being caught out. If through
+miscalculation the batsman plays forward to a short-pitched ball, he
+will probably give a catch to the bowler or "mid off," if he plays back
+to a well-pitched-up ball, he will probably miss it and be bowled out.
+The bowler is therefore continually trying to pitch balls just too short
+for safe forward play, while the batsman defends his wicket by playing
+forward or back as his judgment directs so long as the bowling is
+straight and of approximately good length, and is ready the instant he
+receives a bad-length ball, or one safely wide of the wicket, to hit it
+along the ground clear of the fieldsmen so as to make as many runs as he
+and his partner can accomplish before the ball is returned to the
+wicket-keeper or the bowler. But even those balls off which runs are
+scored are not to be hit recklessly or without scientific method. A
+different stroke is brought into requisition according to the length of
+the ball and its distance wide of the wicket to the "off" or "on" as the
+case may be; and the greatest batsmen are those who with an almost
+impregnable defence combine the greatest variety of strokes, which as
+occasion demands they can make with confidence and certainty. There are,
+however, comparatively few cricketers who do not excel in some
+particular strokes more than in others. One will make most of his runs
+by "cuts" past "point," or by wrist strokes behind the wicket, while
+others, like the famous Middlesex Etonian C. I. Thornton, and the
+Australian C. J. Bonnor, depend mainly on powerful "drives" into the
+deep field behind the bowler's wicket. Some again, though proficient in
+all-round play, develop exceptional skill in some one stroke which other
+first-class players seldom attempt. A good illustration is the "glance
+stroke" off the legs which K. S. Ranjitsinhji made with such ease and
+grace. All great cricketers in fact, while observing certain general
+principles, display some individuality of style, and a bowler who is
+familiar with a batsman's play is often aware of some idiosyncrasy of
+which he can take advantage in his attack.
+
+
+  Bowling.
+
+Bowling is, indeed, scarcely less scientific than batting. It is not,
+however, so systematically taught to young amateurs, and it may be
+partly in consequence of this neglect that amateur bowling is
+exceedingly weak in England as compared with that of professionals. The
+evolution of the art of bowling, for it has been an evolution, is an
+interesting chapter in the history of cricket which can only be briefly
+outlined here. The fundamental law as to the proper mode of the bowler's
+delivering the ball is that the ball must be bowled, not thrown or
+jerked. When bowling underhand along the ground was superseded by
+"length bowling," it was found that the ball might be caused, by
+jerking, to travel at a pace which on the rough grounds was considered
+dangerous; hence the law against jerking, which was administered
+practically by chalking the inside of the bowler's elbow; if a chalk
+mark was found on his side, the ball was not allowed as fair. The
+necessity of keeping the elbow away from the side led gradually to the
+extension of the arm horizontally and to round-arm bowling, the
+invention of which is usually attributed to John Wills (or Willes; b.
+1777) of Kent and Sussex. Nyren, however, says "Tom Walker (about 1790)
+began the system of throwing instead of bowling now so much the
+fashion"; and, "The first I recollect seeing revive this fashion was
+Wills, a Sussex man," the date of the revival being 1807. Walker was
+no-balled. Beldham (1766-1862) says, "The law against jerking was owing
+to the frightful pace Tom Walker put on, and I believe that he
+afterwards tried something more like the modern throwing-bowling. Willes
+was not the inventor of that kind, or round-arm bowling. He only revived
+what was forgotten or new to the young folk." Curiously enough, Beldham
+also writes of the same Tom Walker that he was "the first lobbing slow
+bowler" he ever saw, and that he "did feel so ashamed of such baby
+bowling, but after all he did more than even David Harris himself."
+Round-arm bowling was long and vigorously opposed, especially in 1826
+when three matches were arranged between England and Sussex, the Sussex
+bowlers being round-arm bowlers. When England had lost the first two
+matches, nine of the professionals refused to take part in the third,
+"unless the Sussex bowlers bowl fair, that is, abstain from throwing."
+Five of them did play and Sussex lost, but the new style of bowling had
+indicated its existence. In 1844 the M.C.C.'s revised law reads, "The
+ball must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand must not be
+above the shoulder in delivery." Round-arm bowling was thenceforth
+legal. In 1862 Willsher (1828-1885), the Kent bowler, was no-balled by
+the umpire (Lillywhite) for raising his hand too high, amid a scene of
+excitement that almost equalled a tumult. Overhand bowling was legalized
+on the 10th of June 1864 after strenuous opposition. In early days much
+importance was attached to great pace, but the success of the slow
+lobbing bowling (pitched up underhand) led to its cultivation; in both
+styles some of the best performers delivered the ball with a curious
+high action, thrusting the ball, as it were, from close under the
+arm-pit. When the advantages of bias (or twist, or break) were first
+known is not closely recorded, but we read of one Lamborn who (about
+1800) could make the ball break from leg so that "the Kent and Surrey
+men could not tell what to make of that cursed twist of his." Whatever
+the pace of bowling, accuracy is the essential point, or, more
+correctly, the power of accurately varying pace, pitch and direction, so
+that the batsman is never at peace. If the bowler is a mere machine, the
+batsman soon becomes his master; but the question as to which of the two
+is supreme depends very largely on the condition of the turf, whether it
+be hard and true, soft and wet, hard and rough or soft and drying: the
+first pair of conditions favour the batsmen, the second pair the bowler.
+
+The immense amount of labour and expense devoted to the preparation and
+care of cricket grounds has produced during the past quarter of a
+century a perfection of smoothness in the turf which has materially
+altered the character of the game. On the rough and fiery pitches of
+earlier days, on which a "long stop" was indispensable, the behaviour of
+the ball could not be reckoned upon by the batsman with any degree of
+confidence. The first ball of an "over" might be a "shooter," never
+rising as much as an inch off the ground, the next might bound over his
+head, and the third pursue some equally eccentric course. But on the
+best grounds of to-day, subject to the well-understood changes due to
+weather, the bound of the ball is so regular as to be calculable with
+reasonable certainty by the batsman. The result has been that in fine
+weather, when wickets are true and fast, bowlers have become
+increasingly powerless to defeat the batsmen. In other words the defence
+has been strengthened out of proportion to the attack. Bowlers have
+consequently to a great extent abandoned all attempt to bowl the wicket
+down, aiming instead at effecting their purpose by bowling close to but
+clear of the wicket, with the design of getting the batsman to give
+catches. Many batsmen of the stubbornly defensive type, known in cricket
+slang as "stonewallers," retaliated by leaving such balls alone
+together, or stopping them deliberately with the legs instead of the
+bat.
+
+These tactics caused the game to become very slow; over after over was
+bowled without an attempt being made to score a run and without apparent
+prospect of getting a wicket. This not only injured the popularity of
+the game from the spectator's point of view, but, in conjunction with
+the enormous scores that became common in dry seasons, made it so
+difficult to finish a match within the three days to which first-class
+matches in England are invariably limited, that nearly 70% of the total
+number of fixtures in some seasons were drawn. Cricketers of an older
+generation have complained that the cause of this is partly to be found
+in the amount of time wasted by contemporary cricketers. These critics
+see no reason why half of a summer's day should be allowed to elapse
+before cricket begins, and they comment with some scorn on the interval
+for tea, and the fastidiousness with which play is frequently
+interrupted on account of imperfect light or for other unimperative
+reasons. Various suggestions have been made, including proposals for
+enlarging the wicket, for enabling the attack to hold its own against
+the increasing strength of the defence. But the M.C.C., the only
+recognized source of cricket legislation, has displayed a cautious but
+wise conservatism, due to the fact that its authority rests on no
+sanction more formal than that of prestige tacitly admitted by the
+cricketing world; and consequently no drastic changes have been made in
+the laws of the game, the only important amendments of recent years
+being that which now permits a side to close its innings voluntarily
+under certain conditions, and that which, in substitution for the former
+hard and fast rule for the "follow on," has given an option in the
+matter to the side possessing the requisite lead on the first innings.
+
+_Early Players._--If the era of the present form of cricket can very
+properly be dated from the visit of the first Australian team to England
+in 1878, some enumeration must be made of a few of the cricketers who
+took part in first-class matches in the earlier portion of the 19th
+century. Among amateurs should be noted the two fast bowlers, Sir F. H.
+Bathurst (1807-1881; Eton, Hampshire), and Harvey Fellowes (b. 1826;
+Eton); the batsman N. Felix (1804-1876; Surrey and Kent), who was a
+master of "cutting" and one of the earliest to adopt batting gloves; the
+cricketing champion of his time Alfred Mynn (1807-1861; Kent); and the
+keen player F. P. Miller (1828-1875; Surrey). The three Marshams, Rev.
+C. D. Marsham (b. 1835), R. H. B. Marsham (b. 1833) and G. Marsham (b.
+1849), all of Eton and Oxford, were as famous as the Studds in the
+'eighties; and R. Hankey (1832-1886; Harrow and Oxford) was a great
+scorer. In the next generation one of the greatest bats of his own or
+any time was R. A. H. Mitchell (1843-1905; Eton, Oxford, Hants). A very
+attractive run-getter was C. F. Buller (b. 1846; Harrow, Middlesex); an
+all too brief career was that of C. J. Ottaway (1850-1878; Eton, Oxford,
+Kent and Middlesex); whilst A. Lubbock (b. 1845; Eton, Kent) was a sound
+bat, and D. Buchanan (1830-1900; Rugby and Cambridge) a destructive
+bowler, as was also A. Appleby (1843-1902; Lancashire).
+
+Of the professionals, Fuller Pilch (1803-1870) and E. G. Wenman
+(1803-1897) were great bats; T. Box (1808-1876) the most skilled
+wicket-keeper of his time; W. Lillywhite (1792-1854), one of the first
+round-arm bowlers, renowned for the accuracy of his pitch, and W. Clark
+(1798-1856) possessed wonderful variety of pace and pitch. It was the
+last-named who organized the All England Eleven, and he was not chosen
+to represent the players until he had reached the age of forty-seven.
+George Parr (1826-1891), the greatest leg-hitter in England, had no
+professional rival until the advent of Richard Daft (1835-1900). J. Dean
+(1816-1891) was the finest long-stop, Julius Caesar (1830-1878) a hard
+clean hitter, as was G. Anderson (1826-1902), and T. Lockyer (1826-1869)
+seems to have been the first prominent wicket-keeper who took balls wide
+on the leg-side. Of bowlers, E. Willsher (1828-1885) would seem to have
+been the most difficult, W. Martingell (1818-1897) being a very good
+medium-paced bowler, and J. Wisden (1826-1884) a very fast bowler but
+short in his length. Four famous bowlers of a later date are George
+Freeman (1844-1895), J. Jackson (1833-1901), G. Tarrant (1838-1870) and
+G. Wootton (b. 1834). With them must be mentioned the great batsmen, T.
+Hayward (1835-1876) and R. Carpenter (1830-1901), as well as two other
+keen cricketers, H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896) and T. Hearne (1826-1900).
+
+Since the first half of the 19th century the sort of cricket to engage
+public attention has very greatly changed, and the change has become
+emphasized since the exchange of visits between Australian and English
+teams has become an established feature of first-class cricket.
+First-class cricket has become more formal, more serious and more
+spectacular. The contest for the county championship has introduced an
+annual competition, closely followed by the public, between standing
+rivals familiar with each other's play and record; an increased
+importance has become attached to "averages" and "records," and it is
+felt by some that the purely sporting side of the game has been damaged
+by the change. Professionalism has increased, and it is an open secret
+that not a few players who appear before the public as amateurs derive
+an income under some pretext or other from the game. Cricket on the
+village green has in many parts of the country almost ceased to exist,
+while immense crowds congregate to watch county matches in the great
+towns; but this must no doubt be in part attributed to the movement of
+population from the country districts; and some compensation is to be
+found in league cricket (see below), and in the numerous clubs for the
+employees of business firms and large shops, and for the members of
+social institutes of all kinds, which play matches in the suburbs of
+London and other cities. At an earlier period two great professional
+organizations, "The All England," formed in 1846, and "The United All
+England," toured the country, mainly for profit, playing local sides in
+which "given men," generally good professional players, figured. They
+did much good work in popularizing the game, and an annual match between
+the two at Lord's on Whit-Monday was once a great feature of the season;
+but the increase of county cricket led eventually to their disbandment.
+
+At this period, and much later, the first-class matches of "M.C.C. and
+ground" (i.e. ground-staff, or professionals attached to the club)
+occupied a far greater amount of importance than is at present the case.
+In recent years over 150 minor matches of the utmost value in
+propagating the best interests of cricket are annually played by the
+leading club. League cricket has of late become exceedingly popular,
+especially in the North of England, a number of clubs--about twelve to
+sixteen--combining to form a "League" and playing home-and-home matches,
+each one with each of the others in turn; points are scored according as
+each club wins, loses, or draws matches, the championship of the
+"League" being thus decided.
+
+_English County Cricket._--The first English inter-county match which is
+recorded was played on Richmond Green in 1730 between Surrey and
+Middlesex; but for very many years, though counties played counties,
+there was no systematic organization, matches often being played at odds
+or with "given" players, who had no county connexion with the side they
+represented. This was the natural outcome of the custom of playing for
+stakes. It was not till 1872 that any real effort was made to organize
+county cricket. In that year the M.C.C. took the initiative by offering
+a cup for competition between the counties, six of which were to be
+selected by the M.C.C., the matches to be played at Lord's, but the
+scheme fell through owing to the coolness of the counties themselves. It
+was only in 1890 that the counties were formally and officially
+classified, Notts (the county club dating from 1859), Lancashire (1864),
+Surrey (1845), Kent (1842), Middlesex (1864), Gloucestershire (1869),
+Yorkshire (1862), and Sussex (1839), being regarded as "first-class," as
+indeed had been the case from the time of their existence; and by
+degrees other counties were promoted to this class; Somerset in 1893;
+Derbyshire, Essex, Leicestershire, Warwickshire in 1894; Hampshire in
+1895; Worcestershire in 1899; Northamptonshire in 1905.
+
+In 1887 the County Cricket Council had been formed, working with and not
+against the Marylebone Club, for the management of county cricket, but
+the council dissolved itself in 1890, and it was then arranged that the
+county secretaries and delegates should meet and discuss such matters,
+and request the M.C.C. to consider the result of their deliberations,
+and practically to act as patron and arbitrator. In 1905 an Advisory
+Cricket Committee was formed "with the co-operation of the counties,
+with a view to improve the procedure in dealing with important matters
+arising out of the development of cricket, the effect of which will be"
+(the quotation is from the annual report of M.C.C. in 1905) "to bring
+the counties into closer touch with the M.C.C." Various methods have
+been tried as to the assignment of points or marks, the following being
+the list of champion counties up to 1909:--
+
+     1864  Surrey                  | 1873    Surrey
+     1865  Notts                   | 1874    Gloucestershire
+     1866  Middlesex               | 1875    Notts
+     1867  Yorkshire               | 1876    Gloucestershire
+     1868  Yorkshire               | 1877    Gloucestershire
+     1869  Notts                   | 1878    Notts
+     1870  Yorkshire               | 1879    Lancashire \ equal
+     1871  Notts                   |         Notts      /
+     1872  Surrey          \ equal | 1880    Notts
+           Gloucestershire /       | 1881    Lancashire
+     1882  Lancashire \ equal      | 1895 Surrey
+           Notts      /            | 1896 Yorkshire
+     1883  Yorkshire               | 1897 Lancashire
+     1884  Notts                   | 1898 Yorkshire
+     1885  Notts                   | 1899 Surrey
+     1886  Notts                   | 1900 Yorkshire
+     1887  Surrey                  | 1901 Yorkshire
+     1888  Surrey \ equal          | 1902 Yorkshire
+           Notts  /                | 1903 Middlesex
+     1889  Lancashire \ equal      | 1904 Lancashire
+           Surrey     /            | 1905 Yorkshire
+     1890  Surrey                  | 1906 Kent
+     1891  Surrey                  | 1907 Notts
+     1892  Surrey                  | 1908 Yorkshire
+     1893  Yorkshire               | 1909 Kent
+     1894  Surrey                  |
+
+
+    The Graces and Gloucestershire.
+
+  English county cricket is now the most firmly established cricketing
+  institution in the world, but in its earlier stages it owed much in
+  different counties to enthusiastic individuals and famous cricketing
+  families whose energies were devoted to its encouragement and support.
+  To Gloucestershire belongs the honour of the greatest name in the
+  history of the game. Dr W. G. Grace (q.v.) was not only the most
+  brilliant all-round cricketer in the world, but he remained supreme
+  after reaching an age when most cricketers have long abandoned the
+  game. He and his two famous brothers, E. M. Grace (b. 1841) and G. F.
+  Grace (1850-1880), rendered invaluable service to their county for
+  many years; and not to their county alone, for the great part they
+  played for a generation in first-class cricket did much to increase
+  the growing popularity of the county fixtures. A separate article is
+  devoted to Dr W. G. Grace, whose name as the champion of the game will
+  always be associated with its history. And of Dr E. M. Grace it may be
+  mentioned that, besides being the most daring field at "point" ever
+  seen, he altogether took 11,092 wickets and scored 75,625 runs. In
+  more recent years some excellent cricketers have been associated with
+  Gloucestershire, such as F. Townsend, and the professional Board; but
+  foremost stands G. L. Jessop, a somewhat "unorthodox" batsman famous
+  for his powers of hitting.
+
+
+    Kent.
+
+  What W. G. Grace did for Gloucestershire, Lord Harris (b. 1851) did
+  for Kent, and his services are not to be estimated by his performances
+  in the field alone, great as they were. His influence was always
+  exerted to impart a spirit of sportsmanship and honourable distinction
+  to the national game. Kent had been a home of cricket since the first
+  half of the 18th century, but it was Lord Harris more than any other
+  individual who made it a first-class county, celebrated for the number
+  of distinguished amateurs who have taken part in its matches. The Hon.
+  Ivo Bligh, afterwards Lord Darnley (b. 1859), and F. Marchant (b.
+  1864), both Etonians like Lord Harris himself; the two Harrovians, W.
+  H. Patterson (b. 1859) and M. C. Kemp (b. 1862), and the Wykehamist J.
+  R. Mason (b. 1874) are names that show the place taken by public
+  school men in the annals of Kent cricket, while the family of Hearnes
+  supplied the county with some famous professionals. Amateur batsmen
+  like W. Rashleigh, C. J. Burnup, E. W. Dillon and A. P. Day have been
+  prominent in the Kent eleven; and in Fielder and Blythe they have had
+  two first-class professional bowlers. The "Kent nursery" at Tonbridge
+  has proved a valuable institution for training young professional
+  players, and contributed not a little to the rising reputation of
+  Kent, which justified itself when the county won the championship in
+  1906, largely owing to the admirable batting of the amateur K. L.
+  Hutchings.
+
+
+    Middlesex and Lancashire.
+
+  Middlesex and Lancashire, not less than Kent, have been indebted to
+  the great public schools, and especially to Harrow, which provided
+  both counties with famous captains who directed their fortunes for an
+  uninterrupted period of over twenty years. I. D. Walker, the most
+  celebrated of seven cricketing brothers, all Harrovians, who founded
+  the Middlesex County Club, handed on the captaincy, after a personal
+  record of astonishing brilliancy, to a younger Harrow and Oxford
+  cricketer, A. J. Webbe, who was one of the finest leg-hitters and one
+  of the safest out-fielders of his day, and a captain of consummate
+  judgment and knowledge of the game. A. N. Hornby, a contemporary at
+  Harrow of I. D. Walker, was for many years the soul of Lancashire
+  cricket, and was succeeded in the captaincy of the county by the still
+  more famous Harrovian, A. C. MacLaren, one of the greatest batsmen in
+  the history of cricket, whose record for England in test matches
+  against Australia was almost unrivalled. In 1895, when he headed the
+  batting averages, MacLaren made the highest individual score in a
+  first-class match, viz. 424 against Somersetshire. Middlesex has also
+  the distinction of having produced the two greatest amateur
+  wicket-keepers in the history of English cricket, namely, the Hon.
+  Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857) and Gregor MacGregor, both of whom, after
+  playing for Cambridge University, gave their services to the
+  Metropolitan county; while Lancashire can boast of the greatest
+  professional wicket-keeper in Richard Pilling (1855-1891), whose
+  reputation has not been eclipsed by that of the most proficient of
+  more recent years. Another famous Cambridge University cricketer, a
+  contemporary of Lyttelton, who was invaluable to Lancashire for some
+  years when he was one of the very finest all-round cricketers in the
+  country, was A. G. Steel (b. 1858), equally brilliant as a batsman and
+  as a slow bowler; and other names memorable in Lancashire cricket were
+  R. G. Barlow (b. 1859), whose stubborn batting was a striking contrast
+  to the rapid run-getting of Hornby and the perfect style of Steel;
+  John Briggs (1862-1902), whose slow left-hand bowling placed him at
+  the head of the bowling averages in 1890; John Crossland (1853-1903)
+  and A. Mold (b. 1865), both of whom were destructive fast bowlers; J.
+  T. Tyldesley and R. H. Spooner, both among the most brilliant batsmen
+  of a later generation; and W. Brearley, the amateur fast bowler.
+
+  Middlesex, like Kent, has been better served by amateurs than
+  professionals. Indeed, with the notable exceptions of J. T. Hearne,
+  who headed the bowling averages in 1891, 1896 and 1898, and of the
+  imported Australian A. E. Trott, few professionals of high merit are
+  conspicuously associated with the history of the county cricket.
+  Trott, in 1899 and again in 1900, performed the previously
+  unprecedented feat of taking over two hundred wickets and scoring over
+  one thousand runs in the same season. And in his "benefit match" in
+  May 1907 at Lord's he achieved the "hat trick" twice in one innings,
+  taking first four and then three wickets with successive balls. But if
+  there has been a dearth of professionals in Middlesex cricket, the
+  county has produced an abundance of celebrated amateurs. In addition
+  to the Walkers and A. J. Webbe, the metropolitan county was the home
+  of the celebrated hitter, C. I. Thornton, and of the Studd family, who
+  learnt their cricket at Eton and Cambridge University. C. T. Studd,
+  one of the most polished batsmen who ever played cricket, was at the
+  same time an excellent medium-paced bowler, and his brother G. B.
+  Studd is remembered especially for his fielding, though like his elder
+  brother, J. E. K. Studd, he was an all-round cricketer of the greatest
+  value to a county team. Sir T. C. O'Brien, who made his reputation by
+  a fine innings for Oxford University against the Australian team of
+  1882, sustained it in the following years by many brilliant
+  performances for Middlesex. A. E. Stoddart for several years was the
+  best run-getter in the Middlesex eleven; and W. J. Ford and his
+  younger brother, F. G. J. Ford, were conspicuous among many prominent
+  Middlesex batsmen. In more recent times the Oxonian P. F. Warner (b.
+  1873), both as captain and as batsman, did splendid work; and B. J. T.
+  Bosanquet, besides assisting powerfully with the bat, became famous
+  for inaugurating a new style of curly bowling ("googlies") of a very
+  effective type.
+
+
+    Surrey.
+
+  A glance at the table given above shows the high place occupied by
+  Surrey in the past. Surrey county cricket can be traced as far back as
+  1730. Pycroft observes that "the name of Surrey as one united county
+  club is quite lost in the annals of cricket from 1817 to 1845." But
+  before that date two of the most celebrated cricketers, William
+  Lillywhite and Fuller Pilch, had occasionally played for the county,
+  and so also had James Broadbridge (1796-1843) and W. Lambert
+  (1779-1851). Kennington Oval became the Surrey county ground in 1845,
+  the property being leased from the duchy of Cornwall; and in the years
+  immediately following the county team included H. H. Stephenson
+  (1833-1896), Caffyn (b. 1828), N. Felix, and Lockyer (1826-1869);
+  among a later generation appeared such well-remembered names as Jupp,
+  Southerton, Pooley and R. Humphrey. After being champion county in
+  1873, Surrey did not again attain the same position for fourteen
+  years, but for the next ten years maintained an almost uninterrupted
+  supremacy. The greatest credit was due to the energetic direction of
+  J. Shuter (b. 1855), who kept together a remarkable combination of
+  cricketers, such as W. W. Read (1855-1906), Maurice Read (b. 1859),
+  George Lohmann (1865-1901), and Robert Abel (b. 1859), all of whom
+  were among the greatest players of their period. Lohmann in 1885-1890
+  would alone have made any side famous; and in the same years when he
+  was heading the bowling averages and proving himself the most deadly
+  bowler in the country, W. W. Read was performing prodigies of batting.
+  No sooner did the latter begin to decline in power than Abel took his
+  place at the head of the batting averages, scoring with astonishing
+  consistency in 1897-1900. In 1899 he made 357 not out in an innings
+  against Somersetshire, and in 1901 his aggregate of 3309 was the
+  largest then compiled. The Oxonian K. J. Key was another famous
+  batsman whose services as captain were also exceedingly valuable to
+  the county. An almost inexhaustible supply of professionals of the
+  very highest class has been at Surrey's service. W. Lockwood (b. 1868)
+  became almost as deadly a bowler as Lohmann, and Tom Richardson (b.
+  1870) was the terror of all Surrey's opponents for several seasons
+  after 1893. Richardson took in all no less than 1340 wickets at the
+  cost of 20,000 runs. Tom Hayward (b. 1867), nephew of the renowned
+  Cambridge professional of the same name, succeeded Abel as the leading
+  Surrey batsman, his play in the test matches of 1899, when he averaged
+  65, being superb. During the following years his reputation was fully
+  maintained, and in 1906 he had a particularly successful season. Key
+  was followed in the captaincy by D. L. A. Jephson, but the county did
+  not in the opening years of the 20th century maintain the high place
+  it occupied during the last quarter of the 19th. It possessed some
+  excellent professionals, however, in Hayes, Hobbs and Lees, and the
+  season of 1906, under the captaincy of Lord Dalmeny, showed a revival,
+  a new fast bowler being found in N. A. Knox, and a fine batsman and
+  bowler in J. N. Crawford.
+
+
+    Sussex.
+
+  Several of the celebrated cricketers of early times already mentioned
+  as having played for the Surrey club were more closely associated with
+  the adjoining county of Sussex, whose records go back as far as 1734,
+  in which year a match was played against Kent, the chief promoters of
+  which were the duke of Richmond and Sir William Gage. One of the
+  earliest famous cricketers, Richard Newland (d. 1791), was a Sussex
+  man; and James Broadbridge, W. Lambert, Tom Box, and the great
+  Lillywhite family were all members of the Sussex county team. Lambert,
+  in a match against Epsom, played at Lord's in 1817, made a "century"
+  (one hundred runs) in each innings, a feat not repeated in first-class
+  cricket for fifty years; and the occasion was the first when the
+  aggregate of a thousand runs was scored in a match. Broadbridge played
+  for Sussex in five reigns, while Box (1808-1876) kept wicket for the
+  county for twenty-four years without missing a match. Notwithstanding
+  this distinguished history, Sussex never attained the highest place in
+  the county rivalry, and for a number of years towards the end of the
+  19th century the left-handed batting of F. M. Lucas (1860-1887) alone
+  saved the county from complete insignificance. A revival came when W.
+  L. Murdoch (b. 1855), of Australian celebrity, qualified for Sussex;
+  and at a still later date the fortunes of the county were raised by
+  the inclusion in its eleven of Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji, afterwards
+  H.H. the Jam of Nawanagar (b. 1872), the Indian prince, who had played
+  for Cambridge University. Ranjitsinhji's dexterity, grace and style
+  were unrivalled. He scored 2780 runs in 1896, averaging 57, while in
+  county matches in 1899 his aggregate was 2555, with an average of 75.
+  Even this performance was beaten in 1900 when he scored a total of
+  2563 runs, giving an average for the season of 83. In all matches his
+  aggregates were 3159 in 1899, and 3065 in 1900. Not less remarkable
+  was the cricket of C. B. Fry (b. 1872), who came from Oxford
+  University to become a mainstay of Sussex cricket, and who in 1901
+  performed the unparalleled feat of scoring in successive innings 106,
+  209, 149, 105, 140 and 105, his aggregate for the season being 3147
+  with an average of 78. In 1905 his average for Sussex was 86, but in
+  the following year an accident kept him out of the cricket field
+  throughout the season; and in 1909 he transferred his services to
+  Hampshire.
+
+
+    Notts.
+
+  If Kent and Middlesex may be described as the counties of amateurs,
+  Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire should be called the counties of famous
+  professionals. Between 1864 and 1889 Nottinghamshire was champion
+  county twelve times and the county eleven was as a rule composed
+  almost entirely of professional players, among whom have been many of
+  the greatest names in the history of the game. Richard Daft
+  (1835-1900), after playing as an amateur, became a professional in
+  preference to abandoning the game, scorning to resort to any of the
+  pretexts by which cricketers have been known to accept payment for
+  their services while continuing to cling to the status of the amateur.
+  William Oscroft (1843-1905) was one of Nottinghamshire's early batting
+  heroes, and in Alfred Shaw (b. 1842) and F. Morley (1850-1884) the
+  county possessed an invaluable pair of bowlers. William Gunn (b.
+  1858), besides being a magnificent fielder "in the country," was an
+  exceptionally able batsman; but his performances did not equal those
+  of his greater contemporary, Arthur Shrewsbury, who in six years
+  between 1885 and 1892 headed the English batting averages.
+  Shrewsbury's perfect style combined with inexhaustible patience placed
+  him in the front rank of the "classical" batsmen of English cricket.
+  Of the batsmen nicknamed "stonewallers," who at one time endangered
+  the popularity of first-class cricket, was W. Scotton (1856-1893); and
+  among the other numerous professionals whose cricket contributed to
+  the renown of Nottinghamshire were Barnes (1852-1899), at times a most
+  formidable bat; Flowers (b. 1856), always useful both with the bat and
+  the ball; W. Attewell (b. 1861), a remarkably steady bowler who bowled
+  an abnormal number of maiden overs; Mordecai Sherwin (b. 1851), an
+  excellent successor to T. Plumb (b. 1833) and F. Wild (1847-1893) as
+  wicket-keeper for the county; and among more recent players, J.
+  Iremonger (b. 1877) and John Gunn, both of whom proved themselves
+  cricketers worthy of the Notts traditions. J. A. Dixon (b. 1861), one
+  of the few amateurs of the Nottinghamshire records, was for some time
+  captain of the county team; and he was succeeded by A. O. Jones (b.
+  1873), a dashing batsman, who in 1899 was partner with Shrewsbury when
+  the pair scored 391 for the first wicket in a match against
+  Gloucestershire.
+
+
+    Yorkshire.
+
+  The history of Yorkshire cricket is modern in comparison with that of
+  Surrey, Sussex or Kent. The county club only dates from 1861, and for
+  some years the team was composed entirely of professionals. But though
+  Yorkshire attained the championship three times during the first ten
+  years of the county club's existence, thirteen years elapsed after
+  1870 before it again occupied the place of honour. In the ten years
+  1896-1906 Yorkshire was no less than six times at the head of the
+  list, this position of supremacy being in no small measure due to the
+  captaincy of Lord Hawke (b. 1860), who played continuously for the
+  county from his university days for more than twenty years, and whose
+  influence on Yorkshire cricket was unique. But before his time
+  Yorkshire had already produced some notable cricketers, such as George
+  Ulyett (1857-1898), who headed the batting averages in 1878, and who
+  was also a fine fast bowler; Louis Hall (b. 1852), a patient bat; and
+  another excellent scorer, Ephraim Lockwood (b. 1845). William Bates
+  (1855-1900), too, was effective both as batsman and bowler; and Tom
+  Emmett (1841-1904), long proverbial for bowling "a wide and a wicket,"
+  was deservedly popular. To the earlier period belonged two fast
+  bowlers, George Freeman (1844-1895) and Allan Hill (b. 1845), and the
+  eminent wicket-keeper Pincher (1841-1903), who was succeeded by J.
+  Hunter (1857-1891), and later by his brother Daniel Hunter (b. 1862).
+  The full effect of Lord Hawke's energetic captaincy was seen in 1900,
+  when Yorkshire played through a programme of twenty-eight fixtures
+  without sustaining a defeat; and the county's record was but little
+  inferior in both the following years and again in 1905, in each of
+  which years it retained the championship. It was during this period
+  that as notable a group of cricketers wore the Yorkshire colours as
+  ever appeared in county matches. Edmund Peate (1856-1900), one of the
+  finest bowlers in his day, did not survive to take part in the later
+  triumphs of his county; but the period beginning in 1890 saw J. T.
+  Brown, J. Tunnicliffe, R. Peel, W. Rhodes, George Hirst and the Hon.
+  F. S. Jackson in the field. The two first named became famous for
+  their first wicket partnerships. In 1896 in a match against Middlesex
+  at Lord's these two batsmen scored 139 before being separated in the
+  first innings, and in the second knocked off the 147 required to win
+  the match. In the following year they made 378 for the first wicket
+  against Surrey, and during their careers they scored over a hundred
+  for the first wicket on no less than fifteen occasions, the greatest
+  feat of all being in 1898, when they beat the world's record by
+  staying together till 554 runs had been compiled. Peel was for many
+  years an untiring bowler, and Yorkshire was fortunate in discovering a
+  successor of even superior skill in Wilfrid Rhodes, who in 1900 took
+  over 200 wickets at a cost of 12 runs each in county matches alone,
+  and was also an excellent bat. Hirst and Jackson were the two finest
+  all-round cricketers in England about 1905. The Hon. F. S. Jackson (b.
+  1870), like his fellow-Harrovian A. C. MacLaren, had a wonderful
+  record in test matches against Australia; he captained the England
+  eleven in 1905, and his wonderful nerve enabled him to extricate his
+  side when in a difficulty, and to render his best service at an
+  emergency. Hirst (b. 1871) in 1904 and in 1905 scored over 2000 runs
+  and took more than 100 wickets; and in 1906 he surpassed all previous
+  records by scoring over 2000 runs and taking over 200 wickets during
+  the season. A concourse of 78,000 people watched his "benefit" match
+  (Yorkshire against Lancashire) in August 1904. Besides cricketers like
+  these, such fine players were included in the team as Wainwright (b.
+  1865), Haigh (b. 1871), Denton (b. 1874), and E. Smith (b. 1869); with
+  such material the Yorkshire eleven had no "tail," and was able to win
+  the championship six times in a decade.
+
+
+    Somersetshire.
+
+  Somersetshire hardly fulfilled the promise held out by the success
+  achieved in the closing decade of the 19th century; this had been
+  largely owing to the captaincy and brilliant batting of H. T. Hewett
+  (b. 1864), who in partnership with L. C. H. Palairet (b. 1870), famous
+  for his polished style, scored 346 for the first wicket in a match
+  against Yorkshire in 1892. Hewett was succeeded in the command of the
+  county eleven by the Cambridge fast bowler, S. M. J. Woods (b. 1868);
+  and among other members of the eleven the most valuable was L. C.
+  Braund (b. 1876), a professional who excelled as an all-round
+  cricketer.
+
+
+    Minor counties.
+
+  The counties above referred to are those which have figured most
+  prominently in the history of county cricket. Individual players of
+  the highest excellence are, however, to be found from time to time in
+  all parts of the country. Warwickshire, for example, can boast of
+  having had in A. A. Lilley (b. 1867) the best wicket-keeper of his
+  day, who represented England against Australia in the test matches;
+  while Worcestershire produced one of the best all-round professionals
+  in the country for a number of years in Arnold (b. 1877), and a
+  batsman of extreme brilliancy in R. E. Foster, a member of a
+  cricketing family to whom belongs the credit of raising Worcestershire
+  into a cricketing county of the first class. Derbyshire, similarly,
+  can claim some well-known cricket names, the bowler W. Mycroft
+  (1841-1894), W. Chatterton (b. 1863), and W. Storer (b. 1868), a
+  first-class wicket-keeper. Essex possesses at Leyton one of the best
+  county grounds in the country, and the club was helped over financial
+  difficulties by the munificent support of an old Uppingham and
+  Cambridge cricketer, C. E. Green. It has produced a fair number of
+  excellent players, notably the batsmen P. Perrin, C. MacGahey, and the
+  fast bowler C. J. Kortright; and A. P. Lucas, afterwards a member of
+  the county club, was a famous cricketer who played for England in 1880
+  in the first Australian test match. Hampshire had a fine batsman in
+  Captain E. G. Wynyard, and its annals are conspicuous for the
+  phenomenal scores made during the single season of 1899 by Major R. M.
+  Poore; these two put together 411 against Somersetshire in that year
+  before being separated. Among the later Hants professionals, Llewellyn
+  was most prominent.
+
+  The distribution of cricketing ability in England might be the subject
+  of some interesting speculation. In the first forty years of the
+  annual competition for the championship six counties alone gained the
+  coveted distinction, and three of these, Surrey, Notts and Yorkshire,
+  won it thirty-four times between them. Why, it may be asked, is it
+  that one county excels in the game while another has no place whatever
+  in the history of cricket? How comes it that great names recur
+  continually in the annals of Surrey and Yorkshire, for example, while
+  those of Berkshire and Lincolnshire are entirely barren? No doubt
+  proximity to great centres of population favours the cultivation of
+  the game, but in this respect Kent and Sussex are no better situated
+  than Hertfordshire, nor does it account for Nottinghamshire having so
+  illustrious a record while Staffordshire has none at all, nor for
+  Somersetshire having outclassed Devon. It is strange, moreover, that
+  while the universities are the chief training-grounds for amateur
+  cricketers, neither Oxfordshire nor Cambridgeshire has made any mark
+  among the counties. The influence of individuals and families, such as
+  the Graces in Gloucestershire, the Walkers in Middlesex, and in recent
+  times the Fosters in Worcestershire, has of course been of inestimable
+  benefit to cricket in those counties; but Buckinghamshire and Norfolk
+  and Cheshire send their sons to the public schools and universities no
+  less than Lancashire or Kent. It is difficult, therefore, to
+  understand why county cricket should so persistently confine itself to
+  a small number of counties; but such is the fact.
+
+  Cricket has never flourished vigorously in Scotland, Ireland or Wales,
+  a fact that may partly be accounted for by the comparative difficulty
+  of obtaining good grounds in those parts of the kingdom, and by the
+  inferiority, for the purpose of cricket, of their climate. In the
+  south of Scotland, and especially in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
+  there are clubs which keep the game alive; and Scotland, though it has
+  produced no great cricketers, either amateur or professional, has sent
+  a few players to the English university elevens who have found places
+  in English county teams. In Ireland cricket is fairly popular,
+  especially in those parts of the island where local sides can obtain
+  assistance from soldiers quartered in the neighbourhood. One or two
+  counties play annual matches, that between Kildare and Cork in
+  particular exciting keen rivalry. Trinity College, Dublin, has turned
+  out some excellent players; and the Phoenix and Leinster clubs in
+  Dublin, and the North of Ireland club in Belfast, play a full
+  programme of matches every season. D. N. Trotter, who played for
+  county Meath for many years towards the close of the 19th century, was
+  a batsman who would have found a place in any English county eleven;
+  so also would William Hone, one of several brothers all of whom were
+  keen and skilful cricketers. About the same period Lieutenant Dunn
+  scored so many centuries in Irish cricket that he was played, though
+  without any great success, for his native county of Surrey. More
+  recently L. H. Gwynn (1873-1902) batted in a style and with a success
+  that proved him capable of great things. Sir T. C. O'Brien, though an
+  Irishman, belongs as a cricketer to Middlesex; but T. C. Ross, who was
+  chosen to play for Gentlemen v. Players at Lord's in 1902, was a
+  bowler who played regularly for county Kildare.
+
+  _Gentlemen v. Players._--The most important match of the year as far
+  as purely English cricket is concerned is the match between the
+  gentlemen and players (amateurs and professionals) played at Lord's.
+  For many years a match played between sides similarly composed at the
+  Oval excited equal interest, but latterly county cricket has rather
+  starved this particular game, though it still continues as a popular
+  fixture. Other matches with the same title have been played in London
+  on Prince's Ground (now built over), and at Brighton, Hastings and
+  Scarborough and elsewhere, but those games in no way rank with the
+  London matches.
+
+  The Lord's fixture was first established in 1806, in which year two
+  matches were played; it became annual in 1819, but in those days the
+  amateurs, being no match for their opponents, generally received odds,
+  while in 1832 they defended wickets 22 in. by 6, and in 1837 the
+  professionals stood in front of wickets of four stumps, measuring in
+  all 36 in. by 12 in. This match was known as "The Barndoor Match" or
+  "Ward's Folly," and the professionals won by an innings and 10 runs.
+  Odds were not given after 1838, the gentlemen having then won eight
+  matches and lost thirteen. From 1839 to 1866 the gentlemen only won 7
+  matches as compared with 21 losses. In 1867 the tide turned, for the
+  brothers Grace, especially Dr W. G. Grace, became a power in the
+  cricket-field, and from 1867 to 1884 the gentlemen, winning fifteen
+  matches, only lost one. From 1885 the balance swung round, and by 1903
+  the professionals had won eleven matches and lost but four. The
+  gentlemen won on nine successive occasions between 1874 and 1884, a
+  draw intervening; while beginning with 1854 the professionals won
+  eleven matches "off the reel." The professionals won in 1860 by an
+  innings and no less than 181 runs; in 1900 they only won by two
+  wickets, but to do so had to make, and did make, 501 runs in the last
+  innings of the match. In 1903 the gentlemen, heavily in arrears after
+  each side had played an innings, actually scored 500 in their second
+  innings with only two men out. In 1904 the gentlemen won by two
+  wickets after being 156 runs behind on the first innings, thanks to
+  fine play by K. S. Ranjitsinhji and A. O. Jones. J. H. King had scored
+  a century in each innings, a feat previously only performed by R. E.
+  Foster in 1900. C. B. Fry's 232 not out in 1903 was the largest
+  innings scored in the match. Dr W. G. Grace, who is credited with
+  eight centuries, is the only cricketer who exceeded the hundred more
+  than twice at Lord's in the fixture, 164 by J. T. Brown being the
+  highest innings by a professional. There were seven instances before
+  1864 of two bowlers being unchanged in the match, and the Hon. F. S.
+  Jackson and S. M. J. Woods repeated this in 1894. The Oval match was
+  first played in 1857. The amateurs effected their first win in 1866,
+  and though several games were drawn the professionals did not win
+  again till 1880. As at Lord's, it was the era of Grace, but from this
+  point the amateurs could only win two matches, and by the narrowest of
+  margins, till 1903, this making their sum of victories up to then
+  thirteen, as opposed to twenty-three. In 1879 the gentlemen won in one
+  innings by 126 runs, the heaviest beating that one side had inflicted
+  on the other. The highest individual score was Robert Abel's 247, and
+  the next Dr W. G. Grace's 215. Hayward scored 203 in 1904; A. G. Steel
+  and A. H. Evans bowled unchanged in 1879.
+
+  _School and Club Cricket._--Cricket is the standing summer game at
+  every English private and public school, where it is taught as
+  carefully and systematically as either classics or mathematics. There
+  are also numbers of amateur clubs which possess no grounds of their
+  own and are connected with no particular locality, but which are in
+  fact mere associations of cricketers who play matches against the
+  universities, schools or local teams, or against each other. Of these
+  the best known, perhaps, is I Zingari (The Wanderers), popularly known
+  as I.Z., whose well-known colours, red, yellow and black stripes, are
+  prized rather as a social than as a cricketing distinction. This club
+  was founded in 1845 by Lorraine Baldwin and Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane.
+  The first rule of the club humorously declares that "the entrance fee
+  shall be nothing, and the annual subscription shall not exceed the
+  entrance fee." It is a rule of the club that no member shall play on
+  the opposing side. I.Z. has long been connected with the social
+  festivities forming a feature of the "Canterbury Week," a cricket
+  festival held at Canterbury during the first week in August, of the
+  Scarborough week, and of the Dublin horse-show. Dr W. G. Grace, who
+  almost invariably appeared in the cricket field wearing the red and
+  yellow stripes of the M.C.C., and some other notable amateurs, never
+  belonged to I.Z. or any similar club; but Dr Grace was instrumental in
+  the formation of the London county club, whose ground was at the
+  Crystal Palace at Sydenham. Other amateur clubs, similar to I Zingari,
+  are the Free Foresters, Incogniti, Etceteras, and in Ireland Na
+  Shuler; while the Eton Ramblers, Harrow Wanderers, Old Wykehamists,
+  and others are clubs whose membership is restricted to "old boys."
+
+  The Oxford and Cambridge universities match was first played in 1827,
+  but was not an annual fixture till 1838. Five matches, those of 1829,
+  1843, 1846, 1848 and 1850, were played at Oxford, the rest at Lord's.
+  The "'Varsity match," and that between the two great public schools,
+  Eton and Harrow, are great "society" events at Lord's every summer. Up
+  to 1909 Eton won thirty times, and Harrow on thirty-five occasions. D.
+  C. Boles by scoring 183 in 1904 set up a new record for this match,
+  beating the 152 obtained in 1841 by Emilius Bayley (afterwards the
+  Rev. Sir John Robert Laurie); and in 1907 the Harrow captain, M. C.
+  Bird, established a further record by scoring over a hundred runs in
+  each innings. Of the contests between Oxford and Cambridge, the latter
+  (up to 1909) had lost thirty-one and won thirty-five. Oxford's 503 in
+  1900 and Cambridge's 392 in the same match furnished the highest
+  aggregates. The largest individual innings was 172 not out by J. F.
+  Marsh in 1904; but as a feat of batting it was intrinsically inferior
+  to the 171 by R. E. Foster in 1900. Of the thirty centuries scored up
+  to 1909, Oxford was credited with sixteen. Eustace Crawley (b. 1868)
+  made a hundred both in the Eton v. Harrow and Oxford v. Cambridge
+  matches. In the match of 1870 F. C. Cobden (b. 1849) took the last
+  three Oxford wickets with consecutive balls, winning the match for
+  Cambridge by 2 runs.
+
+  _Australian Cricket._--Naturally popular in a British colony, cricket
+  made but little progress in Australia before the arrival of an English
+  professional eleven in 1861-1862, which carried all before it.
+  Subsequent visits, and the coaching of imported professionals, so
+  promoted the game that in 1878 a representative eleven of Australians
+  visited England. The visits were repeated biennially till 1890, and
+  then triennially. The visits of the Australian teams to England
+  aroused unparalleled interest and acted as an immense incentive to the
+  game. A great sensation was caused when the first team, captained by
+  D. W. Gregory, on the 27th of May 1878, defeated a powerful M.C.C.
+  eleven in a single day, disposing of them for 33 and 19, the fast
+  bowler F. R. Spofforth (b. 1853) taking 6 wickets for 4 runs, and H.
+  F. Boyle (b. 1847) 5 for 3. Their prowess was well maintained when in
+  September 1880 Australia for the first time met the whole strength of
+  England, such matches between representatives of Australia and England
+  being known as "test matches," a term that was applied later to
+  matches between England and South Africans also. Although in 1880 the
+  old country won by 5 wickets, the honours were fairly divided,
+  especially as Spofforth could not play. Dr W. G. Grace with a score of
+  152 headed the total of 420, but even finer was the Australian captain
+  W. L. Murdoch's imperturbable display, when he carried his bat for
+  153. From 1882 onwards the Colonials, with two exceptions, at
+  Blackpool and Skegness, only played eleven-a-side matches. Such
+  bowlers as Spofforth, Boyle, G. E. Palmer (b. 1861), T. W. Garrett (b.
+  1858), and G. Giffen (1859) became household names. Nor was the
+  batting less admirable, for Murdoch was supported by H. H. Massie (b.
+  1854), P. S. McDonnell (1860-1896), A. C. Bannerman (b. 1859), T.
+  Horan (b. 1855), C. J. Bonnor (b. 1855), and S. P. Jones (b. 1861),
+  whilst the wicket-keeper was McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855). This
+  visiting side in 1882 was the greatest team of all; 23 matches were
+  won, only 4 lost, and England was defeated at the Oval by 7 runs. In
+  1884 English cricket had improved, and the visiting record was hardly
+  so good. The match against England at the Oval will not soon be
+  forgotten. The Colonials scored 551 (Murdoch 211, McDonnell 103, Scott
+  102), and England responded with 346, Scotton and W. W. Read adding
+  151 for the ninth wicket.
+
+  The team of H. J. H. Scott (b. 1858) in 1886 proved less successful,
+  for all three test matches were lost, and eight defeats had to be set
+  against nine victories, but Giffen covered himself with distinction.
+  This was the first tour under the auspices of the Melbourne Club.
+  McDonnell's team in 1888 marked the appearance of the bowlers C. T. B.
+  Turner (b. 1862) and J. J. Ferris (1867-1900). The former took 314
+  wickets for 11 runs each, and the latter 220 for 14 apiece. To all
+  appearance they redeemed a poor tour, 19 matches being won and 14
+  lost. The 1890 tour, though Murdoch reappeared as captain, proved
+  disappointing, both the test matches being lost and defeats for the
+  first time exceeding victories, though the two bowlers again performed
+  marvellously well. After an interval of three years, M. Blackham
+  captained the seventh team, which was moderately fortunate. H. Graham
+  (b. 1870) and S. E. Gregory (b. 1870) batted admirably, and the 149 of
+  J. J. Lyons (b. 1863) in the match against M.C.C. was an extraordinary
+  display of punishing cricket. In 1896, though they did not win the
+  rubber of test matches, the colonials were most successful, 19 matches
+  being victories and only 6 lost. S. E. Gregory, J. Darling (b. 1870),
+  F. A. Iredale (b. 1867), G. Giffen, C. Hill (b. 1877), and G. H. S.
+  Trott (1866-1905) were the best bats, and the last-named made an
+  admirable captain. H. Trumble (1867) kept an excellent length, and E.
+  Jones (1869) was deadly with his fast bowling.
+
+  The Australian representatives in 1899 demonstrated that they were the
+  best since 1882, 16 successes and only 3 defeats (v. Essex, Surrey and
+  Kent) being emphasized by a victory over England at Lord's by 10
+  wickets, the only one of the five test matches brought to a
+  conclusion. M. A. Noble (b. 1873) and Victor Trumper (b. 1877), both
+  newcomers, batted superbly. The latter, v. Sussex, made 300, the
+  largest individual score hitherto made by an Australian in England,
+  the previous best having been 286 by Murdoch in the corresponding
+  match in 1882. H. Trumble scored 1183 runs and took 142 wickets for 18
+  runs apiece, and Darling not only made a judicious captain, but scored
+  the biggest aggregate, 1941, up to then obtained by any batsman
+  touring with a colonial eleven in England. On the home side, Hayward
+  did sound service with the bat, and his stand with F. S. Jackson in
+  the fifth test match yielded 185 runs for the first wicket.
+
+  In 1902 another fine Australian eleven, captained by Darling, won 23
+  and lost only 2 matches. They won the rubber of test matches at
+  Manchester by 3 runs, but lost the final at the Oval by one wicket
+  after an even more remarkable struggle, G. L. Jessop having scored 104
+  in an hour and a quarter. The other defeat was by Yorkshire by 5
+  wickets, when they were dismissed for 23 by Hirst and Jackson. The
+  rest of the tour was characterized by brilliant batting. The
+  performance of Trumper in making 2570 runs (with an average of 48)
+  surpassed anything previously seen; R. A. Duff (b. 1878) also proved a
+  brilliant run-getter. W. W. Armstrong (b. 1879) was useful in all
+  departments, and J. V. Saunders (b. 1876) proved a successful
+  left-handed bowler.
+
+  In 1905 there was a marked falling-off, as England won two and drew
+  the other three test matches; but only one other defeat, by Essex by
+  19 runs, had to be set against 16 Australian victories. The persistent
+  bowling off the wicket by Armstrong, and the inability to finish games
+  within three days, were the chief drawbacks. Armstrong eclipsed all
+  previous colonial records in England by heading both tables of
+  averages, scoring 2002 (average 48) and taking 130 wickets at a cost
+  of 17 runs each. He also compiled the largest individual score (303
+  not out v. Somerset) ever made on an Australian tour. M. A. Noble also
+  exceeded 2000 runs. For a long time the fast bowler, A. Cotter (b.
+  1882, N.S.W.), failed, but eventually "came off," just as F. Laver (b.
+  1869), who had taken many wickets in the earlier part of the tour, was
+  becoming less formidable. Duff saved the colonials by a great innings
+  in the fifth test match; Trumper was less certain than formerly, and
+  Clement Hill more reckless; whilst J. J. Kelly (b. 1867) on his fifth
+  tour was better than ever before with the gloves.
+
+  The Australians who visited England under the leadership of M. A.
+  Noble in 1909 were generally held to be a weaker team than most of
+  their predecessors, but they greatly improved as the season advanced,
+  proving that the side included several cricketers of the highest
+  merit, and as a captain Noble has seldom been surpassed in consummate
+  generalship. Their record of thirteen wins to four defeats offered
+  little evidence of inferiority, while the large number of twenty-one
+  drawn matches was accounted for by the cold wet weather that largely
+  prevailed throughout the summer. Two out of the five test matches were
+  unfinished, and Australia won the rubber by two matches to one. In all
+  the test matches England was under the command of A. C. MacLaren, but
+  the great Harrovian was no longer the batsman he had been some years
+  earlier; Jackson had abandoned first-class cricket; Hirst and Hayward
+  were becoming veterans; and, speaking generally, the English batting
+  was decidedly inferior, and it collapsed feebly in three of the test
+  matches. England's failure, for which poor fielding and missed catches
+  were also responsible, was the more disappointing since they began
+  well by winning the first test match at Birmingham by ten wickets. C.
+  B. Fry and Hobbs knocking off the 105 runs required to win in the
+  second innings without the loss of a wicket. In the third test match,
+  at Leeds, England was deprived of the services of Hayward and Blythe
+  through illness, and an accident to Jessop during the match compelled
+  the side to play a man short. It was in bowling that the Australians
+  were thought to be least strong; but Laver's analysis in the
+  Manchester test match, when he took 8 wickets for 31 runs in England's
+  first innings, was the most notable feature of the match; and although
+  his record at the head of the bowling averages for the tour, 70
+  wickets at an average cost of 14.9 runs, had frequently been beaten in
+  earlier Australian tours in England, it proved him a worthy successor
+  of Spofforth, Boyle and Turner. Armstrong, although he did not equal
+  his record of 1905, again scored over 1000 runs and took over 100
+  wickets, his exact figures being 1439 runs and 120 wickets. The most
+  remarkable Australian batting was that of two young left-handed
+  players who on this occasion visited England for the first time, W.
+  Bardsley (b. 1884) and Vernon Ransford (b. 1885), the latter of whom
+  headed the averages both for test matches (58.8) and for the whole
+  tour (45.5), his principal achievement being an innings of 143 not out
+  in the test match at Lord's. Bardsley, who was second in the test
+  matches averages (39.6), fell into the third place slightly below
+  Armstrong in the averages for the tour; but he alone scored over 200
+  in an innings, which he accomplished twice, and over 2000 in aggregate
+  for the tour, and he established a test match "record" by scoring 136
+  and 130 in the match at the Oval. Of the twenty-two "centuries" scored
+  by Australians during the season Bardsley and Ransford each made six.
+  Trumper and Noble each scored over a thousand runs, and Macartney was
+  an invaluable member of the side both in batting and bowling. As a
+  wicket-keeper Carter worthily filled the place of Kelly, and the
+  fielding of the Colonials fully maintained the brilliant Australian
+  standard of former years.
+
+  The following "records" of Australian cricket in England up to 1909
+  are of interest:--Highest total by an Australian team: 843 v. Past and
+  Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893. Highest total
+  against an Australian team: 576 by England at the Oval in 1899. Lowest
+  total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in 1896. Lowest total
+  against an Australian team: 17 by Gloucestershire in 1896. Highest
+  individual Australian score in one innings: 303 not out by W. W.
+  Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest individual Australian
+  aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in 1902. Two centuries in a
+  match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v. Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and
+  130 v. England in 1909 (test match record).
+
+  The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting and
+  bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909.
+
+
+    _Batting._
+
+    +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
+    |      |                        |    |Not |      |      |       |
+    | Year.|                        |Inn.|out.| Runs.| Most.| Aver. |
+    +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
+    | 1878 | C. Bannerman, N.S.W.   | 31 |  1 |  723 |  133 | 24.10 |
+    | 1880 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 19 |  1 |  465 | *153 | 25.80 |
+    | 1882 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 61 |  5 | 1711 | *286 | 30.50 |
+    | 1884 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 50 |  5 | 1378 |  211 | 30.60 |
+    | 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A.        | 63 |  9 | 1453 |  119 | 26.90 |
+    | 1888 | P. M'Donnell, V.       | 62 |  1 | 1393 |  105 | 22.50 |
+    | 1890 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 64 |  2 | 1459 | *158 | 23.33 |
+    | 1893 | H. Graham, V.          | 55 |  3 | 1492 |  219 | 28.36 |
+    | 1896 | S. E. Gregory, N.S.W.  | 48 |  2 | 1464 |  154 | 31.38 |
+    | 1899 | J. Darling, S.A.       | 56 |  9 | 1941 |  167 | 41.29 |
+    | 1902 | V. T. Trumper, N.S.W.  | 53 |  0 | 2570 |  128 | 48.49 |
+    | 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V.    | 48 |  7 | 2002 | *303 | 48.82 |
+    | 1909 | V. S. Ransford         | 43 |  4 | 1778 |  190 | 45.58 |
+    +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
+      * Not out.
+
+
+     _Bowling._
+
+    +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
+    | Year.|                        |   O.   |  M.  |  R.  |  W. | Aver. |
+    +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
+    | 1878 | T. W. Garrett, N.S.W.  |  296.2 |  144 |  394 |  38 | 10.30 |
+    | 1880 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.|  240.8 |   82 |  396 |  46 |  8.60 |
+    | 1882 | H. F. Boyle, V.        | 1200.14|  525 | 1680 | 144 | 11.60 |
+    | 1884 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.| 1544.32|  649 | 2642 | 216 | 12.20 |
+    | 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A.        | 1693.26|  722 | 2711 | 159 | 17.05 |
+    | 1888 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 2589.3 | 1222 | 3492 | 314 | 11.38 |
+    | 1890 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1651.1 |  724 | 2725 | 215 | 12.45 |
+    | 1893 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1148   |  450 | 2202 | 160 | 13.12 |
+    | 1896 | T. R. M'Kibbin, N.S.W. |  647.1 |  198 | 1441 | 101 | 14.27 |
+    | 1899 | H. Trumble, V.         | 1249.1 |  431 | 2618 | 142 | 18.43 |
+    | 1902 | H. Trumble, V.         |  948   |  305 | 1998 | 140 | 14.27 |
+    | 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V.    | 1027   |  308 | 2288 | 130 | 17.60 |
+    | 1909 | F. Laver               |  495.5 |  161 | 1048 |  70 | 14.97 |
+    +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
+
+  The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862, and
+  was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891) took out
+  the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur. In 1873 the
+  Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an eleven, and
+  three years later James Lillywhite conducted a team of professionals.
+  On this tour for the first time colonials contended on equal terms,
+  one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the other lost by 45
+  runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a team of amateurs
+  assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and losing 3 eleven-a-side
+  encounters, Emmett's 137 wickets averaging 8 runs each. Shaw,
+  Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized the expedition of 1881,
+  when Australia won the second test match by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo
+  Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in 1882 took a fine team, which was
+  crippled owing to an injury sustained by the bowler F. Morley. Four
+  victories could be set against three defeats; Australia winning the
+  only test match, owing to the batting of Blackham. Shaw's second tour
+  in 1884 showed Barnes heading both batting and bowling averages, while
+  six victories counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour
+  Shrewsbury became captain, but the English for the first time
+  encountered the bowling of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for
+  113 runs in two matches. Australia was twice defeated, the English
+  captain batting in fine form. On this tour was played the Smokers v.
+  Non-Smokers, when the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236,
+  W. Bruce 131, Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle,
+  Lohmann, Palmer and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams
+  in Australia, one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under
+  Shrewsbury and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being
+  headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with 58.
+  The ill-success of Lord Sheffield's team in two out of three test
+  matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G.
+  Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support from
+  Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann all
+  possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart's first team (in 1894)
+  achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first test
+  match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by 10 runs,
+  Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51, scoring 173 in
+  the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who made 228 v. Victoria),
+  Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The last tour conducted by
+  Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of the five test matches being
+  lost, and some friction being caused by various incidents. K. S.
+  Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made 175 in a test match and 189 v.
+  South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren, who scored five hundreds and
+  averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward also doing good work; but the
+  bowling broke down. Weakness in bowling was the cause of the ill
+  success of A. C. MacLaren's side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by
+  an innings and 124 runs at Sydney, the other four test matches were
+  all lost. MacLaren himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward
+  and Tyldesley. Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in
+  1903 officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in
+  every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three test
+  matches were won and two lost, while two new records were set up, one
+  by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other by R. E.
+  Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled 287.
+  Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen; Rhodes and Braund
+  both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase about "bringing back the
+  ashes" became almost proverbial; its origin is to be found in the
+  _Sporting Times_ in 1882 after Australia had defeated England at the
+  Oval.
+
+  _New Zealand._--Although cricket has not attained a degree of
+  perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it is
+  keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in 1902-1903
+  which won all the eighteen matches arranged.
+
+  _Cricket in India._--Not only the English who live in India, but the
+  natives also--Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike--play cricket. A
+  Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888.
+
+  _South Africa._--South African cricketers visiting England are
+  handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets used
+  in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer War in 1901
+  won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with Worcestershire,
+  and showing marked improvement on the team which had visited England
+  in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a fine wicket-keeper, J. H.
+  Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round cricketer, J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a
+  very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872) clever with the ball. In
+  1904 more decided success was achieved, for on a more ambitious
+  programme ten victories could be set against two defeats by
+  Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex. The most important
+  success was a victory by 189 runs over a powerful England eleven at
+  Lord's, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875) scored 102 and 26, and took 8
+  wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjitsinhji twice. Kotze and Sinclair
+  again bore the brunt of the attack. Of the English teams visiting
+  South Africa, that taken by Lord Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such
+  important opposition as the one he led in 1900, yet the side came back
+  undefeated, having won all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F.
+  Mitchell, with Tyldesley, were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and
+  Cuttell bowling finely. In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a
+  side under P. F. Warner, but it lost four out of the five test
+  matches, F. L. Fane and J. N. Crawford being the most successful of
+  the Englishmen, and G. C. White (1882) and A. D. Nourse proving
+  themselves great colonial batsmen. In 1907 a representative South
+  African team came to England, and their improved status in the
+  cricketing world was shown by the arrangement of test matches. In the
+  winter of 1909-1910 an English team under Mr Leveson Gower went to
+  South Africa, and played test matches.
+
+  _West Indies._--West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900,
+  winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A. Olivierre
+  (b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The brunt of the
+  bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878). In 1897 teams
+  under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both visited West Indies,
+  Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations. R. S. Lucas (b. 1867)
+  had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A much weaker combination in
+  1902 suffered five defeats but won 13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E.
+  R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M. Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief
+  performers. In 1906 another West Indian side visited England, but were
+  not particularly successful.
+
+  _America._--In the United States cricket has always had to contend
+  with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival
+  attractions of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity,
+  Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World.
+
+  The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play annually
+  for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the Associated
+  Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood of New York
+  matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District Cricket League and
+  the New York Cricket Association; similar organizations are the
+  Northwestern, the California and the Massachusetts associations, while
+  the Intercollegiate Cricket League consists of college teams
+  representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b.
+  1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849) may almost claim to be the fathers
+  of cricket in the United States; while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did
+  much for the game in Canada. Other eminent names in American cricket
+  are A. M. Wood; H. Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three
+  centuries in one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of
+  Pennsylvania, a very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made
+  344 not out for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved
+  most effective during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894
+  W. Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss
+  of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not
+  out. A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United
+  States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in
+  which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the
+  course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average
+  cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the
+  side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester
+  (b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be
+  cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen (b.
+  1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not, however,
+  include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen in America.
+  The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908, when they won
+  7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour King surpassed his
+  former English record by taking 115 wickets, and Wood, who played one
+  fine innings of 132, was the most successful of the American batsmen.
+
+  _Other Countries._--The English residents of Portugal support the
+  game, but were no match for a moderate English team that visited them
+  in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem, cricket is
+  played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch elevens have
+  visited England, and English elevens have crossed to Holland, the most
+  important visit being that of the gentlemen of the M.C.C. in 1902, the
+  Englishmen winning all the matches.
+
+  _Professionalism._--The remuneration of the first-class English
+  professionals is £6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid;
+  a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from £2, 10s. to £3, 10s. a
+  week when not away playing matches. A professional player generally
+  receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the amount being
+  sometimes a fixed sum of £1 for every fifty runs, more frequently a
+  sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation of the captain.
+  Some counties give their men winter pay, others try to provide them
+  with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get cricket in other
+  countries during the English winter. For international matches
+  professional players and "reserves" receive £20 each, though before
+  1896 the fee was only £10; players (and reserves) in Gentlemen v.
+  Players at Lord's are paid £10. A good county professional generally
+  receives a "benefit" after about ten years' service; but the amount of
+  the proceeds varies capriciously with the weather, the duration of the
+  match, and the attendance. In the populous northern counties of
+  England benefits are far more lucrative than in the south, but £800 to
+  £1000 may be regarded as a good average result. County clubs generally
+  exercise some control over the sums received. Umpires are paid £6 a
+  match; in minor games they receive about £1 a day.
+
+  _Records._--Records other than those already cited may be added for
+  reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in
+  1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy's match,
+  being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566
+  for Break o' Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being
+  911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886. In
+  first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is A.
+  C. MacLaren's 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in 1895.
+  Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March 1898, this
+  being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C. and Ground
+  made 735 v. Wiltshire in 1888, the highest total at Lord's. In the
+  match between A. E. Stoddart's team and New South Wales at Sydney in
+  1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled in first-class
+  cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class match is
+  918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. Yorkshire scored
+  887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The lowest total in a
+  first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v. Gloucestershire in June
+  1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by S. Colman and P. Coles at
+  Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partnership on record is 623 by
+  Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh in 1895. The best stand
+  that has been made for the last wicket in a first-class match is 230
+  runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls and Roche playing for
+  Middlesex v. Kent at Lord's in 1899.
+
+  The "averages" of individual players for batting and bowling annually
+  excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that some
+  players may think too much of their averages and too little of the
+  sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages
+  during a series of years would be misleading, owing to improvements in
+  grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number of
+  innings.
+
+  The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to the
+  end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of
+  historic cricketers; it will serve to supplement some details already
+  given above about them and others.
+
+
+    _Batting._
+
+    +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
+    |                    | Innings.|Not Out.|  Runs.|Most.| Aver. |
+    +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
+    | K. S. Ranjitsinhji |    448  |   57   | 22,277| 285 |  56.3 |
+    | C. B. Fry          |    481  |   29   | 22,865| 244 |  50.4 |
+    | T. Hayward         |    667  |   61   | 25,225| 315 |  41.3 |
+    | J. T. Tyldesley    |    491  |   38   | 18,683| 250 |  41.1 |
+    | Dr W. G. Grace     |   1463  |  103   | 54,073| 344 |  39.1 |
+    | A. Shrewsbury      |    784  |   88   | 25,819| 267 |  37.6 |
+    | R. Abel            |    964  |   69   | 32,810| 357 |  36.5 |
+    | A. C. MacLaren     |    526  |   37   | 17,364| 424 |  35.2 |
+    | G. H. Hirst        |    626  |   92   | 18,615| 341 |  34.4 |
+    | Hon. F. S. Jackson |    490  |   35   | 15,498| 160 |  34.2 |
+    | W. Gunn            |    821  |   66   | 25,286| 273 |  33.3 |
+    | W. W. Read         |    739  |   53   | 22,919| 328 |  33.2 |
+    | A. E. Stoddart     |    513  |   16   | 16,081| 221 |  32.2 |
+    +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
+
+
+    _Bowling._
+
+    +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
+    |                      | Overs.|  Maid. |  Runs.|Wkts.| Aver.|
+    +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
+    | A. Shaw              | 22,830| 12,803 | 21,887| 1916| 11.8 |
+    | F. R. Spofforth      |  5,342|  2,168 |  8,773|  682| 12.5 |
+    | C. T. B. Turner      |  5,388|  2,396 |  8,419|  649| 12.6 |
+    | T. Emmett            | 14,672|  6,870 | 20,811| 1523| 13.1 |
+    | G. Lohmann           | 15,196|  6,508 | 23,958| 1734| 13.1 |
+    | F. Morley            | 12,610|  6,239 | 15,938| 1213| 13.1 |
+    | E. Peate             | 11,669|  5,593 | 14,299| 1061| 13.5 |
+    | W. Rhodes            | 11,014|  3,476 | 23,336| 1564| 14.1 |
+    | W. Attewell          | 22,461| 11,408 | 28,671| 1874| 15.5 |
+    | J. Briggs            | 20,300|  8,275 | 34,411| 2161| 15.2 |
+    | R. Peel              | 18,255|  7,856 | 27,795| 1733| 16.6 |
+    | S. Haigh             |  7,749|  2,279 | 18,516| 1102| 16.8 |
+    | J. T. Hearne         | 19,895|  7,395 | 40,532| 2350| 17.5 |
+    | W. H. Lockwood       |  8,733|  2,241 | 22,981| 1273| 18.6 |
+    | T. Richardson (1904) | 14,474|  3,835 | 38,126| 2081| 18.6 |
+    | Dr W. G. Grace (1904)| 28,502| 10,892 | 50,441| 2730| 18.1 |
+    | G. H. Hirst          | 11,586|  3,525 | 27,028| 1377| 19.8 |
+    +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-known
+  annuals:--H. Bentley's _Scores from 1786 to 1822_ (published in 1823);
+  John Nyren's _Young Cricketer's Tutor_ (1833); N. Wanostrocht's _Felix
+  on the Bat_ (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lillywhite's _Cricket
+  Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840_ (1862); Rev. J. Pycroft's
+  _Cricket Field_ (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box's _Theory and
+  Practice of Cricket_ (1868); F. Gale's _Echoes from Old Cricket
+  Fields_ (1871, new ed. 1896); _Marylebone Cricket Club Scores and
+  Biographies_ (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite's _Scores and
+  Biographies_; C. Box's _English Game of Cricket_ (1877); _History of a
+  Hundred Centuries_, by W. G. Grace (1895); _History of the Middlesex
+  County Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1900); _History of the Cambridge
+  University Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1902); _History of Yorkshire
+  County Cricket_, by R. S. Holmes (1904); _History of Kent County
+  Cricket_, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); _Annals of Lord's_, by A. D.
+  Taylor (1903); _Curiosities of Cricket_, by F. S. Ashley Cooper
+  (1901); "Cricket," by Lord Hawke, in _English Sport_, by A. E. T.
+  Watson (1903); _Cricket_, edited by H. G. Hutchinson (1903); _Cricket
+  Form at a Glance_, by Home Gordon (1903); _Cricket_ (Badminton
+  Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904); _Old English
+  Cricketers_, by Old Ebor (1900); _Cricket in Many Climes_, by P. F.
+  Warner (1903); _How We Recovered the Ashes_, by P. F. Warner (1904);
+  _England v. Australia_, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877 to 1904)
+  (1904); _The Jubilee Book of Cricket_, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji (1897).
+
+
+
+
+CRICKHOWELL, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales, 14 m. E. of Brecon,
+beautifully situated on the left bank of the Usk, which divides it from
+Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The nearest railway stations are Govilon
+(5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.) on the London & North-Western railway, but a
+mail and passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and Brecon
+passes through the town. It is also served by the Brecon & Newport
+Canal, which passes through Llangattock about a mile distant.
+Agriculture is almost the sole industry of the district. The town
+derives its name from a British fortress, Crûg Hywel, commonly called
+Table Mountain, about 2 m. N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of
+which only a tower remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of
+the country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a borough
+by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having possessed any
+municipal institutions. The church is in transitional Decorated style.
+
+
+
+
+CRICKLADE, a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary division of
+Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the Midland & South-Western
+Junction railway. Pop. (1901) 1517. It is pleasantly situated in the
+plain which borders the south bank of the Thames, not far from the
+Thames & Severn Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly
+Perpendicular, with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in its
+churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early English tower,
+Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch. There is some
+agricultural trade.
+
+Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek philosophers
+before the Roman conquest, and the name is given as "Greeklade" in
+Drayton's _Polyolbion_. It owed its importance in Saxon times to its
+position at the passage of the Thames. During the revolt of Æthelwald
+the Ætheling in 905 he and his army "harried all the Mercian's land
+until they came to Cricklade and there they went over the Thames"
+(Anglo-Sax. Chron. _sub anno_), and in 1016 Canute came with his army
+over the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade (ibid.). There was a mint at
+Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I., and
+William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of Stephen. In the
+reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to St John the Baptist was
+founded at Cricklade, and placed under the government of a warden or
+prior. Cricklade was a borough by prescription at least as early as the
+Domesday Survey, and returned two members to parliament from 1295 until
+disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough was never
+incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption from toll and
+passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry III. and confirmed by
+successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin de Insula obtained a grant of a
+Thursday market, and an annual three days' fair at the feast of St Peter
+ad Vincula. The market was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was
+much frequented by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now
+inconsiderable. During the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the
+dowry of the queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship
+was acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter Hungerford
+granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and chapter of Salisbury
+cathedral to aid towards the repair of their belfry.
+
+
+
+
+CRIEFF, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of Strathearn,
+17¾ m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5208.
+Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Earn,
+here crossed by a bridge, it practically consists of a main street, with
+narrower streets branching off at right angles. Its climate is the
+healthiest in mid-Scotland, the air being pure and dry. Its charter is
+said to date from 1218, and it was the seat of the courts of the earls
+of Strathearn till 1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A
+Runic sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old
+town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for which
+Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770. It was probably
+in connexion with this market that the "kind gallows of Crieff" acquired
+their notoriety, for they were mostly used for the execution of Highland
+cattle-stealers. The principal buildings are the town hall, tolbooth,
+public library, assembly rooms, mechanics' institute, Morison's academy
+(founded in 1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment
+built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered by
+the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist of
+manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and leather.
+Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for its gardens. They
+cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in terraces, and illustrate
+Italian, Dutch and French styles. They were planned by the 2nd earl of
+Perth (d. 1662), and take rank with the most magnificent in the United
+Kingdom. The keep of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the
+original building was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by
+Cromwell. The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction
+of the Jacobite rebellion.
+
+
+
+
+CRIME (Lat. _crimen_, accusation), the general term for offences against
+the Criminal Law (q.v.). Crime has been defined as "a failure or refusal
+to live up to the standard of conduct deemed binding by the rest of the
+community." Sir James Stephen describes it as "some act or omission in
+respect of which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is
+in default whether by acting or omitting to act." Such action or neglect
+of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It is a wrong or tort,
+to be prevented and corrected by the strong arm of the law.
+
+Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under different
+circumstances of place and custom, that which at one time is denounced
+as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious act. It was once an
+imperative duty for the family to avenge the death of a kinsman, and the
+blood feud had a sanction that made killing no murder. Again, among
+primitive tribes to make away with parents at an advanced age or
+suffering from an incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was
+sometimes encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval;
+religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy, heresy,
+sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter to accepted
+dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when people gathered into
+communities and the rights of property and of personal security were
+understood and established. The law of the strongest might still
+interfere with individual ownership; the weakest went to the wall;
+authority, whether exercised by one master or by the combined government
+of the many, was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As
+civilization spread and the bulk of the population settled into
+orderliness, society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection,
+would not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all
+law-breakers decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy. Then
+began that constant warfare between criminals and the forces of law and
+order which has been continuously waged through the centuries with
+varying degrees of bitterness.
+
+The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty. Extreme
+penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent, and the
+principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law. The harshness of
+ancient codes makes a more humane age shudder. It was the custom to hang
+or decapitate, or otherwise take life in some more or less barbarous
+fashion, on the smallest excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous
+torture. It was performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to
+death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dismemberment
+and flaying or boiling alive. These were the aggravations of the
+original idea of riddance, of checking crime by the absolute removal of
+the offender. Only slowly and gradually milder methods came into force.
+Revenge and retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a
+larger mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity to
+mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period from the sphere
+of his baneful activity was something; to subject him to more or less
+irksome processes, to solitary confinement upon short diet, deprived of
+all the solaces of life, with severe labour, were sharp lessons limited
+in effect to those actually subjected to them, but too remote to deter
+the outside crowd of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the
+administrator is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to
+reform the criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed
+characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved in this
+direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more and more
+steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in principle that to
+eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off recruits from the permanent
+army of crime the work must be undertaken when the subject is of an age
+susceptible of reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more
+enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becoming more and
+more largely accepted in practice among civilized nations.
+
+It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally present
+in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favourable to its
+growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their earliest years. They
+exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment, mendacity; they are often
+intensely selfish, are strongly acquisitive, greedy of gain, ready to
+steal and secrete things at the first opportunity. Happily the fatal
+consequences that would otherwise be inevitable are checked by the
+gradual growth of inhibitory processes, such as prudence, reflection, a
+sense of moral duty, and in many cases the absence of temptation. From
+this Dr Nicholson deduces that "in proportion as this development is
+prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or by
+lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of the
+individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual crime." In
+the lowest strata of society this risk is largely increased from the
+conditions of life. The growth of criminals is greatly stimulated where
+people are badly fed, morally and physically unhealthy, infected with
+any forms of disease and vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is
+too often the evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of
+criminals are constantly impelled to follow in their parents' footsteps
+by the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness.
+The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds congenial
+soil in which to take root and flourish.
+
+Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines and
+has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result of marked
+propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and lust. Malicious
+crimes may be amplified into offences against the person originating in
+hatred, resentment, violent temper, and rising from mere assaults into
+manslaughter and murder. Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the
+whole range of thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all
+sorts; obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies;
+house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust embrace
+the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of ungovernable
+passion and criminal depravity. The proportions in which these three
+categories are manifested have been worked out in England and Wales to
+give the following figures. The percentage in any 100,000 of the
+population is:--
+
+  Crimes of malice                 15%
+  Crimes of greed                  75%
+  Crimes of lust                   10%
+
+The members of these categories do not form distinct classes; their
+crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime in many is
+progressive and passes through all the stages from minor offences to the
+worst crimes. Murder--the culminating point of malice--is constantly
+preceded by petty larceny; theft by forcible entry; and robbery is
+associated with violence and armed resistance to capture. Criminality
+rising into its highest development shows itself under many forms. It is
+instinctive, passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the
+outcome of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense. The
+causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive is idleness,
+leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily acquired without the
+labour of continuous effort. To deprive the more industrious or more
+happily placed of their hard-won earnings or possessions, inspires the
+bulk of modern serious crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar
+feature in modern crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out.
+The greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies are
+planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole is worked by
+wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals.
+
+Other features of modern crime are especially interesting. It is
+extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years commit
+murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met with as
+professional thieves. Again, the comparative proportions of crime in the
+two sexes may be considered. Everywhere women are less criminal than
+men. Naturally they have fewer facilities for committing crimes of
+violence, although they have offences peculiar to their sex, such as
+infanticide, and are more frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70%
+against 30%. Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm
+fix the percentage of female criminals at 3% in Japan, the East
+generally, South America and some parts of North America. In some states
+of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20%; in Europe generally it
+varies between 10% and 21%. In France the proportion of accused women is
+fifteen to eighty-five men. In Great Britain it is now one in four, but
+has been less. The total sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and
+imprisonment was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up
+by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is that
+one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already been convicted
+from eleven to twenty times. It has been well said from the above
+proportions that women are less criminal according to the figures,
+because when a woman wants a crime committed she can generally find a
+man to do it for her.
+
+It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react upon the
+criminality of the country; whether, in other words, severity of
+treatment _deters_, while milder methods encourage the wrongdoers to
+despise the penalties imposed by the law. Evidence for and against the
+verdict may be drawn from the whole civilized world. In England, as
+judged by the increase or decrease of the prison population, it might be
+supposed that the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing
+crime. Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers
+because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable increase in
+the number of crimes and proportionately of those imprisoned. The
+figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in criminality for that year
+as compared with the years immediately preceding. The proportion of
+indictable offences had increased in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494
+in 1899, or in the proportion of 171.01 per 100,000 of the population as
+against 158.97, a very marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless
+the figures for 1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on
+eight occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were
+available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the
+quinquennial period 1860-1864 the annual average was 280 per 100,000 as
+compared with 171.01 for 1906 and 175 for the quinquennial period
+1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and while offences against
+property have increased, those against the person have constantly
+fallen. Quite half the whole number of crimes were committed by old
+offenders (see RECIDIVISM).
+
+Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other countries,
+but some authentic figures may be quoted for France, where the number of
+thefts increased while offences against the person diminished. In
+Belgium there has been a satisfactory decrease in recent years. In
+Prussia the prison population has on the whole increased, but there has
+been a slight diminution in more serious crime. Some very noticeable
+figures are forthcoming from the United States, and comparison is
+possible of the relative amount of crime in the two countries, America
+and England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is much
+to be regretted. On the general question serious crime in the ten years
+between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while petty crime was very
+considerably less during the period. Charges for homicide have been much
+more numerous. There were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9.1 to 100,000 of
+the population; but in 1890 these offences rose to 7351, or a ratio of
+11.7. Comparing America with England, it has been calculated in round
+numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general population was
+in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England 1 to every 1764
+persons. As regards the more serious crimes the number in English
+convict prisons was as 1 to 10,000, and in the American state prisons
+(the corresponding institutions) the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the
+lesser prisons, i.e. the English local prisons and the American city or
+county gaols, the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1 to
+2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that much of the crime
+in America is attributable to the preponderance of foreign immigrants,
+but the ratio of native born prisoners is that of 1237 to the million,
+of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the million.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. MacDonald, _Criminology_ (New York, 1893); A. Drähms,
+  _The Criminal_ (New York, 1900); E. Ferri, _La Sociologie criminelle_,
+  trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905); all these contain extensive
+  bibliographies. See also under CRIMINOLOGY.     (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMEA (ancient _Tauris_ or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by
+the Tatar name _Krym_ or _Crim_), a peninsula on the north side of the
+Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the
+mainland of which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m.
+across). It is rudely rhomboid in shape, the angles being directed
+towards the cardinal points, and measures 200 m. between 44° 23' and 46°
+10' N., and 110 m. between 32° 30' and 36° 40' E. Its area is 9700 sq.
+m.
+
+Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east, where
+is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated from the Sea of
+Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are broken by several bays
+and harbours--on the west side of the Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of
+Karkinit; on the south-west by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores
+of which the allies landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria,
+Sevastopol and Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the
+Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or Feodosiya
+(Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south side of the same.
+The south-east coast is flanked at a distance of 5 to 8 m. from the sea
+by a parallel range of mountains, the Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow
+mountains, and these are backed, inland, by secondary parallel ranges;
+but 75% of the remaining area consists of high arid prairie lands, a
+southward continuation of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently
+north-westwards from the foot of the Yaila-dagh. The main range of these
+mountains shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of
+the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at the
+south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc.
+_Parthenium_), supposed to have been crowned by the temple of Artemis in
+which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On the higher parts of this
+range are numerous flat mountain pastures (Turk, _yailas_), which,
+except for their scantier vegetation, are analogous to the _almen_ of
+the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by various passes (_bogaz_), of which
+only six are available as carriage roads. The most conspicuous summits
+in this range are the Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh
+(5060 ft.), Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The
+second parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft.,
+likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle slope
+towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands of small
+caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and several rivers
+pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley, 10 to 12 m. wide,
+separates this range from the main range, while another valley 2 to 3 m.
+across separates it from the third parallel range, which reaches
+altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft. Evidences of a fourth and still lower
+ridge can be traced towards the south-west.
+
+A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable, leap down
+the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring, e.g. the Chernaya,
+Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea, and the Salghir, with its
+affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash lagoon.
+
+In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differences
+between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral, with the slopes
+of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former, although grasses and Liliaceae
+grow on them in great variety and luxuriance in the early spring, become
+completely parched up by July and August, while the air is then filled
+with clouds of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms,
+hailstorms and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this region
+produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports numbers of cattle,
+sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are, however, impregnated with
+salt, or studded with saline lakes; there nothing grows except the usual
+species of _Artemisia_ and _Salsola_. As a rule water can only be
+obtained from wells sunk 200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now
+being bored in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered
+numerous _kurgans_ or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians. The
+picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-dagh is of
+an altogether different character. Here the narrow strip of coast and
+the slopes of the mountains are smothered with greenery. This Russian
+Riviera stretches all along the south-east coast from Cape Sarych
+(extreme S.) to Feodosiya (Theodosia), and is studded with summer
+sea-bathing resorts--Alupka, Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia.
+Numerous Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian
+imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of ancient
+Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling to the
+acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel and other nuts,
+the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs, olives and
+pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco plantations, and
+gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while the higher slopes of the
+mountains are thickly clothed with forests of oak, beech, elm, pines,
+firs and other Coniferae. Here have become acclimatized, and grow in the
+open air, such plants as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias,
+myrtles, camellias, mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover
+over 19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3½ million gallons annually)
+enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in abundance.
+In some winters the tops of the mountains are covered with snow, but
+snow seldom falls to the south of them, and ice, too, is rarely seen in
+the same districts. The heat of summer is moderated by breezes off the
+sea, and the nights are cool and serene; the winters are mild and
+healthy. Fever and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts for a few
+weeks in autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April and May, but
+seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between the different
+parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following data: annual mean,
+at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop, 48° Fahr.; at Simferopol,
+just within the mountains, 50°; at Yalta, on the south-east coast,
+56.5°; the respective January means being 20°, 31° and 39.5°, and the
+July means 74°, 70° and 75.5°. The rainfall is small all over the
+peninsula, the annual average on the steppes being 13.8 in., at
+Simferopol 17.5, and at Yalta 18 in. It varies greatly, however, from
+year to year; thus at Simferopol it ranges between the extremes of 7.5
+and 26.4 in.
+
+Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned, are salt,
+porphyry and limestone, and ironstone has recently been brought to light
+at Kerch. Fish abound all round the coast, such as red and grey mullet,
+herring, mackerel, turbot, soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock,
+pilchard, a species of pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon.
+Manufacturing industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills,
+ironworks, jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The
+Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially in
+the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming from Kharkov,
+crosses the peninsula from north to south, terminating at Sevastopol and
+sending off branch lines to Theodosia and Kerch.
+
+The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are racially
+modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic elements. The
+remainder of the population is made up of Russians, Germans, Karaite
+Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians. The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom
+only 150,000 lived in the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of
+note, in addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and
+Bakhchisarai, the old Tatar capital.
+
+_History._--The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any authentic
+traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled by the Scythians
+during the 7th century B.C. A remnant, who took refuge in the mountains,
+became known subsequently as the Tauri. In that same century Greek
+colonists began to settle on the coasts, e.g. Dorians from Heraclea at
+Chersonesus, and Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum
+(also called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 B.C.) the archon or
+ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus, a state
+which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying that city with
+wheat and other commodities. The last of these kings, Paerisades V.,
+being hard pressed by the Scythians, put himself under the protection of
+Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, in 114 B.C. After the death of this
+latter sovereign his son Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered
+to the Romans in their war against his father, was (63 B.C.) invested by
+Pompey with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 B.C. it was once more
+restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a tributary
+state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries the Crimea was overrun or
+occupied successively by the Goths (A.D. 250), the Huns (376), the
+Khazars (8th century), the Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050),
+and the Mongols (1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or
+seized the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on the
+Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria, Cembalo
+(Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia), flourishing trading
+towns, which existed down to the conquest of the peninsula by the
+Ottoman Turks in 1475. Meanwhile the Tatars had got a firm footing in
+the northern and central parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th
+century, and after the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they
+founded an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan, who
+is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned first at Solkhat
+(Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th century at
+Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary princes of the
+Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been defeated by Suvarov they
+became dependent upon Russia, and finally in 1783 the whole of the
+Crimea was annexed to the Russian empire. Since that date the only
+important phase of its history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56,
+which is treated of under a separate article. At various times, e.g.
+after the acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and
+in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in large
+numbers to the Ottoman empire.
+
+  See _Antiquités du Bosphore cimmérien_ (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1854);
+  C. Bossoll, _The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea_ (52 large drawings,
+  London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, _Notices hist. et topogr. concernant les
+  colonies italiennes en Gazarie_ (St Petersburg, 1866); J. B. Telfer,
+  _The Crimea and Transcaucasia_ (2 vols., London, 2nd ed., 1877); F.
+  Remy, _Die Krim in ethnographischer, landschaftlicher und hygienischer
+  Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-Purgstall,
+  _Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft_ (Vienna,
+  1856); M. G. Canale, _Della Crimea e dei suoi dominatori dalle sue
+  origini fino al trattato di Parigi_ (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-1856); and
+  Sir Evelyn Wood, _The Crimea in 1854 and 1894_ (London, 1895). (See
+  also BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS.)     (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMEAN WAR. The war of 1853-56, usually known by this name, arose from
+causes the discussion of which will be found under the heading TURKEY:
+History. When Turkey, after a period of irregular fighting, declared war
+on Russia in October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently
+assisted by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this
+intervention was represented merely by the presence of an allied
+squadron in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great
+Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope
+(30th November) soon impelled these powers to more active measures. On
+the 27th of January 1854 they declared war on the tsar, and prepared to
+carry their armaments to the Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war,
+the Turks had hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The
+Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed the Pruth with
+two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun Moldavia and Wallachia
+without difficulty. Omar Pasha, however, disposing of superior forces,
+was able to check any further advance. During October, November and
+December the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at
+Oltenitza (Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later
+Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati) before
+reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained was for the time
+being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months later, the Russians, now
+under command of the veteran Prince Paskievich, took the offensive in
+great force. Crossing the Danube near its mouth at Galatz and Braila,
+they advanced through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of
+Silistria, which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect
+all the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported by
+the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented a close
+investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive encounter, and the
+stormers stood ready in the trenches before Silistria, when the siege
+was suddenly raised. The decision had passed into other hands. The tsar
+had learned that the Austrian army of observation in Transylvania,
+50,000 strong under Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the
+wishes of the "Four Powers." The Russian offensive was at an end, the
+army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last man
+recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once occupied by Hess.
+
+[Illustration: Seat of Crimean War]
+
+_The Invasion of the Crimea._--The primary object of the war had thus
+easily been obtained. But Great Britain and France were by no means
+content with a triumph that left untouched the vast resources of an
+enemy who was certain to employ them at the next opportunity. The two
+nations felt that Sevastopol, the home of the Black Sea fleet, the port
+whence Admiral Nachimov had sailed for Sinope, must be crippled for some
+years at least, and as early as June 29th Lord Raglan and Marshal Saint
+Arnaud, the allied commanders of England and France, had received
+instructions to "concert measures for the siege of Sevastopol." Dynastic
+considerations reinforced the arguments of policy and popular opinion in
+the case of France; in Great Britain soldier and civilian alike saw the
+menace of a Russian Mediterranean fleet in the unfinished forts and busy
+dockyards. The popular strategy for once coincided with the views of the
+responsible leaders. Yet there is no sign that either the commanders on
+the spot or their governments realized the magnitude of the undertaking.
+Few but the most urgently necessary preparations were made, and cholera,
+breaking out virulently amongst the French at this time, reduced the
+army at Varna, and even the fleet at sea, to impotence. The troops were
+so weakened that, even in September, the five-mile march from camp to
+transport exhausted most of the men. Heavy weather still further delayed
+the start, and it was not until the 7th of September that the expedition
+began to cross the Black Sea. One hundred and fifty war-vessels and
+transports conveyed the army, which, guarded on all sides by the
+fighting fleet, crossed without incident and drew up on the Crimean
+coast on September 13th. Tactical considerations prevailed in the choice
+of place. The landlocked harbours south of Sevastopol were for the time
+being neglected, and a spot known as Old Fort preferred, because the
+long beach, the heavy metal of the ships' broadsides, and a line of
+lagoons covering the front offered singularly favourable conditions for
+the delicate operation of disembarkation. Still, on this side of
+Sevastopol there was no good harbour, and it is quite open to question
+whether in this case the strategic necessities of the situation were not
+neglected in favour of purely tactical and temporary advantages. As a
+matter of fact no opposition was offered to the landing, but the weather
+prevented the disembarkation being completed until the 18th. St Arnaud
+and Raglan had at this time under their orders 51,000 British, French
+and Turkish infantry, 1000 British cavalry, and 128 guns, and on the
+19th this force (less some detachments) began the southward march in
+order of battle, the British (who alone had their cavalry present) on
+the exposed left flank, the French next the sea, the fleet moving in the
+same direction parallel to the troops.
+
+_The Alma._--Old Fort was beyond the reach of Menshikov, the Russian
+commander, but, as the fortress communicated with the interior of Russia
+via Kerch and Simferopol, it was to be expected that he would either
+accept battle on the Sevastopol road, or cover Simferopol by a flank
+attack on Lord Raglan. Both these contingencies were provided for by the
+order of march, and in due course it was ascertained that the Russians
+adopted the former alternative, and barred the Sevastopol road on the
+heights of the river Alma. Menaced by the guns of the fleet, Menshikov
+had wheeled back his left, and at the same time he strengthened his
+right in order to cover the Simferopol road. From this it followed
+naturally that the brunt of the attack fell upon the British divisions,
+whilst the French, nearer the sea, struck to some extent _dans le vide_.
+The two commanders, after a reconnaissance, decided upon their plan. The
+French divisions in echelon from the right were to cross the river and
+force Menshikov inwards, whilst the British were to move straight to
+their front against the strongest part of the Russian line.
+Substantially this plan was carried out on the 20th of September. Owing
+to want of men (he had but 36,400 against over 50,000) Menshikov was
+unable to hold his left wing very strongly, and the French were scarcely
+checked save by physical obstacles; but opposite the British force the
+ground sloped glacis-wise up to the Russian line, and nothing but their
+iron discipline, the best heritage of the Peninsular War, brought them
+victorious to the crest of Kurghane hill. The Russians had no option but
+to retreat, which they did without molestation. The allies lost about
+3000 men, mostly British (though Prince Napoleon's men also suffered
+heavily); the Russians reported 5709 casualties.
+
+_The March on Sevastopol._--On the 23rd of September the advance was
+resumed, and by the 25th Sevastopol was in full view of the allied
+outposts. It was now that the necessary consequences of the choice of
+Old Fort as the landing-place presented themselves as a problem for
+instant solution. Whatever chance there had been of assaulting the north
+side of Sevastopol was now gone. Menshikov had sacrificed some ships in
+order to seal up the harbour mouth, and naval co-operation in attack was
+now impossible, while the other Russian ships could in safety aid the
+defenders with their heavy guns. A siege, based on the beach of Old Fort
+or the open roads of Kacha, was out of the question, as was
+re-embarkation for a fresh landing. There remained only a flank march by
+Mackenzie's farm and the river Chernaya. Once established on the south
+side, the allies could use the excellent harbours of Kamiesh and
+Balaklava; this could almost certainly be effected without fighting,
+while in besieging Sevastopol itself and not merely the north side, the
+allies would be striking at the heart. But a flank march is almost
+always in itself a hazardous undertaking, and in this case the invaders
+were required further to abandon their line of retreat on Old Fort. In
+point of fact, the army, covered by a division opposite the Russian
+works, successfully accomplished the task. At the same moment Menshikov,
+after providing for the defence of Sevastopol, had marched out with a
+field army towards Bakhchiserai, and on the 25th of September each army,
+without knowing it, actually crossed the other's front. On arrival at
+Balaklava the allies regained contact with the fleet, and the detachment
+left on the north side, its mission being at an end, followed the same
+route and rejoined the main body. The French now took possession of
+Kamiesh, the British of Balaklava.
+
+[Illustration: SEVASTOPOL 1854-1856]
+
+_Beginning of the Siege._--Thus secured, the allies closed upon the
+south side of the fortress. A siege corps was formed, and the British
+army and General Bosquet's French corps covered its operations against
+interruption from the Russian field army. The harbour of Sevastopol,
+formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, was protected against attack by
+sea not only by the Russian war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by
+heavy granite forts on the south side and by the works which had defied
+the allies on the north. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb
+the trace of the works had been laid down for years. The Malakoff, a
+great tower of stone, covered the suburb, flanked on either side by the
+Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works
+marked by the Flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from the
+Redan by the inner harbour. Lieut.-Col. Todleben, the Russian chief
+engineer, had very early begun work on these sites, and daily
+re-creating, rearming and improving the fortifications, finally
+connected them by a continuous enceinte. Yet Sevastopol was not, early
+in October 1854, the towering fortress it afterwards became, and
+Todleben himself maintained that, had the allies immediately assaulted,
+they would have succeeded in taking the place. There were, however, many
+reasons against so decided a course, and it was not until the 17th of
+October that the first attack took place. All that day a tremendous
+artillery duel raged. The French siege corps lost heavily and its guns
+were overpowered. The fleet engaged the harbour batteries close inshore,
+and suffered a loss of 500 men, besides severe damage to the ships. On
+the other hand the British siege batteries silenced the Malakoff and its
+annexes, and, if failure had not occurred at the other points of attack,
+an assault might have succeeded. As it was, Todleben, by daybreak, had
+repaired and improved the damaged works. Meanwhile General Canrobert had
+succeeded St Arnaud (who died on the 29th of September) in the joint
+leadership of the allies. It was not long before Menshikov and the now
+augmented field army from Bakhchiserai appeared on the Chernaya and
+moved towards the Balaklava lines and the British base.
+
+_Balaklava._--A long line of works on the upland secured the siege corps
+from interference, and the Balaklava lines themselves were strong, but
+the low Vorontsov ridge between the two was weakly held, and here the
+Russian commander hoped to sever the line of communications. On the 25th
+of October Liprandi's corps carried its slight redoubts at the first
+rush. But the British cavalry stationed at the foot of the upland was
+situated on their flank, and as the Russian cavalry moved towards
+Kadikoï, the "Heavy Brigade" under General Scarlett charged home with
+such effect that Menshikov's troopers only rallied behind their field
+batteries near Traktir bridge. At the same time some of the Russian
+squadrons, coming upon the British 93rd regiment outside the Balaklava
+lines, were completely broken by the steady volleys of the "thin red
+line." The "Light Brigade" of British cavalry, farther north, had
+hitherto remained inactive, even when the Russians, broken by the
+"Heavies," fled across their front. The cavalry commander, Lord Lucan,
+now received orders to prevent the withdrawal of the guns taken by
+Liprandi. The aide-de-camp who carried the order was killed by the first
+shell, and the whole question of responsibility for what followed is
+wrapped in obscurity. Lord Cardigan led the Light Brigade straight at
+the Russian field batteries, behind which the enemy's squadrons had
+re-formed. From the guns in front, on the Fedukhin heights, and on the
+captured ridge to their right, the advancing squadrons at once met a
+deadly converging fire, but the gallant troopers nevertheless reached
+the guns and cut down the artillerymen. Small parties even charged the
+cavalry behind, and at least two unbroken squadrons struck out right and
+left with success, but the combat could only end in one way. The 4th
+Chasseurs d'Afrique relieved the British left by a dashing charge. The
+"Heavies" made as if to advance, but came under such a storm of fire
+that they were withdrawn. By twos and threes the gallant survivors of
+the "Light Brigade" made their way back. Two-thirds of its numbers were
+left on the field, and the day closed with the Russians still in
+possession of the Vorontsov ridge.
+
+_Inkerman._--If the heights lost in this action were not absolutely
+essential to the safety of the allies, the point selected for the next
+attempt at relief was of vital importance. The junction of the covering
+army and the siege corps near Inkerman was the scene of a slight action
+on the day following Balaklava, and the battle of Inkerman followed on
+the 5th of November. By that time the French had made good the losses of
+the 17th of October, their approaches were closing upon Flagstaff
+bastion, and the British batteries daily maintained their superiority
+over the Malakoff. On the 5th there was to have been a meeting of
+generals to fix the details of an assault, but at dawn the Russian army,
+now heavily reinforced from Odessa, was attacking with the utmost fury
+the British divisions guarding the angle between Bosquet and the siege
+corps. The battle of Inkerman defies description; every regiment, every
+group of men bore its own separate part in the confused and doubtful
+struggle, save when leaders on either side obtained a momentary control
+over its course by means of reserves which, carrying all before them
+with their original impetus, soon served but to swell the mêlée. It was
+a "soldiers' battle" pure and simple. After many hours of the most
+desperate fighting the arrival of Bosquet (hitherto contained by a force
+on the Balaklava ground) confirmed a success won by supreme tenacity
+against overwhelming odds, and Menshikov sullenly drew off his men,
+leaving over 12,000 on the field. The allies had lost about 3300 men, of
+whom more than two-thirds belonged to the small British force on which
+the strain of the battle fell heaviest. Their losses included several
+generals who could ill be spared, but they had held their ground, which
+was all that was required of them, with almost unrivalled tenacity. Lord
+Raglan was promoted to be field marshal after the battle.
+
+_The Winter of 1854-1855._--It was now obvious that the army must
+winter in the Crimea, and preparations in view of this were begun
+betimes. But on the night of November 14th a violent storm arose which
+wrecked nearly thirty vessels with their precious cargoes of treasure,
+medical comforts, forage, clothing and other necessaries. After so grave
+a calamity it was to be expected that the troops would be called upon to
+undergo great hardships. But the direct cause of sufferings that have
+become a byword for the utmost depths of misery was the loss of twenty
+days' forage in the great storm. Of food and clothing enough was in
+store to tide over temporary difficulties, but the only paved road from
+Balaklava to the British camps was now in Russian hands, and the few
+starving transport animals were utterly inadequate for the work of
+drawing wagons over the miry plain; things went from bad to worse with
+Raglan's troops, until from the outposts before the Redan to the
+hospitals at Scutari a state of the utmost misery prevailed, relieved
+only by the example of devotion and self-sacrifice set by officers and
+men. The British hospital returns showed eight thousand sick at the end
+of November. Even the French, whose base of Kamiesh had escaped the
+storm, were not unhurt by the severity of the winter, but Napoleon III.
+sent freely all the men his general asked, while the Russians in
+Sevastopol, who had made long painful marches from the interior, were
+the survivors of the fittest. Canrobert took over the lines before the
+Malakoff to relieve the British. He had at the end of January 1855
+78,000 men for duty; Raglan could barely muster 12,000. But, with the
+advent of spring, paved roads and a railway were promptly taken in hand,
+and during the remainder of the war the British troops were so well
+cared for that their death-rate was lower than at home, while the
+hospitals in rear, thanks to the energy and devotion of Florence
+Nightingale and her nurses, became models of good management.
+
+_Course of the Siege._--Meanwhile the siege works were making but slow
+progress, and the fortress grew day by day under the skilful direction
+of Todleben. Rifle-pits pushed out in front of the defenders' lines were
+connected so as to form a veritable envelope. Beyond the left wing a new
+line, the "White Works," sprang up in a single night, and the hill of
+the Mamelon was suddenly crowned with a lunette to cover the still
+defiant Malakoff. But the absence of bomb-proof cover exposed the huge
+working parties necessary for these defences to an almost incessant _feu
+d'enfer_, by which the Russians every week suffered the losses of a
+pitched battle. Meanwhile the field army was idle, Menshikov had been
+replaced by Prince Michael Gorchakov, Liprandi's corps had withdrawn
+from the Vorontsov ridge, and Omar Pasha, with a detachment of the
+troops he had led at Oltenitza and Cetatea, repulsed a Russian attack on
+Eupatoria (Feb. 17th). The besiegers steadily approached the White
+Works, Mamelon, Redan and Flagstaff bastion, and as spring arrived the
+logistic and material advantages of the allies returned. On Easter
+Sunday (April 8th, 1855) another terrific bombardment began, which
+lasted almost uninterruptedly for ten days. The White Works and the
+Mamelon were practically destroyed, and the Russians, drawn up in
+momentary expectation of assault, lost between six and seven thousand
+men.
+
+But the bombardment ceased, and assault did not follow. For, at the
+allied headquarters and at Paris, grave differences of opinion on the
+conduct of the war had developed. Napoleon III. wished active operations
+to be undertaken against the Simferopol field army, whereas the leaders
+on the spot, while admitting the theoretical soundness of the French
+emperor's views, considered that they were wholly beyond the means of
+the two armies. The discussions culminated in Canrobert's resignation of
+the chief command, though he would not leave the army, and took a
+subordinate post, which he filled with great distinction to the end of
+the war. His successor, General Pélissier, was a soldier trained in the
+hard school of Algerian warfare, and endowed, as was soon evident, with
+the most inflexible resolution of character. He did not hesitate to take
+up and maintain a position of decided opposition to his sovereign's
+views; and the capture of Kerch (24th May 1855), carried out by a joint
+expedition, was the first earnest of new vigour in the operations. This
+success served all the purposes of a complete investment of Sevastopol,
+the want of which had greatly troubled the allied generals. The line of
+communication and supply between Sevastopol and the interior was cut,
+vast stores intended for the fortress were destroyed, and the sea of
+Azov was cleared of shipping. On the 25th Canrobert established himself
+on the Fedukhin heights, his right continued along the Chernaya by
+General la Marmora's newly arrived Sardinians, 15,000 strong, while
+masses of Turks occupied the Vorontsov ridge and the old Balaklava
+battlefield.
+
+As June approached, Raglan and Pélissier, who, unlike most allied
+commanders, were in complete accord and sympathy, initiated very
+vigorous methods of attack. They decided that the works west of
+Flagstaff could be comparatively neglected, and the full weight of the
+bombardment once more fell upon the Mamelon and the Malakoff. Once more
+these works were reduced to ruins, but the rest of the defences still
+held out.
+
+_The Assault of the Redan._--On the 7th of June 1855 the French stormed
+the Mamelon and the White Works, the British captured and maintained
+some quarries close to the Redan, and next morning the whole of
+Todleben's envelope had become a siege-parallel. The losses were, as
+usual, heavy, 8500 to the Russians, 6883 to the allies. This was merely
+a preliminary to the great assault fixed for the 18th, the fortieth
+anniversary of Waterloo. But meanwhile Pélissier's temper and Raglan's
+health had been strained to breaking-point by continued dissensions with
+Paris and London. The telegraph, a new strategic factor, daily tormented
+the unfortunate commanders with the latest ideas of the Paris
+strategists, and on the fateful day the two armies rushed on to failure.
+The French attack on the Malakoff dwindled away into a meaningless
+fire-fight: the British, attacking the Redan in face of a cross-fire of
+one hundred heavy guns, at first succeeded in entering the work, but in
+the end sustained a bloody and disastrous repulse. Of the six generals
+who led the two attacks, four were killed and one wounded, and on the
+17th and 18th the losses to the Russians were 5400, to the allies 4000.
+But the defenders' resources were almost at an end, and the bombardment
+reopened at once with increased fury. On the 20th Todleben was wounded,
+and soon afterwards Nakhimov, the victor of Sinope, found a grave by the
+side of three other admirals who had fallen in the defence. Pélissier
+resolutely clung to his plans, in spite of the failure of the 18th,
+against ever-increasing opposition at home. Raglan, worn out by his
+troubles and heartbroken at the Redan failure, died on the 28th, mourned
+by none more deeply than by his stern colleague.
+
+_The Storming of the Malakoff._--During July the Russians lost on an
+average 250 men a day, and at last it was decided that Gorchakov and the
+field army must make another attack at the Chernaya--the first since
+Inkerman. On the 16th of August the corps of Generals Liprandi and Read
+furiously attacked the 37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights
+above Traktir Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest
+determination, but the result was never for one moment doubtful. At the
+end of the day the Russians drew off baffled, leaving 260 officers and
+8000 men on the field. The allies only lost 1700. With this defeat
+vanished the last chance of saving Sevastopol. On the same day (Aug.
+16th) the bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its
+dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the
+result that Pélissier planned the final assault. On the 8th of September
+1855 at noon, the whole of Bosquet's corps suddenly swarmed up to the
+Malakoff. The fighting was of the most desperate kind. Every casemate,
+every traverse, was taken and retaken time after time, but the French
+maintained the prize, and though the British attack on the Redan once
+more failed, the Russians crowded in that work became at once the
+helpless target of the siege guns. Even on the far left, opposite
+Flagstaff and Central bastions, there was severe hand-to-hand fighting,
+and throughout the day the bombardment mowed down the Russian masses
+along the whole line. The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege.
+All night the Russians were filing over the bridges to the north side,
+and on the 9th the victors took possession of the empty and burning
+prize. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy, to the allies
+over 10,000 men, to the Russians 13,000. No less than nineteen generals
+had fallen on that day. But the crisis was surmounted. With the capture
+of Sevastopol the war loses its absorbing interest. No serious
+operations were undertaken against Gorchakov, who with the field army
+and the remnant of the garrison held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm.
+But Kinburn was attacked by sea, and from the naval point of view the
+attack is interesting as being the first instance of the employment of
+ironclads. An armistice was agreed upon on the 26th of February and the
+definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 30th of March 1856.
+
+_Decisive Importance of the Victory._--The importance of the siege of
+Sevastopol, from the strategical point of view, lies beneath the
+surface. It may well be asked, why did the fall of a place, at first
+almost unfortified, bring the master of the Russian empire to his knees?
+At first sight Russia would seem to be almost invulnerable to a sea
+power, and no first success, however crushing, could have humbled
+Nicholas I. Indeed the capture of Sevastopol in October 1854 would have
+been far from decisive of the war, but once the tsar had decided to
+defend to the last this arsenal, the necessity for which he was in the
+best position to appreciate, the factor of unlimited resources operated
+in the allies' favour. The sea brought to the invaders whatever they
+needed, whilst the desert tracks of southern Russia were marked at every
+step with the corpses of men and horses who had fallen on the way to
+Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which, daily
+crushed by the fire of a thousand guns, had to be re-created every
+night, made huge and therefore unprotected working parties necessary,
+and the losses were correspondingly heavy. The double cause of loss
+completely exhausted even Russia's resources, and, when large bodies of
+militia appeared in line of battle at Traktir Bridge, it was obvious
+that the end was at hand. The novels of Tolstoy give a graphic picture
+of the war from the Russian point of view; the miseries of the desert
+march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the
+almost daily ordeal of manning the lines under shell-fire to meet an
+assault that might or might not come; and no student of the siege can
+leave it without feeling the profoundest respect for the courage,
+discipline and stubborn loyalty of the defenders.
+
+_Minor Operations._--A few words may be added on the minor operations of
+the war. The Asiatic frontier was the scene of severe fighting between
+the Turks and the Russians. Hindered at first by Shamyl and his
+Caucasian mountaineers, the Russians stood on the defensive during 1853,
+but next year they took the offensive, and, while their coast column won
+an action on the 16th of June at the river Churuk, another force from
+Erivan gained an important success on the Araxes and took Bayazid, and
+General Bebutov completely defeated a Turkish column from Kars at Kuruk
+Dere (July 31st, 1854). Next year Count Muraviev completely isolated the
+garrison of Kars, which made a magnificent defence, inspired by Fenwick
+Williams Pasha and other British officers. In one assault alone 7000
+Russians were killed and wounded, and it was not until the 26th of
+November 1855 that the fortress was forced to surrender. The naval
+operations in the Baltic furnish many interesting examples for the study
+of naval war. The allied fleet in 1854, after a first repulse, succeeded
+in landing a French force under Baraguay d'Hilliers before Bomarsund,
+and the place fell after an eight days' siege. In 1855 seventy allied
+warships appeared before Kronstadt, which defied them. Reinforced they
+attacked Sveåborg, but after two days' fighting had to draw off baffled.
+
+The numbers engaged in the Crimean War and the cost in men and money is
+stated in round numbers below. In May 1855 the Crimean theatre of war
+occupied 174,500 allies (of whom 32,000 were British) and 170,000
+Russians. The losses in battle were: allies 70,000 men, Russians
+128,700; and the total losses, from all causes and in all theatres of
+the war: allies 252,600 (including 45,000 English), Russians 256,000 men
+(Berndt, _Die Zahl im Kriege_, p. 35). In the siege of Sevastopol the
+Russians are stated by Berndt to have lost 102,670 men dead, wounded and
+missing. Mulhall (_Dict. of Statistics_, 1903 ed., pp. 586-587) gives
+much greater losses to each of the four powers principally engaged. The
+cost of the war in money is stated by Mulhall to have been £69,000,000
+to Great Britain, £93,000,000 to France, £142,000,000 to Russia.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Of the many works on the Crimean War those of the
+  greatest value are the following. English: the official work on the
+  _Siege of Sebastopol_; A. W. Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_
+  (London, 1863; "Student's edition" by Sir G. S. Clarke); Sir E. B.
+  Hamley, _The War in the Crimea_ (London, 1891); (Sir) W. H. Russell,
+  _The War in the Crimea_ (London, 1855-1856); Sir Evelyn Wood, _The
+  Crimea in 1854 and in 1894_ (London, 1895); Sir D. Lysons, _The
+  Crimean War from First to Last_ (London, 1895); Col. A. Lake, _The
+  Defence of Kars_ (London, 1857). French: Official, _Guerre de
+  l'Orient, Hist. de l'artillerie_ (Paris, 1859); (Marshal Niel), _Siège
+  de Sébastopol_ (official account of engineer operations, Paris, 1858),
+  and _Atlas historique et topographique de la guerre de Crimée_ (see
+  also the map of Russia by the French staff, sheets 56 and 57); Baron
+  C. de Bazancourt, _L'Expédition de Crimée_ (Paris, 1856); C. Rousset,
+  _Histoire de la guerre de Crimée_ (Paris, 1877). Russian: the work of
+  Todleben, _Die Vertheidigung von Sevastopol_ (St. Petersburg, 1864);
+  _Défense de Sébastopol_ (St Petersburg, 1863); Anitschkoff, _Feldzug
+  in der Krim_ (German trans., Berlin, 1857); Bogdanovitch, _Der
+  Orientkrieg_ (St Petersburg, 1876); Petroff, _Der Donaufeldzug
+  Russlands gegen Türkei_ (German trans., Berlin, 1891). Of German works
+  the most useful are: Kunz, _Die Schlachten und Treffen des
+  Krimkrieges_ (Berlin, 1889); _Der Feldzug in der Krim; Sammlung der
+  Berichte beider Parteien_ (Leipzig, 1855-1856).     (C. F. A.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMINAL LAW. By criminal, or penal, law is now understood the law as to
+the definition, trial and punishment of crimes, i.e. of acts or
+omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously public rights, or
+constitute a breach of duties due to the whole community. The sovereign
+is taken to be the person injured by the crime, as he represents the
+whole community, and prosecutions are in his name. Criminal law includes
+the rules as to the prevention, the investigation, prosecution and
+punishment of crime (q.v.). It lays down what constitutes a criminal
+offence, what proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal
+offence and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or
+justification for the act or omission can be legally admitted, what
+procedure should be followed in a criminal court, what degrees and kinds
+of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which come up
+for trial. Finally, it regulates the constitution of the tribunals
+established for the trial of offences according to the gravity of the
+infraction of law, and deals with the organization of the police and the
+proper management of prisons, and the maintenance of prison discipline.
+(See EVIDENCE; PRISON; POLICE.)
+
+Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and classified as
+offences and punished by fine or imprisonment, cannot be said to have a
+strictly criminal character, since they do not fall within the popular
+conception of crime. To this class belong such matters as stopping up a
+highway under claim of right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a
+chimney to emit black smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch fire
+from being unswept, or breach of building by-laws, or driving a motor
+car on a highway at a speed in excess of the legal limit. Such breaches
+of law are under the French law described as _contraventions_. In
+England most of them are described as petty misdemeanours or offences
+punishable on summary conviction, or less happily as "summary offences,"
+and some writers speak of them as _mala prohibita_ as distinguished from
+_mala in se_, i.e. as not involving any breach of ordinary morality
+other than a breach of positive regulations. Continental jurists at
+times speak of crimes _de droit commun_ (i.e. offences common to all
+systems of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a
+particular municipal law). To this class of crimes _de droit commun_
+belong most of the offences included in extradition treaties.
+
+Criminal and civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions are not only
+"wrongs" for which the person injured is entitled to recover
+compensation for his own personal injury or damage, but also "offences"
+for which the offender may be prosecuted and punished in the interest of
+the state. In non-English European systems care is taken to prevent
+civil remedies from being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual
+for the civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, the
+individual appearing as _partie civile_ and receiving an award of
+compensation by the judgment which determines the punishment to be
+inflicted for the offence against the state. Under English law it is now
+exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies to be pursued
+concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to award compensation to the
+injured party in criminal proceedings, and he is usually left to seek
+his remedy by action. Among the exceptions are the restitution of stolen
+goods on conviction of the thief if the prosecution has been at the
+instance or with the aid of the owner of the goods (Larceny Act 1861, §
+100), and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered injury
+to property by felony (Forfeiture Act 1870).
+
+
+  Development of modern criminal law.
+
+As Sir Henry Maine says (_Ancient Law_, ed. 1906, p. 381), "All
+civilized systems of law agree in drawing a distinction between offences
+against the state or community (crimes or _crimina_) and offences
+against the individual (wrongs, _torts_ or _delicta_)." But the process
+of historical development by which this distinction has been ultimately
+established has given great occasion for study of early laws and
+institutions by eminent men, whose researches have disclosed the
+extremely gradual evolution of the modern notion of criminal law
+enforced by the state from the primitive conceptions and customs of
+barbarous or semi-civilized communities. Of the oldest codes or digests
+of customs which are available to the student it has been said the more
+archaic a code the fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this
+penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of
+crimes, but of wrongs. The intervention of the community or tribe is in
+the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged person or his
+family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a blood feud and to
+accept compensation for the wrong collectively or individually
+sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation preserved in early laws
+the importance of the injured person was the measure of the compensation
+or vengeance which he was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the
+scales of punishment or compensation are fixed from this point of view.
+
+
+  Babylon.
+
+The laws of Khammurabi (2285-2242), the oldest extant code, contain
+definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments, and indicate
+the existence of tribunals to try the offences and to award the
+appropriate remedy. The punishments are very severe. It is not
+distinctly indicated whether the proceedings were at the instance of the
+state or the person wronged, but compensation and penalty could be
+awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the _lex
+talionis_ and scale of compensation for injuries tend to show that the
+procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf of the state (see
+further BABYLONIAN LAW).
+
+
+  Greece.
+
+Of the early criminal laws of Greece only fragments survive, e.g. those
+of Solon and Draco. In Athens in early times crime was dealt with in the
+Areopagus from the point of view of religion and by the archons from the
+point of view of compensation: and it was only when the state interests
+were directly affected that proceedings by way of [Greek: eisangelia] or
+impeachment were taken. In classical times crimes fell to be tried by
+panels of jurors or judges drawn from the assembly and described as
+[Greek: dikastêria].
+
+
+  Rome.
+
+The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of Rome are to
+be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII. The criminal law of imperial
+Rome is collected in books 47 and 48 of the Digest. The classification
+of crimes therein is capricious and anomalous. "In the early Roman law
+the idea of legislative power was so fully grasped and that of judicial
+power so little understood that the criminal jurisdiction arose in the
+form of a legislative enactment applicable to particular cases." Crimes
+were classified according to the mode of prosecution into:
+
+1. _Publica judicia_, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden by
+definite laws, which took the place of the standing commissions
+(_quaestiones perpetuae_) of the time of the republic. In the earlier
+stages of Roman law the state only interfered to punish offences which
+gravely affected it, and did so by _privilegia_, which correspond to
+impeachment or Bill of Pains and Penalties.
+
+
+2. _Extraordinaria crimina_, crimes for which no special procedure or
+punishment was provided: the punishment being, within limits, left to
+the discretion of the judge and the prosecution to the injured party.
+
+3. _Privata delicta_, offences for which a special form of action was
+open to the injured party, e.g. _actio furti_.
+
+The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced under the
+empire by a complete organization of the judiciary throughout the
+districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the emperor in his privy
+council (see Maine, _Ancient Law_, ed. 1906, p. 393). Public prosecution
+under the empire began by arrest of the accused, who was taken before an
+_eirenarcha_, who examined him (by torture in the case of a slave or
+parricide) and sent him on for trial before the _praeses_ of the diocese
+([Greek: dioikêsis]). Private prosecution followed, a procedure closely
+resembling that of civil actions, beginning with _citatio_ (summons),
+followed by _libellus_ or accusation, and appointment of a day for
+hearing. The right of either party to call witnesses was very
+imperfectly established.
+
+
+  Celtic law.
+
+The early laws of the Celtic races are preserved as to Wales in the laws
+of Hywel Dda, and as to Ireland in the Book of Aicill and other Brehon
+law tracts, which are professional collections of precedents and
+formulae made by the hereditary law caste (Brehons), whose business it
+was "to pass sentence from precedents and commentaries." (See BREHON
+LAWS.) The development of Celtic law was arrested by the Saxon and
+Anglo-Norman conquest: but the materials preserved indicate an origin
+common with that of Germanic law.
+
+The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be so
+called, were:--
+
+1. The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable, and no
+legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or enforce it.
+
+2. All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation was made by
+assessment of damages by a consensual tribunal whose power to make
+awards depended on submission of the parties and the ultimate sanction
+of public opinion or custom. A customary tariff for compensation existed
+for all offences from wilful murder downwards. No crime was unamendable.
+The Irish law recognized a body price or compensation (S. _bot_) and an
+honour price or _eric_ (S. _wer_), for which the family or tribe of the
+offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly ascertained
+equivalent to the Saxon _wite_, or fine to the chief.
+
+
+  Germanic law.
+
+The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the _Germania_
+of Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known as the Salic and
+Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum, the Dooms of Æthelberht and the
+collections of Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in Thorpe's
+_Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_), do not indicate any adequate
+or definite division between crimes and causes of civil action, but,
+like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and contain the tariffs
+of compensation for wrongs. The idea of the compensation was originally
+to put an end (_finis_) to blood feuds and private war or vengeance.
+
+These laws formed the foundation of the criminal law of Germany,
+including the Netherlands, of England and of Scandinavia. But in each
+country the development of criminal law has been affected by influences
+other than Germanic, mainly consisting in an infusion more or less great
+of ideas derived from Roman law. In England under Alfred some part of
+the Levitical law (Exod. xxi. 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567
+the criminal law as to incest in Scotland was taken bodily from
+Leviticus xviii.
+
+
+  Anglo-Saxon law.
+
+The stage which the development of criminal law had reached in England
+by the reign of Edward the Confessor is thus described by Pollock and
+Maitland (_Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 447): "On the eve of the Norman Conquest
+what we may call the criminal law of England (but it was also the law of
+torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which deserve attention:
+Its past history had in the main consisted of the varying relations
+between them. We have to speak of outlawry, of the blood feud
+(_faidus_), of the tariffs of _wer_ and _wite_ (_fredus_ or _friede_),
+and _bot_, of punishment in life and limb. As regards the malefactor the
+community may assume one of four attitudes: it may make war on him; it
+may have him exposed to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it
+may suffer him to make atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate
+punishment, death, mutilation or the like." The _wite_ or sum paid to
+the king or lord is now thought to have been originally not a penalty
+but a fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and determining a
+controversy. But at an early stage fines for breach of peace were
+imposed. An evil result from the public point of view followed from the
+system of atoning for crime by pecuniary mulct. "Criminal jurisdiction
+became a source of revenue." So early as Canute's time certain crimes
+were pleas of the crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the
+attendant forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of
+manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (e.g. the
+criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the _soke_ (_soc_) of
+Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, e.g. Nottingham, to
+forfeitures). Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punishment, and
+became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to justice (Crown
+Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-110). Certain crimes, such as murder, rape,
+arson and burglary, became unamendable or bootless, i.e. placed the
+offender's life, limb, lands and goods at the king's mercy. These crimes
+came to be generally described by the name felony (q.v.). Other crimes
+became punishable by fines which took the place of _wites_. These were
+styled trespasses and correspond to what is now called misdemeanour
+(q.v.).
+
+
+  Anglo-Norman period.
+
+Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or nuisance, were dealt with in
+seigniorial and borough courts by presentment of the jurors of courts
+baron and courts leet, and punished by fine or in some cases by pillory,
+tumbril or stocks. Grave acts were dealt with by the sheriff as breaches
+of the peace. He sat with the freeholders in the county court, which sat
+twice a year, or in the hundred court, which sat every four weeks. So
+far as this involved dealing with pleas of the crown the sheriff's
+jurisdiction was abolished and was ultimately replaced by that of the
+justices or conservators of the peace. The sheriff then ceased to be a
+judge in criminal cases, but remained and still is in law responsible
+for the peace of his county, and is the officer for the execution of the
+law. The royal control over crime was effectually established by the
+itinerant justices sent regularly throughout the realm, who not only
+dealt with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown but
+also with the graver crimes (treason and felony), and ultimately were
+commissioned to deal with the less grave offences now classed as
+indictable misdemeanours. The change resulted from the strengthening of
+royal authority throughout England, which enabled the crown gradually to
+enlarge the pleas of the crown and to weaken and finally to supersede
+the criminal jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates
+and lords in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises. "In the
+early English laws and constitution there existed a national sovereignty
+and original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative power
+and crime were very slowly developed." During the 12th century the
+criminal law was affected by the influence of the church, which
+introduced into it elements from the Canon and Mosaic laws, and also by
+the memory of the Roman empire and the renewed study of the Roman law,
+which enabled lawyers to draw a clearer distinction than had before been
+recognized between the criminal (_dolus_) and civil (_culpa_) aspect of
+wrongful acts. The Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an
+admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source is probably
+due the more careful analysis of the mental elements necessary to create
+criminal responsibility, summed up in the somewhat misleading expression
+_nemo reus est nisi mens sit rea_.
+
+In the 14th century justices of the peace and quarter sessions were
+established to deal with offences not sufficiently important for the
+king's judges, and from that time the course of criminal justice in
+England has run substantially on the same lines, with the single and
+temporary interruption caused by the court of star chamber.
+
+
+  Classification of crimes.
+
+The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat differently,
+but in the main on the same general principles, dividing them into:--
+
+1. Offences against the external and internal order and security of the
+state.
+
+2. Offences against the administration of police and against public
+authority.
+
+3. Acts injurious to the public in general.
+
+4. Offences against the person (life, health, liberty and reputation),
+and conjugal and parental rights and duties.
+
+5. Offences relating to property and contracts (including theft, fraud,
+forgery and malicious damage).
+
+The terminology by which crimes are described by reference to their
+comparative gravity varies considerably. In many continental codes
+distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger. _Verbrechen_; Norse
+_vorbrydelser_; Span. _crimenes_; Ital. _reato_), delicts (Ger.
+_Vergehen_; Ital. _delitti_; Span, _delitos_), and contraventions (Ital.
+_contravenzioni_; Span, _faltas_).
+
+The classification adopted by English law is peculiar to itself,
+"treason," "felony" and "misdemeanour," with a tentative fourth class
+described as "summary offences." The particular distinctions between
+these three classes are dealt with under the titles TREASON; FELONY;
+MISDEMEANOUR, &c. Here it is enough to say that the distinction is a
+result of history and is marked for abolition and reclassification.
+Treason and most felonies and some misdemeanours would under foreign
+codes fall under the head of crime. Misdemeanour, roughly but not
+exactly, corresponds to the French _délit_, and summary offence to
+_contravention_.
+
+
+  Elements of criminal responsibility.
+
+In all systems of criminal law it is found necessary to determine the
+criterion of criminal responsibility, the mental elements of crime, the
+degrees of criminality and the point at which the line is to be drawn
+between intention and commission.
+
+The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by implication
+a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems of criminal law,
+competent age, sanity and some degree of freedom from coercion, are
+assumed to be essential to criminality; and it is also generally
+recognized that an act does not fall within the sanction of the criminal
+law if done by pure accident or in an honest and reasonable belief in
+circumstances which if true would make it innocent; e.g. when a married
+person marries again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief
+that the former spouse is dead. Honest and reasonable mistake of fact
+stands on the same footing as absence of the reasoning faculty, as in
+infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics.
+
+Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally, particular
+mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved in the definition
+of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory offences adequately
+and carefully defined, the mental elements necessary to constitute the
+crime may be limited by the definition so as to make the prohibition of
+the law against a particular act absolute for all persons who are not
+infants or lunatics. As a general rule of English law, it is enough to
+prove that the acts alleged to constitute a crime were done by the
+accused, and to leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the
+natural consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing
+him or otherwise making him not liable. Children are conclusively
+presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of age; and from
+seven to fourteen the presumption is against the capacity, but is not
+absolute.
+
+Under the common law, insanity was an absolute answer to an accusation
+of crime. Since 1883, where insanity is proved to have existed at the
+date of the commission of the incriminated acts, the accused is found
+guilty of the acts but insane when he did them, and is relegated to a
+criminal lunatic asylum. There was also at common law a presumption that
+a married woman committing certain crimes in the presence of her husband
+did so under his coercion. But under modern decisions and practice the
+presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (_R_. v. _Mary
+Baines_, 1900, 69 L.J. Q.B. 681). Distinctions are also drawn between
+degrees of guilt or complicity.
+
+English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if the attempt
+passes from the stage of resolution or intention to the stage of action,
+when the completion of the full offence is frustrated by something other
+than the will of the accused. Except in the case of attempt to commit
+murder, which is a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as
+misdemeanours. It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of others
+to commit crime, as a separate offence if the incitement fails, as the
+offence of being accessory before the fact or abettor if the offence is
+committed as a result of the incitement; and it punishes persons who,
+after a more serious crime--felony--has been committed, do any act to
+shield the offender from justice. In the case of the crimes described as
+felonies the law distinguishes between principals in the first or second
+degree and accessories before or after the fact. In the case of
+misdemeanours the same punishment is incurred by the principal
+offenders, and by persons who are present aiding and abetting the
+commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled or
+procured the commission of the offence (see ACCESSORY). Besides these
+degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English law known as
+conspiracy, i.e. an agreement to commit crime or to do illegal acts
+(including interference with the due course of justice), which is
+punishable even if the conspiracy does not get beyond the stage of
+agreement. The exact nature of this form of crime and the propriety of
+abolishing it or limiting its scope have been the subject of much
+controversy, especially with reference to combinations by trade unions.
+
+The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow the jury to
+reduce the penalty of an offence by finding in their verdict that the
+commission of the offence was attended by extenuating circumstances; but
+when the jury recommend to mercy a person whom they find guilty the
+judge may give effect to the recommendation or report it to the Home
+Office.
+
+In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of crime or
+degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or without
+modification, but as to conspiracy with a good deal of alteration. In
+the Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy is limited to cases of
+treason (§ 121 A), and when it goes beyond agreement in the case of
+other offences it is merely a form of abetment or participation (§ 107).
+
+
+  Definitions of particular crimes.
+
+The criminal law of England[1] is not codified, but is composed of a
+large number of enactments resting on a basis of common law. A very
+large part is reduced to writing in statutes. The unwritten portion of
+the law includes (1) principles relating to the excuse or justification
+of acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2) the definitions
+of many offences, e.g. murder, assault, theft, forgery, perjury, libel,
+riot, (3) parts of the law relating to procedure. The law is very rich
+in principles and rules embodied in judicial decisions and is extremely
+detailed and explicit, leaving to the judges very little latitude of
+interpretation or expression. So far as the legislature is concerned
+there is an absence of systematic arrangement. The definitions of
+particular crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the
+decisions of the judges. The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most
+part leave definitions as they stood, e.g. the Larceny Act 1861 does not
+define the crime of larceny. The consequence is that exact definitions
+are very difficult to frame, and the technical view of a crime sometimes
+includes more, sometimes less, than it ought. Thus the crime of murder,
+as settled by the existing law, would include offences of such very
+different moral gravity as killing a man deliberately for the sake of
+robbing him, and killing a man accidentally in an attempt to rob him. On
+the other hand, offences which ought to have been criminal were
+constantly declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of
+the particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly had to
+fill up the _lacunae_ in the law as interpreted by the judges.
+
+
+  Jurisdiction.
+
+The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial, and can be
+exercised only as to acts done within the territory or territorial
+waters, or on the ships of the law-giver. _Extra territorium jus dicenti
+impune non paretur._ No state will enforce the penal laws of another nor
+permit the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own
+territory. But international law recognizes the competence of a state to
+make its criminal law binding on its own subjects wherever they are, and
+perhaps even to punish foreigners who outside its territory do acts
+which menace its internal or external security, e.g. by dynamite plots
+or falsification of coin. Apart from extradition arrangements the
+national law cannot reach such persons, be they citizens or aliens,
+until they come within the territory of the state whose law has been
+broken.
+
+The codes of France, Germany and Italy make the penal law national or
+personal and not territorial. In some British colonies whose
+legislatures have a derived and limited legislative authority, indirect
+methods have been taken to deal within the colony with persons who
+commit offences outside its territory.
+
+Throughout the development of the English criminal law it showed and
+retains one particular characteristic that crime was treated as local,
+which means not merely that the common law of England was limited to
+English soil, but that an offence on English soil could be "inquired of,
+dealt with, tried, determined and punished" only in the particular
+territorial division of England in which it was committed, which was and
+is known as the venue (q.v.). Each township was responsible for crimes
+within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the "view of
+frankpledge," now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence of every man had
+to be determined by his neighbours. This rule excluded from trial by the
+courts of common law, treasons, &c. committed by Englishmen abroad and
+piracy; and it was not till Henry VIII.'s reign (1536, 1544) that the
+common-law mode of trial was extended to these offences. The legislature
+has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no settled
+plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the instance of
+the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, no attempt has been made to make the
+English criminal law apply generally to subjects when outside the realm;
+and in view of the complicated nature of the British empire and the
+absence of a common criminal code it has been found desirable to remain
+content with extradition in the case of crimes abroad, and with the
+provisions of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 in the case of criminals
+who flee from one part to another of the empire.
+
+The localization in England of crime, and the procedure for punishing
+it, differ largely from the view taken in France and most European
+countries. The French theory is that a Frenchman owes allegiance to the
+French state, and commits a breach of that allegiance whenever he
+commits a crime against French law, even although he is not at the time
+within French territory. In modern days this theory has been extended so
+as to allow French and German courts to punish their subjects for crimes
+committed in foreign countries, and by reason of this power certain
+countries refuse to extradite their subjects who have committed crimes
+in other states.
+
+
+  Offences on the high seas.
+
+The principle of the French law, though not expressly recognized in
+England, must be invoked to justify two departures from the English
+principle--(1) as regards offences on the high seas, and (2) as regards
+certain offences committed outside the United Kingdom. In early days
+offences committed by Englishmen on the high seas were punished by the
+lord high admiral, and he encroached so much on the ordinary courts as
+to render it necessary to pass an act in Richard II.'s reign (15 Rich.
+II. st. 2, c. 3) to restrain him.
+
+
+  Offences committed on land outside England.
+
+  Misdemeanours committed by public officers in colonies.
+
+In the time of Henry VIII. (1536, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15) an act was passed
+stating that, as the admiral tried persons according to the course of
+civil law, they could not be convicted unless either they confessed or
+they or the witnesses were submitted to torture, and that therefore it
+was expedient to try the offences according to the course of the common
+law. Under that act a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued
+to try these offences at the Old Bailey, and English law was satisfied
+by permitting the indictment to state that the offence was committed on
+board a ship on the high seas, to wit in the county of Middlesex. Since
+1861 these special commissions have been rendered unnecessary by the
+provision (contained in each of the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of
+that year) that all offences committed on the high seas may be tried as
+if they had been committed in England. As regards offences on land, it
+was found necessary as early as the reign of Henry VIII. (1544) to
+provide for the trial in England of treasons and murders committed on
+land outside England. This was largely due to the constant presence in
+France of the king and many of his nobles and knights, but the aid of
+this statute had to be invoked in 1903 in the case of Lynch, tried for
+treason in South Africa. The latest legislation on the subject was in
+1861 (Offences against the Person Act, § 9), and any murder or
+manslaughter committed on land out of the United Kingdom, whether within
+the king's dominions or without, and whether the person killed were a
+subject of His Majesty or not, may be dealt with in all respects as if
+it were committed in England. The jurisdiction has been extended to a
+few other cases such as slave trade, bigamy, perjury, committed with
+reference to proceedings in an English court, and offences connected
+with explosives. But these offences must be committed on land and not on
+board a foreign ship, because if a man takes service on board a foreign
+ship he is treated for the time as being a member of the foreign state
+to which that ship belongs. The principle has been also extended to
+misdemeanours (but not to felonies) committed by public officers out of
+Great Britain, whether within or without the British dominions. Thus a
+governor or an inferior officer of a colony, if appointed by the British
+government, may be prosecuted for any misdemeanour committed by him by
+virtue of his office in the colony; and cases have occurred where
+governors have been so prosecuted, such as that of General Picton at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and of Governor Eyre of Jamaica in 1865,
+and the attempt to prosecute Governor MacCallum of Natal in 1906. As a
+corollary to the system of "capitulations" applied to certain
+non-Christian states in Asia and Africa, it has been necessary to take
+powers for punishing under English law offences by British subjects in
+those states, which would otherwise go unpunished either by the law of
+the land where the offence was committed or by the law of the state to
+which the offender belonged (Jenkyns, _Foreign Jurisdiction of the
+Crown_).
+
+
+  Punishment.
+
+An essential part of the criminal law is the punishment or sanction by
+which the state seeks to prevent or avenge offences. See also under
+CRIMINOLOGY. Here it is enough to say that during the 19th century great
+changes have been made throughout the world in the modes of punishing
+crime.
+
+In England until early in the 19th century, punishments for crime were
+ferocious. The severity of the law was tempered by the rule as to
+benefit of clergy and by the rigid adherence of the judges (_in favorem
+vitae_) to the rules of correct pleading and proof, whereby the
+slightest error on the part of the prosecution led to an acquittal.
+Bentham pointed out that certainty of punishment was more effective than
+severity, that severe punishments induced juries to acquit criminals,
+and that thus the certainty of punishment was diminished. But his
+arguments and the eloquence of Sir Samuel Romilly produced no effect
+until after the reform of parliament in 1832, shortly after which
+statutes were passed abolishing the death sentence for all felonies
+where benefit of clergy existed. The severity of capital sentences had
+already been modified by the pardoning power of the crown, which
+pardoned convicts under sentence of death on their consenting to be
+transported to convict settlements in the colonies. (See DEPORTATION.)
+For some years this was only done by the consent of the convict, who
+agreed to be transported if his death sentence was remitted, but in
+1824, when a convict refused to give this consent, parliament authorized
+the crown to substitute transportation for a death sentence, and the
+same course was adopted in Ireland in 1851 when some treason-felony
+prisoners refused commutation of their sentence to transportation.
+
+The punishments now in use under the English law for indictable offences
+are:--
+
+1. Death, inflicted by hanging, with a provision that other modes of
+execution may be authorized by royal warrant in cases of high treason.
+
+2. Penal servitude, which in 1853 was substituted for transportation to
+penal settlements outside the United Kingdom. The minimum term of penal
+servitude is three years (Penal Servitude Act 1891), and the sentence is
+carried out in a convict prison, in the United Kingdom, but there is
+still power to send the convicts out of the United Kingdom.
+
+3. Imprisonment in a local prison, which must be without hard labour
+unless a statute specially authorizes a sentence of hard labour. At
+common law there is no limit to a term of imprisonment for misdemeanour;
+but for many offences (both felonies and misdemeanours) the term is
+limited by statute to two years, and in practice this limit is not
+exceeded for any offence. The treatment of prisoners is regulated by the
+prison acts and rules.
+
+4. Police supervision, on conviction or indictment of felony and certain
+misdemeanours after a previous conviction of such offences. Prevention
+of Crimes Act, c. 112, §§ 8, 20.
+
+5. Pecuniary fine, a punishment appropriate only to misdemeanours and
+never imposed for a felony except under statutory authority, e.g.
+manslaughter (Offences against the Person Act, § 5). The amount of the
+fine is in the discretion of the judge, subject to the directions of
+Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights and of any statute limiting the
+maximum for a particular offence.
+
+6. Whipping was a common law punishment for misdemeanants of either sex.
+Under the present law the whipping of females is prohibited, and the
+punishment is not inflicted on males except under statutory authority,
+which is given in the case of certain assaults on the sovereign, of
+certain forms of robbery with violence or assaults with intent to commit
+felony (Garrotters Act 1863), of incorrigible rogues, larceny and
+malicious damage, and certain other offences by youthful offenders.
+
+7. Recognizances (caution) to keep peace and be of good behaviour, i.e.
+a bond with or without sureties creating a debt to the crown not
+enforceable unless the conditions as to conduct therein made are broken.
+This bond may be taken from any misdemeanant, and, under statutory
+authority, from persons convicted of any felony (except murder) falling
+within the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861.
+
+8. In the case of any offence which is not capital the court, if it is a
+first offence or if any other grounds for mercy appear, may simply bind
+the offender over to come up for judgment when required, intimating to
+him that if his conduct is good no further steps will be taken to punish
+him.
+
+Except in the case of the death penalty, the court of trial has a
+discretion as to the _quantum_ of a particular punishment, no minimum
+being fixed. In the case of offences punishable on summary conviction
+the maximum punishment is always fixed by statute. It consists of
+imprisonment with or without hard labour, or a fine of a limited amount,
+or both. The imprisonment in very few cases may exceed six months. If
+the maximum exceeds three months the accused must be informed that he
+has a right, if he so elects, to be tried by a jury.
+
+Where power is given to deal summarily with offences which under
+ordinary circumstances would be tried on indictment, the punishments are
+as follows (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879):--
+
+(a) In the case of adults pleading guilty, imprisonment not exceeding
+six months without the option of a fine.
+
+(b) In the case of adults (consenting to be summarily tried), where the
+offence affects property not worth over forty shillings, imprisonment
+not over three months, or fine not exceeding £20.
+
+(c) In the case of young persons, between twelve and sixteen years,
+imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding £10.
+
+(d) In the case of children under twelve, imprisonment not over one
+month, or fine not exceeding forty shillings.
+
+If the offence is trifling, the accused may be discharged without
+punishment, and under the First Offenders Act (1887) the justices have a
+discretionary power to forgo punishment. The justices have also the
+power, under the Prevention of Crime Act 1908, in lieu of passing a
+sentence of penal servitude or imprisonment, to commit persons between
+the ages of sixteen and twenty-one to a Borstal institution, for a
+period of detention ranging from one to three years (see JUVENILE
+OFFENDERS).
+
+In the criminal law of Europe the scale of punishments is on similar
+lines in most states, and is more elaborate than that of England, and
+less is left to the discretion of the court of trial. The following
+examples will indicate the kind of punishments awarded under the French
+penal code. Punishments are classified as (1) _afflictives et
+infamantes_, including death, _travaux forcés à perpétuité ou à temps_,
+_déportation_, _détention_, _reclusion_; (2) _infamantes_, viz.
+banishment and civil degradation; (3) _peines en matière
+correctionnelle_, viz. imprisonment in a house of correction (six days
+to five years), interdiction from certain civic rights, and fine. The
+punishments in no case have any effect to extinguish the civil claims of
+individuals who have suffered by the offence (arts. 6 and 55). Special
+provisions are made for _récidivistes_, police supervision and first
+offenders (_Loi Bérenger_).
+
+In the German code of 1872 the legal punishments are: (1) death; (2)
+penal servitude for life or for a term not exceeding fifteen years nor
+less than one year; (3) imprisonment with labour for a term not
+exceeding five years nor less than one day; (4) confinement in a
+fortress (terms same as for penal servitude but involving only
+withdrawal of freedom and supervision); (5) arrest for not more than six
+weeks nor less than one day; (6) fine (not less than three marks in the
+case of crimes or delicts nor one mark in case of petty offences).
+Sentence of imprisonment is in certain cases followed by liability to be
+placed under police supervision for a term after release. In the case of
+a sentence of death or of penal servitude, the court may order
+forfeiture of civil privileges, and a condemnation to penal servitude
+permanently disqualifies for service in the army and public office (Code
+pt. 1, chap. 1, arts. 13-40).
+
+Under the Italian code of 1889 (arts. 11-30) the punishments are (1)
+_ergastolo_ (for life); (2) _reclusione_ (from three days to twenty-four
+years), which involves hard labour and cellular confinement; (3)
+_detenzione_ (like term), which involves labour and at night separate
+confinement; (4) _confino_ (one month to three years), a form of
+banishment from the commune of origin or residence of the offender; (5a)
+fine (_multa_), from ten to ten thousand lire; (5b) _amende_, from one
+to two thousand lire; (6) arrest (one day to two years); (7)
+interdiction from public office; (8) suspension from professional
+calling. Punishments (5b), (6) and (8) are applied only to
+contraventions, the others to crimes (_delitti_).
+
+The Spanish law (_Codigo Penal_, title 3, chaps. 2 and 3) contains a
+general scale of punishments classified as afflictive, correctional, light
+and accessory. The first class begins with death and runs down through
+many forms of imprisonment to disqualification (_inhabilitacion_). The
+second includes forms of imprisonment, (_presidio_ and _prisión_), and
+arrest, public censure and suspension from the exercise of certain offices
+or callings. The slight punishments are minor arrest and private censure.
+Offenders in any of the three classes may also be fined or put under
+recognizance (_caución_). The accessory punishments include payment of
+costs, degradation, civil interdiction.
+
+In England indictable offences (i.e. offences which must be tried by a
+judge and jury) are thus dealt with:--
+
+
+  Tribunals.
+
+1. Courts of assize (sitting under old commissions known as commissions
+of assize, oyer and terminer, and general gaol delivery) are held twice
+or oftener in every year in each county and also in some large cities
+and boroughs. They are the lineal successors of the justices _in
+eyre_[2] of the middle ages; but they are now integral parts of the High
+Court of Justice. These courts can try any indictable offence presented
+by a grand jury for the district in which they sit.
+
+2. For the counties of London and Middlesex and certain adjoining
+districts, a special court of assize known as the central criminal court
+sits monthly.
+
+3. In all counties and many boroughs the justices of the peace sit
+quarterly or oftener under the commission of the peace to try the minor
+indictable offences. (See QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF.)
+
+4. The High Court of Justice in the king's bench division tries a few
+special offences in its original jurisdiction, and where justice
+requires may transfer indictments from other courts for trial before
+itself.
+
+5. The court of criminal appeal has been instituted by the Criminal
+Appeal Act 1907; to it all persons convicted on indictment have a right
+of appeal. (See APPEAL.)
+
+The substantive law as to crime applies in England to all persons except
+the reigning sovereign, and criminal procedure is the same for all
+subjects alike, except in the case of peers or peeresses charged with
+felony, who have the right of trial by their peers in the House of Lords
+if it be sitting, or in the court of the lord high steward.
+
+
+  Special tribunals.
+
+There are in England no courts of a special character, such as exist in
+some foreign countries, for the determination of disputes between the
+governing classes themselves or with the governed classes, whether of a
+civil or criminal character. There are a few exceptional courts with
+criminal jurisdiction. The court of chivalry, which used to punish
+offences committed within military lines outside the kingdom, is
+obsolete. Special tribunals exist for trying naval or military offences
+committed by members of the navy and army, but those members are not
+exempt from being tried by the ordinary tribunals for offences against
+the ordinary law, as though they were civilians. The naval courts can be
+held only on board a ship, and can as a general rule try only persons
+entered on the books of a king's ship. The military courts can only try
+persons who are actually members of the army at the time, and their
+authority is annually renewed by parliament, in consequence of the
+jealousy still felt against the trial of any man except by the ordinary
+courts of law. Military and naval courts can try in any part of the
+world, and whenever the forces are in active service can try followers
+of the camp as if they were actual members of the forces. (See MILITARY
+LAW; MARTIAL LAW.)
+
+
+  Ecclesiastical courts.
+
+The ecclesiastical courts, which were formerly very powerful in England,
+and punished persons for various offences, such as perjury, swearing,
+and sexual offences, have now almost fallen into disuse. Their authority
+over Protestant dissenters from the established church was taken away by
+statute; their authority over lay members of the Church of England has
+disappeared by disuse. Occasionally suits are instituted in them against
+the clergy for offences either against morality or against doctrine or
+ritual. In these cases their sentences are enforced by penalties, such
+as suspension, or deprivation of benefice, or by imprisonment; which has
+replaced the old punishment of excommunication.
+
+
+  Procedure.
+
+A system of procedure, with the judicial machinery required to work it,
+may be created either by the direct legislative action of the supreme
+power or by custom and the action of the courts. Both at Rome and in
+England it was through usage and by the courts themselves that the
+earlier system was slowly moulded: both at Rome and in England it was
+direct legislation that established the later system. (See Bryce,
+_Studies in History and Jurisprudence_, 1901, ii. 334.)
+
+The characteristics of English criminal procedure which most
+distinguish it from the procedure of other countries are as follows:--
+
+1. It is litigious or accusatory and not inquisitorial (Stephen, _Prel.
+View Cr. Law_). It is for the prosecutor to prove by evidence the
+commission of the alleged offence. No power exists to interrogate the
+accused unless he consents to be sworn as a witness in his own defence,
+which since 1898 he may do. The right to cross-examine him even when he
+is so sworn is limited by law, with the object of excluding inquiry into
+his past character or into past offences not relevant to the particular
+charge on which he is being tried.
+
+2. The forms of criminal pleading still in use are in substance framed
+on the lines of the old system of pleading at common law in civil cases,
+which was swept away by the judicature acts. Criminal pleadings have,
+however, one peculiarity. Indictments, being in form the presentment of
+a grand jury, could not be amended until provision for that purpose was
+made in 1851. (See INDICTMENT.)
+
+3. Criminal prosecutions are ordinarily undertaken by the individuals
+who have suffered by a crime. There is not in England, as in Scotland
+and all European countries, a public department concerned to deal with
+all prosecutions for crime. The result is that the prosecution of most
+ordinary crime is left to individual enterprise or the action of the
+local police force or the justices' clerk.
+
+The attorney-general has always represented the crown in criminal
+matters, and in state prosecutions appears in person on behalf of the
+crown, and when he so appears has certain privileges as respects the
+reply to the prisoner's defence and the mode of trial. In the
+Prosecution of Offences Acts of 1879, 1884 and 1908 there is to be found
+the nucleus of a system of public prosecution such as obtains in other
+countries in case of crime. Under these acts the director of public
+prosecutions (up to 1908 an office conjoint with that of solicitor to
+the Treasury) acts under the attorney-general, but unless specially
+directed he only undertakes a limited number of prosecutions, e.g. for
+murder, coining and serious crimes affecting the government.
+
+4. Where an indictable offence is supposed to have been committed the
+accused is arrested, with or without the warrant of a justice, according
+to the nature of the offence, or is summoned by a justice before him. On
+his appearance a preliminary inquiry is held for the purpose of
+ascertaining whether there is a prima facie case against him. The
+procedure is regulated by the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and is
+entirely different from the procedure for summary offences. It may be,
+though usually it is not, held in private; it is an inquiry and not a
+trial; the justices have to consider not whether the man is guilty, but
+whether there is such a prima facie case against him that he ought to be
+tried. If they think that there is, they commit him to prison to wait
+his trial, or require him to give security, with or without sureties, to
+the amount named by them, for appearing to take his trial. If they think
+the charge unsubstantial they discharge the accused at once. The
+prosecutor in cases of felony may if he likes go before the grand jury
+whether the case has or has not been the subject of a preliminary
+inquiry, but in the case of many misdemeanours it is obligatory first to
+have a preliminary inquiry, as a protection against vexatious
+indictments.
+
+
+  The grand jury.
+
+Whether there has or has not been a preliminary inquiry before a
+magistrate, no person can be tried for any of the graver crimes, treason
+or felony, except upon indictment found by a grand jury of the county or
+place where the offence is said to have been committed or is by statute
+made cognizable. In olden days, and even now in theory, the grand jury
+inquire of their own knowledge, by the oath of good and lawful men of
+the neighbourhood, into the crime of the county, but in practice the
+charges against the accused persons are always first submitted to the
+proper officer of the court. The grand jurors are instructed as to their
+inquisition by a charge from the judge, as regards the indictments
+concerning which they are called upon to enquire whether there is a
+prima facie case to send them for trial to the petty jury. The grand
+jury must consist of not less than twelve, nor more than twenty-three,
+good and lawful men of the county. But any person who prefers an
+indictment is entitled to have it presented to the grand jury. Officers
+of the court lay the indictments before the grand jury. The charges are
+then called bills, and if the grand jury considers that there is no
+prima facie case the foreman endorses the bill with the words "no true
+bill," and it is then presented to the judge. The jury are then said to
+have ignored the bill, and if the person charged is in custody he is
+released, but is liable to be indicted again on better evidence.
+
+As a means of constitutional protection in times of monarchical
+aggression this practice had no doubt a great value, but in the present
+day, when few offenders are tried without a preliminary inquiry by
+justices, the functions of a grand jury are of secondary importance, and
+the jurors' time is perhaps needlessly occupied. The institution of the
+grand jury prevented the crown in the days of its great power from
+removing a person whom it wished to get rid of from among his
+neighbours, and placing him on trial in a strange place where the
+influence of the crown was greater. This is still true to a certain
+extent, as great injustice may be caused to a man by removing him from
+his neighbours and trying him at a distance from his friends, and from
+the witnesses whom he might call for his defence. In Ireland, for
+instance, the greatest injustice might be done by removing an Orangeman
+from Belfast and trying him in a Roman Catholic county or vice versa.
+But it has its evils where the area from which the jurors are drawn is
+small, such as a town of a few thousand inhabitants. In that case a man
+charged, say, with fraud, may be protected by his friends from being
+properly punished for that fraud. But where justice requires, an order
+may be made for the trial of the offence in another county or at the
+central criminal court.
+
+In many colonies the Scottish system has been adopted, by which the
+ordinary form of accusation is by indictment framed by the public
+prosecutor, and a grand jury is only impannelled in cases where an
+individual claims to prosecute an offence as to which the public
+officials decline to proceed. In England criminal informations by the
+attorney-general, or by leave of the court without the intervention of a
+grand jury, are permitted in cases of misdemeanour, but are now rarely
+preferred.
+
+
+  Coroner's courts.
+
+If a coroner's jury, on inquiring into any sudden death, finds that
+murder or manslaughter has been committed, that finding has the same
+effect as an indictment by a grand jury, and the man charged may be
+tried by the petty jury accordingly. The law and procedure of the
+coroner's courts are now regulated by the Coroners Act 1887. When there
+is a dead body of a person lying within the area of his jurisdiction,
+and there is reasonable cause to suspect that such person died a violent
+or unnatural death, or a sudden death of which the cause is unknown, or
+has died in prison, the coroner is entitled to hold an inquest, and if
+the verdict or inquisition finds murder or manslaughter, it is followed
+by trial in the same way as if the person accused had been indicted.
+
+
+  Trial by jury.
+
+When an indictment is found by the grand jury (twelve at least must
+concur) the person charged is brought before the court, the indictment
+is read to him, he is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he
+pleads guilty he is then sentenced by the court; if he pleads not
+guilty, a petty jury of twelve is formed from the panel or list of
+jurors who have been summoned by the sheriff to attend the court. He is
+tried by these jurors in open court. The common law method of trial of
+crimes by a jury of twelve, native to English law, has been in modern
+times transplanted to European countries. It was not the original form
+of trial, for it was preceded by wager of battle (which was not finally
+abolished till 1819); and by ordeal, which was suppressed as to criminal
+trials in 1219 in consequence of the decree of the Lateran Council
+(1216). The first was allowed only on an appeal by an individual
+accuser; the second was resorted to on an accusation by public fame,
+which the accused was allowed to meet by submitting to the ordeal. It
+was after 1219 that trial by the jury of twelve (known as trial in
+pais) began to develop. At the outset the accused used to be asked how
+he would be tried, and could not be directly compelled to plead to the
+charge or to accept trial by a jury; which led to the indirect pressure
+known as the _peine forte et dure_, which fell into disuse after the
+Revolution and was formally abolished in 1772. But it was not until 1827
+that refusal to plead was treated as a plea of not guilty, entailing a
+trial by a jury, and some old-fashioned officials still ask the old
+question "How will you be tried?" to which the old answer was "By God
+and my country."
+
+The original trial jury or inquest certainly acted on its own knowledge
+or inquiries without necessarily having evidence laid before it in
+court. The impartiality of the jurors was to some extent secured by the
+power of challenge. The exact time when the jury came into its present
+position is difficult accurately to define. On the trial before the
+petty jury the procedure and the rules of evidence differ in very few
+points from an ordinary civil case. The proceedings as already stated
+are accusatory. The prosecutor must begin to prove his case. Confessions
+(which are the object sought by French procedure) are regarded with some
+suspicion, and admissions alleged to have been made by the accused are
+not admitted unless it is clear that they were not extracted by
+inducements of a temporal nature held out by persons in authority over
+him. During the spring assizes of 1877 a prisoner was charged with
+having committed a murder twenty years before, and the counsel for the
+prosecution, with the consent of the judge, withdrew from the case
+because the only evidence, besides the prisoner's own confession, was
+that of persons who either had never known him personally or could not
+identify him. The accused may not be interrogated by the judge or the
+prosecuting counsel unless he consents to be sworn as a witness. In this
+respect the contrast between a criminal trial in England and a criminal
+trial in France is very striking. The interrogation and browbeating of
+the prisoner by the judge, consistent as it may be with the
+inquisitorial theory of their procedure, is strange to English lawyers,
+accustomed to see in every criminal trial a fair fight between the
+prisoner and the prosecution, and not a contest between the judge and
+the prisoner. The accused may, if he choose, be defended by counsel, and
+if poor may get legal aid at the public expense if the court certify for
+it. He is entitled to cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution
+and to call witnesses in his defence. At the conclusion of the evidence
+and speeches the judge sums up to the jury both as to the facts and the
+law, and the jury by their verdict acquit or convict. Immediate
+discharge follows on acquittal; sentence by the judge on conviction.
+
+
+  Summary trials.
+
+Justices of the peace may under many statutes convict in a summary
+manner (without the intervention of a jury) for offences of minor
+importance. The procedure for punishing summary offences is before two
+justices, or a stipendiary magistrate. This proceeding must not be
+confused with the preliminary inquiry already mentioned before justices
+for an indictable offence, nor with the procedure before justices in
+relation to civil matters, such as the recovery of small sums of money.
+The proceeding begins either by the issue of a warrant for the arrest of
+the person charged, in which case a sworn information must be filed, or
+by a summons directing the person charged to appear on a certain day to
+answer the complaint made by the prosecutor. The justices hear the case
+in open court; the person charged can make his defence either in person
+or by his solicitor or counsel, he can cross-examine the witnesses for
+the prosecution, call his own witnesses, and address the justices in his
+defence. The justices, after hearing the case, either acquit or convict
+him, and in case of conviction award the sentence. If the sentence is a
+fine, and the fine is not paid, the person convicted is liable to be
+imprisoned for the term fixed by the justices, not exceeding a scale
+fixed by an act of 1879, the maximum of which is one month. The
+imprisonment may be with or without hard labour.
+
+
+  Procedure for summary offences.
+
+Of late years this summary jurisdiction of the justices has received
+very large extensions, and many offences which were formerly prosecuted
+as serious offences by an indictment before the court of assize or
+quarter sessions have, where the offence was a trivial one, been made
+punishable, on summary proceedings before justices, by a small fine or a
+short term of imprisonment.
+
+The extension of the jurisdiction of the justices is open to the
+observation that it deprives a person charged of the protection of a
+jury, and also that it throws upon him, if convicted, and upon the
+prosecution if there is no conviction, the cost of the proceedings. The
+former objection is much mitigated by the enactment made in 1879, that a
+person if liable on conviction to be sentenced to imprisonment for more
+than three months, or to a fine exceeding £100, can claim to be tried by
+a jury. But the objection as to the costs remains, and the payment of
+costs is often a very serious addition to the trivial fine; and it is
+anomalous that a person convicted of a trifling offence should bear the
+cost of the prosecution, while if he is convicted before a superior
+tribunal of the most serious offence he does not pay the costs.
+
+
+  Appeal.
+
+In English law until 1907, where a criminal case had been tried by a
+jury the verdict of the jury of guilt or innocence was final and there
+was no appeal on the facts. Any considerable defect or informality in
+the procedure might be the subject of a writ of error. And if any
+question of law arose at the trial, the judge might, if he chose,
+reserve it for the opinion of the court for the consideration of crown
+cases reserved, by whom the conviction might be either quashed or
+confirmed.
+
+By the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, a new court was established, to which
+any person convicted on indictment might appeal. (See APPEAL.)
+
+
+  Costs.
+
+The expenses of prosecution for crime in England are dealt with in the
+following manner. Prosecutions for high treason and the cognate offence
+known as treason-felony are at the expense of the state, which alone
+undertakes such prosecutions. In the case of all other felonies and of
+many misdemeanours the expense of the prosecution falls on the local
+rate. In the case of other misdemeanours the expense falls on the
+prosecutor. Where an offence is summarily prosecuted the costs are in
+the discretion of the court, which may order the accused to pay them, if
+convicted, or the prosecutor to pay on acquittal, or may leave the
+parties to pay their own expenses. On charges of felony and a few
+misdemeanours the court may order the accused person to pay the expenses
+of his prosecution in relief of the local rate. In a few cases, chiefly
+where the prosecution is vexatious, the court may order the prosecution
+to pay the expenses of the defence. The expenses of witnesses for the
+defence in any indictable offence may be paid out of the local rate when
+they have been called at the preliminary inquiry; and where the court in
+the case of a poor prisoner has certified that he should have legal aid,
+the expenses of the defence may be charged to the local rate. The local
+rate upon which the expenses fall is usually that of the county or
+borough in which the offence was committed; but sometimes is that of the
+place where the offence is tried.
+
+Between 1852 and 1888 parliament reimbursed to the local authorities the
+expense imposed on the local rate. In 1888 the proceeds of certain taxes
+were set aside and handed over to the local authorities as a set-off to
+the expense incurred in prosecutions. In one class of case, offences
+committed in the admiralty jurisdiction, i.e. outside England, the
+treasury directly reimburses to the local authorities the expense
+incurred.
+
+Under most, if not all, European codes, the state pays for the
+prosecution, subject to reimbursement by the accused, if the court so
+orders.
+
+
+  Non-British criminal procedure.
+
+The English system of criminal procedure is the basis of that of most of
+the states which form the United States of America, and, with few
+exceptions, of the procedure throughout the British empire.
+
+The French penal code and code of criminal procedure are substantially
+the model of all systems of continental criminal law. They were
+promulgated in 1811 by Napoleon I., and although he called in the aid of
+the greatest French jurists, he guided, and occasionally even revised,
+their labours. The French codes have been improved upon by later
+European codes, and more especially by the Italian penal code. All
+European codes have an opening chapter where the general principles of
+criminal law in its practical application are enunciated, such as, for
+instance, the rules that--(1) no person is liable to punishment for any
+act not expressly declared to be an offence; (2) no person can be
+punished for an act which by virtue of a subsequent law is declared not
+to be an offence; (3) whoever commits an offence within the kingdom is
+tried and punished according to the criminal law of the kingdom, and by
+the tribunals created for the administration of justice, to the
+exclusion of special tribunals created for temporary purposes. This rule
+really lays down that no citizen can be deprived of his own judges when
+he is accused of a criminal offence. (4) A citizen, although he may have
+been tried in a foreign country for an offence committed within the
+kingdom, can be retried according to the law of the kingdom. (5)
+Extradition only applies to foreigners, not to citizens. The preliminary
+chapter is followed by the classification of offences according to the
+importance of the punishments the law assigns to them. The lowest degree
+of offence is denominated "contravention." It applies mainly to the
+pettiest offences, or to infractions of police regulations, and can be
+punished by fine or by imprisonment under a week, or by both fine and
+imprisonment, limited to a week. Next comes the "_délit_," which
+includes all offences punished by imprisonment over a week and under
+five years. Then, finally, we arrive at the "_crime_," the highest form
+of offence in French criminal law. It includes all offences subject to a
+more severe sentence than the punishment assigned to a _délit_. All
+cases are held to be crimes where death, life-imprisonment with or
+without hard labour, deportation out of the kingdom, detention or
+seclusion in a fortress or other expressly assigned place, are the
+punishments mentioned by the law. A certain number of explanatory
+definitions follow, of which the most important concern _attempts_ to
+commit offences, and in "crimes" they are punishable if the execution of
+the attempt was only prevented by circumstances beyond the will of the
+offender, whilst in "_délits_" an attempt is not punishable as an
+offence unless the law specially provides that it should be punished. As
+regards "contraventions," attempts not carried out are not held to be
+offences at all. Accomplices are generally subject to the same
+punishment as the principal. Old offenders (_récidivistes_) are subject
+to severer punishments. The usual exceptions as regards responsibility
+for crime, such as madness and extreme youth and _force majeure_, are to
+be found in all codes. The excuse of youth extends to all offenders
+under the age of sixteen, when the tribunal decides whether the offender
+has acted without "discernment," and acquits where the discernment is
+not found, whilst one-half of the usual punishment is inflicted where
+discernment is found. Foreign codes differ from the English law in
+allowing the injured party to claim damages in the criminal suit,
+appearing as _partie civile_. On another question there is a wide
+divergence on the continent of Europe from English law. According to the
+law of England there is no prescription in criminal law (with a few
+exceptions created by statute). An offender is always liable to
+punishment whatever time may have elapsed since the committal of the
+offence. On the continent of Europe the limitation of a judgment and
+sentence for a crime is twenty years; five years for a _délit_, and for
+a contravention two years. No proceedings can be taken as regards a
+crime after a lapse of ten years, whilst as regards a _délit_ the limit
+is three years, and two years for a contravention.
+
+There are three main differences between English criminal procedure and
+European criminal procedure.
+
+1. A criminal prosecution directed on European criminal procedure at
+once passes into the hands of the state as an infringement of law which
+must be repressed, on the ground that the whole community bases its
+security on obedience to law. In England the repression of all minor
+crime is left to the injured party.
+
+2. In England every criminal trial from beginning to end is, and has
+always been, public. Preliminary inquiries into an indictable offence
+may be, but rarely if ever are, conducted in private. On the continent
+of Europe, with rare exceptions, all preliminary proceedings in a
+criminal charge are secret. Outside English-speaking countries this
+secret investigation continues more or less. But of the two systems,
+accusatory or inquisitorial--the first meaning the right of the accused
+to defend himself, the second meaning the right of the state to examine
+any legal offence in private in order to ensure the safety of
+society,--the accusatory is gaining ground in every country. In
+English-speaking countries it is an established law that an accused
+person should have the right of publicity of the proceedings and the
+right to defend himself by counsel and by witnesses. In Europe the
+inquisitorial system is gradually being abandoned. Perhaps the best code
+of criminal procedure in Europe is that promulgated in Austria in 1873.
+It followed a fundamental law of the Empire which laid down _inter alia_
+that all legal proceedings, civil or criminal, should be oral and
+public, and that the accusatory system in criminal cases should be
+adopted. Germany followed this example. Italy, Holland. Switzerland and
+Spain have followed Austria and Germany as regards the preliminary
+investigation; Italy and Belgium have surrounded the accused with
+guarantees against arbitrary confinement before trial; Holland has
+conferred upon the accused the right of seeing the adverse testimony and
+of being confronted with the witnesses, and, further, has formally
+insisted that no insidious questions, such as questions assuming a fact
+as true which is not known to be true, should be allowed. Other
+countries still remain on the old lines. But everywhere, whether reform
+has actually been accomplished or not, there is a demand for even-handed
+justice, and a growing conviction that the accused should have all his
+rights, now that society is no longer in danger from undiscovered
+criminals and unpunished crime. Even in France, the champion of the
+inquisitorial system, a change is being made. Up to 1897 secrecy was
+imposed invariably in the preliminary investigation of crime, and was
+held necessary for the discovery and punishment of the offender. The
+_Loi de l'instruction contradictoire_, December 8, 1897, however, was a
+long step towards complete justice in the treatment of the accused in
+the preliminary inquiry. The main reform is that the accused, after he
+has once appeared before the judge and a formal charge has been made
+against him, is entitled to the assistance of counsel, either chosen by
+himself or assigned to him if he is poor. If he is in prison he is
+allowed to communicate freely with his counsel, who is entitled to see
+all the proceedings, and in every appearance before the judge his
+counsel accompanies him. There are, however, certain limitations. The
+counsel cannot address the judge without leave, which may be refused,
+nor can he insist on any proceeding he thinks necessary in his client's
+interest. He can only solicit. He has no right to be present at the
+examination of witnesses, who continue to be interrogated by the judge
+alone and not in the presence of the accused; but he must receive
+twenty-four hours' notice of every appearance of the accused, and he is
+entitled to be present whenever his client, after the first formal
+appearance, comes before the judge. In England, as already pointed out,
+although the prosecution is in the name of the crown, and although a
+public prosecutor has been appointed, still as a rule it is conducted by
+the person injured as the person injured, or by the police.
+
+3. In England the single-judge system is universal, save in appeal; on
+the continent of Europe plurality of judges is insisted upon, save in
+the most trivial cases, where the punishment is insignificant. In most
+countries of the continent of Europe the whole machinery for the
+prevention, investigation and punishment of crime, is conducted by what
+is called the _parquet_, which represents society as a collective unit
+and not the individual injured. The head of the whole parquet in France
+is the _procureur-général_, who holds equal rank with the members of the
+supreme court. Under him there are procureurs-généraux attached to each
+of the courts of appeal, of which in France there are twenty-six, and
+under each of these subordinate procureurs there are procureurs
+(prosecutors) of a lesser degree. The next stage to the parquet is the
+_juge d'instruction_, who corresponds to the English magistrate, and is
+the most formidable personage in the whole system of French criminal
+law. He can detain and accuse a person in prison, can send for him at
+any time and ask him such questions as he pleases.
+
+After the first examination the prisoner is entitled, in most European
+countries, to the assistance of counsel, but the powers of counsel are
+so limited that the juge d'instruction has a complete discretionary
+power regarding the investigation of the case. The natural consequence
+of this procedure is that the preliminary investigation really decides
+the ultimate result, and the final trial becomes more or less a solemn
+form.
+
+
+  Ireland.
+
+The criminal law of Ireland is to a great extent the same as that of
+England, resting on the same common law and on statutes which extend to
+both countries or are in almost the same terms, and is administered by
+courts of assize and quarter sessions, and by justices, as in England.
+In a few instances statutes passed for England or Great Britain before
+the Union have not been extended to Ireland, or statutes passed by the
+Irish parliament before the Union or by the British parliament since the
+Union create offences not known to English law. In Ireland the system of
+prosecution is nominally the same as in England, but in practice almost
+all prosecutions are instituted and conducted under the direction of the
+attorney-general for Ireland, who is a member of the government of the
+day, and so responsible to parliament, as in the case of the lord
+advocate. In Ireland, owing to the police being a centralized force,
+under the management of commissioners residing in Dublin, any
+prosecution which in England might be conducted by the local police,
+would in Ireland be conducted under the direction of the chief of the
+police in Dublin, who is necessarily in close communication with and
+under the control of the attorney-general.
+
+
+  Scotland.
+
+In Scotland hardly any crimes are constituted by statute law, the common
+law being to the effect that if a judge will direct any act to be a
+crime, and a jury will convict, that act is a crime. This great
+elasticity of the common law to include every sort of new crime which
+might arise was in times past very dangerous to political liberty, as it
+greatly enlarged the power of the crown to oppress political opponents,
+but in modern days it has its convenience in facilitating the punishment
+of persons committing crimes for the punishment of which in England a
+new act of parliament may be necessary. Criminal procedure in Scotland
+is regulated by an act of 1887 which greatly simplified indictments and
+proceedings. The prosecution of crime is in the hands of public
+officers, procurators fiscal, under the control of the lord advocate.
+Private prosecutions are possible, but rare. Except in the case of the
+law of treason, imported from England at the Union, no grand jury is
+required, and the indictments are filed by the public officer.
+
+
+  Other British possessions.
+
+The criminal law of England forms the basis of the criminal law of all
+British possessions abroad, with a few exceptions, e.g. the Channel
+Islands (still subject to the custom of Normandy) and the anomalous case
+of Cyprus, where Mahommedan law is to some extent in force. As to India,
+see INFRA.
+
+In many British colonies the criminal law has been codified or at the
+least consolidated. Criminal codes have been passed in Canada, New
+Zealand (1893), Queensland (1899) and W. Australia (1901). Many crown
+colonies have codes framed on the model prepared by the late Sir R. S.
+Wright for Jamaica and revised in 1901, and in British Guiana
+opportunity was taken (in 1893) to abolish the remnants of Roman-Dutch
+criminal law.
+
+The criminal law of South Africa, which is based on the Roman-Dutch law,
+including the _Constitutio Criminalis Carolina_ (1532), is not codified.
+In the Transvaal and Orange River colonies codes of criminal procedure
+are in force, drawn mainly from the common and statute law of the Cape
+Colony with the addition of provisions borrowed from English and
+colonial legislation.
+
+In Mauritius the criminal law is comprised in a penal code of 1838 and a
+procedure code of 1853, which, with the incorporated amendments, are to
+be found in the _Revised Laws of Mauritius_ (1903-1904), ii. 466 et
+seq. The penal code is based on the Code Napoléon.
+
+
+  Codification.
+
+"Criminal law has everywhere grown out of custom, and has in all
+civilized states been largely dealt with by direct legislation. In most
+civilized states (including Japan) it has been codified by statute, to
+the general satisfaction of the people; and the conspicuous success of
+the Indian penal code shows that English criminal law is susceptible of
+being so treated" (Bryce, _Studies_, ii. 34).
+
+The expediency, if not the necessity, of codifying the criminal law of
+England has long been apparent. The writings of Bentham drew attention
+to many of its substantial defects, and the efforts of Romilly and
+Mackintosh led to certain improvements embodied in what are known as
+Peel's Acts (1826 to 1832). In 1833, at the instance of Lord Chancellor
+Brougham, a royal commission was appointed to deal with the criminal
+law. The nature of the instructions indicate the crudity of the ideas
+then ruling as to codification. The commissioners were directed to
+digest into one statute all enactments touching crimes and the
+punishment thereof, and into another statute the provisions of the
+common unwritten law touching the same. The commission was renewed in
+1836 and 1837, and in 1843 a second commission was appointed. Numerous
+and voluminous reports were published, including (1848) a bill for
+consolidating and amending the law as to crimes and punishments, and
+(1849) a like bill for criminal procedure, indicating that the
+commissioners had in the meantime learned the distinction between
+substantive and adjective law. Lord Brougham in 1848 unsuccessfully
+introduced the first bill, and in the end the only fruit of the reports
+has been certain amendments of procedure in 1851 and the passing of the
+seven Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, which deal with the
+statute law as to theft, forgery, malicious injuries to property,
+coinage offences and offences against the person. The reports, however,
+proved of value in the revision of Macaulay's draft of the Indian penal
+code, and led to the formation of the Statute Law Committee, which has
+relieved the statute book of much dead matter. On his return from India,
+impressed by the success of the Indian penal code, Sir J. Stephen made a
+strong effort to obtain codification. In 1878, at the instance of Lord
+Cairns, he prepared a draft code (based on his well-known _Digest of the
+Criminal Law_), which was laid before parliament and then submitted to
+judicial criticism and revision. As a result of this revision a code
+bill was introduced in 1880; but a dissolution intervened and no serious
+effort was then made. The obstacle in the way is not lack of reports or
+digests on which to frame a code, but the incapacity of parliament to do
+the work itself, and its unwillingness to trust the work to other hands.
+
+
+  India.
+
+The Indian penal code and criminal procedure code, by their history,
+their form, and the extent and diversity of the races and peoples to
+which they apply, are perhaps the most important codes in the whole
+world. While the East India Company was merely a trading company holding
+certain forts and trading ports in India and elsewhere, such criminal
+justice as was administered under its auspices was in the main based on
+the English criminal law, said to have been introduced to some extent by
+the company's charter of 1661, but reintroduced into the presidency laws
+by later charters of 1726, 1753 and 1774. (See _Nuncomar and Impey_, by
+Sir J. Stephen.) From 1771 until 1860 the criminal law administered was
+the Mahommedan law. When in 1771 the East Indian Company determined to
+stand forth as diwan, Warren Hastings required the courts of the
+mofussil (provinces), as distinct from those of the presidency town of
+Fort William, to be guided in the administration of criminal justice by
+Mahommedan law, which under the Moguls had been used in criminal cases
+to the exclusion of Hindu law. Difficulties arose in administration,
+from the definition of crime, the nature of punishments, and in matters
+of procedure, which were removed by regulations and by enactments on
+English lines, especially in Bombay (1827); and great delays and
+considerable injustice were caused by the want of unity in judicial
+organization.
+
+Between 1834 and 1837 Macaulay with three other commissioners, Macleod,
+Anderson and Millet, prepared a draft penal code for India, for which
+they drew not only upon English and Indian laws and regulations but also
+upon Livingstone's Louisiana code and the Code Napoléon. Little or
+nothing was taken from the Mahommedan law. A revised draft of the penal
+code by Sir B. Peacock, Sir J. W. Colville and others was completed in
+1856. In framing it the reports of the English criminal law
+commissioners (published after Macaulay's draft code) were considered.
+The draft was presented to the legislative council in 1856, but owing to
+the mutiny and to objections from missionaries, &c., its passing was
+delayed till the 6th of October 1860. A draft scheme of criminal
+procedure was prepared in India in 1847-1848, which, after submission to
+a commission in England in 1853 (Government of India Act 1853), was
+moulded into a draft code which passed the India legislative council in
+1861 (Act No. XXV.) and came into force in 1862. It has been re-enacted
+with amendments in 1872 (Act X.), 1882 (Act X.) and 1898 (Act V.).
+
+The result is that in India the criminal law is the law of the
+conqueror, though for many civil purposes the law of race, religion and
+caste governs. Under the codes, one set of courts has been established
+throughout the country, composed of well-paid, well-educated judges,
+most of the higher judicial appointments being held by Englishmen; all
+those who hold subordinate judicial posts at the same time are subjected
+to a combined system of appeal and revision. The arrangement of the
+Indian penal code is natural as well as logical; its basis is the law of
+England stripped of technicality and local peculiarities, whilst certain
+modifications are introduced to meet the exigencies of a country such as
+British India. It opens with a chapter of general explanations, and
+interpretations of the terms used throughout the code. It then describes
+the various punishments to which offenders are liable; follows with a
+list of the exceptions regarding criminal responsibility under which a
+person who otherwise would be liable to punishment is exempted from the
+penal consequences of his act, such as offences committed by children,
+by accident or misfortune without any criminal intention, offences
+committed by lunatics, offences committed in the exercise of the right
+of private defence. It may be worth while to add, as an innovation on
+English law, that an act which results in harm so slight that no person
+of ordinary sense and temper would complain of such harm is not
+considered an offence under the code. Then follows a chapter on
+abetment, in other words, the instigation of a person to do a wrongful
+act. The next chapters deal with offences against the public, including
+the state, the army and navy, public tranquillity, public servants,
+contempts of the lawful authority of public servants, perjury; offences
+relating to coin and government stamps, to weights and measures;
+offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and
+morals; offences relating to religion; and offences relating to the
+human body, from murder down to the infliction of any hurt. The code
+then passes on to offences against property; offences relating to
+forgery, including trade marks, criminal breach of contracts for
+service; offences relating to marriage, defamation, criminal
+intimidation, insult and annoyance. Under this last head is included an
+attempt to cause a person to do anything which that person is not
+legally bound to do, by inducing him to believe that he would otherwise
+become subject to Divine displeasure. The last chapter deals with
+attempts to commit offences punishable by the code with transportation
+or imprisonment, and the punishment is limited to one-half of the
+longest term provided for the offence had it been carried out.
+
+  One peculiarity of the Penal Code which has proved eminently
+  successful lies in the system of illustration of the offence declared
+  in every section by a brief statement of some concrete case. For
+  instance, as illustration of the offence of an attempt to commit an
+  offence the following examples are given:--
+
+  I. "A. makes an attempt to steal some jewels by breaking open a box,
+  and finds on opening the box there is no jewel in it. He has done an
+  act towards the commission of theft, and therefore is guilty under
+  this section.
+
+  II. "A. makes an attempt to pick the pocket of Z. by thrusting his
+  hand into Z.'s pocket. A. fails in the attempt in consequence of Z.
+  having nothing in his pocket. A. is guilty under this section."
+
+
+  Indian code of criminal procedure.
+
+Passing on to the system of criminal procedure which is set forth in
+detail in the Code of Criminal Procedure as amended in 1898, it is no
+doubt modelled on the English system, but with considerable
+modifications. The principal steps are--(1) arrest by the police and
+inquiries by the police; (2) the issue of summons or warrant by the
+magistrate; (3) the mode of procedure before the magistrate, who may
+either try the accused himself or commit him to the sessions or the High
+Court, according to the importance of the case; (4) procedure before the
+court of session; (5) appeals, reference and revision by the High Court.
+
+Elaborate provision is made for the prevention of offences, as regards
+security for keeping the peace and for good behaviour, the dispersion of
+unlawful assemblies, the suppression of nuisances, disputes as to
+immovable property, which in all Oriental countries constitute one of
+the most frequent causes of a breach of the peace.
+
+Ample provision is thus made for the prevention of offences, and the
+code next deals with the mode of prosecution of offences actually
+committed.
+
+As a general rule, every offence is inquired into and tried by the court
+within the local limits of whose jurisdiction it was committed.
+Differing from the practice of continental countries, all offences, even
+attempts, may be prosecuted after any lapse of time. As in England,
+there is no statutory limitation to a criminal offence.
+
+A simple procedure is provided for what are called summons cases, as
+distinguished from warrant cases--the first being offences for which a
+police officer may arrest without warrant, the second being offences
+where he must have a warrant, or, in other words, minor offences and
+important offences. In summons cases no formal charge need be framed.
+The magistrate tells the accused the particulars of the offence charged;
+if he admits his guilt, he is convicted; if he does not, evidence is
+taken, and a finding is given in accordance with the facts as proved.
+When the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the magistrate has the
+power to fine the complainant. The code gives power of criminal appeal
+which goes much further than the system in England.
+
+In cases tried by a jury, no appeal lies as to matters of fact, but it
+is allowed as to matters of law; in other cases, criminal appeal is
+admitted on matters of law and fact.
+
+In addition to the system of appeal, the superior courts are entrusted
+with a power of revision, which is maintained automatically by the
+periodical transmission to the High Courts of calendars and statements
+of all cases tried by the inferior courts; and at the same time,
+whenever the High Court thinks fit, it can call for the record of any
+trial and pass such orders as it deems right. All sentences of death
+must be confirmed by the High Court. No appeal lies against an acquittal
+in any criminal case. This system of appeal, superintendence and
+revision would be totally inapplicable to England, but it has proved
+eminently successful as applied to the present social condition of the
+inhabitants of India. The appeals keep the judges up to their work,
+revision corrects all grave mistakes, superintendence is necessary as a
+kind of discipline over the conduct of judges, who are not subjected, as
+in England, to the criticism of enlightened public opinion.
+
+These Indian codes form the basis of the penal, &c., codes in force in
+Ceylon (superseding there the Roman-Dutch law), the Straits Settlements,
+the Sudan and the East Africa protectorates.
+
+
+  Foreign codes.
+
+It has already been stated that most European states have codified their
+criminal law. The earliest of continental codes is that of Charles V.,
+promulgated in 1532, and known as _Constitutio Criminalis Carolina_.
+Austria made further codes in 1768 (_Constitutio Criminalis Theresiana_)
+and 1787 (Emperor Joseph's code). A new code was framed in 1803, and
+amended in 1852 by reference to the Code Napoléon; and in 1906 a
+completely new code existed in draft. The Hungarian penal code dates
+from 1880. The Bavarian code of 1768 of Maximilian, revised in 1861,
+and the Prussian code of 1780, have been superseded by the German penal
+code of 1872.
+
+The most important of the continental criminal codes are those of
+France, the _Code Pénal_ (1810) and the _Code d'Instruction Criminelle_
+(1808)--the work of Napoleon the Great and his advisers, which
+professedly incorporate much of the Roman law.
+
+The Belgian codes (1867), and the Dutch penal code (1880), closely
+follow the French model. In Spain the penal code dates from 1870, the
+procedure code from 1886. The Spanish American republics for the most
+part also have codes. Portugal has a penal code (1852). In Italy the
+procedure code and the penal code, perhaps the completest yet framed,
+are of 1890. The Swedish code dates from 1864. The Norwegian code was
+passed in May 1902, and came into force in 1905. Japan has a code based
+on a study of European and American models; and Switzerland is framing a
+federal criminal code.
+
+In the United States no federal criminal code is possible; but most
+states, following the lead of Louisiana, have digested their criminal
+law and procedure more or less effectually into penal codes.
+     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "It is founded," said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863,
+    "on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most
+    important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation there
+    was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an entire
+    and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enactments of
+    which were for the most part intended to supply the deficiencies of
+    the original system. These acts have been re-enacted twice over in
+    the present generation--once between 1826 and 1832 and once in 1861;
+    besides which they were all amended in 1837. Finally, every part of
+    the whole system has been made the subject of judicial comments and
+    constructions occasioned by particular cases, the great mass of which
+    have arisen within the last fifty years." (_View of the Criminal Law
+    of England_, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.)
+
+  [2] i.e. Itinerant justices. From the Latin _in itinere_, on a
+    journey.
+
+
+
+
+CRIMINOLOGY, the name given to a new branch of social science, devoted
+to the discussion of the genesis of crime (q.v.), which has received
+much attention in recent years. The expression is one of modern coinage,
+and originated with the speculative theories first advanced by the
+school of sociologists which had the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso,
+at its head. He discovered or was supposed to have discovered a criminal
+type, the "instinctive" or "born" criminal, a creature who had come into
+the world predestined to evil deeds, and who could be surely recognized
+by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical, even moral birthmarks,
+the possession of which, presumably ineradicable, foredoomed him to the
+commission of crime. Dr Lombroso, in his ingenious work _L'Uomo
+delinquente_, found many attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted
+followers. Large numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the
+conclusions of the Italian school have been warmly contested and on very
+plausible grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory
+of free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that we have
+no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled to crime by
+congenital causes, entirely beyond his control. The "instinctive"
+criminal, under this reasoning, must be classed with the lunatic whom we
+cannot justly, and practically never do, punish. There are other points
+on which proof of the existence of the criminal type fails absolutely.
+The whole theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine,
+and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern thought
+that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school must be examined
+and disposed of.
+
+The alleged discovery of the "born-criminal" as a separate and distinct
+genus of the human species was first published by Dr Lombroso in 1876 as
+the result of long continued investigation and examination of a number
+of imprisoned criminals. The personality of this human monster was to be
+recognized by certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all
+displayed by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction
+and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined as
+follows:--various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding foreheads;
+massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without symmetry; ears long,
+large and projecting (the ear _ad ansa_); noses rectilinear, wrinkles
+strongly marked, even in the young and in both sexes, hair abundant on
+the head, scanty on the cheeks and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold,
+glassy, ferocious; bad repellent faces. Much stress is laid upon the
+physiognomy, and it is said that it is independent of nationality; two
+natives of the same country do not so nearly resemble each other as two
+criminals of different countries. Other peculiarities are:--great width
+of the extended arms (_l'envergure_ of the French), extraordinary
+ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism; obtuse
+sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although the eyesight is
+superior to that of normal people. "In general," to quote Lombroso, "the
+born criminal has projecting ears, thick hair and thin beard,
+projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws, a square and protruding
+chin, large cheek bones and frequent gesticulation." So much for the
+anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the criminal. There remain
+the psychological or mental characteristics, so far as they have been
+observed. Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience
+that never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to be
+generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want of
+proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads so
+often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly marked and
+shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements rather than personal
+appearance.
+
+No sooner was this new theory made public than the very existence of the
+supposed type was questioned and more evidence demanded. A French savant
+declared that Lombroso's portraits were very similar to the photographs
+of his friends. Save for the dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and
+the misery so often seen on it, the face of the criminal does not differ
+from that of an honest man's. It was pointed out that if certain traits
+denoted the criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A
+pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made from
+insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon a
+comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their discoveries
+applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected from too small
+an area and no definite conclusions could be based upon them. Moreover,
+the criminologists were by no means unanimous. They differed amongst
+themselves and often contradicted one another as to the characteristics
+exhibited.
+
+The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent persons have been
+arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso was supported by Colajanni,
+Ferri, Garofalo; in France by J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has
+found few followers; Dr Naëcke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the
+most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was any
+special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only a qualified
+approval. In England it stands generally condemned, because it gives no
+importance to circumstance and passing temptation, or to domestic or
+social environment, as affecting the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of
+Broadmoor has said that "if the criminal is such by predestination,
+heredity or accidental flaws or anomalies in brain or physical
+structure, he is such for good and all; no cure is possible, all the
+plans and processes for his betterment, education, moral training and
+disciplinary treatment are nugatory and vain." No weight can then be
+attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings, in
+moulding and forming character, particularly during the more plastic
+periods of childhood and youth.
+
+The pertinent question remains, has the study and development of
+criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can come of it in
+its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning and embraces
+larger researches. It has inquired into the sources and causes of crime,
+it has collected criminal statistics and deduced valuable lessons from
+them, it has sought and obtained guidance in the best methods of
+prevention, repression, and forms of procedure. The champions of law and
+order have been greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the
+continual combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated of
+social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulating a number
+of curious details, in recording the psychology, the secret desires, the
+springs of the criminal's nefarious actions, his corrigibility or the
+reverse, "prepared the way to his sociological explanation" (Tarde).
+Thanks to the labours of the criminologist we are moving steadily
+forward to a future improved treatment of the criminal, and may thus
+arrive at the increased morality and greater safety of society. Very
+appreciable advance has been made in the increased attention paid to
+juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now well
+established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period when the
+moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation to crime, when
+happily human nature is more malleable and susceptible to improvement
+and reform.
+
+The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy us that the
+true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomical anomalies of
+individuals, or in the fact that there are people who under "any social
+conditions whatever and of any nationality at no matter what epoch,
+would have undoubtedly become murderers and thieves." On the contrary it
+may be safely assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they
+had, e.g., been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that
+drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of their
+surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the hands of
+administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance of child-rescue
+and judicious direction of adults, have held the balance between penal
+methods, advocating the moralizing effect of open-air labour as opposed
+to prolonged isolation, and have insisted upon the desirability of
+indefinite detention for all who have obstinately determined to wage
+perpetual war against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See A. Weingart, _Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch für das
+  Untersuchen von Verbrechen_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines, _Punishment
+  and Reformation_ (New York, 1895); C. Perrier, _Les Criminels_ (Paris,
+  1905); G. Macé, _Femmes criminelles_ (Paris, 1904); E. Carpenter,
+  _Prisons, Police and Punishment_ (1905); R. R. Rentoul, _Proposed
+  Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates_ (1904); R.
+  Sommer, _Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psychopathologie auf
+  naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. Kitzinger, _Die
+  internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung_ (1905); Reports of
+  Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to Secondary
+  Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of Commons Committee of
+  1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of the departmental committee
+  of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M. inspectors for Great Britain
+  and Ireland.     (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMMITZSCHAU, or KRIMMITSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-Hof railway, 7 m. N.W. from
+Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845. The most important industries of the town
+are the manufacture of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and
+vicuna-wool, and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning
+connected with these. Among other manufactures are brushes, boilers and
+the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the cases and other parts of
+watches. The town has a modern school (Realschule), a commercial school,
+and technical schools for weaving and finishing.
+
+
+
+
+CRIMP (possibly connected with "crimp," to draw together, or fold in
+parallel lines, in the sense of "confine"; the primary meaning, however,
+seems to be that of "agent," and the word may be a distinct one, of
+which the origin is lost), an agent for the supplying of soldiers and
+sailors, by kidnapping, drugging, decoying or other illegal means.
+Crimps were formerly regularly employed in the days of impressment
+(q.v.). Now the term is used, first of any one who engages to supply
+merchant seamen without a licence from the Board of Trade, and is not
+either the owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the
+servant, and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a
+superintendent (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 111); and, with a wide
+application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house keepers, who
+are generally in league with the "crimp" proper.
+
+Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the
+protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from imposition.
+Local authorities at seaports have power to make by-laws for the
+licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for sailors, and to inflict
+penalties for the infringement thereof. If this power be not exercised,
+the Board of Trade may do so. Penalties are also imposed by the act for
+overcharging by lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen's
+effects, and for soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from
+boarding a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a
+port may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on discharge,
+and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses. Facilities are
+also given for having wages sent home from foreign ports at a small
+charge. These provisions have practically killed "crimping" in the
+United Kingdom. In the ports of the United States of America crimping
+was long prevalent, especially on the Pacific coast, and its prevention
+was very difficult, but state regulations as to the licensing of
+boarding-houses, and the limitation of the amount of so-called
+"blood-money" paid by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to
+ships denuded by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially.
+
+The term "to shanghai" is used of a more serious offence. Literally
+meaning "to ship to Shanghai," in China, it is applied to the drugging
+or rendering unconscious by violence or other means of persons, whether
+sailors or not, and shipping them to distant ports, in order
+fraudulently to obtain money in advance of wages, or for the sake of the
+premium paid for supplying crews.
+
+
+
+
+CRIMSON, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to a greater or
+less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye produced from the
+dried bodies of the cochineal insect (_Coccus cacti_). The word, in its
+earlier forms _cremesin, crymysyn_, also _cramoysin_, cf. "cramoisy,"
+the name of a red cloth, is adapted from the Med. Lat. _cremesinus_ for
+_kermesinus_ or _carmesinus_, the dye produced from the insect _Kermes_
+(_Coccus ilicis_), Arab. _quirmiz_, which Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898)
+connects with the Sanskrit _krimi_, cognate with Lat. _vermis_ and Eng.
+"worm." From the Lat. _carminus_, a shortened form of carmesinus, comes
+"carmine" (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CRINAGORAS, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished during the
+reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number of epigrams appear
+under his name in the Greek Anthology. From inscriptions discovered at
+Mytilene, he appears to have been one of the ambassadors sent from that
+city to Rome in 45 and 26 B.C.
+
+  The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. _crinis_, hair, and _linum_,
+thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and cotton or linen
+thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-like material used in
+making hat shapes, are also known by the same name. From the use of the
+material to expand ladies' skirts the term was applied, during the third
+quarter of the 19th century, when the fashion of wearing greatly
+expanded skirts was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops
+employed to support the skirts thus worn (see COSTUME). The term is also
+used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the
+framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection for a warship
+against torpedo attack.
+
+
+
+
+CRINUM, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous plants with rather
+broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing a cluster of handsome
+white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers. They are well known in
+cultivation, and owing to the wide distribution of the genus different
+methods are adopted with different species. Some require the hot, moist
+temperature of a stove; such are _C. amabile_, a native of Sumatra, _C.
+amoenum_ (India), _C. Balfourii_ (Socotra), _C. giganteum_ (West
+tropical Africa), _C. Kirkii_ (Zanzibar), _C. latifolium_ (India), _C.
+zeylanicum_ (tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a
+greenhouse; such are _C. asiaticum_, a widely distributed plant on the
+sea-coast of tropical Asia, _C. capense_ and _C. longiflorum_, from the
+Cape, and _C. Macowani_ and _C. Moorei_ from Natal. _C. asiaticum_, _C.
+capense_ and _C. Macowani_ will also thrive in sheltered positions in
+the garden.
+
+
+
+
+CRIOBOLIUM, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and the Great
+Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony instituted after the
+rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium (q.v.), which was performed
+in honour of the Great Mother, for the purpose of giving fuller
+recognition to Attis in the duality which he formed with the Mother.
+There is no evidence of its existence either in Asia or in Italy before
+the taurobolium came into prominence (after A.D. 134). When the
+criobolium was performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar
+was almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while the
+inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium only was
+performed. The celebration of the criobolium was widespread, and its
+importance such that it was sometimes performed in place of the
+taurobolium (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vi. 505, 506). The details and effect
+of the ceremony were no doubt similar to those of the taurobolium. (G.
+SN.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIPPLE CREEK, a city and the county-seat of Teller county, almost at
+the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of the phenomenal
+mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900) 10,147 (1408 foreign-born);
+(1910) 6206. The city is served by three railways--the Colorado Springs
+& Cripple Creek District (a branch of the Colorado & Southern), the
+Midland Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with
+the Colorado Midland), and the Florence & Cripple Creek. Cripple Creek
+is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid the ranges, about 9600
+ft. above the sea at the head of the stream after which it is named. The
+municipal water-supply is drawn from Pike's Peak, 10 m. distant. The
+interest of the city is in its extraordinary mines and their history.
+Cripple Creek's site was frequently prospected after 1860, and "colours"
+and gold "float" were always found, but not until February 1891 was the
+source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle range. In
+1891 the output of gold in the district was valued at $449, in 1892 at
+$583,010, and in the next three years at $2,010,367, $2,908,702 and
+$6,879,137 respectively. From 1891 to 1906 the total production of gold
+was valued at $168,584,331; in 1905[1] the product of gold was valued at
+$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at $25,023,973;
+in 1906 the output for the district was valued at $14,253,245, out of
+$23,210,629 for the entire state. The development of the camp into a
+yellow-pine town and then into something more like a substantial city
+was marvellously rapid. The first railway was completed in 1894. In the
+same year a great strike--one of the most famous in American industrial
+history--threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines; in 1896
+fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second strike, lasting
+more than a year and greater than the first, occurred. The first strike,
+which was for an eight-hour day and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners.
+The second, for the recognition outright of the union organization of
+the miners, secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The
+ores are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most
+characteristic form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very
+rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this accounted for
+the late opening of the field. The field covers a district about 8 × 10
+m. Some peculiarities of the ores have required the use of new methods
+in their treatment, and in general the development of mining methods and
+machinery is of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is
+seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are dotted
+everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous mines have been the
+"Independence" (1891) and the "Portland" (1892). The latter had in 1904
+more than 25 m. of workings above the 1100-ft. level. In 1903 the El
+Paso drain was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to
+the 880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs; in
+1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on a long bore
+was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and cyanide extracters in the
+district, but the bulk of the ore product is shipped to other places for
+treatment. Among the towns around Cripple Creek in the same mining
+district is Victor, pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as
+a city in 1898.
+
+  See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, _Geology and Gold Deposits of the
+  Cripple Creek District, Colorado_, with maps (Washington, 1906), being
+  Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological Survey; and
+  Benjamin McKie Rastall, _The Labor History of the Cripple Creek
+  District; A Study in Industrial Evolution_ (Madison, Wis., 1908), a
+  full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The value of gold mined in 1899-1902 was greater, annually, than
+    the product of 1905 or 1906; up to 1905 the greatest annual value was
+    in 1900, $18,073,539.
+
+
+
+
+CRISA, or CRISSA, in ancient geography, one of the oldest cities of
+Greece, situated in Phocis, on one of the spurs of Parnassus. Its name
+occurs both in the _Iliad_ and in the Homeric _Hymns_, where it is
+described as a powerful place, with a rich and fertile territory,
+reaching to the sea, and including within its limits the sanctuary of
+Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew up around the shrine, and the seaport
+of Cirrha arose on the Crisean Gulf, Crisa gradually lost much of its
+importance. By the ancients themselves the name of Cirrha was so often
+substituted for that of Crisa, that it soon became doubtful whether
+these names indicated the same city or not. The question was
+practically settled by the investigations of H. N. Ulrichs. From its
+position Cirrha commanded the approach to Delphi, and its inhabitants
+became obnoxious to the Greeks from the heavy tolls which they exacted
+from the devotees who thronged to the shrine. The Amphictyonic Council
+declared war (the first Sacred War) against the Criseans in 595 B.C.,
+and having taken the town, razed it to the ground, and consecrated its
+territory to the temple at Delphi. The plunder of the town was sold to
+defray the expenses of the Pythian games. In 339 the people of Amphissa
+began to rebuild the town of Cirrha and to cultivate the plain. This act
+brought on the second Sacred War, the conduct of which was entrusted by
+the Amphictyons to Philip of Macedon, who took Amphissa (mod. Salona) in
+the following year. The ruins of Crisa may be still seen where the
+ravine of the Pleistus joins the plain; its name is probably preserved
+by the modern Chryso.
+
+  See J. G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, v. 459 (note on x. 37.5).     (E. GR.)
+
+
+
+
+CRISPI, FRANCESCO (1819-1901), Italian statesman, was born at Ribéra in
+Sicily on the 4th of October 1819. In 1846 he established himself as
+advocate at Naples. On the outbreak of the Sicilian revolution at
+Palermo (January 12, 1848) he hastened to the island and took an active
+part in guiding the insurrection. Upon the restoration of the Bourbon
+government (May 15, 1849) he was excluded from the amnesty and compelled
+to flee to Piedmont. Here he unsuccessfully applied for a situation as
+communal secretary of Verolengo, and eked out a penurious existence by
+journalism. Implicated in the Mazzinian conspiracy at Milan (February 6,
+1853), he was expelled from Piedmont, and obliged to take refuge at
+Malta, whence he fled to Paris. Expelled from France, he joined Mazzini
+in London, and continued to conspire for the redemption of Italy. On the
+15th of June 1859 he returned to Italy after publishing a letter
+repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont, and proclaiming himself a
+republican and a partisan of national unity. Twice in that year he went
+the round of the Sicilian cities in disguise, and prepared the
+insurrectionary movement of 1860.
+
+Upon his return to Genoa he organized, with Bertani, Bixio, Medici and
+Garibaldi, the expedition of the Thousand, and overcoming by a stratagem
+the hesitation of Garibaldi, secured the departure of the expedition on
+the 5th of May 1860. Disembarking at Marsala on the 11th, Crispi on the
+13th, at Salemi, drew up the proclamation whereby Garibaldi assumed the
+dictatorship of Sicily, with the programme: "Italy and Victor Emmanuel."
+After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed minister of the interior
+and of finance in the Sicilian provisional government, but was shortly
+afterwards obliged to resign on account of the struggle between
+Garibaldi and the emissaries of Cavour with regard to the question of
+immediate annexation. Appointed secretary to Garibaldi, Crispi secured
+the resignation of Depretis, whom Garibaldi had appointed pro-dictator,
+and would have continued his fierce opposition to Cavour at Naples,
+where he had been placed by Garibaldi in the foreign office, had not the
+advent of the Italian regular troops and the annexation of the Two
+Sicilies to Italy brought about Garibaldi's withdrawal to Caprera and
+Crispi's own resignation. Entering parliament in 1861 as deputy of the
+extreme Left for Castelvetrano, Crispi acquired the reputation of being
+the most aggressive and most impetuous member of the republican party.
+In 1864, however, he made at the chamber a monarchical profession of
+faith, in the famous phrase afterwards repeated in his letter to
+Mazzini: "The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us." In 1860
+he refused to enter the Ricasoli cabinet; in 1867 he worked to impede
+the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states, foreseeing the French
+occupation of Rome and the disaster of Mentana. By methods of the same
+character as those subsequently employed against himself by Cavallotti,
+he carried on the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which
+sundry conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused of
+corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he worked
+energetically to impede the projected alliance with France, and to drive
+the Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death of Ratazzi in 1873 induced Crispi's
+friends to put forward his candidature to the leadership of the Left;
+but Crispi, anxious to reassure the crown, secured the election of
+Depretis. After the advent of the Left he was elected (November 1876)
+president of the chamber. During the autumn of 1877 he went to London,
+Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial
+personal relationships with Gladstone, Granville and other English
+statesmen, and with Bismarck.
+
+In December 1877 he replaced Nicotera as minister of the interior in the
+Depretis cabinet, his short term of office (70 days) being signalized by
+a series of important events. On January 9, 1878, the death of Victor
+Emmanuel and the accession of King Humbert enabled Crispi to secure the
+formal establishment of a unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the
+title of Humbert I. of Italy instead of Humbert IV. of Savoy. The
+remains of Victor Emmanuel were interred in the Pantheon instead of
+being transported to the Savoy Mausoleum at Superga. On the 9th of
+February, 1879, the death of Pius IX. necessitated a conclave, the first
+to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped by Mancini and
+Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), persuaded the Sacred College to
+hold the conclave in Rome, and prorogued the chamber lest any untoward
+manifestation should mar the solemnity of the event. The statesmanlike
+qualities displayed on this occasion were unavailing to avert the storm
+of indignation conjured up by Crispi's opponents in connexion with a
+charge of bigamy not susceptible of legal proof. Crispi was compelled to
+resign office, although the judicial authorities upheld the invalidity
+of his early marriage, contracted at Malta in 1853, and ratified his
+subsequent union with Signora Barbagallo. For nine years Crispi remained
+politically under a cloud, but in 1887 returned to office as minister of
+the interior in the Depretis cabinet, succeeding to the premiership upon
+the death of Depretis (July 29, 1887).
+
+One of his first acts as premier was a visit to Bismarck, whom he
+desired to consult upon the working of the Triple Alliance. Basing his
+foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by the naval _entente_
+with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor, Count Robilant, Crispi
+assumed a resolute attitude towards France, breaking off the prolonged
+and unfruitful negotiations for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty,
+and refusing the French invitation to organize an Italian section at the
+Paris Exhibition of 1889. At home Crispi secured the adoption of the
+Sanitary and Commercial Codes, and reformed the administration of
+justice. Forsaken by his Radical friends, Crispi governed with the help
+of the Right until, on the 31st of January 1891, an intemperate allusion
+to the _sante memorie_ of the conservative party led to his overthrow.
+In December 1893 the impotence of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public
+order, then menaced by disturbances in Sicily and in Lunigiana, gave
+rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power. Upon
+resuming office he vigorously suppressed the disorders, and steadily
+supported the energetic remedies adopted by Sonnino, minister of
+finance, to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken by the
+bank and financial crises of 1892-1893. Crispi's uncompromising
+suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon either the Triple
+Alliance or the Eritrean colony, or to forsake his colleague Sonnino,
+caused a breach between him and the radical leader Cavallotti.
+Cavallotti then began against him a pitiless campaign of defamation. An
+unsuccessful attempt upon Crispi's life by the anarchist Lega brought a
+momentary truce, but Cavallotti's attacks were soon renewed more
+fiercely than ever. They produced so little effect that the general
+election of 1895 gave Crispi a huge majority, but, a year later, the
+defeat of the Italian army at Adowa in Abyssinia brought about his
+resignation. The ensuing Rudini cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti's
+campaign, and at the end of 1897 the judicial authorities applied to the
+chamber for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzlement. A
+parliamentary commission, appointed to inquire into the charges against
+him, discovered only that Crispi, on assuming office in 1893, had found
+the secret service coffers empty, and had borrowed from a state bank
+the sum of £12,000 for secret service, repaying it with the monthly
+instalments granted in regular course by the treasury. The commission,
+considering this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the chamber
+adopted, a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution.
+Crispi resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an
+overwhelming majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents. For
+some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on account of
+his growing blindness. A successful operation for cataract restored his
+eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstanding his 81 years he resumed to
+some extent his former political activity. Soon afterwards, however, his
+health began to give way permanently, and he died at Naples on the 12th
+of August 1901.
+
+The importance of Crispi in Italian public life depended less upon the
+many reforms accomplished under his administrations than upon his
+intense patriotism, remarkable fibre, and capacity for administering to
+his fellow-countrymen the political tonic of which they stood in
+constant need. In regard to foreign politics he greatly contributed to
+raise Italian prestige and to dispel the reputation for
+untrustworthiness and vacillation acquired by many of his predecessors.
+If in regard to France his policy appeared to lack suavity and
+circumspection, it must be remembered that the French republic was then
+engaged in active anti-Italian schemes and was working, both at the
+Vatican and in the sphere of colonial politics, to create a situation
+that should compel Italy to bow to French exigencies and to abandon the
+Triple Alliance. Crispi was prepared to cultivate good relations with
+France, but refused to yield to pressure or to submit to dictation; and
+in this attitude he was firmly supported by the bulk of his
+fellow-countrymen. The criticism freely directed against him was based
+rather upon the circumstances of his unfortunate private life and the
+misdeeds of an unscrupulous _entourage_ which traded upon his name than
+upon his personal or political shortcomings.
+
+  See _Scritti e discorsi politici di F. Crispi, 1847-1890_ (Rome,
+  1890); _Francesco Crispi_, by W. J. Stillman (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN, the patron saints of shoemakers, whose festival
+is celebrated on the 25th of October. Their history is largely
+legendary, and there exists no trace of it earlier than the 8th century.
+It is said that they were brothers and members of a noble family in
+Rome. They gave up their property and travelled to Soissons (Noviodunum,
+Augusta Sucessionum), where they supported themselves by shoemaking and
+made many converts to Christianity. The emperor Maximianus (Herculius)
+condemned them to death. His prefect Rictiovarus endeavoured to carry
+out the sentence, but they emerged unharmed from all the ordeals to
+which he subjected them, and the weapons he used recoiled against the
+executioners. Rictiovarus in disgust cast himself into the fire, or the
+caldron of boiling tar, from which they had emerged refreshed. At last
+Maximian had their heads cut off (c. 287-300). Their remains were buried
+at Soissons, but were afterwards removed, partly by Charlemagne to
+Osnabrück (where a festival is observed annually on the 20th of June)
+and partly to the chapel of St Lawrence in Rome. The abbeys of St
+Crépin-en-Chaye (the remains of which still form part of a farmhouse on
+the river Aisne, N.N.W. of Soissons), of St Crépin-le-Petit, and St
+Crépin-le-Grand (the site of which is occupied by a house belonging to
+the Sisters of Mercy), in or near Soissons, commemorated the places
+sanctified by their imprisonment and burial. There are also relics at
+Fulda, and a Kentish tradition claims that the bodies of the martyrs
+were cast into the sea and cast on shore on Romney Marsh (see _Acta SS.
+Bolland_, xi. 495; A. Butler, _Lives of the Saints_. October 25th).
+
+Especially in France, but also in England and in other parts of Europe,
+the festival of St Crispin was for centuries the occasion of solemn
+processions and merry-making, in which gilds of shoemakers took the
+chief part. At Troyes, where the gild of St Crispin was reconstituted as
+late as 1820, an annual festival is celebrated in the church of St
+Urban. In England and Scotland the day acquired additional importance as
+the anniversary of the battle of Agincourt (cf. Shakespeare, _Henry V._
+iv. 3); the symbolical processions in honour of "King Crispin" at
+Stirling and Edinburgh were particularly famous.
+
+  For other examples see _Notes and Queries_, 1st series, v. 30, vi.
+  243; W. S. Walsh, _Curiosities of Popular Customs_ (London, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+CRITIAS, Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty Tyrants. In his
+youth he was a pupil of Gorgias and Socrates, but subsequently devoted
+himself to political intrigues. In 415 B.C. he was implicated in the
+mutilation of the Hermae and imprisoned. In 411 he helped to put down
+the Four Hundred, and was instrumental in procuring the recall of
+Alcibiades. He was banished (probably in the democratic reaction of 407)
+and fled to Thessaly, where he stirred up the Penestae (the helots of
+Thessaly) against their masters, and endeavoured to establish a
+democracy. Returning to Athens he was made ephor by the oligarchical
+party; and he was the most cruel and unscrupulous of the Thirty Tyrants
+who in 404 were appointed by the Lacedaemonians. He was slain in battle
+against Thrasybulus and the returning democrats. Critias was a man of
+varied talents--poet, orator, historian and philosopher. Some fragments
+of his elegies will be found in Bergk, _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_. He was
+also the author of several tragedies and of biographies of distinguished
+poets (possibly in verse).
+
+  See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, ii. 3. 4. 19, _Memorabilia_, i. 2;
+  Cornelius Nepos, _Thrasybulus_, 2; R. Lallier, _De Critiae tyranni
+  vita ac scriptis_ (1875); Nestle, _Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl. Altert._
+  (1903).
+
+
+
+
+CRITICISM (from the Gr. [Greek: _kritês_], a judge, [Greek: _krinein_],
+to decide, to give an authoritative opinion), the art of judging the
+qualities and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or
+the fine arts.[1] It involves, in the first instance, the formation and
+expression of a judgment on the qualities of anything, and Matthew
+Arnold defined it in this general sense as "a disinterested endeavour to
+learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world." It
+has come, however, to possess a secondary and specialized meaning as a
+published analysis of the qualities and characteristics of a work in
+literature or fine art, itself taking the form of independent
+literature. The sense in which criticism is taken as implying censure,
+the "picking holes" in any statement or production, is frequent, but it
+is entirely unjustifiable. There is nothing in the proper scope of
+criticism which presupposes blame. On the contrary, a work of perfect
+beauty and fitness, in which no fault could possibly be found with
+justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to deal with as a work of
+the greatest imperfection. It may be perfectly just to state that a book
+or a picture is "beneath criticism," i.e. is so wanting in all qualities
+of originality and technical excellence that time would merely be wasted
+in analysing it. But it can never be properly said that a work is "above
+criticism," although it may be "above censure," for the very complexity
+of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the skill of the
+analyser and reward it.
+
+It is necessary at the threshold of an examination of the history of
+criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing is more
+confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose that it
+consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy. Candid criticism
+should be neither benevolent nor adverse; its function is to give a just
+judgment, without partiality or bias. A critic ([Greek: _kritikos_]) is
+one who exercises the art of criticism, who sets himself up, or is set
+up, as a judge of literary and artistic merit. The irritability of
+mankind, which easily forgets and neglects praise, but cannot forgive
+the rankling poison of blame, has set upon the word _critic_ a seal
+which is even more unamiable than that of _criticism_. It takes its most
+savage form in Benjamin Disraeli's celebrated and deplorable _dictum_,
+"the critics are the men who have failed in literature and art." It is
+plain that such names as those of Aristotle, Dante, Dryden, Joshua
+Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not to be thus swept by a
+reckless fulmination. There have been many critics who brought from
+failure in imaginative composition a cavilling, jealous and ignoble
+temper, who have mainly exercised their function in indulging the evil
+passion of envy. But, so far as they have done this, they have proved
+themselves bad critics, and neither minute care, nor a basis of
+learning, nor wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must
+be, can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on the
+desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure unfairly.
+The examination of what has been produced by other ages of human thought
+is much less liable to this dangerous error than the attempt to estimate
+contemporary works of art and literature. There are few indeed whom
+personal passion can blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a
+poem of the 17th century. In the higher branches of historical
+criticism, prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and
+therefore, in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to
+leave out of consideration that invidious and fugitive species which
+bears the general name of "reviewing." This pedestrian criticism,
+indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very nature,
+ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks. Even when the
+reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is almost impossible
+for him to stand far enough back from the object under review to see it
+in its proper perspective. He is dazzled, or scandalized, by its
+novelty; he has formed a preconceived notion of the degree to which its
+author should be encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases,
+an element in the mental condition which he attempts to judge, and if
+not positively a defendant is at least a juryman in the court over which
+he ought to preside with remote impartiality.
+
+It may be laid down as the definition of criticism in its pure sense,
+that it should consist in the application, in the most competent form,
+of the principles of literary composition. Those principles are the
+general aesthetics upon which taste is founded; they take the character
+of rules of writing. From the days of Aristotle the existence of such
+rules has not been doubted, but different orders of mind in various ages
+have given them diverse application, and upon this diversity the
+fluctuations of taste are founded. It is now generally admitted that in
+past ages critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate
+taste rigidly, and to lay down rules that shall match every case with a
+formula. Over-legislation has been the bane of official criticism, and
+originality, especially in works of creative imagination, has been
+condemned because it did not conform to existing rules. Such instances
+of want of contemporary appreciation as the reception given to William
+Blake or Keats, or even Milton, are quoted to prove the futility of
+criticism. As a matter of fact they do nothing of the kind. They merely
+prove the immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic
+products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed during the
+life-times of those illustrious men. False critics have built domes of
+glass, as Voltaire put it, between the heavens and themselves, domes
+which genius has to shatter in pieces before it can make itself
+comprehended. In critical application formulas are often useful, but
+they should be held lightly; when the formula becomes the tyrant where
+it should be the servant of thought, fatal error is imminent. What is
+required above all else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with good
+sense, and combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste. He who
+possesses these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his
+error cannot become radical, and he is always open to correction. It is
+not his business crudely to pronounce a composition "good" or "bad"; he
+must be able to show why it is "good" and wherein it is "bad"; he must
+admire with independence and blame with careful candour. He must above
+all be assiduous to escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal
+lack of thought under a flow of words. The finest criticism should take
+every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it
+necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book. A large
+part of the reason why the criticism of productions of the past is so
+much more fruitful than mere contemporary reviewing, is that by
+remoteness from the scene of action the critic is able to make himself
+familiar with all the elements of age, place and medium which affected
+the writer at the moment of his composition. In short, knowledge and
+even taste are not sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion
+of a still rarer quality, breadth of sympathy.
+
+Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to reach
+maturity, but from very early times the instinct which induces mankind
+to review what it has produced led to the composition of imperfect but
+often extremely valuable bodies of opinion. What makes these early
+criticisms tantalizing is that the moral or political aspects of
+literature had not disengaged themselves from the purely intellectual or
+aesthetic.
+
+To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find that in
+antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the father and almost as the founder
+of literary criticism. Yet before his day, three Greek writers of
+eminence had examined, in more or less fulness, the principles of
+composition; these were Plato, Isocrates and Aristophanes. The comedy of
+_The Frogs_, by the latter, is the earliest specimen we possess of
+hostile literary criticism, being devoted to ridicule of the plays of
+Euripides. In the cases of Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form
+mainly of an examination of the rules of rhetoric. We reach, however,
+much firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose _Poetics_ and
+_Rhetoric_ are among the most valuable treatises which antiquity has
+handed down to us. Of what existed in the literature of his age,
+extremely rich in some branches, entirely empty in others, Aristotle
+speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G. Saintsbury has justly
+remarked that as his criticism of poetry was injuriously affected by the
+non-existence of the novelist, so his criticism of prose was injuriously
+affected by the omnipresence of the orator. This continues true of all
+ancient criticism. A work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study
+of Homer is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in
+the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less important
+than the foundation on which all subsequent European criticism has been
+raised. It does not appear that any of the numerous disciples of
+Aristotle understood his attitude to literature, nor do the later
+philosophical schools offer much of interest. The Neoplatonists,
+however, were occupied with analysis of the Beautiful, on which both
+Proclus and Plotinus expatiated; still more purely literary were some of
+the treatises of Porphyry. There seems to be no doubt that Alexandria
+possessed, in the third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians;
+the names of Zenodotus, of Crates and of Aristarchus were eminent in
+this connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived.
+They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere rhetoricians
+of the last Greek schools, such as Hermogenes and Aphthonius. In the 2nd
+century of our era, Dio Chrysostom, Aristides of Smyrna, and Maximus of
+Tyre were the main representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded
+by Philostratus and Libanius. The most modern of post-Christian Greek
+critics, however, is unquestionably Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who
+leads up to Lucian and Cassius Longinus. The last-mentioned name calls
+for special notice; in "the lovely and magnificent personality of
+Longinus" we find the most intelligent judge of literature who wrote
+between Aristotle and the moderns. His book _On the Sublime_ ([Greek:
+_Peri hupsous_]), probably written about A.D. 260, and first printed in
+1554, is of extreme importance, while his intuitions and the splendour
+of his style combine to lift Longinus to the highest rank among the
+critics of the world.
+
+In Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent position. In
+early days the rhetorical works of Cicero and the famous _Art of Poetry_
+of Horace exhaust the category. During the later Augustan period the
+only literary critic of importance was the elder Seneca. Passing over
+the valuable allusions to the art of writing in the poets, especially in
+Juvenal and Martial, we reach, in the Silver Age, Quintilian, the most
+accomplished of all the Roman critics. His _Institutes of Oratory_ has
+been described as the fullest and most intelligent application of
+criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one which
+places the name of Quintilian not far below those of Aristotle and
+Longinus. He was followed by Aulus Gellius, by Macrobius (whose
+reputation was great in the middle ages), by Servius (the great
+commentator on Virgil), and, after a long interval, by Martianus
+Capella. Latin criticism sank into mere pedantry about rhetoric and
+grammar. This continued throughout the Dark Ages, until the 13th
+century, when rhythmical treatises, of which the _Labyrinthus_ of
+Eberhard (1212?) and the _Ars rhythmica_ of John of Garlandia (John
+Garland) are the most famous, came into fashion. These writings
+testified to a growing revival of a taste for poetry.
+
+It is, however, in the masterly technical treatise _De vulgari eloquio_,
+generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in Italian) in 1529,
+that modern poetical criticism takes its first step. The example of this
+admirable book was not adequately followed; throughout the 14th and 15th
+centuries, criticism is mainly indirect and accidental. Boccaccio,
+indeed, is the only figure worthy of mention, between Dante and Erasmus.
+With the Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in Italy,
+producing such excellent specimens as the _Sylvae_ of Poliziano, the
+_Poetics_ (1527) of Vida, and the _Poetica_ of Trissino, the best of a
+whole crop of critical works produced, often by famous names, between
+1525 and 1560. These were followed by sounder scholars and acuter
+theorists: by Scaliger with his epoch-making _Poetices_ (1561); by L.
+Castelvetro, whose _Poetica_ (1570) started the modern cultivation of
+the Unities and asserted the value of the Epic; by Tasso with his
+_Discorsi_ (1587); and by Francesco Patrizzi in his _Poetica_ (1586).
+
+In France, the earliest and for a long time the most important specimen
+of literary criticism was the _Défense et illustration de la langue
+française_, published in 1549 by Joachim du Bellay. Ronsard, also, wrote
+frequently and ably on the art of poetry. The theories of the Pléiade
+were summed up in the _Art poétique_ of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which
+belongs to 1574 (though not printed until 1605).
+
+In England, the earliest literary critic of importance was Thomas
+Wilson, whose _Art of Rhetoric_ was printed in 1553, and the earliest
+student of poetry, George Gascoigne, whose _Instruction_ appeared in
+1575. Gascoigne is the first writer who deals intelligently with the
+subject of English prosody. He was followed by Thomas Drant, Harvey,
+Gosson, Lodge and Sidney, whose controversial pamphlets belong to the
+period between 1575 and 1580. Among Elizabethan "arts" or "defences" of
+English poetry are to be mentioned those of William Webbe (1586), George
+Puttenham (1589), Thomas Campion (1602), and Samuel Daniel (1603). With
+the tractates of Ben Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the
+Renaissance may be said to close.
+
+A new era began throughout Europe when Malherbe started, about 1600, a
+taste for the neo-classic or anti-romantic school of poetry, taking up
+the line which had been foreshadowed by Castelvetro. _Enfin Malherbe
+vint_, and he was supported in his revolution by Regnier, Vaugelas,
+Balzac, and finally by Corneille himself, in his famous prefatory
+discourses. It was Boileau, however, who more than any other man stood
+out at the close of the 17th century as the law-giver of Parnassus. The
+rules of the neo-classics were drawn together and arranged in a system
+by René Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared between
+1668 and 1674. It is in writings of this man, and of the Jesuits, Le
+Bossu and Bouhours, that the preposterous rigidity of the formal classic
+criticism is most plainly seen. The influence of these three critics
+was, however, very great throughout Europe, and we trace it in the
+writings of Dryden, Addison and Rymer. In the course of the 18th
+century, when the neoclassic creed was universally accepted, Pope,
+Blair, Kames, Harris, Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were its most
+distinguished exponents in England, while Voltaire, Buffon (to whom we
+owe the phrase "the style is the man"), Marmontel, La Harpe and Suard
+were the types of academic opinion in France.
+
+Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when the
+neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe at the very
+close of the 18th century. It has been heralded in Germany by the
+writings of Lessing, and in France by those of Diderot. Of the
+reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th century it is impossible
+to speak here with any fulness, it is contained in the record of the
+recent literature of each European language. It is noticeable, in
+England, that the predominant place in it was occupied, in violent
+contrast with Disraeli's dictum, by those who had obviously _not_ failed
+in imaginative composition, by Wordsworth, by Shelley, by Keats, by
+Landor, and pre-eminently by S. T. Coleridge, who was one of the most
+penetrative, original and imaginative critics who have ever lived. In
+France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored or even
+qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains as much a master
+as he was a precursor. He was followed by Théophile Gautier, Saint-Marc,
+Girardin, Paul de Saint Victor, and a crowd of others, down to Taine and
+the latest school of individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew
+Arnold, Pater, and their followers in England.
+
+  See G. Saintsbury, _A History of Criticism_ (3 vols., 1902-1904); J.
+  E. Spingarn, _A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance_ (2nd
+  ed. 1908); Théry, _Histoire des opinions littéraires_ (1849); J. A.
+  Symonds, _The Revival of Learning_ (1877); Matthew Arnold, _Essays in
+  Criticism_, i. (1865), ii. (1868); Bourgoin, _Les Maîtres de la
+  critique au XVII^e siècle_ (1889); Paul Hamelius, _Die Kritik in der
+  englischen Literatur_ (1897); S. H. Butcher, _The Poetics of
+  Aristotle_ (1898); H. L. Havell and Andrew Lang, _Longinus on the
+  Sublime_ (1890). See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew
+  Arnold, F. Brunetière, Anatole France, Walter Pater, _passim_.
+       (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+   [1] It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in
+   this article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses,
+   generally with some word of qualification, e.g. "textual criticism"
+   or "higher criticism"; see the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM and the
+   article BIBLE for an outstanding example of both "textual" and
+   "higher."
+
+
+
+
+CRITIUS and NESIOTES, two Greek sculptors of uncertain school, of the
+time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried away to Persia the statues
+of Harmodius and Aristogiton made by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were
+commissioned to replace them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two
+statues at Naples, wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified
+as copies of the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the
+words in which Lucian (_Rhetor. praecepta_, 9) describes the works of
+Critius and Nesiotes, "closely knit and sinewy, and hard and severe in
+outline." Critius also made a statue of the armed runner Epicharinus.
+
+
+
+
+CRITOLAUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in the 2nd century
+B.C. He lived to the age of eighty-two and died probably before 111 B.C.
+He studied philosophy under Aristo of Ceos and became one of the leaders
+of the Peripatetic school by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a
+moralist. There has been considerable discussion as to whether he was
+the immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and
+unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peripatetic
+succession (cf. Cicero, _De fin._ v. 5 "C. imitari antiquos voluit"),
+though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors. For example, he
+held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, ix. 5. 6), and
+definitely maintained that the soul consists of aether. The end of
+existence was to him the general perfection of the natural life,
+including the goods of the soul and the body, and also external goods.
+Cicero says in the _Tusculans_ that the goods of the soul entirely
+outweighed for him the other goods ("tantum propendere illam bonorum
+animi lancem"). Further, he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic
+doctrine of the eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the
+human race. There is no observed change in the natural order of things;
+mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the capacity
+given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is heir, though fatal
+to individuals, do not avail to modify the whole. Just as it is absurd
+to suppose that man is merely earth-born, so the possibility of his
+ultimate destruction is inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation
+of eternal order, must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not
+recorded. One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero (_Acad._ ii. 45)
+it appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome in
+156-155 B.C. to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed on
+Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three ambassadors
+lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much success that Cato was
+alarmed and had them dismissed the city. Gellius describes his arguments
+as _scita et teretia_.
+
+  Consult the article PERIPATETICS, and histories of ancient philosophy,
+  e.g. Zeller.
+
+
+
+
+CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN (1787-1863), American statesman, was born in
+Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of September 1787. After graduating at
+the College of William and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in
+his native state. He served for three months, in 1810, as
+attorney-general of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky,
+and during the War of 1812 he was for a time on the staff of General
+Isaac Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of
+Representatives, being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a
+United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high rank as
+a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1825
+and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter period, and from 1827 to
+1829 was United States district-attorney. He was removed by President
+Jackson, to whom he was radically opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was
+again elected to the United States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841,
+but resigned to enter the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as
+attorney-general, continuing after President Tyler's accession and
+serving from March until September. He was again a member of the United
+States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor of
+Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of Clay's compromise
+measures, and in 1850 he entered President Fillmore's cabinet as
+attorney-general, serving throughout the administration. From 1855 to
+1861 he was once more a member of the United States Senate. During these
+years he was perhaps the foremost champion of Union in the South, and
+strenuously opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared
+prophetically would unite the various elements of opposition in the
+North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable.
+Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of compromise, gave
+his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket in 1860, and in
+1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for the adoption by congress of
+the compromise measures which bear his name. When war became inevitable
+he threw himself zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great
+influence to keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member of
+the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating the
+prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures as the division
+of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the Conscription Acts. He died
+at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 26th of July 1863.
+
+  See the _Life of J. J. Crittenden_, by his daughter Mrs Chapman
+  Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871).
+
+His son, GEORGE BIBB CRITTENDEN (1812-1880), soldier, was born in
+Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and graduated at West
+Point in 1832, but resigned his commission in 1833. He re-entered the
+army as a captain of mounted rifles in the Mexican War, served with
+distinction, and was breveted major for bravery at Contreras and
+Churubusco. After the war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained
+the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered
+the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-general and
+given a command in south-east Kentucky and Tennessee, but after the
+defeat of his forces by General George H. Thomas at Mill Springs
+(January 9, 1862), he was censured and gave up his command. He served
+subsequently as a volunteer aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams.
+From 1867 to 1871 he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at
+Danville, Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880.
+
+Another son, THOMAS LEONIDAS CRITTENDEN (1815-1893), soldier, was also
+born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied law, and practised with his
+father, and in 1842 became commonwealth's attorney. He served in the
+Mexican War as a lieutenant-colonel of Kentucky volunteers, and was an
+aide on Gen. Zachary Taylor's staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From
+1849 to 1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like his
+father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861 he was
+commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general of volunteers. He
+commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry in which battle he was
+promoted major-general in July 1862. He was in command of a corps in the
+army of the Ohio under Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of
+Stone River and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia
+campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December 1864, but in
+July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank of colonel of infantry,
+receiving the brevet of brigadier-general in 1867, served on the
+frontier and in several Indian wars, and retired in 1881. He died on the
+23rd of October 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CRIVELLI, CARLO, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier part of the
+15th century. The only dates that can with certainty be given are 1468
+and 1493; these are respectively the earliest and the latest years
+signed on his pictures--the former on an altar-piece in the church of
+San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo, and the latter on a picture in the
+Oggioni collection in Milan. Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to
+have worked chiefly in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near
+Ascoli; there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian
+building, both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is
+said to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as late
+at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only a boy. The
+latter always signed as "Carolus Crivellus Venetus"; from 1490 he added
+"Miles," having been then knighted ("Cavalière") by Ferdinand II. of
+Naples. He painted in tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in
+subject pictures of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape
+backgrounds; and was particularly partial to giving fruits and flowers
+(the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories, often in
+pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is well supplied with
+examples of Crivelli; the "Annunciation," and the "Beato Ferretti" (of
+the same family as Pope Pius IX.) in religious ecstasy, may be
+specified. Another of his principal pictures is in San Francesco di
+Matelica; in Berlin is a "Madonna and Saints" (1491); in the Vatican
+Gallery a "Dead Christ," and in the Brera of Milan the painter's own
+portrait, with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked
+individuality,--hard in form, crudely definite in contour; stern,
+forced, energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and
+expression, and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply
+vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes admitting
+into his pictures objects actually raised in surface; distinct and warm
+in colour, with an effect at once harsh and harmonious. His pictures
+gain by being seen in half-light, and at some little distance; under
+favouring conditions they grip the spectator with uncommon power. Few
+artists seem to have worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more
+forthright command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised
+that Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli (who
+was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello) and Vittorio
+Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil.
+
+  See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, _Venetian Painters
+  of the Renaissance_ (1899); Morelli, _Italian Painters_ (1892-1893);
+  Rushforth, _Carlo Crivelli_ (1900).     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CROATIA-SLAVONIA (Serbo-Croatian _Hrvatska i Slavonija_; Hung.
+_Horvát-Szlavonország_; Ger. _Kroatien und Slawonien_), a kingdom of the
+Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by Carniola, Styria and Hungary
+proper; E. by Hungary and Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and
+W. by the Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the
+N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by a
+section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now the
+county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom of
+Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county of Agram, is
+usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the Balkan Peninsula; and
+thus the greater part of Croatia, lying south of this river, falls
+within the peninsular boundary, while the remainder, with all Slavonia,
+belongs to the continental mainland. According to the official survey of
+1900, the total area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian
+littoral extends for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A
+narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna), separates
+it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian islands. The
+city and territories of Fiume, the sole important harbour on this coast,
+are included in Hungary proper, and controlled by the Budapest
+government. Westward from Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria,
+Carniola, Istria, Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is
+generally mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and
+eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the north, and
+the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its point at Semlin.
+
+_Physical Features_.--Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided into two
+great sections, the highlands of the west and the lowlands of the east.
+
+The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of the bare and
+desolate mountain chains between the Save and the Adriatic, notably the
+Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela), which link together the Karst and
+the Dinaric Alps, culminating in Biela Lazica (5029 ft.); the Pljecevica
+or Plicevica Planina (5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river
+Una; and the Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the
+coast, and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any
+considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border, this range
+attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of Sveto Brdo (5751
+ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large tracts of the Croatian
+highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it is only in the more sheltered
+hollows that sufficient soil collects for large trees to flourish. In
+northern Croatia and Slavonia the mountains are far more fertile, being
+often densely wooded with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the
+Uskoken Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks
+(q.v.) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their
+stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak of Ivanscica
+(3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in Sljeme or Slema (3396
+ft.), and including the beautiful stretches of Alpine pasture known as
+the Zagorje, or "land beyond the hills"; the Bilo Gebirge, or White
+Mountains, a low range of chalk, and, farther to the south, several
+groups of mountains, among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni
+Vrh (2833 ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All
+these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central
+watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In the east
+Slavonian county of Syrmia[1] the Frucka Gora or Vrdnik Mountains rise
+to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern bank of the Danube, their
+picturesque vineyards and pine or oak woods contrasting strongly with
+the plains that surround them.
+
+The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and Kulpa,
+belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alföld. Besides the
+sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as pasture, and so
+sparsely populated that it is possible to travel for many hours without
+encountering any sign of human life except a primitive artesian well or
+a shepherd's hut, there are wide expanses of fen-country, regularly
+flooded in spring and autumn. The marshes which line the Save below
+Sissek are often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river
+is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to
+abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation exceeds
+200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains are sometimes
+strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain, fruit and wine.
+
+The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave and Save, are
+fully described under separate headings. After reaching Croatian
+territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave flows along the northern
+frontier for 155 m., receiving the Bednja and Karasnica on the right,
+and falling, near Esseg, into the Danube, which serves as the
+Hungaro-Slavonian boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the
+country 16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to
+Jasenovac, constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets the
+Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina, Lonja, Ilova,
+Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central watershed; but its only large
+tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian stream, which springs in the Dinaric
+Alps, and skirts the Croatian border for 40 m. before entering the Save
+at Jasenovac; and the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m.
+from its headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at
+Sissek. The Mreznica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand tributaries
+of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven streams of the Lika unite
+and plunge into a rocky chasm near Gospic, and the few small brooks
+of this region usually vanish underground in a similar manner. Near
+Fiume, the Recina, Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a
+brief course. There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland
+pools and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their
+beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers flood the
+mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed by the river
+Gajka, near Otocac, has occasionally filled its basin to a depth of 160
+ft.
+
+  _Minerals_.--The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable of
+  further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to the
+  mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and sulphur
+  are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise at Krapina,
+  at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and elsewhere.
+
+  _Climate_.--The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in
+  different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent
+  changes, and especially to the _bora_, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which
+  renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in
+  winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts.
+  The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all
+  other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below
+  zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common among
+  the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the great winds
+  and sandstorms which sweep down the Alföld. At Agram, during the years
+  1896-1900, the mean annual temperature was 52° F., with 34.6 in. of
+  rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures for the same period were 57° and
+  71 in.
+
+  _Agriculture_.--The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5% of
+  the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows,
+  pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as
+  mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land
+  occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near
+  Warasdin and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens
+  are of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of
+  cereals, but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides
+  hemp, flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive
+  vineyards were much injured by _phylloxera_ towards the close of the
+  19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes,
+  besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of
+  _sliwowitz_ or _shlivovitsa_. Near Fiume the orange, lemon,
+  pomegranate, fig and olive bear well; mulberries are planted on many
+  estates for silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central
+  region favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the
+  oak and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the
+  highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last years of
+  the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace the
+  mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion of sheep to
+  other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic lands,
+  and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding is a
+  favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902 many
+  thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in South
+  Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the quality of
+  live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes, and other
+  measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept improvements.
+
+  _Forests_.--Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered
+  3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property.
+  Especially valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and
+  Sissek. Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube.
+
+  _Industries_.--Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered
+  throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the
+  rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco
+  factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia are
+  at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Ré. Only 8.3 of the
+  population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than farming,
+  which occupied 85.2%. The exports mainly consist of foodstuffs,
+  especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses, and of
+  timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and colonial
+  products; with machinery and other finished articles. Goods in transit
+  to and from Hungary figure largely in the official returns for
+  Fiume[2] and Semlin, which are the centres of the foreign trade. In
+  1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking establishments.
+
+  _Communications_.--The commerce of the country is furthered by upwards
+  of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these being the
+  Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and the Josephina,
+  which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent highways were built for
+  strategic purposes before the abolition of the Military Frontier in
+  1881. The railways, which are all owned and managed by the Hungarian
+  state, intersect most parts of the country except the mountains south
+  of Ogulin, where there is, nevertheless, a considerable traffic over
+  the passes into Dalmatia and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway
+  centre, from which lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria,
+  N.N.E. to Warasdin and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of
+  Kostajnica. The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod,
+  where it meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out
+  two branch lines to Brcka and Samac in Bosnia, and several
+  branches on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross
+  the Hungarian frontier at Zákány, Barcs, Esseg, Erdar and
+  Peterwardein. Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts
+  of timber; east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but,
+  despite its great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting
+  sandbanks interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the
+  Una, the Drave below Barcs, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are
+  partially drained by the so-called "Canal of Probus," the one large
+  artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the
+  Romans in the 3rd century.
+
+  _Chief Towns_,--The principal towns are Agram, the capital, with
+  61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia (24,930);
+  Semlin (15,079); Mitrovica (11,518); Warasdin (12,930); Karlstadt
+  (7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824); Karlowitz (5643);
+  Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and Buccari (1870). These are
+  described in separate articles. The centre of the coasting trade is
+  Novi, and other small seaports are San Giorgio (_Sveto Juraj_), Porto
+  Ré (_Kraljevica_) and Carlopago. Agram, Gospic (10,799), Ogulin
+  (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar (6056) are respectively the capitals of
+  the five counties which belong to Croatia proper,--Agram (Hung.
+  _Zágráb_), Modruc-Fiume, Lika-Krbava, Warasdin (_Varasd_) and
+  Bjelovar (_Belovár-Körös_); while the capitals of the three Slavonian
+  counties, Virovitica (_Veröcze_), Pozega (_Pozsega_) and Syrmia
+  (_Szerém_), are Esseg, Pozega (5000) and Semlin.
+
+_Population and National Characteristics_.--The population rose from
+1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of little less than
+one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death rate, with a high
+marriage and birth rate, and characterized by that preponderance of male
+over female children which is common to all the South Slavonic lands.
+More than 75% of the inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder
+being Serbs, who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside
+Croatia-Slavonia, the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and
+northern Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of
+Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the whole
+nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The distinction
+between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less extent,
+linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single branch of the
+Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian branch. The literary
+language of the two nations is identical, but the Croats use the Latin
+alphabet,[3] while the Serbs prefer a modified form of the Cyrillic. The
+two nations have also been politically separated since the 7th century,
+if not for a longer period; but this division has produced little
+difference of character or physical type. Even the costume of the
+Croatian peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries
+are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs; their
+songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of their customs
+and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little changed by its
+closer contact with Western civilization, may be studied in Servia
+(q.v.) itself. In both countries rural society was based on the
+old-fashioned household community, or _zadruga_, which still survives in
+the territories that formed the Military Frontier, though everywhere
+tending to disappear and be replaced by individual ownership. The
+Croatian peasantry are least prosperous in the riverside districts,
+where marsh-fevers prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many
+of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch. As in
+Servia, there is practically no middle class between the peasants and
+the educated minority; and the commercial element consists to a great
+extent of foreigners, especially Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews.
+Numerically this alien population is insignificant. The Italians are
+chiefly confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and
+Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western frontier,
+where they have introduced their language, and so greatly modified the
+local dialect; the gipsies wander from city to city, as horse-dealers,
+metal workers or musicians; there are numerous Moravian and Bohemian
+settlements; and near Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is
+impossible to give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in
+the compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test of
+nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country where every
+educated person speaks two or three languages. Croatian nationalists
+also maintain that official figures are systematically altered in the
+Hungarian interest.
+
+_Constitution and Government_.--By the fundamental law of the 21st of
+December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes of internal
+government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian empire, and
+Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia. In
+theory the viceroy, or _ban_ of Croatia-Slavonia is nominated by the
+crown, and enjoys almost unlimited authority over local affairs; in
+practice the consent of the crown is purely formal, and the _ban_ is
+appointed by the Hungarian premier, who can dismiss him at any moment.
+The provincial government is subject to the _ban_, and comprises three
+ministries--the interior, justice, and religion and education,--for
+whose working the _ban_ is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to
+the national assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (_Narodna Skupctina_). This
+body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of elected deputies,
+partly of privileged members, whose numbers cannot exceed half those of
+the deputies. There are 69 constituencies, besides the 21 royal free
+cities which also return deputies. Electors must belong to certain
+professions or pay a small tax. The privileged members are the heads of
+the nobility, with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule,
+they represent the "Magyarist" section of society, which sympathizes
+with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion, education,
+justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but even within this
+limited sphere all its important enactments must be countersigned by the
+minister for Croatia-Slavonia, a member, without portfolio, of the
+Hungarian cabinet. At the polls, all votes are given orally, a system
+which facilitates corruption; the officials who control the elections
+depend for their livelihood on the _ban_, usually a Magyarist; and thus,
+even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable to Hungary
+can usually be secured. The constitutional relations between Hungary and
+Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the agreement, or _nagoda_, of 1868.
+This instrument determines the functions of the _ban_; the control of
+common interests, such as railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones,
+commerce, industry, agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates
+by the chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below,
+under _History_.
+
+
+    Local administration.
+
+  For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8 rural
+  counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties, or
+  municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. These are
+  subdivided into rural and urban communes, each with its representative
+  council. The affairs of each rural county are managed by an assembly
+  chosen for 6 years, which comprises not only elected members, but
+  delegates from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain
+  high ecclesiastics and officials.
+
+
+    Justice.
+
+  The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral
+  Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal courts of
+  appeal, the county courts of first instance, and the district courts
+  or magistracies.
+
+
+    Religion.
+
+  Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic
+  Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg and
+  Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics, with a bishop at
+  Kreuz (_Krizevac_). The Serb congregations, who had previously been
+  classed as Orthodox Greek, were officially recognized as members of
+  the Orthodox Church of Servia after 1883. Their episcopal sees of
+  Karlowitz and Pakrac depend upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but
+  from 1830 to 1838 Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian
+  Church.
+
+
+    Education.
+
+  During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of
+  education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other
+  reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third of
+  the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the
+  educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy of Sciences and
+  Arts (_Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti_), founded by
+  Strossmayer and others in 1867, as an improvement on a learned society
+  which had existed since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the
+  nationalist propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes
+  biased by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian
+  history, law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded
+  in 1874, possesses three faculties--theology, philosophy and law; but,
+  unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medicine.
+  Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In 1900 there
+  were also 19 _real-gymnasia_, teaching science, art and modern
+  languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400 elementary
+  schools; and a few special institutions, such as the naval and
+  military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and commercial
+  colleges. In almost every case the language of instruction is
+  Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education, without a
+  corresponding advance of technical education, has created an
+  intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several
+  painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence; it
+  also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional
+  careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a strong
+  native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency.
+
+
+_History._
+
+Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia in their
+present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised north-western
+Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now known as Upper Croatia. The
+whole country between the Drave and Save, thus including a large part of
+modern Croatia, was called in Latin _Slavonia_, in German _Windisches
+Land_, and in Hungarian _Tótország_, to distinguish it from the
+territories in which the Croats were racially supreme (_Horvátország_).
+At the time of their conquest by the Romans (35 B.C.) both these
+divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had displaced
+an older population, the Scordisci; and both were included in the Roman
+province of Pannonia Inferior, although Slavonia had the distinctive
+name of Pannonia Savia (see PANNONIA). When the Roman dominions were
+broken up in A.D. 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western
+empire. The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by
+Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were in turn
+expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people from the western
+Carpathians, who, according to some authorities, had occupied the
+territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia, and been driven thence in the
+6th century by the Czechs. The main body of the Croats, whose tribal and
+racial names respectively are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and
+Slavonia, entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by
+the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had led the
+way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the western division of the
+great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats which colonized the lands between
+Bulgaria and the Adriatic. Contemporary chroniclers called them
+_Chrobati_, _Belochrobati_ ("White Croats"), _Chrovati_, _Horvati_, or
+by some similar Latin or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic _Khrvaty_.
+The Croats occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia,
+Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing the earlier
+inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian littoral, where the
+Italian city-states usually maintained their independence, and in
+certain districts of Slavonia, where, out of a mixed population of
+Slavonic immigrants, Avars and Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the
+Serbo-Croats, gradually became predominant. The Croats brought with them
+their primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly
+military, partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the
+Serbs (see SERVIA); agriculture, war and hunting were their chief
+pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien sovereign, they
+passed gradually under Italian influence in the extreme west, and under
+Byzantine influence in the south and south-east. In 806 the northern and
+north-eastern districts were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus
+won for the Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated
+by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines to Syrmia; it is
+still commemorated by the name Frucka Gora, "Mountains of the
+Franks," in that province.
+
+_The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091._--In 877 the Croats were temporarily
+subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after successive insurrections
+which tended to centralize their loosely knit tribal organization, and
+to place all power in the hands of a military chief, they regained their
+independence and founded a national kingdom about 910. It is probable
+that Tomislav or Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed
+the title of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that
+Tomislav only bore the title of _veliki zupan_ or "paramount chief,"
+and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced without
+interruption back to 818. On this view, Drzislav (c. 978-1000) was
+the first king properly so called. But Tomislav, whatever his official
+style, was certainly the first of a series of independent national
+rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries. The records of this
+period, regarded by many Croats as the golden age of their country, are
+often scanty, and its chronology is still unsettled. Little is known of
+Trpimir, who preceded Drzislav, or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a
+few of the kings gained a more lasting fame by their success in war and
+diplomacy. Among these were Krecimir I. (c. 940--946), his successor
+Miroslav, and especially Krecimir II., surnamed the Great (c.
+1000-1035), who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation,
+and conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the Italian
+cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had built a fleet,
+which they used first for piracy and afterwards for trade. Their skill
+in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the 9th century by the pagan
+corsairs of the Narenta (see DALMATIA: _History_), and later by the
+numerous Dalmatian and Croatian sailors who served in the navies of
+Venice and Austria, is remarkable in a Slavonic people, and one which
+had so recently migrated from central Europe. At the end of the 10th
+century they even for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but
+their power was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians
+captured and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This
+Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat of the
+kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing the
+grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine court.
+Krecimir II. and Krecimir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero of many
+national legends and lays, restored the naval power of the Croats. After
+the death of Krecimir Peter, Slavic or Slaviza reigned until 1076,
+when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir or Zvoinimir) Demetrius.
+Zvonimir was crowned by the legate of Pope Gregory VII, and appears to
+have been regarded as a vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a
+nephew of Krecimir II., died in 1089.
+
+_Hungarian Supremacy: 1091-c. 1526._--Amid the strife of rival claimants
+to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen, appealed for aid to her
+brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Ladislaus took possession of the
+country in 1091. He founded the bishopric of Agram and introduced
+Hungarian law. His death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist
+insurrection, but after two years the rebels were crushed by his
+successor Coloman. This monarch reorganized the administration on a
+system which has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by
+almost all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of
+the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic
+affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially the
+control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as the ban
+(q.v.). This office was sometimes held by princes of the royal house,
+often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also extended his authority over
+Dalmatia and the islands of the Quarnero, but the best modern
+authorities reject the tradition that in 1102 he was crowned king of
+Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed
+to Bulgaria from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019,
+was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much liberty to
+the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class, ever ready for
+civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the Bosnian heretics. Their
+most powerful leaders were the counts of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir),
+whose surname was Subic. This family played an important part in
+local politics from the 13th century to 1670, when Peter Subic was
+its last member to hold the office of ban. Paul Subic (d. 1312)
+and Mladen Subic (d. 1322) even for a short period united Croatia,
+Slavonia, Bosnia and part of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to
+1326 the Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary
+and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they carried
+on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the Krajina (Turkish
+Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals until the Turkish
+conquest.
+
+_The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718._--Here, as elsewhere, the Ottoman
+invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian sects. When King
+Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend Slavonia in 1490 it was too late;
+Matthias lost Syrmia and died in the same year. His successor Ladislaus
+of Poland (1490-1516) added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal
+title, which now included the words "King of Dalmatia and Croatia and
+Slavonia" (_Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae_). But he failed to
+repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of Hungary at the
+battle of Mohács. In 1527 the Croats were compelled to swear allegiance
+to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had been elected king of Hungary.
+Ferdinand founded the generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the
+foundation of the military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin
+and Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia, to
+counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Throughout the
+century the Turks continued to extend their conquests until, in 1606,
+the emperor retained only western Croatia, with the cities of Agram,
+Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During the same period the doctrines of
+the Reformation had spread among the Croats; but they were forcibly
+suppressed in 1607-1610. The military occupation by the Turks left
+little permanent impression; colonization was never attempted; and the
+continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge their
+dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction of Moslem
+religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus in the reconquest of
+Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the local opposition which afterwards
+hindered the Austrian occupation of Bosnia. The successes of Prince
+Eugene in 1697 led two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which
+the Turks ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria; and
+the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz. Only
+Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of the Ottoman empire.
+
+_Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718-1814._--Austrian influence
+predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during most of the 18th
+century, although Slavonia was constitutionally regarded as belonging to
+Hungary. Despite Magyar protests the misleading name "Croatia" was
+popularly and even in official documents applied to the whole country,
+including the purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Pozega and
+Syrmia. From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were
+collectively named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of these
+divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom, with a separate
+administration, while the military frontier remained under military
+rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard, which had previously been under the
+same administration as the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to
+Croatia, but three years later Fiume was declared an integral part of
+Hungary. These administrative changes, and especially the brief
+existence of united "Illyria," stimulated the dormant nationalism of the
+Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria was forced to
+surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia, with Dalmatia, Istria,
+Carinthia, Carniola, Görz and Gradisca. These territories received the
+name of the Illyrian Provinces, and remained under French rule until
+1813. All the Croats capable of service were enrolled under the French
+flag; their country was divided for administrative purposes into
+_Croatie civile_ and _Croatie militaire_. In 1814 Dalmatia was
+incorporated in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Görz and
+Gradisca became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their
+united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia were declared
+appanages of the Hungarian crown--_partes adnexae_, or subject
+provinces, according to the Magyars; _regna socia_, or allied kingdoms,
+according to their own view. Each phrase afterwards became the watchword
+of a political party: neither is accurate. The Croats preserved their
+local autonomy, the use of their language for official purposes, their
+elected diet and other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was
+represented by the ban.
+
+_The National Revival._--The Croats acquiesced in their position of
+inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to introduce
+Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist or "Illyrist" party
+was formed under Count Drackovic and Bishop J. Strossmayer (q.v.)
+to combat Hungarian influence and promote the union of the "Illyrian"
+Slavs, i.e. the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading
+Croatian publicist, strongly supported the movement. The elections of
+1842 were marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists
+and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to
+office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed ban
+in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with Carinthia,
+Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted as much by the apathy
+of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the Magyars. A Croatian
+deputation was received at Innsbruck by Ferdinand V., but before its
+arrival the Hungarians had obtained a royal manifesto hostile to
+Illyrism. But failure only increased the agitation among the southern
+Slavs; all attempts at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of
+August the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was on
+their side. On the 11th of September the advance-guard of their army
+crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich. On the 29th they were
+driven back from Pákozd by the Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna;
+they subsequently aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian
+revolutionaries (see JELLACHICH, JOSEF, and HUNGARY: _History_). The
+constitution of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from
+Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which was annexed
+the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian supremacy lasted until
+1867; no ban was appointed, and owing to the suspension of local
+autonomy from 1850 to 1860 this period is known as "the ten years of
+reaction." It was ended by the celebrated "October Diploma" of the 20th
+of October 1860, which promised the restoration of constitutional
+liberty. But the so-called "Constitution of February" (21st February
+1861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive controlled
+by the government at Vienna. The newly elected diet was soon dissolved
+for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic confederation under imperial
+rule, and no other was elected until 1865.
+
+From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured to secure
+the formation of a subordinate Austrian kingdom comprising Dalmatia,
+Croatia-Slavonia and the islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had,
+however, resolved to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St
+Stephen, and in 1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral
+machinery. The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin
+Rauch, was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867 a
+majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and on the 29th of
+January the diet passed a resolution in favour of reunion with Hungary.
+The whole Opposition refused to take any part in the proceedings, as a
+protest against the alleged illegality of the elections; but by the 25th
+of June the Croatian commissioners and the Hungarian government had
+framed a new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides
+substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided that the
+diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject to the Croatian
+minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that Croatia-Slavonia should pay
+55% of its revenue to Hungary for mutual and imperial expenses, but
+should be represented in the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six
+delegates, and should continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official
+language. Hungary guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial
+government should be not less than two and a half million gulden
+(£250,000). In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the
+Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed revenue
+to £350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their representatives
+at Budapest, and a promise that the military frontier should be
+incorporated in the existing civil provinces. In 1877 a convention with
+Hungary regulated the control of public estates in the military
+frontier, and on the 15th of July 1881 the frontier, including the
+district of Sichelburg claimed by Carniola, was handed over to the local
+administration.
+
+Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating in the
+Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived the agitation for
+a "Great Croatia." A party separate from the regular Opposition, and
+known as the "Party of the Right," was formed to oppose the Magyarists.
+Its activity resulted in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty
+quelled; in 1885 its leader, N. Starcevic, was condemned to
+imprisonment for the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count
+Khuen-Héderváry. In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its leader,
+Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on account of his
+famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church (see STROSSMAYER). In
+1889 the financial agreement with Hungary was revised and the
+contribution of Croatia-Slavonia to the expenses shared with Hungary or
+common to the whole of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added
+burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a deficit
+in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count Khuen-Héderváry was
+responsible for several administrative improvements, but the prosperity
+of the country declined from year to year. The government was accused of
+illegal interference with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian
+arms and language in official documents, and with undue harshness in the
+censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks of rioting in
+Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious agrarian disturbances
+directed against the Magyarist landowners; in a debate in the Reichsrath
+(18th May) an Austrian deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted
+to induce the imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count
+Khuen-Héderváry was made Hungarian prime minister; Count T.
+Pejacevic succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by promising
+freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press. Since 1898 the
+financial agreement had only been renewed from year to year. But the
+estimates for 1904 revealed another heavy deficit; and this was only
+paid by Hungary on condition that the agreement should be renewed until
+the 31st of December 1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained.
+
+The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the nationalist
+agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian deputies met at Spalato
+to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and in 1906 the municipality of Agram
+endeavoured to petition the king in favour of union with Bosnia and
+Herzegovina. This propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch,
+appointed ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not
+command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909 by the
+trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy of the
+nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under the
+king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary--upwards of
+4,500,000--was less visionary than the older Illyrism, and less
+aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to include Carinthia,
+Carniola and Styria in the proposed "Great Croatia." It was opposed by
+Austria as tending to create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within
+the Dual Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance in
+Transleithania.
+
+
+_Language and Literature._
+
+For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic languages
+generally, see SLAVS. The Croatian dialects, like the Servian, have
+gradually developed from the Old Slavonic, which survives in medieval
+liturgies and biblical or apocryphal writings. The course of this
+development was similar in both cases, except that the Croats, owing to
+their dependence on Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as
+the Serbs by Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian
+linguistic forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs,
+moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while the Roman
+Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a few liturgical books
+which are written in the ancient Glagolitic script. As the literary
+language of both nations is now practically the same, and is, indeed,
+commonly known as "Serbo-Croatian," the reader may be referred to the
+article SERVIA: _Language and Literature_, for an account of its
+history, of its chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and
+inclusive of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences
+between the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia.
+
+The three most important Croatian dialects are known as the _Cakavci_,
+_Cakavctina_ or, in Servian, _Chakavski_, spoken along the Adriatic
+littoral; the _Stokavci_ (_Stokavctina_, _Shtokavski_), spoken in Servia
+and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula; and the
+_Kajkavci_ (_Kajkavctina_, _Kaykavski_), spoken by the partly Slovene
+population of the districts of Agram, Warasdin and Kreuz. This
+classification is based on the form, varying in different localities, of
+the pronoun _ca_, _cto_, or _kaj_, meaning "what."
+
+The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the Dalmatian
+writers of the 15th and 16th centuries--the golden age of Serbo-Croatian
+literature. Its history is indissolubly interwoven with that of the
+Stokavci, which ultimately superseded it, and became the literary
+language of all the Serbo-Croats, as it had long been the language of
+the best national ballads and legends.
+
+Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature,
+consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or
+educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings possess
+more philological interest than literary merit, and are hardly known
+outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts of Austria.
+
+Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian
+literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded as the common
+heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic and literary reforms which
+Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia
+about the close of this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a
+new interest in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and
+folk-tales. One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful
+attempt made between 1814 and 1830 to raise the Cakavci dialect to the
+rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia; but the
+Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption of the Stokavci, which was
+already the vernacular of the majority of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj
+(1809-1872), though he failed to create an artificial literary language
+by the fusion of the principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and
+Slovenes, was by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing
+the triumph of the Stokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent, and
+one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other writers of the
+first half of the 19th century may be mentioned Ivan Mazuranic
+(1813-1890), whose first poems were published in the _Danica ilirska_
+("Illyrian Dawnstar"), a journal founded and for a time edited by Gaj.
+In 1846 Mazuranic published his _Smrt Smail Aga Cengica_ ("Death of
+Ismail Aga Cengic"), called by Serbo-Croats the "Epos of Hate." This
+remarkable poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives
+a vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the
+hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In later life
+Mazuranic distinguished himself as a statesman, and became ban of
+Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers representative of Croatian
+literature before 1867 were the lyric poet Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and
+Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854), the author of many patriotic songs.
+
+With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, in 1867, the
+study of science and history received a new impetus. Under the
+presidency of Franko Racki (1825-1894) the academy, with its journal the
+_Rad jugoskovenske Akademije_, became the headquarters of an active
+group of savants, among whom may be mentioned Vastroslav Jagic (b.
+1838), sometime editor of the _Archiv für slavische Philologie_; the
+historians Sime Ljubic (1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klaic, author of
+several standard works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer
+Bogoslav Sulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko
+Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal _Slovinac_
+has served, like the Agram _Rad_, as a focus of literary activity, there
+have been numerous poets and prose writers, associated, in many cases,
+with the Illyrist or the nationalist propaganda. Among these may be
+mentioned Count Medo Pucic (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban
+(1818-1903), whose tragedy _Meyrimah_ is considered by many the finest
+dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the topography, products, inhabitants and modern
+  condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see _Bau und Bild Österreichs_, by C.
+  Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903); _Die
+  österreich-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. xxiv., edited
+  by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902); _Führer durch Ungarn, Kroatien und
+  Slawonien_, by B. Alföldi (Vienna, 1900); _Reiseführer durch Kroatien
+  und Slawonien_, by A. Lukcic (Agram, 1893);
+  _Vegetationsverhältnisse von Kroatien_, by A. Neilreich (Vienna,
+  1868); "Die Slowenen," by J. Suman, and "Die Kroaten," by F. Staré,
+  in vol. x. of _Die Völker Österreich-Ungarns_ (Vienna, 1881-1882);
+  _Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Küstenländer_, by A. Weisbach
+  (Berlin, 1884); and the map _Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije_, by M.
+  Katzenschläger (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one in
+  Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native
+  authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, from
+  1861). It is largely based on the following works: _Vetera monumenta
+  historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_, containing documents from
+  the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome, 1860); _Vetera
+  monumenta historiam Slavorum meridionalium illustrantia_, published by
+  the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1863, &c.); _Jura regni Croatiae,
+  Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privilegiis_, by J. Kukuljevic (Agram,
+  1861-1862); _Monumenta historica Slavorum meridionalium_, by V.
+  Makushev, in Latin and Italian, with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade,
+  1885); _De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666;
+  see DALMATIA, under bibliography); _Regno degli Slavi_, by M. Orbini
+  (Pesaro, 1601); and, for ecclesiastical history, _Illyricum sacrum_,
+  by D. Farlatus and others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also _Hrvatska i
+  Hrvati_, by V. Klaic (Agram, 1890, &c.); and _Slawonien vom 10. bis
+  zum 13. Jahrhundert_, translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klaic
+  by J. von Vojnicic (Agram, 1882).     (K. G. J.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Also written _Sirmia_ and _Sirmium_; Serbo-Croatian _Sriem_;
+    Hungarian _Szerém_.
+
+  [2] It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian
+    trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and is
+    the main outlet for Hungarian emigration and maritime commerce.
+
+  [3] It is important to notice the value of the following letters and
+    signs, which recur frequently:--c = ts; c = ch (hard); c = _ch_
+    (soft); j = y, or j in German; c = sh; z = zh, or j in French.
+
+
+
+
+CROCIDOLITE, a mineral described in 1815 by M. H. Klaproth under the
+name _Blaueisenstein_ (blue ironstone), and in 1831 by J. F. Hausmann,
+who gave it its present name on account of its nap-like appearance (Gr.
+[Greek: krokus], nap of cloth). It is a blue fibrous mineral belonging
+to the amphibole group and closely related to riebeckite; chemically it
+is an iron sodium silicate. Its resemblance to asbestos has gained for
+it the name Cape Asbestos, the chief occurrence being in Cape Colony.
+The mineral suffers alteration by removal of alkali and peroxidation of
+the ferrous iron, and further by deposition of silica between the
+fibres, or by their replacement by silica; a hard siliceous mineral is
+thus formed which when polished shows, in consequence of its fibrous
+structure, a beautiful chatoyance or silky lustre. This is the
+ornamental stone which is known when blue as "hawk's-eye," and when of
+rich golden brown colour as "tiger-eye." The latter, which represents
+the final alteration of the crocidolite, has become very fashionable as
+"South African cat's eye," and is often termed "crocidolite," though
+practically only a mixture of quartz with brown oxide of iron. The
+following are analyses by A. Renard and C. Klement of the unaltered
+crocidolite and of the blue and brown products of alteration:--
+
+  +---------------+--------------+-------------+------------+
+  |               | Crocidolite. | Hawk's-eye. | Tiger-eye. |
+  |               +--------------+-------------+------------+
+  | Silica        |    51.89     |   93.45     |   93.05    |
+  | Ferric oxide  |    19.22     |    2.41     |    4.94    |
+  | Alumina       |      ..      |    0.23     |    0.66    |
+  | Ferrous oxide |    17.53     |    1.43     |     ..     |
+  | Magnesia      |     2.43     |    0.22     |    0.26    |
+  | Lime          |     0.40     |    0.13     |    0.44    |
+  | Soda          |     7.71     |     ..      |     ..     |
+  | Potash        |     0.15     |     ..      |     ..     |
+  | Water         |     2.36     |    0.82     |    0.76    |
+  |               +--------------+-------------+------------+
+  |    Total      |   101.69     |   98.69     |  100.11    |
+  +---------------+--------------+-------------+------------+
+
+
+Another alteration product of the crocidolite, consisting of silica and
+ferric hydrate, has been called griqualandite. Crocidolite and the
+minerals resulting from its alteration occur in seams, associated with
+magnetite and other iron-ores, in the jasper-slates of the Asbestos
+Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony. It is known also from a few
+other localities, but only in subordinate quantity. (See CAT'S-EYE.)
+
+
+
+
+CROCKET (Ital. _uncinetti_, Fr. _crochet_, _crosse_, Ger. _Häklein_,
+_Knollen_), in architecture, an ornament running up the sides of
+gablets, hood-moulds, pinnacles, spires; generally a winding stem like a
+creeping plant, with flowers or leaves projecting at intervals, and
+terminating in a finial.
+
+
+
+
+CROCKETT, DAVID (1786-1836), American frontiersman, was born in Greene
+county, Tennessee, on the 17th of August 1786. His education was
+obtained chiefly in the rough school of experience in the Tennessee
+backwoods, where he acquired a wide reputation as a hunter, trapper and
+marksman. In 1813-1814 he served in the Creek War under Andrew Jackson,
+and subsequently became a colonel in the Tennessee militia. In 1821-1824
+he was a member of the state legislature, having won his election not by
+political speeches but by telling stories. In 1827 he was elected to the
+national House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat, and was
+re-elected in 1829. At Washington his shrewdness, eccentric manners and
+peculiar wit made him a conspicuous figure, but he was too independent
+to be a supporter of all Jackson's measures, and his opposition to the
+president's Indian policy led to administration influences being turned
+against him with the result that he was defeated for re-election in
+1831. He was again elected in 1833, but in 1835 lost his seat a second
+time, being then a vigorous opponent of many distinctively Jacksonian
+measures. Discouraged and disgusted, he left his native state, and
+emigrated to Texas, then engaged in its struggle for independence. There
+he lost his life as one of the defenders of the Alamo at San Antonio on
+the 6th of March 1836.
+
+  A so-called "autobiography," which he very probably dictated or at
+  least authorized, was published in Philadelphia in 1834; a work
+  purporting to be a continuation of this autobiography and entitled
+  _Colonel Crockett's Exploits and Adventures in Texas_ (Philadelphia,
+  1836) is undoubtedly spurious. These two works were subsequently
+  combined in a single volume, of which there have been several
+  editions. Numerous popular biographies have been written, the best by
+  E. S. Ellis (Philadelphia, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD (1860-   ), Scottish novelist, was born at
+Duchrae, Galloway, on the 24th of September 1860, the son of a Galloway
+farmer. He was brought up on a Galloway farm, and graduated from
+Edinburgh University in 1879. After some years of travel he became in
+1886 minister of Penicuik, but eventually abandoned the Free Church
+ministry for novel-writing. The success of Mr J. M. Barrie had created a
+demand for stories in the Scottish dialect when Mr Crockett published
+his successful story of _The Stickit Minister_ in 1893. It was followed
+by a rapidly produced series of popular novels dealing often with the
+past history of Scotland, or with his native Galloway. Such are _The
+Raiders_, _The Lilac Sun-bonnet_ and _Mad Sir Uchtred_ in 1894; _The Men
+of the Moss Hags_ in 1895; _Cleg Kelly_ and _The Grey Man_ in 1896; _The
+Surprising Adventures of Sir Toady Lion_ (1897); _The Red Axe_ (1898);
+_Kit Kennedy_ (1899); _Joan of the Sword Hand_ and _Little Anna Mark_ in
+1900; _Flower o' the Corn_ (1902); _Red Cap Tales_ (1904), &c.
+
+
+
+
+CROCKFORD, WILLIAM (1775-1844), proprietor of Crockford's Club, was born
+in London in 1775, the son of a fishmonger, and for some time himself
+carried on that business. After winning a large sum of money--according
+to one story £100,000--either at cards or by running a gambling
+establishment, he built, in 1827, a luxurious gambling house at 50 St
+James's Street, which, to ensure exclusiveness, he organized as a club.
+Crockford's quickly became the rage; every English social celebrity and
+every distinguished foreigner visiting London hastened to become a
+member. Even the duke of Wellington joined, though, it is averred, only
+in order to be able to blackball his son, Lord Douro, should he seek
+election. Hazard was the favourite game, and very large sums changed
+hands. Crockford retired in 1840, when, in the expressive language of
+Captain R. H. Gronow, he had "won the whole of the ready money of the
+then existing generation." He took, indeed, about £1,200,000 out of the
+club, but subsequently lost most of it in unlucky speculations.
+Crockford died on the 24th of May 1844.
+
+  See John Timbs, _Club Life of London_ (London, 1866); Gronow,
+  _Celebrities of London and Paris_, 3rd series (London, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+CROCODILE, a name for certain reptiles, taken from ancient Gr. [Greek:
+kordylos], signifying lizard and newt; with reduplication [Greek:
+korkordylos], and by metathesis ultimately [Greek: krokodeilos].
+Herodotus makes mention of them, and tells us that the Egyptian name was
+_champsa_. The Arabic term is _ledschun_. The same root _kar_ leads
+through something like _kar-kar-ta_, _glakarta_ (_glazard_ in Breton),
+to _lacerta_ and to "lizard." Lacerta in turn has become, in Spanish,
+_lagarto_, which, with the article, _el lagarto_, is the origin of the
+term "alligator." This word is, however, artificial, although now widely
+used; Spanish and Portuguese-speaking people in America universally call
+the crocodile and the alligator simply _lagarto_, which is never
+intended for lizard.
+
+The Crocodilia form a separate order of reptiles with many
+peculiarities. The premaxillae are short and always enclose the
+nostrils. The posterior nares or choanae open far behind in the roof of
+the mouth, in recent forms within the pterygoids. The under jaws are
+hinged on to the quadrate bones, which extend obliquely backwards, and
+are immovably wedged in between the squamosal and the lateral occipital
+wings. The teeth form a complete series in the under jaw, and in the
+upper jaw on the premaxillary and maxillary bones. They are conical and
+deeply implanted in separate sockets. They are often shed throughout
+life, the successors lying on the inner side, and with their caps partly
+fitting into the wide open roots of the older teeth. Especially in
+alligators the upper teeth overlap laterally those of the lower jaw,
+whilst in most crocodiles the overlapping is less marked and the teeth
+mostly interlock, a feature which increases with the slenderness of the
+snout. In old specimens some of the longer, lower teeth work their tips
+into deep pits, and ultimately even perforate the corresponding parts of
+the upper jaw. The first and second vertebrae each have a pair of long,
+movable ribs. There is a compound abdominal sternum. The so-called pubic
+bones are large and movable. There are five fingers and four toes,
+provided with claws, excepting the outer digits.
+
+The tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under surface; its
+hinder margin is raised into a transverse fold, which, by meeting a
+similar fold from the palate, can shut off the mouth completely from the
+wide cavity of the throat. Dorsally the posterior nares open into this
+cavity. Consequently the beast can lie submerged in the water, with only
+the nostrils exposed, and with the mouth open, and breathe without water
+entering the windpipe. Within the glottis is a pair of membranous folds
+which serve as vocal cords; all the Crocodilia are possessed of a loud,
+bellowing voice.
+
+The stomach is globular, rather muscular, with a pair of tendinous
+centres like those of birds; its size is comparatively small, but the
+digestion is so rapid and powerful that every bone of the creature's
+prey is dissolved whilst still being stowed away in the wide and long
+gullet. The anal opening forms a longitudinal slit; within it, arising
+from its anterior corner, is the unpaired copulatory organ. The vascular
+system has attained the highest state of development of all reptiles.
+The heart is practically quadrilocular, the right and left halves being
+completely partitioned, except for a small communication, the _foramen
+Panizzae_, between the right and left aortae where these cross each
+other on leaving their respective ventricles. The outer ear lies in a
+recess which can be closed tightly by a dorsal flap of skin. The power
+of hearing is acute, and so is the sight, the eyes being protected by
+upper and lower lids and by a nictitating membrane. The skin of the
+whole body is scaly, with a hard, horny, waterproof covering of the
+epidermis, but between these mostly flat scales the skin is soft. The
+scutes or dermal portions of the scales are more or less ossified,
+especially on the back, and form the characteristic dermal armour. The
+skins or "hides" of commerce consist entirely of the tanned cutis
+minus, the epidermis and the horny coverings of the scutes. All the
+Crocodilia possess two pairs of musk-glands in the skin; one is situated
+on the inner side of the lower jaw. The opening of the glands is
+slit-like and leads into a pocket, which is filled with a smeary,
+strongly scented matter. The other pair lies just within the lips of the
+cloacal opening.
+
+Propagation takes place by eggs, which are oval, quite white, with a
+very hard and strong shell. Their size varies from 2 to 4 in. in length,
+according to the size of the species and the age of the female. She lays
+several dozen eggs in a carefully prepared nest. The Nile crocodile
+makes a hole in white sand, which is then filled up and smoothed over;
+the mother sleeps upon the nest, and keeps watch over her eggs, and when
+these are near hatching--after about twelve weeks--she removes the 18
+in. or 2 ft. of sand. Other species, especially the alligators, make a
+very large nest of leaves, twigs and humus, scraping together a mound
+about a yard high and two or more yards in diameter. The eggs, in
+several layers, are laid near the top. The adults frequently dig long
+subterranean passages into the banks of streams, and, during dry
+seasons, they have been found deep in the hardened mud, whence they
+emerge with the beginning of the rains. They spend most of their time in
+the water, but are also very fond of basking in the hot sun on the banks
+of rivers or in marshes, usually with the head turned towards the water,
+to which they take on the slightest alarm. They can walk perfectly well,
+and they do so deliberately with the whole body raised a little above
+the ground. When their pools dry up, or when in search of new
+hunting-grounds, they sometimes undertake long wanderings over land. But
+the water is their true element. They swim rapidly, propelled by the
+powerful tail and by the mostly webbed limbs, or they submerge
+themselves, with only the tip of the nose and the eyes showing, or
+sometimes also the back. They then look like floating logs; and thus
+they float or gently approach their prey, which consists of anything
+they can overpower. Many a large mammal coming to drink at its
+accustomed place is dragged into the water by the lurking monster.
+Certainly there are occasional man-eaters amongst them, and in some
+countries they are much feared. As a rule, however, they are so wary and
+suspicious that they are very difficult to approach, and their haunts
+are so well stocked with fish and other game that they make off and hide
+rather than attack a man swimming in their waters. But if a dog is sent
+in there will be a sudden yelp, the splash from a big tail, and a
+widening eddy.
+
+Crocodile stories, not all fabulous, are plentiful, and begin with one
+of the oldest writings in the world, the book of Job. "Canst thou draw
+leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest
+down?... Lay thine hand upon him, remember the battle, do no more." This
+is a very interesting passage, since it can apply only to a large-sized
+crocodile. Now nothing is known of the occurrence of such in Arabia, but
+a few specimens of rather small size seem still to exist in Syria, in
+the Wadi Zerka, an eastern tributary of the Jordan.
+
+Crocodiles are caught in various ways,--for instance, with two pointed
+sticks, which are fastened crosswise within the bait, an animal's
+entrails, to which is attached a rope. When the creature has swallowed
+the spiked bait it keeps its jaws so firmly closed that it can be
+dragged out of the water. A kind of plover, _Pluvianus aegyptius_, often
+sits upon basking crocodiles, and, since the latter often rest with
+gaping mouth, it is possible that these agile birds do pick the
+reptiles' teeth in search of parasites. Being a very watchful bird, its
+cry of warning, when it flies off on the approach of danger, is probably
+appreciated by the crocodile. But the story of the ichneumon or mongoose
+is a fable. Although an inveterate destroyer of eggs, this little
+creature prefers those of birds and the soft-shelled eggs of lizards to
+the very hard and strong-shelled eggs which are deeply buried in the
+crocodile's nest.
+
+  Considering the interest which is taken in crocodiles and their
+  allies, on account of their size, their dangerous nature and the
+  sporting trophies which they yield, the following "key," based upon
+  easily ascertained characters of the skull, is given.
+
+  I. Snout very long and slender. The mandibular symphysis extends
+  backwards at least to the fifteenth tooth.
+
+    (a) Nasal bones very small, and widely separated from the
+    premaxilla (which encloses the nostrils) by the maxillaries which
+    join each other for a long distance along the dorsal mid-line....
+    _Gavialis gangeticus_ of India, the "gharial" or fish-eater.
+
+    (b) Nasal bones long, so as to be in contact with the premaxilla at
+    the hinder corner of the nostril groove.... _Tomistoma schlegeli_ of
+    Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra.
+
+  II. Snout mostly triangular or rounded off. The mandibular symphysis
+  does not reach beyond the eighth tooth.
+
+    (a), The fourth mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw.
+    Crocodiles.
+
+      1. Without a bon nasal septum between the nostrils....
+      Crocodiles.
+
+      2. The nasal bones project through the nasal groove, forming a
+      bony septum. _Osteolaemus frontatus s. tetraspis_ of West rica.
+
+    (b) Fourth mandibular tooth fitting into a pit in the upper jaw.
+    Alligators.
+
+      1. Without a bony nasal septum.... _Caiman_, Central and South
+      America.
+
+      2. Nasal bones dividing the nasal groove.... _Alligator_, America
+      and China.
+
+The genus _Cracodilus_ contains seven species. _C. vulgaris_ or
+_niloticus_ of most of Africa, is found from the Senegal to Egypt and to
+Madagascar, reaching a length of 15 ft. It has eighteen or nineteen
+upper and fifteen lower teeth on each side. _C. palustris_, the "mugger"
+or "marsh crocodile" of India and Ceylon, extends westwards into
+Baluchistan, eastwards into the Malay islands. It has nineteen upper and
+lower teeth on either side. The scutes on the neck, six in number, are
+packed closely together, the four biggest forming a square. The length
+of 12 ft. is a fair size for a large specimen. _C. porosus_ or
+_biporcatus_ is easily recognised by the prominent longitudinal ridge
+which extends in front of each eye. Specimens of more than 20 ft. in
+length are not uncommon, and a monster of 33 ft. is on record. It is
+essentially an inhabitant of tidal waters and estuaries, and often goes
+out to sea; hence its wide distribution, from the whole coast of Bengal
+to southern China, to the northern coasts of Australia and even to the
+Fiji islands. Australians are in the habit of calling their crocodiles
+alligators. _C. cataphractus_ is the common crocodile of West Africa,
+easily recognised by the slender snout which resembles that of the
+gavial, but the mandibular symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth
+tooth. _C. johnstoni_ of northern Australia and Queensland is allied to
+the last species mentioned, with which it agrees by the slender snout.
+Lastly there are two species of true crocodiles in America, _C.
+intermedius_ of the Orinoco, allied to the former, and _C. americanus_
+or _acutus_ of the West Indies, Mexico, Central America to Venezuela and
+Ecuador; its characteristic feature is a median ridge or swelling on the
+snout, which is rather slender.
+
+The above list shows that the usual statement that crocodiles inhabit
+the Old World and alligators the New World is not strictly true. In the
+Tertiary epoch alligators, crocodiles and long-snouted gavials existed
+in Europe.     (H. F. G.)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6
+       "Coucy-le-Château" to "Crocodile"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2010 [EBook #32423]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet
+Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VII SLICE VI<br /><br />
+Coucy-le-Château to Crocodile</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">COUCY-LE-CHÂTEAU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CRANK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">COUES, ELLIOTT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CRANMER, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">COULISSE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CRANNOG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CRANSAC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">COULOMMIERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CRANSTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">COUMARIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CRANTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">COUMARONES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">COUNCIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CRAPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">COUNCIL BLUFFS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CRASH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CRASHAW, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">COUNT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CRASSULACEAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">COUNTER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CRASSUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">COUNTERFEITING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CRATER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">COUNTERFORT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CRATES</a> (Athenian actor)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">COUNTERPOINT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CRATES</a> (Greek philosophers)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">COUNTERSCARP</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CRATES</a> (of Mallus)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">COUNTERSIGN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CRATINUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">COUNTRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CRATIPPUS</a> (Greek historian)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">COUNTY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CRATIPPUS</a> (of Mitylene)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">COUNTY COURT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CRAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">COUPÉ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CRAUCK, GUSTAVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">COUPLET</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CRAUFURD, QUINTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">COUPON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CRAUFURD, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">COURANTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CRAVAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CRAVEN, PAULINE AGLAÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">COURBET, GUSTAVE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">COURBEVOIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CRAWFORD, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">COURCI, JOHN DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CRAWFORD, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">COURIER, PAUL LOUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">COURIER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CRAWFORDSVILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">COURLAND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CRAWFURD, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CRAYER, GASPARD DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">COURSING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CRAYFISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">COURT, ANTOINE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CRAYON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">COURT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">COURT BARON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CRÉBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">COURTENAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CRÈCHE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">COURTENAY, RICHARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CRÉCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">COURTENAY, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CREDENCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">COURTESY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CREDENTIALS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CREDI, LORENZO DI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">COURT LEET</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CREDIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">COURT-MARTIAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CRÉDIT FONCIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">COURTOIS, JACQUES and GUILLAUME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CREDITON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">COURTRAI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CREE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">COUSCOUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CREECH, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">COUSIN, JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CREEDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">COUSIN, VICTOR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CREEK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">COUSIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CREEK or MUSKOGEE INDIANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">COUSINS, SAMUEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CREETOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">COUSTOU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CREEVEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">COUTANCES, WALTER OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CREFELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">COUTANCES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CREIGHTON, MANDEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">COUTHON, GEORGES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CREIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">COUTTS, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CRELL NICHOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">COUTURE, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CREMA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">COUVADE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CREMATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">COVE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">COVELLITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CREMERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">COVENANT</a> (mutual agreement)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CRÉMIEUX, ISAAC MOÏSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">COVENANT</a> (law term)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CREMONA, LUIGI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">COVENANTERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CREMONA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">COVENT GARDEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">CREMORNE GARDENS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">COVENTRY, SIR JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">CRENELLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">CREODONTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">CREOLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">COVENTRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">CREON</a> (king of Corinth)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">COVER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">CREON</a> (king of Thebes)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">COVERDALE, MILES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">CREOPHYLUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">COVERTURE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">CREOSOTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">COVILHÃ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">CREPUSCULAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">COVILHAM PERO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">CRÉQUY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">COVIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">CRÉQUY, RENÉE DE FROULLAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">COVINGTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">COWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">CRESCENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">COWBRIDGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">COWDENBEATH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">CRESILAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">COWELL, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">CRESOLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">CRESPI, DANIELE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">COWEN, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">COWES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">COWL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">CRESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">COWLEY, ABRAHAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">CRESSENT, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">COWLEY, HANNAH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">COWLEY, CHARLES WELLESLEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">COWLEY FATHERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">CREST</a> (town of France)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">COWPENS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">CREST</a> (plume or tuft)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">CRESTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">COWPER, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">CRESWICK, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">COWRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">CRESWICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">COW-TREE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">CRETACEOUS SYSTEM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">COX, DAVID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">CRETE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">CRETINISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">COX, JACOB DOLSON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">CRETONNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">COX, KENYON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">CREUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">COX, RICHARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">COX, SAMUEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">COX, SAMUEL HANSON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">CREVASSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">COXCIE, MICHAEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">CREVILLENTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">COXE, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">CREW, NATHANIEL CREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">COXSWAIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">CREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">CREWE, ROBERT CREWE-MILNES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">COYOTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">CREWE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">COYPEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">CREWKERNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">COYPU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">CRIB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">CRIBBAGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CRAB</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">CRICCIETH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CRABBE, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">CRICHTON, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CRACKER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">CRICKET</a> (insect)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CRACOW</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">CRICKET</a> (game)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">CRICKHOWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CRADLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">CRICKLADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CRADOCK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">CRIEFF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CRAFT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">CRIME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CRAG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar267">CRIMEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CRAGGS, JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar268">CRIMEAN WAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CRAIG, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar269">CRIMINAL LAW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CRAIG, SIR THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar270">CRIMINOLOGY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar271">CRIMMITZSCHAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CRAIK, DINAH MARIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar272">CRIMP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar273">CRIMSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CRAIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar274">CRINAGORAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CRAILSHEIM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar275">CRINOLINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CRAIOVA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar276">CRINUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CRAMBO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar277">CRIOBOLIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar278">CRIPPLE CREEK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar279">CRISA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CRÄMER, KARL VON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar280">CRISPI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar281">CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CRAMP</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar282">CRITIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CRAMP-RINGS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar283">CRITICISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CRANACH, LUCAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar284">CRITIUS and NESIOTES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CRANBERRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar285">CRITOLAUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CRANBROOK, GATHORNE-HARDY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar286">CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CRANBROOK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar287">CRIVELLI, CARLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CRANDALL, PRUDENCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar288">CROATIA-SLAVONIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CRANE, STEPHEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar289">CROCIDOLITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CRANE, WALTER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar290">CROCKET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar291">CROCKETT, DAVID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CRANE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar292">CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CRANES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar293">CROCKFORD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CRANIOMETRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar294">CROCODILE</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COUCY-LE-CHÂTEAU,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a village of northern France, in the
+department of Aisne, 18 m. W.S.W. of Laon on a branch of the
+Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 663. It has extensive remains of
+fortifications of the 13th century, the most remarkable feature of
+which is the Porte de Laon, a gateway flanked by massive towers
+and surmounted by a fine apartment. Coucy also has a church of
+the 15th century, preserving a façade in the Romanesque style.
+The importance of the place is due, however, to the magnificent
+ruins of a feudal fortress (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castle</a></span>) crowning the eminence
+on the slope of which the village is built. The remains, which
+embrace an area of more than 10,000 sq. yds., form an irregular
+quadrilateral built round a court-yard and flanked by four huge
+towers. The nucleus of the stronghold is a donjon over 200 ft.
+high and over 100 ft. in diameter, standing on the south side
+of the court. Three large vaulted apartments, one above the
+other, occupy its interior. The court-yard was surrounded on the
+ground-floor by storehouses, kitchens, &amp;c., above which on the
+west and north sides were the great halls known as the <i>Salle des
+preux</i> and the <i>Salle des preuses</i>. A chapel projected from the
+west wing. The bailey or base-court containing other buildings
+and covering three times the area of the château extended
+between it and the village. The architectural unity of the
+fortress is due to the rapidity of its construction, which took
+place between 1230 and 1242, under Enguerrand III., lord of
+Coucy. A large part of the buildings was restored or enlarged
+at the end of the 14th century by Louis d&rsquo;Orléans, brother of
+Charles VI., by whom it had been purchased. The place was
+dismantled in 1652 by order of Cardinal Mazarin. It is now
+state property. In 1856 researches were carried on upon the spot
+by Viollet-le-Duc, and measures for the preservation of the ruins
+were subsequently undertaken.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sires de Coucy.</i>&mdash;Coucy gave its name to the sires de Coucy, a
+feudal house famous in the history of France. The founder of the
+family was Enguerrand de Boves, a warlike lord, who, at the end of
+the 11th century seized the castle of Coucy by force. Towards
+the close of his life, he had to fight against his own son, Thomas
+de Marle, who in 1115 succeeded him, subsequently becoming
+notorious for his deeds of violence in the struggles between the
+communes of Laon and Amiens. He was subdued by King Louis
+VI. in 1117, but his son Enguerrand II. continued the struggle
+against the king. Enguerrand III., the Great, fought at Bouvines
+under Philip Augustus (1214), but later he was accused of
+aiming at the crown of France, and he took part in the disturbances
+which arose during the regency of Blanche of Castile.
+These early lords of Coucy remained till the 14th century in
+possession of the land from which they took their name.
+Enguerrand IV., sire de Coucy, died in 1320 without issue and was
+succeeded by his nephew Enguerrand, son of Arnold, count of
+Guines, and Alix de Coucy, from whom is descended the second
+line of the house of Coucy. Enguerrand VI. had his lands
+ravaged by the English in 1339 and died at Crécy in 1346.
+Enguerrand VII., sire de Coucy, count of Soissons and Marle, and
+chief butler of France, was sent as a hostage to England, where he
+married Isabel, the eldest daughter of King Edward III. Wishing
+to remain neutral in the struggle between England and
+France, he went to fight in Italy. Having made claims upon the
+domains of the house of Austria, from which he was descended
+through his mother, he was defeated in battle (1375-1376). He
+was entrusted with various diplomatic negotiations, and took
+part in the crusade of Hungary against the Sultan Bayezid,
+during which he was taken prisoner, and died shortly after the
+battle of Nicopolis (1397). His daughter Marie sold the fief of
+Coucy to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1400. The Châtelain de
+Coucy (see above) did not belong to the house of the lords of
+Coucy, but was castellan of the castle of that name.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COUES, ELLIOTT<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1842-1899), American naturalist, was born
+at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 9th of September 1842.
+He graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) University,
+Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at the Medical school of that
+institution in 1863. He served as a medical cadet at Washington
+in 1862-1863, and in 1864 was appointed assistant-surgeon in the
+regular army. In 1872 he published his <i>Key to North American
+Birds</i>, which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901, has done
+much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America.
+In 1873-1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the
+United States Northern Boundary Commission, and in 1876-1880
+was secretary and naturalist to the United States Geological and
+Geographical Survey of the Territories, the publications of which
+he edited. He was lecturer on anatomy in the medical school
+of the Columbian University in 1877-1882, and professor of
+anatomy there in 1882-1887. He resigned from the army in 1881
+to devote himself entirely to scientific research. He was a
+founder of the American Ornithologists&rsquo; Union, and edited its
+organ, <i>The Auk</i>, and several other ornithological periodicals. He
+died at Baltimore, Maryland, on the 25th of December 1899.
+In addition to ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy;
+his book <i>Fur-Bearing Animals</i> (1877) being distinguished by the
+accuracy and completeness of its description of species, several of
+which are already becoming rare. In 1887 he became president of
+the Esoteric Theosophical Society of America. Among the most
+important of his publications, in several of which he had collaboration,
+are <i>A Field Ornithology</i> (1874); <i>Birds of the North-west</i> (1874);
+<i>Monographs on North American Rodentia</i>, with J. A. Allen (1877);
+<i>Birds of the Colorado Valley</i> (1878); <i>A Bibliography of Ornithology</i>
+(1878-1880, incomplete); <i>New England Bird Life</i> (1881); <i>A
+Dictionary and Check List of North American Birds</i> (1882);
+<i>Biogen, A Speculation on the Origin and Motive of Life</i> (1884);
+<i>The Daemon of Darwin</i> (1884); <i>Can Matter Think?</i> (1886); and
+<i>Neuro-Myology</i> (1887). He also contributed numerous articles
+to the Century Dictionary, wrote for various encyclopaedias, and
+edited the <i>Journals of Lewis and Clark</i> (1893), and <i>The Travels of
+Zebulon M. Pike</i> (1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COULISSE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (French for &ldquo;groove,&rdquo; from <i>couler</i>, to slide), a term
+for a groove in which a gate of a sluice, or the side-scenes in a
+theatre, slide up and down, hence applied to the space on the
+stage between the wings, and generally to that part of the theatre
+&ldquo;behind the scenes&rdquo; and out of view of the public. It is also
+a term of the Paris Bourse, derived from a <i>coulisse</i>, or passage
+in which transactions were carried on without the authorized
+<i>agents de change</i>. The name <i>coulissier</i> was thus given to unauthorized
+<i>agents de change</i>, or &ldquo;outside brokers&rdquo; who, after
+many attempts at suppression, were finally given a recognized
+status in 1901. They bring business to the <i>agents de change</i>, and
+act as intermediaries between them and other parties. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stock Exchange:</a></span> <i>Paris</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1736-1806), French
+natural philosopher, was born at Angoulême on the 14th of June
+1736. He chose the profession of military engineer, spent three
+years, to the decided injury of his health, at Fort Bourbon,
+Martinique, and was employed on his return at Rochelle, the
+Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. In 1781 he was stationed permanently
+at Paris, but on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he
+resigned his appointment as <i>intendant des eaux et fontaines</i>, and
+retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was
+recalled to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new
+determination of weights and measures, which had been decreed
+by the Revolutionary government. Of the National Institute he
+was one of the first members; and he was appointed inspector
+of public instruction in 1802. But his health was already very
+feeble, and four years later he died at Paris on the 23rd of
+August 1806. Coulomb is distinguished in the history alike of
+mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he published
+an important investigation of the laws of friction (<i>Théorie
+des machines simples, en ayant regard au frottement de leurs parties
+et à la roideur des cordages</i>), which was followed twenty years later
+by a memoir on fluid resistance. In 1785 appeared his <i>Recherches
+théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l&rsquo;élasticité
+des fils de métal</i>, &amp;c. This memoir contained a description of
+different forms of his torsion balance, an instrument used by him
+with great success for the experimental investigation of the
+distribution of electricity on surfaces and of the laws of electrical
+and magnetic action, of the mathematical theory of which he may
+also be regarded as the founder. The practical unit of quantity
+of electricity, the <i>coulomb</i>, is named after him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COULOMMIERS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 45 m. E.
+of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 5217. It is situated in the fertile
+district of Brie, in a valley watered by the Grand-Morin. The
+church of St Denis (13th and 16th centuries), and the ruins of a
+castle built by Catherine of Gonzaga, duchess of Longueville,
+in the early 17th century, are of little importance. There is a
+statue to Commandant Beaurepaire, who, in 1792, killed himself
+rather than surrender Verdun to the Prussians. Coulommiers
+is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college. Printing is the chief industry,
+tanning, flour-milling and sugar-making being also carried on.
+Trade is in agricultural products, and especially in cheeses
+named after the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUMARIN,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, a substance which occurs naturally in
+sweet woodruff (<i>Asperula odorata</i>), in the tonka bean and in
+yellow melilot (<i>Melilotus officinalis</i>). It can be obtained from the
+tonka bean by extraction with alcohol. It is prepared artificially
+by heating aceto-ortho-coumaric acid (which is formed from
+sodium salicyl aldehyde) or from the action of acetic anhydride
+and sodium acetate on salicyl aldehyde (Sir W. H. Perkin,
+<i>Berichte</i>, 1875, 8, p. 1599). It can also be prepared by heating a
+mixture of phenol and malic acid with sulphuric acid, or by
+passing bromine vapour at 107° C. over the anhydride of melilotic
+acid. It forms rhombic crystals (from ether) melting at 67° C.
+and boiling at 290° C., which are readily soluble in alcohol, and
+moderately soluble in hot water. It is applied in perfumery
+for the preparation of the <i>Asperula</i> essence. On boiling with
+concentrated caustic potash it yields the potassium salt of
+coumaric acid, whilst when fused with potash it is completely
+decomposed into salicylic and acetic acids. Sodium amalgam
+reduces it, in aqueous solution, to melilotic acid. It forms
+addition products with bromine and hydrobromic acid. By
+the action of phosphorus pentasulphide it is converted into
+thiocoumarin, which melts at 101° C.; and in alcoholic solution,
+on the addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and soda, it
+yields coumarin oxime.</p>
+
+<p>Ortho-coumaric acid (o-oxycinnamic acid) is obtained from
+coumarin as shown above, or by boiling coumarin for some time
+with sodium ethylate. It melts at 208° C. and is easily soluble in
+hot water and in alcohol. It cannot be converted into coumarin
+by heating alone, but it is readily transformed on heating with
+acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride. By the action of sodium
+amalgam it is readily converted into <i>melilotic acid</i>, which melts at
+81° C., and on distillation furnishes its lactone, <i>hydrocoumarin</i>,
+melting at 25° C. For the relations of coumaric and coumarinic
+acid see <i>Annalen</i>, 254, p. 181. The homologues of coumarin may
+be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on phenol and the
+higher fatty acids (propionic, butyric and isovaleric anhydrides),
+substitution taking place at the carbon atom in the &alpha; position to
+the -CO- group, whilst by the condensation of acetoacetic
+ester and phenols with sulphuric acid the &beta; substituted coumarins
+are obtained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbelliferone</i> or 4-oxycoumarin, occurs in the bark of <i>Daphne
+mezereum</i> and may be obtained by distilling such resins as
+galbanum or asafoetida. It may be synthesized from resorcin
+and malic anhydride or from &beta; resorcyl aldehyde, acetic
+anhydride and sodium acetate. <i>Daphnetin</i> and <i>Aesculetin</i> are
+dioxycoumarins.</p>
+
+<p>The structural formulae of coumarin and the related substances are:</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:463px; height:70px" src="images/img308.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COUMARONES<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Benzofurfuranes</span>, organic compounds
+containing the ring system
+<img style="width:151px; height:37px" src="images/img309a.jpg" alt="" />
+This ring system
+may be synthesized in many different ways, the chief methods
+employed being as follows: by the action of hot alcoholic
+potash on &alpha;-bromcoumarin (R. Fittig, <i>Ann.</i>, 1883, 216, p. 162),</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:525px; height:39px" src="images/img309b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">from sodium salts of phenols and &alpha;-chloracetoacetic ester (A.
+Hantzsch, <i>Ber.</i>, 1886, 19, p. 1292),</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:442px; height:47px" src="images/img309c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">or from ortho-oxyaldehydes by condensation with ketones
+(S. Kostanecki and J. Tambor, <i>Ber.</i>, 1896, 29, p. 237), or with
+chloracetic acid (A. Rossing, <i>Ber.</i>, 1884, 17, p. 3000),</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:528px; height:160px" src="images/img309d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The parent substance coumarone, C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O, is also obtained
+by heating &omega;-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol with concentrated potash
+solution (G. Komppa, <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26. p. 2971),</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:39px" src="images/img309e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is a colourless liquid which boils at 171-172° C. and is readily
+volatile in steam, but is insoluble in water and in potash solution.
+Concentrated acids convert it into a resin. When heated with
+sodium and absolute alcohol, it is converted into <i>hydrocoumarone</i>,
+C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O, and ethyl phenol.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNCIL<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concilium</i>, from <i>cum</i>, together, and the root cal,
+to call), the general word for a convocation, meeting, assembly.
+The Latin word was frequently confused with <i>consilium</i> (from
+<i>consulere</i>, to deliberate, cf. <i>consul</i>), advice, <i>i.e.</i> counsel, and thus
+specifically an advisory assembly. Du Cange (<i>Gloss. Med.
+Infim. Latin.</i>) quotes the Greek words <span class="grk" title="synodos, synedrion, symboulion">
+&#963;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;, &#963;&#965;&#957;&#941;&#948;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;, &#963;&#965;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>   as the equivalent of <i>concilium</i>. In French the
+distinction between <i>conseil</i> (from <i>consilium</i>), advice, and
+<i>concile</i>, council (<i>i.e.</i> ecclesiastical&mdash;its only meaning) has survived,
+but the two English derivatives are much confused. In the New
+Testament, &ldquo;council&rdquo; is the rendering of the Hebrew Sanhedrin,
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="synedrion">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#941;&#948;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>. The word is generally used in English for all
+kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for administrative
+and deliberative purposes.<a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The present article is confined to a history of the development
+of the ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in
+dispute with the civil authority or for the settlement of doctrinal
+and other internal disputes. For details see under separate
+headings, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nicaea</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>From a very early period in the history of the Church, councils
+or synods have been held to decide on matters of doctrine and
+discipline. They may be traced back to the second half of the
+2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when sundry churches in Asia Minor held
+consultations about the rise of Montanism. Their precise origin
+is disputed. The common Roman Catholic view is that they are
+apostolic though not prescribed by divine law, and the apostolic
+precedent usually cited is the &ldquo;council&rdquo; of Jerusalem (Acts xv.;
+Galatians ii.). Waiving the consideration of vital critical
+questions and accepting Acts xv. at its face value, the assembly at
+Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the
+technical sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the
+Jerusalem church at which delegates from Antioch were heard
+but apparently had no vote, the decision resting solely with the
+mother church. R. Sohm argues that synods grew from the
+custom of certain local churches which, when confronted with a
+serious problem of their own, augmented their numbers by
+receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood.
+Hauck, however, holds that these augmented church meetings,
+which dealt with the affairs of but a single church, are to be
+distinguished from the synods, which took cognizance of matters
+of general interest. Older Protestant writers have contented
+themselves with saying either that synods were of apostolic
+origin, or that they were the inevitable outcome of the need of
+the leaders of churches to take counsel together, and that they
+were perhaps modelled on the secular provincial assemblies
+(<i>concilia provincialia</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church
+has affected the composition and function of synods; but the
+changes were neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout
+the Roman empire. The synods of the 2nd century were extraordinary
+assemblies which met to deliberate upon pressing
+problems. They had no fixed geographical limits for membership,
+no <i>ex-officio</i> members, nor did they possess an authority which
+did away with the independence of the local church. In the
+course of the 3rd century came the decisive change, which
+increased the prestige of the councils: the right to vote was
+limited to bishops. This was the logical outgrowth of the
+belief that each local church ought to have but one bishop
+(monarchical episcopate), and that these bishops were the sole
+legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic succession), and
+therefore official organs of the Holy Spirit. Although as late as
+250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the people was
+still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision at
+Rome and in certain parts of the East, the development had
+already run its course in northern Africa. It was a further step
+in advance when synods began to meet at regular intervals.
+They were held annually in Cappadocia by the middle of the 3rd
+century, and the council of Nicaea commanded in 325 that semiannual
+synods be held in every province, an arrangement which
+was not systematically enforced, and was altered in 692, when
+the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a year.</p>
+
+<p>With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentiation
+of type. In text-books we find clear lines drawn between
+diocesan, provincial, national, patriarchal and oecumenical
+synods; but the first thousand years of church history do not
+justify the sharpness of the traditional distinction. The <i>provincial</i>
+synods, presided over by the metropolitan (archbishop),
+were usually held at the capital of the province, and attempted
+to legislate on all sorts of questions. The state had nothing to do
+with calling them, nor did their decrees require governmental
+sanction. Various abortive attempts were made to set up
+synods of <i>patriarchal</i> or at least of more than provincial rank.
+In North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and
+424; during part of the 5th and 6th centuries <i>primatial</i> councils
+assembled at Arles; and the patriarchs of Constantinople were
+accustomed to invite to their &ldquo;<i>endemic</i> synods&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="synodoi endêmousai">
+&#963;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#953; &#7952;&#957;&#948;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#8166;&#963;&#945;&#953;</span>) all bishops who happened to be sojourning at the
+capital. <i>Papal</i> synods from the 5th and especially from the 9th
+century onward included members such as the archbishops of
+Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia and Grado, who resided outside the
+Roman archdiocese; but the territorial limits from which the
+membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely
+defined.</p>
+
+<p>Before the form of the provincial synod had become absolutely
+fixed, there arose in the 4th century the <i>oecumenical</i> council.
+The Greek term <span class="grk" title="synodos oikoumenikê">&#963;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962; &#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span><a name="FnAnchor_2a" id="FnAnchor_2a" href="#Footnote_2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> (1) (used by Eusebius,
+<i>Vita Constantini</i>, iii. 6) is preferable to the Latin <i>concilium
+universale</i> or <i>generale</i>, which has been applied loosely to national
+and even to provincial synods. The oecumenical synods were not
+the logical outgrowth of the network of provincial synods; they
+were creations of the imperial power. Constantine, who had not
+even been baptized, laid the foundations when, in response to a
+petition of the Donatists, he referred their case to a committee of
+bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius calls a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+synod. After that the emperor summoned the council of Arles to
+settle the matter. For both of these assemblies it was the emperor
+that decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling
+expenses of the bishops, determined where the council should be
+held and what topics should be discussed. He regarded them
+as temporary advisory bodies, to whose recommendations the
+imperial authority might give the force of law. In the same
+manner he appointed the time and place for the council of
+Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out
+of the public purse, nominated the committee in charge of the
+order of business, used his influence to bring about the adoption
+of the creed, and punished those who refused to subscribe. To be
+sure, the council of Nicaea commanded great veneration, for it
+was the first attempt to assemble the entire episcopate; but no
+more than the synods of Rome and of Arles was it an organ of
+ecclesiastical self-government&mdash;it was rather a means whereby
+the Church was ruled by the secular power. The subsequent
+oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on
+that of Nicaea. Most Protestant scholars maintain that the
+secular authorities decided whether or not they should be
+convened, and issued the summons; that imperial commissioners
+were always present, even if they did not always preside; that on
+occasion emperors have confirmed or refused to confirm synodal
+decrees; and that the papal confirmation was neither customary
+nor requisite. Roman Catholic scholars to-day tend to recede
+from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago,
+and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical
+synods was vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the
+pope, and that it cannot be proved that the Roman see ever
+actually had a share in calling the oecumenical councils of
+antiquity. Others, however, while acknowledging the futility of
+seeking historical proofs that the popes <i>formally</i> called, directed
+and confirmed these synods, yet assert that the emperor performed
+these functions not of his own right but in his quality as
+protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the
+request or at least with the permission and approval of the
+Church, and in particular of the pope, and that a special though
+not a stereotyped papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was
+necessary to their validity.</p>
+
+<p>In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western
+Empire we find <i>national</i> and <i>diocesan</i> synods; provincial synods
+were unusual. National synods were summoned by the king or
+with his consent to meet special needs; and they were frequently
+<i>concilia mixta</i>, at which lay dignitaries appeared. Although the
+Frankish monarchs were not <span class="correction" title="amended from abolute">absolute</span> rulers, nevertheless they
+exercised the right of changing or rejecting synodal decrees
+which ran counter to the interests of the state. Clovis held the
+first French national synod at Orleans in 511; Reccared, the
+first in Spain in 589 at Toledo. Under Charlemagne they were
+occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked
+as general synods of the West (Regensburg, 792, Frankfort, 794).
+Contemporaneous with the evolution of the national synod was
+the development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included
+the priests of separate and mutually independent parishes and
+also the leaders of the monastic clergy.</p>
+
+<p>The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of
+the Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran
+synod of 1059 on. They grew in importance until at length
+Calixtus II. summoned to the Lateran the synod of 1123 as
+&ldquo;<i>generale concilium</i>.&rdquo; The powers which the pope as bishop of
+the church in Rome had exercised over its synods he now extended
+to the oecumenical councils. They were more completely under
+his control than the ancient ones had been under the sway of the
+emperor. The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all major synods
+need papal authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were
+formulated as papal edicts.</p>
+
+<p>The absolutist principles cherished by the papal court in the
+12th and 13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the
+protests of Marsilius of Padua and the less radical William of
+Occam remained barren until the Great Schism of 1378. As
+neither the pope in Rome nor his rival in Avignon would give way,
+recourse was had to the idea that the supreme power was vested
+not in the pope but in the oecumenical council. This &ldquo;conciliar
+theory,&rdquo; propounded by Conrad of Gelnhausen and championed
+by the great Parisian teachers Pierre d&rsquo;Ailly and Gerson, proceeded
+from the nominalistic axiom that the whole is greater
+than its part. The decisive revolutionary step was taken when
+the cardinals independently of both popes ventured to hold the
+council of Pisa (1409). The council of Constance asserted the
+supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered that these be
+convened at regular intervals. The last of the Reform councils,
+that of Basel, <span class="correction" title="amended from appoved">approved</span> these principles, and at length passed a
+sentence of deposition against Pope Eugenius IV. Eugenius,
+however, succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council
+of Florence (1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar
+theory; and this was reiterated still more emphatically, on the
+eve of the Reformation, by the fifth Lateran council (1516).
+Thenceforward the absolutist theories of the 13th and 14th
+centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church. The
+popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 1517 and
+1869 they called but one; at this (Trent, 1545-1563), however,
+all treatment of the question of papal versus conciliar authority
+was purposely avoided. Although the Declaration of the French
+clergy of 1682 reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance,
+since the French Revolution this &ldquo;Gallicanism&rdquo; has shown
+itself to be but a passing phase of constitutional theory; and in
+the 19th century the ascendancy of Ultramontanism became so
+secure that Pius IX. could confidently summon to the Vatican a
+synod which set its seal on the doctrine of papal infallibility. Yet
+it would be a misconception to suppose that the Vatican decrees
+mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the infallibility of
+oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be regarded as
+more solemn and more impressive than those of the pope alone;
+their authority is fuller, though not higher. At present it is
+agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical
+councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining
+the order of business and the topics which shall come up. The
+papal confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the
+stamp without which the expression of conciliar opinion lacks
+legal validity. In other words, the oecumenical council is now
+practically in the position of the senate of an absolute monarch.
+It is in fact an open question whether a council is to be ranked as
+really oecumenical until after its decrees have been approved by the
+pope. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vatican Council</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ultramontanism</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infallibility</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called &ldquo;the
+pitched battles of church history.&rdquo; Summoned to combat
+heresy and schism, in spite of degrading pressure from without
+and tumultuous disorder within, they ultimately brought about
+a modicum of doctrinal agreement. On the one side as time went
+on they bound scholarship hand and foot in the winding-sheet of
+tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance; yet on the
+other side they fostered the sense of the Church&rsquo;s corporate
+oneness. The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a
+valuable system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of
+ecclesiastical business. They have been held most frequently,
+however, in times of stress and of reform, for instance in the 11th,
+16th and 19th centuries; at other periods they have lapsed into
+disuse: it is significant that to-day the prelate who neglects to
+convene them suffers no penalty. At present the main function
+of both provincial and oecumenical synods seems to be to facilitate
+obedience to the wishes of the central government of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>right to vote</i> (<i>votum definitivum</i>) has been distinguished
+from early times from the right to be heard (<i>votum consultativum</i>).
+The Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to
+doctors and licentiates of theology and of laws, some of them
+sitting as individuals, some as representatives of universities.
+Roman Catholic canonists now confine the right to vote at
+oecumenical councils to bishops, cardinal deacons, generals or
+vicars general of monastic orders and the <i>praelati nullius</i> (exempt
+abbots, &amp;c.); all other persons, lay or clerical, who are admitted
+or invited, have merely the <i>votum consultativum</i>&mdash;they are
+chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very learned priests.
+It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed to offset
+the preponderance of Italian bishops dependent on the pope
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span>
+when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several
+groups or &ldquo;nations,&rdquo; each of which had a single vote. In
+voting, the simple majority decides; yet such is the importance
+attached to a unanimous verdict that an irreconcilable minority
+may absent itself from the final vote, as was the case at the
+Vatican Council.</p>
+
+<p>The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the list
+most used in the Roman Church to-day is that of Hefele (<i>Conciliengeschichte</i>,
+2nd ed., I. 59 f.):</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="3"><span class="scs">A.D.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;1.</td> <td class="tcl">Nicaea I.</td> <td class="tcr">325</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;2.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople I.</td> <td class="tcr">381</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;3.</td> <td class="tcl">Ephesus</td> <td class="tcr">431</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;4.</td> <td class="tcl">Chalcedon</td> <td class="tcr">451</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;5.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople II.</td> <td class="tcr">553</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;6.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople III.</td> <td class="tcr">680</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;7.</td> <td class="tcl">Nicaea II.</td> <td class="tcr">787</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;8.</td> <td class="tcl">Constantinople IV.</td> <td class="tcr">869</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;9.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran I.</td> <td class="tcr">1123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">10.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran II.</td> <td class="tcr">1139</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">11.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran III.</td> <td class="tcr">1179</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">12.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran IV.</td> <td class="tcr">1215</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">13.</td> <td class="tcl">Lyons I.</td> <td class="tcr">1245</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">14.</td> <td class="tcl">Lyons II.</td> <td class="tcr">1274</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">15.</td> <td class="tcl">Vienne</td> <td class="tcr">1311</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">16.</td> <td class="tcl">Constance (in part)</td> <td class="tcr">1414-1418</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">17a.</td> <td class="tcl">Basel (in part)</td> <td class="tcr">1431 ff.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">17b.</td> <td class="tcl">Ferrara-Florence (a continuation of Basel)</td> <td class="tcr">1438-1442</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">18.</td> <td class="tcl">Lateran V.</td> <td class="tcr">1512-1517</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">19.</td> <td class="tcl">Trent</td> <td class="tcr">1545-1563</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">20.</td> <td class="tcl">Vatican</td> <td class="tcr">1869-1870</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">(Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in
+separate articles.)</p>
+
+<p>By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate
+synod, certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical
+councils up to twenty-two. These standard lists are of the type
+which became established through the authority of Cardinal
+R. F. Bellarmine (1542-1621), who criticized Constance and
+Basel, while defending Florence and the fifth Lateran council
+against the Gallicans. As late as the 16th century, however,
+&ldquo;the majority did not regard those councils in which the Greek
+Church did not take part as oecumenical at all&rdquo; (Harnack,
+<i>History of Dogma</i>, vi. 17). The Greek Church accepts only the
+first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan
+synod of 692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the sixth
+oecumenical synod of 680. But concerning the first seven
+councils it should be remarked that Constantinople I. was but a
+general synod of the East; its claim to oecumenicity rests upon
+its reception by the West about two centuries later. Similarly
+the only representatives of the West present at Constantinople II.
+were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the decrees till
+afterwards and they made their way in the West but gradually.
+Just as there have been synods which have come to be considered
+oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been
+synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of
+recognition: for instance Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Constantinople
+(754). The last two received the imperial confirmation
+and from the legal point of view were no whit inferior to the
+others; their decrees, however, were overthrown by subsequent
+synods. As the Protestant leaders of the 16th century held fast
+the traditional christology, they regarded with veneration the
+dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I., Ephesus and
+Chalcedon. These four councils had enjoyed a more or less
+fortuitous pre-eminence both in Roman and in canon law, and by
+many Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded,
+along with the three great creeds (Apostles&rsquo;, Nicene, Athanasian),
+as a sort of irreducible minimum of orthodoxy. In the 17th
+century the liberal Lutheran George Calixtus based his attempts
+at reuniting Christendom on this <i>consensus quinquesaecularis</i>.
+Many other Protestants have accepted Constantinople II. and
+III. as supporting the first four councils; and still others,
+notably many Anglican high churchmen, have felt bound by all
+the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church. The common
+Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may
+err and have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliar
+decisions are the sole infallible standard of faith, morals and
+worship.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protestant Councils.</i>&mdash;The churches of the Reformation have all
+had a certain measure of synodal life. The Church of England
+has maintained its ancient provincial synods or convocations,
+though for the greater part of the 18th and the first part of the
+19th centuries they transacted no business. In the Lutheran
+churches of Germany there was no strong agitation in favour of
+introducing synods until the 19th century, when a movement,
+designed to render the churches less dependent on the governmental
+consistories, won its way, until at length Prussia itself
+fell into line (1873 and 1876). As the powers granted to the
+German synods are very limited, many of their advocates have
+been disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of America,
+being independent of the state, have developed synods both
+numerous and potent. In the Reformed churches outside
+Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms were developed by
+the Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed thence to
+Scotland and other presbyterian countries. Even many of the
+churches of congregational polity have organized national
+councils (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congregationalism</a></span>); but here the principle of the
+independence of the local church prevents the decisions from
+binding those congregations which do not approve of the decrees.
+Moreover, in the last decade of the 19th century a growing
+desire for a rapprochement between the Free Churches in the
+United Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of the
+Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting
+the dissenting bodies. This body has no executive or doctrinal
+authority and is rather a conference than a council. In general
+it may be said that synods are becoming more and more powerful
+in Protestant lands, and that they are destined to still greater
+prominence because of the growing sentiment for Christian
+unity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.&mdash;General Collections:</span> <i>Collectio regia</i> (Paris,
+1644, 37 vols.) (the first very extensive work); P. Labbe (not Labbé)
+and G. Cossart, <i>Sacrosancta concilia</i> (Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with
+supplement by Étienne Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above);
+J. Hardouin (Harduinus), <i>Conciliorum collectio regia maxima</i> (Paris,
+1715), 11 tomi in 12 vols, (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious
+omissions); enlarged edition by N. Coletus (Venice, 1728-1732),
+supplemented by J. D. Mansi, <i>Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum
+nova collectio</i> (Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi). Convenient but fallible is
+Mansi&rsquo;s <i>Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima
+collectio</i> (Florence, 1759-1767; completed Venice, 1769-1798, 31
+vols.); facsimile reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding
+(tom. O) <i>Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia</i>, and
+(tom. 17B and 18B) Baluze, <i>Capitularia regum Francorum</i>, and continuing
+to date by reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi&rsquo;s
+supplement to Coletus, and furnishing (tom. 37 ff.) a new edition
+of the councils from 1720 on by J. B. Martin and L. Petit. A careful
+text of Roman Catholic synods from 1682 to 1870 is <i>Collectio Lacensis</i>
+(<i>Acta et decreta sacrorum conciliorum recentiorum</i>, Friburgi, 1870 ff.),
+7 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Special Collections: Great Britain:</span> <i>Concilia Magnae
+Britanniae et Hiberniae</i>, ed. D. Wilkins (London, 1737, 4 vols.);
+<i>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and
+Ireland</i>, ed. by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (Oxford, 1869 ff., 4
+vols.); J. W. Joyce, <i>Handbook of the Convocations or Provincial
+Synods of the Church of England</i> (London, 1887); <i>Concilia Scotiae</i>
+(1225-1559), ed. Joseph Robertson (Edinburgh, Bannatyne Club,
+1866, 2 tom.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">United States:</span> <i>Collectio Lacensis</i> (Roman Catholic synods);
+<i>The American Church History Series</i> (New York, 1893 ff. 13 vols.)
+gives information on the various Protestant synods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">France.</span>&mdash;<i>Concilia aevi Merovingici</i>, rec. F. Maassen (Hanover,
+1893) (<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum sectio</i> iii., <i>Concilia</i>,
+tom. i.); <i>Concilia antiqua Galliae</i>, cur. J. Sirmond (Paris, 1629, 3
+vols.); supplement by P. de la Lande (Paris, 1666); L. Odespun,
+<i>Concilia novissima Galliae</i> (Paris, 1646); <i>Conciliorum Galliae tam
+editorum quam ineditorum, stud. congreg. S. Mauri</i>, tom. i. (Paris, 1789).
+Synods of the Reformed Churches of France are contained in J. Quick,
+<i>Synodicon in Gallia reformata</i> (London, 1692, 2 vols.); J. Aymon,
+<i>Tous les synodes nationaux des églises réformées de France</i> (La Haye,
+1710, 2 vols.); E. Hugues, <i>Les Synodes du désert</i> (Paris, 1885 f., 3
+vols.). For the synods of other countries see Herzog-Hauck, 3rd
+ed., 19,262 f., and Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed., 3809 f.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Less Elaborate Texts:</span> <i>Canones apostolorum et conciliorum
+saeculorum</i>, iv.-vii., rec. H. T. Bruns (Berlin, 1839, 2 vols.) (still
+useful); J. Fulton, <i>Index Canonum</i> (3rd ed., New York, 1892)
+(3rd and 4th centuries); W. Bright, <i>Notes on the Canons of the First
+Four General Councils</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1892); <i>Die Kanones der
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
+wichtigsten altkirchlichen Conzilien nebst den apostolischen Kanones</i>,
+ed. F. Lauchert (Freiburg i. B., 1896); <i>Enchiridion symbolorum et
+definitionum, quae de rebus fidei et morum a conciliis oecumenicis et
+summis pontificibus emanarunt</i>, ed. H. Denzinger (7th ed., Würzburg,
+1895); <i>Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche</i>,
+ed. by A. Hahn (3rd edition, revised and enlarged, Breslau, 1897),
+with variant readings; C. Mirbt, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums
+und des römischen Katholizismus</i> (2nd much enlarged ed., Tübingen,
+1901); E. F. Karl Müller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten
+Kirche (Leipzig, 1903) (for all countries). These last five are
+elaborately indexed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Translations:</span> John Johnson, <i>A Collection of the Laws and
+Canons of the Church of England</i> [601-1519], 2 parts (London, 1720;
+reprinted Oxford, 1850 f., in the <i>Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology</i>);
+P. Schaff, <i>The Creeds of Christendom</i> (New York, 1877, 3 vols.)
+(texts and translations parallel); <i>Canons and Creeds of the First
+Four Councils</i>, ed. by E. K. Mitchell, in <i>Translations and Reprints
+from the Original Sources of European History, published by the
+Department of History of the University of Pennsylvania</i>, vol. iv. 2
+(1897); H. R. Percival, <i>The Ecumenical Councils</i> (New York, 1900)
+(<i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, second series, vol. xiv.; translates
+canons and compiles notes; bibliography in Introduction).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">General Histories of Councils:</span> C. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>
+(Freiburg i. B., 1855); English translation of the earlier
+volumes to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 787, from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 326 on, based on the second German
+edition (Edinburgh, 1871 ff.); French, by Delarc (Paris, 1869-1874,
+10 vols.). This first edition not entirely superseded by the second,
+made after the Vatican council, and continued by Knöpfler and by
+Hergenröther (Freiburg, 1873-1890, 9 vols.); a French translation,
+with continuation and critical and bibliographical notes, <i>par un
+religieux bénédictin de Farnborough</i>, tome i. 1<span class="sp">re</span> partie (Paris, Létouzey,
+1907); Paul Viollet, <i>Examen de l&rsquo;histoire des conciles de Mgr
+Hefele</i> (Paris, 1876) (<i>Extrait de la Revue historique</i>); W. P. du Bose,
+<i>The Ecumenical Councils</i> (New York, 1896) (popular); P. Guérin,
+<i>Les Conciles généraux et particuliers</i> (Paris, 1868, 3rd impression, 1897,
+3 tom.); see also A. Harnack, <i>History of Dogma</i> (Boston, 1895-1900,
+7 vols.); F. Loofs, <i>Leitfaden der Dogmengeschichte</i> (4th ed., enlarged,
+Halle, 1906).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature:</span> <i>Dictionnaire universel et complet des conciles</i>, rédigé
+par A. C. Peltier, publié par Migne (Paris, 1847, 2 vols.) (Migne,
+<i>Encyclopédie théologique</i>, vol. 13 f.); Z. Zitelli-Natali, <i>Epitome
+historico-canonica conciliorum generalium</i> (Rome, 1881); F. X.
+Kraus, <i>Realencyklopädie der christlichen Altertümer</i>, vol. i. (Freiburg-i.-B.,
+1882) (art. &ldquo;Concilien&rdquo; by Funk); William Smith and S.
+Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i> (London, 1876-1880,
+2 vols.) (erudite detail); Wetzer und Welte&rsquo;s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>,
+2nd ed. by Hergenröther and Kaulen (Freiburg i. B., 1882-1903,
+13 vols.) (art. &ldquo;Concil&rdquo; by Scheeben); <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>
+(Paris, s.d., 31 vols.) (numerous articles); P. Hinschius, <i>Das Kirchenrecht
+der Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland</i>, vol. 3 (Berlin,
+1883) (fundamental and masterly); R. von Scherer, <i>Handbuch des
+Kirchenrechtes</i>, vol. i. (Graz, 1886) (excellent notes and references);
+E. H. Landon, <i>A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic Church</i>,
+(revised ed., London, [1893], 2 vols.) (paraphrases chief canons;
+needs revision); Martigny, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités chrétiennes</i>
+(3rd ed., Paris, 1889) (for ceremonial); R. Sohm, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>,
+vol. i. (Leipzig, 1892) (brilliant); A. Kneer, <i>Die Entstehung der
+konziliaren Theorie</i> (Rome, 1893); <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische
+Theologie und Kirche</i>, begründet von J. J. Herzog, 3rd revised ed.
+by A. Hauck (Leipzig, 1896 ff.) (in vol. 19 Hauck&rsquo;s excellent <i>Synoden</i>,
+1907); F. X. Funk, <i>Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen und
+Untersuchungen</i> (Paderborn, 1897); A. V. G. Allen, <i>Christian Institutions</i>
+(New York, 1897), chap. xi.; C. A. Kneller, &ldquo;Papst und
+Konzil im ersten Jahrtausend&rdquo; (<i>Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie</i>,
+vols. 27 and 28, Innsbruck, 1893 f.); F. Bliemetzrieder, <i>Das Generalkonzil
+im grossen abendländischen Schisma</i> (Paderborn, 1904);
+Wilhelm and Scannell, <i>Manual of Catholic Theology</i> (3rd ed., London,
+1906, sect. 32); J. Forget, &ldquo;Conciles,&rdquo; in A. Vacant and E. Mangeot,
+<i>Dictionnaire de théologie catholique</i>, tome 3, 636-676 (Paris, 1906 ff.),
+with elaborate bibliography; <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i> (New York,
+1907 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the Greek Council see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boule</a></span>; for the Hebdomadal Council
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oxford</a></span>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England</a></span>: <i>Local Government</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2a" id="Footnote_2a" href="#FnAnchor_2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From <span class="grk" title="hê oikoumenê (gê)">&#7969; &#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#7952;&#957;&#951; (&#947;&#8134;)</span>. the inhabited world; Latin <i>oecumenicus</i>
+or <i>universalis</i>. The English forms &ldquo;oecumenical&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;ecumenical&rdquo; are both used.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNCIL BLUFFS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Pottawattamie
+county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 2½ m. E. of the Missouri river
+opposite Omaha, Nebraska, with which it is connected by a road
+bridge and two railway bridges. Pop. (1890) 21,474; (1900)
+25,802, of whom 3723 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,292. It
+is pre-eminently a railway centre, being served by the Union
+Pacific, of which it is the principal eastern terminus, the Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; Saint Paul, the
+Chicago &amp; Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific,
+the Chicago Great-Western, the Illinois Central, and the Wabash,
+which together have given it considerable commercial importance.
+It is built for the most part on level ground at the foot of high
+bluffs; and has several parks, the most attractive of which,
+commanding fine views, is Fairmount Park. With the exception
+of bricks and tiles, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements,
+and the products of its railway shops, its manufactures are
+relatively unimportant, the factory product in 1905 being valued
+at only $1,924,109. Council Bluffs is the seat of the Western
+Iowa Business College, and of the Iowa school for the deaf.
+On or near the site of Council Bluffs, in 1804, Lewis and Clark
+held a council with the Indians, whence the city&rsquo;s name. In
+1838 the Federal government made this the headquarters of the
+Pottawattamie Indians, removed from Missouri. They remained
+until 1846-1847, when the Mormons came, built many cabins,
+and named the place Kanesville. The Mormons remained only
+about five years, but on their departure for Utah their places
+were speedily taken by new immigrants. During 1849-1850
+Council Bluffs became an important outfitting point for California
+gold seekers&mdash;the goods being brought by boat from Saint
+Louis&mdash;and in 1853 it was incorporated as a city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> one who gives advice, more
+particularly in legal matters. The term &ldquo;counsel&rdquo; is employed
+in England as a synonym for a barrister-at-law, and may refer
+either to a single person who pleads a cause, or collectively, to the
+body of barristers engaged in a case. Counsellor or, more fully,
+counsellor-at-law, is practically an obsolete term in England, but
+is still in use locally in Ireland as an equivalent to barrister. In
+the United States, a counsellor-at-law is, specifically, an attorney
+admitted to practice in all the courts; but as there is no formal
+distinction of the legal profession into two classes, as in England,
+the term is more often used loosely in the same sense as &ldquo;lawyer,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> one who is versed in, or practises law.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNT<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Lat. <i>comes</i>, gen. <i>comitis</i>, Fr. <i>comte</i>, Ital. <i>conte</i>, Span.
+<i>conde</i>), the English translation of foreign titles equivalent
+generally to the English &ldquo;earl.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In Anglo-French documents
+the word <i>counte</i> was at all times used as the equivalent of earl, but,
+unlike the feminine form &ldquo;countess,&rdquo; it did not find its way into
+the English language until the 16th century, and then only in the
+sense defined above. The title of earl, applied by the English to
+the foreign counts established in England by William the
+Conqueror, is dealt with elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earl</a></span>). The present
+article deals with (1) the office of count in the Roman empire
+and the Frankish kingdom, (2) the development of the feudal
+count in France and under the Holy Roman Empire, (3) modern
+counts.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Latin <i>comes</i> meant literally a companion or follower. In
+the early Roman empire the word was used to designate the
+companions of the emperor (<i>comites principis</i>) and so became a
+title of honour. The emperor Hadrian chose senators as companions
+on his travels and to help him in public business. They
+formed a permanent council, and Hadrian&rsquo;s successors entrusted
+these <i>comites</i> with the administration of justice and finance, or
+placed them in military commands. The designation <i>comes</i> thus
+developed into a formal official title of high officers of state, some
+qualification being added to indicate the special duties attached
+to the office in each case. Thus in the 5th century, among the
+<i>comites</i> attached to the emperor&rsquo;s establishment, we find, <i>e.g.</i>, the
+<i>comes sacrarum largitionum</i> and the <i>comes rei privatae</i>; while
+others, forming the council, were styled <i>comites consistorii</i>.
+Others were sent into the provinces as governors, <i>comites per
+provincias constituti</i>; thus in the <i>Notitia dignitatum</i> we find a
+<i>comes Aegypti</i>, a <i>comes Africae</i>, a <i>comes Belgicae</i>, a <i>comes
+Lugdunensis</i> and others. Two of the generals of the Roman
+province of Britain were styled the <i>comes Britanniae</i> and the
+<i>comes littoris Saxonici</i> (count of the Saxon shore).</p>
+
+<p>At Constantinople in the latter Roman empire the Latin word
+<i>comes</i> assumed a Greek garb as <span class="grk" title="komês">&#954;&#972;&#956;&#951;&#962;</span> and was declined as a
+Greek noun (gen. <span class="grk" title="komêtos">&#954;&#972;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>); the <i>comes sacrarum largitionum</i>
+(count of the sacred bounties) was called at Constantinople
+<span class="grk" title="ho komês tôn sakrôn largitiônôn">&#8001; &#954;&#972;&#956;&#951;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#963;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#8182;&#957; &#955;&#945;&#961;&#947;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#974;&#957;&#969;&#957;</span> and the <i>comes rerum privatarum</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+(count of the private estates) was called <span class="grk" title="komês tôn pribatôn">&#954;&#972;&#956;&#951;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#953;&#946;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>.
+The count of the sacred bounties was the lord treasurer or
+chancellor of the exchequer, for the public treasury and the
+imperial fisc had come to be identical; while the count of the
+private estates managed the imperial demesnes and the privy
+purse. In the 5th century the &ldquo;sacred bounties&rdquo; corresponded
+to the <i>aerarium</i> of the early Empire, while the <i>res privatae</i>
+represented the fisc. The officers connected with the palace and
+the emperor&rsquo;s person included the count of the wardrobe (<i>comes
+sacrae vestis</i>), the count of the residence (<i>comes domorum</i>), and,
+most important of all, the <i>comes domesticorum et sacri stabuli</i>
+(graecized as <span class="grk" title="komês tou stablou">&#954;&#972;&#956;&#951;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#963;&#964;&#940;&#946;&#955;&#959;&#965;</span>). The count of the stable,
+originally the imperial master of the horse, developed into the
+&ldquo;illustrious&rdquo; commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Stilicho,
+<i>e.g.</i>, bore the full title as given above), and became the prototype
+of the medieval constable (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>An important official of the second rank (<i>spectabilis</i>, &ldquo;respectable&rdquo;
+as contrasted with those of highest rank who were
+&ldquo;illustrious&rdquo;) was the count of the East, who appears to have had
+the control of a department in which 600 officials were engaged.
+His power was reduced in the 6th century, when he was deprived
+of his authority over the Orient diocese, and became civil
+governor of Syria Prima, retaining his &ldquo;respectable&rdquo; rank.
+Another important officer of the later Roman court was the
+<i>comes sacri patrimonii</i>, who was instituted by the emperor
+Anastasius. In this connexion it should be observed that the
+word <i>patrimonium</i> gradually changed in meaning. In the beginning
+of the 3rd century <i>patrimonium</i> meant crown property,
+and <i>res privata</i> meant personal property: at the beginning of the
+6th century <i>patrimonium</i> meant personal property, and <i>res
+privata</i> meant crown property. It is difficult to give briefly a
+clear idea of the functions of the three important officials <i>comes
+sacrarum largitionum</i>, <i>comes rei privatae</i> and <i>comes sacri</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from partrimonii"><i>patrimonii</i></span>;
+but the terms have been well translated by a German
+author as <i>Finanzminister des Reichsschatzes</i> (finance minister of
+the treasury of the Empire), <i>F. des Kronschatzes</i> (of the crown
+treasury), and <i>F. des kaiserlichen Privatvermögens</i> (of the
+emperor&rsquo;s private property).</p>
+
+<p>The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained the
+Roman system of administration, and under them the word
+<i>comes</i> preserved its original meaning; the <i>comes</i> was a companion
+of the king, a royal servant of high rank. Under the early
+Frankish kings some <i>comites</i> did not exercise any definite
+functions; they were merely attached to the king&rsquo;s person and
+executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, <i>e.g.</i> the
+<i>comes palatii</i> and <i>comes stabuli</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constable</a></span>). The kingdom
+was divided for administrative purposes into small areas called
+<i>pagi</i> (<i>pays</i>, Ger. <i>Gau</i>), corresponding generally to the Roman
+<i>civitates</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">City</a></span>).<a name="FnAnchor_2b" id="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> At the head of the <i>pagus</i> was the <i>comes</i>,
+corresponding to the German <i>Graf</i> (<i>Gaugraf</i>, cf. Anglo-Saxon
+<i>scire-gerefa</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_3b" id="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> sheriff). The <i>comes</i> was appointed by the king and
+removable at his pleasure, and was chosen originally from all
+classes, sometimes from enfranchised slaves. His essential
+functions were judicial and executive, and in documents he is
+often described as the king&rsquo;s agent (<i>agens publicus</i>) or royal
+judge (<i>judex publicus</i> or <i>fiscalis</i>). As the delegate of the executive
+power he had the right to military command in the king&rsquo;s name,
+and to take all the measures necessary for the preservation of the
+peace, <i>i.e.</i> to exercise the royal &ldquo;ban&rdquo; (<i>bannus regis</i>). He was at
+once public prosecutor and judge, was responsible for the execution
+of the sentences of the courts, and as the king&rsquo;s representative
+exercised the royal right of protection (<i>mundium regis</i>) over
+churches, widows, orphans and the like. He enjoyed a triple
+wergeld, but had no definite salary, being remunerated by the
+receipt of certain revenues, a system which contained the germs
+of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private
+estates. He also retained a third of the fines which he imposed
+in his judicial capacity.</p>
+
+<p>Under the early Carolings the title count did not indicate noble
+birth. A <i>comes</i> was generally raised from childhood in the king&rsquo;s
+palace, and rose to be a count through successive stages. The
+count&rsquo;s office was not yet a dignity, nor hereditary; he was not
+independent nor appointed for life, but exercised the royal power
+by delegation, as under the Merovingians. While, however, he
+was theoretically paid by the king, he seems to have been
+himself one of the sources of the royal revenue. The counties
+were, it appears, farmed out; but in the 7th century the royal
+choice became restricted to the larger landed proprietors, who
+gradually emancipated themselves from royal control, and in the
+8th century the term <i>comitatus</i> begins to denote a geographical
+area, though there was little difference in its extent under the
+Merovingian kings and the early Carolings. The count was
+about to pass into the feudatory stage. Throughout the middle
+ages, however, the original official and personal connotation of
+the title was never wholly lost; or perhaps it would be truer to
+say, with Selden, that it was early revived with the study of the
+Roman civil law in the 12th century. The unique dignity of
+count of the Lateran palace,<a name="FnAnchor_4b" id="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> bestowed in 1328 by the emperor
+Louis IV. the Bavarian on Castrucio de&rsquo; Antelminelli, duke of
+Lucca, and his heirs male, was official as well as honorary,
+being charged with the attendance and service to be performed
+at the palace at the emperor&rsquo;s coronation at Rome (Du
+Cange, s.v. <i>Comites Palatii Lateranensis</i>; Selden, op. cit. p. 321).
+This instance, indeed, remained isolated; but the personal
+title of &ldquo;count palatine,&rdquo; though honorary rather than official,
+was conferred on officials&mdash;especially by the popes on those of
+the Curia&mdash;had no territorial significance, and was to the last
+reminiscent of those early comites palatii whose relations to the
+sovereign had been purely personal and official (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palatine</a></span>).
+A relic of the old official meaning of &ldquo;count&rdquo; still survives in
+Transylvania, where the head of the political administration of
+the Saxon districts is styled count (<i>comes</i>, <i>Graf</i>) of the Saxon
+Nation.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Feudal Counts.</i>&mdash;The process by which the official counts
+were transformed into feudal vassals almost independent is
+described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>. In the confusion of the
+period of transition, when the title to possession was usually the
+power to hold, designations which had once possessed a definite
+meaning were preserved with no defined association. In France,
+by the 10th century, the process of decomposition of the old
+organization had gone far, and in the 11th century titles of
+nobility were still very loosely applied. That of &ldquo;count&rdquo; was,
+as Luchaire points out, &ldquo;equivocal&rdquo; even as late as the 12th
+century; any castellan of moderate rank could style himself
+<i>comte</i> who in the next century would have been called <i>seigneur</i>
+(<i>dominus</i>). Even when, in the 13th century, the ranks of the
+feudal hierarchy in France came to be more definitely fixed, the
+style of &ldquo;count&rdquo; might imply much, or comparatively little.
+In the oldest register of Philip Augustus counts are reckoned
+with dukes in the first of the five orders into which the nobles are
+divided, but the list includes, besides such almost sovereign
+rulers as the counts of Flanders and Champagne, immediate
+vassals of much less importance&mdash;such as the counts of Soissons
+and Dammartin&mdash;and even one mediate vassal, the count of
+Bar-sur-Seine. The title was still in fact &ldquo;equivocal,&rdquo; and so it
+remained throughout French history. In the official lists it was
+early placed second to that of duke (Luchaire, <i>Manuel</i>, p. 181,
+note 1), but in practice at least the great <i>comtes-pairs</i> (<i>e.g.</i> of
+Champagne) were the equals of any duke and the superiors of
+many. Thus, too, in modern times royal princes have been given
+the title of count (Paris, Flanders, Caserta), the heir of Charles X.
+actually changing his style, without sense of loss, from that of duc
+de Bordeaux to that of comte de Chambord. From the 16th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+century onwards the equivocal nature of the title in France was
+increased by the royal practice of selling it, either to viscounts or
+barons in respect of their fiefs, or to rich <i>roturiers</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the change from the official to the territorial and
+hereditary counts followed at the outset much the same course as
+in France, though the later development of the title and its
+meaning was different. In the 10th century the counts were
+permitted by the kings to divide their benefices and rights
+among their sons, the rule being established that countships
+(<i>Grafschaften</i>) were hereditary, that they might be held by boys,
+that they were heritable by females and might even be administered
+by females. The <i>Grafschaft</i> became thus merely a
+bundle of rights inherent in the soil; and, the count&rsquo;s office
+having become his property, the old counties or <i>Gauen</i> rapidly
+disappeared as administrative units, being either amalgamated or
+subdivided. By the second half of the 12th century the official
+character of the count had quite disappeared; he had become a
+territorial noble, and the foundation had been laid of territorial
+sovereignty (<i>Landeshoheit</i>). The first step towards this was the
+concession to the counts of the military prerogatives of dukes,
+a right enjoyed from the first by the counts of the marches (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Margrave</a></span>), then given to counts palatine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palatine</a></span>) and,
+finally, to other counts, who assumed by reason of it the style of
+landgrave (<i>Landgraf</i>, <i>i.e.</i> count of a province). At first all counts
+were reckoned as princes of the Empire (<i>Reichsfürsten</i>); but
+since the end of the 12th century this rank was restricted to those
+who were immediate tenants of the crown,<a name="FnAnchor_5b" id="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the other counts of
+the Empire (<i>Reichsgrafen</i>) being placed among the free lords
+(<i>barones</i>, <i>liberi domini</i>). Counts of princely rank (<i>gefürstete
+Grafen</i>) voted among the princes in the imperial diet; the others
+(<i>Reichsgrafen</i>) were grouped in the <i>Grafenbänke</i>&mdash;originally two,
+to which two more were added in the 17th century&mdash;each of
+which had one vote. In 1806, on the formation of the Confederation
+of the Rhine, the sovereign counts were all mediatized (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mediatization</a></span>). Even before the end of the Empire (1806)
+the right of bestowing the title of count was freely exercised by
+the various German territorial sovereigns.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Modern Counts.</i>&mdash;Any political significance which the feudal
+title of count retained in the 18th century vanished with the
+changes produced by the Revolution. It is now simply a title of
+honour and one, moreover, the social value of which differs
+enormously, not only in the different European countries, but
+within the limits of the same country. In Germany, for instance,
+there are several categories of counts: (1) the mediatized princely
+counts (<i>gefürstete Grafen</i>), who are reckoned the equals in blood
+of the European sovereign houses, an equality symbolized by
+the &ldquo;closed crown&rdquo; surmounting their armorial bearings. The
+heads of these countly families of the &ldquo;high nobility&rdquo; are
+entitled (by a decree of the federal diet, 1829) to the style of
+<i>Erlaucht</i> (illustrious, most honourable); (2) Counts of the
+Empire<a name="FnAnchor_6b" id="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> (<i>Reichsgrafen</i>), descendants of those counts who,
+before the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806), were <i>Reichsständisch</i>
+<i>i.e.</i> sat in one of the <i>Grafenbänke</i> in the imperial diet,
+and entitled to a ducal coronet; (3) Counts (a) descended from
+the lower nobility of the old Empire, titular since the 15th
+century, (b) created since; their coronet is nine-pointed (cf. the
+nine points and strawberry leaves of the English earl). The
+difficulty of determining in any case the exact significance of
+the title of a German count, illustrated by the above, is increased
+by the fact that the title is generally heritable by all male
+descendants, the only exception being in Prussia, where, since
+1840, the rule of primogeniture has prevailed and the bestowal of
+the title is dependent on a rent-roll of £3000 a year. The result
+is that the title is very widespread and in itself little significant.
+A German or Austrian count may be a wealthy noble of princely
+rank, a member of the Prussian or Austrian Upper House, or he
+may be the penniless cadet of a family of no great rank or
+antiquity. Nevertheless the title, which has long been very
+sparingly bestowed, always implies a good social position. The
+style <i>Altgraf</i> (old count), occasionally found, is of some antiquity,
+and means that the title of count has been borne by the family
+from time immemorial.</p>
+
+<p>In medieval France the significance of the title of count varied
+with the power of those who bore it; in modern France it varies
+with its historical associations. It is not so common as in
+Germany or Italy; because it does not by custom pass to all
+male descendants. The title was, however, cheapened by its
+revival under Napoleon. By the decree of the 1st of March 1808,
+reviving titles of nobility, that of count was assigned <i>ex officio</i> to
+ministers, senators and life councillors of state, to the president of
+the Corps Législatif and to archbishops. The title was made
+heritable in order of primogeniture, and in the case of archbishops
+through their nephews. These Napoleonic countships, increased
+under subsequent reigns, have produced a plentiful crop of titles
+of little social significance, and have tended to lower the status of
+the counts deriving from the <i>ancien régime</i>. The title of marquis,
+which Napoleon did not revive, has risen proportionately in the
+estimation of the Faubourg St Germain. As for that of count, it
+is safe to say that in France its social value is solely dependent on
+its historical associations.</p>
+
+<p>Of all European countries Italy has been most prolific of counts.
+Every petty Italian prince, from the pope downwards, created
+them for love or money; and, in the absence of any regulating
+authority, the title was also widely and loosely assumed, while
+often the feudal title passed with the sale of the estate to which it
+was attached. Casanova remarked that in some Italian cities
+all the nobles were <i>baroni</i>, in others all were <i>conti</i>. An Italian
+<i>conte</i> may or may not be a gentleman; he has long ceased,
+<i>qua</i> count, to have any social prestige, and his rank is not recognized
+by the Italian government. As in France, however,
+there are some Italian <i>conti</i> whose titles are respectable, and
+even illustrious, from their historic associations. The prestige
+belongs, however, not to the title but to the name. As for the
+papal countships, which are still freely bestowed on those of all
+nations whom the Holy See wishes to reward, their prestige
+naturally varies with the religious complexion of the country in
+which the titles are borne. They are esteemed by the faithful, but
+have small significance for those outside. In Spain, on the other
+hand, the title of <i>conde</i>, the earlier history of which follows much
+the same development as in France, is still of much social value,
+mainly owing to the fact that the rule of primogeniture exists,
+and that, a large fee being payable to the state on succession to
+a title, it is necessarily associated with some degree of wealth.
+The Spanish counts of old creation, some of whom are grandees
+and members of the Upper House, naturally take the highest
+rank; but the title, still bestowed for eminent public services or
+other reasons, is of value. The title, like others in Spain, can
+pass through an heiress to her husband. In Russia the title of
+count (<i>graf</i>, fem. <i>grafinya</i>), a foreign importation, has little social
+prestige attached to it, being given to officials of a certain rank.
+In the British empire the only recognized counts are those of
+Malta, who are given precedence with baronets of the United
+Kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Selden, <i>Titles of Honor</i> (London, 1672); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium
+Med. Lat.</i> (ed. Niort, 1883) s.v. &ldquo;Comes&rdquo;; <i>La Grande
+Encyclopédie</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Comte&rdquo;; A. Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions
+françaises</i> (Paris, 1892); P. Guilhiermoz, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;origine de la
+noblesse en France au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1902); Brunner, <i>Deutsche
+Rechtsgeschichte</i>, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The exact significance of a title is difficult to reproduce in a
+foreign language. Actually, only some foreign counts could be said
+to be equivalent to English earls; but &ldquo;earl&rdquo; is always translated
+by foreigners by words (<i>comte</i>, <i>Graf</i>) which in English are represented
+by &ldquo;count,&rdquo; itself never used as the synonym of &ldquo;earl.&rdquo; Conversely
+old English writers had no hesitation in translating as
+&ldquo;earl&rdquo; foreign titles which we now render &ldquo;count.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2b" id="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The changing language of this epoch speaks of <i>civitates</i>, subsequently
+of <i>pagi</i>, and later of <i>comitatus</i> (counties).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3b" id="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The A.S. <i>gerefa</i>, however, meaning &ldquo;illustrious,&rdquo; &ldquo;chief,&rdquo; has
+apparently, according to philologists, no connexion with the German
+<i>Graf</i>, which originally meant &ldquo;servant&rdquo; (cf. &ldquo;knight,&rdquo; &ldquo;valet,&rdquo;
+&amp;c.). It is the more curious that the <i>gerefa</i> should end as a servant
+(&ldquo;reeve&rdquo;), the <i>Graf</i> as a noble (count).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4b" id="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> &ldquo;Count of the Lateran Palace&rdquo; (<i>Comes Sacri Lateranensis
+Palatii</i>) was later the title usually bestowed by the popes in creating
+counts palatine. The emperors, too, continued to make counts
+palatine under this title long after the Lateran had ceased to be an
+imperial palace.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5b" id="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Of these there were four who, as counts of the Empire <i>par
+excellence</i>, were sometimes styled &ldquo;simple counts&rdquo; (<i>Schlechtgrafen</i>),
+<i>i.e.</i> the counts of Cleves, Schwarzburg, Cilli and Savoy; they
+were entitled to the ducal coronet. Three of these had become dukes
+by the 17th century, but the count (now prince) of Schwarzburg still
+styled himself &ldquo;Of the four counts of the Holy Roman Empire,
+count of Schwarzburg&rdquo; (see Selden, ed. 1672, p. 312).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6b" id="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This title is borne by certain English families, <i>e.g.</i> by Lord
+Arundell of Wardour. In other cases it has been assumed without
+due warrant. See J. H. Round, &ldquo;English Counts of the Empire,&rdquo;
+in <i>The Ancestor</i>, vii. 15 (Westminster, October 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTER<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>. (1) (Through the O. Fr. <i>conteoir</i>, modern <i>comptoir</i>,
+from Lat. <i>computare</i>, to reckon), a round piece of metal, wood or
+other material used anciently in making calculations, and now for
+reckoning points in games of cards, &amp;c., or as tokens representing
+actual coins or sums of money in gambling games such as roulette.
+The word is thus used, figuratively, of something of no real value,
+a sham. In the original sense of &ldquo;a means of counting money,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+or keeping accounts,&rdquo; &ldquo;counter&rdquo; is used of the table or flat-topped
+barrier in a bank, merchant&rsquo;s office or shop, on which
+money is counted and goods handed to a customer. The term
+was also applied, usually in the form &ldquo;compter,&rdquo; to the debtors&rsquo;
+prisons attached to the mayor&rsquo;s or sheriff&rsquo;s courts in London and
+some other boroughs in England. The &ldquo;compters&rdquo; of the
+sheriff&rsquo;s courts of the city of London were, at various times, in
+the Poultry, Bread St., Wood St. and Giltspur St.; the Giltspur
+St. compter was the last to be closed, in 1854. (2) (From Lat.
+<i>contra</i>, opposite, against), a circular parry in fencing, and in
+boxing, a blow given as a parry to a lead of an opponent. The
+word is also used of the stiff piece of leather at the back of a boot
+or shoe, of the rounded angle at the stern of a ship, and, in a
+horse, of the part lying between the shoulder and the under part
+of the neck. In composition, counter is used to express contrary
+action, as in &ldquo;countermand,&rdquo; &ldquo;counterfeit,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTERFEITING<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>contra-facere</i>, to make in
+opposition or contrast), making an imitation without authority
+and for the purpose of defrauding. The word is more particularly
+used in connexion with the making of imitations of money,
+whether paper or coin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coinage Offences</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forgery</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTERFORT<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Fr. <i>contrefort</i>), in architecture, a buttress or
+pier built up against the wall of a building or terrace to strengthen
+it, or to resist the thrust of an arch or other constructional
+feature inside.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTERPOINT<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Lat. <i>contrapunctus</i>, &ldquo;point counter point,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;note against note&rdquo;), in music, the art happily defined by Sir
+Frederick Gore Ouseley as that &ldquo;of combining&rdquo; melodies: this
+should imply that good counterpoint is the production of beautiful
+harmony by a combination of well-characterized melodies.
+The individual audibility of the melodies is a matter of which
+current criticism enormously overrates the importance. What is
+always important is the peculiar life breathed into harmony by
+contrapuntal organization. Both historically and aesthetically
+&ldquo;counterpoint&rdquo; and &ldquo;harmony&rdquo; are inextricably blended; for
+nearly every harmonic fact is in its origin a phenomenon of
+counterpoint. And if in later musical developments it becomes
+possible to treat chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps with a
+meaning independent of counterpoint, this does not mean that
+they have really changed their nature; but it shows a difference
+between modern and earlier music precisely similar to that between
+modern English, in which metaphorical and abstract expressions
+are so constantly used that they have become a mere shorthand
+for the literal and concrete expression, and classical Greek, where
+metaphors and abstractions can appear only as elaborate
+similes or explicit philosophical ideas. The laws of counterpoint
+are, then, laws of harmony with the addition of such laws of
+melody as are not already produced by the interaction of
+harmonic and melodic principles. In so far as the laws of
+counterpoint are derived from purely harmonic principles, that is
+to say, derived from the properties of concord and discord, their
+origin and development are discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>.
+In so far as they depend entirely on melody they are too minute
+and changeable to admit of general discussion; and in so far as
+they show the interaction of melodic and harmonic principles it is
+more convenient to discuss them under the head of harmony,
+because they appear in such momentary phenomena as are more
+easily regarded as successions of chords than as principles of
+design. All that remains, then, for the present article is the
+explanation of certain technical terms.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Canto Fermo</i> (<i>i.e.</i> plain chant) is a melody in long notes
+given to one voice while others accompany it with quicker
+counterpoints (the term &ldquo;counterpoint&rdquo; in this connexion
+meaning accompanying melodies). In the simplest cases the
+<i>Canto Fermo</i> has notes of equal length and is unbroken in flow.
+When it is broken up and its rhythm diversified, the gradations
+between counterpoint on a <i>Canto Fermo</i> and ordinary forms of
+polyphony, or indeed any kind of melody with an elaborate
+accompaniment, are infinite and insensible.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Double Counterpoint</i> is a combination of melodies so designed
+that either can be taken above or below the other. When this
+change of position is effected by merely altering the octave of
+either or both melodies (with or without transposition of the
+whole combination to another key), the artistic value of the
+device is simply that of the raising of the lower melody to the
+surface. The harmonic scheme remains the same, except in so far
+as some of the chords are not in their fundamental position, while
+others, not originally fundamental, have become so. But double
+counterpoint may be in other intervals than the octave; that is
+to say, while one of the parts remains stationary, the other may
+be transposed above or below it by some interval other than an
+octave, thus producing an entirely different set of harmonies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Double Counterpoint in the 12th</i> has thus been made a powerful
+means of expression and variety. The artistic value of this
+device depends not only on the beauty and novelty of the second
+scheme of harmony obtained, but also on the change of melodic
+expression produced by transferring one of the melodies to
+another position in the scale. Two of the most striking illustrations
+of this effect are to be found in the last chorus of Brahms&rsquo;s
+<i>Triumphlied</i> and in the fourth of his variations on a theme by
+Haydn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Double Counterpoint in the 10th</i> has, in addition to this, the
+property that the inverted melody can be given in the new and in
+the original positions simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>Double counterpoint in other intervals than the octave, 10th
+and 12th, is rare, but the general principle and motives for it
+remain the same under all conditions. The two subjects of the
+<i>Confiteor</i> in Bach&rsquo;s B minor Mass are in double counterpoint in
+the octave, 11th and 13th. And Beethoven&rsquo;s Mass in D is full of
+pieces of double counterpoint in the inversions of which a few
+notes are displaced so as to produce momentary double counterpoint
+in unusual intervals, obviously with the intention of
+varying the harmony. Technical treatises are silent as to this
+purpose, and leave the student in the belief that the classical
+composers used these devices, if at all, in a manner as meaningless
+as the examples in the treatises.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Triple, Quadruple and Multiple Counterpoint.</i>&mdash;When more
+than two melodies are designed so as to combine in interchangeable
+positions, it becomes increasingly difficult to avoid chords
+and progressions of which some inversions are incorrect. In
+triple counterpoint this difficulty is not so great; although a
+complete triad is dangerous, as it is apt to invert as a &ldquo;6/4<span class="spp">6</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span>&rdquo;
+which requires careful handling. On the other hand, in triple
+counterpoint the necessity for strictness is at its greatest,
+because there are only six possible inversions, and in a long
+polyphonic work most of these will be required. Moreover, the
+artistic value of the device is at its highest in three-part polyphonic
+harmony, which, whether invertible or not, is always a
+fine test of artistic economy, while the inversions are as evident
+to the ear, especially where the top part is concerned, as those
+in double counterpoint. Triple counterpoint (and a fortiori
+multiple counterpoint) is normally possible only at the octave;
+for it will be found that if three parts are designed to invert in
+some other interval this will involve two of them inverting in a
+third interval which will give rise to incalculable difficulty.
+This makes the fourth of Brahms&rsquo;s variations on a theme of
+Haydn almost miraculous. The plaintive expression of the whole
+variation is largely due to the fact that the flowing semiquaver
+counterpoint below the main theme is on each repeat inverted in
+the 12th, with the result that its chief emphasis falls upon the
+most plaintive parts of the scale. But in the first eight bars of
+the second part of the variation a third contrapuntal voice
+appears, and this too is afterwards inverted in the 12th, with
+perfectly natural and smooth effect. But this involves the
+inversion of two of the counterpoints with each other in the 9th,
+a kind of double counterpoint which is almost impossible. The
+case is unique, but it admirably illustrates the difference between
+artistic and merely academic mastery of technical resource.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quadruple Counterpoint</i> is not rare with Bach. It would be
+more difficult than triple, but for the fact that of its twenty-four
+possible inversions not more than four or five need be correct.
+<i>Quintuple counterpoint</i> is admirably illustrated in the finale of
+Mozart&rsquo;s <i>Jupiter Symphony</i>, in which everything in the successive
+statement and gradual development of the five themes conspires
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+to give the utmost effect to their combination in the coda. Of
+course Mozart has not room for more than five of the 120 possible
+combinations, and from these he selects such as bring fresh
+themes into the outside parts, which are the most clearly audible.
+<i>Sextuple Counterpoint</i> may be found in Bach&rsquo;s great double
+chorus, <i>Nun ist das Heil</i>, and in the finale of his concerto for
+three claviers in C, and probably in other places.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Added Thirds and Sixths.</i>&mdash;An easy and effective imitation
+of triple and quadruple counterpoint, embodying much of the
+artistic value of inversion, is found in the numerous combinations
+of themes in thirds and sixths which arise from an extension of
+the principle which we mentioned in connexion with double
+counterpoint in the 10th, namely, the possibility of performing
+it in its original and inverted positions simultaneously. The
+<i>Pleni sunt coeli</i> of Bach&rsquo;s B minor Mass is written in this kind of
+transformation of double into quadruple counterpoint; and the
+artistic value of the device is perhaps never so magnificently
+realized as in the place, at bar 84, where the trumpet doubles the
+bass three octaves and a third above while the alto and second
+tenor have the counter subjects in close thirds in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all other contrapuntal devices are derived from the
+principle of the <i>canon</i> and are discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contrapuntal
+Forms</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>As a training in musical grammar and style, the rhythms of
+16th-century polyphony were early codified into &ldquo;the five
+species of counterpoint&rdquo; (with various other species now forgotten)
+and practised by students of composition. The classical
+treatise on which Haydn and Beethoven were trained was Fux&rsquo;s
+<i>Gradus ad Parnassum</i> (1725). This was superseded in the 19th
+century by Cherubini&rsquo;s, the first of a long series of attempts to
+bring up to date as a dead language what should be studied in its
+original and living form.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTERSCARP<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> ( = &ldquo;opposite scarp,&rdquo; Fr. <i>contrescarpe</i>), a
+term used in fortification for the outer slope of a ditch; see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Siegecraft</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTERSIGN,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a military term for a sign, word or signal previously
+arranged and required to be given by persons approaching
+a sentry, guard or other post. In some armies the &ldquo;countersign&rdquo;
+is strictly the reply of the sentry to the pass-word given by
+the person approaching.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTRY<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from the Mid. Eng. <i>contre</i> or <i>contrie</i>, and O. Fr.
+<i>cuntrée</i>; Late Lat. <i>contrata</i>, showing the derivation from <i>contra</i>,
+opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the
+sight, cf. Ger. <i>Gegend</i>, neighbourhood), an extent of land without
+definite limits, or such a region with some peculiar character, as
+the &ldquo;black country,&rdquo; the &ldquo;fen country&rdquo; and the like. The
+extension from such descriptive limitation to the limitation of
+occupation by particular owners or races is easy; this gives the
+common use of the word for the land inhabited by a particular
+nation or race. Another meaning is that part of the land not
+occupied by towns, &ldquo;rural&rdquo; as opposed to &ldquo;urban&rdquo; districts;
+this appears too in &ldquo;country-house&rdquo; and &ldquo;country town&rdquo;;
+so too &ldquo;countryman&rdquo; is used both for a rustic and for the native
+of a particular land. The word appears in many phrases, in the
+sense of the whole population of a country, and especially of
+the general body of electors, as in the expression &ldquo;go to the
+country,&rdquo; for the dissolution of parliament preparatory to a
+general election.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTY<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (through Norm. Fr. <i>counté</i>, cf. O. Fr. <i>cunté</i>, <i>conté</i>,
+Mod. Fr. <i>comté</i>, from Lat. <i>comitatus</i>, cf. Ital. <i>comitato</i>, Prov. <i>comtat</i>;
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Count</a></span>), in its most usual sense the name given to certain
+important administrative divisions in the United Kingdom, the
+British dominions beyond the seas, and the United States of
+America. The word was first introduced after the Norman
+Conquest as the equivalent of the old English &ldquo;shire,&rdquo; which has
+survived as its synonym, though occasionally also applied to
+divisions smaller than counties, <i>e.g.</i> Norhamshire, Hexhamshire
+and Hallamshire. The word &ldquo;county&rdquo; is also sometimes used,
+alternatively with &ldquo;countship,&rdquo; to translate foreign words,
+<i>e.g.</i> the French <i>comté</i> and the German <i>Grafschaft</i>, which connote
+the territorial jurisdiction of a count (<i>q.v.</i>). The present article
+is confined to a sketch of the origin and development of English
+counties, which have served in a greater or less degree as the
+model for the county organizations in the various countries of the
+English-speaking world which are described under their proper
+headings.</p>
+
+<p>About one-third of the English counties represent ancient
+kingdoms, sub-kingdoms or tribal divisions, such as Kent,
+Sussex, Norfolk, Devon; but most of the remaining counties
+take their names from some important town within their respective
+boundaries. The counties to the south of the Thames
+(except Cornwall) already existed in the time of Alfred, but those
+of the midlands seem to have been created during the reign of
+Edward the Elder (901-925) and to have been artificially
+bounded areas lying around some stronghold which became a
+centre of civil and military administration. There is reason,
+however, for thinking that the counties of Bedford, Cambridge,
+Huntingdon and Northampton are of Danish origin.
+Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were not
+recognized as English counties until some time after the Norman
+Conquest, the last two definitely appearing as fiscal areas in 1177.
+The origin of Rutland as a county is obscure, but it had its own
+sheriff in 1154.</p>
+
+<p>In the period preceding the Norman Conquest two officers
+appear at the head of the county organization. These are the
+ealdorman or earl, and the <i>scirgerefa</i> or sheriff. The shires of
+Wessex appear each to have had an ealdorman, whose duties
+were to command its military forces, to preside over the county
+assembly (<i>scirgemot</i>), to carry out the laws and to execute
+justice. The name ealdorman gave way to that of earl, probably
+under Danish influence, in the first half of the 11th century, and
+it is probable that the office of sheriff came into existence in the
+reign of Canute (1017-1035), when the great earldoms were
+formed and it was no longer possible for the earl to perform his
+various administrative duties in person in a group of counties.
+After the Norman Conquest the earl was occasionally appointed
+sheriff of his county, but in general his only official connexion
+with it was to receive the third penny of its pleas, and the
+earldom ceased to be an office and became merely a title. In the
+12th century the office of coroner was created, two or more of
+them being chosen in the county court as vacancies occurred.
+In the same century verderers were first chosen in the same
+manner for the purpose of holding inquisitions on vert and
+venison in those counties which contained royal forests. It was
+the business of the sheriff (<i>vicecomes</i>) as the king&rsquo;s representative
+to serve and return all writs, to levy distresses on the king&rsquo;s
+behalf, to execute all royal precepts and to collect the king&rsquo;s
+revenue. In this work he was assisted by a large staff of clerks
+and bailiffs who were directly responsible to him and not to the
+king. The sheriff also commanded the armed forces of the crown
+within his county, and either in person or by deputy presided
+over the county court which was now held monthly in most
+counties. In 1300 it was enacted that the sheriffs might be
+chosen by the county, except in Worcestershire, Cornwall,
+Rutland, Westmorland and Lancashire, where there were then
+sheriffs in fee, that is, sheriffs who held their offices hereditarily
+by royal grant. The elective arrangement was of no long
+duration, and it was finally decided in 1340 that the sheriffs
+should be appointed by the chancellor, the treasurer and the
+chief baron of the exchequer, but should hold office for one year
+only. The county was from an early period regarded as a
+community, and approached the king as a corporate body, while
+in later times petitions were presented through the knights of the
+shire. It was also an organic whole for the purpose of the
+conservation of the peace. The assessment of taxation by
+commissioners appointed by the county court developed in the
+13th century into the representation of the county by two knights
+of the shire elected by the county court to serve in parliament,
+and this representation continued unaltered save for a short
+period during the Protectorate, until 1832, when many of the
+counties received a much larger representation, which was still
+further increased by later acts.</p>
+
+<p>The royal control over the county was strengthened from the
+14th century onward by the appointment of justices of the peace.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
+This system was further developed under the Tudors, while in the
+middle of the 16th century the military functions of the sheriff
+were handed over to a new officer, the lord-lieutenant, who is now
+more prominently associated with the headship of the county
+than is the sheriff. The lord-lieutenant now usually holds the
+older office of <i>custos rotulorum</i>, or keeper of the records of the
+county. The justices of the peace are appointed upon his
+nomination, and until lately he appointed the clerk of the peace.
+The latter appointment is now made by the joint committee of
+quarter sessions and county council.</p>
+
+<p>The Tudor system of local government received little alteration
+until the establishment of county councils by the Local Government
+Act of 1888 handed over to an elected body many of the
+functions previously exercised by the nominated justices of the
+peace. For the purposes of this act the ridings of Yorkshire, the
+divisions of Lincolnshire, east and west Sussex, east and west
+Suffolk, the soke of Peterborough and the Isle of Ely are regarded
+as counties, so that there are now sixty administrative counties
+of England and Wales. Between 1373 and 1692 the crown
+granted to certain cities and boroughs the privilege of being
+counties of themselves. There were in 1835 eighteen of these
+counties corporate, Bristol, Chester, Coventry, Gloucester,
+Lincoln, Norwich, Nottingham, York and Carmarthen, each of
+which had two sheriffs, and Canterbury, Exeter, Hull, Lichfield,
+Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Poole, Southampton, Worcester and
+Haverfordwest, each of which had one sheriff. All these
+boroughs, with the exception of Carmarthen, Lichfield, Poole and
+Haverfordwest, which remain counties of themselves, and forty-seven
+others, were created county boroughs by the Local Government
+Act 1888, and are entirely dissociated from the control of
+a county council. The City of London is also a county of itself,
+whose two sheriffs are also sheriffs of Middlesex, while for the
+purposes of the act of 1888 the house-covered district which
+extends for many miles round the City constitutes a county.</p>
+
+<p>The county has always been the unit for the organization of the
+militia, and from about 1782 certain regiments of the regular
+army were associated with particular counties by territorial
+titles. The army scheme of 1907-1908 provided for the formation
+of county associations under the presidency of the lords-lieutenant
+for the organization of the new territorial army.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Statutes of the Realm</i>; W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of
+England</i> (1874-1878); F. W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book and Beyond</i>
+(1897); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>
+(1895); H. M. Chadwick, <i>Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions</i> (1905),
+and <i>The Victoria History of the Counties of England</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. J. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUNTY COURT,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> in England, a local court of civil jurisdiction.
+The county court, it has been said, is at once the most ancient
+and the most modern of English civil tribunals. The Saxon
+Curia Comitatus, maintained after the Norman Conquest, was a
+local court and a small debts court. It was instituted by Alfred
+the Great, its jurisdiction embracing civil, and, until the reign of
+William I., ecclesiastical matters. The officers of the court
+consisted of the earldorman, the bishop and the sheriff. The
+court was held once in every four weeks, being presided over by
+the earl, or, in his absence, the sheriff. The suitors of the court,
+<i>i.e.</i> the freeholders, were the judges, the sheriff being simply
+a presiding officer, pronouncing and afterwards executing the
+judgment of the court. The court was not one of record. The
+appointment of judges of assize in the reign of Henry II., as well
+as the expensive and dilatory procedure of the court, brought
+about its gradual disuse, and other local courts, termed courts
+of request or of conscience, were established. These, in turn,
+proved unsatisfactory, owing both to the limited nature of their
+jurisdiction (restricted to causes of debt not exceeding 40s. in
+value, and to the fact that they were confined to particular places).
+Accordingly, with the view of making justice cheaper and more
+accessible the County Courts Act 1846 was passed. This act had
+the modest title of &ldquo;An Act for the Recovery of Small Debts and
+Demands in England.&rdquo; The original limit of the jurisdiction of
+the new courts was £20, extended in 1850 to £50 in actions of
+debt, and in 1903 (by an act which came into force in 1905)
+to £100. Thirteen amending acts were passed, by which new
+jurisdiction was from time to time conferred on the county
+courts, and in the year 1888 an act was passed repealing the
+previous acts and consolidating their provisions, with some
+amendment. This is now the code or charter of the county courts.</p>
+
+<p>The grain of mustard-seed sown in 1846 has grown into a
+goodly tree, with branches extending over the whole of England
+and Wales; and they embrace within their ambit a more
+multifarious jurisdiction than is possessed by any other courts
+in the kingdom. England and Wales were mapped out into 59
+circuits (not including the city of London), with power for the
+crown, by order in council, to abolish any circuit and rearrange
+the areas comprised in the circuits (sec. 4). There is one
+judge to each circuit, but the lord chancellor is empowered to
+appoint two judges in a circuit, provided that the total number of
+judges does not exceed 60. The salary of a county court judge
+was originally fixed at £1200, but he now receives £1500. He
+must at the time of his appointment be a barrister-at-law of at
+least seven years&rsquo; standing, and not more than sixty years of age;
+after appointment he cannot sit as a member of parliament or
+practise at the bar.</p>
+
+<p>Every circuit (except in Birmingham, Clerkenwell, and Westminster)
+is divided into districts, in each of which there is a
+court, with a registrar and bailiffs. The judges are directed to
+attend and hold a court in each district at least once in every
+month, unless the lord chancellor shall otherwise direct (secs.
+10, 11). But in practice the judge sits several times a month in
+the large centres of population, and less frequently than once a
+month in the court town of sparsely inhabited districts. By sec.
+185 of the act of 1888 the judges and officers of the city of London
+court have the like jurisdiction, powers, and authority as those of
+a county court, and the county court rules apply to that court.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary jurisdiction of the county courts may be thus
+tabulated:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">Subject matter.</td> <td class="tccm" style="white-space: nowrap;">Pecuniary limit<br />of jurisdiction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Common-law actions, with written consent of both parties</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Actions founded on contract (except for breach of
+promise of marriage, in which the county courts
+have no jurisdiction)</td> <td class="tccb">£100.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Actions founded on tort (except libel, slander, and
+seduction, in which the county courts have no jurisdiction)</td> <td class="tccb">£100.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Counter claims (unless plaintiff gives written notice
+of objection)</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ejectment or questions of title to reality</td> <td class="tccb">£100 annual value.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Equity jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb">£500.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Probate jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb" style="white-space: nowrap;">£200 personalty<br />and £300 realty.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Admiralty jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb">£300.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bankruptcy jurisdiction</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Replevin</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Interpleader transferred from High Court</td> <td class="tccb">£500.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Actions in contract transferred from High Court</td> <td class="tccb">£100.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Actions in tort transferred from High Court</td> <td class="tccb">Unlimited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Companies (winding up), when the paid-up capital
+does not exceed</td> <td class="tccb">£10,000.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There is no discoverable principle upon which these limits of the
+jurisdiction of the county courts have been determined. But
+the above table is not by any means an exhaustive statement of
+the jurisdiction of the county courts. For many years it has been
+the practice of parliament to throw on the county court judges
+the duty of acting as judges or arbitrators for the purpose of new
+legislation relating to social subjects. It is impossible to classify
+the many statutes which have been passed since 1846 and which
+confer some jurisdiction, apart from that under the County Courts
+Act, on county courts or their judges. Some of these acts
+impose exceptional duties on the judges of the county courts,
+others confer unlimited jurisdiction concurrently with the High
+Court or some other court, others, again, confer limited or,
+sometimes, exclusive jurisdiction. A list of all the acts will be
+found in the <i>Annual County Courts Practice</i>. A county court
+judge may determine all matters of fact as well as law, but a jury
+may be summoned at the option of either plaintiff or defendant
+when the amount in dispute exceeds £5, and in actions under £5
+the judge may in his discretion, on application of either of the
+parties, order that the action be tried by jury. The number of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
+jurymen impanelled and sworn at the trial was, by the County
+Courts Act 1903, increased from five to eight.</p>
+
+<p>There is an appeal from the county courts on matters of law
+to a divisional court of the High Court, <i>i.e.</i> to the admiralty
+division in admiralty cases and to the king&rsquo;s bench division in
+other cases (sec. 120 of act of 1888). The determination of the
+divisional court is final, unless leave be given by that court or
+the court of appeal (Judicature Acts 1894). (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>.)
+In proceedings under the Workmen&rsquo;s Compensation Act the
+appeal from a county court judge is to the court of appeal, with
+a subsequent appeal to the House of Lords. In 1908 a Committee
+was appointed by the lord chancellor &ldquo;to inquire into certain
+matters of county court procedure.&rdquo; The committee presented
+a report in 1909 (H.C. 71), recommending the extension of
+existing county court jurisdiction, but a bill introduced to give
+effect to the recommendations was not proceeded with.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Annual County Courts Practice</i>, also &ldquo;Fifty Years of the
+English County Courts,&rdquo; by County Court Judge Sir T. W. Snagge,
+in <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, October 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUPÉ<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (French for &ldquo;cut off&rdquo;), a small closed carriage of the
+brougham type, with four wheels and seats for two persons;
+the term is also used of the front compartment on a <i>diligence</i> or
+mail-coach on the continent of Europe, and of a compartment in a
+railway carriage with seats on one side only.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUPLET,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a pair of lines of verse, which are welded together
+by an identity of rhyme. The <i>New English Dict.</i> derives the use
+of the word from the French <i>couplet</i>, signifying two pieces of
+iron riveted or hinged together. In rhymed verse two lines
+which complete a meaning in themselves are particularly known
+as a couplet. Thus, in Pope&rsquo;s <i>Eloisa to Abelard</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,</p>
+<p class="i05">And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In much of old English dramatic literature, when the mass of the
+composition is in blank verse or even in prose, particular emphasis
+is given by closing the scene in a couplet. Thus, in the last act
+of Beaumont and Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Thierry and Theodoret</i> the action
+culminates in an unexpected rhyme:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;And now lead on; they that shall read this story</p>
+<p class="i05">Shall find that virtue lives in good, not glory.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In French literature, the term couplet is not confined to a pair of
+lines, but is commonly used for a stanza. A &ldquo;square&rdquo; couplet,
+in French, for instance, is a strophe of eight lines, each composed
+of eight syllables. In this sense it is employed to distinguish the
+more emphatic parts of a species of verse which is essentially gay,
+graceful and frivolous, such as the songs in a vaudeville or a
+comic opera. In the 18th century, Le Sage, Piron and even
+Voltaire did not hesitate to engage their talents on the production
+of couplets, which were often witty, if they had no other merit,
+and were well fitted to catch the popular ear. This signification
+of the word <i>couplet</i> is not unknown in England, but it is not
+customary; it is probably used in a stricter and a more technical
+sense to describe a pair of rhymed lines, whether serious or merry.
+The normal type, as it may almost be called, of English versification
+is the metre of ten-syllabled rhymed lines designated as
+<i>heroic couplet</i>. This form of iambic verse, with five beats to each
+line, is believed to have been invented by Chaucer, who employs
+it first in the Prologue <i>The Legend of Good Women</i> the
+composition of which is attributed to the year 1385. That poem
+opens with the couplet:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;A thousand times have I heard man tell</p>
+<p class="i05">That there is joy in heaven and pain in hell.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This is an absolutely correct example of the heroic couplet,
+which ultimately reached such majesty in the hands of Dryden
+and such brilliancy in those of Pope. It has been considered
+proper for didactic, descriptive and satirical poetry, although in
+the course of the 19th century blank verse largely took its place.
+Epigram often selects the couplet as the vehicle of its sharpened
+arrows, as in Sir John Harington&rsquo;s</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Treason doth never prosper: what&rsquo;s the reason?</p>
+<p class="i05">Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUPON<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>couper</i>, to cut), a certificate entitling its
+owner to some payment, share or other benefit; more specifically,
+one of a series of interest certificates or dividend warrants
+attached to a bond running for a number of years. The word
+coupon (a piece cut off) possesses an etymological meaning so
+comprehensive that, while on the Stock Exchange it is only used
+to denote such an interest certificate or a certificate of stock
+of a joint-stock company, it may be as suitably, and elsewhere
+is perhaps more frequently, applied to tickets sold by tourist
+agencies and others. The coupons by means of which the interest
+on a bond or debenture is collected are generally printed at the
+side or foot of that document, to be cut off and presented for
+payment at the bank or agency named on them as they become
+due. The last portion, called a &ldquo;talon,&rdquo; is a form of certificate,
+and entitles the holder, when all the coupons have been presented,
+to obtain a fresh coupon sheet. They pass by delivery, and are as
+a rule exempt from stamp duty. Coupons for the payment of
+dividends are also attached to the share warrants to bearer
+issued by some joint-stock companies. The coupons on the
+bonds of most of the principal foreign loans are payable in
+London in sterling as well as abroad.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURANTE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (a French word derived from <i>courir</i>, to run), a
+dance in 3-2 time march in vogue in France in the 17th century
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dance</a></span>). It is also a musical term for a movement or
+independent piece based on the dance. In a <i>suite</i> it followed the
+Allemande (<i>q.v.</i>), with which it is contrasted in rhythm.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1681-1776), French
+Roman Catholic theological writer, was born at Rouen on the
+17th of November 1681. While canon regular and librarian of
+the abbey of St Geneviève at Paris, he conducted a correspondence
+with Archbishop Wake on the subject of episcopal succession
+in England, which supplied him with material for his work,
+<i>Dissertation sur la validité des ordinations des Anglais et sur la
+succession des évêques de l&rsquo;Église anglicane, avec les preuves
+justificatives des faits avancés</i> (Brussels, 1723; Eng. trans. by
+D. Williams, London, 1725; reprinted Oxford, 1844, with
+memoir of the author), an attempt to prove that there has been
+no break in the line of ordination from the apostles to the English
+clergy. His opinions exposed him to a prosecution, and with the
+help of Bishop Atterbury, then in exile in Paris, he took refuge
+in England, where he was presented by the university of Oxford
+with a doctor&rsquo;s degree. In 1736 he published a French translation
+of Paolo Sarpi&rsquo;s <i>History of the Council of Trent</i>, and dedicated
+it to Queen Caroline, from whom he received a pension of £200 a
+year. Besides this he translated Sleidan&rsquo;s <i>History of the Reformation</i>,
+and wrote several theological works. He died in London on
+the 17th of October 1776, and was buried in the cloisters of
+Westminster Abbey. In his will, dated two years before his
+death, he declared himself still a member of the Roman Catholic
+Church, although dissenting from many of its opinions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURBET, GUSTAVE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1819-1877), French painter, was born
+at Ornans (Doubs) on the 10th of June 1819. He went to Paris
+in 1839, and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse; but
+his independent spirit did not allow him to remain there long, as
+he preferred to work out his own way by the study of Spanish,
+Flemish and French painters. His first works, an &ldquo;Odalisque,&rdquo;
+suggested by Victor Hugo, and a &ldquo;Lélia,&rdquo; illustrating George
+Sand, were literary subjects; but these he soon abandoned for
+the study of real life. Among other works he painted his own
+portrait with his dog, and &ldquo;The Man with a Pipe,&rdquo; both of which
+were rejected by the jury of the Salon; but the younger school of
+critics, the neo-romantics and realists, loudly sang the praises of
+Courbet, who by 1849 began to be famous, producing such pictures
+as &ldquo;After Dinner at Ornans&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Valley of the Loire.&rdquo;
+The Salon of 1850 found him triumphant with the &ldquo;Burial at
+Ornans,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Stone-Breakers&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Peasants of Flazey.&rdquo;
+His style still gained in individuality, as in &ldquo;Village Damsels&rdquo;
+(1852), the &ldquo;Wrestlers,&rdquo; &ldquo;Bathers,&rdquo; and &ldquo;A Girl Spinning&rdquo;
+(1852). Though Courbet&rsquo;s realistic work is not devoid of importance,
+it is as a landscape and sea painter that he will be most
+honoured by posterity. Sometimes, it must be owned, his
+realism is rather coarse and brutal, but when he paints the
+forests of Franche-Comté, the &ldquo;Stag-Fight,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Wave,&rdquo; or
+the &ldquo;Haunt of the Does,&rdquo; he is inimitable. When Courbet had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span>
+made a name as an artist he grew ambitious of other glory; he
+tried to promote democratic and social science, and under the
+Empire he wrote essays and dissertations. His refusal of the
+cross of the Legion of Honour, offered to him by Napoleon III.,
+made him immensely popular, and in 1871 he was elected,
+under the Commune, to the chamber. Thus it happened that he
+was responsible for the destruction of the Vendôme column. A
+council of war, before which he was tried, condemned him to pay
+the cost of restoring the column, 300,000 francs (£12,000). To
+escape the necessity of working to the end of his days at the orders
+of the State in order to pay this sum, Courbet went to Switzerland
+in 1873, and died at La Tour du Peilz, on the 31st of
+December 1877, of a disease of the liver aggravated by intemperance.
+An exhibition of his works was held in 1882 at the École
+des Beaux-Arts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Champfleury, <i>Les Grandes Figures d&rsquo;hier et d&rsquo;aujourd&rsquo; hui</i> (Paris,
+1861); Mantz, &ldquo;G. Courbet,&rdquo; <i>Gaz. des beaux-arts</i> (Paris, 1878);
+Zola, <i>Mes Haines</i> (Paris, 1879); C. Lemonnier, <i>Les Peintres de la
+Vie</i> (Paris, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURBEVOIE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department
+of Seine, 5 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the railway to Versailles.
+Pop. (1906) 29,339. It is a residential suburb of Paris, and
+has a fine avenue opening on the Neuilly bridge, and forming
+with it a continuation of the Champs Elysées. It carries on
+bleaching and the manufacture of carriage bodies, awnings, drugs,
+biscuits, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1813-1892),
+French economist, was born at Seneuil (Dordogne) on the 22nd of
+December 1813. Seneuil was an additional name adopted from
+his native place. Devoting himself at first to the study of the
+law, he was called to the French bar in 1835. Soon after, however,
+he returned to Dordogne and settled down as a manager of ironworks.
+He found leisure to study economic and political
+questions, and was a frequent contributor to the republican
+papers. On the establishment of the second republic in 1848 he
+became director of the public domains. After the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of
+Napoleon III. in 1851 he went to South America, and held the
+professorship of political economy at the National Institute of
+Santiago, in Chile, from 1853 to 1863, when he returned to France.
+In 1879 he was made a councillor of state, and in 1882 was elected
+a member of the <i>Académie des sciences morales et politiques</i>. He
+died at Paris on the 29th of June 1892. Courcelle-Seneuil, as an
+economist, was strongly inclined towards the liberal school, and
+was equally partial to the historical and experimental methods;
+but his best energies were directed to applied economy and
+social questions. His principal work is <i>Traité théorique et
+pratique d&rsquo;économie politique</i> (2 vols., 1858); among his others
+may be mentioned <i>Traité théorique et pratique des opérations de
+banque</i> (1853); <i>Études sur la science sociale</i> (1862); <i>La Banque
+libre</i> (1867); <i>Liberté et socialisme</i> (1868); <i>Protection et libre
+échange</i> (1879); he also translated into French John Stuart
+Mill&rsquo;s <i>Principles</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURCI, JOHN DE<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (d. 1219?), Anglo-Norman conqueror of
+Ulster, was a member of a celebrated Norman family of Oxfordshire
+and Somersetshire, whose parentage is unknown, and
+around whose career a mass of legend has grown up. It would
+appear that he accompanied William Fitz-Aldelm to Ireland
+when the latter, after the death of Strongbow, was sent thither
+by Henry II., and that he immediately headed an expedition from
+Dublin to Ulster, where he took Downpatrick, the capital of the
+northern kingdom. After some years of desultory fighting de
+Courci established his power over that part of Ulster comprised
+in the modern counties of Antrim and Down, throughout which
+he built a number of castles, where his vassals, known as &ldquo;the
+barons of Ulster,&rdquo; held sway over the native tribes. After the
+accession of Richard I., de Courci in conjunction with William
+de Lacy appears in some way to have offended the king by his
+proceedings in Ireland. De Lacy quickly made his peace with
+Richard, while de Courci defied him; and the subsequent history
+of the latter consisted mainly in the vicissitudes of a lasting feud
+with the de Lacys. In 1204 Hugh de Lacy utterly defeated de
+Courci in battle, and took him prisoner. De Courci, however,
+soon obtained his liberty, probably by giving hostages as security
+for a promise of submission which he failed to carry out, seeking
+an asylum instead with the O&rsquo;Neills of Tyrone. He again
+appeared in arms on hearing that Hugh de Lacy had obtained a
+grant of Ulster with the title of earl; and in alliance with the
+king of Man he ravaged the territory of Down; but was completely
+routed by Walter de Lacy, and disappeared from the scene
+till 1207, when he obtained permission to return to England. In
+1210 he was in favour with King John, from whom he received a
+pension, and whom he accompanied to Ireland. There is some
+indication of his having sided with John in his struggle with the
+barons; but of the later history of de Courci little is known.
+He probably died in the summer of 1219. Both de Courci and his
+wife Affreca were benefactors of the church, and founded several
+abbeys and priories in Ulster.</p>
+
+<p>A story is told that de Courci when imprisoned in the Tower
+volunteered to act as champion for King John in single combat
+against a knight representing Philip Augustus of France; that
+when he appeared in the lists his French opponent fled in panic;
+whereupon de Courci, to gratify the French king&rsquo;s desire to
+witness his prowess, &ldquo;cleft a massive helmet in twain at a single
+blow,&rdquo; a feat for which he was rewarded by a grant of the
+privilege for himself and his heirs to remain covered in the
+presence of the king and all future sovereigns of England. This
+tale, which still finds a place in Burke&rsquo;s <i>Peerage</i> in the account
+of the baron Kingsale, a descendant of the de Courci family, is a
+legend without historic foundation which did not obtain currency
+till centuries after John de Courci&rsquo;s death. The statement that
+he was created earl of Ulster, and that he was thus &ldquo;the first
+Englishman dignified with an Irish title of honour,&rdquo; is equally
+devoid of foundation. John de Courci left no legitimate
+children.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. H. Round&rsquo;s art. &ldquo;Courci, John de,&rdquo; in <i>Dictionary of National
+Biography</i>, vol. xii. (London, 1887), to which is added a bibliography
+of the original and later authorities for the life of de Courci.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURIER, PAUL LOUIS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1773-1825), French Hellenist and
+political writer, was born in Paris on the 4th of January 1773.
+Brought up on his father&rsquo;s estate of Méré in Touraine, he conceived
+a bitter aversion for the nobility, which seemed to
+strengthen with time. He would never take the name &ldquo;de Méré,&rdquo;
+to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a nobleman.
+At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his education;
+his father&rsquo;s teaching had already inspired him with a
+passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed
+considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his
+leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at
+Châlons, however, and immediately on receiving his appointment
+as sub-lieutenant in September 1793 he joined the army of the
+Rhine. He served in various campaigns of the Revolutionary
+wars, especially in those of Italy in 1798-99 and 1806-7, and in
+the German campaign of 1809. He became <i>chef d&rsquo;escadron</i> in
+1803.</p>
+
+<p>He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he
+contributed to the <i>Magasin encyclopédique</i> a critique on Johannes
+Schweighäuser&rsquo;s edition of Athenaeus. In the following year
+appeared his <i>Éloge d&rsquo;Hélène</i>, a free imitation rather than a
+translation from Isocrates, which he had sketched in 1798.
+Courier had given up his commission in the autumn of 1808, but
+the general enthusiasm in Paris over the preparations for the new
+campaign affected him, and he attached himself to the staff of a
+general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the carnage at
+Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there was
+any art in war. He hastily quitted Vienna, escaping the formal
+charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been
+confirmed. The savage independence of his nature rendered
+subordination intolerable to him; he had been three times
+disgraced for absenting himself without leave, and his superiors
+resented his satirical humour. After leaving the army he went
+to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in the
+Laurentian Library a complete manuscript of Longus&rsquo;s <i>Daphnis
+and Chloe</i>, an edition of which he published in 1810. In consequence
+of a misadventure&mdash;blotting the manuscript&mdash;he was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span>
+involved in a quarrel with the librarian, and was compelled by
+the government to leave Tuscany. He retired to his estate
+at Véretz (Indre-et-Loire), but frequently visited Paris, and
+divided his attention between literature and his farm.</p>
+
+<p>After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of
+Courier as political pamphleteer began. He had before this time
+waged war against local wrongs in his own district, and had been
+the adviser and helpful friend of his neighbours. He now made
+himself by his letters and pamphlets one of the most dreaded
+opponents of the government of the Restoration. The first of
+these was his <i>Pétition aux deux chambres</i> (1816), exposing the
+sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist reaction. In 1817
+he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute; and
+failing, he took his revenge by publishing a bitter <i>Lettre à Messieurs
+de l&rsquo;Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</i> (1819). This was
+followed (1819-1820) by a series of political letters of extraordinary
+power published in <i>Le Censeur Européen</i>. He advocated
+a liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to
+see Louis Philippe. The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the
+estate of Chambord for the duke of Bordeaux called forth from
+Courier the <i>Simple Discours de Paul Louis, vigneron de la
+Chavonnière</i>, one of his best pieces. For this he was tried and
+condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to pay a fine.
+Before he went to prison he published a <i>compte rendu</i> of his trial,
+which had a still larger circulation than the Discours itself. In
+1823 appeared the <i>Livret de Paul Louis</i>, the <i>Gazette de village</i>,
+followed in 1824 by his famous <i>Pamphlet des pamphlets</i>, called
+by his biographer, Armand Carrel, his swan-song. Courier published
+in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, <i>Du commandement
+de la cavalerie et de l&rsquo;équitation</i>, and had a share in editing
+the <i>Collections des romans grecs</i>. He also projected a translation
+of Herodotus, and published a specimen, in which he attempted
+to imitate archaic French; but he did not live to carry out
+this plan. In the autumn of 1825, on a Sunday afternoon
+(August 18th), Courier was found shot in a wood near his house.
+The murderers, who were servants of his own, remained undiscovered
+for five years.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of
+his own time, are valuable sources of information as to the
+condition of France before, during, and after the Revolution.
+Sainte-Beuve finds in Courier&rsquo;s own words, &ldquo;peu de matière et
+beaucoup d&rsquo;art,&rdquo; the secret and device of his talent, which gives
+his writings a value independent of the somewhat ephemeral
+subject-matter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Collection complète des pamphlets politiques et opuscules littéraires
+de P. L. Courier</i> appeared in 1826. See editions of his <i>&OElig;uvres</i> (1848),
+with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel, which is reproduced
+in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism by F. Sarcey (1876-1877);
+also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the <i>Causeries du lundi</i>
+and the <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURIER<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>courier</i>, modern <i>courrier</i>, from Lat.
+<i>currere</i>, to run), properly a running messenger, who carried
+despatches and letters; a system of couriers, mounted or on
+foot, formed the beginnings of the modern post-office (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Post</a></span>,
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Postal Service</a></span>). The despatches which pass between the
+foreign office and its representatives abroad, and which cannot
+be entrusted to the postal service or the telegraph, are carried by
+special couriers, styled, in the British service, King&rsquo;s Messengers.
+&ldquo;Courier,&rdquo; more particularly, is applied to a travelling attendant,
+whose duties are to arrange for the carrying of the luggage,
+obtaining of passports, settling of hotel accommodation, and
+generally to look to the comfort and facility of travel. The
+name &ldquo;courier&rdquo; and the similar word &ldquo;<i>courant</i>&rdquo; (Ital. <i>coranto</i>)
+have often been used as the title of a newspaper or periodical (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newspapers</a></span>); the <i>Courier</i>, founded in 1792, was for some time
+the leading London journal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURLAND,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kurland</span>, one of the Baltic provinces of
+Russia, lying between 55° 45&prime; and 57° 45&prime; N. and 21° and 27° E.
+It is bounded on the N.E. by the river Dvina, separating it from
+the governments of Vitebsk and Livonia, N. by the Gulf of Riga,
+W. by the Baltic, and S. by the province of East Prussia and the
+Russian government of Kovno. The area is 10,535 sq. m., of
+which 101 sq. m. are occupied by lakes. The surface is generally
+low and undulating, and the coast-lands flat and marshy. The
+interior is characterized by wooded dunes, covered with pine, fir,
+birch and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches
+between. The surface nowhere rises more than 700 ft. above sea-level.
+The Mitau plain divides it into two parts, of which the
+western is fertile and thickly inhabited, except in the north,
+while the eastern is less fertile and thinly inhabited. One-third
+of the area is still forest.</p>
+
+<p>Courland is drained by nearly one hundred rivers, of which
+only three, the Dvina, the Aa and the Windau, are navigable.
+They all flow north-westwards and discharge into the Baltic
+Sea. Owing to the numerous lakes and marshes, the climate is
+damp and often foggy, as well as changeable, and the winter is
+severe. Agriculture is the chief occupation, the principal crops
+being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax and potatoes. The land is
+mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863 laws were
+issued to enable the Letts, who form the bulk of the population,
+to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were
+founded to help them. By this means some 12,000 farms were
+bought by their occupants; but the great mass of the population
+are still landless, and live as hired labourers, occupying a low
+position in the social scale. On the large estates agriculture is
+conducted with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grows well.
+Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs are kept. Libau and
+Mitau are the principal industrial centres, with iron-works,
+agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass and soap works.
+Flax spinning is mostly a domestic industry. Iron and limestone
+are the chief minerals; a little amber is found on the coast.
+The only seaports are Libau, Windau and Polangen, there being
+none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. The population
+was 619,154 in 1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were
+women; 714,200 (estimate) in 1906. Of the whole, 79% are
+Letts, 8¼% Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1% each Poles and
+Lithuanians. In addition there are about 8% Jews and some
+Lives. The chief towns of the ten districts are Mitau (Doblenskiy
+district), capital of the government (pop. 35,011 in 1897),
+Bauske (6543), Friedrichstadt (5223), Goldingen (9733), Grobin
+(1489), Hasenpoth (3338), Illuxt (2340), Talsen (6215), Tuckum
+(7542) and Windau (7132). The prevailing religion is the
+Lutheran, to which 76% of the population belong; the rest
+belong to the Orthodox Eastern and the Roman Catholic
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>Anciently Courland was inhabited by the Cours or Kurs, a
+Lettish tribe, who were subdued and converted to Christianity
+by the Brethren of the Sword, a German military order, in the
+first quarter of the 13th century. In 1237 it passed under the
+rule of the Teutonic Knights owing to the amalgamation of this
+order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. At that time it
+comprised the two duchies of Courland and Semgallen. Under
+the increasing pressure of Russia (Muscovy) the Teutonic Knights
+in 1561 found it expedient to put themselves under the suzerainty
+of Poland, the grandmaster Gotthard Kettler (d. 1587) becoming
+the first duke of Courland. The duchy suffered severely in the
+Russo-Swedish wars of 1700-9. But by the marriage in 1710
+of Kettler&rsquo;s descendant, Duke Frederick William (d. 1711), to the
+princess Anne, niece of Peter the Great and afterwards empress
+of Russia, Courland came into close relation with the latter state
+Anne being duchess of Courland from 1711 to 1730. The
+celebrated Marshal Saxe was elected duke in 1726, but only
+managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next year.
+The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737,
+and the empress Anne now bestowed the dignity on her favourite
+Biren, who held it from 1737 to 1740 and again from 1763 till his
+death in 1772. During nearly the whole of the 18th century
+Courland, devastated by continual wars, was a shuttlecock
+between Russia and Poland; until eventually in 1795 the
+assembly of the nobles placed it under the Russian sceptre.
+The Baltic provinces&mdash;Esthonia, Livonia and Courland&mdash;ceased
+to form collectively one general government in 1876.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Hollmann, <i>Kurlands Agrarverhältnisse</i> (Riga, 1893), and
+E. Seraphim, <i>Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands</i> (2 vols., Reval,
+1895-1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1801-1877), French
+economist and mathematician, was born at Gray (Haute-Saône)
+on the 28th of August 1801. Trained for the scholastic profession,
+he was appointed assistant professor at the Academy of
+Paris in 1831, professor of mathematics at Lyons in 1834, rector of
+the Academy of Grenoble in 1835, inspector-general of studies in
+1838, rector of the Academy of Dijon and honorary inspector-general
+in 1854, retiring in 1862. He died in Paris on the 31st of
+March 1877. Cournot was the first who, with a competent
+knowledge of both subjects, endeavoured to apply mathematics
+to the treatment of economic questions. His <i>Recherches sur les
+principes mathématiques de la théorie des richesses</i> (English trans.
+by N. T. Bacon, with bibliography of mathematics of economics
+by Irving Fisher, 1897) was published in 1838. He mentions
+in it only one previous enterprise of the same kind (though
+there had in fact been others)&mdash;that, namely, of Nicholas
+François Canard (c. 1750-1833), whose book, <i>Principes d&rsquo;économie
+politique</i> (Paris, 1802), was crowned by the French Academy,
+though &ldquo;its principles were radically false as well as erroneously
+applied.&rdquo; Notwithstanding Cournot&rsquo;s just reputation as a
+writer on mathematics, the <i>Recherches</i> made little impression.
+The truth seems to be that his results are in some cases of little
+importance, in others of questionable correctness, and that, in
+the abstractions to which he has recourse in order to facilitate his
+calculations, an essential part of the real conditions of the
+problem is sometimes omitted. His pages abound in symbols
+representing unknown functions, the form of the function being
+left to be ascertained by observation of facts, which he does not
+regard as a part of his task, or only some known properties of
+the undetermined function being used as bases for deduction.
+In his <i>Principes de la théorie des richesses</i> (1863) he abandoned
+the mathematical method, though advocating the use of mathematical
+symbols in economic discussions, as being of service in
+facilitating exposition. Other works of Cournot&rsquo;s were <i>Traité
+élémentaire de la théorie des fonctions et du calcul infinitésimal</i>
+(1841); <i>Exposition de la théorie des chances et des probabilités</i>
+(1843); <i>De l&rsquo;origine et des limites de la correspondance entre
+l&rsquo;algèbre et la géométrie</i> (1847); <i>Traité de l&rsquo;enchaînement des idées
+fondamentales dans les sciences et dans l&rsquo;histoire</i> (1861); and <i>Revue
+sommaire des doctrines économiques</i> (1877).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURSING<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>cursus</i>, <i>currere</i>, to run), the hunting of
+game by dogs solely by sight and not by scent. From time to
+time the sport has been pursued by various nations against
+various animals, but the recognized method has generally been
+the coursing of the hare by greyhounds. Such sport is of great
+antiquity, and is fully described by Arrian in his <i>Cynegeticus</i>
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150, when the leading features appear to have been
+much the same as in the present day. Other Greek and Latin
+authors refer to the sport; but during the middle ages it was but
+little heard of. Apart from private coursing for the sake of
+filling the pot with game, public coursing has become an exhilarating
+sport. The private sportsman seldom possesses good strains
+of blood to breed his greyhounds from or has such opportunities
+of trying them as the public courser.</p>
+
+<p>The first known set of rules in England for determining the
+merits of a course were drawn up by Thomas, duke of Norfolk, in
+Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign; but no open trials were heard of until
+half a century later, in the time of Charles I. The oldest regular
+coursing club of which any record exists is that of Swaffham, in
+Norfolk, which was founded by Lord Orford in 1766; and in
+1780 the Ashdown Park (Berkshire) meeting was established.
+During the next seventy years many other large and influential
+societies sprang up throughout England and Scotland, the
+Altcar Club (on the Sefton estates, near Liverpool) being founded
+in 1825. The season lasts about six months, beginning in the
+middle of September. It was not until 1858 that a coursing
+parliament, so to speak, was formed, and a universally accepted
+code of rules drawn up. In that year the National Coursing Club
+was founded. It is composed of representatives from all clubs in
+the United Kingdom of more than a year&rsquo;s standing, and possessing
+more than twenty-four members. Their rules govern
+meetings, and their committee adjudicate on matters of dispute.
+A comparative trial of two dogs, and not the capture of the game
+pursued, is the great distinctive trait of modern coursing. A
+greyhound stud-book was started in 1882.</p>
+
+<p>The breeding and training of a successful kennel is a precarious
+matter; and the most unaccountable ups and downs of fortune
+often occur in a courser&rsquo;s career. At a meeting an agreed-on
+even number of entries are made for each stake, and the ties
+drawn by lot. After the first round the winner of the first tie is
+opposed to the winner of the second, and so on until the last two
+dogs left in compete for victory; but the same owner&rsquo;s greyhounds
+are &ldquo;guarded&rdquo; as far as it is possible to do so. A staff
+of beaters drive the hares out of their coverts or other hiding-places,
+whilst the slipper has the pair of dogs in hand, and slips
+them simultaneously by an arrangement of nooses, when they
+have both sighted a hare promising a good course. The judge
+accompanies on horseback, and the six points whereby he
+decides a course are&mdash;(1) speed; (2) the go-by, or when a
+greyhound starts a clear length behind his opponent, passes him
+in the straight run, and gets a clear length in front; (3) the turn,
+where the hare turns at not less than a right angle; (4) the
+wrench, where the hare turns at less than a right angle; (5) the
+kill; (6) the trip, or unsuccessful effort to kill. He may return a
+&ldquo;no course&rdquo; as his verdict if the dogs have not been fairly tried
+together, or an &ldquo;undecided course&rdquo; if he considers their merits
+equal. The open Waterloo meeting, held at Altcar every spring,&mdash;the
+name being taken from its being originated by the proprietor
+of the Waterloo Hotel, Liverpool,&mdash;is now the recognized
+fixture for the decision of the coursing championship, and the
+Waterloo Cup (1836) is the &ldquo;Blue Riband&rdquo; of the leash. In the
+United States, several British colonies, and other countries, the
+name has been adopted, and Waterloo Coursing Cups are found
+there as in England. In America an American Coursing Board
+controls the sport, the chief meetings being in North and South
+Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief works on coursing are:&mdash;Arrian&rsquo;s <i>Cynegeticus</i>, translated
+by the Rev. W. Dansey (1831); T. Thacker, <i>Courser&rsquo;s Companion
+and Breeder&rsquo;s Guide</i> (1835); Thacker&rsquo;s <i>Courser&rsquo;s Annual Remembrancer</i>
+(1849-1851); D. P. Blaine, <i>Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports</i> (3rd ed.,
+1870); and J. H. Walsh, <i>The Greyhound</i> (3rd ed., 1875). See also
+the <i>Coursing Calendar</i> (since 1857); <i>Coursing and Falconry</i> (Badminton
+Library, 1892); <i>The Hare</i> (&ldquo;Fur and Feather&rdquo; series, 1896);
+and <i>The Greyhound Stud Book</i> (since 1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURT, ANTOINE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1696-1760), French Protestant divine, was
+born in the village of Villeneuve-de-Berg, in the province of the
+Vivarais. He has been designated the &ldquo;Restorer of Protestantism
+in France,&rdquo; and was the organizer of the &ldquo;Church of the Desert.&rdquo;
+He was eight years old when the Camisard revolt was finally
+suppressed, and nineteen when on the 8th of March 1715 the
+edict of Louis XIV. was published, declaring that &ldquo;he had
+abolished entirely the exercise of the so-called reformed religion&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;qu&rsquo;il avait aboli tout exercice de la religion prétendue réformée&rdquo;).
+Antoine, taken to the secret meetings of the persecuted Calvinists,
+began, when only seventeen, to speak and exhort in these congregations
+of &ldquo;the desert.&rdquo; He came to suspect after a time that
+many of the so-called &ldquo;inspired&rdquo; persons were &ldquo;dupes of their
+own zeal and credulity,&rdquo; and decided that it was necessary to
+organize at once the small communities of believers into properly
+constituted churches. To the execution of this vast undertaking
+he devoted his life. On the 21st of August 1715 he summoned
+all the preachers in the Cévennes and Lower Languedoc to a
+conference or synod near the village of Monoblet. Here elders
+were appointed, and the preaching of women, as well as pretended
+revelations, was condemned. The village of Monoblet &ldquo;thus
+seems entitled to the honour of having had the first organized
+Protestant church after the revocation of the edict of Nantes&rdquo;
+(H. M. Baird). But there were as yet no ordained pastors.
+Pierre Corteiz was therefore sent to seek ordination. He was
+ordained at Zürich, and from him Court himself received ordination.
+The scene of his labours for fifteen years was Languedoc,
+the Vivarais, and Dauphiné. His beginnings were very small
+prayer-meetings in &ldquo;the desert.&rdquo; But the work progressed
+under his wise direction, and he was able &ldquo;to be present, in 1744,
+at meetings of ten thousand souls.&rdquo; In 1724 Louis XV., again
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span>
+assuming that there were no Protestants in France, prohibited
+the most secret exercise of the Reformed religion, and imposed
+severe penalties. It was impossible fully to carry out this menace.
+But persecution raged, especially against the pastors. A price
+was set on the life of Court; and in 1730 he escaped to Lausanne.
+He had already, with the aid of some of the Protestant princes,
+established a theological college (&ldquo;Seminaire de Lausanne&rdquo;)
+there, and during the remaining thirty years of his life he filled
+the post of director. He had the title of deputy-general of the
+churches, and was really the pillar of their hope. The Seminary
+of Lausanne sent forth all the pastors of the Reformed Church of
+France till the days of the first French Empire. Court formed
+the design of writing a history of Protestantism, and made large
+collections for the purpose, which have been preserved in the
+Public Library of Geneva; but this he did not live to carry out.
+He died at Lausanne in 1760. He wrote, amongst other works, a
+<i>Histoire des troubles des Cévennes ou de la guerre des Camisards</i>
+(1760). He was the father of the more generally known Antoine
+Court de Gebelin (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For details of his life see Napoléon Peyrat&rsquo;s <i>Histoire des pasteurs
+du désert</i> (1842; English translation, 1852); Edmond Hugues,
+<i>Antoine Court, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en
+France au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (2nd ed., 1872), <i>Les Synodes du désert</i>
+(3 vols., 1885-1886), <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;Antoine Court</i> (1885); E. and E.
+Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>, vol. iv. (1884, new edition); H. M.
+Baird, <i>The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes</i> (1895),
+vol. ii.; cf. <i>Bulletin de la société de l&rsquo;histoire du protestantisme
+français</i> (1893-1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURT<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>court</i>, Late Lat. <i>cortis</i>, <i>curtis</i>, a
+popular form of class. Lat. <i>cohors</i>, gen. <i>cohortis</i>; the mod. Fr.
+form <i>cour</i> is due to the influence of the Lat. <i>curia</i>, the word used
+in medieval documents to translate &ldquo;court&rdquo; in the feudal sense),
+a word originally denoting an enclosed place, and so surviving
+in its architectural sense (courtyard, &amp;c.), but chiefly used as a
+general term for judicial tribunals and in the special sense of the
+household of the king, called &ldquo;the court.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> All law courts
+were not, however, purely judicial in character; the old county
+court, for instance, was the assembly of the freeholders of the
+county in which representatives and certain officers were elected.
+Such assemblies in early times exercised political and legislative
+as well as judicial functions. But these have now been almost
+entirely separated everywhere, and only judicial bodies are now
+usually called courts. In every court, says Blackstone, there
+must be three parts,&mdash;an <i>actor</i> or plaintiff, <i>reus</i> or defendant, and
+<i>judex</i>, or judge.</p>
+
+<p>The language of legal fictions, which English lawyers invariably
+use in all constitutional subjects, makes the king the ultimate
+source of all judicial authority, and assumes his personal presence
+in all the courts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;As by our excellent constitution,&rdquo; says Blackstone, &ldquo;the sole
+executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it
+will follow that all courts of justice, which are the medium by which
+he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the crown.
+For whether created by act of parliament or letters patent, or
+subsisting by prescription (the only methods by which any court of
+judicature can exist), the king&rsquo;s consent in the two former is expressly,
+in the latter impliedly given. In all these courts the king is
+supposed in contemplation of law to be always present; but as that
+is in fact impossible, he is then represented by his judges, whose
+power is only an emanation of the royal prerogative.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These words might give a false impression of the historical and
+legal relations of the courts and the crown, if it is not remembered
+that they are nothing more than the expression of a venerable
+fiction. The administration of justice was, indeed, one of the
+functions of the king in early times; the king himself sat on
+circuit so late as the reign of Edward IV.; and even after regular
+tribunals were established, a reserve of judicial power still
+remained in the king and his council, in the exercise of which it
+was possible for the king to participate personally. The last
+judicial act of an English king, if such it can be called, was that
+by which James I. settled the dispute between the court of
+chancery and courts of common law. Since the establishment
+of parliamentary government the courts take their law directly
+from the legislature, and the king is only connected with them
+indirectly as a member of the legislative body. The king&rsquo;s name,
+however, is still used in this as in other departments of state
+action. The courts exercising jurisdiction in England are divided
+by certain features which may here be briefly indicated.</p>
+
+<p>We may distinguish between (1) superior and inferior courts.
+The former are the courts of common law and the court of
+chancery, now High Court of Justice. The latter are the local or
+district courts, county courts, &amp;c. (2) Courts of record and courts
+not of record. &ldquo;A court of record is one whereof the acts and
+judicial proceedings are enrolled for a perpetual memory and
+testimony, which rolls are called the records of the court, and are
+of such high and supereminent authority that their truth is not
+to be called in question. For it is a settled rule and maxim that
+nothing shall be averred against a record, nor shall any plea or
+even proof be admitted to the contrary. And if the existence of
+the record shall be denied it shall be tried by nothing but itself;
+that is, upon bare inspection whether there be any such record or
+no; else there would be no end of disputes. All courts of record
+are the courts of the sovereign in right of the crown and royal
+dignity, and therefore any court of record has authority to fine
+and imprison for contempt of its authority&rdquo; (Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Blackstone</i>).
+(3) Courts may also be distinguished as civil or criminal.
+(4) A further distinction is to be made between courts of first
+instance and courts of appeal. In the former the first hearing in
+any judicial proceeding takes place; in the latter the judgment
+of the first court is brought under review. Of the superior
+courts, the High Court of Justice in its various divisions is a court
+of first instance. Over it is the court of appeal, and over that
+again the House of Lords. The High Court of Justice is (through
+divisional courts) a court of appeal for inferior courts. (5) There
+is a special class of local courts, which do not appear to fall
+within the description of either superior or inferior courts.
+Some, while administering the ordinary municipal law, have or
+had jurisdiction exclusive of their superior courts; such were the
+common pleas of Durham and Lancaster. Others have concurrent
+jurisdiction with the superior courts; such are the lord mayor&rsquo;s
+court of London, the passage court of Liverpool, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of judicial business among the various courts
+of law in England may be exhibited as follows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Criminal Courts.</i>&mdash;(1) The lowest is that of the justice of the
+peace, sitting in petty sessions of two or more, to determine in a
+summary way certain specified minor offences. In populous
+districts, such as London, Manchester, &amp;c., stipendiary magistrates
+are appointed, generally with enlarged powers. Besides
+punishing by summary conviction, justices may commit prisoners
+for trial at the assizes. (2) The justices in quarter sessions are
+commissioned to determine felonies and other offences. An act
+of 1842 (5 &amp; 6 Vict. c. 38) contains a list of offences <i>not</i> triable
+at quarter sessions&mdash;treason, murder, forgery, bigamy, &amp;c. (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quarter Sessions, Court of</a></span>). The corresponding court in
+a borough is presided over by a recorder. (3) The more serious
+offences are reserved for the judges of the superior courts sitting
+under a commission of oyer and terminer or gaol delivery for each
+county. The assize courts, as they are called, sit in general in
+each county twice a year, following the division of circuits; but
+additional assizes are also held under acts of 1876 and 1877,
+which permit several counties to be united together for that
+purpose (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circuit</a></span>). London, which occupies an exceptional
+position in all matters of judicature, has a high criminal court of
+its own, established by the Central Criminal Court Act 1834,
+under the name of the central criminal court. Its judges usually
+present are a rota selected from the superior judges of common
+law, the recorder, common serjeant, and the judge of the City of
+London court.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The criminal appeal court, to which all persons
+convicted on indictment may appeal, superseded in 1908 (by the
+Criminal Appeal Act 1907) the court for crown cases reserved,
+to which any question of law arising on the trial of a prisoner
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span>
+could after conviction be remitted by the judge in his discretion.
+To the criminal appeal court there is an appeal both on questions
+of fact and of law (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Civil Courts.</i>&mdash;In certain special cases, civil claims of small
+importance may be brought before justices or stipendiaries.
+Otherwise, and excepting the special and peculiar jurisdictions
+above mentioned, the civil business of England and Wales may be
+said to be divided between the county courts (taking small cases)
+and the High Court of Justice (taking all others).</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the Judicature Acts on the constitution of the
+superior courts may be briefly stated. There is now one Supreme
+Court of Judicature, consisting of two permanent divisions
+called the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal. The
+former takes the jurisdiction of the court of chancery, the three
+common law courts, the courts of admiralty, probate, and divorce,
+the courts of pleas at Lancaster and Durham, and the courts
+created by commissions of assize, oyer and terminer, and gaol
+delivery. The latter takes the jurisdiction of the court of appeal
+in chancery (including chancery of Lancaster), the court of the
+lord warden of the stannaries, and of the exchequer chamber, and
+the appellate jurisdiction in admiralty and heresy matters of the
+judicial committee; and power is given to the sovereign to
+transfer the remaining jurisdiction of that court to the court of
+appeal. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1876 the House of
+Lords is enabled to sit for the hearing of appeals from the
+English court of appeal and the Scottish and Irish courts during
+the prorogation and dissolution of parliament. The lords of
+appeal, of whom three must be present, are the lord chancellor,
+the lords of appeal in ordinary, and peers who have held &ldquo;high
+judicial office&rdquo; in Great Britain or Ireland. The lords in
+ordinary are an innovation in the constitution of the House.
+They hold the rank of baron for life only, have a right to sit and
+vote in the House during tenure of office only, and a salary of
+£6000 per annum.</p>
+
+<p>There are also many obsolete or decayed courts, of which the
+most noticeable are dealt with under their individual headings, as
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Court Baron</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Court Leet</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The history of English courts affords a remarkable illustration
+of the continuity that characterizes English institutions. It
+might perhaps be too much to say that all the courts now sitting
+in England may be traced back to a common origin, but at any
+rate the higher courts are all offshoots from the same original
+judicature. Leaving out of account the local courts, we find the
+higher jurisdiction after the Norman Conquest concentrated
+along with all other public functions in the king and council.
+The first sign of a separation of the judicial from the other
+powers of this body is found in the recognition of a Curia Regis,
+which may be described as the king&rsquo;s council, or a portion of it,
+charged specially with the management of judicial and revenue
+business. In relation to the revenue it became the exchequer,
+under which name a separate court grew up whose special field
+was the judicial business arising out of revenue cases. By Magna
+Carta the inconvenience caused by the curia following the king&rsquo;s
+person was remedied, in so far as private litigation was concerned,
+by the order that common pleas (Communia Placita) should be
+held at some fixed place; and hence arose the court of common
+pleas. The Curia Regis, after having thrown off these branches,
+is represented by the king&rsquo;s bench, so that from the same stock
+we have now three courts, differing at first in functions, but
+through competition for business, and the ingenious use of
+fictions, becoming finally the co-ordinate courts of common law
+of later history. But an inner circle of counsellors still surrounded
+the king, and in his name claimed to exercise judicial as well as
+other power; hence the chancellor&rsquo;s jurisdiction, which became,
+partly in harmony with the supra-legal power claimed from which
+it sprang, and partly through the influence of the ecclesiastical
+chancellors by whom it was first administered, the equity of
+English law. Similar developments of the same authority were
+the court of requests (which was destroyed by a decision of the
+common pleas) and the court of star chamber&mdash;a court of
+criminal equity, as it has been called,&mdash;which, having been made
+the instrument of tyranny, was abolished in 1641. Even then
+the productive power of the council was not exhausted; the
+judicial committee of the privy council, established in 1832,
+superseding the previous court of delegates, exercises the jurisdiction
+in appeal belonging to the king in council. The appellate
+jurisdiction of the Lords rests on their claim to be the representatives
+of the ancient great council of the realm.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty, High Court of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancery</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Common Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Common Pleas, Court of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equity</a></span>; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;The Federal judicial system of the United
+States is made by the Constitution independent both of the
+Legislature and of the Executive. It consists of the Supreme
+Court, the circuit courts, and the district courts.</p>
+
+<p>The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, and
+consisted in 1909 of nine judges, who are nominated by the
+President and confirmed by the Senate. They hold office during
+good behaviour, <i>i.e.</i> are removable only by impeachment, thus
+having a tenure even more secure than that of English judges.
+The court sits at Washington from October to July in every year.
+The sessions of the court are held in the Capitol. A rule requiring
+the presence of six judges to pronounce a decision prevents the
+division of the court into two or more benches; and while this
+secures a thorough consideration of every case, it also retards the
+despatch of business. Every case is discussed twice by the whole
+body, once to ascertain the view of the majority, which is then
+directed to be set forth in a written opinion; then again, when
+the written opinion, prepared by one of the judges, is submitted
+for criticism and adoption by the court as its judgment.</p>
+
+<p>The other Federal courts have been created by Congress under
+a power in the Constitution to establish &ldquo;inferior courts.&rdquo; The
+circuit courts consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting in nine
+judicial circuits, while to each circuit there is also allotted one of
+the justices of the Supreme Court. Circuit courts of appeals,
+established to relieve the Supreme Court, consist of three judges
+(two forming a quorum), and are made up of the circuit and
+district judges of each circuit and the Supreme Court justice
+assigned to the circuit. Some cases may, however, be appealed
+to the Supreme Court from the circuit court of appeals, and
+others directly from the lower courts. The district courts
+number (1909) ninety, in most cases having a single justice.
+There is also a special tribunal called the court of claims, which
+deals with the claims of private persons against the Federal
+government. It is not strictly a part of the general judicial
+system, but is a creation of Congress designed to relieve that body
+of a part of its own labours.</p>
+
+<p>The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those
+cases in which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable.
+All other cases are left to the state courts, from which there is no
+appeal to the Federal courts, unless where some specific point
+arises which is affected by the Federal Constitution or a Federal
+law. The classes of cases dealt with by the Federal courts are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution,
+the laws of the United States, and treaties made under their
+authority;</p>
+
+<p>2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
+consuls;</p>
+
+<p>3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;</p>
+
+<p>4. Controversies to which the United States shall be a party;</p>
+
+<p>5. Controversies between two or more states, between a state
+and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states,
+between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of
+different states, and between a state or the citizens thereof and
+foreign states, citizens or subjects (<i>Const.</i>, Art. III., § 2). Part
+of this jurisdiction has, however, been withdrawn by the eleventh
+Amendment to the Constitution, which declares that &ldquo;the
+judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to
+extend to any suit commenced or prosecuted against one of the
+United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or
+subjects of any foreign state.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases
+affecting ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in other
+cases it is appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
+Federal courts is exclusive; in others it is concurrent with that of
+the state courts.</p>
+
+<p>As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts in
+which questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been made
+whereby due respect for the latter is secured by giving the party
+to a suit who relies upon Federal law, and whose contention is
+overruled by a state court, the right of having the suit removed
+to a Federal court. The Judiciary Act of 1789 (as amended by
+subsequent legislation) provides for the removal to the Supreme
+Court of the United States of &ldquo;a final judgment or decree in any
+suit rendered in the highest court of a state in which a decision
+could be had, where is drawn in question the validity of a treaty
+or statute of, or an authority exercised under the United States,
+and the decision is against their validity; or where is drawn in
+question the validity of a statute of, or an authority exercised
+under, any state, on the ground of their being repugnant to the
+Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the
+decision is in favour of their validity; or where any title, right,
+privilege or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, or any
+treaty or statute of, or commission held, or authority exercised
+under the United States, and the decision is against the title,
+right, privilege or immunity specially set up or claimed by either
+party under such Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or
+authority.&rdquo; If the decision of the state court is in favour of the
+right claimed under Federal law or against the validity or applicability
+of the state law set up, there is no ground for removal,
+because the applicability or authority of Federal law in the
+particular case could receive no further protection from a Federal
+court than has in fact been given by the state court.</p>
+
+<p>The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring
+statutes of Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the
+Executive) to be invalid because inconsistent with the Federal
+Constitution, has been deemed by many Europeans a peculiar
+and striking feature of the American system. There is, however,
+nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the Federal Constitution,
+which emanates directly from the people, is the supreme law
+of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any lower
+authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legislature),
+which contravenes the Constitution, must necessarily be invalid
+in point of law, just as in the United Kingdom a railway by-law
+which contravened an act of parliament would be invalid. Now,
+the functions of judicial tribunals&mdash;of all courts alike, whether
+Federal or state, whether superior or inferior&mdash;is to interpret the
+law, and if any tribunal finds a Congressional statute or state
+statute inconsistent with the Constitution, the tribunal is
+obliged to hold such statute invalid. A tribunal does this not
+because it has any right or power of its own in the matter, but
+because the people have, in enacting the Constitution as a supreme
+law, declared that all other laws inconsistent with it are <i>ipso jure</i>
+void. When a tribunal has ascertained that an inferior law is
+thus inconsistent, that inferior law is therewith, so far as
+inconsistent, to be deemed void. The tribunal does not enter
+any conflict with the Legislature or Executive. All it does
+is to declare that a conflict exists between two laws of different
+degrees of authority, whence it necessarily follows that the
+weaker law is extinct. This duty of interpretation belongs to all
+tribunals, but as constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower
+court, usually carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have
+grown accustomed to talk of the Supreme Court as in a special
+sense the guardian of the Constitution.</p>
+
+<p>The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any constitutional
+question unless or until that question is brought before
+them in the form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the Supreme
+Court is only a judgment on the particular case before it, and
+does not prevent a similar question being raised again in another
+lawsuit, though of course this seldom happens, because it may
+be assumed that the court will adhere to its former opinion.
+There have, however, been instances in which the court has
+virtually changed its view on a constitutional question, and it is
+understood to be entitled so to do.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the German <i>Hof</i> for court-yard, court of law, and royal court.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The sittings are held in the court-house in the Old Bailey. The
+old sessions house was destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780. The
+building erected in its place, although enlarged from time to time,
+was very incommodious, and a new structure, occupying the site of
+Newgate Prison, which was pulled down for the purpose, was completed
+in 1907.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURT BARON,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> an English manorial court dating from the
+middle ages and still in existence. It was laid down by Coke
+that a manor had two courts, &ldquo;the first by the common law, and
+is called a court baron,&rdquo; the freeholders (&ldquo;barons&rdquo;) being its
+suitors; the other a customary court for the copyholders.
+Stubbs adopted this explanation, but the latest learning, expounded
+by Professor Maitland, holds that court baron means
+<i>curia baronis</i>, &ldquo;<i>la court de seigneur</i>,&rdquo; and that there is no evidence
+for there being more than one court. The old view that at least
+two freeholders were required for its composition is also now
+discarded. Prof. Maitland&rsquo;s conclusion is that the &ldquo;court baron&rdquo;
+was not even differentiated from the &ldquo;court-leet&rdquo; at the close
+of the 13th century, but that there was a distinction of jurisdictional
+rights, some courts having only feudal rights, while
+others had regalities as well. When the court-leet was differentiated,
+the court baron remained with feudal rights alone.
+These rights he was disposed to trace to a lord&rsquo;s jurisdiction over
+his men rather than to his possession of the manor, although in
+practice, from an early date, the court was associated with the
+manor. Its chief business was to administer the &ldquo;custom of the
+manor&rdquo; and to admit fresh tenants who had acquired copyholds
+by inheritance or purchase, and had to pay, on so doing, a &ldquo;fine&rdquo;
+to the lord of the manor. It is mainly for the latter purpose that
+the court is now kept. It is normally presided over by the
+steward of the lord of the manor, who is a lawyer, and its proceedings
+are recorded on &ldquo;the court rolls,&rdquo; of which the older
+ones are now valuable for genealogical as well as for legal purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Select Pleas in Manorial and other Seignorial Courts</i>, vol. i.,
+and <i>The Court Baron</i> (Selden Society).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1728-1784), French scholar,
+son of Antoine Court (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Nîmes in 1728. He
+received a good education, and became, like his father, a pastor
+of the Reformed Church. This office, however, he soon relinquished,
+to devote himself entirely to literary work. He had
+conceived the project of a work which should set in a new light
+the phenomena, especially the languages and mythologies, of the
+ancient world; and, after his father&rsquo;s death, he went to Paris in
+order to be near the necessary books. After long years of research,
+he published in 1775 the first volume of his vast undertaking
+under the title of <i>Le Monde primitif, analysé et comparé avec le
+monde moderne</i>. The ninth volume appeared in 1784, leaving the
+work still unfinished. The literary world marvelled at the encyclopaedic
+learning displayed by the author, and supposed that the
+French Academy, or some other society of scholars, must have
+combined their powers in its production. Now, however, the
+world has well-nigh forgotten the huge quartos. These learned
+labours did not prevent Gebelin from pleading earnestly the cause
+of religious tolerance. In 1760 he published a work entitled
+<i>Les Toulousaines</i>, advocating the rights of the Protestants; and
+he afterwards established at Paris an agency for collecting
+information as to their sufferings, and for exciting general
+interest in their cause. He co-operated with Franklin and
+others in the periodical work entitled <i>Affaires de l&rsquo;Angleterre et
+de l&rsquo;Amérique</i> (1776, sqq.), which was devoted to the support
+of American independence. He was also a supporter of the
+principles of the economists, and Quesnay called him his well-beloved
+disciple. In the last year of his life he became acquainted
+with Mesmer, and published a <i>Lettre sur le magnétisme animal</i>.
+He was imposed upon by speculators in whom he placed
+confidence, and was reduced to destitution by the failure of a
+scheme in which they engaged him. He died at Paris on the
+10th of May 1784.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>La France protestante</i>, by the brothers Haag, tome iv.; Charles
+Dardier, <i>Court de Gebelin</i> (Nîmes, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTENAY,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name of a famous English family. French
+genealogists head the pedigree of this family with one Athon or
+Athos, who is said to have fortified Courtenay in Gâtinois about
+the year 1010. His son Josselin had, with other issue, Miles,
+lord of Courtenay, founder of the Cistercian abbey of Fontaine-Jean.
+By his wife Ermengarde, daughter of Renaud, count of
+Nevers, Miles left a son Renaud, one of the magnates who
+followed Louis le Jeune to the Holy Land. This was the last lord
+of Courtenay of the line of Athon. Elizabeth, his elder daughter&mdash;a
+younger daughter died without issue,&mdash;carried Courtenay and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span>
+other lordships to her husband Pierre, seventh and youngest son
+of the French king Louis VI. the Fat, the marriage taking place
+about 1150, and the many descendants of this royal match bore
+the surname of Courtenay.</p>
+
+<p>Pierre, the eldest son, was founder of a short-lived dynasty of
+emperors of Constantinople, which ended in 1261 when Baldwin
+(Baudouin), last of the Frankish emperors, fled before Michael
+Palaeologus from a capital in flames. Baldwin&rsquo;s son Philip,
+however, bore the empty title, and his granddaughter Catherine,
+wife of Charles, count of Valois, was titular empress. Other
+lines of the royal Courtenays, sprung from Pierre of France,
+were lords of Champignolles, Tanlai, Yerre, Bleneau, La Ferté
+Loupière and Chevillon. On the death of Gaspard, sieur de
+Bleneau, in 1655, his cousin Louis de Courtenay, comte de Cési
+(<i>jure uxoris</i>) and sieur de Chevillon, had Bleneau, and reckoned
+himself the surviving chief of his house. He styled himself Prince
+de Courtenay and his family made attempts to obtain recognition
+for their royal blood. But their laboriously constructed genealogies
+availed nothing to this impoverished race. The last
+&ldquo;Prince de Courtenay,&rdquo; an ex-captain of dragoons, died in 1730;
+his uncle Roger de Courtenay, abbé des Eschalis, who died in
+1733, was the last recognized member of the line of Pierre of
+France.</p>
+
+<p>A younger branch of the first house of Courtenay came from
+Josselin, second son of Josselin, son of Athon. This Josselin, a
+notable crusader, went to the Holy Land with the count of Blois,
+and held by the sword for eleven years the county of Edessa,
+given him by his cousin King Baldwin II. Edessa was won back
+by the infidel from his son Josselin, who died a prisoner in Aleppo
+in 1147. A grandson, also a Josselin, was seneschal of the kingdom
+of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>In England a house of Courtenay has flourished with varying
+fortunes since the reign of the first Angevin king. The monks of
+Ford, to whom they were benefactors, complacently set down
+their patrons as the offspring of the royal Courtenays, of whose
+origin they had some dim knowledge, deriving them from
+&ldquo;Florus,&rdquo; son of Louis the Fat. A comparison of dates destroys
+the story. But they were, doubtless, Courtenays of the stock of
+Athon. Josselin, the first count of Edessa, has been suggested by
+modern writers as their founder, but the name Reinaud, borne by
+the first known ancestor of the English house, suggests that they
+may have sprung from a younger son of Josselin I. of Courtenay
+by his marriage about 1095 with Ermengarde, daughter of
+Reinaud, count of Nevers. It is also notable that the English
+Courtenays have, from the first introduction of armorial bearings,
+borne with various differences the three red roundels in a golden
+field, the arms of the Courtenays in France, the shield of the earls
+of Devonshire being identical with that of the lords of La Ferté
+Loupière.</p>
+
+<p>Several Courtenays whose kinship cannot be exactly ascertained,
+appear in English records of the 12th century. One
+of them, Robert de Courtenay, married the daughter and
+heir of Reynold fitz Urse, the leader of the murderers of Archbishop
+Thomas Becket. His son, William, a Shropshire baron,
+held the castle of Montgomery, as heir by his mother of Baldwin
+de Buslers, or Bollers, to whom Henry I. had given it with his
+&ldquo;niece&rdquo; Sibil de Falaise. This William married Ada of Dunbar,
+daughter of Patrick, earl of Dunbar, but died in the reign of King
+John, without issue.</p>
+
+<p>Reinaud de Courtenay, ancestor of the main English line, may
+well have been a brother of the Robert above named. The
+English pedigrees confuse him with his son of the same name.
+He was a favourite with Henry II., his attestations of charters
+showing him as a constant companion at home and abroad of the
+king, whom he followed to Wexford in the Irish expedition of
+1172. Henry gave him Berkshire lands at Sutton, still known as
+Sutton Courtenay, by a charter to which the date of 1161 can be
+assigned. In England he had to wife Maude, daughter of Robert
+fitz Roy by Maude of Avranches, the elder Maude being the heir
+of the house of Brionne. By her, who survived him, dying
+before January 1224, he had no issue, but by a wife who may
+have died before his coming to England he had, with other issue,
+Robert and Reinaud. Robert, who succeeded to Sutton about
+1192, was husband of Alice de Rumeli, widow of Gilbert Pipard,
+and one of the three sisters and co-heirs of William, the boy of
+Egremond, of whose drowning in the Strid Wordsworth has
+made a ballad. Robert died childless in 1209. Of his brother
+Reinaud or Reynold de Courtenay little is known, save that he
+was a married man in 1178 when he and his wife Hawise were
+given by the pope a licence to have a free chapel at Okehampton.
+This wife, Hawise de Ayencourt, was, with Maude his father&rsquo;s
+second wife, a daughter and co-heir of Maude of Avranches, her
+father being the lord of Ayencourt, first husband of the last
+named Maude. Her great inheritance included the honour of
+Okehampton in Devonshire of which, as a widow, she had livery
+about 1205. Her son, Robert de Courtenay, succeeded to her
+land in 1219, having been his uncle Robert&rsquo;s heir in Sutton ten
+years before. Like his father he advanced his house by a great
+marriage, his wife being Mary, the younger daughter of William
+de Vernon, earl of Devon and of the Isle of Wight. He was
+succeeded in 1242 by his son John, who by Isabel, a daughter of
+Hugh de Vere, earl of Oxford, has issue Hugh, whose wife was
+Eleanor, daughter of the earl of Winchester, elder of the two
+favourites of Edward II. The son of this marriage, another
+Hugh, followed his father at Okehampton in 1291. Two years
+later died Isabel, surviving sister and heir of Baldwin de Reviers,
+earl of Devon, and widow of William de Forz, last earl of
+Aumerle (Albemarle). On her death-bed she had granted her
+lordship of the Wight to the king, but her cousin Hugh de
+Courtenay succeeded her in the unalienated estates of the house of
+Reviers. He was summoned as a baron on the 6th of February
+1298/9, and in 1300 he displayed his banner before the castle
+of Caerlaverock. Claiming the &ldquo;third penny&rdquo; of the county of
+Devon, he was refused by the exchequer as he did not claim in the
+name of an earl. Following, however, a writ of inquiry, a patent
+of the 22nd of February 1334/5 declared him earl of Devon
+and qualified to take such style as his ancestors, earls of Devon,
+were wont to take. Hugh, his son, the second earl, a warrior who
+drove the French back from their descent on Cornwall in 1339,
+made another of the brilliant marriages of this family, his wife
+being Eleanor, daughter of Humfrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford
+and Essex, by Elizabeth daughter of Edward I. Their eldest
+son, Sir Hugh de Courtenay, shared in the honours of Crécy and
+Calais, and was one of the knights founders of the order of the
+Garter, the stall-plate of his arms being yet in St George&rsquo;s
+chapel at Windsor. This knight died in the lifetime of the earl,
+as did his only son Hugh, summoned as a baron on the 3rd of
+January 1370/1, a companion at Najara of the Black Prince,
+whose step-daughter Maude of Holland he had married. The
+earl was therefore succeeded by his grandson Edward (son of
+Edward his third son), earl marshal of England in 1385, who died
+blind in 1419, the year after the death of Sir Edward his heir
+apparent, one of the conquerors at Agincourt. Hugh, a second
+son of Earl Edward, succeeded as fourth earl of the Courtenay
+line. By his wife, a sister of the renowned Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury,
+he had issue Thomas the fifth earl, a partisan of Henry VI.,
+whose wife was Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John, earl of
+Somerset. The effigy of this grandaughter of John of Gaunt,
+with the shields of Courtenay and Beaufort above it, is in Colyton
+church. It is less than life size, a fact which has given rise to a
+village legend that it represents &ldquo;Little choke-a-bone,&rdquo; an infant
+daughter of the tenth earl, who died &ldquo;choked by a fish bone.&rdquo;
+In spite of the evidence of the shields and the 15th century dress
+of the effigy, the legend has now been strengthened by an
+inscription upon a brass plate, and in the year 1907 ignorance
+engaged a monumental sculptor to deface the effigy by giving its
+broken features the newly carved face of a young child. Both
+sons of this marriage fell in the Wars of the Roses, Thomas the
+sixth earl being taken at Towton by the Yorkists and beheaded
+at York in 1462, his younger brother Henry having the same fate
+at Salisbury in 1466.</p>
+
+<p>The earldom being extinguished by attainder, Sir Humphrey
+Stafford was created earl of Devon in 1469, but in the same
+year, having retired with his men from the expedition against
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span>
+Robin of Redesdale, another earl of Devon suffered at the
+headsman&rsquo;s hands, his patent being afterwards annulled by a
+statute of Henry VII. On the restoration of Henry VI. John
+Courtenay, only surviving brother of Thomas and Henry, was
+restored to the earldom by the reversal of attainder. He, too,
+died in the Lancastrian cause, being killed on the 4th of May 1471
+at Tewkesbury, where he led the rear of the host. The representation
+of the Reviers earls and of the Courtenay barony fell then to
+his sisters and their descendants. Beside him at Tewkesbury
+died his cousin Sir Hugh Courtenay of Boconnoc, son of Hugh,
+a younger brother of the blind earl, leaving a son Edward, who
+thus became the heir male of the house though not its heir
+general. Joining in the cause which had cost so many of his
+kinsmen their lives, he and his brother Walter shared the duke of
+Buckingham&rsquo;s rising. On its failure they fled into France to the
+earl of Richmond, beside whom Sir Edward fought at Bosworth.
+By a patent of the 26th of October 1485 he was created earl of
+Devon with remainder to the heirs male of his body, and by an
+act of 1485 he was restored to all honours lost in his attainder by
+the Yorkist parliament. He defended Exeter against Warbeck&rsquo;s
+rebels and was a knight of the Garter in 1489, dying twenty years
+later, when the earldom became again forfeit by his son&rsquo;s attainder.
+That son, William Courtenay, had drawn the jealousy of Henry
+VII. by a marriage with Catherine, sister of the queen and
+daughter of King Edward IV., the Yorkist sovereign whose hand
+had been so heavy on the Courtenays. After the queen&rsquo;s death,
+Henry sent his wife&rsquo;s brother-in-law to the Tower on a charge of
+corresponding with Edmund Pole, an attainder following. But
+on the accession of Henry VIII., the young king released his
+uncle, who although styled an earl was not fully restored in blood
+at his death in 1511. His son Henry Courtenay obtained from
+parliament in December 1512 a reversal of his father&rsquo;s attainder,
+thus succeeding to the earldom of his grandfather. At the Field
+of Cloth of Gold he ran a course with the king of France. He
+was knight of the Garter and on the 15th of June 1525 had a
+patent as marquess of Exeter. Profiting by the suppression of
+the monasteries he increased his estate, his power being all but
+supreme in the west country. But Cromwell was his enemy and
+the royal strain in his blood was a dangerous thing. Involved in
+correspondence with Cardinal Pole, he was sent to the Tower with
+his wife and his young son, and on the 9th of December 1538 he
+was beheaded as a traitor. The misfortunes of the house were
+heavy upon the son, who at twelve years old was a prisoner for
+the sake of his high descent. His honours had been forfeited,
+and release did not come until the accession of Queen Mary, who
+took him into favour. Noailles the ambassador found him <i>le
+plus beau et le plus agréable gentilhomme d&rsquo;Angleterre</i>, and he had
+some hopes of becoming king consort. The queen created him
+earl of Devonshire by a patent of the 3rd of September 1553 and
+in the next month he was restored in blood. But, disappointed in
+his hopes, he formed some wild plans for marrying the Lady
+Elizabeth and making her queen. He could raise Devon and
+Cornwall. Wyat did raise Kent, but the plot was soon crushed.
+The earl was sent back to the Tower and thence to Fotheringhay.
+At Easter of 1555 he was released on parole and exiled, dying
+suddenly at Padua in 1556. His co-heirs were the descendants of
+the four sisters of Earl Edward (d. 1519), the wives of four
+Cornish squires, and with him was extinguished, to the belief of
+all men, the Courtenays&rsquo; earldom of Devon. His heir male was
+Sir William Courtenay, his sixth cousin once removed, head of a
+knightly line of Courtenays whose seat was Powderham Castle,
+a line which, during the civil wars, stood for the White Rose.
+Sir William, who is said to have been killed at St Quintin in 1557,
+was succeeded by his son, another Sir William, one of the undertakers
+for the settling of Ireland, where the family obtained great
+estates. William Courtenay of Powderham, of whose marriage
+with the daughter of Sir William Waller (the parliament&rsquo;s
+general) it is remarked that the years of bride and bridegroom
+added together were less than thirty when their first child was
+born, was created a baronet by writ of privy seal in February
+1644, the patent being never enrolled. His great grandson, Sir
+William Courtenay, many years a member of parliament, was on
+the 6th of May 1762, ten days before his death, created Viscount
+Courtenay of Powderham Castle.</p>
+
+<p>Since the death at Padua in 1556 of Edward, earl of Devon,
+that ancient title had been twice revived. Charles Blount,
+Lord Mountjoy, who was created earl of Devon in 1603, died
+without lawful issue in 1606. In 1618 Sir William Cavendish,
+son of the famous Bess of Hardwick, was given the same title,
+which is still among the peerage honours of the ducal house
+descending from him. For the Courtenays, who had without
+protest accepted a baronetcy and a viscounty, their earldom was
+dead. In the reign of William IV., the third and last Viscount
+Courtenay was living unmarried in Paris, an exile who for
+sufficient reasons was keeping out of the reach of the English
+criminal law. In the name of this man, his presumptive heir
+male, William Courtenay, clerk assistant of the parliament,
+succeeded in persuading the House of Lords that the Courtenay
+earldom under the patent of 1553 was still in existence, the plea
+being that the terms of the remainder&mdash;to him and his heirs male
+for ever&mdash;did not limit the succession to heirs male of the body
+of the grantee. Five other cases wherein the words <i>de corpore suo</i>
+had been omitted from the patent are known to peerage lawyers.
+In no case had a peerage before been claimed by collateral
+heirs male. &ldquo;I have often rallied Brougham,&rdquo; writes Lord
+Campbell, &ldquo;upon his creating William Courtenay earl of Devon.
+He says he consulted Chief Justice Tenterden. But Tenterden
+knew nothing of peerage law.&rdquo; After the death of the exile in
+1835 the clerk of the parliament succeeded him as an earl by
+force of the House of Lords decision of the 15th of March 1831.
+His second son, the Rev. Henry Hugh Courtenay (1811-1904),
+succeeded, as 13th earl, a nephew whose extravagance had impoverished
+the estates. He in turn was followed, as 14th earl, by
+his grandson Charles Pepys Courtenay (b. 1870).</p>
+
+<p>No other recognized branch of this house, once so widely
+spread in the western counties, is now among the landed houses of
+England. Among its cadets were many famous warriors, but
+three prelates must be reckoned as the most eminent of the
+Courtenays. William, a younger son of the match of Courtenay
+and Bohun, was bishop of Hereford in 1370, bishop of London in
+1375 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. Proceeding against
+Wycliffe he opposed John of Gaunt, who, taunting him with his
+trust in his great kinsfolk, threatened to drag him out of St Paul&rsquo;s
+by his hair, a threat which roused the angry Londoners in his
+defence. He died in 1396 and lies buried at the feet of the Black
+Prince in his cathedral of Canterbury. By his will he left his best
+mitre to his nephew Richard Courtenay&mdash;son and pupil, as he
+styles him&mdash;against the time he should be a bishop. This Richard,
+a friend of Henry V. when prince, and treasurer of his household,
+was bishop of Norwich in 1413. Twice chancellor of Oxford, he
+repelled Archbishop Arundel and all his train when that primate
+would have had a visitation of the university, although the
+claim of the university to independence was at last broken down.
+Tall of stature, eloquent and learned, he kept the favour of the
+king, who was with him when he died of dysentery in the host
+before Harfleur. Heir of this bishop was his nephew Sir Philip
+of Powderham, whose younger son Peter Courtenay was the
+third of the Courtenay prelates, being bishop of Exeter from 1478
+to 1487, when he was translated to Winchester. Although of the
+Yorkist Courtenays, he was of Buckingham&rsquo;s party and, being
+attainted by Richard III. for joining with certain of his kinsfolk in
+an attempt to raise the west, he escaped to Brittany, whence he
+returned with the first Tudor sovereign, who had him in high
+favour. A fourth prelate of this family was Henry Reginald
+Courtenay, who was bishop of Bristol 1794-1797 and bishop of
+Exeter from 1797 to his death in 1803.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See charter, patent, close, fine and plea rolls, inquests <i>post mortem</i>
+and other records. G. E. C.&rsquo;s <i>Complete Peerage</i>; <i>Dictionary of
+National Biography</i>; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series viii. vol. 7; J. H.
+Round&rsquo;s <i>Peerage Studies</i>; <i>Calendars of State Papers</i>; Machyn&rsquo;s
+<i>Diary</i> (Camden Society); Chronicles of Capgrave, Wavrin, Adam of
+Usk, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTENAY, RICHARD<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (d. 1415), English prelate, was a son
+of Sir Philip Courtenay of Powderham Castle, near Exeter, and
+a grandson of Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377). He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span>
+was a nephew of William Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury,
+and a descendant of Edward I. Educated at Exeter College,
+Oxford, he entered the church, where his advance was rapid.
+He held several prebends, was dean of St Asaph and then dean of
+Wells, and became bishop of Norwich in 1413. As chancellor of
+the university of Oxford, an office to which he was elected in 1407
+and again in 1410, Courtenay asserted the independence of the
+university against Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, in
+1411; but the archbishop, supported by Henry IV. and Pope
+John XXIII, eventually triumphed. Courtenay was a personal
+friend of Henry V. both before and after he came to the throne;
+and in 1413, immediately after Henry&rsquo;s accession, he was made
+treasurer of the royal household. On two occasions he went on
+diplomatic errands to France, and he was also employed by
+Henry on public business at home. Having accompanied the
+king to Harfleur in August 1415, Courtenay was attacked by
+dysentery and died on the 15th of September 1415, his body
+being buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Another member of this family, <span class="sc">Peter Courtenay</span> (d. 1492),
+a grandnephew of Richard, also attained high position in the
+English Church. Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, Peter
+became dean of Windsor, then dean of Exeter; in 1478 bishop
+of Exeter; and in 1487 bishop of Winchester in succession to
+William of Waynflete. With Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham,
+and others he attempted to raise a rebellion against Richard
+III. in 1483, and fled to Brittany when this enterprise failed.
+Courtenay was restored to his dignities and estates in 1485 by
+Henry VII., whom he had accompanied to England, and he died
+on the 23rd of September 1492.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. H. Wylie, <i>History of England under Henry IV</i>. (London,
+1884-1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTENAY, WILLIAM<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (c. 1342-1396), English prelate, was
+a younger son of Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377), and
+through his mother Margaret, daughter of Humphrey Bohun,
+earl of Hereford, was a great-grandson of Edward I. Being a
+native of the west of England he was educated at Stapledon Hall,
+Oxford, and after graduating in law was chosen chancellor of
+the university in 1367. Courtenay&rsquo;s ecclesiastical and political
+career began about the same time. Having been made prebendary
+of Exeter, of Wells and of York, he was consecrated bishop of
+Hereford in 1370, was translated to the see of London in 1375,
+and became archbishop of Canterbury in 1381, succeeding Simon
+of Sudbury in both these latter positions. As a politician the
+period of his activity coincides with the years of Edward III.&rsquo;s
+dotage, and with practically the whole of Richard II.&rsquo;s reign.
+From the first he ranged himself among the opponents of John
+of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; he was a firm upholder of the
+rights of the English Church, and was always eager to root out
+Lollardry. In 1373 he declared in convocation that he would not
+contribute to a subsidy until the evils from which the church
+suffered were removed; in 1375 he incurred the displeasure of the
+king by publishing a papal bull against the Florentines; and in
+1377 his decided action during the quarrel between John of
+Gaunt and William of Wykeham ended in a temporary triumph
+for the bishop. Wycliffe was another cause of difference between
+Lancaster and Courtenay. In 1377 the reformer appeared
+before Archbishop Sudbury and Courtenay, when an altercation
+between the duke and the bishop led to the dispersal of the court,
+and during the ensuing riot Lancaster probably owed his safety
+to the good offices of his foe. Having meanwhile become archbishop
+of Canterbury Courtenay summoned a council, or synod,
+in London, which condemned the opinions of Wycliffe; he then
+attacked the Lollards at Oxford, and urged the bishops to
+imprison heretics. He was for a short time chancellor of England
+during 1381, and in January 1382 he officiated at the marriage of
+Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia, afterwards crowning the
+queen. In 1382 the archbishop&rsquo;s visitation led to disputes with
+the bishops of Exeter and Salisbury, and Courtenay was only
+partially able to enforce the payment of a special tax to meet his
+expenses on this occasion. During his concluding years the
+archbishop appears to have upheld the papal authority in
+England, although not to the injury of the English Church.
+He protested against the confirmation of the statute of provisors
+in 1390, and he was successful in slightly modifying the statute of
+praemunire in 1393. Disliking the extravagance of Richard II.
+he publicly reproved the king, and after an angry scene the royal
+threats drove him for a time into Devonshire. In 1386 he was
+one of the commissioners appointed to reform the kingdom and
+the royal household, and in 1387 he arranged a peace between
+Richard and his enemies under Thomas of Woodstock, duke of
+Gloucester. Courtenay died at Maidstone on the 31st of July
+1396, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. F. Hook, <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>, vol. iv.
+(London, 1860-1876); and W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vols.
+ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895-1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTESY<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>curtesie</i>, later <i>courtoisie</i>), manners or
+behaviour that suit a court, politeness, due consideration for
+others. A special application of the word is in the expression
+&ldquo;by courtesy,&rdquo; where something is granted out of favour and
+not of right, hence &ldquo;courtesy&rdquo; titles, <i>i.e.</i> those titles of rank
+which are given by custom to the eldest sons of dukes, marquesses
+and earls, usually the second title held by the father; to the
+younger sons and to the daughters of dukes and marquesses,
+viz. the prefix &ldquo;lord&rdquo; and &ldquo;lady&rdquo; with the Christian and
+surname. For &ldquo;tenure by the courtesy&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curtesy</a></span>. Another
+form of the word, &ldquo;curtsey&rdquo; or &ldquo;curtsy,&rdquo; was early confined
+to the expression of courtesy or respect by a gesture or bow,
+now only of the reverence made by a woman, consisting in a
+bending of the knees accompanied by a lowering of the body.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;), English writer
+and historian of poetry, whose father was rector of South Malling,
+Essex, was born on the 17th of July 1842. From Harrow school
+he went to New College, Oxford; took first-classes in classical
+&ldquo;moderations&rdquo; and &ldquo;greats&rdquo;; and won the Newdigate prize
+for poetry (1864) and the Chancellor&rsquo;s English essay (1868).
+He seemed destined for distinction as a poet, his volume of
+<i>Ludibria Lunae</i> (1869) being followed in 1870 by the remarkably
+fine <i>Paradise of Birds</i>. But a certain academic quality of mind
+seemed to check his output in verse and divert it into the field
+of criticism. Apart from many contributions to the higher
+journalism, his literary career is associated mainly with his
+continuation of the edition of Pope&rsquo;s works, begun by Whitwell
+Elwin (1816-1900), which appeared in ten volumes from 1871-1889;
+his life of Addison (Men of Letters series, 1882); his
+<i>Liberal Movement in English Literature</i> (1885); and his tenure
+of the professorship of Poetry at Oxford (1895-1901), which
+resulted in his elaborate <i>History of English Poetry</i> (the first
+volume appearing in 1895), and his <i>Life in Poetry</i> (1901). He
+deals with the history of English poetry as a whole, and in its
+unity as a result of the national spirit and thought in succeeding
+ages, and attempts to bring the great poets into relation with
+this. In 1887 he was appointed a civil service commissioner,
+being first commissioner in 1892, and being made a C.B. He
+was made an honorary fellow of his old college at Oxford in 1896,
+and was given the honorary degrees of D.Litt. by Durham in
+1895 and of LL.D. by Edinburgh University in 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURT LEET<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>, an English petty criminal court for the punishment
+of small offences. It has been usual to make a distinction
+between court baron and court leet<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as being separate courts,
+but in the early history of the court leet no such distinction
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span>
+can be drawn. At a very early time the lords of manors exercised
+or claimed certain jurisdictional franchises. Of these the most
+important was the &ldquo;view of frankpledge&rdquo; and its attendant
+police jurisdiction. Some time in the later middle ages the
+court baron when exercising these powers gained the name of
+<i>leet</i>, and, later, of &ldquo;court leet.&rdquo; The <i>quo warranto</i> proceedings
+of Edward I. established a sharp distinction between the court
+baron, exercising strictly manorial rights, and the court leet,
+depending for its jurisdiction upon royal franchise. The court
+leet was a court of record, and its duty was not only to view the
+pledges but to present by jury all crimes that might happen
+within the jurisdiction, and punish the same. The steward of
+the court acted as judge, presiding wholly in a judicial character,
+the ministerial acts being executed by the bailiff. The court
+leet began to decline in the 14th century, being superseded by
+the more modern courts of the justices, but in many cases courts
+leet were kept up until nearly the middle of the 19th century.
+Indeed, it cannot be said that they are now actually extinct,
+as many still survive for formal purposes, and by s. 40 of the
+Sheriffs Act 1887 they are expressly kept up.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The history of the word &ldquo;leet&rdquo; is very obscure. It appears in
+Anglo-French documents as <i>lete</i> and in Anglo-Latin as <i>leta</i>. Professor
+W. W. Skeat has connected it with Old English <i>láetan</i>, to let,
+which is very doubtful, though this is the origin of the use of the
+word in such expressions as &ldquo;two-&rdquo; &ldquo;three-way leet,&rdquo; a place
+where cross-roads meet. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests a
+connexion with &ldquo;lathe,&rdquo; a term which survives as a division of the
+county of Kent, containing several &ldquo;hundreds.&rdquo; This is of Old
+Norwegian origin, and seems to have meant &ldquo;landed possessions.&rdquo;
+There is also another Old Norwegian <i>léith</i>, a court or judicial assembly,
+and modern Danish has <i>laegd</i>, a division of the country for military
+purposes. J. H. Round (<i>Feudal England</i>, p. 101) points out that the
+Suffolk hundred was divided for assessment into equal blocks called
+&ldquo;leets&rdquo; (see further F. W. Maitland, <i>Select Pleas in Manorial Courts</i>,
+Selden Soc. Publications I. lxxiii-lxxvi). &ldquo;Leet&rdquo; is also used, chiefly
+in Scotland, for a list of persons nominated for election to an office.
+This is, apparently, a shortened form of the French <i>élite</i>, elected.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURT-MARTIAL,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a court for the trial of offences against
+military or naval discipline, or for the administration of martial
+law. In England courts-martial have inherited part of the
+jurisdiction of the old <i>Curia militaris</i>, or court of the chivalry,
+in which a single marshal and at one time the high constable
+proceeded &ldquo;according to the customs and usages of that court,
+and, in cases omitted according to the civil law, <i>secundum legem
+armorum</i>&rdquo; (Coke, 4 <i>Ins.</i> 17). The modern form of the courts
+was adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., when English
+soldiers were studying the &ldquo;articles and military laws&rdquo; of
+Gustavus Adolphus and the Dutch military code of Arnheim;
+it is first recognized by statute in the first Mutiny Act of 1689.
+The Mutiny Act (with various extensions and amendments)
+and the statutory articles of war continued to be the sources
+of military law which courts-martial administered until 1879,
+when they were codified in the Army Discipline and Regulation
+Act 1879, which was, in turn, superseded by the Army Act 1881.
+This act is re-enacted annually by the Army (Annual) Act.
+The constitution of courts-martial, their procedure, &amp;c., are
+dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Military Law</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Naval Courts-Martial.</i>&mdash;The administration of the barbarous
+naval law of England was long entrusted to the discretion of
+commanders acting under instructions from the lord high
+admiral, who was supreme over both the royal and merchant
+navy. It was the leaders of the Long Parliament who first
+secured something like a regular tribunal by passing in 1645
+an ordinance and articles concerning martial law for the government
+of the navy. Under this ordinance Blake, Monk and Penn
+issued instructions for the holding general and ship courts-martial
+with written records, the one for captains and commanders,
+the other for subordinate officers and men. Of the
+latter the mate, gunner and boatswain were members, but the
+admirals reserved a control over the more serious sentences.
+Under an act of 1661 the high admiral again received power
+to issue commissions for holding courts-martial&mdash;a power which
+continues to be exercised by the board of admiralty. During
+the 18th century, under the auspices of Anson, the jurisdiction
+was greatly extended, and the Consolidation Act of 1749 was
+passed in which the penalty of death occurs as frequently as the
+curses in the commination service. The Naval Articles of War
+have always been statutory, and the whole system may now be
+said to rest on the Naval Discipline Act 1866, as amended by the
+act of 1884. The navy has its courts of inquiry for the confidential
+investigation of charges &ldquo;derogatory to the character
+of an officer and a gentleman.&rdquo; Under the act of 1866 a court-martial
+must consist of from five to nine officers of a certain
+rank, and must be held publicly on board of one of H.M. ships
+of war, and where at least two such ships are together. The
+rank of the president depends on that of the prisoner. A judge-advocate
+attends, and the procedure resembles that in military
+courts, except that the prisoner is not asked to plead, and the
+sentence, if not one of death, does not require the confirmation
+of the commander-in-chief abroad or of the admiralty at home.
+The court has a large and useful power of finding the prisoner
+guilty of a less serious offence than that charged, which might
+well be imitated in the ordinary criminal courts. The death
+sentence is always carried out by hanging at the yard-arm;
+Admiral Byng, however, was shot in 1757. The board of
+admiralty have, under the Naval Discipline Acts, a general
+power of suspending, annulling, and modifying sentences which
+are not capital. The jurisdiction extends to all persons belonging
+to the navy, to land forces and other passengers on board, shipwrecked
+crews, spies, persons borne on the books of H.M. ships
+in commission, and civilians on board who endeavour to seduce
+others from allegiance. The definition of the jurisdiction by
+locality includes harbours, havens or creeks, lakes or rivers,
+in or out of the United Kingdom; all places within the jurisdiction
+of the admiralty; all places on shore out of the United
+Kingdom; the dockyards, barracks, hospitals, &amp;c., of the
+service wherever situated; all places on shore in or out of the
+United Kingdom for all offences punishable under the Articles
+of War except those specified in section 38 of the Naval Discipline
+Act 1860, which are punishable by ordinary law. The Royal
+Marines, while borne on the books of H.M. ships, are subject
+to the Naval Discipline Acts, and, by an order in council, 1882,
+when they are embarked on board ship for service on shore;
+otherwise they are under the Army Acts. By s. 179, sub.-sec.
+7, of the Army Act, in the application of the act to the Royal
+Marines the admiralty is substituted for military authorities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Simmons, <i>On the Constitution and Practice of
+Courts-Martial</i>; Clode, <i>Military and Martial Law</i>; Stephens,
+Gifford and Smith, <i>Manual of Naval Law and Court-Martial Procedure</i>.
+The earlier writers on courts-martial are Adye (1796),
+M&rsquo;Arthur (1813), Maltby (1813, Boston), James (1820), D&rsquo;Aguilar
+(1843), and Hough, <i>Precedents in Military Law</i> (1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;),
+English politician and man of letters, eldest son of J. S.
+Courtney, a banker, was born at Penzance on the 6th of July
+1832. At Cambridge, Leonard Courtney was second wrangler
+and first Smith&rsquo;s prizeman, and was elected a fellow of his college,
+St John&rsquo;s. He was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1858,
+was professor of political economy at University College from
+1872 to 1875, and in December 1876, after a previous unsuccessful
+attempt, was elected to parliament for Liskeard in the Liberal
+interest. He continued to represent the borough, and the
+district into which it was merged by the Reform Act of 1885,
+until 1900, when his attitude towards the South African War&mdash;he
+was one of the foremost of the so-called &ldquo;Pro-Boer&rdquo; party&mdash;compelled
+his retirement. Until 1885 he was a devoted adherent
+of Mr Gladstone, particularly in finance and foreign affairs.
+In 1880 he was under-secretary of state for the home department,
+in 1881 for the colonies, and in 1882 secretary to the treasury;
+but he was always a stubborn fighter for principle, and upon
+finding that the government&rsquo;s Reform Bill in 1884 contained
+no recognition of the scheme for proportional representation,
+to which he was deeply committed, he resigned office. He
+refused to support Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s Home Rule Bill in 1885, and
+was one of those who chiefly contributed to its rejection, and
+whose reputation for unbending integrity and intellectual
+eminence gave solidity to the Liberal Unionist party. In 1886
+he was elected chairman of committees in the House of Commons,
+and his efficiency in this office seemed to mark him out for the
+speakership in 1895. A Liberal Unionist, however, could only
+be elected by Conservative votes, and he had made himself
+objectionable to a large section of the party by his independent
+attitude on various questions, on which his Liberalism outweighed
+his party loyalty. He would in any case have been incapacitated
+by an affection of the eyesight, which for a while threatened
+to withdraw him from public life altogether. After 1895 Mr
+Courtney&rsquo;s divergences from the Unionist party on questions
+other than Irish politics became gradually more marked. He
+became known in the House of Commons principally for his
+candid criticism of the measures introduced by his nominal
+leaders, and he was rather to be ranked among the Opposition
+than as a Ministerialist; and when the crisis with the Transvaal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span>
+came in 1899, Mr Courtney&rsquo;s views, which remained substantially
+what they were when he supported the settlement after Majuba
+in 1881, had plainly become incompatible with his position even
+as a nominal follower of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain.
+He gradually reverted to formal membership of the Liberal
+party, and in January 1906 unsuccessfully contested a division
+of Edinburgh as a supporter of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
+at the general election. Among the birthday honours of 1906
+he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Courtney of Penwith
+(Cornwall). Lord Courtney, who in 1883 married Miss Catherine
+Potter (an elder sister of Mrs Sidney Webb), was a prominent
+supporter of the women&rsquo;s movement. In earlier years he was a
+regular contributor to <i>The Times</i>, and he wrote numerous essays
+in the principal reviews on political and economic subjects.
+In 1901 he published a book on <i>The Working Constitution of the
+United Kingdom</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two of his brothers, John Mortimer Courtney (b. 1838), and
+William Prideaux Courtney (b. 1845), also attained public distinction,
+the former in the government service in Canada (from
+1869, retiring in 1906), rising to be deputy-minister of finance,
+and the latter in the British civil service (1865-1892), and as a
+prominent man of letters and bibliographer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTOIS, JACQUES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1621-1676) and <b>GUILLAUME</b> (1628-1679).
+The two French painters who bore these names are also
+called by the Italian equivalents Giacomo (or Jacopo) Cortese
+and Guglielmo Cortese. Each of the brothers is likewise named,
+from his native province, Le Bourguignon, or Il Borgognone.</p>
+
+<p>Jacques Courtois was born at St Hippolyte, near Besançon, in
+1621. His father was a painter, and with him Jacques remained
+studying up to the age of fifteen. Towards 1637 he came to Italy,
+was hospitably received at Milan by a Burgundian gentleman,
+and entered, and for three years remained in, the French military
+service. The sight of some battle-pictures revived his taste for
+fine art. He went to Bologna, and studied under the friendly
+tutelage of Guido; thence he proceeded to Rome, where he
+painted, in the Cistercian monastery, the &ldquo;Miracle of the Loaves.&rdquo;
+Here he took a house and after a while entered upon his own
+characteristic style of art, that of battle-painting, in which he has
+been accounted to excel all other old masters; his merits were
+cordially recognized by the celebrated Cerquozzi, named Michelangelo
+delle Battaglie. He soon rose from penury to ease, and
+married a painter&rsquo;s beautiful daughter, Maria Vagini; she died
+after seven years of wedded life. Prince Matthias of Tuscany
+employed Courtois on some striking works in his villa, Lappeggio,
+representing with much historical accuracy the prince&rsquo;s military
+exploits. In Venice also the artist executed for the senator
+Sagredo some remarkable battle-pieces. In Florence he entered
+the Society of Jesus, taking the habit in Rome in 1655; it was
+calumniously rumoured that he adopted this course in order to
+escape punishment for having poisoned his wife. As a Jesuit
+father, Courtois painted many works in churches and monasteries
+of the society. He lived piously in Rome, and died there of apoplexy
+on the 20th of May 1676 (some accounts say 1670 or 1671).
+His battle-pieces have movement and fire, warm colouring (now
+too often blackened), and great command of the brush,&mdash;those of
+moderate dimensions are the more esteemed. They are slight
+in execution, and tell out best from a distance. Courtois etched
+with skill twelve battle-subjects of his own composition. The
+Dantzig painter named in Italy Pandolfo Reschi was his pupil.</p>
+
+<p>Guillaume Courtois, born likewise at St Hippolyte, came to
+Italy with his brother. He went at once to Rome, and entered
+the school of Pietro da Cortona. He studied also the Bolognese
+painters and Giovanni Barbieri, and formed for himself a style
+with very little express mannerism, partly resembling that of
+Maratta. He painted the &ldquo;Battle of Joshua&rdquo; in the Quirinal
+Gallery, the &ldquo;Crucifixion of St Andrew&rdquo; in the church of that
+saint on Monte Cavallo, various works for the Jesuits, some also
+in co-operation with his brother. His last production was
+Christ admonishing Martha. His draughtsmanship is better than
+that of Jacques, whom he did not, however, rival in spirit,
+colour or composition. He also executed some etchings.
+Guillaume Courtois died of gout on the 15th of June 1679.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURTRAI<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (Flemish, <i>Kortryk</i>), an important and once famous
+town of West Flanders, Belgium, situated on the Lys. Pop.
+(1904) 34,564. It is now best known for its fine linen, which
+ranks with that of Larne. The lace factories are also important
+and employ 5000 hands. But considerable as is the prosperity of
+modern Courtrai it is but a shadow of what it was in the middle
+ages during the halcyon period of the Flemish communes. Then
+Courtrai had a population of 200,000, now it is little over a sixth
+of that number. On the 11th of July 1302 the great battle of
+Courtrai (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infantry</a></span>) was fought outside its walls, when the
+French army, under the count of Artois, was vanquished by the
+allied burghers of Bruges, Ypres and Courtrai with tremendous
+loss. As many as 700 pairs of golden spurs were collected on the
+field from the bodies of French knights and hung up as an
+offering in an abbey church of the town, which has long disappeared.
+There are still, however, some interesting remains of
+Courtrai&rsquo;s former grandeur. Perhaps the Pont de Broel, with its
+towers at either end of the bridge, is as characteristic and
+complete as any monument of ancient Flanders that has come
+down to modern times. The hôtel de ville, which dated from the
+earlier half of the 16th century, was restored in 1846, and since
+then statues have also been added to represent those that
+formerly ornamented the façade. Two richly and elaborately
+carved chimney-pieces in the hôtel de ville merit special notice.
+The one in the council chamber upstairs dates from 1527 and
+gives an allegorical representation of the Virtues and the Vices.
+The other, three-quarters of a century later, contains an heraldic
+representation of the noble families of the town. The church of
+St Martin dates from the 15th century, but was practically
+destroyed in 1862 by a fire caused by lightning. It has been
+restored. The most important building at Courtrai is the church
+of Notre Dame, which was begun by Count Baldwin IX. in 1191
+and finished in 1211. The portal and the choir were reconstructed
+in the 18th century. In the chapel behind the choir is hung one
+of Van Dyck&rsquo;s masterpieces, &ldquo;The Erection of the Cross.&rdquo; The
+chapel of the counts attached to the church dates from 1373, and
+contained mural paintings of the counts and countesses of
+Flanders down to the merging of the title in the house of
+Burgundy. Most if not all of these had become obliterated, but
+they have now been carefully restored. With questionable
+judgment portraits have been added of the subsequent holders of
+the title down to the emperor Francis II. (I. of Austria), the last
+representative of the houses of Flanders and Burgundy to rule
+in the Netherlands. Courtrai celebrated the 600th anniversary
+of the battle mentioned above by erecting a monument on the
+field in 1902, and also by fêtes and historical processions that
+continued for a fortnight.</p>
+
+<p>Courtrai, the <i>Cortracum</i> of the Romans, ranked as a town from
+the 7th century onwards. It was destroyed by the Normans, but
+was rebuilt in the 10th century by Baldwin III. of Flanders,
+who endowed it with market rights and laid the foundation of
+its industrial importance by inviting the settlement of foreign
+weavers. The town was once more burnt, in 1382, by the French
+after the battle of Roosebeke, but was rebuilt in 1385 by Philip
+the Bold, duke of Burgundy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1775-1835),
+French magistrate and politician, was born at Besançon on the
+30th of November 1775. During the revolutionary period he
+left the country and served in the army of the <i>émigrés</i> and later
+in that of Austria. In 1801, under the Consulate, he returned
+to France and established himself as an advocate at Besançon,
+being appointed <i>conseiller-auditeur</i> to the court of appeal there in
+1808. At the Restoration he was made advocate-general by
+Louis XVIII., resigned and left France during the Hundred Days,
+and was reappointed after the second Restoration in 1815. In
+1817, after the modification of the constitution by the <i>ordonnance</i>
+of the 5th of September, he was returned to the chamber of
+deputies, where he attached himself to the left centre and
+supported the moderate policy of Richelieu and Decazes. He
+was an eloquent speaker, and master of many subjects; and his
+proved royalism made it impossible for the ultra-Royalists to
+discredit him, much as they resented his consistent opposition to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span>
+their short-sighted violence. After the revolt at Lyons in 1817 he
+was nominated <i>procureur-général</i> of the city, and by his sense
+and moderation did much to restore order and confidence. He
+was again a member of the chamber from 1819 to 1824, and
+vigorously opposed the exceptional legislation which the second
+administration of Richelieu passed under the influence of the
+ultra-Royalists. In 1824 he failed to secure re-election, and
+occupied himself with his judicial duties until his nomination as
+councillor of state in 1827. On the 8th of August 1829 he
+accepted the offer of the portfolio of justice in the Polignac
+ministry, but resigned on the 19th of May 1830, when he realized
+that the government intended to abrogate the Charter and the
+inevitable revolution that would follow. During the trial of the
+ex-ministers, in December, he was summoned as a witness, and
+paid a tribute to the character of his former colleagues which,
+under the circumstances, argued no little courage. He refused
+to take office under Louis Philippe, and retired into private life,
+dying on the 18th of September 1835.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUSCOUS,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kous-kous</span> (an Arabic word derived from
+<i>kaskasa</i>, to pound), a dish common among the inhabitants of
+North Africa, made of flour rubbed together and steamed over
+a stew of mutton, fowl, &amp;c., with which it is eaten.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUSIN, JEAN<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1500-1590), French painter, was born at
+Soucy, near Sens, and began as a glass-painter, his windows in
+the Sainte Chapelle at Vincennes being considered the finest in
+France. As a painter of subject pictures he is ranked as the
+founder of the French school, as having first departed from the
+practice of portraits. His &ldquo;Last Judgment,&rdquo; influenced by
+Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a &ldquo;Descent from the Cross&rdquo;
+(1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was
+known also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and
+on wood, his wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc&rsquo;s Bible (1596) and
+other books being his best-known work. He also wrote a <i>Livre
+de perspective</i> (1560), and a <i>Livre de portraiture</i> (1571).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, <i>Étude sur J. Cousin</i> (1872), and
+<i>Recueil des &oelig;uvres choisies de J. Cousin</i> (1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUSIN, VICTOR<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1792-1867), French philosopher, the son
+of a watchmaker, was born in Paris, in the Quartier St Antoine,
+on the 28th of November 1792. At the age of ten he was sent
+to the grammar school of the Quartier St Antoine, the Lycée
+Charlemagne. Here he studied until he was eighteen. The
+lycée had a connexion with the university, and when Cousin
+left the secondary school he was &ldquo;crowned&rdquo; in the ancient hall
+of the Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there,
+in the general concourse of his school competitors. The classical
+training of the lycée strongly disposed him to literature. He
+was already known among his compeers for his knowledge of
+Greek. From the lycée he passed to the Normal School of Paris,
+where Laromiguière was then lecturing on philosophy. In
+the second preface to the <i>Fragmens philosophiques</i>, in which
+he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his life,
+Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory
+of the day in 1811, when he heard Laromiguière for the first
+time. &ldquo;That day decided my whole life. Laromiguière taught
+the philosophy of Locke and Condillac, happily modified on
+some points, with a clearness and grace which in appearance
+at least removed difficulties, and with a charm of spiritual
+<i>bonhomie</i> which penetrated and subdued.&rdquo; Cousin was set
+forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained
+the position of master of conferences (<i>maître de conférences</i>) in
+the school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life
+was the teaching of Royer-Collard. This teacher, as he tells
+us, &ldquo;by the severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his
+words, turned me by degrees, and not without resistance, from
+the beaten path of Condillac into the way which has since
+become so easy, but which was then painful and unfrequented,
+that of the Scottish philosophy.&rdquo; In 1815-1816 Cousin attained
+the position of <i>suppléant</i> (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the
+history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters.
+There was still another thinker who influenced him at this early
+period,&mdash;Maine de Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled
+psychological observer of his time in France.</p>
+
+<p>These men strongly influenced both the method and the
+matter of Cousin&rsquo;s philosophical thought. To Laromiguière
+he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though
+the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard
+taught him that even sensation is subject to certain internal
+laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are
+superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind.
+De Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will.
+He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially
+in the simplest facts of consciousness, the fact of voluntary
+activity, that activity in which our personality is truly revealed.
+It was through this &ldquo;triple discipline,&rdquo; as he calls it, that
+Cousin&rsquo;s philosophical thought was first developed, and that
+in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of philosophy in the
+Normal School and in the faculty of letters.<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He then took up
+the study of German, worked at Kant and Jacobi, and sought
+to master the <i>Philosophy of Nature</i> of Schelling, by which he
+was at first greatly attracted. The influence of Schelling may be
+observed very markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy.
+He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded
+it as arbitrary so long as it was not recognized as grounded
+in reason. In 1817 he went to Germany, and met Hegel at
+Heidelberg. In this year appeared Hegel&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopädie der
+philosophischen Wissenschaften</i>, of which Cousin had one of the
+earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable,
+but the two became friends. The following year Cousin went to
+Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a
+month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the
+<i>Philosophy of Nature</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The political troubles of France interfered for a time with
+his career. In the events of 1814-1815 he took the royalist side.
+He at first adopted the views of the party known as
+<i>doctrinaire</i>, of which Royer-Collard was the philosophical
+<span class="sidenote">Political troubles.</span>
+chief. He seems then to have gone farther
+than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left.
+Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821-1822
+Cousin was deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters
+and in the Normal School. The Normal School itself was swept
+away, and Cousin shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal
+government the fate of Guizot, who was ejected from the chair
+of history. This enforced abandonment of public teaching was
+not wholly an evil. He set out for Germany with a view to
+further philosophical study. While at Berlin in 1824-1825 he
+was thrown into prison, either on some ill-defined political
+charge at the instance of the French police, or on account of
+certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversation.
+Liberated after six months, he continued under the
+suspicion of the French government for three years. It was
+during this period, however, that he thought out and developed
+what is distinctive in his philosophical doctrine. His eclecticism,
+his ontology and his philosophy of history were declared in
+principle and in most of their salient details in the <i>Fragmens
+philosophiques</i> (Paris, 1826). The preface to the
+<span class="sidenote">Fragmens philosophiques.</span>
+second edition (1833) and the <i>Avertissement</i> to the
+third (1838) aimed at a vindication of his principles
+against contemporary criticism. Even the best of his
+later books, the <i>Philosophie écossaise</i> (4th ed., 1863), the <i>Du
+vrai, du beau, et du bien</i> (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans., 3rd ed.,
+Edinburgh, 1854), and the <i>Philosophie de Locke</i> (4th ed., 1861)
+were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period
+from 1815 to 1820. The lectures on Locke were first sketched
+in 1819, and fully developed in the course of 1829.</p>
+
+<p>During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching
+he produced, besides the <i>Fragmens</i>, the edition of the works
+of Proclus (6 vols., 1820-1827), and the works of Descartes
+(11 vols., 1826). He also commenced his <i>Translation of Plato</i>
+(13 vols.), which occupied his leisure time from 1825 to 1840.</p>
+
+<p>We see in the <i>Fragmens</i> very distinctly the fusion of the
+different philosophical influences by which his opinions were
+finally matured. For Cousin was as eclectic in thought and habit
+of mind as he was in philosophical principle and system. It is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
+with the publication of the <i>Fragmens</i> of 1826 that the first great
+widening of his reputation is associated. In 1827 followed the
+<i>Cours de l&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, minister of public instruction in
+Martignac&rsquo;s ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their
+professorial positions in the university. The three
+years which followed were the period of Cousin&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Career as a lecturer.</span>
+greatest triumph as a lecturer. His return to the
+chair was the symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and
+was greeted with enthusiasm. The hall of the Sorbonne was
+crowded as the hall of no philosophical teacher in Paris had been
+since the days of Abelard. The lecturer had a singular power
+of identifying himself for the time with the system which he
+expounded and the historical character he portrayed. Clear
+and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his
+subject, he was methodical and vivid in the representation of
+details. In exposition he had the rare art of unfolding and
+aggrandizing. There was a rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence
+mingled with the speculative exposition; his style of expression
+was clear, elegant and forcible, abounding in happy turns and
+striking antitheses. To this was joined a singular power of
+rhetorical climax. His philosophy exhibited in a striking
+manner the generalizing tendency of the French intellect, and
+its logical need of grouping details round central principles.</p>
+
+<p>There was withal a moral elevation in his spiritual philosophy
+which came home to the hearts of his hearers, and seemed to
+afford a ground for higher development in national literature and
+art, and even in politics, than the traditional philosophy of
+France had appeared capable of yielding. His lectures produced
+more ardent disciples, imbued at least with his spirit, than those
+of any other professor of philosophy in France during the 18th
+century. Tested by the power and effect of his teaching influence,
+Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of professors of
+philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart
+have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative
+power. Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his
+writings have in some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less
+remarkable. The taste for philosophy&mdash;especially its history&mdash;was
+revived in France to an extent unknown since the 17th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may note
+T. S. Jouffroy, J. P. Damiron, Garnier, J. Barthélemy St Hilaire,
+F. Ravaisson-Mollien, Rémusat, Jules Simon and
+A. Franck. Jouffroy and Damiron were first fellow-students
+<span class="sidenote">Disciples and followers.</span>
+and then disciples. Jouffroy, however,
+always kept firm to the early&mdash;the French and
+Scottish&mdash;impulses of Cousin&rsquo;s teaching. Cousin continued to
+lecture regularly for two years and a half after his return to the
+chair. Sympathizing with the revolution of July, he was at once
+recognized by the new government as a friend of national liberty.
+Writing in June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his
+political position:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I had the advantage of holding united against me for many
+years both the sensational and the theological school. In 1830
+both schools descended into the arena of politics. The sensational
+school quite naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theological
+school became quite as naturally absolutism, safe to borrow
+from time to time the mask of the demagogue in order the better
+to reach its ends, as in philosophy it is by scepticism that it undertakes
+to restore theocracy. On the other hand, he who combated
+any exclusive principle in science was bound to reject also any exclusive
+principle in the state, and to defend representative government.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The government was not slow to do him honour. He was
+induced by the ministry of which his friend Guizot was the head
+to become a member of the council of public instruction and
+counsellor of state, and in 1832 he was made a peer of France.
+He ceased to lecture, but retained the title of professor of
+philosophy. Finally, he accepted the position of minister of
+public instruction in 1840 under Thiers. He was besides director
+of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and from
+1840 a member of the Institute (Academy of the Moral and
+Political Sciences). His character and his official position at this
+period gave him great power in the university and in the educational
+arrangements of the country. In fact, during the seventeen
+and a half years of the reign of Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly
+moulded the philosophical and even the literary tendencies of the
+cultivated class in France.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important work he accomplished during this
+period was the organization of primary instruction. It was to the
+efforts of Cousin that France owed her advance, in
+primary education, between 1830 and 1848. Prussia
+<span class="sidenote">Relation to primary education in France.</span>
+and Saxony had set the national example, and France
+was guided into it by Cousin. Forgetful of national
+calamity and of personal wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording
+the best example of an organized system of national education;
+and he was persuaded that &ldquo;to carry back the education of
+Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a bloodless) triumph
+than the trophies of Austerlitz and Jena.&rdquo; In the summer of
+1831, commissioned by the government, he visited Frankfort and
+Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin. The result was a series
+of reports to the minister, afterwards published as <i>Rapport sur
+l&rsquo;état de l&rsquo;instruction publique dans quelques pays de l&rsquo;Allemagne
+et particulièrement en Prusse</i>. (Compare also <i>De l&rsquo;instruction
+publique en Hollande</i>, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on
+his return to France, and soon afterwards through his influence
+there was passed the law of primary instruction. (See his
+<i>Exposé des motifs et projet de loi sur l&rsquo;instruction primaire,
+présentés à la chambre des députés, séance du 2 janvier 1833</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the words of the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> (July 1833), these
+documents &ldquo;mark an epoch in the progress of national education,
+and are directly conducive to results important not only to
+France but to Europe.&rdquo; The <i>Report</i> was translated into English
+by Mrs Sarah Austin in 1834. The translation was frequently
+reprinted in the United States of America. The legislatures of
+New Jersey and Massachusetts distributed it in the schools at
+the expense of the states. Cousin remarks that, among all the
+literary distinctions which he had received, &ldquo;None has touched
+me more than the title of foreign member of the American
+Institute for Education.&rdquo; To the enlightened views of the
+ministries of Guizot and Thiers under the citizen-king, and to the
+zeal and ability of Cousin in the work of organization, France
+owes what is best in her system of primary education,&mdash;a national
+interest which had been neglected under the Revolution, the
+Empire and the Restoration (see <i>Exposé</i>, p. 17). In the first two
+years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the
+education of the people than had been either sought or accomplished
+in all the history of France. In defence of university
+studies he stood manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844,
+against the clerical party on the one hand and the levelling
+or Philistine party on the other. His speeches on this occasion
+were published in a tractate <i>Défense de l&rsquo;université et de la
+philosophie</i> (1844 and 1845).</p>
+
+<p>This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as
+philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures
+and writings, in maturing them for publication or
+reissue, and in research into certain periods of the
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophical writings.</span>
+history of philosophy. In 1835 appeared <i>De la
+Métaphysique d&rsquo;Aristote, suivi d&rsquo;un essai de traduction
+des deux premiers livres</i>; in 1836, <i>Cours de philosophie professé à
+la faculté des lettres pendant l&rsquo;année 1818</i>, and <i>Ouvrages inédits
+d&rsquo;Abélard</i>. This <i>Cours de philosophie</i> appeared later in 1854 as
+<i>Du vrai, du beau, et du bien</i>. From 1825 to 1840 appeared
+<i>Cours de l&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie</i>, in 1829 <i>Manuel de l&rsquo;histoire de
+la philosophie de Tennemann</i>, translated from the German. In
+1840-1841 we have <i>Cours d&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie morale au
+XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (5 vols.). In 1841 appeared his edition of the
+<i>&OElig;uvres philosophiques de Maine-de-Biran</i>; in 1842, <i>Leçons de
+philosophie sur Kant</i> (Eng. trans. A. G. Henderson, 1854), and in
+the same year <i>Des Pensées de Pascal</i>. The <i>Nouveaux fragments</i>
+were gathered together and republished in 1847. Later, in 1859,
+appeared <i>Petri Abaelardi Opera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh
+interest to those literary studies which he had abandoned for
+speculation under the influence of Laromiguière and Royer-Collard.
+To this renewed interest we owe his studies of men
+<span class="sidenote">Literary studies.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
+and women of note in France in the 17th century. As the results
+of his work in this line, we have, besides the <i>Des Pensêes de
+Pascal</i>, 1842, <i>Études sur les femmes et la société du
+XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, 1853. He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal
+(1844), Madame de Longueville (1853), the marquise de
+Sablé (1854), the duchesse de Chevreuse (1856), Madame de
+Hautefort (1856).</p>
+
+<p>When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a close through the
+opposition of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand
+for electoral reform and through the policy of the Spanish
+marriages, Cousin, who was opposed to the government on these
+points, lent his sympathy to Cavaignac and the Provisional
+government. He published a pamphlet entitled <i>Justice et
+charité</i>, the purport of which showed the moderation of his
+political views. It was markedly anti-socialistic. But from this
+period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased to
+wield the personal influence which he had done during the
+preceding years. After the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 2nd of December,
+he was deprived of his position as permanent member of the
+superior council of public instruction. From Napoleon and the
+Empire he stood aloof. A decree of 1852 placed him along with
+Guizot and Villemain in the rank of honorary professors. His
+sympathies were apparently with the monarchy, under certain
+constitutional safeguards. Speaking in 1853 of the political
+issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his
+lifetime, he says,&mdash;&ldquo;It conducts human societies to the true
+republic, that dream of all generous souls, which in our time can
+be realized in Europe only by constitutional monarchy.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>During the last years of his life he occupied a suite of rooms in
+the Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously. The
+chief feature of the rooms was his noble library, the cherished
+collection of a lifetime. He died at Cannes on the 13th of
+January 1867, in his sixty-fifth year. In the front of the
+Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms of the faculty of letters, a
+tablet records an extract from his will, in which he bequeaths
+his noble and cherished library to the halls of his professorial
+work and triumphs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;There are three distinctive points in Cousin&rsquo;s
+philosophy. These are his method, the results of his method,
+and the application of the method and its results to history,&mdash;especially
+to the history of philosophy. It is usual to speak of his
+philosophy as eclecticism. It is eclectic only in a secondary and
+subordinate sense. All eclecticism that is not self-condemned
+and inoperative implies a system of doctrine as its basis,&mdash;in fact,
+a criterion of truth. Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it
+is simply a blind and useless syncretism. And Cousin saw and
+proclaimed from an early period in his philosophical teaching the
+necessity of a system on which to base his eclecticism. This is
+indeed advanced as an illustration or confirmation of the truth of
+his system,&mdash;as a proof that the facts of history correspond to his
+analysis of consciousness. These three points&mdash;the method, the
+results, and the philosophy of history&mdash;are with him intimately
+connected; they are developments in a natural order of sequence.
+They become in practice Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism
+in history.</p>
+
+<p>First, as to method. On no point has Cousin more strongly
+insisted than the importance of method in philosophy. That
+which he adopts, and the necessity of which he so
+strongly proclaims, is the ordinary one of observation,
+<span class="sidenote">Method.</span>
+analysis and induction. This observational method Cousin
+regards as that of the 18th century,&mdash;the method which Descartes
+began and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied,
+though imperfectly, and which Reid and Kant used with more
+success, yet not completely. He insists that this is the true
+method of philosophy as applied to consciousness, in which
+alone the facts of experience appear. But the proper condition
+of the application of the method is that it shall not through
+prejudice of system omit a single fact of consciousness. If the
+authority of consciousness is good in one instance, it is good in all.
+If not to be trusted in one, it is not to be trusted in any. Previous
+systems have erred in not presenting the facts of consciousness,
+<i>i.e.</i> consciousness itself, in their totality. The observational
+method applied to consciousness gives us the science of psychology.
+This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology or
+metaphysics&mdash;the science of being&mdash;and of the philosophy of
+history. To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds
+induction as the complement of his method, by which he means
+inference as to reality necessitated by the data of consciousness,
+and regulated by certain laws found in consciousness, viz.
+those of reason. By his method of observation and induction as
+thus explained, his philosophy will be found to be marked off
+very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive construction of
+notions of an absolute system, as represented either by Schelling
+or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on hypothesis
+and abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other,
+from that of Kant, and in a sense, of Sir W. Hamilton, both of
+which in the view of Cousin are limited to psychology, and
+merely relative or phenomenal knowledge, and issue in scepticism
+so far as the great realities of ontology are concerned. What
+Cousin finds psychologically in the individual consciousness, he
+finds also spontaneously expressed in the common sense or
+universal experience of humanity. In fact, it is with him the
+function of philosophy to classify and explain universal convictions
+and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him
+philosophy, nor is it the instrument of philosophy; it is
+simply the material on which the philosophical method works,
+and in harmony with which its results must ultimately be found.</p>
+
+<p>The three great results of psychological observation
+<span class="sidenote">Results.</span>
+are Sensibility, Activity or Liberty, and Reason.</p>
+
+<p>These three facts are different in character, but are not found
+apart in consciousness. Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility,
+are necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves. The facts of
+reason are also necessary, and reason is not less independent of
+the will than the sensibility. Voluntary facts alone are marked
+in the eyes of consciousness with the characters of imputability
+and personality. The will alone is the person or <i>Me</i>. The me
+is the centre of the intellectual sphere without which consciousness
+is impossible. We find ourselves in a strange world, between
+two orders of phenomena which do not belong to us, which we
+apprehend only on the condition of our distinguishing ourselves
+from them. Further, we apprehend by means of a light which
+does not come from ourselves. All light comes from the reason,
+and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the sensibility
+which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does not
+constrain. Consciousness, then, is composed of these three
+integrant and inseparable elements. But Reason is the immediate
+ground of knowledge and of consciousness itself.</p>
+
+<p>But there is a peculiarity in Cousin&rsquo;s doctrine of activity or
+freedom, and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into
+his system. This is the element of spontaneity in
+volition and in reason. This is the heart of what is
+<span class="sidenote">Spontaneity in will.</span>
+new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being.
+Liberty or freedom is a generic term which means a
+cause or being endowed with self-activity. This is to itself and
+its own development its own ultimate cause. Free-will is so,
+although it is preceded by deliberation and determination, <i>i.e.</i>
+reflection, for we are always conscious that even after determination
+we are free to will or not to will. But there is a primary kind
+of volition which has not reflection for its condition, which is yet
+free and spontaneous. We must have willed thus spontaneously
+first, otherwise we could not know, before our reflective volition,
+that we could will and act. Spontaneous volition is free as
+reflective, but it is the prior act of the two. This view of liberty
+of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of humanity;
+it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm of the
+poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the
+ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a rule spontaneously
+and not after reflective deliberation.</p>
+
+<p>But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive
+principle of the philosophy of Cousin lies. The reason given to
+us by psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness,
+is impersonal in its nature. We do not make it; its character
+<span class="sidenote">Impersonality of reason.</span>
+is precisely the opposite of individuality; it is universal and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
+necessary. The recognition of universal and necessary principles
+in knowledge is the essential point in psychology; it ought to
+be put first and emphasized to the last that these
+exist, and that they are wholly impersonal or absolute.
+The number of these principles, their enumeration
+and classification, is an important point, but it is
+secondary to that of the recognition of their true nature. This
+was the point which Kant missed in his analysis, and this is the
+fundamental truth which Cousin thinks he has restored to the
+integrity of philosophy by the method of the observation of
+consciousness. And how is this impersonality or absoluteness of
+the conditions of knowledge to be established? The answer is in
+substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first as the
+criterion of those laws. This brought them within the sphere of
+reflection, and gave as their guarantee the impossibility of
+thinking them reversed; and led to their being regarded as
+wholly relative to human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of
+the phenomenal, incapable of revealing to us substantial reality&mdash;necessary,
+yet subjective. But this test of necessity is a wholly
+secondary one; these laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they
+are each and all given to us, given to our consciousness, in an
+act of spontaneous apperception or apprehension, immediately,
+instantaneously, in a sphere above the reflective consciousness,
+yet within the reach of knowledge. And &ldquo;all subjectivity with
+all reflection expires in the spontaneity of apperception. The
+reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary and free
+self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or to that
+self in humanity; it belongs not even to humanity. We may say
+with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without
+its laws both would perish.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But what is the number of those laws? Kant reviewing the
+enterprise of Aristotle in modern times has given a complete list
+of the laws of thought, but it is arbitrary in classification
+and may be legitimately reduced. According to
+<span class="sidenote">Laws of reason.</span>
+Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought, that
+of causality and that of substance. From these flow naturally
+all the others. In the order of nature, that of substance is the
+first and causality second. In the order of acquisition of our
+knowledge, causality precedes substance, or rather both are given
+us in each other, and are contemporaneous in consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus
+psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the
+relative and subjective to objective and absolute reality,&mdash;enable
+us, in a word, to pass from psychology, or the science of knowledge,
+to ontology or the science of being. These laws are
+inextricably mixed in consciousness with the data of volition and
+sensation, with free activity and fatal action or impression, and
+they guide us in rising to a personal being, a self or free cause,
+and to an impersonal reality, a not-me&mdash;nature, the world of
+force&mdash;lying out of us, and modifying us. As I refer to myself
+the act of attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the
+sensation to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is,
+to an external cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my
+own existence, since the phenomenon which suggests it to me is
+as certain as the phenomenon which had suggested my reality,
+and both are given in each other. I thus reach an objective
+impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the variety of my
+sensations. The relation of these forces or causes to each other
+is the order of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally
+limitative. As reason has apprehended these two simultaneous
+phenomena, attention and sensation, and led us
+immediately to conceive the two sorts of distinct
+<span class="sidenote">The infinite or absolute.</span>
+causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which
+they are related, so, from the notion of this limitation,
+we find it impossible under the same guide not to conceive a
+supreme cause, absolute and infinite, itself the first and last
+cause of all. This is relatively to self and not-self what these
+are to their proper effects. This cause is self-sufficient, and
+is sufficient for the reason. This is God; he must be conceived
+under the notion of cause, related to humanity and the world.
+He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute cause,
+and his essence lies precisely in his creative power. He thus
+creates, and he creates necessarily.</p>
+
+<p>This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to
+the charge of pantheism. This he repels, and his answer may be
+summed up as follows. Pantheism is properly the
+deification of the law of phenomena, the universe God.
+<span class="sidenote">Charge of Pantheism.</span>
+But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self
+from each other and from the infinite cause. They
+are not mere modifications of this cause or properties, as with
+Spinoza,&mdash;they are free forces having their power or spring of
+action in themselves, and this is sufficient for our idea of
+independent finite reality. I hold this, and I hold the relation of
+these as effects to the one supreme cause. The God I plead for
+is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the absolute unity of the
+Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of creation or
+plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction. The deity I maintain
+is creative, and necessarily creative. The deity of Spinoza and
+the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense. As
+to the necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating,
+this is the highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity,
+activity without deliberation. His action is not the result of a
+struggle between passion and virtue. He is free in an unlimited
+manner; the purest spontaneity in man is but the shadow of the
+freedom of God. He acts freely but not arbitrarily, and with
+the consciousness of being able to choose the opposite part.
+He cannot deliberate or will as we do. His spontaneous action
+excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will and the
+mechanical operation of necessity.</p>
+
+<p>The elements found in consciousness are also to be found in
+the history of humanity and in the history of philosophy. In
+external nature there are expansion and contraction
+which correspond to spontaneity and reflection. External
+<span class="sidenote">History of philosophy.</span>
+nature again in contrast with humanity expresses
+spontaneity; humanity expresses reflection. In
+human history the East represents the spontaneous stage;
+the Pagan and Christian world represent stages of reflection.</p>
+
+<p>This was afterwards modified, expanded and more fully
+expressed by saying that humanity in its universal development
+has three principal moments. First, in the spontaneous stage,
+where reflection is not yet developed, and art is imperfect,
+humanity has thought only of the immensity around it. It is
+preoccupied by the infinite. Secondly, in the reflective stage,
+mind has become an object to itself. It thus knows itself explicitly
+or reflectively. Its own individuality is now the only
+or at least the supreme thing. This is the moment of the finite.
+Thirdly, there comes an epoch in which the self or me is subordinated.
+Mind realizes another power in the universe. The
+finite and the infinite become two real correlatives in the relation
+of cause and product. This is the third and highest stage of
+development, the relation of the finite and the infinite. As
+philosophy is but the highest expression of humanity, these three
+moments will be represented in its history. The East typifies
+the infinite, Greece the finite or reflective epoch, the modern
+era the stage of relation or correlation of infinite and finite. In
+theology, the dominant philosophical idea of each of these epochs
+results in pantheism, polytheism, theism. In politics we have
+in correspondence also with the idea, monarchy, democracy,
+constitutionalism.</p>
+
+<p>Eclecticism thus means the application of the psychological
+method to the history of philosophy. Confronting the various
+systems co-ordinated as sensualism, idealism, scepticism,
+mysticism, with the facts of consciousness, the
+<span class="sidenote">Eclecticism.</span>
+result was reached &ldquo;that each system expresses an
+order of phenomena and ideas, which is in truth very real, but
+which is not alone in consciousness, and which at the same time
+holds an almost exclusive place in the system; whence it
+follows that each system is not false but incomplete, and that
+in re-uniting all incomplete systems, we should have a complete
+philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness.&rdquo; Philosophy,
+as thus perfected, would not be a mere aggregation of
+systems, as is ignorantly supposed, but an integration of the
+truth in each system after the false or incomplete is discarded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span></p>
+
+<p>Such is the system in outline. The historical position of the
+system lies in its relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Cousin
+was opposed to Kant in asserting that the unconditioned
+in the form of infinite or absolute cause is but
+<span class="sidenote">Relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel.</span>
+a mere unrealizable tentative or effort on the part of
+the mind, something different from a mere negation,
+yet not equivalent to a positive thought. With Cousin the
+absolute as the ground of being is grasped positively by the
+intelligence, and it renders all else intelligible; it is not as with
+Kant a certain hypothetical or regulative need.</p>
+
+<p>With Schelling again Cousin agrees in regarding this supreme
+ground of all as positively apprehended, and as a source of
+development, but he utterly repudiates Schelling&rsquo;s method.
+The intellectual intuition either falls under the eye of consciousness,
+or it does not. If not, how do you know it and its object
+which are identical? If it does, it comes within the sphere of
+psychology; and the objections to it as thus a relative, made
+by Schelling himself, are to be dealt with. Schelling&rsquo;s intellectual
+intuition is the mere negation of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Again the pure being of Hegel is a mere abstraction,&mdash;a
+hypothesis illegitimately assumed, which he has nowhere sought
+to vindicate. The very point to be established is the possibility
+of reaching being per se or pure being; yet in the Hegelian
+system this is the very thing assumed as a starting-point. Besides
+this, of course, objections might be made to the method of
+development, as not only subverting the principle of contradiction,
+but as galvanizing negation into a means of advancing or
+developing the whole body of human knowledge and reality.
+The intellectual intuition of Schelling, as above consciousness,
+the pure being of Hegel, as an empty abstraction, unvindicated,
+illegitimately assumed, and arbitrarily developed, are equally
+useless as bases of metaphysics. This led Cousin, still holding
+by essential knowledge of being, to ground it in an analysis of
+consciousness,&mdash;in psychology.</p>
+
+<p>The absolute or infinite&mdash;the unconditioned ground and source
+of all reality&mdash;is yet apprehended by us as an immediate datum
+or reality; and it is apprehended in consciousness&mdash;under its
+condition, that, to wit, of distinguishing subject and object,
+knower and known. The doctrine of Cousin was criticized by
+Sir W. Hamilton in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> of 1829, and it was
+animadverted upon about the same time by Schelling.
+Hamilton&rsquo;s objections are as follows. The correlation of the
+ideas of infinite and finite does not necessarily imply their
+correality, as Cousin supposes; on the contrary, it is a presumption
+that finite is simply positive and infinite negative of
+the same&mdash;that the finite and infinite are simply contradictory
+relatives. Of these &ldquo;the positive alone is real, the negative is
+only an abstraction of the other, and in the highest generality
+even an abstraction of thought itself.&rdquo; A study of the few
+sentences under this head might have obviated the trifling
+criticism of Hamilton&rsquo;s objection which has been set afloat
+recently, that the denial of a knowledge of the absolute or infinite
+implies a foregone knowledge of it. How can you deny
+the reality of that which you do not know? The answer to this
+is that in the case of contradictory statements&mdash;A and not A&mdash;the
+latter is a mere negation of the former, and posits nothing;
+and the negation of a notion with positive attributes, as the
+finite, does not extend beyond abolishing the given attributes as
+an object of thought. The infinite or non-finite is not necessarily
+known, ere the finite is negated, or in order to negate it; all that
+needs be known is the finite itself; and the contradictory
+negation of it implies no positive. Non-organized may or may
+not correspond to a positive&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> an object or notion with
+qualities contradictory of the organized; but the mere sublation
+of the organized does not posit it, or suppose that it is known
+beforehand, or that anything exists corresponding to it. This is
+one among many flaws in the Hegelian dialectic, and it paralyzes
+the whole of the <i>Logic</i>. Secondly, the conditions of intelligence,
+which Cousin allows, necessarily exclude the possibility of knowledge
+of the absolute&mdash;they are held to be incompatible with its
+unity. Here Schelling and Hamilton argue that Cousin&rsquo;s absolute
+is a mere relative. Thirdly, it is objected that in order to deduce
+the conditioned, Cousin makes his absolute a relative; for he
+makes it an absolute cause, <i>i.e.</i> a cause existing absolutely under
+relation. As such it is necessarily inferior to the sum total of its
+effects, and dependent for reality on these&mdash;in a word, a mere
+potence or becoming. Further, as a theory of creation, it makes
+creation a necessity, and destroys the notion of the divine.
+Cousin made no reply to Hamilton&rsquo;s criticism beyond alleging
+that Hamilton&rsquo;s doctrine necessarily restricted human knowledge
+and certainty to psychology and logic, and destroyed metaphysics
+by introducing nescience and uncertainty into its highest
+sphere&mdash;theodicy.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to render the laws of reason or thought impersonal
+by professing to find them in the sphere of spontaneous apperception,
+and above reflective necessity, can hardly be
+regarded as successful. It may be that we first of all
+<span class="sidenote">Criticism of his philosophy. Impersonality of reason.</span>
+primitively or spontaneously affirm cause, substance,
+time, space, &amp;c., in this way. But these are still in
+each instance given us as realized in a particular form.
+In no single act of affirmation of cause or substance,
+much less in such a primitive act, do we affirm the universality
+of their application. We might thus get particular instances or
+cases of these laws, but we could never get the laws themselves
+in their universality, far less absolute impersonality. And as
+they are not supposed to be mere generalizations from experience,
+no amount of individual instances of the application of any one
+of them by us would give it a true universality. The only sure
+test we have of their universality in our experience is the test
+of their reflective necessity. We thus after all fall back on
+reflection as our ground for their universal application; mere
+spontaneity of apprehension is futile; their universality is
+grounded in their necessity, not their necessity in their universality.
+How far and in what sense this ground of necessity
+renders them personal are of course questions still to be solved.</p>
+
+<p>But if these three correlative facts are immediately given, it
+seems to be thought possible by Cousin to vindicate them in
+reflective consciousness. He seeks to trace the steps which the
+reason has spontaneously and consciously, but irreflectively,
+followed. And here the question arises&mdash;Can we vindicate in a
+reflective or mediate process this spontaneous apprehension of
+reality?</p>
+
+<p>The self is found to be a cause of force, free in its action, on the
+ground that we are obliged to relate the volition of consciousness
+to the self as its cause, and its ultimate cause. It is not clear from
+the analysis whether the self is immediately observed as an acting
+or originating cause, or whether reflection working on the principle
+of causality is compelled to infer its existence and character. If
+self is actually so given, we do not need the principle of causality
+to infer it; if it is not so given, causality could never give us
+either the notion or the fact of self as a cause or force, far less
+as an ultimate one. All that it could do would be to warrant
+a cause of some sort, but not this or that reality as the cause.
+And further, the principle of causality, if fairly carried out, as
+universal and necessary, would not allow us to stop at personality
+or will as the ultimate cause of its effect&mdash;volition. Once
+applied to the facts at all, it would drive us beyond the first
+antecedent or term of antecedents of volition to a still further
+cause or ground&mdash;in fact, land us in an infinite regress of causes.</p>
+
+<p>The same criticism is even more emphatically applicable to
+the influence of a not-self, or world of forces, corresponding to
+our sensations, and the cause of them. Starting from sensation
+as our basis, causality could never give us this, even though it
+be allowed that sensation is impersonal to the extent of being
+independent of our volition. Causality might tell us that a cause
+there is of sensation somewhere and of some sort; but that this
+cause is a force or sum of forces, existing in space, independently
+of us, and corresponding to our sensations, it could never tell us,
+for the simple reason that such a notion is not supposed to exist
+in our consciousness. Causality cannot add to the number of
+our notions,&mdash;cannot add to the number of realities we know.
+All it can do is to necessitate us to think that a cause there is
+of a given change, but <i>what</i> that cause is it cannot of itself inform
+us, or even suggest to us, beyond implying that it must be adequate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
+to the effect. Sensation might arise, for aught we know, so far
+as causality leads us, not from a world of forces at all, but from
+a will like our own, though infinitely more powerful, acting upon
+us, partly furthering and partly thwarting us. And indeed such
+a supposition is, with the principle of causality at work, within
+the limits of probability, as we are already supposed to know
+such a reality&mdash;a will&mdash;in our own consciousness. When Cousin
+thus set himself to vindicate those points by reflection, he gave up
+the obvious advantage of his other position that the realities in
+question are given us in immediate and spontaneous apprehension.
+The same criticism applies equally to the inference of an absolute
+cause from the two limited forces which he names self and not-self.
+Immediate spontaneous apperception may seize this supreme
+reality; but to vindicate it by reflection as an inference on the
+principle of causality is impossible. This is a mere paralogism;
+we can never infer either absolute or infinite from relative or
+finite.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is that Cousin&rsquo;s doctrine of the spontaneous apperception
+of impersonal truth amounts to little more than a presentment
+in philosophical language of the ordinary convictions
+and beliefs of mankind. This is important as a preliminary
+stage, but philosophy properly begins when it attempts to co-ordinate
+or systematize those convictions in harmony, to conciliate
+apparent contradiction and opposition, as between the correlative
+notions of finite and infinite, the apparently conflicting notions
+of personality and infinitude, self and not-self; in a word, to
+reconcile the various sides of consciousness with each other.
+And whether the laws of our reason are the laws of all intelligence
+and being&mdash;whether and how we are to relate our fundamental,
+intellectual and moral conceptions to what is beyond our
+experience, or to an infinite being&mdash;are problems which Cousin
+cannot be regarded as having solved. These are in truth the
+outstanding problems of modern philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Cousin&rsquo;s doctrine of spontaneity in volition can hardly be said
+to be more successful than his impersonality of the reason through
+spontaneous apperception. Sudden, unpremeditated
+volition may be the earliest and the most artistic,
+<span class="sidenote">Volition.</span>
+but it is not the best. Volition is essentially a free choice between
+alternatives, and that is best which is most deliberate, because
+it is most rational. Aristotle touched this point in his distinction
+between <span class="grk" title="boulêsis">&#946;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="proairesis">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#945;&#943;&#961;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>. The sudden and unpremeditated
+wish represented by the former is wholly inferior in
+character to the free choice of the latter, guided and illumined
+by intelligence. In this we can deliberately resolve upon what
+is in our power; in that we are subject to the vain impulse of
+wishing the impossible. Spontaneity is pleasing, sometimes
+beautiful, but it is not in this instance the highest quality of
+the thing to be obtained. That is to be found in a guiding and
+illumining reflective activity.</p>
+
+<p>Eclecticism is not open to the superficial objection of proceeding
+without a system or test in determining the complete
+or incomplete. But it is open to the objection of
+assuming that a particular analysis of consciousness has
+<span class="sidenote">General estimate.</span>
+reached all the possible elements in humanity and in
+history, and all their combinations. It may be asked, Can
+history have that which is not in the individual consciousness?
+In a sense not; but our analysis may not give all that is there,
+and we ought not at once to impose that analysis or any formula
+on history. History is as likely to reveal to us in the first place
+true and original elements, and combinations of elements in
+man, as a study of consciousness. Besides, the tendency of
+applying a formula of this sort to history is to assume that the
+elements are developed in a certain regular or necessary order,
+whereas this may not at all be the case; but we may find at
+any epoch the whole mixed, either crossing or co-operative,
+as in the consciousness of the individual himself. Further, the
+question as to how these elements may possibly have grown up
+in the general consciousness of mankind is assumed to be non-existent
+or impossible.</p>
+
+<p>It was the tendency of the philosophy of Cousin to outline
+things and to fill up the details in an artistic and imaginative
+interest. This is necessarily the case, especially in the application
+to history of all formulas supposed to be derived either from an
+analysis of consciousness, or from an abstraction called pure
+thought. Cousin was observational and generalizing rather than
+analytic and discriminating. His search into principles was not
+profound, and his power of rigorous consecutive development
+was not remarkable. He left no distinctive permanent principle
+of philosophy. But he left very interesting psychological
+analyses, and several new, just, and true expositions of philosophical
+systems, especially that of Locke and the philosophers
+of Scotland. He was at the same time a man of impressive
+power, of rare and wide culture, and of lofty aim,&mdash;far above
+priestly conception and Philistine narrowness. He was familiar
+with the broad lines of nearly every system of philosophy ancient
+and modern. His eclecticism was the proof of a reverential
+sympathy with the struggles of human thought to attain to
+certainty in the highest problems of speculation. It was
+eminently a doctrine of comprehension and of toleration. In
+these respects it formed a marked and valuable contrast to the
+arrogance of absolutism, to the dogmatism of sensationalism,
+and to the doctrine of church authority, preached by the theological
+school of his day. His spirit, while it influenced the youth
+of France, saved them from these influences. As an educational
+reformer, as a man of letters and learning, who trod &ldquo;the large
+and impartial ways of knowledge,&rdquo; and who swayed others to the
+same paths, as a thinker influential alike in the action and the
+reaction to which he led, Cousin stands out conspicuously among
+the memorable Frenchmen of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Sir W. Hamilton (<i>Discussions</i>, p. 541), one of his most resolute
+opponents, described Cousin as &ldquo;A profound and original thinker,
+a lucid and eloquent writer, a scholar equally at home in ancient
+and in modern learning, a philosopher superior to all prejudices
+of age or country, party or profession, and whose lofty eclecticism,
+seeking truth under every form of opinion, traces its unity even
+through the most hostile systems.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;J. Barthélemy St Hilaire, <i>V. Cousin, sa vie et sa
+correspondence</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1895); H. Höffding, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil.</i>
+ii. 311 (Eng. trans., 1900); C. E. Fuchs, <i>Die Philosophie Victor
+Cousins</i> (Berlin, 1847); J. Alaux, <i>La Philos. de M. Cousin</i> (Paris,
+1864); P. Janet, <i>Victor Cousin et son &oelig;uvre</i> (Paris, 1885); Jules
+Simon, <i>V. Cousin</i> (1887); Adolphe Franck, <i>Moralistes et philosophes</i>
+(1872); J. P. Damiron, <i>Souvenirs de vingt ans d&rsquo;enseignement</i> (Paris,
+1859); H. Taine in <i>Les Philosophes</i> (Paris, 1868), pp. 79-202.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V.; X.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Fragmens philosophiques&mdash;préface deuxième.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Du vrai, du beau, et du bien</i> (preface).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUSIN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (Fr. <i>cousin</i>, Ital. <i>cugino</i>, Late Lat. <i>cosinus</i>, perhaps
+a popular and familiar abbreviation of <i>consobrinus</i>, which has the
+same sense in classical Latin), a term of relationship. Children
+of brothers and sisters are to each other first cousins, or cousins-german;
+the children of first cousins are to each other second
+cousins, and so on; the child of a first cousin is to the first cousin
+of his father or mother a first cousin once removed.</p>
+
+<p>The word cousin has also, since the 16th century, been used
+by sovereigns as an honorific style in addressing persons of
+exalted, but not equal sovereign, rank, the term &ldquo;brother&rdquo;
+being reserved as the style used by one sovereign in addressing
+another. Thus, in Great Britain, dukes, marquesses and earls
+are addressed by the sovereign in royal writs, &amp;c., as &ldquo;cousin.&rdquo;
+In France the kings thus addressed princes of the blood royal,
+cardinals and archbishops, dukes and peers, the marshals of
+France, the grand officers of the crown and certain foreign
+princes. In Spain the right to be thus addressed is a privilege of
+the grandees.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUSINS, SAMUEL<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1801-1887), English mezzotint engraver,
+was born at Exeter on the 9th of May 1801. He was preeminently
+the interpreter of Sir Thomas Lawrence, his contemporary.
+During his apprenticeship to S. W. Reynolds he
+engraved many of the best amongst the three hundred and sixty
+little mezzotints illustrating the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds
+which his master issued in his own name. In the finest of his
+numerous transcripts of Lawrence, such as &ldquo;Lady Acland and
+her Sons,&rdquo; &ldquo;Pope Pius VII.&rdquo; and &ldquo;Master Lambton,&rdquo; the
+distinguishing characteristics of the engraver&rsquo;s work, brilliancy
+and force of effect in a high key, corresponded exactly with
+similar qualities in the painter. After the introduction of steel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span>
+for engraving purposes about the year 1823, Cousins and his
+contemporaries were compelled to work on it, because the soft
+copper previously used for mezzotint plates did not yield a
+sufficient number of fine impressions to enable the method to
+compete commercially against line engraving, from which much
+larger editions were obtainable. The painter-like quality which
+distinguished the 18th-century mezzotints on copper was wanting
+in his later works, because the hardness of the steel on which
+they were engraved impaired freedom of execution and richness
+of tone, and so enhanced the labour of scraping that he accelerated
+the work by stipple, etching the details instead of scraping them
+out of the &ldquo;ground&rdquo; in the manner of his predecessors. To
+this &ldquo;mixed style,&rdquo; previously used by Richard Earlom on
+copper, Cousins added heavy roulette and rocking-tool textures,
+tending to fortify the darks, when he found that the &ldquo;burr&rdquo;
+even on steel failed to yield enough fine impressions to meet the
+demand. The effect of his prints in this method after Reynolds
+and Millais was mechanical and out of harmony with the
+picturesque technique of these painters, but the phenomenal
+popularity which Cousins gained for his works at least kept alive
+and in favour a form of mezzotint engraving during a critical
+phase of its history. Abraham Raimbach, the line engraver,
+dated the decline of his own art in England from the appearance
+in 1837 of Cousins&rsquo;s print (in the &ldquo;mixed style&rdquo;) after Landseer&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Bolton Abbey.&rdquo; Such plates as &ldquo;Miss Peel,&rdquo; after Lawrence
+(published in 1833); &ldquo;A Midsummer Night&rsquo;s Dream,&rdquo; after
+Landseer (1857); &ldquo;The Order of Release&rdquo; and &ldquo;The First
+Minuet,&rdquo; after Millais (1856 and 1868); &ldquo;The Strawberry Girl&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Lavinia, Countess Spencer,&rdquo; after Reynolds; and &ldquo;Miss
+Rich,&rdquo; after Hogarth (1873-1877), represent various stages
+of Cousins&rsquo;s mixed method. It reached its final development
+in the plates after Millais&rsquo;s &ldquo;Cherry Ripe&rdquo; and &ldquo;Pomona,&rdquo;
+published in 1881 and 1882, when the invention of coating
+copper-plates with a film of steel to make them yield larger
+editions led to the revival of pure mezzotint on copper, which
+has since rendered obsolete the steel plate and the mixed style
+which it fostered. The fine draughtsmanship of Cousins was as
+apparent in his prints as in his original lead-pencil portraits
+exhibited in London in 1882. In 1885 he was elected a full
+member of the Royal Academy, to which institution he later gave
+in trust £15,000 to provide annuities for superannuated artists
+who had not been so successful as himself. One of the most
+important figures in the history of British engraving, he died in
+London, unmarried, on the 7th of May 1887.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See George Pycroft, M.R.C.S.E., <i>Memoir of Samuel Cousins, R.A.,
+Member of the Legion of Honour</i> (published for private circulation by
+E. E. Leggatt, London, 1899); Algernon Graves, <i>Catalogue of the
+Works of Samuel Cousins, R.A.</i> (published by H. Graves and Co.,
+London, 1888); and Alfred Whitman, <i>Samuel Cousins</i> (published
+by George Bell &amp; Sons, London, 1904), which contains a catalogue,
+good illustrations, and much detail useful to the collector and
+dealer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. P. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUSTOU,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the name of a famous family of French sculptors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Nicolas Coustou</span> (1658-1733) was the son of a wood-carver at
+Lyons, where he was born. At eighteen he removed to Paris,
+to study under C. A. Coysevox, his mother&rsquo;s brother, who
+presided over the recently-established Academy of Painting and
+Sculpture; and at three-and-twenty he gained the Colbert
+prize, which entitled him to four years&rsquo; education at the French
+Academy at Rome. He afterwards became rector and chancellor
+of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. From the year 1700
+he was a most active collaborator with Coysevox at the palaces
+of Marly and Versailles. He was remarkable for his facility;
+and though he was specially influenced by Michelangelo and
+Algardi, his numerous works are among the most typical specimens
+of his age now extant. The most famous are &ldquo;La Seine et
+la Marne,&rdquo; &ldquo;La Saône,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Berger Chasseur&rdquo; in the gardens
+of the Tuileries, the bas-relief &ldquo;Le Passage du Rhin&rdquo; in the
+Louvre, and the &ldquo;Descent from the Cross&rdquo; placed behind the
+choir altar of Notre Dame at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Guillaume Coustou</span> (1677-1746), was
+a sculptor of still greater merit. He also gained the Colbert
+prize; but refusing to submit to the rules of the Academy, he
+soon left it, and for some time wandered houseless through the
+streets of Rome. At length he was befriended by the sculptor
+Legros, under whom he studied for some time. Returning to Paris,
+he was in 1704 admitted into the Academy of Painting and
+Sculpture, of which he afterwards became director; and, like
+his brother, he was employed by Louis XIV. His finest works
+are the famous group of the &ldquo;Horse Tamers,&rdquo; originally at
+Marly, now in the Champs Elysées at Paris, the colossal group
+&ldquo;The Ocean and the Mediterranean&rdquo; at Marly, the bronze
+&ldquo;Rhône&rdquo; which formed part of the statue of Louis XIV. at
+Lyons, and the sculptures at the entrance of the Hôtel des
+Invalides. Of these latter, the bas-relief representing Louis
+XIV. mounted and accompanied by Justice and Prudence was
+destroyed during the Revolution, but was restored in 1815 by
+Pierre Cartellier from Coustou&rsquo;s model; the bronze figures of
+Mars and Minerva, on either side of the doorway, were not
+interfered with.</p>
+
+<p>Another <span class="sc">Guillaume Coustou</span> (1716-1777), the son of Nicolas,
+also studied at Rome, as winner of the Colbert prize. While
+to a great extent a copyist of his predecessors, he was much
+affected by the bad taste of his time, and produced little or
+nothing of permanent value.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Louis Gougenot, <i>Éloge de M. Coustou le jeune</i> (1903); Arsène
+Houssaye, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;art français au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1860); Lady
+Dilke, <i>Gazette des beaux-arts</i>, vol. xxv. (1901) (2 articles).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUTANCES, WALTER OF<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (d. 1207), bishop of Lincoln and
+archbishop of Rouen, commenced his career in the chancery of
+Henry II., was elected bishop of Lincoln in 1182, and in 1184
+obtained, with the king&rsquo;s help, the see of Rouen. Throughout
+his career he was much employed in diplomatic and administrative
+duties. He started with Richard I. for the Third Crusade,
+but was sent back from Messina to investigate the charges which
+the barons and the official class had brought against the chancellor,
+William Longchamp. There was no love lost between
+the two; and they were popularly supposed to be rivals for
+the see of Canterbury. The archbishop of Rouen sided with the
+barons and John, and sanctioned Longchamp&rsquo;s deposition&mdash;a
+step which was technically warranted by the powers which
+Richard had given, but by no means calculated to protect the
+interests of the crown. The Great Council now recognized the
+archbishop as chief justiciar, and he remained at the head of the
+government till 1193, when he was replaced by Hubert Walter.
+The archbishop did good service in the negotiations for Richard&rsquo;s
+release, but subsequently quarrelled with his master and laid
+Normandy under an interdict, because the border stronghold
+of Château Gaillard in the Vexin had been built on his land
+without his consent. After Richard&rsquo;s death the archbishop
+accepted John as the lawful heir of Normandy and consecrated
+him as duke. But his personal inclinations leaned to Arthur
+of Brittany, whom he was with difficulty dissuaded from supporting.
+The archbishop accepted the French conquest of Normandy
+with equanimity (1204), although he kept to his old allegiance
+while the issue of the struggle was in doubt. He did not long
+survive the conquest, and his later history is a blank.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Stubbs&rsquo;s editions of <i>Benedictus Abbas</i>, <i>Hoveden</i> and <i>Diceto</i>
+(Rolls series); R. Howlett&rsquo;s edition of &ldquo;William of Newburgh&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Richard of Devizes&rdquo; in <i>Chronicles, &amp;c., of the Reigns of Stephen,
+Henry II. and Richard I.</i> (Rolls series). See also the preface to the
+third volume of Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Hoveden</i>, pp. lix.-xcviii.; J. H. Round&rsquo;s
+<i>Commune of London</i>, and the French poem on <i>Guillaume le Maréchal</i>
+(ed. P. Meyer, <i>Soc. de l&rsquo;Histoire de France</i>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUTANCES,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement of the department of Manche, 7 m. E. of the
+English Channel and 58 m. S. of Cherbourg on the Western
+railway. Pop. (1906) 6089. Coutances is beautifully situated
+on the right bank of the Soulle on a granitic eminence crowned
+by the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame. The date of this
+church has been much disputed, but while traces of Romanesque
+architecture survive, the building is, in the main, Gothic in
+style and dates from the first half of the 13th century. The
+slender turrets massed round the western towers and the octagonal
+central tower, which forms a lantern within, are conspicuous
+features of the church. In the interior, which comprises the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span>
+nave with aisles, transept and choir with ambulatory and side
+chapels, there are fine rose-windows with stained glass of the
+14th century, and other works of art. Of the other buildings of
+Coutances the church of St Pierre, in which Renaissance architecture
+is mingled with Gothic, and that of St Nicolas, of the
+16th and 17th centuries, demand mention. There is an aqueduct
+of the 14th century to the west of the town. Coutances is a quiet
+town with winding streets and pleasant boulevards bordering
+it on the east; on the western slope of the hill there is a public
+garden. The town is the seat of a bishop, a court of assizes and
+a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
+a lycée for boys, a communal college and a training college for
+girls, and an ecclesiastical seminary. Leather-dressing and
+wool-spinning are carried on and there is trade in live-stock, in
+agricultural produce, especially eggs, and in marble.</p>
+
+<p>Coutances is the ancient <i>Cosedia</i>, which before the Roman
+conquest was one of the chief towns in the country of the Unelli.
+Towards the end of the 3rd century its name was changed to
+<i>Constantia</i>, in honour of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, who
+fortified it. It became the capital of the <i>pagus Constantinus</i>
+(Cotentin), and in the middle ages was the seat of a viscount.
+It has been an episcopal see since the 5th century. In the 17th
+century it was the centre of the revolt of the <i>Nu-pieds</i>, caused
+by the imposition of the salt-tax (<i>gabelle</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A good bibliography of general works and monographs on the
+archaeology and the history of the town and diocese of Coutances
+is given in U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources, &amp;c., Topo-Bibliographie</i>
+(Montbéliard, 1894-1899), s.v.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUTHON, GEORGES<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1755-1794), French revolutionist,
+was born at Orcet, a village in the district of Clermont in
+Auvergne. He studied law, and was admitted advocate at
+Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for his integrity,
+gentle-heartedness and charitable disposition. His health was
+feeble and both legs were paralysed. In 1787 he was a member
+of the provincial assembly of Auvergne. On the outbreak of
+the Revolution Couthon, who was now a member of the municipality
+of Clermont-Ferrand, published his <i>L&rsquo;Aristocrate converti</i>,
+in which he revealed himself as a liberal and a champion of
+constitutional monarchy. He became very popular, was appointed
+president of the tribunal of the town of Clermont in
+1791, and in September of the same year was elected deputy to
+the Legislative Assembly. His views had meanwhile been
+embittered by the attempted flight of Louis XVI., and he
+distinguished himself now by his hostility to the king. A visit
+to Flanders for the sake of his health brought him into close
+intercourse and sympathy with Dumouriez. In September 1792
+Couthon was elected member of the National Convention, and
+at the trial of the king voted for the sentence of death without
+appeal. He hesitated for a time as to which party he should
+join, but finally decided for that of Robespierre, with whom he
+had many opinions in common, especially in matters of religion.
+He was the first to demand the arrest of the proscribed Girondists.
+On the 30th of May 1793 he became a member of the Committee of
+Public Safety, and in August was sent as one of the commissioners
+of the Convention attached to the army before Lyons. Impatient
+at the slow progress made by the besieging force, he decreed
+a <i>levée en masse</i> in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, collected
+an army of 60,000 men, and himself led them to Lyons. When
+the city was taken, on the 9th of October 1793, although the
+Convention ordered its destruction, Couthon did not carry out
+the decree, and showed moderation in the punishment of the
+rebels. The Republican atrocities began only after Couthon
+was replaced, on the 3rd of November 1793, by Collot d&rsquo;Herbois.
+Couthon returned to Paris, and on the 21st of December was
+elected president of the Convention. He contributed to the
+prosecution of the Hébertists, and was responsible for the law
+of the 22nd Prairial, which in the case of trials before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal deprived the accused of the aid of counsel or
+of witnesses or their defence, on the pretext of shortening the
+proceedings. During the crisis preceding the 9th Thermidor,
+Couthon showed considerable courage, giving up a journey to
+Auvergne in order, as he wrote, that he might either die or
+triumph with Robespierre and liberty. Arrested with Robespierre
+and Saint-Just, his colleagues in the triumvirate of the
+Terror, and subjected to indescribable sufferings and insults,
+he was taken to the scaffold on the same cart with Robespierre
+on the 28th of July 1794 (10th Thermidor).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Fr. Mège, <i>Correspondance de Couthon ... suivie de &ldquo;l&rsquo;Aristocrate
+converti,&rdquo; comédie en deux actes de Couthon</i> (Paris, 1872); and
+<i>Nouveaux Documents sur Georges Couthon</i> (Clermont-Ferrand, 1890);
+also F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i>
+(Paris, 1885-1886), ii. 425-443.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUTTS, THOMAS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1735-1822), English banker and founder of
+the banking house of Coutts &amp; Co., was born on the 7th of
+September 1735. He was the fourth son of John Coutts (1699-1751),
+who carried on business in Edinburgh as a corn factor and
+negotiator of bills of exchange, and who in 1742 was elected lord
+provost of the city. The family was originally of Montrose, but
+one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about 1696. Soon
+after the death of John Coutts the business was divided into two
+branches, one carried on in Edinburgh, the other in London.
+The banking business in London was in the hands of James and
+Thomas Coutts, sons of John Coutts. From the death of his
+brother in 1778, Thomas, as surviving partner, became sole head
+of the firm; and under his direction the banking house rose
+to the highest distinction. His ambition was to establish his
+character as a man of business and to make a fortune; and he
+lived to succeed in this aim and long to enjoy his reputation and
+wealth. A gentleman in manners, hospitable and benevolent, he
+counted amongst his friends some of the literary men and the
+best actors of his day. Of the enormous wealth which came into
+his hands he made munificent use. His private life was not
+without its romantic elements. Soon after his settlement in
+London he married Elizabeth Starkey, a young woman of humble
+origin, who was in attendance on the daughter of his brother
+James. They lived happily together, and had three daughters&mdash;Susan,
+married in 1796 to the 3rd earl of Guilford; Frances,
+married in 1800 to John, 1st marquess of Bute; and Sophia,
+married in 1793 to Sir Francis Burdett. Mrs Coutts dying in
+1815, her husband soon after married the popular actress,
+Harriet Mellon; and to her he left the whole of his immense
+fortune. He died in London on the 24th of February 1822.
+His widow married in 1827 the 9th duke of St Albans, and died
+ten years later, having bequeathed her property to Angela,
+youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, who then assumed the
+additional name and arms of Coutts. In 1871 this lady was
+created Baroness Burdett-Coutts (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Rogers, <i>Genealogical Memoirs of the Families of Colt and
+Coutts</i> (1879); and R. Richardson, <i>Coutts &amp; Co.</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUTURE, THOMAS<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1815-1879), French painter, was born
+at Senlis (Oise), and studied under Baron A. J. Gros and Paul
+Delaroche, winning a Prix de Rome in 1837. He began exhibiting
+historical and <i>genre</i> pictures at the Salon in 1840, and obtained
+several medals. His masterpiece was his &ldquo;Romans in the
+Decadence of the Empire&rdquo; (1847), now in the Luxembourg;
+and his &ldquo;Love of Money&rdquo; (1844; at Toulouse), &ldquo;Falconer&rdquo;
+(1855), and &ldquo;Damocles&rdquo; (1872), are also good examples.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COUVADE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (literally a &ldquo;brooding,&rdquo; from Fr. <i>couver</i>, to hatch,
+Lat. <i>cubare</i>, to lie down), a custom so called in Béarn, prevalent
+among several peoples in different parts of the world, requiring
+that the father, at and sometimes before the birth of his child,
+shall retire to bed and fast or abstain from certain kinds of food,
+receiving the attentions generally shown to women at their
+confinements. The existence of the custom in ancient classical
+times is testified to by Apollonius Rhodius, Diodorus (who refers
+to its existence among the Corsicans), and Strabo (who noticed it
+among the Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as by the Gascons,
+it has been said to be still observed, though the most recent
+researches entirely discredit this). Travellers, from the time of
+Marco Polo, who relates its observance in Chinese Turkestan,
+have found the custom to prevail in China, India, Borneo, Siam,
+Africa and the Americas. Even in Europe it cannot be said to
+have entirely disappeared. In certain of the Baltic provinces of
+Russia the husband, on the lying-in of the wife, takes to his bed
+and groans in mock pain. One writer believes he found traces of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
+it in the little island of Marken in the Zuyder Zee. Even in rural
+England, notably in East Anglia, a curiously obstinate belief
+survives (the prevalence of which in earlier times is proved by
+references to it in Elizabethan drama) that the pregnancy of the
+woman affects the man, and the young husband who complains
+of a toothache is assailed by pleasantries as to his wife&rsquo;s condition.
+In Guiana the custom is observed in its most typical form. The
+woman works to within a few hours of the birth, but some days
+before her delivery the father leaves his occupations and abstains
+from certain kinds of animal food lest the child should suffer.
+Thus the flesh of the agouti is forbidden, lest the child should be
+lean, and that of the capibara or water-cavy, for fear he should
+inherit through his father&rsquo;s gluttony that creature&rsquo;s projecting
+teeth. A few hours before delivery the woman goes alone, or
+with one or two women-friends, into the forest, where the baby is
+born. She returns as soon as she can stand, to her work, and the
+man then takes to his hammock and becomes the invalid. He
+must do no work, must touch no weapons, is forbidden all meat
+and food, except at first a fermented liquor and after the twelfth
+day a weak gruel of <i>cassava</i> meal. He must not even smoke, or
+wash himself, but is waited on hand and foot by the women.
+So far is the comedy carried that he whines and groans as if in
+actual pain. Six weeks after the birth of the child he is taken in
+hand by his relatives, who lacerate his skin and rub him with a
+decoction of the pepper-plant. A banquet is then held from
+which the patient is excluded, for he must not leave his bed till
+several days later; and for six months he must eat the flesh
+of neither fish nor bird. Almost identical ceremonies have been
+noticed among the natives of California and New Mexico; while
+in Greenland and Kamchatka the husband may not work for
+some time before and after his wife&rsquo;s confinement. Among the
+Larkas of Bengal a period of isolation and uncleanness, synchronous
+with that compulsory on the woman, is imperative for
+the man, on the conclusion of which the child&rsquo;s parentage is
+publicly proclaimed.</p>
+
+<p>No certain explanation can be offered for the custom. The
+most reasonable view is that adopted by E. B. Tylor, who traces
+in it the transition from the earlier matriarchal to the later
+patriarchal system of tribe-organization. Among primitive
+tribes, and probably in all ages, the former order of society, in
+which descent and inheritance are reckoned through the mother
+alone, as being the earliest form of family life, is and was very
+common, if not universal. The acknowledgment of a relationship
+between father and son is characteristic of the progress of
+society towards a true family life. It may well be that the
+Couvade arose in the father&rsquo;s desire to emphasize the bond of
+blood between himself and his child. It is a fact that in some
+countries the father has to purchase the child from its mother;
+and in the Roman ceremony of the husband raising the baby from
+the floor we may trace the savage idea that the male parent must
+formally proclaim his adoption of and responsibility for the
+offspring. Max Müller, in his <i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>,
+endeavoured to find an explanation in primitive &ldquo;henpecking,&rdquo;
+asserting that the unfortunate husband was tyrannized over by
+&ldquo;his female relatives and afterwards frightened into superstition,&rdquo;&mdash;that,
+in fact, the whole fabric of ceremony is reared on nothing
+but masculine hysteria; but this theory can scarcely be taken
+seriously. The missionary, Joseph François Lafitau, suspected a
+psychological reason, assuming the custom to be a dim recollection
+of original sin, the isolation and fast types of repentance.
+The explanation of the American Indians is that if the father
+engaged in any hard or hazardous work, <i>e.g.</i> hunting, or was
+careless in his diet, the child would suffer and inherit the physical
+faults and peculiarities of the animals eaten. This belief that a
+person becomes possessed of the nature and form of the animal he
+eats is widespread, being as prevalent in the Old World as in the
+New, but it is insufficient to account for the minute ceremonial
+details of La Couvade as practised in many lands. It is far more
+likely that so universal a practice has no trivial beginnings, but is
+to be considered as a mile-stone marking a great transitional
+epoch in human progress.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;E. B. Tylor&rsquo;s <i>Early History of Man</i> (1865; 2nd
+ed. p. 301); F. Max Müller, <i>Chips from a German Workshop</i> (1868-1875),
+ii. 281; Lord Avebury, <i>Origin of Civilisation</i> (1900);
+Brett&rsquo;s <i>Indian Tribes of Guiana</i>; Johann Baptist von Spix and
+Karl F. P. von Martius, <i>Travels in Brazil</i> (1823-1831), ii. 281;
+J. F. Lafitau, <i>M&oelig;urs des sauvages américains</i> (1st ed., 1724); W. Z.
+Ripley, <i>Races of Europe</i> (1900); A. H. Keane&rsquo;s <i>Ethnology</i> (1896),
+p. 368 and footnote; A. Giraud-Teulon, <i>Les Origines du mariage et
+de la famille</i> (Paris, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVE,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a word mostly used in the sense of a small inlet or
+sheltered bay in a coast-line. In English dialect usage it is also
+applied to a cave or to a recess in a mountain-side. The word
+in O. Eng. is <i>cofa</i>, and cognate forms are found in the Ger.
+<i>Koben</i>, Norwegian <i>kove</i>, and in various forms in other Teutonic
+languages. It has no connexion with &ldquo;alcove,&rdquo; recess in a room
+or building, which is derived through the Span. <i>alcoba</i> from Arab.
+<i>al</i>, the, and <i>qubbah</i>, vault, arch, nor with &ldquo;cup&rdquo; or &ldquo;coop,&rdquo;
+nor with &ldquo;cave&rdquo; (Lat. <i>cava</i>). The use of the word was first
+confined to a small chamber or cell or inner recess in a room or
+building. From this has come the particular application in
+architecture to any kind of concave moulding, the term being
+usually applied to the quadrantal curve rising from the cornice
+of a lofty room to the moulded borders of the horizontal ceiling.
+The term &ldquo;coving&rdquo; is given in half-timbered work to the curved
+soffit under a projecting window, or in the 18th century to that
+occasionally found carrying the gutter of a house. In the Musée
+Plantin at Antwerp the hearth of the fireplace of the upper
+floor is carved on coving, which forms part of the design of the
+chimney-piece in the room below. The slang use of &ldquo;cove&rdquo;
+for any male person, like a &ldquo;fellow,&rdquo; &ldquo;chap,&rdquo; &amp;c., is found in
+the form &ldquo;cofe&rdquo; in T. Harman&rsquo;s <i>Caveat for Cursetors</i> (1587)
+and other early quotations. This seems to be identical with the
+Scots word &ldquo;cofe,&rdquo; a pedlar, hawker, which is formed from
+&ldquo;coff,&rdquo; to sell, purchase, cognate with the Ger. <i>kaufen</i>, to
+buy, and the native English &ldquo;cheap.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;cove,&rdquo;
+therefore, is in ultimate origin the same as &ldquo;chap,&rdquo; short for
+&ldquo;chapman,&rdquo; a pedlar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVELLITE,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of cupric sulphide,
+CuS, crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It is of less frequent
+occurrence in nature than copper-glance, the orthorhombic
+cuprous sulphide. Crystals are very rare, the mineral being
+usually found as compact and earthy masses or as a blue coating
+on other copper sulphides. Hardness 1½-2; specific gravity 4.6.
+The dark indigo-blue colour is a characteristic feature, and the
+mineral was early known as indigo-copper (Ger. <i>Kupferindig</i>).
+The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, who in 1839 observed
+crystals of cupric sulphide encrusting Vesuvian lava, the mineral
+having been formed here by the interaction of hydrogen sulphide
+and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic products.
+Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing
+veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of other copper
+sulphides, namely chalcopyrite, copper-glance and erubescite.
+It is found in many copper mines; localities which may be
+specially mentioned are Sangerhausen in Prussian Saxony,
+Butte in Montana, and Chile; in the Medicine Bow Mountains
+of Wyoming a platiniferous covellite is mined, the platinum
+being present as sperrylite (platinum arsenide).</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENANT<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (an O. Fr. form, later <i>convenant</i>, from <i>convenir</i>,
+to agree, Lat. <i>convenire</i>), a mutual agreement of two or more
+parties, or an undertaking made by one of the parties. In the
+Bible the Hebrew word &#1492;&#1497;&#1512;&#1489;, <i>b&#277;r&#299;th</i>, is used widely for many
+kinds of agreements; it is then applied to a contract between
+two persons or to a treaty between two nations, such as the
+covenant made between Abimelech and Isaac, representing a
+treaty between the Israelites and the Philistines (Gen. xxvi.
+26, seq.); more particularly to an engagement made between
+God and men, or such agreements as, by the observance of a
+religious rite, regarded God as a party to the engagement. Two
+suggestions have been made for the derivation of <i>b&#277;r&#299;th</i>: (1)
+tracing the word from a root &ldquo;to cut,&rdquo; and the reference is to
+the primitive rite of cutting victims into parts, between which
+the parties to an agreement passed, cf. the Greek <span class="grk" title="horkia temnein">&#8005;&#961;&#954;&#953;&#945; &#964;&#941;&#956;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>,
+and the account (Gen. xv. 17) of the covenant between God and
+Abraham, where &ldquo;a smoking furnace and burning lamp passed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
+between the pieces&rdquo; of the victims Abraham had sacrificed;
+(2) connecting it with an Assyrio-Babylonian <i>biritu</i>, fetter,
+alliance. <i>B&#277;r&#299;th</i> was translated in the Septuagint by <span class="grk" title="diathêkê">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span>,
+which in classical Greek had the meaning of &ldquo;will&rdquo;; hence
+the Vulgate, in the Psalms and the New Testament, translates
+the word by <i>testamentum</i>, but elsewhere in the Old Testament
+by <i>foedus</i> or <i>pactum</i>; similarly Wycliffe&rsquo;s version gives &ldquo;testament&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;covenant&rdquo; respectively. The books of Scripture
+dealing with the old or Mosaic, and new or Christian dispensation
+are sometimes known as the Books of the Old and the New
+Covenant. The word appears in the system of theology developed
+by Johannes Cocceius (<i>q.v.</i>), and known as the &ldquo;Covenant&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Federal&rdquo; Theology, based on the two Covenants of Works
+or Life made by God with Adam, on condition of obedience,
+and of grace or redemption, made with Christ. In Scottish
+ecclesiastical history, covenant appears in the two agreements
+signed by the members of the Scottish Church in defence of
+their religious and ecclesiastical systems (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Covenanters</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENANT,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> in law, is the English equivalent of the Lat.
+<i>conventio</i>, which, although not technical, was the most general
+word in Roman law for &ldquo;agreement.&rdquo; It was frequently used
+along with <i>pactum</i>, also a general term, but applied especially
+to agreements to settle a question without carrying it before the
+courts of law.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;covenant&rdquo; has been used in a variety of senses
+in English law.</p>
+
+<p>1. In its strict sense, covenant means an agreement <i>under
+seal</i>, that something has or has not already been done, or shall
+or shall not be done hereafter (Shep. <i>Touchstone</i>, 160, 162). It
+is most commonly used with reference to sales or leases of land,
+but is sometimes applied to any promise or stipulation, whether
+under seal or not. The person who makes, and is bound to
+perform, the promise or stipulation is the covenantor: the
+person in whose favour it is made is the covenantee.</p>
+
+<p>2. Covenants have been subdivided into numerous classes,
+only a few of which need to be described. It is unnecessary
+to do more than mention affirmative and negative covenants,
+joint or several, alternative or disjunctive covenants, dependent
+or independent covenants. As to collateral covenants, covenants
+&ldquo;running with the land,&rdquo; and covenants in leases (including
+&ldquo;usual,&rdquo; &ldquo;proper&rdquo; and &ldquo;restrictive&rdquo; covenants), see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord
+and Tenant</a></span>. But there are other classes as to which
+something must be said.</p>
+
+<p>A covenant is said to be <i>express</i> when it is created by the
+express words of the parties to the deed declaratory of their
+intention. It is not indispensable that the word &ldquo;covenant&rdquo;
+should be used. Any word which clearly indicates the intention
+of the parties to covenant will suffice. An <i>implied</i> covenant,
+or <i>covenant in law</i>, &ldquo;depends for its existence on the intendment
+and construction of law. There are some words which of themselves
+do not import an express covenant, yet, being made use of
+in certain contracts, have a similar operation and are called
+covenants in law; and they are as effectually binding on the
+parties as if expressed in the most unequivocal terms&rdquo; (Platt on
+<i>Covenants</i>, p. 40). Thus, the word &ldquo;demise,&rdquo; used in a lease
+of deed, raises the implication of a covenant both for &ldquo;quiet
+enjoyment&rdquo; and for title to let; and it has been judicially
+suggested that a covenant for quiet enjoyment may be implied
+from any word or words of like import (<i>Budd-Scott</i> v. <i>Daniell</i>,
+1902, 2 K.B. p. 359). The Conveyancing Act 1881 provides
+(§ 7) that in a conveyance for valuable consideration, other
+than a mortgage, there shall be implied, as against the person
+who conveys and is expressed to convey as &ldquo;beneficial owner,&rdquo;
+certain <i>qualified</i> covenants&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> covenants extending only to
+the acts or omissions of the vendor, persons through whom he
+derives title otherwise than by purchase for value, and persons
+claiming under them&mdash;for &ldquo;right to convey,&rdquo; &ldquo;quiet enjoyment,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;freedom from incumbrances&rdquo; and &ldquo;further assurance.&rdquo; Of
+these statutory covenants for title the only one which requires
+explanation is the covenant for further assurance. It imports
+an agreement on the part of the covenantor to do such reasonable
+acts, in addition to those already performed, as may be necessary
+for the completion of the transfer made (or intended to be made)
+at the requirements of the covenantee (Platt on <i>Covenants</i>, p. 341).
+All these statutory implied covenants &ldquo;run with the land&rdquo;
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>). Where a mortgagor conveys,
+and is expressed to convey, as &ldquo;beneficial owner,&rdquo; there are
+implied <i>absolute</i> covenants&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> covenants amounting to a
+warranty against and for the acts and omissions of the whole
+world&mdash;that he has a right to convey, that the mortgagee shall
+have quiet enjoyment of the property after default, free from
+incumbrances and for further assurance. Special provisions as
+to implied covenants by the lessor in leases are made in England
+by § 7 (B) of the Conveyancing Act 1881 and in Ireland by the
+Land Act (Ireland) 1860, § 41. The distinction between <i>real</i>
+and <i>personal</i> covenants is that the former do, while the latter
+do not, run with the land. An <i>inherent</i> covenant is another
+name for a <i>real</i> covenant (Shep. <i>Touchstone</i>, 176; Platt, 60).
+When a covenant relates to an act already done, it is usually
+termed a covenant <i>executed</i>; where the performance is future,
+the covenant is termed <i>executory</i>. The <i>covenant for seisin</i> was
+an assurance to the grantee that the grantor had the estate
+which he purported to convey. In England it is now included
+in the covenant for right to convey; but is still in separate use
+in several states in America. The <i>covenant to stand seised to
+uses</i> was an assurance by means of which, under the Statute of
+Uses [1536] (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Uses</a></span>), a conveyance of an estate might be
+effected. When such a covenant is made, the legal estate in the
+land passes at once to the covenantee under the statute. The
+consideration for the covenant must be relationship by blood or
+marriage. It is still occasionally though very rarely employed.
+The <i>covenant not</i> to <i>sue</i> belongs to the law of contract and needs
+no <span class="correction" title="amended from explantion">explanation</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Most of the classes of covenants above mentioned are in use in
+the United States. In New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon,
+Wisconsin and Wyoming the implication of covenants for title has
+been, with certain exceptions, prohibited by statute. In Alabama,
+Arkansas, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana,
+Nevada, New Mexico, Pennsylvania and Texas the words <i>grant</i>, <i>bargain</i>
+and <i>sell</i>, in conveyances in fee, unless specially restricted, amount
+to qualified covenants that the grantor was seised in fee, free from
+incumbrances, and for quiet enjoyment (4 Kent, <i>Commentaries</i>, § 473;
+Bouvier, <i>Law Dictionary</i>, s.v. Covenant). In some of the states
+a <i>covenant of non-claim</i>, or of <i>warranty</i>, an assurance by the grantor
+that neither he nor his heirs, nor any other person shall claim any
+title in the premises conveyed, is in general use.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. An <i>action of covenant</i> lay for breaking covenant. As to the
+history of this action see Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of
+English Law</i>, ii. 106; and Holmes, <i>The Common Law</i>, p. 272.
+There was also a <i>writ of covenant</i>. But this remedy had fallen
+into disuse before 1830 (see Platt on <i>Covenants</i>, p. 543), and was
+abolished by the Common Law Procedure Acts. Since the
+Judicature Acts, an action on a covenant follows the same
+course as, and is indistinguishable from, any ordinary action
+for breach of contract. The remedy is by damages, decree of
+specific performance or injunction to prevent the breach.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The term &ldquo;covenant&rdquo; is unknown to Scots law. But its place is
+filled to some extent by the doctrine of &ldquo;warrandice.&rdquo; Many of the
+British colonies have legislated, as to the implication of covenants
+for title, on the lines of the English Conveyancing Act 1881; <i>e.g.</i>
+Tasmania, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act 1884 (47 Vict.
+No. 10).</p>
+
+<p>As to covenants in restraint of trade see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Restraint</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;In addition to the authorities cited in the text
+see: <i>English Law</i>; Goodeve, <i>Law of Real Property</i> (5th ed.,
+London, 1906); C. Foa, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, 1901);
+Hamilton, <i>Law of Covenants</i> (London); Fawcett, <i>Law of Landlord
+and Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, 1905). <i>American Law: Rawle, Law
+of Covenants for Title</i> (Boston, 1887); <i>Encyclopaedia of American
+Law</i> (3rd ed., 1890), vol. viii., tit. &ldquo;Covenants.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENANTERS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the name given to a party which, originating
+in the Reformation movement, played an important part in the
+history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England,
+during the 17th century. The Covenanters were thus named
+because in a series of <i>bands</i> or <i>covenants</i> they bound themselves
+to maintain the Presbyterian doctrine and polity as the sole
+religion of their country. The first &ldquo;godly band&rdquo; is dated
+December 1557; but more important is the covenant of 1581,
+drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
+which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold
+upon Scotland, and called the King&rsquo;s Confession or National
+Covenant. Based upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this
+document denounced the pope and the doctrines of the Roman
+Catholic Church in no measured terms. It was adopted by the
+General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his household,
+and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was again
+subscribed in 1590 and 1596. In 1637 Scotland was in a state of
+turmoil. Charles I. and Archbishop Laud had just met with a
+reverse in their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the
+Scots; and fearing further measures on the part of the king,
+it occurred to Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston, to revive
+the National Covenant of 1581. Additional matter intended
+to suit the document to the special circumstances of the time
+was added, and the covenant was adopted and signed by a large
+gathering in Greyfriars&rsquo; churchyard, Edinburgh, on the 28th
+of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the
+country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by
+oath to maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580,
+and to reject all innovations introduced since that time, while
+professed expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The
+General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters,
+and in 1640 the covenant was adopted by the parliament, and
+its subscription was required from all citizens. Before this date
+the Covenanters were usually referred to as <i>Supplicants</i>, but from
+about this time the former designation began to prevail.</p>
+
+<p>A further development took place in 1643. The leaders of
+the English parliament, worsted in the Civil War, implored the
+aid of the Scots, which was promised on condition that the
+Scottish system of church government was adopted in England.
+After some haggling a document called the Solemn League and
+Covenant was drawn up. This was practically a treaty between
+England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed
+religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and
+Ireland &ldquo;according to the word of God and the example of the
+best reformed churches,&rdquo; and the extirpation of popery and
+prelacy. It was subscribed by many in both kingdoms and also
+in Ireland, and was approved by the English parliament, and
+with some slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of
+Divines. Charles I. refused to accept it when he surrendered
+himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important concessions
+in this direction in the &ldquo;Engagement&rdquo; made with the Scots in
+December 1647. Charles II. before landing in Scotland in June
+1650 declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants,
+and this was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone
+in the following January.</p>
+
+<p>From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters were the dominant party
+in Scotland, directing her policy both at home and abroad.
+Their power, however, which had been seriously weakened by
+Cromwell&rsquo;s victory at Dunbar in September 1651, was practically
+destroyed when Charles II. was restored nine years later. Firmly
+seated upon the throne Charles renounced the covenants, which
+in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be abjured
+by all persons holding public offices. Episcopacy was restored,
+the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who
+refused to recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled
+from their livings. Gathering around them many of the
+Covenanters who clung tenaciously to their standards of faith,
+these ministers began to preach in the fields, and a period of
+persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality
+began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the
+Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle
+soon assumed the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the
+crown under John Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent
+against them, and although the insurgents gained isolated
+successes, in general they were worsted and were treated with
+great barbarity. They maintained, however, their cherished
+covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in
+1680 the more extreme members of the party signed a document
+known as the &ldquo;Sanquhar Declaration,&rdquo; and were afterwards
+called Cameronians from the name of their leader, Richard
+Cameron (<i>q.v.</i>). They renounced their allegiance to King James
+and were greatly disappointed when their standards found no
+place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing to hold the
+belief that the covenants should be made obligatory upon the
+entire nation. The Covenanters had a martyrology of their own,
+and the halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and
+their sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the
+time of their political predominance, is part of the general history
+of Scotland (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The texts of the National Covenant and the Solemn League and
+Covenant are printed in S. R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional Documents
+of the Puritan Revolution</i> (Oxford, 1899). See also J. H. Burton,
+<i>History of Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1905); A. Lang, <i>History of Scotland</i>
+(Edinburgh, 1900); S. R. Gardiner, <i>History of England</i> (London,
+1883-1884); G. Grub, <i>Ecclesiastical History of Scotland</i> (Edinburgh,
+1861); J. Macpherson, <i>History of the Church in Scotland</i> (Paisley,
+1901); and J. K. Hewison, <i>The Covenanters</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENT GARDEN,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> formerly an open space north of the
+Strand, London, England, now occupied by the principal flower,
+fruit and vegetable market in the metropolis. This was originally
+the so-called &ldquo;convent garden&rdquo; belonging to the abbey of St
+Peter, Westminster. In the first half of the 17th century the
+site of the garden was laid out as a square by Inigo Jones, with a
+piazza on two sides; and as early as 1656 it was becoming a
+market place for the same commodities as are now sold in it.
+Covent Garden Theatre (1858) is the chief seat of grand opera
+in London. The site has carried a theatre since 1733, but earlier
+buildings were burnt in 1809 and 1856.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY, SIR JOHN<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (d. 1682), son of John Coventry, the
+second son of Thomas, Lord Keeper Coventry, was returned to
+the Long Parliament in 1640 as member for Evesham. During
+the Civil War he served for the king, and at the Restoration was
+created a knight. In 1667, and in the following parliaments of
+1678, 1679 and 1681, he was elected for Weymouth, and opposed
+the government. On the 21st of December 1670, owing to a jest
+made by Coventry in the House of Commons on the subject of
+the king&rsquo;s amours, Sir Thomas Sandys, an officer of the guards,
+with other accomplices, by the order of Monmouth, and (it was
+said) with the approval of the king himself, waylaid him as he
+was returning home to Suffolk Street and slit his nose to the bone.
+The outrage created an extraordinary sensation, and in consequence
+a measure known as the &ldquo;Coventry Act&rdquo; was passed,
+declaring assaults accompanied by personal mutilation a felony
+without benefit of clergy. Sir John died in 1682. Sir William
+Coventry, his uncle, speaks slightingly of him, ridicules his
+vanity and wishes him out of the House of Commons to be &ldquo;out
+of harm&rsquo;s way.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1578-1640),
+lord keeper of England, eldest son of Sir Thomas Coventry,
+judge of the common pleas (a descendant of John Coventry,
+lord mayor of London in the reign of Henry VI.), and of Margaret
+Jeffreys of Earls Croome, or Croome D&rsquo;Abitot, in Worcestershire,
+was born in 1578. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1592,
+and the Inner Temple in 1594, becoming bencher of the society
+in 1614, reader in 1616, and holding the office of treasurer from
+1617 till 1621. His exceptional legal abilities were rewarded
+early with official promotion. On the 16th of November 1616 he
+was made recorder of London in spite of Bacon&rsquo;s opposition, who,
+although allowing him to be &ldquo;a well trained and an honest man,&rdquo;
+objected that he was &ldquo;bred by my Lord Coke and seasoned in
+his ways.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the 14th of March 1617 he was appointed
+solicitor-general and was knighted; was returned for Droitwich
+to the parliament of 1621; and on the 11th of January in that
+year was made attorney-general. He took part in the proceedings
+against Bacon for corruption, and was manager for the Commons
+in the impeachment of Edward Floyd for insulting the elector
+and electress palatine.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of November 1625 he was made lord keeper of the
+great seal; in this capacity he delivered the king&rsquo;s reprimand to
+the Commons on the 29th of March 1626, when he declared that
+&ldquo;liberty of counsel&rdquo; alone belonged to them and not &ldquo;liberty of
+control.&rdquo; On the 10th of April 1628 he received the title of
+Baron Coventry of Aylesborough in Worcestershire. At the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span>
+opening of parliament in 1628 he threatened that the king
+would use his prerogative if further thwarted in the matter of
+supplies. In the subsequent debates, however, while strongly
+supporting the king&rsquo;s prerogative against the claims of the
+parliament to executive power, he favoured a policy of moderation
+and compromise. He defended the right of the council to
+commit to prison without showing cause, and to issue &ldquo;general&rdquo;
+warrants; though he allowed it should only be employed in
+special circumstances, disapproved of the king&rsquo;s sudden dissolution
+of parliament, and agreed to the liberation on bail of the
+seven imprisoned members on condition of their giving security
+for their good behaviour. He showed less subservience than
+Bacon to Buckingham, and his resistance to the latter&rsquo;s pretensions
+to the office of lord high constable greatly incensed the duke.
+Buckingham taunted Coventry with having gained his place by
+his favour; to which the lord keeper replied, &ldquo;Did I conceive I
+had my place by your favour, I would presently unmake myself
+by returning the seal to his Majesty.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_2f" id="FnAnchor_2f" href="#Footnote_2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> After this defiance
+Buckingham&rsquo;s sudden death alone probably prevented Coventry&rsquo;s
+displacement. He passed sentence of death on Lord Audley in
+1631, drafted and enforced the proclamation of the 20th of June
+1632 ordering the country gentlemen to leave London, and in
+1634 joined in Laud&rsquo;s attack on the earl of Portland for peculation.
+The same year, in an address to the judges, he supported
+the proposed levy of ship-money on the inland as well as the
+maritime counties on the plea of the necessity of effectually
+arming, &ldquo;so that they might not be enforced to fight,&rdquo; &ldquo;the
+wooden walls&rdquo; being in his opinion &ldquo;the best walls of this
+kingdom.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_3f" id="FnAnchor_3f" href="#Footnote_3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In the Star Chamber Coventry was one of Lilburne&rsquo;s
+judges in 1637, but he generally showed conspicuous moderation,
+inclining to leniency in the cases of Richard Chambers in 1629 for
+seditious speeches, and of Henry Sherfield in 1632 for breaking
+painted glass in a church. He prevented also the hanging of men
+for resistance to impressment, and pointed out its illegality, since
+the men were not subject to martial law. While contributing
+thirty horse to the Scottish expedition in 1638, and lending the
+king £10,000 in 1639, he gave no support to the forced loan
+levied upon the city in the latter year. He died on the 14th of
+January 1640.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Coventry held the great seal for nearly fifteen years, and
+was enabled to collect a large fortune. He was an able judge, and
+he issued some important orders in chancery, probably alluded to
+by Wood, who ascribes to him a tract on &ldquo;The Fees of all law
+Officers.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_4f" id="FnAnchor_4f" href="#Footnote_4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Whitelocke accuses him of mediocrity,<a name="FnAnchor_5f" id="FnAnchor_5f" href="#Footnote_5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> but his
+contemporaries in general have united in extolling his judicial
+ability, his quick despatch of business and his sound and sterling
+character. Clarendon in particular praises his statesmanship,
+and compares his capacity with Lord Strafford&rsquo;s, adding,
+however, that he seldom spoke in the council except on legal
+business and had little influence in political affairs; to the latter
+circumstance he owed his exceptional popularity. He describes
+him as having &ldquo;in the plain way of speaking and delivery a
+strange power of making himself believed,&rdquo; as a man of &ldquo;not
+only firm gravity but a severity and even some morosity,&rdquo; as
+&ldquo;rather exceedingly liked than passionately loved.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lord Coventry married (1) Sarah, daughter of Sir Edward
+Sebright of Besford in Worcestershire, by whom besides a
+daughter he had one son, Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd
+baron, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of John Aldersley of Spurstow,
+Cheshire, and widow of William Pitchford, by whom he had four
+sons, John, Francis, Henry and Sir William Coventry, the
+statesman.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Coventry, 5th baron (d. 1699), was created an earl in
+1697 with a special limitation, on failure of his own male issue,
+to that of Walter, youngest brother of the lord keeper, from
+whom the present earl of Coventry is descended.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Spedding&rsquo;s <i>Bacon</i>. vi. 97.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2f" id="Footnote_2f" href="#FnAnchor_2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hacket&rsquo;s <i>Life of Bishop Williams</i>, ii. 19.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3f" id="Footnote_3f" href="#FnAnchor_3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Rushworth (1680), part ii. vol. i. 294.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4f" id="Footnote_4f" href="#FnAnchor_4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> ii. 650.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5f" id="Footnote_5f" href="#FnAnchor_5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> There is an adverse opinion also expressed in Pepys&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>,
+August 26, 1666, probably based on little real knowledge.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (c. 1628-1686), English statesman,
+son of the lord keeper, Thomas, Lord Coventry, by his second
+wife Elizabeth Aldersley, was born about 1628. He matriculated
+at Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford, at the age of fourteen. Owing to the
+outbreak of the Civil War he was obliged to quit his studies, but
+according to Sir John Bramston &ldquo;he had a good tutor who made
+him a scholar, and he travelled and got the French language in
+good perfection.&rdquo; &ldquo;He was young whilst the war continued,&rdquo;
+wrote Clarendon, &ldquo;yet he had put himself before the end of it
+into the army and had the command of a foot company and
+shortly after travelled into France.&rdquo; Here he remained till all
+hopes of obtaining foreign assistance and of raising a new army
+had to be laid aside, when he returned to England and kept
+aloof from the various royalist intrigues. When, however, a new
+prospect of a restoration appeared in 1660, Coventry hastened to
+Breda, was appointed secretary to James, duke of York, lord
+high admiral of England, and headed the royal procession when
+Charles entered London in triumph.</p>
+
+<p>He was returned to the Restoration parliament of 1661 for
+Great Yarmouth, became commissioner for the navy in May 1662
+and in 1663 was made D.C.L. at Oxford. His great talents were
+very soon recognized in parliament, and his influence as an
+official was considerable. His appointment was rather that of
+secretary to the admiralty than of personal assistant to the duke
+of York,<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and was one of large gains. Wood states that he
+collected a fortune of £60,000. Accusations of corruption in his
+naval administration, and especially during the Dutch war, were
+brought against him, but there is nothing to show that he ever
+transgressed the limits sanctioned by usage and custom in
+obtaining his emoluments. Pepys in his diary invariably testifies
+to the excellence of his administration and to his zeal for reform
+and economy. His ability and energy, however, did little to
+avert the naval collapse, owing chiefly to financial mismanagement
+and to the ill-advised appointments to command. Coventry
+denied all responsibility for the Dutch War in 1665, which
+Clarendon sought to place upon his shoulders, and his repudiation
+is supported by Pepys; it was, moreover, contrary to his well-known
+political opinion. The war greatly increased his influence,
+and shortly after the victory off Lowestoft, on the 3rd of June
+1665, he was knighted and made a privy councillor (26th of June)
+and was subsequently admitted to the committee on foreign
+affairs. In 1667 he was appointed to the board of treasury to
+effect financial reforms. &ldquo;I perceive,&rdquo; writes Pepys on the 23rd
+of August 1667, &ldquo;Sir William Coventry is the man and nothing
+done till he comes,&rdquo; and on his removal in 1669 the duke of
+Albemarle, no friendly or partial critic, declares that &ldquo;nothing
+now would be well done.&rdquo; His appointment, however, came too
+late to ward off the naval disaster at Chatham the same year and
+the national bankruptcy in 1672.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Coventry&rsquo;s rising influence had been from the first
+the cause of increasing jealousy to the old chancellor Clarendon,
+who especially disliked and discouraged the younger generation.
+Coventry resented this repression and thought ill of the conduct
+of the administration. He became the chief mover in the successful
+attack made upon Clarendon, but refused to take any part in
+his impeachment. Two days after Clarendon&rsquo;s resignation (on
+the 31st of August), Coventry announced his intention of leaving
+the duke&rsquo;s service and of terminating his connexion with the
+navy.<a name="FnAnchor_2g" id="FnAnchor_2g" href="#Footnote_2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> As the principal agent in effecting Clarendon&rsquo;s fall he
+naturally acquired new power and influence, and the general
+opinion pointed to him as his successor as first minister of the
+crown. Personal merit, patriotism and conspicuous ability,
+however, were poor passports to place and power in Charles II.&rsquo;s
+reign. Coventry retained merely his appointment at the
+treasury, and the brilliant but unscrupulous and incapable duke
+of Buckingham, a favourite of the king, succeeded to Lord
+Clarendon. The relations between the two men soon became
+unfriendly. Buckingham ridiculed Sir William&rsquo;s steady attention
+to business, and was annoyed at his opposition to Clarendon&rsquo;s
+impeachment. Coventry rapidly lost influence, was excluded
+from the cabinet council, and six months after Clarendon&rsquo;s fall
+complains he has scarcely a friend at court. Finally, in March
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span>
+1669, Buckingham having written a play in which Sir William
+was ridiculed, the latter sent him a challenge. Notice of the
+challenge reached the authorities through the duke&rsquo;s second,
+and Sir William was imprisoned in the Tower on the 3rd of March
+and subsequently expelled from the privy council. He was
+superseded in the treasury on the 11th of March by Buckingham&rsquo;s
+favourite, Sir Thomas Osborne, afterwards earl of Danby and
+duke of Leeds, and was at last released from the Tower on the
+21st in disgrace. The real cause of his dismissal was clearly the
+final adoption by Charles of the policy of subservience to France
+and desertion of Holland and Protestant interests. Six weeks
+before Coventry&rsquo;s fall, the conference between Charles, James,
+Arlington, Clifford and Arundel had taken place, which resulted
+a year and a half later in the disgraceful treaty of Dover. To
+such schemes Sir William, with his steady hostility to France
+and active devotion to Protestantism, was doubtless a formidable
+opponent. He now withdrew definitely from official life, still
+retaining, however, his ascendancy in the House of Commons, and
+leading the party which condemned and criticized the reactionary
+and fatal policy of the government, his credit and reputation
+being rather enhanced than diminished by his dismissal.<a name="FnAnchor_3g" id="FnAnchor_3g" href="#Footnote_3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1673 was published a pamphlet which went through five
+editions the same year, entitled <i>England&rsquo;s appeal from the
+Private Cabal at Whitehall to the Great Council of the Nation ...
+by a true Lover of his Country</i>, an anonymous work universally
+ascribed to Sir William, which forcibly reflects his opinions on
+the French entanglement. In the great matter of the Indulgence,
+while refusing to discuss the limits of prerogative and liberty, he
+argued that the dispensing power of the crown could not be valid
+during the session of parliament, and criticized the manner of
+the declaration while approving its ostensible object. He supported
+the Test Act, but maintained a statesmanlike moderation
+amidst the tide of indignation rising against the government, and
+refused to take part in the personal attacks upon ministers,
+drawing upon himself the same unpopularity as his nephew
+Halifax incurred later. In the same year he warmly denounced
+the alliance with France. During the summer of 1674 he was
+again received at court. In 1675 he supported the bill to exclude
+Roman Catholics from both Houses, and also the measure
+to close the House of Commons to placemen; and he showed
+great activity in his opposition to the French connexion, especially
+stigmatizing the encouragement given by the government to
+the levying of troops for the French service. In May 1677 he
+voted for the Dutch alliance. Like most of his contemporaries
+he accepted the story of the popish plot in 1678. Coventry
+several times refused the highest court appointments, and he was
+not included in Sir W. Temple&rsquo;s new-modelled council in April
+1679. In the exclusion question he favoured at first a policy of
+limitations, and on his nephew Halifax, who on his retirement
+became the leader of the moderate party, he enjoined prudence
+and patience, and greatly regretted the violence of the opposition
+which eventually excited a reaction and ruined everything. He
+refused to stand for the new parliament, and retired to his country
+residence at Minster Lovell near Witney, in Oxfordshire. He
+died unmarried on the 23rd of June 1686, at Somerhill near
+Tunbridge Wells, where he had gone to take the waters, and
+was buried at Penshurst, where a monument was erected to his
+memory. In his will he ordered his funeral to be at small expense,
+and left £2000 to the French Protestant refugees in England,
+besides £3000 for the liberation of captives in Algiers. He had
+shortly before his death already paid for the liberation of sixty
+slaves. He was much beloved and respected in his family circle,
+his nephew, Henry Savile, alluding to him in affectionate terms
+as &ldquo;our dearest uncle&rdquo; and &ldquo;incomparable friend.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Though Sir William Coventry never filled that place in the
+national administration to which his merit and exceptional
+ability clearly entitled him, his public life together with his
+correspondence are sufficient to distinguish him from amongst
+his contemporaries as a statesman of the first rank. Lord
+Halifax obviously derived from his honoured mentor those
+principles of government which, by means of his own brilliant
+intellectual gifts, originality and imaginative insight, gained
+further force and influence. Halifax owed to him his interest
+in the navy and his grasp of the necessity to a country of a
+powerful maritime force. He drew his antagonism to France,
+his religious tolerance, wide religious views but firm Protestantism
+doubtless from the same source. Sir William was the original
+&ldquo;Trimmer.&rdquo; Writing to his nephew Viscount Weymouth,
+while denying the authorship of <i>The Character of a Trimmer</i>,
+he says:&mdash;&ldquo;I have not been ashamed to own myself to be a
+trimmer ... one who would sit upright and not overturn the
+boat by swaying too much to either side.&rdquo; He shared the
+Trimmer&rsquo;s dislike of party, urging Halifax in the exclusion
+contest &ldquo;not to be thrust by the opposition of his enemies into
+another party, but that he keep upon a national bottom which
+at length will prevail.&rdquo; His prudence is expressed in his
+&ldquo;perpetual unwillingness to do things which I cannot undo.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;A singular independence of spirit, a breadth of mind which
+refused to be contracted by party formulas, a sanity which was
+proof against the contagion of national delirium, were equally
+characteristic of uncle and nephew.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_4g" id="FnAnchor_4g" href="#Footnote_4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Sir William Coventry&rsquo;s
+conceptions of statesmanship, under the guiding hand of his
+nephew, largely inspired the future revolution settlement, and
+continued to be an essential condition of English political
+growth and progress.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the tract already mentioned Coventry was the author
+of <i>A Letter to Dr Burnet giving an Account of Cardinal Pool&rsquo;s
+Secret Powers ...</i> (1685). <i>The Character of a Trimmer</i>, often
+ascribed to him, is now known to have been written by Lord
+Halifax. &ldquo;Notes concerning the Poor,&rdquo; and an essay &ldquo;concerning
+the decay of rents and the remedy,&rdquo; are among the Malet
+Papers (<i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> Ser. 5th Rep. app. 320 (a)) and
+<i>Add. MSS.</i> Brit. Mus. (cal. 1882-1887); an &ldquo;Essay concerning
+France&rdquo; (4th Rep. app. 229 (b)) and a &ldquo;Discourse on the Management
+of the Navy&rdquo; (230b) are among the MSS. of the marquess
+of Bath, also a catalogue of his library (233(a)).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;No adequate life of Sir William Coventry has
+been written; the most satisfactory appreciation of his character
+and abilities is to be found in the several passages relating to him
+in the <i>Life of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax</i>, by Miss A. C. Foxcroft
+(1898); see also <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 3 and 4 Rep. (Longleat
+Collection), 5 Rep. (<i>Malet Collection</i> and see Index) now in the Brit.
+Mus. add. Cal. (1882-1887), Some of his papers being also at Devonshire
+House; <i>MSS. of Marquis of Ormond</i>, iii. of <i>J. M. Heathcote
+and Miscellaneous Collections</i>; Clarendon&rsquo;s <i>Life and Continuation</i>
+(Oxford, 1857); <i>Calendar of Clarendon Papers; Burnet&rsquo;s Hist, of
+His Own Times</i> (Oxford, 1823); <i>Hallam&rsquo;s Constitutional Hist</i>. (1854),
+chap. xi.; John Evelyn&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i>; Pepys&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i> and <i>Pepysiana</i>
+(ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1903); <i>Calendar of State Papers, Domestic;
+Savile Correspondence</i> (Camden Society, 1858, vol. lxxi.); A. Grey&rsquo;s
+<i>Debates</i>; Sir John Bramston&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography</i> (Camden Soc., 1845);
+Wood&rsquo;s <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, iv. 190; <i>Saturday Review</i> (Oct. 11,
+1873).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Pepysiana</i>, by H. B. Wheatley (1903), 154.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2g" id="Footnote_2g" href="#FnAnchor_2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Foxcroft, <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, i. 54.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3g" id="Footnote_3g" href="#FnAnchor_3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Savile Correspondence</i> (Camden Soc.), 295.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4g" id="Footnote_4g" href="#FnAnchor_4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Foxcroft&rsquo;s <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, i. 36.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVENTRY,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
+of Warwickshire, England; 94 m. N.W. from London by the
+London &amp; North Western railway. Pop. (1901) 69,978. The
+Coventry canal communicates with the Trent and Mersey and
+Birmingham canals, and the midland system generally.
+Coventry stands on a gentle eminence, with higher ground lying
+to the west, and is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford
+Brook, feeders of the Avon, which unite within the town. Of its
+ancient fortifications two gates and some portions of the wall are
+still extant, and several of the older streets are picturesque from
+the number of half-timbered houses projecting over the footways.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable buildings are the churches; of these the
+oldest are St Michael&rsquo;s, one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular
+architecture in England, with a beautiful steeple rising
+to a height of 303 ft.; Holy Trinity church, a cruciform structure
+with a lofty steeple at the intersection; and St John&rsquo;s, or
+Bablake church, which is nearly a parallelogram on the ground
+plan, but cruciform in the clerestory with a central tower.
+Christ church dates only from 1832, but it is attached to the
+ancient spire of the Grey Friars&rsquo; church. Of secular buildings the
+most interesting is St Mary&rsquo;s hall, erected by the united gilds in
+the early part of the 15th century. The principal chamber,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
+situated above a fine crypt, is 76 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 34 ft.
+high; its roof is of carved oak, and in the north end there is a
+large window of old stained glass, with a curious piece of tapestry
+beneath nearly as old as the building. In the treasury is preserved
+a valuable collection of ancient muniments. A statue of Sir
+Thomas White, lord mayor of London (1532-1533), founder of
+St John&rsquo;s College, Oxford, was erected in 1883. The cemetery,
+laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect and landscape
+gardener, and enlarged in 1887, is particularly beautiful. The
+educational institutions include a well-endowed free grammar
+school, founded in the reign of Elizabeth, in modern buildings
+(1885), a technical school, school of art, endowed charity schools,
+and a county reformatory for girls; and among the charitable
+foundations, which are numerous and valuable, Bond&rsquo;s hospital
+for old men and Ford&rsquo;s hospital for old women are remarkable as
+fine specimens of ancient timber work. Swanswell and Spenser
+Parks were opened in 1883, and a recreation ground in 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Coventry was formerly noted for its woollens, and subsequently
+acquired such a reputation for its dyeing that the expression &ldquo;as
+true as Coventry blue&rdquo; became proverbial. Existing industries
+are the making of motor cars, cycles and their accessories, for
+which Coventry is one of the chief centres in Great Britain;
+sewing machines are also produced; and carpet-weaving and
+dyeing, art metal working and watch making are carried on.
+An ancient fair is held in Whit-week. A county of itself till 1843,
+the town became a county borough in 1888. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The
+parliamentary borough returns one member. In 1894 a suffragan
+bishopric of Coventry was established under the see of Worcester,
+but no longer exists. Area, 4149 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The village which afterwards became important as Coventry
+(<i>Coventreu</i>, <i>Coventre</i>) owed its existence to the foundation of a
+Benedictine monastery by Earl Leofric and his wife Godgyfu,
+the famous Lady Godiva (<i>q.v.</i>), in 1043. The manor, which in
+1066 belonged to the latter, descended to the earls of Chester and
+to Robert de Montalt, and from him passed to Isabella queen of
+Edward II. and the crown. Ranulf, earl of Chester, granted the
+earliest extant charter to the town in 1153, by which his burgesses
+were to hold of him in free burgage as they held of his father,
+and to have their portmote. This, with further privileges, was
+confirmed by Henry II. in 1177, and by nearly every succeeding
+sovereign until the 17th century. In 1345 Edward III. gave
+Coventry a corporation, mayor and bailiffs empowered to hold
+pleas and keep the town prison. Edward the Black Prince
+granted the mayor and bailiffs the right to hold the town in fee
+farm of £50 and to build a wall. In 1452 Henry VI. formed the
+city and surrounding hamlets into a county, and James I.
+incorporated Coventry in 1622. It first sent two representatives
+to parliament in 1295, but the returns were irregular. The
+prior&rsquo;s market on Fridays was probably of Saxon origin; a
+second market was granted in 1348, while fairs, still held, were
+obtained in 1217 for the octave of Holy Trinity, and in 1348 and in
+1442 for eight days from the Friday after Corpus Christi. As
+early as 1216 Coventry was important for its trade in wool, cloth
+and caps, its gilds later being particularly numerous and wealthy.
+In 1568 Flemish weavers introduced new methods, but the trade
+was destroyed in the wars of the 17th century. During the
+middle of the 16th century there was a flourishing manufacture
+of blue thread, but this decayed before 1581; in the 18th
+century the manufacture of ribbon was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The popular phrase &ldquo;to send to Coventry&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> to refuse to
+associate with a person) is of uncertain derivation. The <i>New
+English Dictionary</i> selects the period of the Civil War of the 17th
+century as that in which the origin of the phrase is probably to be
+found. Clarendon (<i>History of the Great Rebellion</i>, 1647) states
+that the citizens of Birmingham rose against certain small
+parties of the king&rsquo;s supporters, and sent the prisoners they
+captured to Coventry, which was then strongly parliamentarian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Warwick</i>; William Dugdale, <i>The
+Antiquities of Coventre, illustrated from records</i> (Coventry, 1765).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVER<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>couvert</i>, from <i>couvrir</i>, to cover, Lat.
+<i>cooperire</i>), that which hides, shuts in or conceals, a lid to a
+box or vessel, &amp;c., the binding of a book or wrapper of a parcel;
+as a hunting term, the wood or undergrowth which shelters game.
+As a commercial term, the word means in its widest sense a
+security against loss, but is employed more particularly in
+connexion with stock exchange transactions to signify a &ldquo;deposit
+made with a broker to secure him from being out of pocket in the
+event of the stocks falling against his client and the client not
+paying the difference&rdquo; (<i>In re Cronmire</i>, 1898, 2 Q.B. 383). It is a
+mode of speculation engaged in almost entirely by persons who
+wish to limit their risk to a small amount, and, as a rule, the
+transactions are largely carried out in England with &ldquo;outside&rdquo;
+brokers, <i>i.e.</i> those dealers in securities who are not members of
+the Stock Exchange. The deposit is so much per cent or per
+share, usually 1% on the market value of the securities up to
+about twice the amount of the turn of the market; the client
+being able to close the transaction at any time during the currency
+of the cover, but the broker only when the cover is exhausted or
+has &ldquo;run off.&rdquo; Cover is not money deposited to abide the event
+of a wager, but as security against a debt which may arise from
+a gaming contract, and it may be recovered back, if unappropriated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVERDALE, MILES<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1488?-1569), English translator of the
+Bible and bishop of Exeter, was born of Yorkshire parents about
+1488, studied philosophy and theology at Cambridge, was
+ordained priest at Norwich in 1514, and then entered the convent
+of Austin friars at Cambridge. Here he came under the influence
+of the prior, Robert Barnes, made the acquaintance of Sir Thomas
+More and of Thomas Cromwell, and began a thorough study of
+the Scriptures. He was one of those who met at the White
+Horse tavern to discuss theological questions, and when Barnes
+was arrested on a charge of heresy, Coverdale went up to London
+to assist him in drawing up his defence. Soon afterwards he
+left the convent, assumed the habit of a secular priest, and began
+to preach against confession and the worship of images. In
+1531 he graduated bachelor of canon law at Cambridge, but from
+1528 to 1534 he prudently spent most of his time abroad. No
+corroboration has, however, been found for Foxe&rsquo;s statement
+that in 1529 he was at Hamburg assisting Tyndale in his translation
+of the Pentateuch. In 1534 he published two translations of
+his own, the first Dulichius&rsquo;s <i>Vom alten und newen Gott</i>, and the
+second a <i>Paraphrase upon the Psalms</i>, and in 1535 he completed
+his translation of the Bible. The venture seems to have been
+projected by Jacob van Meteren, who apparently employed
+Coverdale to do the translation, and Froschover of Zürich to
+do the printing. No perfect copy is known to exist, and the five
+or six which alone have title-pages give no name of publisher
+or place of publication. The volume is dedicated to the king of
+England, where Convocation at Cranmer&rsquo;s instance had, in
+December 1534, petitioned for an authorized English version of
+the Scriptures. As a work of scholarship it does not rank
+particularly high. Some of the title-pages state that it had been
+translated out of &ldquo;Douche&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> German) &ldquo;and Latyn&rdquo;: and
+Coverdale mentions that he used five interpreters, which are
+supposed to have been the Vulgate, the Latin version of Pagninus,
+Luther&rsquo;s translation, the Zürich version, and Tyndale&rsquo;s Pentateuch
+and New Testament. There is no definite mention of the
+original Greek and Hebrew texts; but it has considerable
+literary merit, many of Coverdale&rsquo;s phrases are retained in the
+authorized version, and it was the first complete Bible to be
+printed in English. Two fresh editions were issued in 1537, but
+none of them received official sanction. Coverdale was, however,
+employed by Cromwell to assist in the production of the Great
+Bible of 1539, which was ordered to be placed in all English
+churches. The work was done at Paris until the French government
+stopped it, when Coverdale and his colleagues returned
+to England early in 1539 to complete it. He was also employed
+in the same year in assisting at the suppression of superstitious
+usages, but the reaction of 1540 drove him once more abroad.
+His Bible was prohibited by proclamation in 1542, while Coverdale
+himself defied the Six Articles by marrying Elizabeth Macheson,
+sister-in-law to Dr John MacAlpine.</p>
+
+<p>For a time Coverdale lived at Tübingen, where he was created
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span>
+D.D. In 1545 he was pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabern
+in the duchy of Pfalz-Zweibrücken. In March 1548 he was at
+Frankfort, when the new English Order of Communion reached
+him; he at once translated it into German and Latin and sent
+a copy to Calvin, whose wife had befriended Coverdale at Strassburg.
+Calvin, however, does not seem to have approved of it
+so highly as Coverdale.</p>
+
+<p>Coverdale was already on his way back to England, and in
+October 1548 he was staying at Windsor Castle, where Cranmer
+and some other divines, inaccurately called the Windsor Commission,
+were preparing the First Book of Common Prayer. His
+first appointment had been as almoner to Queen Catherine Parr,
+then wife of Lord Seymour; and he preached her funeral sermon
+in September 1548. He was also chaplain to the young king
+and took an active part in the reforming measures of his reign.
+He was one of the most effective preachers of the time. A sermon
+by him at St Paul&rsquo;s on the second Sunday in Lent, 1549, was
+immediately followed by the pulling down of &ldquo;the sacrament
+at the high altar.&rdquo; A few weeks later he preached at the penance
+of some Anabaptists, and in January 1550 he was put on a
+commission to prosecute Anabaptists and all who infringed the
+Book of Common Prayer. In 1549 he wrote a dedication to
+Edward for a translation of the second volume of Erasmus&rsquo;s
+<i>Paraphrases</i>; and in 1550 he translated Otto Wermueller&rsquo;s
+<i>Precious Pearl</i>, for which Protector Somerset, who had derived
+spiritual comfort from the book while in the Tower, wrote a
+preface. He was much in request at funerals: he preached
+at Sir James Wilford&rsquo;s in November 1550, and at Lord Wentworth&rsquo;s
+before a great concourse in Westminster Abbey in
+March 1551.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it was his gift of oratory which suggested his appointment
+as bishop of the refractory men of Devon and Cornwall.
+He had already, in August 1549, at some risk, gone down with
+Lord Russell to turn the hearts of the rebels by preaching and
+persuasion, and two years later he was appointed bishop of Exeter
+by letters patent, on the compulsory retirement of his predecessor,
+Veysey, who had reached an almost mythical age.
+He was an active prelate, and perhaps the vigorous Protestantism
+of the West in Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign was partly due to his persuasive
+powers. He sat on the commission for the reform of the canon
+law, and was in constant attendance during the parliaments of
+1552 and 1553. On Mary&rsquo;s accession he was at once deprived
+on the score of his marriage, and Veysey in spite of his age was
+restored. Coverdale was called before the privy council on the
+1st of September, and required to find sureties; but he was not
+further molested, and when Christian III. of Denmark at the
+instance of Coverdale&rsquo;s brother-in-law, MacAlpine, interceded
+in his favour, he was in February 1555 permitted to leave for
+Denmark with two servants, and his baggage unsearched; one
+of these &ldquo;servants&rdquo; is said to have been his wife. He declined
+Christian&rsquo;s offer of a living in Denmark, and preferred to preach
+at Wesel to the numerous English refugees there, until he was
+invited by Duke Wolfgang to resume his labours at Bergzabern.
+He was at Geneva in December 1558, and is said to have participated
+in the preparation of the Geneva version of the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>In 1559 Coverdale returned to England and resumed his
+preaching at St Paul&rsquo;s and elsewhere. Clothed in a plain black
+gown, he assisted at Parker&rsquo;s consecration, in spite of the facts
+that he had himself been deprived, and did not resume his
+bishopric, and that his original appointment had been by the
+uncanonical method of letters patent. Conscientious objections
+were probably responsible for his non-restoration to the see of
+Exeter, and his refusal of that of Llandaff in 1563. He objected
+to vestments, and in his living of St Magnus close to London
+Bridge, which he received in 1563, he took other liberties with
+the Act of Uniformity. His bishop, Grindal, was his friend, and
+his vagaries were overlooked until 1566, when he resigned his
+living rather than conform. He still preached occasionally, and
+always drew large audiences. He died in February 1568, and
+was buried on the 19th in St Bartholomew&rsquo;s behind the Exchange.
+When this church was pulled down in 1840 to make room for
+the new Exchange, his remains were removed to St Magnus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Coverdale&rsquo;s works, most of them translations, number twenty-six
+in all; nearly all, with his letters, were published in a collected
+edition by the Parker Soc., 2 vols., 1846. An excellent account is
+given in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> of his life, with authorities, to which
+may be added R. W. Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Church History</i>, Bishop and Gasquet&rsquo;s
+<i>Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer</i>; Acts of the Privy
+Council; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; <i>Lit. Rem. of
+Edward VI.</i> (Roxburghe Club); Whittingham&rsquo;s <i>Brief Discourse of
+Troubles at Frankfort</i>; Pocock&rsquo;s <i>Troubles connected with the Prayer-Book</i>
+(Camden Soc.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVERTURE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (a covering, an old French form of the modern
+<i>couverture</i>), a term in English law applied to the condition of a
+woman during marriage, when she is supposed to be under the
+cover, influence and protection of her husband, and so immune
+in certain cases from punishment for crime committed in the
+presence and on the presumed coercion of her husband. (See
+further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Husband and Wife</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVILHÃ,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a town of Portugal, in the district of Castello
+Branco, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the
+eastern slope of the Serra da Estrella, and on the Abrantes-Guarda
+railway. Pop. (1900) 15,469. Covilhã, which has been
+often compared with a collection of swallows&rsquo; nests clinging to
+the rugged granitic mountain side, is shaped like an amphitheatre
+of closely crowded houses, overlooking the river Zezere
+and its wild valley from a height of 2180 ft. Over 4000 operatives
+are employed in the manufacture of <i>saragoça</i>, a coarse brown
+cloth worn by the peasantry throughout Portugal. The village
+of Unhaes da Serra (1507), 6 m. W.S.W., is noted for its sulphurous
+springs and baths.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVILHAM<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Covilhão, Covilhã</span>), <span class="bold">PERO</span> or <span class="sc">Pedro de</span>,
+Portuguese explorer and diplomatist (fl. 1487-1525), was a native
+of Covilhã in Beira. In early life he had gone to Castile and
+entered the service of Alphonso, duke of Seville; later, when war
+broke out between Castile and Portugal, he returned to his own
+country, and attached himself, first as a &ldquo;groom,&rdquo; then as a
+&ldquo;squire,&rdquo; to King Alphonso V. and his successor John II.
+On the 7th of May 1487, he was despatched, in company with
+Alphonso de Payva, on a mission of exploration in the Levant and
+adjoining regions of Asia and Africa, with the special object of
+learning where &ldquo;cinnamon and other spices could be found,&rdquo; as
+well as of discovering the land of Prester John, by &ldquo;overland&rdquo;
+routes. Bartholomeu Diaz, at this very time, went out to find
+the Prester&rsquo;s country, as well as the termination of the African
+continent and the ocean route to India, by sea. Covilham and
+Payva were provided with a &ldquo;letter of credence for all the
+countries of the world&rdquo; and with a &ldquo;map for navigating, taken
+from the map of the world&rdquo; and compiled by Bishop Calcadilha,
+and doctors Rodrigo and Moyses. The first two of these were
+prominent members of the commission which advised the
+Portuguese government to reject the proposals of Columbus.
+The explorers started from Santarem and travelled by Barcelona
+to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of
+Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici; thence they passed to Rhodes, where they
+lodged with two other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and
+Cairo, where they posed as merchants. In company with certain
+Moors from Fez and Tlemçen they now went by way of Tor to
+Suakin and Aden, where (as it was now monsoon time) they
+parted, Covilham proceeding to India and Payva to Ethiopia&mdash;the
+two companions agreeing to meet again in Cairo. Covilham
+thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, whence he retraced his
+course to Goa and Ormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an
+excursion on his way down the East African coast to Sofala,
+which he was probably the first European to visit. At Cairo he
+heard of Payva&rsquo;s death, and met with two Portuguese Jews&mdash;Rabbi
+Abraham of Beja, and Joseph, a shoe-maker of Lamego&mdash;who
+had been sent by King John with letters for Covilham
+and Payva. By Joseph of Lamego Covilham replied with an
+account of his Indian and African journeys, and of his observations
+on the cinnamon, pepper and clove trade at Calicut,
+together with advice as to the ocean way to India. This he truly
+represented as quite practicable: &ldquo;to this they (of Portugal)
+could navigate by their coast and the seas of Guinea.&rdquo; The
+first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Sofala or the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
+Island of the Moon, our Madagascar&mdash;&ldquo;from each of these lands
+one can fetch the coast of Calicut.&rdquo; With this information
+Joseph returned to Portugal, while Covilham, with Abraham of
+Beja, again visited Aden and Ormuz. At the latter he left the
+rabbi; and himself came back to Jidda, the port of the Arabian
+holy land, and penetrated (as he told Alvarez many years later)
+even to Mecca and Medina. Finally, by Mount Sinai, Tor and
+the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck inland to the
+court of Prester John (<i>i.e.</i> Abyssinia). Here he was honourably
+received; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him; but he
+was not permitted to leave. When the Portuguese embassy
+under Rodrigo de Lima, including Father Francisco Alvarez,
+entered Abyssinia in 1520, Covilham wept with joy at the sight
+of his fellow-countrymen. It was then forty years since he had
+left Portugal, and over thirty since he had been a prisoner of
+state in &ldquo;Ethiopia.&rdquo; Alvarez, who professed to know him well,
+and to have heard the story of his life, both &ldquo;in confession and
+out of it,&rdquo; praises his power of vivid description &ldquo;as if things
+were present before him,&rdquo; and his extraordinary knowledge of
+&ldquo;all spoken languages of Christians, Moors and Gentiles.&rdquo; His
+services as an interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima&rsquo;s
+embassy; but he never succeeded in escaping from Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Francisco Alvarez, <i>Verdadera Informaçam das terras do
+Preste Joam</i>, esp. chs. 73, 89, 98, 102-103, 105 (pp. 177, 224, 254, 264,
+265-270, 275, of the Hakluyt Society&rsquo;s English edition, <i>The Portuguese
+Embassy to Abyssinia ... 1520-1727</i>, London, 1881); an
+abstract of this, with some inaccuracies, is given in Major&rsquo;s <i>Prince
+Henry the Navigator</i> (London, 1868), pp. 339-340.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVIN<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>covine</i>, or <i>couvine</i>, from Lat. <i>convenire</i>, to
+come together), an association of persons, so used in the Statute of
+Labourers of 1360, which, <i>inter alia</i>, declared void &ldquo;all alliances
+and covins of masons and carpenters.&rdquo; The more common use of
+the term in English law was for a secret agreement between
+persons to cheat and defraud, but the word is now obsolete, and
+has been superseded by &ldquo;collusion&rdquo; or &ldquo;conspiracy to cheat
+and defraud.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COVINGTON,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a city and one of the two county-seats of Kenton
+county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river opposite Cincinnati,
+with which it is connected by bridges; and at the mouth of the
+Licking river (also spanned by bridges), opposite Newport, Ky.
+Pop. (1890) 37,371; (1900) 42,938, of whom 5223 were foreign-born
+and 2478 were negroes; (1910) 53,270. In 1900 it ranked
+second in population among the cities of Kentucky. The
+city is served by the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio, and the Louisville
+&amp; Nashville railways, by interurban electric railways, and by
+steamboat lines to the Ohio river ports. It is built on a plain
+commanding good views and partly shut in by neighbouring
+hills. Its streets, mostly named from eminent Kentuckians,
+are paved chiefly with asphalt, macadam and brick. There
+are numerous fine residences and several attractive public
+buildings, including that of the United States government&mdash;modern
+Gothic in style&mdash;the court-house and city hall combined,
+and the public library. Covington is the seat of a
+Roman Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, in the flamboyant
+Gothic style, is one of the finest church buildings in the state.
+In the city are the Academy of Notre Dame and St Joseph&rsquo;s
+high school for boys, both Roman Catholic. The principal
+charitable institutions are the hospital of Saint Elizabeth, a
+German orphan asylum, a Protestant children&rsquo;s home, a home
+for aged women and a Wayfarers&rsquo; Rest. Covington is the trade
+centre of an extensive district engaged in agriculture and stock
+raising, and as a manufacturing centre it ranked second in the
+state in 1905 (value of factory products $6,099,715), its products
+including tobacco, cotton goods, structural iron and steel, foundry
+and machine shop products, liquors and cordage. A settlement
+was established here in 1812, and three years later a town was laid
+out and named in honour of Gen. Leonard Covington (1768-1813),
+who was mortally wounded at Chrystler&rsquo;s Field during the War
+of 1812. In 1834 Covington was chartered as a city; and in
+1908 it annexed Central Covington (pop. in 1900, 2155).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWARD,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a term of contempt for one who, before danger,
+pain or trouble, shows fear, whether physical or moral. The
+derivation of the word has been obscured by a connexion in sense
+with the verb &ldquo;cow,&rdquo; to instil fear into, which is derived from
+old Norse <i>kuga</i>, a word of similar meaning, and with the verb
+&ldquo;cower,&rdquo; to crouch, which is also Scandinavian in origin.<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The
+true derivation is from the French <i>coe</i>, an old form of <i>queue</i>, a
+tail, from Lat. <i>cauda</i>, hence <i>couart</i> or <i>couard</i>. The reference to
+&ldquo;tail&rdquo; is either to the expression &ldquo;turn tail&rdquo; in flight, or to the
+habit of animals dropping the tail between the legs when
+frightened; in heraldry, a lion in this position is a &ldquo;lion coward.&rdquo;
+In the fable of <i>Reynard the Fox</i> the name of the hare is Coart,
+Kywart, Cuwaert or other variants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWBRIDGE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a market town and a municipal and contributory
+parliamentary borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, with
+a station on the Taff Vale railway branch from Llantrisant to
+Aberthaw on the coast, distant by rail 162½ m. from London,
+12 m. W. of Cardiff, 7 m. S.E. of Bridgend, and 6 m. S. of Llantrisant
+station. The population in 1901 was 1202, a decrease
+of over 12% since 1891. Less than one-third of the number was
+Welsh-speaking. The town mainly consists of one long street
+running east and west, and is in a wide valley through which
+runs the river Thaw (Welsh, <i>Ddawan</i>), here crossed by a stone
+bridge.</p>
+
+<p>Cowbridge is probably situated on the Roman road from
+Cardiff westwards, which seems to have kept nearly the course
+of the present main road. Roman coins have been discovered
+here. It has in fact been suggested, mainly on etymological
+grounds, that the town occupies the site of the Roman <i>Bovium</i>:
+the modern Welsh name, y Bontfaen (&ldquo;stone bridge&rdquo;) is
+probably a corruption of the medieval, Pont y fôn, the precise
+equivalent of &ldquo;Cowbridge,&rdquo; which is first found in documents
+of the second half of the 13th century as Covbruge and Cubrigg.
+Others place Bovium on a vicinal road, at Boverton near
+Llantwit Major, about 6 m. to the south near the coast, though
+the most likely site is near Ewenny, 5 m. to the west of Cowbridge.
+After the Norman conquest of Glamorgan, the town
+grew up as an appanage of the castle of St Quentin, which
+occupies a commanding position half a mile south-west of the
+town. It was walled round before the 13th century. A tower
+is mentioned in 1487 when it was granted away by the burgesses.
+Leland in his itinerary (c. 1535) describes the town wall as three-quarters
+of a mile round and as having three gates. There was
+even then a considerable suburb on the west bank of the river
+and outside the walls. The south wall and gateway are still
+standing.</p>
+
+<p>The town was a borough by prescription until 1682, when it
+received a charter of incorporation from Charles II. confirming
+its previous privileges. Under the Unreformed Corporations
+Act of 1883 the corporation was dissolved, but on the petition
+of the inhabitants a new charter was granted in March 1887.
+During the Tudor and Stuart periods Cowbridge was almost
+if not quite the chief town of Glamorgan, its importance being
+largely due to its central and accessible position in a rich agricultural
+district where a large number of the county gentry lived.
+The great sessions were held here alternately with Cardiff and
+Swansea from 1542 till their abolition in 1830, and the quarter
+sessions were held here once a year down to 1850. From 1536
+to 1832 it was one of the eight contributory boroughs within the
+county which returned a member to parliament, but since 1832
+it has been contributory with Cardiff and Llantrisant in returning
+a member. It has a separate commission of the peace. Sir
+Edward Stradling (1529-1609) established a grammar school
+here, but died before endowing it; it was refounded in 1685 by
+Sir Leoline Jenkins, who provided that it should be administered
+by Jesus College, Oxford, which body erected the present
+buildings in 1847. It has throughout its existence been one of
+the leading schools in Wales. An intermediate school for girls
+was established here by the county in 1896. The church of St
+Mary (formerly chapelry to Llanblethian) is of early English
+style and has a fine embattled tower, of the same military
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
+type as the towers of Llamblethian and Ewenny. There are
+three Nonconformist chapels. There are a town hall and market
+place. The town is now wholly dependent on agriculture, and
+has good markets and cattle fairs, that on the 4th of May being
+a charter fair.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A connexion has also been imagined with cow (O. Eng. <i>cu</i>; common
+in Scandinavian languages, and of similar root to Skr. <i>go</i>, whence
+also Gr. <span class="grk" title="bous">&#946;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>bos</i>), the female bovine animal, on account of its
+timidity.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWDENBEATH,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a police burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 5¾ m.
+N.E. of Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1891)
+4249; (1901) 7908. The principal industry is coal-mining,
+and the public buildings include churches, schools and a hall.
+Meetings in connexion with the adoption and promulgation of
+the Covenant were held in the old parish church of Beath.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWELL, JOHN<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1554-1611), English jurist, was born at
+Ernsborough, Devonshire. He was educated at Eton, and
+King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, ultimately becoming professor of
+civil law in that university, and master of Trinity Hall. In
+1607 he compiled a law dictionary, <i>The Interpreter</i>, in which he
+exalted the king&rsquo;s prerogative so much that he was prosecuted
+before the House of Commons by Sir Edward Coke, and saved
+from imprisonment only by the interposition of James I. His
+book was burnt by order of the House of Commons. Dr Cowell
+also wrote a work entitled <i>Institutiones Juris Anglicani</i>. He
+died at Oxford on the 11th of October 1611.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), English musical
+composer, was born at Kingston, Jamaica, on the 29th of January
+1852. At four years old he was brought to England, where his
+father became treasurer to the opera at Her Majesty&rsquo;s theatre,
+and private secretary to the earl of Dudley. His first teacher
+was Henry Russell, and his first published composition appeared
+when he was but six years old. He studied the piano with
+Benedict, and composition with Goss; in 1865 he was at Leipzig
+under Hauptmann, Moscheles, Reinecke and Plaidy. Returning
+home on the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, he appeared
+as a composer for the orchestra in an overture played at the
+Promenade Concerts at Covent Garden in September 1866. In
+the following autumn he went to Berlin, where he was under
+Kiel, at Stern&rsquo;s conservatorium. A symphony and a piano
+concerto were given in St James&rsquo;s Hall in 1869, and from that
+time Cowen has been recognized as primarily a composer, his
+talents as a pianist being subordinate, although his public
+appearances were numerous for some time afterwards. His
+cantata, <i>The Rose Maiden</i>, was given in London in 1870, his
+second symphony by the Liverpool Philharmonic Society in 1872,
+and his first festival work, <i>The Corsair</i>, in 1876 at Birmingham.
+In that year his opera, <i>Pauline</i>, was given by the Carl Rosa
+Company with moderate success. In 1884 he conducted five
+concerts of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1888, on the
+resignation of Arthur Sullivan, became the regular conductor
+of the society, resigning the post in 1892. In the year of his
+appointment, 1888, he went to Melbourne as the conductor of
+the daily concerts given in connexion with the Exhibition there.
+In 1896 Cowen was appointed conductor of the Liverpool
+Philharmonic Society and of the Manchester orchestra, in succession
+to Sir Charles Hallé. In 1899 he was reappointed conductor
+of the Philharmonic Society. His works include:&mdash;Operettas:
+<i>Garibaldi</i> (1860) and <i>One Too Many</i> (1874); operas: <i>Pauline</i>
+(1876), <i>Thorgrim</i> (1890), <i>Signa</i> (Milan, 1893), and <i>Harold</i> (1895);
+oratorios: <i>The Deluge</i> (1878), <i>St Ursula</i> (1881), <i>Ruth</i> (1887),
+<i>Song of Thanksgiving</i> (1888), <i>The Transfiguration</i> (1895);
+cantatas: <i>The Rose Maiden</i> (1870), <i>The Corsair</i> (1876), <i>The
+Sleeping Beauty</i> (1885), <i>St John&rsquo;s Eve</i> (1889), <i>The Water Lily</i>
+(1893), <i>Ode to the Passions</i> (1898), besides short cantatas for
+female voices; a large number of songs, ranging from the popular
+&ldquo;ballad&rdquo; to more artistic lyrics, anthems, part-songs, duets,
+&amp;c.; six symphonies, among which No 3, the &ldquo;Scandinavian,&rdquo;
+has had the greatest success; four overtures; suites, <i>The
+Language of Flowers</i> (1880), <i>In the Olden Times</i> (1883), <i>In Fairyland</i>
+(1896); four English dances (1896); a concerto for piano
+and orchestra, and a fantasia for the same played by M.
+Paderewski (1900); a quartet in C minor, and a trio in A minor,
+both early works; pianoforte pieces, &amp;c. Cowen is never so
+happy as when treating of fantastic or fairy subjects; and
+whether in his cantatas for female voices, his charming <i>Sleeping</i>
+<i>Beauty</i>, his <i>Water Lily</i> or his pretty overture, <i>The Butterfly&rsquo;s
+Ball</i> (1901), he succeeds wonderfully in finding graceful expression
+for the poetical idea. His dance music, such as is to be found
+in various orchestral suites, is refined, original and admirably
+instrumented; and if he is seldom as successful in portraying
+the graver aspects of emotion, the vogue of his semi-sacred songs
+has been widespread.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWEN, JOSEPH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1831-1900), English politician and
+journalist, son of Sir Joseph Cowen, a prominent citizen and
+mine-owner of Newcastle-on-Tyne, was born in 1831, and was
+educated at Edinburgh University. In 1874 he was elected
+member of parliament for the borough on the death of his father,
+who had held the seat as a Liberal since 1865. Joseph Cowen was
+at that time a strong Radical on domestic questions, an advocate
+of co-operation, an admirer of Garibaldi, Mazzini and Kossuth, a
+sympathizer with Irish Nationalism, and one who in speech,
+dress and manner identified himself with the North-country
+mining class. Short in stature and uncouth in appearance, his
+individuality first shocked and then by its earnestness impressed
+the House of Commons; and his sturdy independence of party
+ties, combined with a gift of rough but genuine eloquence (of
+which his speech on the Royal Title Bill of 1876 was an example),
+rapidly made him one of the best-known public men in the
+country. He was, moreover, an Imperialist and a Colonial
+Federationist at a time when Liberalism was tied and bound to the
+Manchester traditions; and, to the consternation of the official
+wire-pullers, he vigorously supported Disraeli&rsquo;s foreign policy,
+and in 1881 opposed the Gladstonian settlement with the Boers.
+His independence (which his detractors attributed in some
+degree to his alleged susceptibility to Tory compliments) brought
+him into collision both with the Liberal caucus and with the
+party organization in Newcastle itself, but Cowen&rsquo;s personal
+popularity and his remarkable powers as an orator triumphed
+in his own birthplace, and he was again elected in 1885 in spite of
+Liberal opposition. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired
+both from parliament and from public life, professing his disgust
+at the party intrigues of politics, and devoted himself to conducting
+his newspaper, the <i>Newcastle Daily Chronicle</i>, and to his
+private business as a mine-owner. In this capacity he exercised
+a wide influence on local opinion, and the revolt of the Newcastle
+electorate in later years against doctrinaire Radicalism was
+largely due to his constant preaching of a broader outlook on
+national affairs. He continued behind the scenes to play a
+powerful part in forming North-country opinion until his death
+on the 18th of February 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His letters were published by his daughter in 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWES,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place in the Isle of Wight,
+England, 12 m. S.S.E. of Southampton. West Cowes is separated
+from East Cowes by the picturesque estuary of the river
+Medina, the two towns (each of which is an urban district)
+lying on opposite sides of its mouth at the apex of the northern
+coast of the island. Pop. (1901) West Cowes, 8652; East Cowes,
+3196. The port between them is the chief on the island, and is
+the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 1812);
+it is in regular steamship communication with Southampton and
+Portsmouth. West Cowes is served by the Isle of Wight Central
+railway. A steam ferry and a floating bridge across the Medina,
+here 600 yds. broad, unite the towns. Behind the harbour the
+houses rise picturesquely on gentle wooded slopes, and numerous
+villas adorn the vicinity. The towns owe their origin to two
+forts or castles, built on each side of the mouth of the Medina by
+Henry VIII. in 1540, for the defence of the coast; the eastern
+one has disappeared, but the west castle remains and is used as
+the club-house of the Yacht Squadron. The marine parade of
+West Cowes, and the public promenade called the Green, are
+close to the castle. The industrial population is chiefly employed
+in the shipbuilding yards, in the manufacture of ships&rsquo; fittings,
+and in engineering works. The harbour is under an elective
+body of commissioners. On the opposite side of the Medina a
+broad carriageway leads to East Cowes Castle, a handsome
+edifice built by John Nash, the favourite architect of George IV.,
+in 1798, and immediately beyond it are the grounds surrounding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
+Osborne House (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osborne</a></span>), built in 1845 after the property
+had been purchased by Queen Victoria, the church of St Mildred,
+Whippingham, lying a mile to the south.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWL<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>coule</i>, from Lat. <i>cucullus</i> or <i>cuculla</i>, a
+covering; the word is found in various forms in most European
+languages, cf. Ger. <i>Kugel</i> or <i>Kigel</i>, Dutch <i>kovel</i>, Irish <i>cochal</i> or
+<i>cochull</i>; the ultimate origin may be the root <i>kal</i>, found in Lat.
+<i>clam</i>, secretly, and Gr. <span class="grk" title="kalyptein">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to hide, cover up), an outer
+garment worn by both sexes in the middle ages; a part of the
+monastic dress, hence the phrase &ldquo;to take the cowl,&rdquo; signifying
+entry upon the religious life. The <i>cucullus</i> worn by the early
+Egyptian anchorites was a hood covering the head and neck.
+Later generations lengthened the garment until it reached to the
+heels, and St Benedict issued a rule restricting its length to two
+cubits. Chapter 55 of his <i>Institute</i> prescribes the following dress
+in temperate climates: a cowl and tunic, thick in winter and
+thin in summer, with a scapular for working hours and shoes and
+stockings, all of simple material and make. In the 14th century
+the cowl and the frock were frequently confounded, but the
+council of Vienne defined the former as &ldquo;a habit long and full
+without sleeves,&rdquo; and the latter as &ldquo;a long habit with long and
+wide sleeves.&rdquo; While the term thus seems strictly to imply a
+hooded gown it is often applied to the hood alone. It is also
+used to describe a loose vestment worn over the frock in the
+winter season and during the night office.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;cowl&rdquo; is also applied to a hood-shaped covering
+to a chimney or ventilating shaft, to help down-draught, and to
+clear the up-current of foul air (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ventilation</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWLEY, ABRAHAM<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1618-1667), English poet, was born in
+the city of London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen,
+who died shortly before his birth, was a stationer. His mother
+was wholly given to works of devotion, but it happened that
+there lay in her parlour a copy of <i>The Faery Queen</i>. This became
+the favourite reading of her son, and he had twice devoured it all
+before he was sent to school. As early as 1628, that is, in his
+tenth year, he composed his <i>Tragicall History of Piramus and
+Thisbe</i>, an epical romance written in a six-line stanza, of his own
+invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most
+astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is
+marked by no great faults of immaturity, and possesses constructive
+merits of a very high order. Two years later the child
+wrote another and still more ambitious poem, <i>Constantia and
+Philetus</i>, being sent about the same time to Westminster school.
+Here he displayed the most extraordinary mental precocity and
+versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year yet another poem,
+the <i>Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton</i>. These three
+poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected
+in 1633, and published in a volume entitled <i>Poetical Blossoms</i>,
+dedicated to the head master of the school, and prefaced by
+many laudatory verses by schoolfellows. The author at once
+became famous, although he had not, even yet, completed his
+fifteenth year. His next composition was a pastoral comedy,
+entitled <i>Love&rsquo;s Riddle</i>, a marvellous production for a boy of
+sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious in language, and rapid in
+movement. The style is not without resemblance to that of
+Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time only
+just printed. In 1637 Cowley was elected into Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he betook himself with enthusiasm to the
+study of all kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a
+ripe scholar. It was about this time that he composed his
+scriptural epic on the history of King David, one book of which
+still exists in the Latin original, the rest being superseded in
+favour of an English version in four books, called the <i>Davideis</i>,
+which he published a long time after. This his most grave and
+important work is remarkable as having suggested to Milton
+several points which he afterwards made use of. The epic,
+written in a very dreary and turgid manner, but in good rhymed
+heroic verse, deals with the adventures of King David from his
+boyhood to the smiting of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly
+closes. In 1638 <i>Love&rsquo;s Riddle</i> and a Latin comedy, the <i>Naufragium
+Joculare</i>, were printed, and in 1641 the passage of Prince
+Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the production of
+another dramatic work, <i>The Guardian</i>, which was acted before
+the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this
+play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed
+till 1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the
+&ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Ben Jonson, the university wits who wrote more
+for the closet than the public stage.</p>
+
+<p>The learned quiet of the young poet&rsquo;s life was broken up by
+the Civil War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became
+a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the
+Parliamentarians in 1643. He made his way to Oxford, where he
+enjoyed the friendship of Lord Falkland, and was tossed, in the
+tumult of affairs, into the personal confidence of the royal family
+itself. After the battle of Marston Moor he followed the queen to
+Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve years. This
+period was spent almost entirely in the royal service, &ldquo;bearing
+a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in their
+affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys
+into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, Holland, or wherever else the
+king&rsquo;s troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony
+of his fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintaining
+the constant correspondence between the late king and the
+queen his wife. In that weighty trust he behaved himself with
+indefatigable integrity and unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered
+and deciphered with his own hand the greatest part of all the
+letters that passed between their majesties, and managed a vast
+intelligence in many other parts, which for some years together
+took up all his days, and two or three nights every week.&rdquo; In
+spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary industry.
+During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and determined
+to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English. At the same
+time he occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War,
+which he completed as far as the battle of Newbury, but unfortunately
+afterwards destroyed. In 1647 a collection of his love
+verses, entitled <i>The Mistress</i>, was published, and in the next year
+a volume of wretched satires, <i>The Four Ages of England</i>, was
+brought out under his name, with the composition of which he
+had nothing to do. In spite of the troubles of the times, so fatal
+to poetic fame, his reputation steadily increased, and when, on
+his return to England in 1656, he published a volume of his
+collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival in
+public esteem. This volume included the later works already
+mentioned, the <i>Pindarique Odes</i>, the <i>Davideis</i>, the <i>Mistress</i> and
+some <i>Miscellanies</i>. Among the latter are to be found Cowley&rsquo;s
+most vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the
+famous aspiration&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;What shall I do to be for ever known,</p>
+<p class="i05">And make the coming age my own?&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William
+Hervey and Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley&rsquo;s finest
+poems, brilliant, sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of
+<i>The Chronicle</i>, giving a fictitious catalogue of his supposed
+amours; various gnomic pieces; and some charming paraphrases
+from Anacreon. The <i>Pindarique Odes</i> contain weighty
+lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses
+of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good throughout,
+but a full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them.
+The long cadences of the Alexandrines with which most of the
+strophes close, continued to echo in English poetry from Dryden
+down to Gray, but the <i>Odes</i> themselves, which were found to be
+obscure by the poet&rsquo;s contemporaries, immediately fell into
+disesteem. <i>The Mistress</i> was the most popular poetic reading of
+the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley&rsquo;s works. It was
+the last and most violent expression of the amatory affectation of
+the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable in
+Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of
+sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it
+represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition
+of literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at
+least of a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately
+erotic volumes, we are told that to the end of his days he never
+summoned up courage to speak of love to a single woman in real
+life. The &ldquo;Leonora&rdquo; of <i>The Chronicle</i> is said to have been the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
+only woman he ever loved, and she married the brother of his
+biographer, Sprat.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for
+another person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of £1000.
+In 1658 he revised and altered his play of <i>The Guardian</i>, and
+prepared it for the press under the title of <i>The Cutter of Coleman
+Street</i>, but it did not appear until 1663. Late in 1658 Oliver
+Cromwell died, and Cowley took advantage of the confusion of
+affairs to escape to Paris, where he remained until the Restoration
+brought him back in Charles&rsquo;s train. He published in 1663
+<i>Verses upon several occasions</i>, in which <i>The Complaint</i> is
+included.</p>
+
+<p>Wearied with the broils and fatigues of a political life, Cowley
+obtained permission to retire into the country; through his
+friend, Lord St Albans, he obtained a property near Chertsey,
+and here, devoting himself to the study of botany, and buried in
+his books, he lived in comparative solitude until his death. He
+took a great and practical interest in experimental science, and he
+was one of those who were most prominent in advocating the
+foundation of an academy for the protection of scientific enterprise.
+Cowley&rsquo;s pamphlet on <i>The Advancement of Experimental
+Philosophy</i>, 1661, led directly to the foundation of the Royal
+Society, to which body Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion
+of Evelyn, addressed an ode which is the latest and one of the
+strongest of his poems. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey,
+on the 28th of July 1667, in consequence of having caught a cold
+while superintending his farm-labourers in the meadows late on a
+summer evening. On the 3rd of August Cowley was buried in
+Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of Chaucer and Spenser,
+where in 1675 the duke of Buckingham erected a monument to his
+memory. His <i>Poëmata Latina</i>, including six books &ldquo;Plantarum,&rdquo;
+were printed in 1668.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout their parallel lives the fame of Cowley completely
+eclipsed that of Milton, but posterity instantly and finally reversed
+the judgment of their contemporaries. The poetry of Cowley
+rapidly fell into a neglect as unjust as the earlier popularity had
+been. As a prose writer, especially as an essayist, he holds, and
+will not lose, a high position in literature; as a poet it is hardly
+possible that he can enjoy more than a very partial revival.
+The want of nature, the obvious and awkward art, the defective
+melody of his poems, destroy the interest that their ingenuity and
+occasional majesty would otherwise excite. He had lofty views
+of the mission of a poet and an insatiable ambition, but his chief
+claim to poetic life is the dowry of sonorous lyric style which he
+passed down to Dryden and his successors of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat,
+afterwards bishop of Rochester, brought out a splendid edition
+in folio, to which he prefixed a graceful and elegant life of the
+poet. There were many reprints of this collection, which formed
+the standard edition till 1881, when it was superseded by A. B.
+Grosart&rsquo;s privately printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey
+Worthies library. The Essays have frequently been revived with
+approval.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWLEY, HANNAH<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1743-1809), English dramatist and poet,
+daughter of Philip Parkhouse, a bookseller at Tiverton, Devonshire,
+was born in 1743. When about twenty-five years old she
+married Mr Cowley, of the East India Company&rsquo;s service, who
+died in 1797. Some years after her marriage, being at the theatre
+with her husband, she expressed the opinion that she could
+write as good a piece as the one being performed, and within a
+fortnight she had written her first play, <i>The Runaway</i>. She sent
+it to Garrick, who produced it at Drury Lane in 1776. Between
+then and 1795 she wrote twelve more plays, all of which (with one
+exception) were produced at Drury Lane or Covent Garden; and
+<i>The Belle&rsquo;s Stratagem</i> (1782), with one or two others, still survives
+in the list of acting plays. Among other, pieces were <i>Albina</i>,
+<i>Countess Raimond</i>, <i>A Bold Stroke for a Husband</i>, <i>More Ways
+than One</i>, and <i>A School for Greybeards, or The Mourning Bride</i>.
+Mrs Cowley was the author of a number of indifferent poems,
+mainly historical, and under the name of &ldquo;Anna Matilda,&rdquo;
+which has since become proverbial, she carried on a sentimental
+correspondence in the <i>World</i> with Robert Merry. She died at
+Tiverton on the 11th of March 1809.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st
+Earl</span> (1804-1884), British diplomatist, was the eldest son of
+Henry Wellesley, 1st Baron Cowley (1773-1847), and Charlotte,
+daughter of Charles, 1st Earl Cadogan, and was consequently a
+nephew of the duke of Wellington and of the marquess Wellesley.
+Born on the 17th of June 1804, he entered the diplomatic service
+in 1824, receiving his first important appointment in 1848, when
+he became minister plenipotentiary to the Swiss cantons; and
+in the same year he was sent to Frankfort to watch the proceedings
+of the German parliament. This was followed by his
+appointment as envoy extraordinary to the new Germanic
+confederation, a position which he only held for a short time,
+as he was chosen in 1852 to succeed the 1st marquess of Normanby
+as the British ambassador in Paris. Baron Cowley, as Wellesley
+had been since his father&rsquo;s death in 1847, held this important
+post for fifteen years, and the story of his diplomatic life in Paris
+cannot be separated from the general history of England and
+France. As minister during the greater part of the reign of
+Napoleon III., he conducted the delicate negotiations between
+the two countries during the time of those eastern complications
+which preceded and followed the Crimean War, and also during
+the excitement and unrest produced by the attempt made in
+1858 by Felice Orsini to assassinate the <span class="correction" title="amended from emporor">emperor</span> of the French;
+while his diplomatic skill was no less in evidence during the war
+between France and Austria and the subsequent course of events
+in Italy. In 1857 he had been created Earl Cowley and Viscount
+Dangan; in 1866 he was made a knight of the Garter; and
+having assisted Richard Cobden to conclude the commercial
+treaty between Great Britain and France in 1860, he retired in
+1867 from a position which he had filled with distinction to
+himself and with benefit to his country. In 1863 Cowley had
+inherited the estate of Draycot in Wiltshire from his kinsman
+the 5th earl of Mornington, and he lived in retirement until his
+death on the 15th of July 1884. He had married in 1833 Olivia
+Cecilia (d. 1885), daughter of Charlotte, baroness de Ros and
+Lord Henry Fitzgerald, by whom he had three sons and two
+daughters, and was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son,
+William Henry, 2nd Earl Cowley (1834-1895), father of Henry
+Arthur Mornington, 3rd earl (b. 1866).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWLEY FATHERS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> the name commonly given to the members
+of the Society of Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist, an
+Anglican religious community, the headquarters of which are
+in England, at Cowley St John, close to Oxford. The society
+was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M. Benson &ldquo;for the cultivation
+of a life dedicated to God according to the principles of
+poverty, chastity and obedience.&rdquo; The society, which is occupied
+both with educational and missionary work, has a house in
+London and branch houses at Bombay and Poona in India, at
+Cape Town and at St Cuthbert&rsquo;s, Kaffraria, in South Africa; and
+at Boston in the United States of America. The costume of the
+Cowley Fathers consists of a black frock or cassock confined by
+a black cord and a long black cloak.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWPENS,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a town of Spartanburg county, South Carolina,
+U.S.A., in the N. part of the state. Pop. (1900) 692; (1910) 1101.
+It is served by the Southern railway. In colonial days cattle
+were rounded up and branded here&mdash;whence the name. Seven
+miles N. of the town is the field of the battle of Cowpens, fought
+on the 17th of January 1781, during the War of American
+Independence, between the Americans under Gen. Daniel
+Morgan and the British under Gen. Banastre Tarleton, the
+British being defeated. A monument was erected on the battlefield
+in 1859, but was much defaced during the Civil War. The
+town of Cowpens was founded in 1876, and was incorporated
+in 1880.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl</span> (c. 1665-1723),
+lord chancellor of England, was the son of Sir William Cowper,
+Bart., of Ratling Court, Kent, a Whig member of parliament
+of some mark in the two last Stuart reigns. Educated at St
+Albans school, Cowper was called to the bar in 1688; having
+promptly given his allegiance to the prince of Orange on his
+landing in England, he was made recorder of Colchester in 1694,
+and in 1695 entered parliament as member for Hertford. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span>
+enjoyed a large practice at the bar, and had the reputation of
+being one of the most effective parliamentary orators of his
+generation. He lost his seat in parliament in 1702 owing to
+the unpopularity caused by the trial of his brother Spencer on
+a charge of murder. In 1705 he was appointed lord keeper of
+the great seal, and took his seat on the woolsack without a peerage.
+In the following year he conducted the negotiations between the
+English and Scottish commissioners for arranging the union
+with Scotland. In November of the same year (1706) he succeeded
+to his father&rsquo;s baronetcy; and on the 14th of December he was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Cowper of Wingham, Kent.</p>
+
+<p>When the union with Scotland came into operation in May
+1707 the queen in council named Cowper lord high chancellor
+of Great Britain, he being the first to hold this office. He presided
+at the trial of Dr Sacheverell in 1710, but resigned the seal when
+Harley and Bolingbroke took office in the same year. On the
+death of Queen Anne, George I. appointed Cowper one of the
+lords justices for governing the country during the king&rsquo;s
+absence, and a few weeks later he again became lord chancellor.
+A paper which he drew up for the guidance of the new king on
+constitutional matters, entitled <i>An Impartial History of Parties</i>,
+marks the advance of English opinion towards party government
+in the modern sense. It was published by Lord Campbell in
+his <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>. Cowper supported the impeachment
+of Lord Oxford for high treason in 1715, and in 1716
+presided as lord high steward at the trials of the peers charged
+with complicity in the Jacobite rising, his sentences on whom
+have been censured as unnecessarily severe. He warmly supported
+the septennial bill in the same year. On the 18th of
+March 1718 he was created Viscount Fordwich and Earl Cowper,
+and a month later he resigned office on the plea of ill-health, but
+probably in reality because George I. accused him of espousing
+the prince of Wales&rsquo;s side in his quarrel with the king. Taking
+the lead against his former colleagues, Cowper opposed the
+proposal brought forward in 1719 to limit the number of peers,
+and also the bill of pains and penalties against Atterbury in
+1723. In his last years he was accused, but probably without
+reason, of active sympathy with the Jacobites. He died at his
+residence, Colne Green, built by himself on the site of the present
+mansion of Panshanger on the 10th of October 1723.</p>
+
+<p>Cowper was not a great lawyer, but Burnet says that &ldquo;he
+managed the court of chancery with impartial justice and great
+despatch&rdquo;; the most eminent of his contemporaries agreed in
+extolling his oratory and his virtues. He was twice married&mdash;first,
+about 1686, to Judith, daughter and heiress of Sir Robert
+Booth, a London merchant; and secondly, in 1706, to Mary,
+daughter of John Clavering, of Chopwell, Durham. Swift
+(<i>Examiner</i>, xvii., xxii.) alludes to an allegation that Cowper
+had been guilty of bigamy, a slander for which there appears to
+have been no solid foundation. His younger brother, Spencer
+Cowper (1669-1728), was tried for the murder of Sarah Stout in
+1699, but was acquitted; the lady, who had fallen in love with
+Cowper, having in fact committed suicide on account of his
+inattention. He was one of the managers of the impeachment
+of Sacheverell; was attorney-general to the prince of Wales
+(1714), chief justice of Chester (1717), and judge of the common
+pleas (1727). He was grandfather of William Cowper, the poet.</p>
+
+<p>The 1st earl left two sons and two daughters by his second
+wife. The eldest son, William (1709-1764), who succeeded to
+the title, assumed the name of Clavering in addition to that of
+Cowper on the death of his maternal uncle. His wife was a
+daughter of the earl of Grantham, and grand-daughter of the
+earl of Ossory. The son of this marriage, George Nassau, 3rd
+Earl Cowper (1738-1789), inherited the estates of the earl of
+Grantham; and in 1778 he was created by the emperor Joseph
+II. a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The 5th earl (1778-1837)
+married a daughter of Lord Melbourne, the prime minister,
+by whom he had two sons; and his widow married as her second
+husband Lord Palmerston, who devised his property of Broadlands
+to her second son, William Francis Cowper-Temple (1811-1888),
+who was created Baron Mount Temple in 1880. The
+elder son, George Augustus Frederick (1806-1856), 6th Earl
+Cowper, married Anne Florence, daughter of Thomas Philip,
+earl de Grey; and this lady at her father&rsquo;s death became <i>suo
+jure</i> baroness Lucas of Cradwell. Francis Thomas de Grey,
+7th Earl Cowper (1834-1905), in addition to the other family
+titles, became in 1871 10th Baron Dingwall in the peerage of
+Scotland, and 8th Baron Butler of Moore Park in the peerage
+of Ireland as heir-general of Thomas, earl of Ossory, son of the
+1st duke of Ormonde; the attainder of 1715 affecting those
+titles having been reversed in July 1871. On the death of his
+mother he also inherited the barony of Lucas of Cradwell. On
+the death without issue in 1905 of the 7th earl, who was lord
+lieutenant of Ireland 1880-1882, the earldom and barony of
+Cowper, together with the viscountcy of Fordwich, became
+extinct; the barony of Butler fell into abeyance among his
+sisters and their heirs, and the baronies of Lucas and Dingwall
+devolved on his nephew, Auberon Thomas Herbert (b. 1876).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Private Diary of Earl Cowper</i>, edited by E. C. Hawtrey for the
+Roxburghe Club (Eton, 1833); <i>The Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper</i>,
+edited by the Hon. Spencer Cowper (London, 1864); Lord Campbell,
+<i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal</i> (8 vols.,
+London, 1845-1869); Edward Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (9 vols.,
+London, 1848-1864); Gilbert Burnet, <i>History of his Own Time</i>
+(6 vols., Oxford, 1833); T. B. Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, vol. xii.-xv.
+(33 vols., London, 1809-1828); G. E. C., <i>Complete Peerage</i> (London,
+1889).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWPER, WILLIAM<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1731-1800), English poet, was born in
+the rectory (now rebuilt) of Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire,
+on the 26th of November (O.S. 15th) 1731, his father the Rev.
+John Cowper being rector of the parish as well as a chaplain to
+George II. On both the father&rsquo;s and the mother&rsquo;s side he was
+of ancient lineage. The father could trace his family back to
+the time of Edward IV. when the Cowpers were Sussex landowners,
+while his mother, Ann, daughter of Roger Donne of
+Ludham Hall, Norfolk, was of the same race as the poet Donne,
+and the family claimed to have Plantagenet blood in its veins.
+Of more human interest were Cowper&rsquo;s immediate predecessors.
+His grandfather was that Spencer Cowper who, after being tried
+for his life on a charge of murder, lived to be a judge of the court
+of common pleas, while his elder brother became lord chancellor
+and Earl Cowper, a title which became extinct in 1905. Here is
+the poet&rsquo;s genealogical tree.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:321px" src="images/img349.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Rev. John Cowper was twice married. Cowper&rsquo;s mother,
+to whom the memorable lines were written beginning &ldquo;Oh that
+these lips had language,&rdquo; was his first wife. She died in 1737
+at the age of thirty-four, when the poet was but six years old,
+and she is buried in Berkhampstead church. Cowper&rsquo;s stepmother
+is buried in Bath, and a tablet on the walls of the cathedral
+commemorates her memory. The father, who appears to have
+been a conscientious clergyman with no special interest in his
+sons, died in 1756 and was buried in the Cowper tomb at Panshanger.
+Only one other of his seven children grew to manhood&mdash;John,
+who was born in 1737.</p>
+
+<p>The poet appears to have attended a dame&rsquo;s school in earliest
+infancy, but on his mother&rsquo;s death, when he was six years old,
+he was sent to boarding-school, to a Dr Pitman at Markyate, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span>
+village 6 m. from Berkhampstead. From 1738 to 1741 he was
+placed in the care of an oculist, as he suffered from inflammation
+of the eyes. In the latter year he was sent to Westminster
+school, where he had Warren Hastings, Impey, Lloyd, Churchill
+and Colman for schoolfellows. It was at the Markyate school
+that he suffered the tyranny that he commemorated in <i>Tirocinium</i>.
+His days at Westminster, Southey thinks, were &ldquo;probably the
+happiest in his life,&rdquo; but a boy of nervous temperament is always
+unhappy at school. At the age of eighteen Cowper entered a
+solicitor&rsquo;s office in Ely Place, Holborn. Here he had Thurlow,
+the future lord chancellor, as a fellow-clerk, and it is stated that
+Thurlow promised to help his less pushful comrade in the days
+of realized ambition. Three years in Ely Place were rendered
+happy by frequent visits to his uncle Ashley&rsquo;s house in Southampton
+Row, where he fell deeply in love with his cousin
+Theodora Cowper. At twenty-one years of age he took chambers
+in the Middle Temple, where we first hear of the dejection of
+spirits that accompanied him periodically through manhood.
+He was called to the bar in 1754. In 1759 he removed to the
+Inner Temple and was made a commissioner of bankrupts. His
+devotion to his cousin, however, was a source of unhappiness. Her
+father, possibly influenced by Cowper&rsquo;s melancholy tendencies,
+perhaps possessed by prejudices against the marriage of cousins,
+interposed, and the lovers were separated&mdash;as it turned out for
+ever. During three years he was a member of the Nonsense
+Club with his two schoolfellows from Westminster, Churchill
+and Lloyd, and he wrote sundry verses in magazines and translated
+two books of Voltaire&rsquo;s <i>Henriade</i>. A crisis occurred in
+Cowper&rsquo;s life when his cousin Major Cowper nominated him to
+a clerkship in the House of Lords. It involved a preliminary
+appearance at the bar of the house. The prospect drove him
+insane, and he attempted suicide; he purchased poison, he placed
+a penknife at his heart, but hesitated to apply either measure
+of self-destruction. He has told, in dramatic manner, of his
+more desperate endeavour to hang himself with a garter. Here
+he all but succeeded. His friends were informed, and he was
+sent to a private lunatic asylum at St Albans, where he remained
+for eighteen months under the charge of Dr Nathaniel Cotton,
+the author of <i>Visions</i>. Upon his recovery he removed to
+Huntingdon in order to be near his brother John, who was a
+fellow of St Benet&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. John had visited his
+brother at St Albans and arranged this. An attempt to secure
+suitable lodgings nearer to Cambridge had been ineffectual. In
+June 1765 he reached Huntingdon, and his life here was essentially
+happy. His illness had broken him off from all his old friends
+save only his cousin Lady Hesketh, Theodora&rsquo;s sister, but new
+acquaintances were made, the Unwins being the most valued.
+This family consisted of Morley Unwin (a clergyman), his wife
+Mary, and his son (William) and daughter (Susannah). The son
+struck up a warm friendship which his family shared. Cowper
+entered the circle as a boarder in November (1765). All went
+serenely until in July 1767 Morley Unwin was thrown from his
+horse and killed. A very short time before this event the Unwins
+had received a visit from the Rev. John Newton (<i>q.v.</i>), the curate
+of Olney in Buckinghamshire, with whom they became friends.
+Newton suggested that the widow and her children with Cowper
+should take up their abode in Olney. This was achieved in the
+closing months of 1767. Here Cowper was to reside for nineteen
+years, and he was to render the town and its neighbourhood
+memorable by his presence and by his poetry. His residence
+in the Market Place was converted into a Cowper Museum a
+hundred years after his death, in 1900. Here his life went on its
+placid course, interrupted only by the death of his brother in
+1770, until 1773, when he became again deranged. It can scarcely
+be doubted that this second attack interrupted the contemplated
+marriage of Cowper with Mary Unwin, although Southey could
+find no evidence of the circumstance and Newton was not informed
+of it. J. C. Bailey brings final evidence of this (<i>The
+Poems of Cowper</i>, page 15). The fact was kept secret in later
+years in order to spare the feelings of Theodora Cowper, who
+thought that her cousin had remained as faithful as she had done
+to their early love.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1776 that the poet&rsquo;s mind cleared again. In
+1779 he made his first appearance as an author by the <i>Olney
+Hymns</i>, written in conjunction with Newton, Cowper&rsquo;s verses
+being indicated by a &ldquo;C.&rdquo; Mrs Unwin suggested secular verse,
+and Cowper wrote much, and in 1782 when he was fifty-one
+years old there appeared <i>Poems of William Cowper of the Inner
+Temple, Esq.: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul&rsquo;s
+Churchyard</i>. The volume contained &ldquo;Table Talk,&rdquo; &ldquo;The
+Progress of Error,&rdquo; &ldquo;Truth,&rdquo; &ldquo;Expostulation&rdquo; and much else
+that survives to be read in our day by virtue of the poet&rsquo;s finer
+work. This finer work was the outcome of his friendship with
+Lady Austen, a widow who, on a visit to her sister, the wife of the
+vicar of the neighbouring village of Clifton, made the acquaintance
+of Cowper and Mrs Unwin. The three became great friends.
+Lady Austen determined to give up her house in London and to
+settle in Olney. She suggested <i>The Task</i> and inspired <i>John
+Gilpin</i> and <i>The Royal George</i>. But in 1784 the friendship was at
+an end, doubtless through Mrs Unwin&rsquo;s jealousy of Lady Austen.
+Cowper&rsquo;s second volume appeared in 1785;&mdash;<i>The Task: A Poem
+in Six Books. By William Cowper of the Inner Temple, Esq.; To
+which are added by the same author An Epistle to Joseph Hill, Esq.,
+Tirocinium or a Review of Schools, and the History of John
+Gilpin: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul&rsquo;s Church
+Yard; 1785.</i> His first book had been a failure, one critic even
+declaring that &ldquo;Mr Cowper was certainly a good, pious man, but
+without one spark of poetic fire.&rdquo; This second book was an
+instantaneous success, and indeed marks an epoch in literary
+history. But before its publication&mdash;in 1784&mdash;the poet had
+commenced the translation of Homer. In 1786 his life at Olney
+was cheered by Lady Hesketh taking up a temporary residence
+there. The cousins met after an interval of twenty-three years,
+and Lady Hesketh was to be Cowper&rsquo;s good angel to the end, even
+though her letters disclose a considerable impatience with Mrs
+Unwin. At the end of 1786 a removal was made to Weston
+Underwood, the neighbouring village which Cowper had
+frequently visited as the guest of his Roman Catholic friends the
+Throckmortons. This was to be his home for yet another ten
+years. Here he completed his translation of Homer, materially
+assisted by Mr Throckmorton&rsquo;s chaplain Dr Gregson. There are
+six more months of insanity to record in 1787. In 1790, a
+year before the <i>Homer</i> was published, commenced his friendship
+with his cousin John Johnson, known to all biographers of the
+poet as &ldquo;Johnny of Norfolk.&rdquo; Johnson also aspired to be a
+poet, and visited his cousin armed with a manuscript. Cowper
+discouraged the poetry, but loved the writer, and the two
+became great friends. New friends were wanted, for in 1792 Mrs
+Unwin had a paralytic stroke, and henceforth she was a hopeless
+invalid. A new and valued friend of this period was Hayley,
+famous in his own day as a poet and in history for his association
+with Romney and Cowper. He was drawn to Cowper by the fact
+that both were contemplating an edition of &ldquo;Milton,&rdquo; Cowper
+having received a commission to edit, writing notes and translating
+the Latin and Italian poems. The work was never completed.
+In 1794 Cowper was again insane and his lifework was
+over. In the following year a removal took place into Norfolk
+under the loving care of John Johnson. Johnson took Cowper and
+Mary Unwin to North Tuddenham, thence to Mundesley, then to
+Dunham Lodge, near Swaffham, and finally in October 1796 they
+moved to East Dereham. In December of that year Mrs Unwin
+died. Cowper lingered on, dying on the 25th of April 1800. The
+poet is buried near Mrs Unwin in East Dereham church.</p>
+
+<p>Cowper is among the poets who are epoch-makers. He brought
+a new spirit into English verse, and redeemed it from the artificiality
+and the rhetoric of many of his predecessors. With him
+began the &ldquo;enthusiasm of humanity&rdquo; that was afterwards to
+become so marked in the poetry of Burns and Shelley, Wordsworth
+and Byron. With him began the deep sympathy with
+nature, and love of animal life, which was to characterize so
+much of later poetry.</p>
+
+<p>Although Cowper cannot rank among the world&rsquo;s greatest
+poets or even among the most distinguished of poets of his own
+country, his place is a very high one. He had what is a rare
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
+quality among English poets, the gift of humour, which was very
+singularly absent from others who possessed many other of the
+higher qualities of the intellect. Certain of his poems, moreover,&mdash;for
+example, &ldquo;To Mary,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Receipt of my Mother&rsquo;s
+Portrait,&rdquo; and the ballad &ldquo;On the Loss of the Royal George,&rdquo;&mdash;will,
+it may safely be affirmed, continue to be familiar to each
+successive generation in a way that pertains to few things in
+literature. Added to this, one may note Cowper&rsquo;s distinction as a
+letter-writer. He ranks among the half-dozen greatest letter-writers
+in the English language, and he was perhaps the only
+great letter-writer with whom the felicity was due to the power of
+what he has seen rather than what he has read.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The first important life of Cowper was by Hayley
+in 1803. In its complete form it appeared in 4 volumes in 1806 and
+was reprinted in 1809 and 1812. It was reprinted again by the Rev.
+T. S. Grimshawe with the Correspondence in 8 volumes in 1835.
+Robert Southey&rsquo;s much more valuable <i>Life and Letters</i> appeared
+also in 15 volumes in 1834-1837. The <i>Private Correspondence</i>, edited
+by John Johnson, appeared in 2 volumes in 1824 and again in 1835.
+The <i>Complete Correspondence</i>, edited by Thomas Wright, was published
+in 1904, but more correspondence appeared in <i>Notes and
+Queries</i>, July, August and September 1904, and in <i>The Poems of
+William Cowper</i>, edited by J. C. Bailey (1905). Edward Dowden
+unearthed new correspondence with William Hayley in <i>The Atlantic
+Monthly</i> (1907). Short lives of Cowper have appeared in many
+quarters, from Thomas Taylor&rsquo;s (1833) to Goldwin Smith&rsquo;s in the
+&ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series (1880). Another brief biography
+of great merit is attached to the Globe edition of Cowper&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>.
+Essays by Leslie Stephen, Stopford Brooke, Whitwell Elwin, George
+Eliot and Walter Bagehot deserve attention. See also St Beuve&rsquo;s
+<i>Causeries du Lundi</i> (1868), vol. xi.; <i>Letters of Lady Hesketh to John
+Johnson</i> (1901); <i>John Newton</i>, by the Rev. Josiah Bull (1868);
+<i>Cowper and Mary Unwin</i>, by Caroline Gearey (1900); and <i>A Concordance
+to the Poetic Works of William Cowper</i>, by John Neave
+(1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><span class="fn">1</span> Alderman Cooper thus spelt his name and all the family from
+that day to this, including the poet, have so pronounced it.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COWRY,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> the popular name of the shells of the <i>Cypraeida</i>, a
+family of mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized,
+and they are widely distributed over the world&mdash;their habitat
+being the shallow water along the sea-shore. The best known
+is the money cowry or <i>Cypraea moneta</i>, a small shell about half
+an inch in length, white and straw-coloured without and blue
+within, which derives its distinctive name from the fact that in
+various countries it has been employed as a kind of currency.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shell-money</a></span>.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the
+Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the
+shells are in demand as fashionable decorations, just as in
+Germany they were in use as an ornament for horses&rsquo; harness, and
+were popular enough to acquire several native names, such as
+<i>Brustharnisch</i> or breastplates, and <i>Otterköpfchen</i> or little adders&rsquo;
+heads. Besides the <i>Cypraea moneta</i> various species are employed
+in this decorative use. The <i>Cypraea aurora</i> is a mark of chieftainship
+among the natives of the Friendly Islands; the <i>Cypraea
+annulus</i> is a favourite with the Asiatic islanders; and several of
+the larger kinds have been used in Europe for the carving of
+cameos. The tiger cowry, <i>Cypraea tigris</i>, so well known as a
+mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly
+used by the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets;
+and they have also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of
+several shells into a smooth oval ball which they then employ as a
+bait to catch the cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned
+occur in myriads in their respective habitats, the <i>Cypraea princeps</i>
+and the <i>Cypraea umbilicata</i> are extremely rare.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COW-TREE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Milk-tree</span>, <i>Brosimum Galactodendron</i> (natural
+order Moraceae), a native of Venezuela. As in other members of
+the order, the stem contains a milky latex, which flows out in
+considerable quantities when a notch is cut in it. The &ldquo;milk&rdquo;
+is sweet and pleasant tasting. Another species, <i>B. Alicastrum</i>,
+the bread-nut tree, a native of central America and Jamaica,
+bears a fruit which is cooked and eaten. The bread-fruit
+(<i>Artocarpus</i>) is an allied genus of the same natural order.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, DAVID<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1783-1859), English painter, was born on the
+29th of April 1783, in a small house attached to the forge of his
+father, a hardworking master smith, in a mean suburb of Birmingham.
+Turning his hand to what he could get to do, Joseph Cox,
+the father, was both blacksmith and whitesmith, and when the
+war with France began took to the making of bayonets and horse
+shoes, on wholesale commission, and immediately the boy David
+was thought able to assist he was taken from the poor elementary
+school in the neighbourhood, and set to the anvil. The attempt
+to turn the boy to this kind of labour had, however, been made
+too early; it was too heavy for his strength, and he was sent to
+what was called by the cyclops of Birmingham a &ldquo;toy trade,&rdquo;
+making lacquered buckles, painted lockets, tin snuff-boxes and
+other &ldquo;fancy&rdquo; articles. Here David very soon acquired some
+power of painting miniatures, and his talents might have been
+misdirected had his master, Fieldler by name, not released him
+from his apprenticeship by dying by his own hand; and David
+found an opening as colour-grinder and scene-painter&rsquo;s fag in the
+theatre then leased, with several others, by the father of
+Macready, the tragedian.</p>
+
+<p>This obscure step, not one of promotion at the time, was really
+the most important incident in the uneventful career of Cox.
+The boy, who had inherited a rather weakly body, and had been
+trained with care by a pious mother, while intellectually negative
+and unable to cope with any kind of learning whatever, had
+endless perseverance, great strength of application, and all
+through life remained genial, gentle, simple-minded and modest,
+his penetration and self-reliance being wholly professional,
+inspired by his love of nature and his knowledge of his subject.
+Not very quick, and with little versatility, he went step by step
+in one line of study from the time he began to get the smallest
+remuneration for his pictures to the age of seventy-five, when he
+painted large in oil very much the same class of subjects he had
+of old produced small in water-colours, with the same impressive
+and unaffectedly noble sentiment, only increased by the mastery
+of almost infinite practice. He was never led astray by fictitious
+splendour of any kind, except once indeed in 1825, when he
+imitated Turner, and produced a classic subject he called
+&ldquo;Carthage, Aeneas, and Achates.&rdquo; He never visited Venice or
+Egypt, or crossed the Channel except for a week or two in
+Belgium and Paris, and never even went to Scotland for painting
+purposes. Bettws-y-Coed and its neighbourhood was everything
+to him, and characteristics most truly English were beloved by
+him with a sort of filial instinct. So completely did he love the
+country, that even London, where it was his interest to live, had
+few attractions, and did not retain him long.</p>
+
+<p>This residence in the metropolis which began in 1804 was,
+however, of the most essential educational advantage to him.
+The Water-Colour Society was established the year after he
+arrived, and was mainly supported by landscape-painters. He
+was not, of course, admitted at first into membership, not till 1813,
+before which time an attempt to establish a rival exhibition had
+been made. In this Cox joined, the result being very serious to
+him, an entire failure entailing the seizure and forced sale of all
+the pictures. At that time the tightest economy was the rule
+with him, and to save the trifling cost of new strainers or stretching
+boards, he covered up one picture by another. When these
+works were prepared for re-sale, fifty years afterwards, some of
+them yielded picture after picture, peeled off the boards like the
+waistcoats from the body of the gravedigger in Hamlet!</p>
+
+<p>While lodging near Astley&rsquo;s Circus he married his landlady&rsquo;s
+daughter, and then took a modest cottage at Dulwich, where he
+gradually left off scene-painting and became teacher, giving
+lessons at ten shillings a lesson. This entailed walking to the
+pupils&rsquo; homes, and the gift of the paintings done before the pupils.
+These have since been frequently sold for large sums, but his own
+price, when lucky enough to sell his best works, was never over
+a few pounds, and more frequently about fifteen shillings.
+Sometimes, indeed, he sold them in quantities at two pounds a
+dozen to be resold to country teachers. By and by he resisted the
+leaving of the work done to the pupil, but with little advantage
+to himself, as he saw no end to the accumulation of his own
+productions, and actually tore them up, and threw them into
+areas, or pushed them into drains during his trudge homeward.
+A number of years after he pointed out a particular drain to a
+friend, and said, &ldquo;Many a work of mine has gone down that way
+to the Thames!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after he had turned thirty, his stay in London suddenly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
+ended. He was offered the enormous sum of £100 per annum,
+by a ladies&rsquo; college in Hereford, and thither he went. This sum he
+supplemented by teaching in the Hereford grammar school for
+many years, at six guineas a year, and in other schools at better
+pay, but still, and up to his fortieth year, we find his prices for
+pictures from eight to twenty-five shillings. Cox has no history
+apart from his productions, and these particulars as to his
+remuneration possess an interest almost dramatic when we
+contrast them with the enormous sums realized by his later
+works, and with the &ldquo;honours and observance, troops of friends,&rdquo;
+that accompanied old age with him, when settled down in his own
+home at Harborne, near his native town, where he died on the
+7th of June 1859.</p>
+
+<p>Cox&rsquo;s second short residence in London, dating from 1835 to
+1840, marks the period of his highest powers. During those
+years, and for twelve years after, his productiveness kept pace
+with his mastery, and it would be difficult to overrate the
+impressiveness of effect, and high feeling, within the narrow range
+of subject displayed by many of these works. He was now
+surrounded by dealers, and wealth flowed in upon him. Still he
+remained the same, a man with few wants and scarcely any
+enjoyments except those furnished by his brush and his colours.
+The home at Harborne was a pleasant one, but the approach to
+the front was useless as the door was kept fastened up, the only
+entrance being through the garden at the back, and the principal
+room appropriated as his studio he was content to reach by a
+narrow stair from the kitchen. Neither in it nor elsewhere was
+there any luxury or even taste visible:&mdash;no <i>bric-à-brac</i>, no
+objects of interest, few or no books, no pictures except landscapes
+by his friends. When in winter, after his wife&rsquo;s death, the fire
+went out, and the cold at last surprised him, he lifted his easel
+into the little dining-room and began again. A union of his friends
+was formed in 1855 to procure a portrait of him, which was
+painted by Sir J. Watson Gordon; and an exhibition of his works
+was opened in London in 1858 and again another in 1859. This
+was actually open when the news of his death arrived.</p>
+
+<p>The number of David Cox&rsquo;s works, great and small, is enormous.
+He produced hundreds annually for perhaps forty-five years.
+Before his death and for ten years thereafter, their prices were
+remarkable, as witness the following obtained at auction&mdash;&ldquo;Going
+to the Mill,&rdquo; £1575; &ldquo;Old Mill at Bettws-y-Coed,&rdquo;
+£1575; &ldquo;Outskirts of a Wood, with Gipsies,&rdquo; £2305; &ldquo;Peace
+and War,&rdquo; £3430.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hall, <i>Biography of David Cox</i> (1881).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B. Sc.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1827-1902), English divine
+and scholar, was born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares,
+India, and was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford.
+In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860 took a mastership at
+Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year. He had
+already contributed to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, and had published
+in 1850 <i>Poems, Legendary and Historical</i> (with E. A. Freeman),
+and in 1853 a <i>Life of St Boniface</i>. From 1861 he devoted himself
+entirely to literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and
+comparative mythology. Many of his works were avowedly
+popular in character, and the most important, the <i>History of
+Greece</i>, has been superseded and is now of little value. His
+studies in mythology were inspired by Max Müller, but his
+treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme
+supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of
+myths. He also edited (with W. T. Brande) <i>A Dictionary of
+Science, Literature and Art</i> (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded
+to the baronetcy in 1877) was a Broad Churchman, and a
+prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in 1863-1865; and five
+years after Colenso&rsquo;s death he published (1888) his <i>Life</i> of the
+bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but was
+refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham,
+York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a
+civil list pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February
+1902.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Works.</span>&mdash;<i>Tales from Greek Mythology</i> (1861); <i>A Manual of
+Mythology</i> (1867); <i>Latin and Teutonic Christendom</i> (1870); <i>The
+Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i> (1870, new ed., 1882); <i>History
+of Greece</i> (1874); <i>General History of Greece</i> (1876); <i>History of the
+Establishment of British Rule in India</i>, and <i>An Introduction to the
+Science of Comparative Mythology</i> (1881); <i>Lives of Greek Statesmen</i>
+(1885); <i>Concise History of England</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, JACOB DOLSON<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1828-1900), American general, political
+leader and educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828
+in Montreal, Canada. His father, a shipbuilder of German
+descent (Koch), and his mother, a descendant of William Brewster,
+were natives of New York City, where the boy grew up, studying
+law in an office in 1842-1844, and working in a broker&rsquo;s office in
+1844-1846, and where, under the influence of Charles G. Finney
+(1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards married, he prepared
+himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin College in
+1851, having in the meantime given up his theological studies in
+rebellion at Finney&rsquo;s dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was superintendent
+of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted
+to the Ohio bar, being at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in
+1859 was elected to the state senate, in which with Garfield and
+James Monroe (1821-1898) he formed the &ldquo;Radical Triumvirate,&rdquo;
+Cox himself presenting a petition for a personal liberty law and
+urging woman&rsquo;s rights, especially larger property rights to married
+women. Appointed by Governor Dennison one of three brigadiers-general
+of militia in 1860, he eagerly undertook the study of
+tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great
+assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted
+himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children,
+and in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He
+took part in the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the
+Kanawha region, in supreme command after Rosecrans&rsquo;s relief
+in the spring, until August 1862, when his troops were ordered to
+join Burnside&rsquo;s 9th Corps in Virginia. After the death at his
+side of General Reno in the battle of South Mountain, and during
+Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the close of the
+campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general,
+U.S.V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-December
+1863 he was head of the department of Ohio. In
+1864 he took part in the Atlanta campaign under Sherman, as a
+divisional and subsequently corps-commander: at the battle
+of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps, and he served at
+Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman into
+the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at
+Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as
+such advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted
+area, and sympathized with President Johnson&rsquo;s programme of
+Reconstruction and worked for a compromise between Johnson
+and his opponents, although he finally deserted Johnson. In
+1868 he was chairman of the Republican national convention
+which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the interior in
+1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock
+and urged by President Grant; introduced the merit system
+in his department, and resigned in October 1870 because of
+pressure put on him by politicians piqued at his prohibition of
+campaign levies on his clerks, and because of the interference
+of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan&rsquo;s attempt by legal
+proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California
+mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became
+president in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo
+&amp; Wabash &amp; Western. In 1877-1879 he was a representative in
+Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he was dean of the Cincinnati
+law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president of the University of
+Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on the 4th
+of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a
+prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for
+microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is
+best known as one of the greatest &ldquo;civilian&rdquo; generals of the
+Civil War, and, with the possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the
+highest American authority of his time on military history,
+particularly the history of the American Civil War. He wrote
+<i>Atlanta</i> (New York, 1882) and <i>The March to the Sea, Franklin
+and Nashville</i> (New York, 1882), both in the series <i>Campaigns
+of the Civil War</i>; <i>The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span>
+with the Fitz-John Porter Case</i> (Cincinnati, 1882); and the
+valuable <i>Military Reminiscences of the Civil War</i> (2 vols., New
+York, 1900) published posthumously.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. R. Ewing, <i>Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox</i> (Washington,
+1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran,
+&ldquo;Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox,&rdquo;
+in <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, KENYON<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1856-&emsp;&emsp;), American painter, was born at
+Warren, Ohio, on the 27th of October 1856, being the son of
+Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was a pupil of Carolus-Duran and
+of J. L. Gérôme in Paris from 1877 to 1882, when he opened a
+studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much success
+in the Art Students&rsquo; League. His earlier work was mainly of
+the nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat
+conventional colour. Receiving little encouragement for such
+pictures, he turned to mural decorative work, in which he achieved
+prominence. Among his better-known examples are the frieze
+for the court room of the Appellate Court, New York, and decorations
+for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin College; for the
+Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public and private
+buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and is
+the author of the critical reviews, <i>Old Masters and New</i> (1905)
+and <i>Painters and Sculptors</i> (1907), besides some poems. He
+became a National Academician in 1903. His wife, <i>née</i> Louise
+H. King (b. 1865), whom he married in 1892, also became a
+figure and portrait-painter of note.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, RICHARD<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1500?-1581), dean of Westminster and
+bishop of Ely, was born of obscure parentage at Whaddon,
+Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500. He was educated at the
+Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near Whaddon, at
+Eton, and at King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, where he graduated
+B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey&rsquo;s invitation he became a member of
+the cardinal&rsquo;s new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A.
+in 1525, and created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in
+persuading the more unruly members of the university to approve
+of the king&rsquo;s divorce. A premature expression of Lutheran
+views is said to have caused his departure from Oxford and even
+his imprisonment, but the records are silent on these sufferings
+which do not harmonize with his appointment as master of the
+royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author of an
+ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D.
+at Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year
+subscribing the Institution of a Christian Man. In 1540 he was
+one of the fifteen divines to whom were referred crucial questions
+on the sacraments and the seat of authority in the Church; his
+answers (printed in Pocock&rsquo;s <i>Burnet</i>, iii. 443-496) indicate a
+mind tending away from Catholicism, but susceptible to &ldquo;the
+king&rsquo;s doctrine&rdquo;; and, indeed, Cox was one of the divines by
+whom Henry said the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Book&rdquo; had been drawn up when
+he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not
+exclusively his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the
+examination of Barnes, subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves,
+and in that year of reaction became archdeacon and prebendary
+of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was employed on other
+royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected bishopric
+of Southwell, and was made king&rsquo;s chaplain in 1542. In 1543
+he was employed to ferret out the &ldquo;Prebendaries&rsquo; Plot&rdquo; against
+Cranmer, and became the archbishop&rsquo;s chancellor. In December
+he was appointed dean of Oseney (afterwards Christ Church)
+Oxford, and in July was made almoner to Prince Edward, in
+whose education he took an active part. He was present at
+Dr Crome&rsquo;s recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and
+insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council.</p>
+
+<p>After Edward&rsquo;s accession, Cox&rsquo;s opinions took a more Protestant
+turn, and he became one of the most active agents of
+the Reformation. He was consulted on the compilation of the
+Communion office in 1548, and the first and second books of
+Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for the reform of the
+canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford (1547-1552)
+he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was
+a moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some
+success to eradicate everything savouring of popery from the
+books, MSS., ornaments and endowments of the university, and
+earned Cox the sobriquet of its cancellor rather than its chancellor.
+He received other rewards, a canonry of Windsor (1548),
+the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the deanery of Westminster
+(1549). He lost these preferments on Mary&rsquo;s accession, and was for
+a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the Marshalsea. He was
+not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he remained in
+obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt&rsquo;s rebellion, and then in
+May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop
+Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1555 he made his way to
+Frankfort, where he played an important part in the first struggle
+between Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the
+influence of Knox and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine
+and a form of service far more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book
+of 1552. Cox stood up for that service, and the exiles were divided
+into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox attacked Cox as a pluralist,
+Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor Charles V. This
+proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers
+were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored.</p>
+
+<p>In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of
+Norwich, but the queen changed her mind and Cox&rsquo;s destination
+to Ely, where he remained twenty-one years. He was an honest,
+but narrow-minded ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold
+intolerantly, and was always wanting more power to constrain
+those who differed from him (see his letter in <i>Hatfield MSS.</i> i.
+308). While he refused to minister in the queen&rsquo;s chapel because
+of the crucifix and lights there, and was a bitter enemy to the
+Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with the Puritans.
+He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in money
+matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who
+coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he
+refused to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher
+Hatton; but the well-known letter beginning &ldquo;Proud Prelate&rdquo;
+and threatening to unfrock him seems to be an impudent forgery
+which first saw the light in the <i>Annual Register</i> for 1761. It
+hardly, however, misrepresents the queen&rsquo;s meaning, and Cox
+was forced to give way. These and other trials led him to
+resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it remained vacant
+for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a
+monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely
+cathedral was defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute.
+Strype (Whitgift, i. 2) gives Cox&rsquo;s hot temper and marriage as
+reasons why he was not made archbishop in 1583 in preference to
+Whitgift, who had been his chaplain; but Cox had been dead two
+years in 1583. His first wife&rsquo;s name is unknown; she was the
+mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married the eldest
+son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of
+William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Voluminous details about Cox&rsquo;s life are given in Strype&rsquo;s Works,
+Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper&rsquo;s <i>Athenae Cantab.</i> i. 437-445. See also
+Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal.
+Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.;
+Whittingham&rsquo;s <i>Troubles at Frankfort</i>; Machyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>; Pocock&rsquo;s
+<i>Burnet</i>; Bentham&rsquo;s <i>Ely</i>; Willis&rsquo;s <i>Cathedrals</i>; Le Neve&rsquo;s <i>Fasti</i>;
+R. W. Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Church History</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, SAMUEL<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine,
+was born in London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years
+he worked as an apprentice in the London docks, and then
+entered the Baptist College at Stepney. In 1851 he became
+pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea, removing in 1855 to Ryde,
+and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of the Baptist
+Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St
+Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor
+and was the founder and first editor of a monthly journal <i>The
+Expositor</i> (1875-1884). Among the best known of his numerous
+theological publications are <i>Salvator Mundi</i> (1877), <i>A Commentary
+on the Book of Job</i> (1880), <i>The Larger Hope</i> (1883).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COX, SAMUEL HANSON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1793-1880), American Presbyterian
+divine, was born at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793,
+of Quaker stock. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church at
+Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of two churches in New York
+from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the University of the
+City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor of pastoral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
+theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in
+active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat
+affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville,
+N.Y., on the 2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a
+speech made in Exeter Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility
+for slavery in America on the British government, made
+a great impression. It was he who described the appellation
+D.D. as a couple of &ldquo;semi-lunar fardels.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Arthur Cleveland Coxe</span> (1818-1896), who changed
+the spelling of the family name, graduated at the University of
+the City of New York in 1838 and at the General Theological
+Seminary in 1841. He was rector of St John&rsquo;s Church, Hartford,
+in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in 1854-1863, and of
+Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he became
+assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He
+was strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe
+wrote spirited defences of Anglican orders and published several
+volumes of verse, notably <i>Christian Ballads</i> (1845).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COXCIE, MICHAEL<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1499-1592), Flemish painter, was born at
+Malines, and studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably
+induced him to visit Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the
+chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in the church of Santa Maria
+dell&rsquo; Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says with truth &ldquo;that he
+fairly acquired the manner of an Italian.&rdquo; But Coxcie&rsquo;s principal
+occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable of Psyche
+in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of the
+Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent
+residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice
+in this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed
+under an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie
+returned in 1539 to Malines, where he matriculated, and painted
+for the chapel of the gild of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece
+now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The centre of this altarpiece,
+by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the Virgin;
+the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision
+of St John in Patmos. At van Orley&rsquo;s death in 1541 Coxcie
+succeeded to the office of court painter to the regent Mary of
+Hungary, for whom he decorated the castle of Binche. He was
+subsequently patronized by Charles V., who often coupled his
+works with those of Titian; by Philip II., who paid him royally
+for a copy of van Eyck&rsquo;s &ldquo;Agnus Dei&rdquo;; and by the duke of Alva,
+who once protected him from the insults of Spanish soldiery at
+Malines. There are large and capital works of his (1587-1588) in
+St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in the
+museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque
+grafted on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it
+distantly recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation
+and stiffness. He died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1811-1881), English librarian and
+scholar, was born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of
+September 1811. He was educated at Westminster school and
+Worcester College, Oxford. Immediately on taking his degree in
+1833, he began work in the manuscript department of the British
+Museum, became in 1838 sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford,
+and in 1860 succeeded Dr Bandinel as head librarian, an office he
+held until his death in 1881. Having proved himself an able
+palaeographer, he was sent out by the British government in
+1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries of the Levant.
+He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks were
+too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his
+travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine
+Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under
+his direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was
+completed. He published <i>Rogeri de Wendover Chronica</i>, 5 vols.
+(1841-1844); the <i>Black Prince, an historical poem written in
+French by Chandos Herald</i> (1842); and <i>Report on the Greek
+Manuscripts yet remaining in the Libraries of the Levant</i> (1858).
+He was not only an accurate librarian but an active and hardworking
+clergyman, and was for the last twenty-five years of his
+life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near Oxford. He was
+likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi Colleges.
+He died on the 8th of July 1881.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COXE, WILLIAM<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr
+William Coxe, physician to the royal household, was born in
+London on the 7th of March 1747. Educated at Marylebone
+grammar school and at Eton College, he proceeded to King&rsquo;s
+College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this society in
+1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited many
+parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various
+noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of
+Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire.
+He also held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 1811 and that
+of Fovant from 1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made
+prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire.
+He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter of William Shairp, consul-general
+for Russia, and widow of Thomas Yeldham of St Petersburg.
+He died on the 8th of June 1828.</p>
+
+<p>During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied
+in literary work. His <i>Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole</i> (London,
+1798), <i>Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole</i> (London, 1802), <i>Memoirs
+of John, duke of Marlborough</i> (London, 1818-1819), <i>Private and
+Original Correspondence of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury</i>
+(London, 1821), <i>Memoirs of the Administrations of Henry Pelham</i>
+(London, 1829), are very valuable for the history of the 18th
+century. His <i>History of the House of Austria</i> (London, 1807,
+new ed. 1853 and 1873), and <i>Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings of
+Spain</i> (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking
+work on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his
+works, is remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts
+of his travels: <i>Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State
+of Switzerland</i> (London, 1779), <i>Account of the Russian Discoveries
+between Asia and America</i> (London, 1780), <i>Account of Prisons
+and Hospitals in Russia, Sweden and Denmark</i> (London, 1781),
+<i>Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden and Denmark</i> (London, 1784),
+<i>Travels in Switzerland</i> (London, 1789), <i>Letter on Secret Tribunals
+of Westphalia</i> (London, 1796), <i>Historical Tour in Monmouthshire</i>
+(London, 1801). He also edited Gay&rsquo;s <i>Fables</i>, and wrote a <i>Life
+of John Gay</i> (Salisbury, 1797), <i>Anecdotes of G. F. Handel and
+J. C. Smith</i> (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor
+importance. Some of his books have been translated into
+French, and several have gone through two or more editions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COXSWAIN<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (properly &ldquo;cockswain,&rdquo; and pronounced <i>cox&rsquo;n</i>,
+usually shortened to &ldquo;cox&rdquo;; from &ldquo;cock,&rdquo; a small boat, and
+<i>swain</i>, a servant), in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship&rsquo;s
+boat and its crew, who steers; the coxswain of the captain&rsquo;s
+gig takes a special rank among petty officers. In the National
+Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain the &ldquo;coxswain&rdquo; is a paid
+permanent official on each station, who has charge of the lifeboat
+and house, is responsible for its care, and steers and takes command
+when afloat. The word is also used, generally, of any one
+who steers a boat.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1819-1900), English aeronaut,
+was born at Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 1819, the
+son of a naval officer. He was educated for the army, but
+became a dentist. From a boy he had been greatly interested
+in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first ascent was not
+made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional aeronaut,
+making numerous public ascents in the chief continental cities.
+Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Cremorne
+and subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had
+made over 400 ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James
+Glaisher, he attained the greatest height on record, about
+7 m. His companion became insensible, and he himself,
+unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the gas-valve with
+his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent. The
+result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher
+was the making of some important contributions to the science
+of meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the
+practical utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says:
+&ldquo;I had hammered away in <i>The Times</i> for little less than a decade
+before there was a real military trial of ballooning for military
+purposes at Aldershot.&rdquo; His last ascent was made in 1885, and
+he died on the 5th of January 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>My Life and Balloon Experiences</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COYOTE,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the Indian name for a North American member of
+the dog family, also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically
+as <i>Canis latrans</i>. Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala
+in the south, and chiefly frequenting the open plains on both
+sides of the chain of the Rocky Mountains, the coyote, under all
+its various local phases, is a smaller animal than the true wolf,
+and may apparently be regarded as the New World representative
+of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf (<i>C.
+pallipes</i>), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals.
+In addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the
+leg than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair.
+The average length is about 40 in., and the general tone of
+colour tawny mingled with black and white above and whitish
+below, the tail having a black tip and likewise a dark gland-patch
+near the root of the upper surface. There is, however,
+considerable local variation both in the matter of size and
+of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures
+about 50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The
+coyote of the deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah
+is, for instance, a smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose
+length is usually about 42 in. On this and other local variations
+a number of nominal species have been founded; but
+it is preferable to regard them in the light of geographical phases
+or races, such as the above-mentioned <i>C. latrans estor</i> of Nevada
+and Utah, <i>C. l. mearnsi</i> of Arizona and Sonora, and <i>C. l. frustor</i>
+of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district.</p>
+
+<p>It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that
+coyotes have received the name of &ldquo;prairie-wolves&rdquo;; the two
+titles indicating the nature of the respective habitats of the two
+species. Coyotes are creatures of slinking and stealthy habits,
+living in burrows in the plains, and hunting in packs at night,
+when they utter yapping cries and blood-curdling yells as they
+gallop. Hares (&ldquo;jack-rabbits&rdquo;), chipmunks or ground-squirrels,
+and mice form a large portion of their food; but coyotes also
+kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens and
+other kinds of game-birds. &ldquo;In the flat lands,&rdquo; write Messrs
+Witmer Stone and W. E. Cram, in their <i>American Animals</i>
+(1902), &ldquo;they dig burrows for themselves or else take possession
+of those already made by badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the
+spring the half-dozen or more coyote pups are brought forth;
+and it is said that at this season the old ones systematically
+drive any large game they may be chasing as near to their burrow,
+where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as possible before
+killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it any great
+distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually
+work together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one
+of the coyotes bounds away in pursuit while the other squats
+on his haunches and waits his turn, knowing full well that the
+hare prefers to run in a circle, and will soon come round again,
+when the second wolf takes up the chase and the other rests in
+his turn.... When hunting antelope (prongbuck) and deer
+the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle, endeavouring
+to surround their game and keep it running inside their ring
+until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote
+hunts successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained
+pointer until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops
+flat in the grass and creeps forward like a cat until close enough
+for the final spring.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat
+hips, juniper-berries and other wild fruits.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COYPEL,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> the name of a French family of painters. Noel
+Coypel (1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much
+influenced by Poussin, <span class="sc">Coypel le Poussin</span>, was the son of an
+unsuccessful artist. Having been employed by Charles Errard to
+paint some of the pictures required for the Louvre, and having
+afterwards gained considerable fame by other pictures produced
+at the command of the king, in 1672 he was appointed director
+of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he returned to
+France; and not long after he became director of the Academy
+of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is
+perhaps his finest work.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Antoine Coypel</span> (1661-1772), was still more celebrated
+than his father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom
+he spent four years at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was
+admitted into the Academy of Painting, of which he became
+professor and rector in 1707, and director in 1714. In 1716 he
+was appointed king&rsquo;s painter, and he was ennobled in the following
+year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary education,
+the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful
+imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that
+he was not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a
+clever etcher, and engraved several of his own works. His
+<i>Discours prononcés dans les conférences de l&rsquo; Académie royale de
+Peinture, &amp;c.</i>; appeared in 1741.</p>
+
+<p>Antoine&rsquo;s half-brother, <span class="sc">Noel Nicholas Coypel</span> (1692-1734),
+was also an exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles
+Antoine (1694-1752), was painter to the king and director
+of the Academy of Painting. The latter published interesting
+academical lectures in <i>Le Mercure</i> and wrote several plays which
+were acted at court, but were never published.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COYPU,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> the native name of a large South American aquatic
+rodent mammal, known very generally among European residents
+in the country as nutria (the Spanish word for otter) and scientifically
+as <i>Myocastor</i> (or <i>Myopotamus</i>) <i>coypu</i>. Its large size,
+aquatic habits, partially webbed hind-toes, and the smooth,
+broad, orange-coloured incisors, are sufficient to distinguish
+this rodent from the other members of the family <i>Capromyidae</i>.
+Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South America, even
+small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs. Should
+the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although
+subsisting to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these
+rodents frequently come ashore to feed, especially in the evening.
+Several young are produced at a birth, which are carried on their
+mother&rsquo;s back when swimming. The fur is of some commercial
+value, although rather stiff and harsh; its colour being reddish-brown.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1640-1720), French
+sculptor, was born at Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and
+belonged to a family which had emigrated from Spain. The
+name should be pronounced Coëzevo. He was only seventeen
+when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable
+merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself
+by taking copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among
+others from the Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he
+was engaged by the bishop of Strassburg, Cardinal Fürstenberg,
+to adorn with statuary his château at Saverne (Zabern). In
+1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier, Lerambert&rsquo;s niece, who
+died a year after the marriage. In 1671, after four years spent
+on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in 1780,
+he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun
+obtained admission for him to the Académie Royale. A year
+later he married Claude Bourdict.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between
+the years 1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV.
+in producing much of the decoration and a large number of
+statues for Versailles; and he afterwards worked, between 1701
+and 1709, with no less facility and success, for the palace at
+Marly, subsequently destroyed in the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Among his works are the &ldquo;Mercury and Fame,&rdquo; first at Marly
+and afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; &ldquo;Neptune and
+Amphitrite,&rdquo; in the gardens at Marly; &ldquo;Justice and Force,&rdquo; at
+Versailles; and statues, in which the likenesses are said to have
+been remarkably successful, of most of the celebrated men of his
+age, including Louis XIV. and Louis XV. at Versailles, Colbert
+(at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church des Quatre-Nations),
+Condé the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of Austria,
+Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac,
+Fénelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d&rsquo;Harcourt,
+Cardinal Fürstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre).
+Coysevox died in Paris on the 10th of October 1720.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen
+memorials, including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to
+Cardinal Mazarin (in the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in
+the church of Saint Nicholas-du-Chardon).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span></p>
+
+<p>Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume
+Coustou.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Henry Jouin, <i>A. Coysevox, sa vie, son &oelig;uvre</i> (1883); Jean du
+Seigneur, <i>Revue universelle des arts</i>, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAB<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Krabbe</i>, <i>Krebs</i>), a name applied to the Crustacea of
+the order <i>Brachyura</i>, and to other forms, especially of the order
+<i>Anomura</i>, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance
+and habits.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Brachyura</i>, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-tailed
+lobsters and shrimps which form the order <i>Macrura</i>, by
+the fact that the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried
+folded up under the body. In most of them the body is transversely
+oval or triangular in outline and more or less flattened,
+and is covered by a hard shell, the carapace. There are five
+pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or chelae and are
+usually much more massive than the others which are used in
+walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and
+can be withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace.
+There are six pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxillipeds) enclosed
+within a &ldquo;buccal cavern,&rdquo; the opening of which is covered by the
+broad and flattened third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is
+usually narrow and triangular in the males, but in the females it
+is broad and rounded and bears appendages to which the eggs are
+attached after spawning (fig. 1).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:283px" src="images/img356a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended and
+carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:332px; height:397px" src="images/img356b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Zoëa of Common Shore-Crab in
+its second stage. r, Rostral spine; s, Dorsal
+spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic
+feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when
+newly hatched, are very different from their parents. The first
+larval stage is known
+as a Zoëa, this name
+having been given to it
+when it was believed
+by naturalists to be
+a distinct and independent
+species of
+animal. The Zoëa is
+a minute transparent
+organism, swimming
+at the surface of the
+sea. It has a rounded
+body, armed with
+long spines, and a long
+segmented tail. The
+eyes are large but not
+set on stalks, the legs
+are not yet developed,
+and the foot-jaws form
+swimming paddles.
+After casting its skin
+several times as it
+grows in size, the
+young crab passes into
+a stage known as the
+<i>Megalopa</i> (fig. 2), also
+formerly regarded as
+an independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more
+crab-like, but the abdomen is large and not filled up. After a
+further moult the animal assumes a form very similar to that of
+the adult. There are a few crabs, living on land or in fresh water,
+which do not pass through a metamorphosis but leave the egg as
+miniature adults.</p>
+
+<p>Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are
+abundant in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally
+and pass through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs
+living between tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the
+river-crab of southern Europe or Lenten crab (<i>Potamon edule</i>,
+better known as <i>Thelphusa fluviatilis</i>) is an example of the freshwater
+crabs which are abundant in most of the warmer regions of
+the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by gills, which are lodged in
+a pair of cavities at the sides of the carapace, but in the true
+land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and modified so as to act
+as lungs for breathing air.</p>
+
+<p>Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the
+peculiar sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common
+shore-crab, is characteristic of most members of the group. The
+crabs of the family <i>Portunidae</i>, and some others, swim with
+great dexterity by means of their flattened paddle-shaped
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and
+act as the scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their
+habits and some are content with a vegetable diet.</p>
+
+<p>Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in
+relations of &ldquo;commensalism&rdquo; with other animals. The best
+known examples of this are the little &ldquo;mussel-crabs&rdquo; (<i>Pinnotheridae</i>)
+which live within the shells of mussels and other bivalve
+mollusca and probably share the food of their hosts. Some
+crabs live among corals, and one species at least gives rise to
+hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the &ldquo;galls&rdquo;
+which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another
+crab (<i>Melia tesselata</i>) carries in each of its claws a living sea-anemone
+which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and
+an implement for the capture of prey. Many of the sluggish
+spider-crabs (<i>Maiidae</i>) have their shells covered by a forest
+of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and sponges, which are
+&ldquo;planted&rdquo; there by the crab itself, and which afford it a very
+effective disguise.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The
+most important and valuable are the edible crab of British
+and European coasts (<i>Cancer pagurus</i>) and the blue crab of the
+Atlantic coast of the United States (<i>Callinectes sapidus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Among the <i>Anomura</i>, the best known are the hermit-crabs,
+which live in the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which
+they carry about with them as portable dwellings. In these,
+the abdomen is soft-skinned and spirally twisted so as to fit into
+the shells which they inhabit. The common hermit-crab of the
+British coasts (<i>Pagurus</i> or <i>Eupagurus Bernhardus</i>) is sometimes
+called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity. Small specimens
+are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of periwinkles
+and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live in
+deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk
+(<i>Buccinum</i>). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from
+time to time, often having to fight with its fellows for the possession
+of an empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives
+inside the shell along with the hermit and often the outside is
+covered with zoophytes. In some species, as in the British
+<i>Eupagurus prideauxi</i>, a sea-anemone is constantly found attached
+to the shell, profiting by the active locomotion of the crab and
+probably sharing the crumbs of its food, while it affords its host
+protection by its stinging powers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:379px" src="images/img357a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:497px; height:320px" src="images/img357b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i>
+(Violet Land Crab).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;<i>Portunus puber</i>
+(Velvet Swimming Crab).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:222px" src="images/img357c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:385px" src="images/img357d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:148px; height:110px" src="images/img357e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Eupagurus Bernhardus</i>
+(Soldier Crab).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>
+<i>Podophthalmus vigil</i> (Sentinel
+Spinous Crab).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Pinnotheres
+pisum</i> (Pea Crab).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:495px" src="images/img357f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:415px" src="images/img357g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Corystes
+Cassivelaunus</i> (Masked
+Crab).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<i>Eupagurus angulatus</i> (a Hermit Crab).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family <i>Coenobitidae</i>
+live on land, often at considerable distances from the
+sea, to which, however, they return for the purpose of hatching
+out their spawn. The large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of
+the Indo-Pacific islands (<i>Birgus latro</i>), which belongs to this
+family, has given up the habit of carrying a portable dwelling,
+and the upper surface of its abdomen has become covered by
+shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees to get the
+fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even photographed
+in the act.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. T. Ca.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRABBE, GEORGE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1754-1832), English poet, was born at
+Aldeburgh in Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family
+was partly of Norfolk, partly of Suffolk origin, and the name
+was doubtless originally derived from &ldquo;crab.&rdquo; His grandfather,
+Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family to settle at Aldeburgh,
+where he held the appointment of collector of customs. He died
+in 1734, leaving one son, George, who practised many occupations,
+including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village of
+Orford. Finally the poet&rsquo;s father obtained a small post in the
+customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a
+publican, and had six children, of whom George was the eldest.</p>
+
+<p>The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George
+Crabbe&rsquo;s birthplace, but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden,
+some half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the
+son was at a later date to work with him. At first attending
+a dame&rsquo;s school in Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he
+was sent to a boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school
+at Stowmarket, where he remained two years. His father dreamt
+of the medical profession for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he
+went to Wickham Brook near Newmarket as an apothecary&rsquo;s
+assistant. In 1771 we find him assisting a surgeon at Woodbridge,
+and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy. Crabbe was now
+only eighteen years of age, but he became &ldquo;engaged&rdquo; to this
+lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married.
+The intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which,
+however, not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed
+assisted him. About the time of Crabbe&rsquo;s return from Woodbridge
+to Aldeburgh he published at Ipswich his first work, a
+poem entitled <i>Inebriety</i> (1775). He found his father fallen on
+evil days. There was no money to assist him to a partnership,
+and surgery for the moment seemed out of the question. For
+a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling butter
+casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however,
+the young man bought on credit &ldquo;the shattered furniture of an
+apothecary&rsquo;s shop and the drugs that stocked it.&rdquo; This was at
+Aldeburgh. A year later Crabbe installed a deputy in the
+surgery and paid his first visit to London. He lodged in Whitechapel,
+took lessons in midwifery and walked the hospitals.
+Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months&mdash;in 1777&mdash;he found
+his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter
+failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his
+mind. At times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he
+to earn a livelihood. After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe
+paid his second visit to London, enabled thereto by the loan of
+five pounds from Dudley Lang, a local magnate. This visit
+to London, which was undertaken by sea on board the &ldquo;Unity&rdquo;
+smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem <i>The
+Candidate</i>, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For
+a time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts
+of money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned
+the great, and the publishers also. Everywhere he was refused,
+but at length a letter which reached Edmund Burke in March
+1781 led to the careful consideration on the part of that great
+man of Crabbe&rsquo;s many manuscripts. Burke advised the publication
+of <i>The Library</i>, which appeared in 1781. He invited him
+to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure
+Crabbe&rsquo;s entry into the church. He was ordained in December
+1781 and was appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh.</p>
+
+<p>Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk
+could not reverence as priest a man they had known as a day
+labourer. Crabbe again appealed to Burke, who persuaded the
+duke of Rutland to make him his chaplain (1782), and Crabbe
+took up his residence in Belvoir Castle, accompanying his new
+patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who told
+him he was &ldquo;as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen&rdquo;)
+gave him the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in
+Dorsetshire, worth together about £200 a year. In May 1783
+Crabbe&rsquo;s poem <i>The Village</i> was published by Dodsley, and in
+December of this year he married Sarah Elmy. Crabbe continued
+his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a non-resident
+priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned. In
+1785 he published <i>The Newspaper</i>. Shortly after this he moved
+with his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern,
+where he took the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke,
+archdeacon of Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years.
+In 1789, through the persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now
+a widow, the duke having died in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe the two livings of Muston
+in Leicestershire and West Allington in Lincolnshire. At
+Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years, divided by
+a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his
+wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle&rsquo;s that
+placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall,
+Parham, Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to
+1796, leaving curates in charge of his two livings. In 1796 the
+loss of their son Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham
+to Great Glemham Hall, Suffolk, where they lived until 1801.
+In that year Crabbe went to live at Rendham, a village in the
+same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to Muston. In 1807
+he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the publication
+of <i>The Parish Register</i>, in 1810 of <i>The Borough</i>, and in 1812 of
+<i>Tales in Verse</i>. In 1813 Crabbe&rsquo;s wife died, and in 1814 he was
+given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland,
+a son of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted
+the living of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 1814
+to his death in 1832 Crabbe resided at Trowbridge.</p>
+
+<p>These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was
+a constant visitor to London, and in friendship with all the
+literary celebrities of the time. &ldquo;Crabbe seemed to grow young
+again,&rdquo; remarks his biographer, M. René Huchon. He certainly
+carried on a succession of mild flirtations, and one of his
+parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have married him. The
+elderly widower had proposed to her and had been accepted in
+1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed
+to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In
+his visits to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in
+St James&rsquo;s Place, and was a frequent visitor to Holland House,
+where he met his brother poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817
+his <i>Tales of the Hall</i> were completed, and John Murray offered
+£3000 for the copyright, Crabbe&rsquo;s previous works being included.
+The offer after much negotiation was accepted, but Crabbe&rsquo;s
+popularity was now on the wane.</p>
+
+<p>In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter
+Scott. The adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of
+George IV. about the same time, is most amusingly described in
+Lockhart&rsquo;s biography of Scott, although one episode&mdash;that of the
+broken wine-glass&mdash;is discredited by Crabbe&rsquo;s biographer, M.
+Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of February
+1832, and was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate
+monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833.</p>
+
+<p>Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous
+a favourite with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to
+fall into oblivion by the public. All the poets of his earlier and
+his later years, Cowper, Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have
+been reprinted again and again. With Crabbe it was long quite
+otherwise. His works were collected into eight volumes, the
+first containing his life by his son, in 1832. The edition was
+intended to continue with some of his prose writings, but the
+reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging.
+A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has
+been reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of
+the copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe&rsquo;s reputation, and
+it was not until the end of the century that sundry volumes of
+&ldquo;selections&rdquo; from his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of
+Omar Khayyám fame, always a loyal admirer, made a
+&ldquo;Selection,&rdquo; privately printed by Quaritch, in 1879. A &ldquo;Selection&rdquo;
+by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C. H.
+Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The <i>Complete
+Works</i> were published by the Cambridge University Press in
+three volumes, edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Crabbe&rsquo;s poems have been praised by many competent pens, by
+Edward FitzGerald in his <i>Letters</i>, by Cardinal Newman in his
+<i>Apologia</i>, and by Sir Leslie Stephen in his <i>Hours in a Library</i>,
+most notably. His verses comforted the last hours of Charles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
+James Fox and of Sir Walter Scott, while Thomas Hardy has
+acknowledged their influence on the realism of his novels. But
+his works have ceased to command a wide public interest. He
+just failed of being the artist in words who is able to make the
+same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well repay
+perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once
+read are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of
+English fiction, for even considered as a novelist he makes
+fascinating reading. He is more than this: for there is true
+poetry in Crabbe, although his most distinctively lyric note was
+attained when he wrote under the influence of opium, to which he
+became much addicted in his later years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>The Works of Crabbe</i> (8 vols., Murray, 1834;
+1 vol., Murray, 1901), and the <i>Works</i> in the Cambridge Press Classics,
+edited by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The
+life by Crabbe&rsquo;s son in one volume, <i>The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe,
+LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M.</i> (1834), has not been
+separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is
+<i>George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Biographical
+Study</i>, by René Huchon, translated from the French by
+Frederick Clarke (1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel
+(&ldquo;Great Writers&rdquo; series) and by Canon Ainger (&ldquo;English Men of
+Letters&rdquo; series) also deserve attention.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. K. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRACKER<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (from &ldquo;crack,&rdquo; a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger.
+<i>krachen</i>, Dutch <i>kraken</i>, meaning to break with a sharp sound),
+that which &ldquo;cracks&rdquo;; it is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework
+so constructed that it explodes with several reports and jumps at
+each explosion, when placed on the ground (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fireworks</a></span>);
+(2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper containing sweets,
+small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other trifles,
+together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes
+with a &ldquo;crack&rdquo; on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit
+(<i>q.v.</i>); in America the general name for a biscuit. In the
+southern states of America, &ldquo;cracker&rdquo; is a term of contempt for
+the &ldquo;poor&rdquo; or &ldquo;mean whites,&rdquo; particularly of Georgia and
+Florida; the term is an old one and dates back to the Revolution,
+and is supposed to be derived from the &ldquo;cracked corn&rdquo; which
+formed the staple food of the class to whom the term refers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRACOW<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (Pol. <i>Krakov</i>; Ger. <i>Krakau</i>), a town and episcopal
+see of Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans
+and the remainder Poles. Although in regard to its population
+it is only the second place in Galicia, Cracow is the most interesting
+town in the whole of Poland. No other Polish town possesses
+so many old and historic buildings, none of them contains so
+many national relics, or has been so closely associated with
+the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the
+ancient capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation.</p>
+
+<p>Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the
+Vistula (which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of
+great strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town
+and seven suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the
+old town, whose place is now occupied by shady promenades, is
+the Florian&rsquo;s Gate and the Rondell, a circular structure, built in
+1498. Cracow has 39 churches&mdash;about half the number it
+formerly had&mdash;and 25 convents for monks and nuns. Of these
+the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral, in Gothic style,
+consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky eminence
+to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were
+crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish
+nation, the burial place of its kings and its great men. Here
+lie the remains of John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of
+Joseph Poniatowski and of Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are
+conserved the remains of St Stanislaus, the patron saint of the
+Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain before the altar by
+King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned with many
+valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such artists
+as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &amp;c.
+Part of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic
+church of St Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century
+with several chapels added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was
+restored in 1889-1893, and decorated with paintings from the
+designs by Matejko. It contains a huge high altar, the masterpiece
+of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow, executed in
+1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end of the
+15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families
+from the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a
+Gothic building of the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a
+fire in 1850; the Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also
+much modernized; the church of St Florian of the 12th century,
+rebuilt in 1768, which contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit
+Stoss, executed in 1518, during his last sojourn in Cracow; the
+church of St Peter, with a colossal dome, built in 1597, after the
+model of that of St Peter at Rome, and the beautiful Augustinian
+church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all worth mentioning.
+Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle (<i>Zamek
+Królowsk</i>), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and
+successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I.
+Jagiello (1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until
+1610 the residence of the Polish kings. It suffered much from
+fires and other disasters, and from 1846 onward was used as a
+barracks and a military hospital; it has now, however, been
+cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian university, now
+housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in 1881-1887,
+was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors
+and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the
+second oldest university in Europe&mdash;the oldest being that of
+Prague&mdash;and was famous during the 15th and 16th centuries.
+It was founded by Casimir the Great in 1364, and completed by
+Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich library is now housed in the
+old university buildings, erected in the 15th century, in the
+beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of Copernicus was
+placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in 1872,
+is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz,
+or the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the
+<i>Tuchhaus</i> (cloth-hall, Pol. <i>Sukiennice</i>), a building erected in 1257,
+several times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879,
+which contains the Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a
+Gothic tower, the only relic of the old town hall, demolished in
+1820. The Czartoryski museum contains a large collection of
+objects of art, a rich library and a precious collection of manuscripts,
+relating to the history of Poland.</p>
+
+<p>Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural
+implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &amp;c. But Cracow
+is more important as a trading than as an industrial centre.
+Its position on the Vistula and at the junction of several railways
+makes it the natural mart for the exchange of the products of
+Silesia, Hungary and Russian and Austrian Poland. Its trade
+in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and agricultural produce of
+all kinds is very considerable. In the neighbourhood of Cracow
+there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far away lies the village
+of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2½ m. N.W. lies the
+Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up in
+1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus
+Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the
+Vistula, united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze
+(pop. 18,142); near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the
+Kosciuszko Hill, and a thousand years older than it, erected in
+honour of Krakus, the founder of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of
+Cracow is situated Wieliczka (<i>q.v.</i>), with its famous salt mines.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the
+mythical Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a stronghold
+here about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700. Its early history is, however, entirely
+obscure. In the latter part of the 10th century it was annexed to
+the Bohemian principality, but was recaptured by Boleslaus
+Chrobry, who made it the seat of a bishopric, and it became the
+capital of one of the most important of the principalities into
+which Poland was divided from the 12th century onwards. The
+city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion in
+1241, but the introduction of German colonists restored its
+prosperity, and in 1257 it received &ldquo;Magdeburg rights,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a
+civic constitution modelled on that of Magdeburg. In this year
+the <i>Tuchhalle</i> was built. The town, however, had yet to pass
+through many vicissitudes. It suffered again from Tatar invasions;
+in 1290 it was captured by Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia
+and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305, the Polish king
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
+Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III. Ladislaus
+made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained
+the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after
+the royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-1632)
+to Warsaw. On the third partition of Poland in 1795
+Austria took possession of Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon
+wrested it from that power, and incorporated it with the duchy
+of Warsaw, which was placed under the rule of the king of
+Saxony. In the campaign of 1812 the emperor Alexander made
+himself master of this and the other territory which formed the
+duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of
+Europe by the great powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow
+and the adjoining territory should be formed into a free state;
+and, by the Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 1815,
+&ldquo;the town of Cracow, with its territory, is declared to be for
+ever a free, independent and strictly neutral city, under the
+protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia.&rdquo; In February 1846,
+however, an insurrection broke out in Cracow, apparently a
+ramification of a widely spread conspiracy throughout Poland.
+The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were unable to
+subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request, the
+city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection
+of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and
+Prussia, made this a pretext for extinguishing this independent
+state; and as the outcome of a conference at Vienna (November
+1846) the three courts, contrary to the assurance previously
+given, and in opposition to the expressed views of the British and
+French governments, decided to extinguish the state of Cracow
+and to incorporate it with the dominions of Austria.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1850-&emsp;&emsp;), the pen-name
+of <span class="sc">Mary Noailles Murfree</span>, American author, who was born
+near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on the 24th of January 1850, the
+great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree. She was crippled
+in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in Nashville and
+Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of eastern
+Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with
+whose life her writings deal. She contributed to <i>Appleton&rsquo;s
+Journal</i>, and, first in 1878, to <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>. No one,
+apparently, suspected that the author of these stories was a
+woman, and her identity was not disclosed until 1885, a year
+after the publication of her first volume of short stories, <i>In the
+Tennessee Mountains</i>. She deals mainly with the narrow, stern
+life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left behind in the advance
+of civilization, live amid traditions and customs, and speak a
+dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in exquisite
+descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: <i>Where
+the Battle was Fought</i> (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristocratic
+southern life; <i>Down the Ravine</i> (1885) and <i>The Story of
+Keedon Bluffs</i> (1887) for young people; <i>The Prophet of the Great
+Smoky Mountains</i> (1885), a novel; <i>In the Clouds</i> (1886), a novel;
+<i>The Despot of Broomsedge Cove</i> (1888), a novel; <i>In the &ldquo;Stranger-People&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+Country</i> (1891); <i>His Vanished Star</i> (1894), a novel;
+<i>The Mystery of Witch-Face Mountain and Other Stories</i> (1895);
+<i>The Phantoms of the Footbridge and Other Stories</i> (1895); <i>The
+Young Mountaineers</i> (1897), short stories; <i>The Juggler</i> (1897);
+<i>The Story of Old Fort Loudon</i> (1899); <i>The Bushwhackers and
+Other Stories</i> (1899); <i>The Champion</i> (1902); <i>A Spectre of Power</i>
+(1903); <i>The Frontiersman</i> (1904); <i>The Storm Centre</i> (1905);
+<i>The Amulet</i> (1906); <i>The Windfall</i> (1907); and <i>Fair Mississippian</i>
+(1908).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRADLE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with
+&ldquo;crate&rdquo; and &ldquo;creel,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> basket; the derivation from a Celtic
+word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i>), a child&rsquo;s bed of wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed
+sides, slung upon pivots or mounted on rockers. It is a very
+ancient piece of furniture, but the date when it first assumed
+its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no means clear.
+A miniature in an illuminated <i>Histoire de la belle Hélaine</i> in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or beginning of
+the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny four-post
+bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an
+oblong oak box without a lid&mdash;originally the rockers appear to
+have been detachable&mdash;but, like all other household appliances,
+it has been subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and
+adornment. It has been panelled and carved, supported on
+Renaissance pillars, inlaid with marqueterie or mounted in
+gilded bronze. The original simple shape persisted for two or
+three centuries&mdash;even the hood made its appearance very early.
+In the 18th century, however, cradles were often very elaborate&mdash;indeed
+in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but the
+richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for
+purposes of state, being in fact miniature <i>lits de parade</i>. In
+modern times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood
+being very often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a
+carved or shaped upright. About the middle of the 19th century
+iron cradles were introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A
+number of undoubted historic cradles have been preserved,
+together with many others with doubtful attributions. Two
+alleged cradles of Henry V. exist; one which claims to have been
+used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle.
+That of Henry IV. of France, now in the Château de Pau, is
+mounted upon a large tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome
+(&ldquo;Napoleon II.&rdquo;) was designed by Prud&rsquo;hon, and along with that
+of the comte de Chambord is preserved in the Garde Meuble.
+In England a cradle is now often called a &ldquo;bassinet&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+little basket), and the &ldquo;cot&rdquo; has to some extent taken its place.
+By analogy, the word &ldquo;cradle&rdquo; is also applied to various
+sorts of framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool
+used in engraving.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRADOCK<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the
+Cape province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m.
+by rail N. by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one
+of the chief centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also
+a large trade in ostrich feathers, mohair, &amp;c. The town enjoys
+a reputation as one of the best health resorts in the province.
+It stands at an altitude of 2856 ft.; the climate is very dry,
+the average annual rainfall being 14.50 in. The mean maximum
+temperature is 77.6° F. Three miles N. of the town are sulphur
+baths (temp. 100° F.) used for the treatment of rheumatism. In
+the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras, now
+protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning
+of the 19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock,
+governor of the Cape 1811-1813. The division has an area of
+3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of 18,803, of whom 41% are white.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAFT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength,
+or power; cf. Ger. <i>Kraft</i>), a word confined in English only, of
+the Teutonic languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power,
+and used as a synonym of &ldquo;art.&rdquo; It then means skill or ingenuity,
+especially in the manual arts, hence its use in the
+expression &ldquo;Arts and Crafts&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), and it is thus applied to
+the trade or profession in which such skill is displayed, to an
+association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade gild, and
+in particular to Freemasons, &ldquo;the craft&rdquo;; the word appears
+also in words such as &ldquo;handicraft&rdquo; or &ldquo;craftsman.&rdquo; Skill
+applied to outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning
+or trickery, and it is this meaning which is implied in such
+combined words as &ldquo;priestcraft,&rdquo; &ldquo;witchcraft&rdquo; and the like.
+A more particular use of the word is in the nautical sense of
+vessels of transport by water; this is probably a colloquially
+shortened form either of &ldquo;vessels of a fisherman&rsquo;s, lighterman&rsquo;s
+&amp;c., craft,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;art,&rdquo; or of &ldquo;vessels of a heavier or lighter
+craft,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> burden or capacity; in both cases the qualifying
+words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in
+general.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAG<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. <i>creag</i>, Manx <i>creg</i>, and Welsh and
+modern Scots <i>craig</i>), a steep rock. The word appears in many
+place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also
+connected with &ldquo;carrick,&rdquo; a word of similar meaning, also
+found in place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the
+strata in which a shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expression
+&ldquo;crag and tail,&rdquo; to a formation of hills, in which one side is
+precipitous and lofty and the other slopes or &ldquo;tails&rdquo; gradually
+away, as in the Castle Rock in Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAGGS, JAMES<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of
+Anthony Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the
+10th of June 1657. After following various callings in London,
+Craggs, who was a person of considerable financial ability,
+entered the service of the duchess of Marlborough, and through
+her influence became in 1702 member of parliament for Grampound,
+retaining his seat until 1713. He was in business as an
+army clothier and held several official positions, becoming joint
+postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his
+opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of
+money. Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the
+affairs of the South Sea Company, but after his death an act of
+parliament confiscated all the property which he had acquired
+since December 1719. He left an enormous fortune when he
+died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible that Craggs
+committed suicide.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Craggs</span> the younger (1686-1721), was born at
+Westminster on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was
+spent abroad, where he made the acquaintance of George
+Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards King George I. In 1713
+he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in 1717 secretary-at-war,
+and in the following year one of the principal secretaries
+of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but
+not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the
+16th of February 1721. Among Craggs&rsquo;s friends were Pope, who
+wrote the epitaph on his monument in Westminster Abbey,
+Addison and Gay.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIG, JOHN<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1512?-1600), Scottish reformer, born about
+1512, was the son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was
+killed at Flodden in 1513. After an education at St Andrews,
+and acting as tutor to the children of Lord Darcy, the English
+warden of the North, he became a Dominican, but was soon in
+trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way to England, but
+failing to obtain the preferment he desired at Cambridge, he
+went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole, who was
+himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the
+novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he
+was busy travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but
+a perusal of Calvin&rsquo;s <i>Institutes</i> revived his heretical tendencies,
+and he was condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and
+statesman, Thomas Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which
+broke out on the death of Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559,
+when the mob burst open the prison of the Inquisition. After
+various adventures he reached Vienna, where he preached, and
+was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards the
+emperor) Maximilian II.</p>
+
+<p>In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained
+minister of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox&rsquo;s colleague in the High
+Church. His defence of church property and privilege against the
+predatory instincts of the nobles and the pretensions of the state
+brought him into conflict with Lethington and others; but he
+seems to have condoned, if he was not privy to, Riccio&rsquo;s murder.
+At first he refused to publish the banns of marriage between
+Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a protest
+that he &ldquo;abhorred and detested the marriage.&rdquo; He had been
+associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization
+of the church, but he wished to compromise between the two
+extreme parties. From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north,
+whither he had been sent to &ldquo;illuminate those dark places in Mar,
+Buchan and Aberdeen.&rdquo; In 1579 he was appointed chaplain to
+the young James VI., and returned to Edinburgh. In 1581
+episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of a commission
+on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition of
+the <i>Second Book of Discipline</i> and the National Covenant of 1580,
+and in 1581 compiled &ldquo;Ane Shorte and Generale Confession&rdquo;
+called the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Confession,&rdquo; which was imposed on all parish
+ministers and graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of
+1638. He approved of the Ruthven raid, and admonished James
+in terms which made him weep, but produced no alteration in his
+conduct, and before long Craig was denouncing the supremacy of
+Arran. But he was averse from the violence of Melville, and was
+willing to admit the royal supremacy &ldquo;as far as the word of God
+allows.&rdquo; James VI., <span class="correction" title="amended from Like">like</span> Henry VIII., accepted this compromise,
+and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal chaplains
+and some others. In 1592 was published Craig&rsquo;s <i>Catechism</i>.
+He died on the 12th of December 1600.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. G. Law&rsquo;s Pref. to Craig&rsquo;s <i>Catechism</i> (1885); Bain&rsquo;s <i>Cal.
+Scottish State Papers</i>; Reg. P. C. Scotl.; Hew Scott&rsquo;s <i>Fasti Eccles.</i>
+Scot.; Knox&rsquo;s, Calderwood&rsquo;s and Grub&rsquo;s <i>Eccles. Histories</i>; McCrie&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Melville</i>; Hay Fleming&rsquo;s <i>Mary, Queen of Scots</i>; Bannatyne&rsquo;s
+<i>Memorials</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIG, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet,
+was born about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of
+William Craig of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but
+beyond the fact that he was in some way related to the Craigfintray
+family nothing regarding his birth is known with certainty.
+He was educated at St Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in
+1555. From St Andrews he went to France, to study the canon
+and the civil law. He returned to Scotland about 1561, and was
+admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was appointed
+justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of Argyll;
+and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials
+of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff-depute of
+Edinburgh, and in 1606 procurator for the church. He never
+became a lord of session, a circumstance that was unquestionably
+due to his own choice. It is said that he refused the honour of
+knighthood which the king wished to confer on him in 1604,
+when he came to London as one of the Scottish commissioners
+regarding the union between the kingdoms&mdash;the only political
+object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with
+James&rsquo;s commands he has always been styled and reputed a
+knight. Craig was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of
+Lumphoy in Midlothian, by whom he had four sons and three
+daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis Craig (1569-1622), was
+raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other descendants are
+several well-known names in the list of Scottish lawyers. He died
+on the 26th of February 1608.</p>
+
+<p>Except his poems, the only one of Craig&rsquo;s works which appeared
+during his lifetime was his <i>Jus feudale</i> (1603; ed. R. Burnet,
+1655; Leipzig, 1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this
+treatise was to assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but,
+instead of this, it was an important factor in building up and
+solidifying the law of Scotland into a separate system. Other
+works were <i>De unione regnorum Britanniae tractatus, De jure
+successionis regni Angliae</i> and <i>De hominio disputatio</i>. Translations
+of the last two have been published, and in 1910 an edition of the
+<i>De Unione</i> appeared, with translation and notes by C. S. Terry.
+Craig&rsquo;s first poem, an <i>Epithalamium</i> in honour of the marriage of
+Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1565. Most of his
+poems have been reprinted in the <i>Delitiae poëtarum Scotorum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See P. F. Tytler, <i>Life of Craig</i> (1823); Life prefixed to Baillie&rsquo;s
+edition of the <i>Jus feudale</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1867-1906), Anglo-American
+novelist and dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name
+of &ldquo;<span class="sc">John Oliver Hobbes</span>,&rdquo; was born at Boston, U.S.A., on the
+3rd of November 1867. She was the elder daughter of John
+Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris.
+When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie,
+by whom she had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the
+marriage proved an unhappy one, and was dissolved on her
+petition in July 1895. She was brought up as a Nonconformist,
+but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic
+Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member.
+Her first little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic <i>Some
+Emotions and a Moral</i>, was published in 1891 in Mr Fisher Unwin&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Pseudonym Library,&rdquo; and was followed by <i>The Sinner&rsquo;s
+Comedy</i> (1892), <i>A Study in Temptations</i> (1893), <i>A Bundle of Life</i>
+(1894), <i>The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord Wickenham</i>. <i>The Herb
+Moon</i> (1896), a country love story, was followed by <i>The School for
+Saints</i> (1897), with a sequel, <i>Robert Orange</i> (1900). Mrs Craigie
+had already written a one-act &ldquo;proverb,&rdquo; <i>Journeys end in Lovers
+Meeting</i>, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act
+tragedy, &ldquo;Osbern and Ursyne,&rdquo; printed in the <i>Anglo-Saxon
+Review</i> (1899), when her successful piece, <i>The Ambassador</i>, was
+produced at the St James&rsquo;s Theatre in 1898. <i>A Repentance</i> (one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span>
+act, 1899) and <i>The Wisdom of the Wise</i> (1900) were produced at
+the same theatre, and <i>The Flute of Pan</i> (1904) first at
+Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury theatre; she was also
+part author of <i>The Bishop&rsquo;s Move</i> (Garrick Theatre, 1902).
+Later books are <i>The Serious Wooing</i> (1901), <i>Love and the Soul
+Hunters</i> (1902), <i>Tales about Temperament</i> (1902), <i>The Vineyard</i>
+(1904). Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London on
+the 13th of August 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIK, DINAH MARIA<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1826-1887), English novelist,
+better known by her maiden name of Mulock, and still better
+as &ldquo;the author of <i>John Halifax, Gentleman</i>,&rdquo; was the daughter
+of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious enthusiast of Irish
+extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826 at Stoke-upon-Trent,
+in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister of a
+small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, determined
+to obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with
+fiction for children, advanced steadily until <i>John Halifax,
+Gentleman</i> (1857), placed her in the front rank of the women
+novelists of her day. <i>A Life for a Life</i> (1859), though inferior,
+maintained a high position, but she afterwards wrote little of
+importance except some very charming tales for children. Her
+most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above, were <i>The
+Ogilvies</i> (1849), <i>Olive</i> (1850), <i>The Head of the Family</i> (1851),
+<i>Agatha&rsquo;s Husband</i> (1853). There is much passion and power in
+these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized
+by high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in
+<i>Avillion and other Tales</i> also exhibit a fine imagination. She
+published some poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit,
+narratives of tours in Ireland and Cornwall, and <i>A Woman&rsquo;s
+Thoughts about Women</i>. She married Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in
+the house of Macmillan &amp; Company, in 1864, and died at Shortlands,
+near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1798-1866), English man of letters,
+the son of a schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in
+1798. He studied at the university of St Andrews with the
+intention of entering the church, but, altering his plans, became
+the editor of a local newspaper, and went to London in 1824 to
+devote himself to literature. He became connected with a short-lived
+literary paper called the <i>Verulam</i>; in 1831 he published his
+<i>Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties</i> among the works of the
+Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; he contributed a
+considerable number of biographical and historical articles to
+the <i>Penny Cyclopaedia</i>; and he edited the <i>Pictorial History of
+England</i>, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he published
+his <i>History of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman
+Conquest to the Present Time</i>, illustrated by extracts. Craik is
+best known for his abridged version of this work, <i>The History of
+English Literature and the English Language</i> (1861), which passed
+through several editions. In the next year appeared his <i>Spenser
+and his Poetry</i>, an abstract of Spenser&rsquo;s poems, with historical
+and biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his
+<i>Bacon, his Writings and his Philosophy</i>, a work of a similar kind.
+The two last-mentioned works appeared among <i>Knight&rsquo;s Weekly
+Volumes</i>. Two years later Craik obtained the chair of history and
+English literature at Queen&rsquo;s College, Belfast, a position which he
+held till his death, which took place on the 25th of June 1866.
+He had married Miss Jeannette Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and
+his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik (Mrs A. W. May), wrote
+over thirty novels, of which <i>Lost and Won</i> (1859) was the best.
+Besides the works already noticed, Craik published the <i>History of
+British Commerce from the Earliest Times</i> (1844), <i>Romance of the
+Peerage</i> (1848-1850) and <i>The English of Shakespeare</i> (1856).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIL<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Karel</span>), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire,
+Scotland, 2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the
+county, and 11 m. S.E. of St Andrews by the North British
+railway, but 2 m. nearer by road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said
+to have been a town of some note as early as the 9th century;
+and its castle, of which there are hardly any remains, was the
+residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was constituted
+a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and
+had its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in
+1553, and by Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to
+St Rufus, a few ruins still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the
+patron saint of Crail, is an edifice of great antiquity. Many of the
+ordinary houses are massive and quaint. The public buildings
+include a library and reading-room and town hall. The chief
+industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs, shipping and
+brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It unites
+with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem
+and Cupar in returning one member to parliament.</p>
+
+<p>Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th
+century. Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before
+her marriage to James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th
+century it passed through the hands of various proprietors and
+was ultimately shorn of much of its original size and grandeur.
+The East Neuk is a term applied more particularly to the
+country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all of the peninsula
+east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to Elie. For
+fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with the
+haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAILSHEIM<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Krailsheim</span>, a town of Germany, in the
+kingdom of Württemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the
+Neckar, at the junction of railways to Heilbronn and Fürth.
+Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two Evangelical churches and a
+Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town hall, with a tower
+225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include extensive
+tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in
+cattle and agricultural produce.</p>
+
+<p>Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully
+withstood a siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities
+(1379-1380), a feat which is annually celebrated, passed later
+into the possession of the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came
+in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to Bavaria and 1810 to Württemberg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAIOVA,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krajova</span>, the capital of the department of
+Doljiu, Rumania, situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and
+on the main Walachian railway from Verciorova to Bucharest.
+Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch railway to Calafat facilitates the
+export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova is the chief commercial
+town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands are very rich
+in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain extensive
+forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close by
+is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the
+army. The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen,
+pottery, glue and leather. In the town, which is the headquarters
+of the First Army Corps, there are military and commercial
+academies, an appeal court and a chamber of commerce,
+besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
+Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews.</p>
+
+<p>Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova,
+was formerly the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient <i>bans</i> or
+military governors were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries
+of Walachia, and the district is still styled the banat of Craiova.
+Among the holders of this office were Michael the Brave (1593-1601),
+and several members of the celebrated Bassarab family
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The bans had the right of coining money stamped with
+their own effigies, and hence arose the name of <i>bani</i> (centimes).
+The Rumanian franc, or <i>leu</i> (&ldquo;lion&rdquo;), so called from the image it
+bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the
+scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan
+of the Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between
+Turks and Russians.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAMBO,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt
+(<i>Sports and Pastimes</i>), was played as early as the 14th century
+under the name of the <i>ABC of Aristotle</i>. In the days of the
+Stuarts it was very popular, and is frequently mentioned in the
+writings of the time. Thus Congreve&rsquo;s <i>Love for Love</i>, i. 1, contains
+the passage, &ldquo;Get the Maids to Crambo in an Evening, and
+learn the knack of Rhiming.&rdquo; Crambo, or capping the rhyme,
+is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the
+others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual
+word they guess but its meaning. Thus one says &ldquo;I know a word
+that rhymes with <i>bird</i>.&rdquo; A second asks &ldquo;Is it ridiculous?&rdquo;
+&ldquo;No, it is not absurd.&rdquo; &ldquo;Is it a part of speech?&rdquo; &ldquo;No, it is not
+a word.&rdquo; This proceeds until the right word is guessed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span></p>
+
+<p>In <i>Dumb Crambo</i> the guessers, instead of naming the word,
+express its meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as
+a clue.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1771-1858), English musician,
+of German extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of
+February 1771. He was the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1743-1799).
+a famous London violinist and musical conductor, one of a
+numerous family who were identified with the progress of music
+during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was brought
+to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part
+of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he
+studied the pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became
+known as a professional pianist both in London and on the
+continent; he enjoyed a world-wide reputation, and was
+particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in London
+on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing
+Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder
+in 1824 of the London music-publishing house of Cramer &amp; Co.
+He wrote a number of sonatas, &amp;c., for pianoforte, and other
+compositions; but his <i>Études</i> is the work by which he lives as
+a composer. These &ldquo;studies&rdquo; have appeared in numerous
+editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple pieces in the
+training of pianists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1793-1848), English classical
+scholar and geographer, was born at Mitlödi in Switzerland.
+He was educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford.
+He resided in Oxford till 1844, during which time he held many
+important offices, being public orator, principal of New Inn Hall
+(which he rebuilt at his own expense), and professor of modern
+history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of Carlisle,
+which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of
+August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: <i>A
+Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps</i>, published
+anonymously with H. L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), &ldquo;a scholar-like
+work of first-rate ability&rdquo;; geographical and historical
+descriptions of <i>Ancient Italy</i> (1826), <i>Ancient Greece</i> (1828), <i>Asia
+Minor</i> (1832); <i>Travels of Nicander Nucius of Corcyra</i> [Greek
+traveller of the 16th century] <i>in England</i> (1841); <i>Catenae
+Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum</i> (1838-1844);
+<i>Anecdota Graeca</i> (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris,
+1839-1841).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÄMER, KARL VON<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had
+a very remarkable career, rising gradually from a mere workman
+in a factory at Doos near Nuremberg to the post of manager,
+and finally becoming part proprietor of the establishment. Leaving
+business in 1870 he devoted his time entirely to politics.
+From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian second chamber,
+at first representing the district of Erlangen-Fürth, and afterwards
+Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of
+1866 as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from
+1871 to 1874 to the first German <i>Reichstag</i>. He sat in these
+bodies as a member of the Progressive party (<i>Fortschrittspartei</i>),
+and in Bavaria was one of the leaders of the Liberal (<i>Freisinnige</i>)
+party. His eloquence had a great hold upon the masses. As a
+parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and thoroughly
+understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the
+reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on
+account of his great services in connexion with the Bavarian
+National Exhibition of Nuremberg, the order of the crown of
+Bavaria was conferred upon him, carrying with it the honour of
+nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the 31st of December 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1828-&emsp;&emsp;), American shipbuilder,
+was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th
+of May 1828, of German descent, his family name having been
+Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children of William
+Cramp (1807-1869), a pioneer American shipbuilder, who in 1830
+established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia.
+The son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school,
+after which he was employed in his father&rsquo;s shipyards and made
+himself master of every detail of ship construction. He showed
+especial aptitude as a naval architect and designer, and after
+becoming his father&rsquo;s partner in 1849 it was to that branch of
+the work that he devoted himself. His inventive capacity and
+resourcefulness, together with the complete success of his
+innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high rank
+as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that
+industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf
+boats for the landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil
+War he designed and built several ironclads for the United
+States navy, notably the &ldquo;New Ironsides&rdquo; in 1862, and the
+light-draught monitors used in the Carolina sounds; and after
+1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own designs many
+of the most powerful ships in the &ldquo;new&rdquo; navy, including
+the cruisers &ldquo;Columbia,&rdquo; &ldquo;Minneapolis&rdquo; and &ldquo;Brooklyn,&rdquo;
+and the battleships &ldquo;Indiana,&rdquo; &ldquo;Iowa,&rdquo; &ldquo;Massachusetts,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; and &ldquo;Maine.&rdquo; In every progressive step in ocean
+shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail to steam, and
+from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part. His
+fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built warships
+for several foreign navies, among others the &ldquo;Retvizan&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;Variag&rdquo; for the Russian government. He also constructed
+a number of freight and passenger steamships for several
+trans-Atlantic lines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. C. Buel, <i>Memoirs of C. H. Cramp</i> (Philadelphia, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAMP,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most
+frequently occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain
+internal organs. This disorder belongs to the class of diseases
+known as local spasms, of which other varieties exist in such
+affections as spasmodic asthma and colic. The cause of these
+painful seizures resides in the nervous system, and operates
+either directly from the great nerve centres, or, as is generally
+the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example, when attacks
+are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs.</p>
+
+<p>In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this
+disorder comes on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient
+being aroused by an agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the
+leg or back of the thigh, accompanied in many instances with a
+sensation of sickness or faintness from the intensity of the suffering.
+During the paroxysm the muscular fibres affected can often
+be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The attack in general
+lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs, the spasmodic
+contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the other
+hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes
+or even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a
+rheumatic or gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common
+enough apart from this, and are often induced by some peculiar
+posture which a limb has assumed during sleep. Exposure of the
+limbs to cold will also bring on cramp, and to this is probably to
+be ascribed its frequent occurrence in swimmers. Cramp of the
+extremities is also well known as one of the most distressing
+accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent occurrence
+in the process of parturition, just before delivery.</p>
+
+<p>This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely
+removed by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part
+with the hand, or by anything which makes an impression on the
+nerves, such as warm applications. Even a sudden and vigorous
+movement of the limb will often succeed in terminating the attack.</p>
+
+<p>What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually
+occurs as a symptom in connexion with some form of gastric
+disorder, such as aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease
+of the mucous membrane of the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The disease known as <i>Writer&rsquo;s Cramp</i>, or <i>Scrivener&rsquo;s Palsy</i>, is
+a spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the performance
+of acts, the result of education and long usage, and
+which does not occur when the same muscles are employed in
+acts of a different kind. This disorder owes its name to the
+relative frequency with which it is met in persons who write
+much, although it is by no means confined to them, but is liable
+to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was termed
+by Dr Duchenne <i>Functional Spasm</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing
+difficulty experienced in conducting the movements required
+for executing the work in hand. Taking, for example, the case
+of writers, there is a feeling that the pen cannot be moved with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span>
+the same freedom as before, and the handwriting is more or less
+altered in consequence. At an early stage of the disease the
+difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by persevering
+efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in, the
+muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm,
+are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is
+rendered impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being
+cramped, move in a disorderly manner and the pen cannot be
+grasped, while in other rare instances a kind of paralysis affects
+the muscles of the fingers, and they are powerless to make the
+movements necessary for holding the pen. It is to be noted that
+it is only in the act of writing that these phenomena present
+themselves, and that for all other movements the fingers and
+arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are
+observed and the same remarks apply <i>mutatis mutandis</i> in the
+case of musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and
+many mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed,
+although actually a rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles
+in the body which is specially called into action in any particular
+occupation is exempt from liability to this functional spasm.</p>
+
+<p>The exact pathology of writer&rsquo;s cramp has not been worked
+out, but it is now generally accepted that the disease is not a local
+one of muscles or nerves, but that it is an affection of the central
+nervous system. The complaint never occurs under thirty years
+of age, and is more frequent in males than females. Occasionally
+there is an inherited tendency to the disease, but more usually
+there is a history of alcoholism in the parents, or some neuropathic
+heredity. In its treatment the first requisite is absolute
+cessation from the employment which caused it. Usually,
+however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery
+takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are
+regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity,
+then Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in
+performing the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the
+wrist.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAMP-RINGS,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and
+&ldquo;falling-sickness&rdquo; or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one
+was presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his
+return from Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained
+to the king. At his death it passed into the keeping of the abbot
+of Westminster, by whom it was used medically and was known
+as St Edward&rsquo;s Ring. From that time the belief grew that the
+successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that the rings
+blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the
+successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday
+formally to bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held;
+prayers and psalms were said; and water &ldquo;in the name of the
+Father, Son and Holy Ghost&rdquo; was poured over the rings, which
+were always of gold or silver, and made from the metal that the
+king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The ceremony
+survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the curative
+powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even to
+the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, <i>The Literary
+Museum</i> (London, 1792); see also <i>Notes and Queries</i>, vol. vii., 1853;
+vol. ix., 1878.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANACH, LUCAS<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1472-1553), German painter, was born at
+Cronach in upper Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from
+his father. It has not been possible to trace his descent or the
+name of his parents. We are not informed as to the school in
+which he was taught, and it is a mere guess that he took lessons
+from the south German masters to whom Mathew Grunewald
+owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and
+Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in
+which Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of
+Cranach&rsquo;s children, Cranach signalized his talents as a painter
+before the close of the 15th century. He then drew upon himself
+the attention of the elector of Saxony, who attached him to his
+person in 1504. The records of Wittenberg confirm Gunderam&rsquo;s
+statement to this extent that Cranach&rsquo;s name appears for the
+first time in the public accounts on the 24th of June 1504, when
+he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as <i>pictor ducalis</i>.
+The only clue to Cranach&rsquo;s settlement previous to his Wittenberg
+appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a
+house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the
+daughter of a burgher of that city.</p>
+
+<p>Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture
+dated 1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to
+that date we are altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this
+obscurity is the light thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find
+him active in several branches of his profession,&mdash;sometimes a
+mere house-painter, more frequently producing portraits and
+altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of copper-plates,
+and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early in the
+days of his official employment he startled his master&rsquo;s courtiers
+by the realism with which he painted still life, game and antlers
+on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau; his
+pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the
+duke fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to
+the hunting field, where he sketched &ldquo;his grace&rdquo; running the
+stag, or Duke John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted
+several altar-pieces for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in
+competition with Dürer, Burgkmair and others; the duke and his
+brother John were portrayed in various attitudes and a number
+of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were published. Great
+honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the Netherlands,
+and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy
+who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1508 Cranach signed his
+works with the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave
+him the winged snake as a motto, and this motto or <i>Kleinod</i>, as it
+was called, superseded the initials on all his pictures after that
+date. Somewhat later the duke conferred on him the monopoly
+of the sale of medicines at Wittenberg, and a printer&rsquo;s patent with
+exclusive privileges as to copyright in Bibles. The presses of
+Cranach were used by Luther. His chemist&rsquo;s shop was open for
+centuries, and only perished by fire in 1871. Relations of friendship
+united the painter with the Reformers at a very early period;
+yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first acquaintance with
+Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer&rsquo;s correspondence
+dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in
+1521, Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his
+&ldquo;Gevatterin,&rdquo; the artist&rsquo;s wife. His first engraved portrait by
+Cranach represents an Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520.
+Five years later the friar dropped the cowl, and Cranach was
+present as &ldquo;one of the council&rdquo; at the betrothal festival of
+Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short intervals of the
+electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no change
+in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a
+favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he
+twice (1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Wittenberg.
+But 1547 witnessed a remarkable change in these relations.
+John Frederick was taken prisoner at the battle of Mühlberg,
+and Wittenberg was subjected to stress of siege. As Cranach
+wrote from his house at the corner of the market-place to the
+grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Königsberg to tell him
+of John Frederick&rsquo;s capture, he showed his attachment by
+saying, &ldquo;I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been
+robbed of our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a
+true prince to us, but God will help him out of prison, for the
+Kaiser is bold enough to revive the Papacy, which God will
+certainly not allow.&rdquo; During the siege Charles bethought him of
+Cranach, whom he remembered from his childhood and summoned
+him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came, reminded his majesty
+of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his knees for kind
+treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when all the
+dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands
+from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles&rsquo;s bidding came to
+take the likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked
+Cranach to visit the Swabian capital; and here for a few months
+he was numbered amongst the household of the captive elector,
+whom he afterwards accompanied home in 1552. He died
+on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in
+which he lived still stands in the market-place.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the &ldquo;Rest of the Virgin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
+during the Flight into Egypt,&rdquo; marked with the initials L.C., and
+the date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil.
+The scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses
+the habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of
+Thuringia. There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time;
+and this would point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose
+stag hunts are otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach&rsquo;s art in its
+prime was doubtless influenced by causes which but slightly
+affected the art of the Italians, but weighed with potent consequence
+on that of the Netherlands and Germany. The business
+of booksellers who sold woodcuts and engravings at fairs and
+markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving which arose
+out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular
+edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates
+became the occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted
+in Italy to productions of the brush were here monopolized for
+designs on wood or on copper. We have thus to account for
+the comparative unproductiveness as painters of Dürer and
+Holbein, and at the same time to explain the shallowness apparent
+in many of the later works of Cranach; but we attribute to the
+same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect effective
+colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint.
+Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white
+appears to have affected his sight, and caused those curious
+transitions of pallid light into inky grey which often characterize
+his studies of flesh; whilst the mere outlining of form in black
+became a natural substitute for modelling and chiaroscuro.
+There are, no doubt, some few pictures by Cranach in which
+the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled surface, but
+they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not
+greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he
+showed some freshness in the delineation of incident, though he
+not unfrequently bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates
+and woodcuts are certainly the best outcome of his art; and
+the earlier they are in date the more conspicuous is their power.
+Striking evidence of this is the &ldquo;St Christopher&rdquo; of 1506, or the
+plate of &ldquo;Elector Frederick praying before the Madonna&rdquo; (1509).
+It is curious to watch the changes which mark the development
+of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the Reformation.
+At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut
+(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before
+a crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine,
+a series of martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517
+he illustrates occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also
+gives expression to some of the thoughts of the Reformers.
+In a picture of 1518 at Leipzig, where a dying man offers &ldquo;his
+soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly goods to his
+relations,&rdquo; the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven, and
+salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good
+works. Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial
+delineation. Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist
+and a prophet at the foot of a tree. To the left God produces
+the tables of the law, Adam and Eve partake of the forbidden
+fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft, and punishment supervenes
+in the shape of death and the realm of Satan. To the
+right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize
+redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the
+Baptist, who points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour.
+There are two examples of this composition in the galleries of
+Gotha and Prague, both of them dated 1529. One of the latest
+pictures with which the name of Cranach is connected is the altarpiece
+which Cranach&rsquo;s son completed in 1555, and which is now
+in the <i>Stadtkirche</i> (city church) at Weimar. It represents Christ
+in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the
+right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John
+the Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream
+falls on the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book
+the words, &ldquo;The blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin.&rdquo; Cranach
+sometimes composed gospel subjects with feeling and dignity.
+&ldquo;The Woman taken in Adultery&rdquo; at Munich is a favourable specimen
+of his skill, and various repetitions of Christ receiving little
+children show the kindliness of his disposition. But he was not
+exclusively a religious painter. He was equally successful, and
+often comically naïve, in mythological scenes, as where Cupid,
+who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he has been
+stung by a bee (Weimar, 1530; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules
+sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids.
+Humour and pathos are combined at times with strong effect in
+pictures such as the &ldquo;Jealousy&rdquo; (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530),
+where women and children are huddled into telling groups as
+they watch the strife of men wildly fighting around them. Very
+realistic must have been a lost canvas of 1545, in which hares
+were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1546, possibly under
+Italian influence, Cranach composed the &ldquo;Fons Juventutis&rdquo;
+of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which
+hags are seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received
+as they issue from it with all the charms of youth by knights
+and pages.</p>
+
+<p>Cranach&rsquo;s chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and
+we are indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features
+of all the German Reformers and their princely adherents. But
+he sometimes condescended to depict such noted followers of the
+papacy as Albert of Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz,
+Anthony Granvelle and the duke of Alva. A dozen likenesses
+of Frederick III. and his brother John are found to bear the date
+of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach&rsquo;s readiness, and a proof
+that he possessed ample material for mechanical reproduction,
+that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for &ldquo;sixty
+pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother&rdquo; in one day.
+Amongst existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of
+Albert, elector of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John,
+elector of Saxony, at Dresden.</p>
+
+<p>Cranach had three sons, all artists:&mdash;John Lucas, who died
+at Bologna in 1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and
+Lucas, born in 1515, who died in 1586.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Heller, <i>Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs</i> (2nd ed., Bamberg,
+1844); Chr. Schuchard, <i>Lukas Cranachs des älteren Leben und Werke</i>
+(3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1871); Warnecke, <i>Cranach der ältere</i> (Görlitz,
+1879); M. B. Lindau, <i>Lucas Cranach</i> (1883); Lippmann, <i>Lukas
+Cranach, Sammlung, &amp;c.</i> (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most
+notable woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, <i>Verzeichnis der
+Dresdener Cranach-Ausstellung von 1899</i> (Dresden, 1899); Flechsig,
+<i>Tafelbilder Cranach&rsquo;s des ältern und seiner Werkstatt</i> (Leipzig, 1900);
+Muther, <i>Lukas Cranach</i> (Berlin, 1902); Michaelson, <i>L. Cranach der
+ältere</i> (Leipzig, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANBERRY,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> the fruit of plants of the genus <i>Oxycoccus</i>,
+(natural order Vacciniaceae), often considered part of the genus
+<i>Vaccinium. O. palustris</i> (or <i>Vaccinium Oxycoccus</i>), the common
+cranberry plant, is found in marshy land in northern and central
+Europe and North America. Its stems are wiry, creeping and
+of varying length; the leaves are evergreen, dark and shining
+above, glaucous below, revolute at the margin, ovate, lanceolate
+or elliptical in shape, and not more than half an inch long; the
+flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and stalked, and
+have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments, and
+anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August
+and September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of
+currants, are crimson in colour and often spotted, and have
+an acid and astringent taste. The American species, <i>O. macrocarpus</i>,
+is found wild from Maine to the Carolinas. It attains a
+greater size than <i>O. palustris</i>, and bears bigger and finer berries,
+which are of three principal sorts, the <i>cherry</i> or round, the <i>bugle</i>
+or oblong, and the <i>pear</i> or bell-shaped, and vary in hue from
+light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red and white.
+<i>O. erythrocarpus</i> is a species indigenous in the mountains from
+Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour
+of its berry.</p>
+
+<p>Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the
+cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or
+vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf,
+and having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs
+renewal every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous
+existence of the plants, and serves both to keep the underlying
+soil cool and damp, and to check the growth of grass and weeds.
+The ground must be thoroughly drained, and should be provided
+with a supply of water and a dam for flooding the plants during
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span>
+winter to protect them from frost, and occasionally at other
+seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of spring water
+should be avoided. The flavour of the fruit is found to be
+improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-rotted
+dung, and by supplying them with less moisture than they
+obtain in their natural habitats. Propagation is effected by
+means of cuttings, of which the wood should be wiry in texture,
+and the leaves of a greenish-brown colour. In America, where,
+in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, the cultivation of the
+cranberry commenced early in the last century, wide tracts of
+waste land have been utilized for that purpose&mdash;low, easily
+flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from
+$10 to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or
+$300 worth of the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50
+and 400 bushels an acre, but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels,
+is estimated to be the average production when the plants
+have begun to bear well. The approximate cranberry crop of
+the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from 410,000 to
+1,000,000 bushels.</p>
+
+<p>Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise
+they do not keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those
+which are most esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New
+Jersey in October, at the close of the blackberry and whortleberry
+season, and often lasts until the coming in of cold weather.
+From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be collected by good workers.
+New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore are the leading
+American markets for cranberries, whence they are exported to
+the West Indies, England and France in great quantities.
+England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk
+with abundance of the common cranberry, which it now largely
+imports from Sweden and Russia. The fruit is much used for
+pies and tarts, and also for making an acid summer beverage.
+The cowberry, or red whortleberry, <i>Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea</i>, is
+sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the
+Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of <i>Astroloma
+humifusum</i> and <i>Lissanthe sapida</i>, plants of the order <i>Epacridaceae</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For literature of the subject see the <i>Proceedings of the American
+Cranberry Growers&rsquo; Association</i> (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good
+article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia of
+American Horticulture</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl
+of</span> (1814-1906), British statesman, was born at Bradford on
+the 1st of October 1814, the son of John Hardy, and belonged to
+a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active political life in 1847,
+eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and nine years after
+his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate for Bradford,
+but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for Leominster, and
+in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he became
+president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby&rsquo;s new administration.
+When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction
+with Mr Disraeli&rsquo;s Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at
+the home office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in
+1878 Lord Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation
+of Lord Derby, Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became
+within a month afterwards) succeeded him at the India office.
+At the same time he had assumed the additional family surname
+of Gathorne, which had been that of his mother. In Lord
+Salisbury&rsquo;s administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord Cranbrook
+was president of the council, and upon his retirement from
+public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in
+1892 he was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of
+October 1906, being succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John
+Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously known as Lord Medway
+(b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament as a conservative
+for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Gathorne Hardy, 1st earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts
+from his correspondence</i>, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy
+(1910).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANBROOK,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a market-town in the southern parliamentary
+division of Kent, England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of
+the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway from Paddock Wood.
+Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook, a feeder of the
+river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well wooded. It has
+a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St Dunstan,
+which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part of the
+18th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of
+the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an
+extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present
+condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from
+the 14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal
+seats of the broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the
+old factories still exist. The town has a grammar school of
+Elizabethan foundation, which now ranks as one of the
+smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of
+the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built in the
+time of Edward VI.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANDALL, PRUDENCE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1803-1889), American school-teacher,
+was born, of Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode
+Island, on the 3rd of September 1803. She was educated in the
+Friends&rsquo; school at Providence, R. I., taught school at Plainfield,
+Conn., and in 1831 established a private academy for girls at
+Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By admitting a
+negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on the
+advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-1871),
+she opened a school for &ldquo;young ladies and little misses of
+colour.&rdquo; For this she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canterbury
+but throughout Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted
+and socially ostracized; measures were taken in the Canterbury
+town-meeting to break up the school, and finally in May 1833 the
+state legislature passed the notorious Connecticut &ldquo;Black Law,&rdquo;
+prohibiting the establishment of schools for non-resident negroes
+in any city or township of Connecticut, without the consent of the
+local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to submit, was arrested,
+tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose verdict, however,
+was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals in July 1834.
+Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she was
+finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon
+afterward she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk
+Falls, Kansas, on the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut
+Black Law was repealed in 1838. Miss Crandall&rsquo;s attempt to
+educate negro girls at Canterbury attracted the attention of the
+whole country; and the episode is of considerable significance as
+showing the attitude of a New England community toward the
+negro at that time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. C. Kimball&rsquo;s <i>Connecticut Canterbury Tale</i> (Hartford, Conn.,
+1889), and Samuel J. May&rsquo;s <i>Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery Conflict</i>
+(Boston, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANE, STEPHEN<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1870-1900), American writer, was born
+at Newark, New Jersey, on the 1st of November 1870, and was
+educated at Lafayette College and Syracuse University. His
+first story, <i>Maggie, a Girl of the Streets</i>, was published in 1891,
+but his greatest success was made with <i>The Red Badge of Courage</i>
+(1896), a brilliant and highly realistic, though of course imaginary,
+description of the experiences of a private in the Civil War. He
+was also the author of various other stories, and acted as a war
+correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the Spanish
+American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in
+Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died
+at Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5th of June 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANE, WALTER<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), English artist, second son
+of Thomas Crane, portrait painter and miniaturist, was born
+in Liverpool on the 15th of August 1845. The family soon
+removed to Torquay, where the boy gained his early artistic
+impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to London. He
+early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and was
+a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs
+to illustrate Tennyson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lady of Shalott&rdquo; gained the approval
+of William James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter
+Crane was apprenticed for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-engraver
+he had abundant opportunity for the minute study of
+the contemporary artists whose work passed through his hands,
+of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys, and of the masters
+of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more influenced by the
+Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and important
+element in the development of his talent, was the study of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
+Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a
+series of toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a
+picture of his, &ldquo;The Lady of Shalott,&rdquo; was exhibited at the
+Royal Academy, but the Academy steadily refused his maturer
+work; and after the opening of the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877
+he ceased to send pictures to Burlington House. In 1864 he
+began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour printer, a
+series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying
+admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited
+to the use of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a
+delightful series begun in 1873, <i>The Frog Prince, &amp;c.</i>, which showed
+markedly the influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to
+Italy following on his marriage in 1871. <i>The Baby&rsquo;s Opera</i> was
+a book of English nursery songs planned in 1877 with Mr Evans,
+and a third series of children&rsquo;s books with the collective title,
+<i>A Romance of the Three R&rsquo;s</i>, provided a regular course of instruction
+in art for the nursery. In his early &ldquo;Lady of Shalott&rdquo; the
+artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design in book
+illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in the
+view that this union of the calligrapher&rsquo;s and the decorator&rsquo;s art
+was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He
+followed the same course in <i>The First of May: A Fairy Masque</i>
+by his friend John R. Wise, text and decoration being in this
+case reproduced by photogravure. The &ldquo;Goose Girl&rdquo; illustration
+taken from his beautiful <i>Household Stories from Grimm</i>
+(1882) was reproduced in tapestry by William Morris, and is
+now in the South Kensington Museum. <i>Flora&rsquo;s Feast, A Masque
+of Flowers</i> had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane&rsquo;s line
+drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in
+colour <i>The Wonder Book</i> of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret
+Deland&rsquo;s <i>Old Garden</i>; in 1894 he collaborated with William
+Morris in the page decoration of <i>The Story of the Glittering Plain</i>,
+published at the Kelmscott press, which was executed in the
+style of 16th-century Italian and German woodcuts; but in
+purely decorative interest the finest of his works in book illustration
+is Spenser&rsquo;s <i>Faerie Queene</i> (12 pts., 1894-1896) and the
+<i>Shepheard&rsquo;s Calendar</i>. The poems which form the text of <i>Queen
+Summer</i> (1891), <i>Renascence</i> (1891), and <i>The Sirens Three</i> (1886)
+are by the artist himself.</p>
+
+<p>In the early &rsquo;eighties under Morris&rsquo;s influence he was closely
+associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as
+Morris himself to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With
+this object in view he devoted much attention to designs for
+textile stuffs, for wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he
+also used his art for the direct advancement of the Socialist
+cause. For a long time he provided the weekly cartoons for the
+Socialist organs, <i>Justice</i> and <i>The Commonweal</i>. Many of these
+were collected as <i>Cartoons for the Cause</i>. He devoted much time
+and energy to the work of the Art Workers&rsquo; Guild, and to the
+Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888.
+His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them
+&ldquo;The Bridge of Life&rdquo; (1884) and &ldquo;The Mower&rdquo; (1891), were
+exhibited regularly at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the
+New Gallery. &ldquo;Neptune&rsquo;s Horses,&rdquo; which, with many other of
+Mr Crane&rsquo;s pictures, came into the possession of Herr Ernst
+Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New Gallery in 1893, and
+with it may be classed his &ldquo;The Rainbow and the Wave.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles,
+stained glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of
+which he applied the principle that in purely decorative design
+&ldquo;the artist works freest and best without direct reference to
+nature, and should have learned the forms he makes use of by
+heart.&rdquo; An exhibition of his work of different kinds was held
+at the Fine Art Society&rsquo;s galleries in Bond Street in 1891, and
+taken over to the United States in the same year by the artist
+himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German,
+Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest
+throughout the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society
+in 1888; he was an examiner of the science and art department
+at South Kensington; director of design at the Manchester
+Municipal school (1894); art director of Reading College (1896);
+and in 1898 for a short time principal of the Royal College of Art.
+His lectures at Manchester were published with illustrated
+drawings as <i>The Bases of Design</i> (1898) and <i>Line and Form</i> (1900).
+<i>The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and New</i> (2nd ed.,
+London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to theory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was
+exhibited at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive
+and sumptuously illustrated book on <i>The Art of Walter Crane</i>, by
+P. G. Konody; a monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the
+<i>Künstler Monographien</i> series (Bielefeld and Leipzig); and an
+account of himself by the artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the
+<i>Art Journal</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), American actor,
+was born on the 30th of April 1845, in Leicester, Massachusetts,
+and made his first appearance at Utica, New York, in Donizetti&rsquo;s
+<i>Daughter of the Regiment</i> in 1863. Later he had a great success
+as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque <i>Evangeline</i> (1873). He
+made his first hit in the legitimate drama with Stuart Robson
+(1836-1903), in <i>The Comedy of Errors</i> and other Shakespearian
+plays, and in <i>The Henrietta</i> (1881) by Bronson Howard (1842-1908).
+This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subsequently
+Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in
+such plays as <i>The Senator</i> and <i>David Harum</i>. In 1904 he turned
+to more serious work and played Isidore Izard in <i>Business is
+Business</i>, an adaptation from Octave Mirbeau&rsquo;s <i>Les Affaires
+sont les affaires</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (in Dutch, <i>Kraan</i>; O. Ger. <i>Kraen</i>; cognate, as also
+the Lat. <i>grus</i>, and consequently the Fr. <i>grue</i> and Span. <i>grulla</i>,
+with the Gr. <span class="grk" title="geranos">&#947;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>), the <i>Grus communis</i> or <i>G. cinerea</i> of
+ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a
+native of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he
+had very often seen its young (&ldquo;<i>earum pipiones saepissime vidi</i>&rdquo;).
+Notwithstanding the protection afforded it by sundry acts of
+parliament, it has long since ceased from breeding in England.
+Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it as being found in the open
+parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray&rsquo;s time it was only known as
+occurring at the same season in large flocks in the fens of Lincolnshire
+and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of cranes&rsquo;
+eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby
+in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an
+older edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest
+inquiry he found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly
+unacquainted with the bird. The crane, however, no doubt
+then appeared in Britain, as it does now, at uncertain intervals
+and in unwonted places, having strayed from the migrating
+bands whose movements have been remarked from almost the
+earliest ages. Indeed, the crane&rsquo;s aerial journeys are of a very
+extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the
+Tropic of Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return
+voyage, its flocks may be descried passing overhead at a
+marvellous height, or halting for rest and refreshment on the
+wide meadows that border some great river, while the seeming
+order with which its ranks are marshalled during flight has long
+attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter quarters
+under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in
+spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill
+polar soils of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south
+of Europe and breed in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey.
+The greater number, however, occupy the intermediate zone and
+pass the summer in Russia, north Germany, and Scandinavia.
+Soon after their arrival in these countries the flocks break up into
+pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied by loud and
+frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of each
+are chosen.</p>
+
+<p>The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open
+marshes, where the herbage is not very high&mdash;a tolerably dry
+spot being selected and used apparently year after year. Here
+the eggs, which are of a rich brown colour with dark spots, and
+always two in number, are laid. The young are able to run soon
+after they are hatched, and are at first clothed with tawny down.
+In the course of the summer they assume nearly the same grey
+plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated
+plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
+parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear
+black, white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose
+skin of that colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct.
+During this time they keep in the marshes, but as autumn
+approaches the different families unite by the rivers and lakes,
+and ultimately form the enormous bands which after much more
+trumpeting set out on their southward journey.</p>
+
+<p>The crane&rsquo;s power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar
+trumpet-like notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its
+trachea, which on quitting the lower end of the neck passes
+backward between the branches of the furcula and is received
+into a hollow space formed by the bony walls of the carina or
+keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns, and then runs
+upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the
+whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (<i>Cygnus
+musicus</i>, <i>C. buccinator</i> and others), though differing in some not
+unimportant details; but at the same time somewhat similar
+convolutions of the trachea occur in other birds which do not
+possess, so far as is known, the faculty of trumpeting. The
+crane emits its notes both during flight and while on the ground.
+In the latter case the neck and bill are uplifted and the mouth
+kept open during the utterance of the blast, which may be often
+heard from birds in confinement, especially at the beginning of
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once
+familiar British species is now used in a general sense, and applied
+to all others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists
+placed near or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the
+cranes have only a superficial resemblance and no real affinity to
+the <i>Ardeidae</i>. In fact the <i>Gruidae</i> form a somewhat isolated
+group. Huxley included them together with the <i>Rallidae</i> in his
+<i>Geranomorphae</i>; but a more extended view of their various
+characters would probably assign them rather as relatives of the
+Bustards&mdash;not that it must be thought that the two families have
+not been for a very long time distinct. <i>Grus</i>, indeed, is a very
+ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and
+Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North
+America. In France, too, during the &ldquo;Reindeer Period&rdquo;
+there existed a huge species&mdash;the <i>G. primigenia</i> of Alphonse
+Milne-Edwards&mdash;which has doubtless been long extinct. At the
+present time cranes inhabit all the great zoogeographical regions
+of the earth, except the Neotropical, and some sixteen or seventeen
+species are discriminated. In Europe, besides the <i>G. communis</i>
+already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane (<i>G. virgo</i>) is
+distinguished from every other by its long white ear-tufts. This
+bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and Africa, and is
+said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The eastern part
+of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other species that
+do not frequent Europe (<i>G. antigone</i>, <i>G. japonensis</i>, <i>G. monachus</i>,
+and <i>G. leucogeranus</i>), of which the last is perhaps the finest of the
+family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white. The
+Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the
+species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (<i>G. torquata</i>
+and <i>G. indica</i>, both commonly confounded under the name of
+<i>G. antigone</i>). The Australian Region possesses a large species
+known to the colonists as the &ldquo;native companion&rdquo; (<i>G. australis</i>),
+while the Nearctic is tenanted by three species (<i>G. americana</i>,
+<i>G. canadensis</i> and <i>G. fraterculus</i>), to say nothing of the possibility
+of a fourth (<i>G. schlegeli</i>), a little-known and somewhat obscure
+bird, finding its habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two
+species (<i>G. paradisea</i> and <i>G. carunculata</i>), which do not occur out
+of Africa, as well as three others forming the group known as
+&ldquo;crowned cranes&rdquo;&mdash;differing much from other members of the
+family, and justifiably placed in a separate genus, <i>Balearica</i>.
+One of these (<i>B. pavonina</i>) inhabits northern and western Africa,
+while another (<i>B. regulorum</i>) is confined to the eastern and
+southern parts of that continent. The third (<i>B. ceciliae</i>), from
+the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell
+(<i>P.Z.S.</i>, 1904).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>With regard to the literature of this species, a paper &ldquo;On the
+Breeding of the Crane in Lapland&rdquo; (<i>Ibis</i>, 1859, p. 191), by John
+Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history
+ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different
+species was communicated by Blyth to <i>The Field</i> in 1873 (vol. xl.
+p. 631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful
+picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during
+one of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf&rsquo;s <i>Zoological
+Sketches</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANES<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the
+bird, cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="geranos">&#947;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, Fr. <i>grue</i>), machines by means of which
+heavy bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within
+certain defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the
+arm or jib from which the load to be moved is suspended, but
+it is now used in a wider sense to include the whole mechanism
+by which a load is raised vertically and moved horizontally.
+Machines used for lifting only are not called cranes, but winches,
+lifts or hoists, while the term elevator or conveyor is commonly
+given to appliances which continuously, not in separate loads,
+move materials like grain or coal in a vertical, horizontal or
+diagonal direction (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyors</a></span>). The use of cranes is of great
+antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial development of
+the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive powers
+than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important
+and indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where
+finished goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made,
+cranes of various forms are in universal use.</p>
+
+<p>Cranes may be divided into two main classes&mdash;revolving and
+non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and
+then moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited
+at any convenient point within the range. The type of
+<span class="sidenote">Classification.</span>
+this class is the ordinary jib crane. In the second
+class there are, in addition to the lifting motion, two horizontal
+movements at right angles to one another. The type of this
+class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously
+represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular coordinates.
+Jib cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and
+portable cranes; in the former the central-post or pivot is
+firmly fixed in a permanent position, while in the latter the
+whole crane is mounted on wheels, so that it may be transported
+from place to place.</p>
+
+<p>The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes&mdash;manual,
+steam, hydraulic, electric&mdash;give a further classification.
+Hand cranes are extremely useful where the load is not
+excessive, and the quantities to be dealt with are not
+<span class="sidenote">Motive powers.</span>
+great; also where speed is not important, and first cost
+is an essential consideration. The net effective work of lifting
+that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken,
+for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb
+per minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2¼ ft. per
+minute, so that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a
+minute or 9 tons 1 ft. per minute. It is at once evident that
+hand power is only suitable for cranes of moderate power, or in
+cases where heavy loads have to be lifted only very occasionally.
+This point is dwelt upon, because the speed limitations of the
+hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers. Steam is an
+extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not worked
+off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense
+advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved
+(by its own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without
+requiring any complicated means of conveying power to it; and
+it is rapid in work, fairly economical, and can be adapted to the
+most varying circumstances. Where, however, there are a
+number of cranes all belonging to the same installation, and
+these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from a central
+power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and continuous,
+as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other
+warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the
+power in a generating station and distribute it to the cranes.
+Down to the closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic
+power was practically the only system available for working
+cranes from a power station. The hydraulic crane is rapid in
+action, very smooth and silent in working, easy to handle, and
+not excessive in cost or upkeep,&mdash;advantages which have secured
+its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a motive
+power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span>
+transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not
+reached by any other method, and the electric motor readily
+adapts itself to cranes. When they are worked from a power
+station the great advantage is gained that the same plant which
+drives them can be used for many other purposes, such as
+working machine tools and supplying current for lighting. For
+dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making rapid
+strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of
+the cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a
+motive power has already displaced nearly every other method.
+Cranes driven by shafting, or by mechanical power, have been
+largely superseded by electric cranes, principally on account of
+the much greater economy of transmission. For many years the
+best workshop travellers were those driven by quick running
+ropes; these performed admirable service, but they have given
+place to the more modern electric traveller.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:482px; height:209px" src="images/img369.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or
+lifting motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or
+hook, and elevating the hook vertically. There are three
+typical methods: (1) A direct pull may be applied to
+<span class="sidenote">Lifting mechanisms.</span>
+the hook, either by screws, or by a cylinder fitted with
+piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic or other
+pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. These methods are
+used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of giving
+a very short range of lift. (2) The hook may be attached to a rope
+or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of pulleys
+around which the rope is led; by these means the lift can be very
+largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one
+indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the
+cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in
+all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley
+to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated by
+the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of
+overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a special
+pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the barrel is
+reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or &ldquo;sprockets,&rdquo; which
+engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but simply
+passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All the
+methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or barrel
+shaft, and this is the important difference between them and the
+hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating
+hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third
+category.</p>
+
+<p>When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supplemented
+by systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the
+traveller crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are
+interposed between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel
+(fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p>When a load is lifted, work has to be done in overcoming the
+action of gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is
+lowered, energy is given out. To control the speed and
+absorb this energy, brakes have to be provided. The
+<span class="sidenote">Brakes.</span>
+hydraulic crane has a great advantage in possessing an almost ideal
+brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust from the lifting cylinder
+the speed of descent can be regulated within very wide limits and
+with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually fitted with band
+brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction band placed round
+it, the band being tightened as required. In ordinary cases conduction
+and convection suffice to dissipate the heat generated by the
+brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be rapidly performed,
+or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth, special arrangements
+have to be provided. An excellent brake for very large cranes
+is Matthew&rsquo;s hydraulic brake, in which water is passed from end to
+end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons, cooling jackets
+being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is to arrange
+the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo, and,
+driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current which
+is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That
+the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable
+is seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons
+descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat sufficient
+to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60° F. to boiling point. Crane
+brakes are usually under the direct control of the driver, and they are
+generally arranged in one of two ways. In the first, the pressure
+is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed by a spring or
+weight; this is called &ldquo;braking on.&rdquo; In the second, or &ldquo;braking
+off&rdquo; method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring or
+weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of electric
+cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is energized by the
+current passing through the motor. When the motor starts the
+brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases, the brake
+goes on. The first method is in general use for steam cranes; it
+allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but is not
+automatic, as is the second.</p>
+
+<p>In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving
+shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with
+the brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid
+in working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed
+at a very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come
+to rest in order to be reversed. This method of working is very
+suitable for electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or
+7 tons, and for overhead travellers where the height of lift is
+moderate. Where high speed lowering is not required it is usual to
+employ a reversing motor and keep it always in gear.</p>
+
+<p>In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double
+cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be
+worked together, or independently as required, reversing friction
+cones are used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing
+motion. With the exception of a few special cranes in which friction
+wheels are employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes,
+to connect the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed
+gearing, the gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions.
+In electric cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a
+similar manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels
+give a slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat
+smoother in its action and entirely silent; the noise of gearing can,
+however, be considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth,
+as is now always done, and also by the use of pinions made of rawhide
+leather or other non-resonant material. When quick-running
+metal pinions are used they are arranged to run in closed oil-baths.
+Leather pinions must be protected from rats, which eat them freely.
+Worm wheel gearing is of very high efficiency if made very quick in
+pitch, with properly formed teeth perfectly lubricated, and with
+the end thrust of the worm taken on ball bearings. Much attention
+has been paid to the improvement of the mechanical details of the
+lifting and other motions of cranes, and in important installations
+the gearing is now usually made of cast steel. In revolving cranes
+ease of slewing can be greatly increased by the use of a live ring of
+conical rollers.</p>
+
+<p>Electric motors for barrel cranes are not essentially different from
+those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes the
+intermittent output has to be taken into consideration.
+This fact has led to the introduction of the &ldquo;crane rated&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Power required.</span>
+motor, with a given &ldquo;load factor.&rdquo; This latter gives the
+ratio of the length of the working periods to the whole time; <i>e.g.</i>
+a motor rated for a quarter load factor means that the motor is
+capable of exerting its full normal horse-power for three minutes
+out of every twelve, the pause being nine minutes, or one minute
+out of every four, the pause being three minutes. The actual load
+factor to be chosen depends on the nature of the work and the kind
+of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with high lifts following
+one another in rapid succession will require a higher load factor
+than a workshop traveller with a very short lift and only a very
+occasional maximum load; and a traveller with a very long longitudinal
+travel will require a higher load factor for the travelling
+motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load factor for
+electric crane motors varies from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span>. In steam cranes much the
+same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler; <i>e.g.</i> the engines
+of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of indicating about
+60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is found that, in
+consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient steam can be
+supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> to ¼ of that
+necessary for the above power, when developed continuously by a
+stationary engine.</p>
+
+<p>In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency
+of the lifting gear may be taken as about 85%; a good electric jib
+crane will give an efficiency of 72%, <i>i.e.</i> when actually lifting at
+full speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72% of
+the electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient
+rule is to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-tons
+of work done at the hook: this is equivalent to an efficiency
+of 66<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>%, and is well on the safe side.</p>
+
+<p>The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series
+wound, continuous current motor, which has many advantages.
+It has a very large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the
+inertia of getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a
+slower speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the
+action of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in
+which the cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of
+the stop-valve. Three-phase motors are also much used for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
+crane-driving, and it is probable that improvements in single and
+two-phase motors will eventually largely increase their use for this
+class of work.</p>
+
+<p>Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric
+cranes tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very
+considerable extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic
+crane falls away very much more rapidly than that of the electric
+crane when working on smaller loads. This drawback can be
+corrected to a slight extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with
+more than one cylinder, and thus compounding it, but the arrangement
+does not give the same economical range of load as in an
+electric crane. In first cost the hydraulic crane has the advantage,
+but the power mains are much less expensive and more convenient
+to arrange in the electric crane.</p>
+
+<p>The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been mentioned;
+for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the
+formula V = 30 + 200/T, where V is the speed of lift in
+feet per minute, and T the load in tons. Where electric
+<span class="sidenote">Speed.</span>
+or hydraulic cranes are worked from a central station the speed is
+greater, and may be roughly represented by V = 5 + 300/T; <i>e.g.</i> a
+30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of about 200 ft. per minute,
+and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8 ft. per minute, but these
+speeds vary with local circumstances. The lifting speed of electric
+travellers is generally less, because the lift is generally much shorter,
+and may in ordinary cases be taken as V = 3 + 85/T. The cross-traversing
+speed of travellers varies from 60 to 120 ft. per minute,
+and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per minute. The speed of
+these two motions depends much on the length of the span and of the
+longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to be done; in
+certain cases, <i>e.g.</i> foundries, it is desirable to be able to lift, on
+occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the brakes
+on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially in quick-running
+electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary
+motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift
+or travel, so as to prevent over-running.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other important points of crane construction too
+numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the
+advent of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in consequence
+great attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and
+wear, such as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of
+lubrication; and, as in all other quick-running machinery, great
+stress has to be laid on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery,
+thus being of a higher class, requires more protection, and cranes
+that work in the open are now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or
+cabins, furnished with weather-tight doors and windows, and more
+care is taken to provide proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders
+of access, and also guards for the revolving parts of gearing.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:529px; height:184px" src="images/img370a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Typical Forms of Cranes.</i>&mdash;Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand
+revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards
+and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is
+securely bolted to the foundation, and which carries the
+<span class="sidenote">Fixed Cranes.</span>
+strong crane-post, or pillar, around which the crane revolves.
+The revolving part is made with two side frames of cast
+iron or steel plates, and to these the lifting gear is attached. The
+load is suspended from the crane jib; this jib is attached at the
+lower end to the side frames, and the upper end is supported by tie-rods,
+connected to the framework, the whole revolving together.
+This simple form of crane thus embodies the essential elements of
+foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and gearing.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane.
+Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished
+with pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two
+&ldquo;back ties,&rdquo; and these are connected to the socket of the bottom
+pivot by the &ldquo;sleepers.&rdquo; This is a very good and comparatively
+cheap form of crane, where a long and variable radius is required,
+but it cannot slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are
+made of all powers, from the timber 1-ton hand derrick to the steel
+150-ton derrick used in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane
+introduces a problem for which many solutions have been sought,
+that of preventing the load from being lifted or lowered when the
+jib is pivoted up or down to alter the radius. To keep the load
+level, there are various devices for automatically coupling the jib-raising
+and the load-lowering motions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:213px" src="images/img370b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here
+the place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together
+at the top and pivoted at the bottom; a third back-leg is connected
+at the top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut
+which runs on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement
+of the lower end of the back
+leg allows the whole arrangement
+to assume the position
+shown in fig. 7, so that a
+load can be taken out of a
+vessel and deposited on a
+quay wall. The same effect
+can be produced by shortening
+the back leg by a screw
+placed in the direction of its
+length. Sheer legs are generally
+built in very large sizes,
+and their use is practically
+confined to marine work.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:521px; height:252px" src="images/img370c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another type of fixed crane
+is the &ldquo;Fairbairn&rdquo; crane,
+shown in fig. 8. Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united
+in one piece, which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at
+the bottom by a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal
+rollers. This type of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence
+of the great clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and
+requires very heavy foundations.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called &ldquo;hammer-headed&rdquo; crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel
+braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double cantilever;
+the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting
+crab, and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support
+for the machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of
+lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called &ldquo;racking&rdquo;
+motion, by which the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be
+moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load.
+Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later
+crane design; it first became prominent in the so-called &ldquo;Titan&rdquo;
+cranes, mentioned below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are
+generally constructed in large sizes, up to 200 tons.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:219px" src="images/img370d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy
+crane (fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned
+above, and revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by
+the structure of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy
+foundation. The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy
+hammers in a smithy, whence the name.</p>
+
+<p>Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every
+kind of crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage,
+fitted with wheels; it is even not unusual to make the
+<span class="sidenote">Portable cranes.</span>
+Scottish derrick portable by using three trucks, one under
+the mast, and the others under the two back legs.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the
+same elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed
+is mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels.
+With portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite
+stability against overturning; this is done by weighting the tail of
+the revolving part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span>
+boiler is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where
+the rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking
+girders are provided across the under side of the truck; these are
+arranged so that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made
+to increase the base. In connexion with the stability of portable
+cranes, it may be mentioned that accidents more often arise from
+overturning backwards than forwards. In the latter case the overturning
+tendency begins as soon as the load leaves the ground, but
+ceases as soon as the load again touches the ground and thus relieves
+the crane of the extra weight, whereas overturning backwards is
+caused either by the reaction of a chain breaking or by excessive
+counterweight. When portable cranes are fitted with springs and
+axle-boxes, drawgear and
+buffers, so that they can be
+coupled to an ordinary railway
+train, they are called &ldquo;breakdown&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;wrecking&rdquo; cranes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:522px; height:340px" src="images/img371a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:278px; height:319px" src="images/img371b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:279px; height:171px" src="images/img371c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Dock-side jib cranes for
+working general cargo are
+almost always made portable,
+in order to enable them to be
+placed in correct position in
+regard to the hatchways of
+the vessels which they serve.
+Fig. 12 shows an ordinary
+hydraulic dock-side jib crane.
+This type is usually fitted with
+a very high jib, so as to lift
+goods in and out of high-sided
+vessels. The hydraulic lifting
+cylinders are placed inside the
+revolving steel mast or post,
+and the cabin for the driver
+is arranged high up in the front
+of the post, so as to give a good
+view of the work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of
+jointed &ldquo;walking&rdquo; pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants
+placed at regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable
+to have the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible,
+so as not to interfere with railway traffic; this has led to the introduction
+of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes
+also called &ldquo;portal&rdquo; cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings
+run parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so
+as to span the whole quay; on one side the &ldquo;long leg&rdquo; runs on a
+rail at the quay edge, and on the other the &ldquo;short leg&rdquo; runs on a
+runway placed on the building. Cranes of this type are called
+&ldquo;half-portal&rdquo; cranes. Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class.
+They give the minimum of
+interference with quay space
+and have rapidly come into
+favour. Where the face of the
+warehouse is sufficiently close
+to the water to permit of the
+crane rope plumbing the hatches
+without requiring a jib of excessive
+radius, it is a very
+convenient plan to place the
+whole crane on the warehouse
+roof.</p>
+
+<p>A special form of jib crane,
+designed to meet a particular
+purpose, is the &ldquo;Titan&rdquo; (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of
+piers and breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the
+hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent;
+in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable and
+the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large
+portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal
+movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is designed,
+viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost
+a necessity.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:526px; height:188px" src="images/img371d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead
+traveller worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine
+worked by electric power. The principal component
+parts of a traveller are the main cross girders forming the
+<span class="sidenote">Non-revolving cranes.</span>
+<i>bridge</i>, the two <i>end carriages</i> on which the bridge rests, the
+<i>running wheels</i> which enable the end carriages to travel
+on the longitudinal gantry girders or <i>runway</i>, and the <i>crab</i> or <i>jenny</i>,
+which carries the hoisting mechanism, and moves across the span on
+rails placed on the bridge girders. There are numerous and important
+variations of these two types, but the above contain the elements
+out of which most cranes of the class are built.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:522px; height:191px" src="images/img371e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:216px" src="images/img371f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:205px" src="images/img371g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a &ldquo;Goliath&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Wellington.&rdquo; It is practically a traveller mounted on high
+legs, so as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the
+ground level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations
+and combinations of types, fig.
+18 shows a modern design of
+crane intended to command the
+maximum of yard space, and
+having some of the characteristics
+both of the Goliath and
+of the revolving jib crane, and
+fig. 19 depicts a combination of
+a traveller and a hanging jib
+crane.</p>
+
+<p>When the cross traverse
+motion of a traveller crab is
+suppressed, and the longitudinal
+travelling motion is increased
+in importance we come to a
+type of crane, the use of which
+is rapidly increasing; it goes by the name of &ldquo;transporter.&rdquo;
+Transporters can only move the load to any point on a vertical
+<span class="sidenote">Transporters.</span>
+surface (generally a plane surface); they have a lifting
+motion and a movement of translation. They are of two
+kinds: (1) those in which the motive power and lifting
+gear are self-contained on the crab; and (2) those in which the motive
+power is placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is
+shown in fig. 20. From the
+lower flange of a suspended
+runway, made of a single I
+section, run wheels, from the
+axles of which the transporter
+is suspended. The
+latter consists of a framework
+carrying the hoisting
+barrel, with its driving motor
+and gearing, and a travelling
+motor, which is geared to the
+running wheels in such a
+manner as to be able to
+propel the whole machine;
+a seat is provided for the
+driver who manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind,
+when fitted with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal
+from barges and depositing it in a coal store.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 335px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:285px; height:191px" src="images/img372a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span>
+through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made
+of single I-sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be
+lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs
+on the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient
+fixed position. In order that
+only one motor may be used,
+and also that the load may be
+lifted by a single part of rope,
+various devices have been invented.
+The jib is usually inclined,
+so as to enable the
+travel to be performed by
+gravity in one direction, and
+the object of the transporter
+mechanism is to ensure that
+pulling in or slacking out the
+lifting rope shall perform the
+cycle of operations in the
+following order:&mdash;Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of
+a vessel on to a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the
+travelling jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving
+at a certain height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by
+the continued pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an
+adjustable stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be
+lowered out; the hook can then be raised, when the jenny is automatically
+unlocked, and on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates
+to its first position, when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated.
+The jibs of transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up,
+so as to be out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely
+used for dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses,
+and also for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not
+interfering with the rigging of vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the
+introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply
+motive power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically,
+so that the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding the
+various motions required by the special circumstances of each case.</p>
+
+<p>The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one,
+but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst
+which may be mentioned <i>Die Hebezeuge</i> by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin,
+1903), and <i>Cranes</i>, by Anton Böttcher, translated with additions by
+A. Tolhausen (London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANIOMETRY.<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> The application of precise methods of
+measurement marks a definite phase in the development of most
+branches of modern science, and thus craniometry, a comprehensive
+expression for all methods of measuring the skull
+(cranium), provides a striking landmark in the progress of
+anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears to be
+twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls
+with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation
+of those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and
+A. Dürer may be mentioned as pioneers in such researches.
+Again, it is clearly shown in the literature of this subject, that
+anatomists were led to employ methods of measurement in their
+study of the human skull. The determining cause of this
+improvement in method is curious, for it appeared at the end of a
+famous anatomical controversy of the later middle ages, namely
+the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was based on the
+study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the description
+of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains
+that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were
+devised with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and
+the human skull.</p>
+
+<p>The artists did not carry their researches very far. The
+anatomists on the contrary continued to make measurements, and
+in 1764 Daubenton published a noteworthy contribution to
+craniometry. Six years later, Pieter Camper, distinguished both
+as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures containing
+an account of his craniometrical methods, and these may be
+fairly claimed as having laid the foundation of all subsequent
+work. That work has been described above as anthropological,
+but as the studies thus defined are very varied in extent, it is
+necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they naturally
+fall.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:542px" src="images/img372b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;The Skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of a negro,
+showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by
+Pieter Camper.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contributions
+of artists), it has been explained that the measurements
+were first made with a view to elucidating the comparison of the
+skulls of men with those of other animals. This wide comparison
+constitutes the first subdivision of craniometric studies. And
+craniometric methods have rendered the results of comparison
+much more clear and comprehensible than was formerly the case.
+It is further remarkable that among the first measurements
+employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the name of
+Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by the
+&ldquo;facial angle&rdquo; invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It
+appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which
+Camper describes the general results of the employment of this
+angle for comparative purposes, as will appear from the following
+brief extract from the translation of the original work: &ldquo;The
+two extremities of the facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from
+the negro to the Grecian antique: make it under 70, and you
+describe an ourang or an ape: lessen it still more, and you have
+the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and you form a fowl,
+a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly parallel
+with the horizon.&rdquo; (Camper&rsquo;s Works, p. 42, translated by
+Cogan, 1821.)</p>
+
+<p>In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the
+literature of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it
+is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a
+complete list of the names of the authors, it must be added that
+for the purposes of far-reaching comparisons of the lower animals
+with mankind, craniometric methods were used by P. P. Broca in
+France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in England, with such
+genius and success as have not yet been surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>The second division of craniometric studies includes those in
+which the skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are
+compared. And in this domain, the advent of accurate numerical
+methods of recording observations brought about great advances.
+In describing the facial angle, it will be seen that the modern
+European, the Greek of classical antiquity and the Negro are
+compared. Thus it is that Camper&rsquo;s name appears as that of a
+pioneer in this second main division of the subject. Broca and
+Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields of research,
+but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must be
+added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the
+merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the
+skull, and of a classification based on such comparisons. These
+indices will be further defined below. It is convenient to mention
+here that the first aim of all these investigators was to obtain
+from the skull reliable data having reference to the conformation
+or size of the brain once contained within it. Only in later days
+did the tendency to overlook this, the fundamental aim and end
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span>
+of craniometry, make its appearance; such nevertheless was the
+case, much to the detriment of craniometric science, which for a
+time seems to have become purely empirical.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:768px; height:210px" src="images/img373a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and foramino-basal angles are shown in the
+crania of:&mdash;A, a New Britain native (male); B, a gorilla (male) C, a dog. <i>N.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-
+ethmoidal angle; <i>P.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-maxillary angle; <i>Pr.B.Op</i>, Foramino-basal angle.  The spheno-
+ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first employed by Huxley.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:200px" src="images/img373b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and foramino-basal
+angles are shown in the crania of:&mdash;A, a New Guinea native
+(male); B, a European woman. <i>N.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-ethmoidal angle;
+<i>P.Pr.B</i>, Spheno-maxillary angle; <i>Pr.B.Op</i>, Foramina-basal angle.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which
+the field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the
+various sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are
+brought together for the purposes of comparison or contrast.
+But although the range of research is thus narrowed and restricted,
+the guiding principles and the methods remain unchanged.
+In this department of craniometry, Anders Retzius
+has gained the foremost place among the pioneers of research.
+Retzius&rsquo;s name is, as already mentioned, associated not with any
+particular angle or angular measurement, but rather with a
+method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions
+which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus
+for instance one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest
+width measures 75% of its greatest length (<i>i.e.</i> its width is to its
+length as three to four).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:207px" src="images/img373c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2 f80">From Tylor's <i>Anthropology</i>, by permission of Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic;
+(B) European, index 80, mesaticephalic; (C) Samoyed, index 85,
+brachycephalic.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index,
+which in such an instance would be described as equal to 75.
+A skull providing a breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess
+very different proportions from another which provides a corresponding
+index equal to 85. And in fact this particular index in
+human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in undistorted examples
+(fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius&rsquo;s system of
+classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his earliest
+applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden.
+One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in
+respect of the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and
+their Scandinavian neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference
+was added to the list of characters (such as stature, hair-colour
+and complexion) whereby these two types were already distinguished.
+Since the publication
+of Retzius&rsquo;s studies, the cephalic or
+breadth-index of the skull has
+retained a premier position among
+its almost innumerable successors,
+though it is of historical interest to
+note that, while Retzius had undoubtedly
+devised the method of
+comparing &ldquo;breadth-indices,&rdquo; he
+always qualified the results of its
+use by reference to other data.
+These qualifications were overlooked
+by the immediate successors
+of Retzius, much to the disadvantage
+of craniometry. In addition
+to the researches on the skull
+forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison
+of Finns and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of
+the form of skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess
+historic interest.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:248px; height:316px" src="images/img373d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Callipers used in
+Craniometry, Professor Martin&rsquo;s
+(P. Hermann, Zürich) model.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:130px" src="images/img373e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Flower&rsquo;s Craniometer as modified
+by Dr W. L. H. Duckworth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instruments.
+Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-wires,
+through which skulls were
+viewed and by means of which
+accurate drawings could be projected
+on to paper. The methods
+of Retzius as here described
+require the aid of callipers of
+various sorts, and such instruments
+were quickly devised and
+applied to the special needs of
+the case. Such instruments are
+still in use, and two forms of
+simple craniometer are shown in
+the accompanying illustrations
+(figs. 5 and 6). For the more
+accurate comparison required in
+the study of various European
+types, delicate instruments for
+measuring angles were invented
+by Anthelme in Paris (1836) and
+John Grattan in Belfast (1853).
+These instruments enabled the observer to transmit to the plane
+surface of a sheet of drawing paper a correct tracing of the contour
+of the specimen under investigation. A further modification was
+devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year 1861, and since that
+date the number and forms of these instruments have been
+greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance
+of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry,
+there should be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley,
+Sir W. H. Flower and Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de
+Quatrefages in France, J. C. G. Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany.
+Moreover, the methods
+have also been multiplied,
+so that in addition
+to angular and linear
+measurements, those of
+the capacity or cubical
+contents of the cranium
+and those of the curvature
+of its surface demand
+reference. The masterly
+work of Cleland claims special mention in this connexion.
+And finally while two dimensions are combined in the
+cephalic index of Retzius, the combination of three dimensions
+(in a formula called a modulus) distinguishes some
+recent work, although the employment of the modulus is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span>
+actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E.
+von Baer.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:765px; height:239px" src="images/img374a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is shown in the crania of:&mdash;A, a New Britain
+native (male) 62°; B, a gorilla (male) 50°; C, a dog 42°. This angle has now replaced the facial
+angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that
+which has just been described, and it deals with the comparison
+of the prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods
+are exactly similar to those employed in the comparison of
+living races; but in some particular instances where the prehistoric
+individual is represented only by a comparatively minute
+portion of the skull, some special modifications of the usual
+procedures have been necessitated. In this field the works of
+W. His and L. Rütimeyer on the prehistoric races of Switzerland,
+those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of Thurnam
+and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger,
+W. J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to
+this department of craniometry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:755px; height:206px" src="images/img374b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is shown in the crania of:&mdash;A, a
+Guinea native (male) 75°; B, a European (woman) 93°; C, a new-born infant (93°).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably
+increased. In the hands of von Török of Budapest, as in those of
+M. Benedikt of Vienna at an earlier date, the number of measurements
+regarded as necessary for the complete &ldquo;diagnosis&rdquo; of a
+skull has reached a colossal total. Of the trend and progress of
+craniometry at the present day, three particular developments
+are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various times
+to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure
+uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that
+of the German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and
+8), and that of the Anthropometric Committee of the British
+Association (1906) seem to require at least a record. In the
+second place, the application of the methods of statistical
+science in dealing with large numbers of craniometric data has
+been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson&rsquo;s hands. Thirdly,
+and in connexion with such methods, there may be mentioned
+the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the
+methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the
+study of large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral
+animals, such as white rats or the varieties of the horse. And
+lastly no account of craniometry would be complete without
+mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian anthropologist
+Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot, however,
+be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of
+Sergi&rsquo;s principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox
+numerical methods.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;Tyson, <i>The Anatomy of a Pygmie</i> (London, 1699);
+Daubenton, &ldquo;Sur la différence de la situation du tron occipital dans
+l&rsquo;homme et dans les animaux,&rdquo; <i>Comptes rendus de l&rsquo;académie des
+sciences</i> (Paris, 1764); Camper, <i>Works</i> (1770, translated by Cogan,
+1821); Broca, <i>Mémoires</i> (1862 and following years); Huxley,
+<i>Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, <i>Über
+die Schädelformen der Nordbewohner</i> (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme,
+<i>Physiologie de la pensée</i> (Paris, 1836); Grattan, <i>Ulster Journal of
+Archaeology</i>, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, &ldquo;A System of Craniometry,&rdquo;
+<i>Transactions of the Ethnological Society</i> (1861); Flower, Catalogue
+of the Hunterian Museum, <i>Osteology</i>, part 1 (London, 1879); Turner,
+&ldquo;&rsquo;Challenger&rsquo; Reports,&rdquo; <i>Zoology</i>, vol. x. pt. 29, &ldquo;Human Crania&rdquo;
+(1884); de Quatrefages, <i>Crania ethnica</i> (Paris, 1873); Lucae,
+<i>Architectur des menschlichen Schädels</i> (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker,
+<i>Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schädels</i> (1862); Cleland,
+&ldquo;An Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans.
+Roy. Society</i> (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq.; von Baer, &ldquo;Crania
+selecta,&rdquo; Académie impériale des sciences de S. Pétersbourg (1859);
+His and Rütimeyer, <i>Crania Helvetica</i>
+(Basel, 1866); Ecker, <i>Crania Germaniae
+meridionalis</i> (1865); Thurnam
+and Davis, <i>Crania Britannica</i>; von
+Török, <i>Craniometrie</i> (Stuttgart, 1890);
+Benedikt, <i>Manuel technique et pratique
+d&rsquo;anthropométrie cranio-céphalique</i>
+(Paris, 1889); Pearson, <i>Biometrika</i>,
+from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards;
+Sergi, &ldquo;The Varieties of the Human
+Species,&rdquo; English translation, Smithsonian
+Institution (Washington,
+1894); Schwalbe, &ldquo;Der Neanderthalschädel,&rdquo;
+<i>Bonner Jahrbücher</i>, Heft
+106; also <i>Sonderheft der Zeitschrift
+für Morphologie und Anthropologie</i>;
+Kramberger, <i>Der paläolithische
+Mensch von Krapina</i> (Nägele, Stuttgart,
+1901); Sollas, &ldquo;The Cranial
+Characters of the Neanderthal Race,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Transactions of the Royal Society</i>, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908;
+Klaatsch, &ldquo;Bericht über einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach
+London,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handbooks.</i>&mdash;Topinard, <i>Éléments d&rsquo;anthropologie générale</i> (Paris,
+1885); Schmidt, <i>Anthropologische Methoden</i> (Leipzig, 1888); Duckworth,
+<i>Morphology and Anthropology</i> (Cambridge, 1904).</p>
+
+<p><i>Journals.</i>&mdash;<i>Bulletins de la Société d&rsquo;Anthropologie de Paris</i>, <i>Journal
+of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>,
+<i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>, <i>Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. L. H. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANK,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably
+connected with a root meaning &ldquo;crooked,&rdquo; and appearing in the
+Ger. <i>krank</i>, ill, a figurative use of the original word; among
+other words in English containing the same original meaning are
+&ldquo;cringe&rdquo; and &ldquo;crinkle.&rdquo; In mechanics, a crank is a device by
+which reciprocating motion is converted
+into circular motion or
+vice versa, consisting of a <i>crank-arm</i>,
+one end of which is fastened
+rigidly at right angles to the
+rotating shaft or axis, while the
+other end bears a <i>crank-pin</i>, projecting
+from it at right angles and
+parallel to the shaft. When the
+reciprocating part of a machine, as
+the piston and piston-rod of a
+steam engine, is linked to this
+crank by a <i>crank-rod</i> or <i>connecting
+rod</i>, one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other
+on a pin in the end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro
+motion of the latter imparts a circular motion to the shaft
+and vice versa. The crank, instead of being made up as described
+above, may be formed by bending the shaft to the
+required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch. A
+<i>bell-crank</i>, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change
+the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical
+or vice versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle,
+say of 90°, to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point
+of junction.</p>
+
+<p>Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in
+prisons as a means of punishment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tread-mill</a></span>). Other uses
+of the word, connected with the primary meaning, are for a
+crooked path, a crevice or chink; and a freakish turn of thought
+or speech, as in Milton&rsquo;s phrase &ldquo;quips and cranks.&rdquo; It is also
+used as a slang expression, American in origin, for a harmless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span>
+lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one idea or
+hobby becomes a monomania. &ldquo;Crank&rdquo; or &ldquo;crank-sided&rdquo; is a
+nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from
+want of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical
+sense is often confused with &ldquo;crank&rdquo; or &ldquo;cranky,&rdquo; that is,
+rickety or shaky, probably derived direct from the German
+<i>krank</i>, weak or ill.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANMER, THOMAS<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1489-1556), archbishop of Canterbury,
+born at Aslacton or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of
+July 1489, was the second son of Thomas Cranmer and of his
+wife Anne Hatfield. He received his early education, according
+to Morice his secretary, from &ldquo;a marvellous severe and cruel
+schoolmaster,&rdquo; whose discipline must have been severe indeed to
+deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster
+bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was
+initiated by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and
+hawking, which formed one of his recreations in after life. To
+early training he also owed the skilful horsemanship for which
+he was conspicuous. At the age of fourteen he was sent by his
+mother, who had in 1501 become a widow, to Cambridge.
+Little is known with certainty of his university career beyond the
+facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or 1511,
+that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his
+marriage to &ldquo;Black Joan,&rdquo; a relative of the landlady of the
+Dolphin Inn, and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his
+wife, which occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of
+grace allowed by the statutes. During the brief period of his
+married life he held the appointment of lecturer at Buckingham
+Hall, now Magdalene College. The fact of his marrying would
+seem to show that he did not at the time intend to enter the
+church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to qualify
+for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took
+his doctor&rsquo;s degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was
+invited about this time to become a fellow of the college founded
+by Cardinal Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that
+there is some reason to doubt this. If the offer was made, it was
+declined, and Cranmer continued at Cambridge filling the
+offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college and of public
+examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting, in view
+of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among
+the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted
+on a thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and rejected
+several candidates who were deficient in this qualification.</p>
+
+<p>It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that
+transferred Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion
+of the university to the din and bustle of the court. In August
+1529 the plague known as the sweating sickness, which prevailed
+throughout the country, was specially severe at Cambridge, and
+all who had it in their power forsook the town for the country.
+Cranmer went with two of his pupils named Cressy, related to
+him through their mother, to their father&rsquo;s house at Waltham in
+Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be
+visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief
+counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of
+Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards
+bishop of Hereford, were lodged at Cressy&rsquo;s house. Meeting
+with Cranmer, they were naturally led to discuss the king&rsquo;s
+meditated divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Cranmer suggested
+that if the canonists and the universities should decide that
+marriage with a deceased brother&rsquo;s widow was illegal, and if it
+were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur,
+her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the
+ordinary ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to
+Rome was thus dispensed with, and this point was at once seen
+by the king, who, when Cranmer&rsquo;s opinion was reported to him,
+is said to have ordered him to be summoned in these terms:
+&ldquo;I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out of hand. This
+man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king
+to lay aside all other pursuits and to devote himself to the
+question of the divorce. He was to draw up a written treatise,
+stating the course he proposed, and defending it by arguments
+from scripture, the fathers and the decrees of general councils.
+His material interests certainly did not suffer by compliance.
+He was commended to the hospitality of Anne Boleyn&rsquo;s father,
+the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place he resided
+for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton
+and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice,
+the name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished
+Cranmer was called upon to defend its argument before the
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which he visited, accompanied
+by Fox and Gardiner. Immediately afterwards he was
+sent to plead the cause before a more powerful if not a higher
+tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of Wiltshire at its head,
+was despatched to Rome in 1530, that &ldquo;the matter of the divorce
+should be disputed and ventilated,&rdquo; and Cranmer was an important
+member of it. He was received by the Pope with
+marked courtesy, and was appointed &ldquo;Grand Penitentiary of
+England,&rdquo; but his argument, if he ever had the opportunity of
+stating it, did not lead to any practical decision of the question.</p>
+
+<p>Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he
+received a second commission from the king appointing him
+&ldquo;Conciliarius Regius et ad Caesarem Orator.&rdquo; In the summer
+of 1531 he accordingly proceeded to Germany as sole ambassador
+to the emperor. He was also to sound the Lutheran princes
+with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal of some
+restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became acquainted
+with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological
+position he probably found to be in many points analogous to his
+own. Both were convinced that the old order must change;
+neither saw clearly what the new order should be to which it was
+to give place. They had frequent interviews, which had doubtless
+an important influence on Cranmer&rsquo;s opinions. But Osiander&rsquo;s
+house had another attraction of a different kind from theological
+sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and in
+1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage
+corroboration of Cranmer&rsquo;s statement that he never expected or
+desired the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he
+had foreseen how soon the primacy was to be forced upon him,
+he would have avoided a disqualification which it was difficult to
+conceal and dangerous to disclose.</p>
+
+<p>Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a
+very few months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop
+Warham died, and the king almost immediately afterwards
+intimated to Cranmer, who had accompanied the emperor in his
+campaign against the Turks, his nomination to the vacant see.
+Cranmer&rsquo;s conduct was certainly consistent with his profession
+that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the dangerous
+promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own
+return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made.
+The papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March
+1533, and the consecration took place on the 30th March. One
+peculiarity of the ceremony had occasioned considerable discussion.
+It was the custom for the archbishop elect to take two
+oaths, the first of episcopal allegiance to the pope, and the second
+in recognition of the royal supremacy. The latter was so wide
+in its scope that it might fairly be held to supersede the former in
+so far as the two were inconsistent. Cranmer, however, was not
+satisfied with this. He had a special protest recorded, in which
+he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the pope only in
+so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the king.
+The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it
+seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration
+of what the two oaths implied. It was the course that would
+readily suggest itself to a man of timid nature who wished to
+secure himself against such a fate as Wolsey&rsquo;s. It showed
+weakness, but it added nothing to whatever immorality there
+might be in successively taking two incompatible oaths.</p>
+
+<p>In the last as in the first step of Cranmer&rsquo;s promotion Henry
+had been actuated by one and the same motive. The business of
+the divorce&mdash;or rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn&rsquo;s
+expected issue&mdash;had now become very urgent, and in the new
+archbishop he had an agent who might be expected to forward it
+with the needful haste. The celerity and skill with which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span>
+Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully satisfied
+his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat almost
+from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in relation
+to Catherine&rsquo;s marriage with Henry as affected by her previous
+marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the
+object of the king were given on these questions, though even
+the despotism of the most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure
+absolute unanimity. The next step was taken by Cranmer, who
+wrote a letter to the king, praying to be allowed to remove the
+anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible case of disputed succession,
+by finally determining the validity of the marriage in his
+archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request was
+prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of
+course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedfordshire,
+and to suit her convenience the court was held at the priory
+of Dunstable in the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to
+appear, she was declared contumacious, and on the 23rd of May
+the archbishop gave judgment declaring the marriage null and
+void from the first, and so leaving the king free to marry whom he
+pleased. The Act of Appeals had already prohibited any appeal
+from the archbishop&rsquo;s court. Five days later he pronounced
+the marriage between Henry and Anne&mdash;which had been secretly
+celebrated about the 25th of January 1533&mdash;to be valid. On the
+1st of June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of September
+stood godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p>The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in
+England to the royal supremacy had been practically achieved
+before Cranmer&rsquo;s appointment as archbishop: and he had little
+to do with the other constitutional changes of Henry&rsquo;s reign.
+But his position as chief minister of Henry&rsquo;s ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction forced him into unpleasant prominence in connexion
+with the king&rsquo;s matrimonial experiences. In 1536 he was
+required to revise his own sentence in favour of the validity of
+Henry&rsquo;s marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the 17th of May
+the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this
+sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne&rsquo;s sister, Mary
+Boleyn, had been Henry VIII.&rsquo;s mistress; this by canon law was
+a bar to his marriage with Anne&mdash;a bar which had been removed
+by papal dispensation in 1527, but now the papal power to
+dispense in such cases had been repudiated, and the original objection
+revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal and unjust.
+With Anne&rsquo;s condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer
+had nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the
+king, as he had done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks
+of Christchurch. His share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was
+less prominent than that of Gardiner, though he did preside over
+the Convocation in which nearly all the dignitaries of the church
+signified their approval of that measure. To his next and last
+interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the king no discredit
+attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the charges
+against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the
+king was obvious, though painful.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy
+which has associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that
+of any other ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its
+most important feature on the theological as distinct from the
+political side was the endeavour to promote the circulation of the
+Bible in the vernacular, by encouraging translation and procuring
+an order in 1538 that a copy of the Bible in English should be
+set up in every church in a convenient place for reading. Only
+second in importance to this was the re-adjustment of the creed
+and liturgy of the church, which formed Cranmer&rsquo;s principal work
+during the latter half of his life. The progress of the archbishop&rsquo;s
+opinion towards that middle Protestantism, if it may be so
+called, which he did so much to impress on the formularies of the
+Church of England, was gradual, as a brief enumeration of the
+successive steps in that progress will show. In 1538 an embassy
+of German divines visited England with the design, among other
+things, of forming a common confession for the two countries.
+This proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer
+had with the theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a
+great influence in modifying his views. Both in parliament and
+in Convocation he opposed the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood
+almost alone. During the period between 1540 and 1543 the
+archbishop was engaged at the head of a commission in the
+revision of the &ldquo;Bishop&rsquo;s Book&rdquo; (1537) or <i>Institutions of a
+Christian Man</i>, and the preparation of the <i>Necessary Erudition</i>
+(1543) known as the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Book,&rdquo; which was a modification
+of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine.
+In June 1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the
+same as that now in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical
+English style.</p>
+
+<p>The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation
+exposed him to the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or
+&ldquo;men of the old learning,&rdquo; of whom Gardiner and Bonner were
+leaders, and on various occasions&mdash;notably in 1543 and 1545&mdash;conspiracies
+were formed in the council or elsewhere to effect his
+overthrow. The king, however, remained true to him, and all the
+conspiracies signally failed. It illustrates a favourable trait in
+the archbishop&rsquo;s character that he forgave all the conspirators.
+He was, as his secretary Morice testifies, &ldquo;a man that delighted
+not in revenging.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547).
+By the will of the king he was nominated one of a council of
+regency composed of sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the
+arrangement by which Somerset became lord protector. He
+officiated at the coronation of the boy king Edward VI., and is
+supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the order of the
+ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was made to
+appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent
+consent of the people. But Edward&rsquo;s title had been expressly
+sanctioned by act of parliament, so that there was no more room
+for election in his case than in that of George I., and the real
+motive of the changes was to shorten the weary ceremony for the
+frail child.</p>
+
+<p>During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid
+progress, the sympathies both of the Protector and of the young
+king being decidedly Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled
+without let or hindrance to complete the preparation of the church
+formularies, on which he had been for some time engaged. In
+1547 appeared the <i>Homilies</i> prepared under his direction.
+Four of them are attributed to the archbishop himself&mdash;those on
+Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of Scripture.
+His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas, known
+as Cranmer&rsquo;s Catechism, appeared in the following year. Important,
+as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the
+<i>Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament</i>,
+which he published in 1550. It was immediately answered from
+the side of the &ldquo;old learning&rdquo; by Gardiner. The first prayer-book
+of Edward VI. was finished in November 1548, and received
+legal sanction in March 1549; the second was completed and
+sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the work
+of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward
+VI. published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely
+to the hand of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he
+was employed was the revision of his codification of the canon
+law, which had been all but completed before the death of Henry.
+The task was one eminently well suited to his powers, and the
+execution of it was marked by great skill in definition and arrangement.
+It never received any authoritative sanction, Edward VI.
+dying before the proclamation establishing it could be made, and
+it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin translation by
+Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the title
+<i>Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum</i>. It laid down the lawfulness
+and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most
+absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher
+to the flames. But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as
+tolerant as any in that age.</p>
+
+<p>Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by
+that of his father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to
+take a step against his own convictions. He had pledged himself
+to respect the testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which
+the succession devolved upon Mary, and now he violated his oath
+by signing Edward&rsquo;s &ldquo;device&rdquo; of the crown to Lady Jane Grey.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span>
+On grounds of policy and morality alike the act was quite
+indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his perjury
+that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying
+man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days&rsquo; queen
+when the others who had with him signed Edward&rsquo;s device
+deserted her. On the accession of Mary he was summoned to the
+council&mdash;most of whom had signed the same device&mdash;reprimanded
+for his conduct, and ordered to confine himself to his palace at
+Lambeth until the queen&rsquo;s pleasure was known. He refused to
+follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate that was
+clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any
+chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in
+the council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity
+of the queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother&rsquo;s
+divorce and her own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1553 he
+was sent to the Tower, where Ridley and Latimer were also
+confined. The immediate occasion of his imprisonment was a
+strongly worded declaration he had written a few days previously
+against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard, had been
+re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to
+publish this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the
+council, and it could not be ignored. In November, with Lady
+Jane Grey, her husband, and two other Dudleys, Cranmer was
+condemned for treason. Renard thought he would be executed,
+but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an ecclesiastic
+put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular court, and
+Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the highest of
+clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had
+restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he
+and his two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were
+removed to Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or
+common prison. Ridley and Latimer were unflinching, and
+suffered bravely at the stake on the 16th of October 1555.
+Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over which
+Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555.
+Brooks had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome,
+where Cranmer was summoned, but not permitted, to attend.
+On the 25th of November he was pronounced contumacious by
+the pope and excommunicated, and a commission was sent to
+England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This was
+done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church,
+Oxford, on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed
+over to the secular power. About the same time Cranmer
+subscribed the first two of his &ldquo;recantations.&rdquo; His difficulty
+consisted in the fact that, like all Anglicans of the 16th century, he
+recognized no right of private judgment, but believed that the
+state, as represented by monarchy, parliament and Convocation,
+had an absolute right to determine the national faith and to
+impose it on every Englishman. All these authorities had now
+legally established Roman Catholicism as the national faith, and
+Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist. His early
+&ldquo;recantations&rdquo; are merely recognitions of his lifelong conviction
+of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led him
+into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his
+whole career and the Reformation. This is what the government
+wanted. Northumberland&rsquo;s recantation had done much
+to discredit the Reformation, Cranmer&rsquo;s, it was hoped, would
+complete the work. Hence the enormous effect of Cranmer&rsquo;s
+recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he was taken
+to St Mary&rsquo;s church, and asked to repeat his recantation in the
+hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all
+he declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently
+done troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his
+whole life; that he renounced and refused all his recantations as
+things written with his hand, contrary to the truth which he
+thought in his heart; and that as his hand had offended, his
+hand should be first burned when he came to the fire. As he had
+said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed to the flames. The
+calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met his fate show
+that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that his
+recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not
+to be repented of.</p>
+
+<p>It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of
+infirmity of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his
+character is well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to
+Bullinger, that he was &ldquo;too fearful about what might happen to
+him.&rdquo; This weakness was the worst blot on Cranmer&rsquo;s character,
+but it was due in some measure to his painful capacity for seeing
+both sides of a question at the same time, a temperament fatal to
+martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class him. As early
+as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of Transubstantiation;
+by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence (Pref. to his
+<i>Answer to Dr Richard Smith</i>). But here he used the term &ldquo;real&rdquo;
+somewhat unguardedly, for in his <i>Defence</i> he asserts a real presence,
+but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he repudiates
+the idea that the bread and wine were &ldquo;bare tokens.&rdquo;
+His views on church polity were dominated by his implicit
+belief in the divine right of kings (not of course the divine
+<i>hereditary</i> right of kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to
+set up against the divine right of popes. He set practically no
+limits to the ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully
+the representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly
+distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were
+one.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> vols. iv.-xx.:
+<i>Acts of the Privy Council, 1542-1556</i>; <i>Cal. of State Papers, Dom.
+and Foreign</i>; Foxe&rsquo;s <i>Acts and Monuments</i>; Strype&rsquo;s <i>Memorials of
+Cranmer</i> (1694); <i>Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer</i>,
+by Ralph Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden
+Society&rsquo;s publications); <i>Remains of Thomas Cranmer</i>, by Jenkyns
+(1833); <i>Lives of Cranmer</i>, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in
+Hook&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>, vols. vi. and vii. (1868),
+by Canon Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904);
+Froude&rsquo;s <i>History</i>; R. W. Dixon&rsquo;s <i>History</i>; J. Gairdner&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Church, 1485-1558</i>; Bishop Cranmer&rsquo;s <i>Recantacyons</i>, ed.
+Gairdner (1885). R. E. Chester Waters&rsquo;s <i>Chesters of Chicheley</i> (1877)
+contains a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer
+which has only been used by one of his biographers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANNOG<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (Celt. <i>crann</i>, a tree), the term applied in Scotland
+and Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient
+times in the lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings
+in Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a
+fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to
+George Chalmers, the author of <i>Caledonia</i>, in 1813, describing two
+crannogs, or fortified islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the
+first discovered in Ireland, was examined and described by Sir
+William Wilde in 1840. But it was not until after the discovery
+of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in 1853, had drawn public
+attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that the crannogs of
+Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated.</p>
+
+<p>The results of these investigations show that they have little
+in common with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are
+placed in lakes. Few examples are known in England, although
+over a hundred and fifty have been examined in Ireland, and more
+than half that number in Scotland. As a rule they have been
+constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs, which have been
+adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or double lines of
+stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge the
+area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary,
+layers of logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on
+the shallow, and consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all
+there was laid a layer of earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of
+flagstones. In rare instances the body of the work is entirely of
+stones, the stockaded defence and the huts within its enclosure
+being the only parts constructed of timber. Occasionally a
+bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a communication
+with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and from
+the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains
+of huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the
+enclosure. Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire,
+examined by Lord Lovaine in 1863, were found to be constructed
+of layers of fern and birch and hazel branches, mixed with
+boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while above all there was a
+surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of the stockade
+round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into horizontal
+bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in
+1878, was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound
+by horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an
+area 60 ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square,
+bounded by the remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with
+split logs. A partition divided it into two equal parts, one of
+which had a doorway opening to the south, and close by it an
+extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of the other part was a
+stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former hearths
+underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of
+the loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of
+trees with the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed
+transversely or obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in
+Loch-an-Dhugael, Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same
+explorer in 1893, revealed a substructure similar to that at
+Lochlee, with a double row of piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft.
+in diameter, within which was a circular construction 32 ft. in
+diameter, which had been supported by a large central post and
+about twenty uprights ranged round the circumference.</p>
+
+<p>From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and
+logs built up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as
+fascine-dwellings, to distinguish them from the typical pile-dwellings
+of the earlier periods in Switzerland, whose platforms
+are supported by piles driven into the bed of the lake. The
+crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had a triple stockade of
+oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and enclosing an
+area 130 ft. in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In the
+crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 150 cartloads
+of bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the
+food of the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county
+Antrim, iron swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with
+scrolls characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron
+spear-head 16½ in. in length, and pieces of what are called large
+caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of
+lacustrine settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive
+of the typical crannog structure. The most important of these is
+the Glastonbury lake village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and
+Mr St George Gray. It consists of more than sixty separate
+dwellings, grouped within a triangular palisaded defence, formed
+in the midst of a marsh now partially reclaimed. The dwellings
+were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter, the substructure
+formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and clay, and
+outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake.
+The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work,
+supported by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart.
+The floors are of clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often
+showing several renewals over the original. The relics recovered
+show unmistakably that the occupation must be dated within
+the Iron Age, but probably pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact
+with Roman civilization has been discovered. The stage of
+civilization indicated is nevertheless not a low one. Besides the
+implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae and brooches of
+bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze mirror and
+tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented
+with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with
+bosses, the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve spokes,
+and a dug-out canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire,
+examined by Mr Boynton in 1881, yielded evidence of fascine
+construction, with suggestions of occupation in the latter part of
+the Bronze Age. Similar indications are adduced by Professor
+Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the other
+hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and
+Irish crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and
+stone are found, they are commonly such as were in use in the
+Iron Age. Crannogs are frequently referred to in the Irish
+annals. Under the year 848 the <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>
+record the burning of the island of Lough Gabhor (the crannog
+of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as again destroyed
+by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded that
+Turlough O&rsquo;Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough
+Leisi, and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the
+succeeding centuries. In the register of the privy council of
+Scotland, April 14, 1608, it is ordered that &ldquo;the haill houssis of
+defence, strongholds, and <i>crannokis</i> in the Yllis (the western
+isles) pertaining to Angus M&rsquo;Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector
+M&rsquo;Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit to His Majestie.&rdquo; Judging
+from the historical evidence of their late continuance, and from
+the character of the relics found in them, the crannogs may be
+included among the latest prehistoric strongholds, reaching their
+greatest development in early historic times, and surviving
+through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has
+assigned their range approximately to the period between the
+9th and 16th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast
+majority of them, both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only
+inhabited, but constructed during the Iron Age, and that their
+period of greatest development was as far posterior to Roman
+civilization as that of the Swiss <i>Pfahlbauten</i> was anterior to it.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lake Dwellings</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Dr R. Munro, <i>The Lake Dwellings of Europe:
+being the Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888</i> (with a bibliography
+of the subject) (London, 1890); <i>Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings
+or Crannogs</i> (Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, <i>The
+Lake-Dwellings of Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin,
+commonly called Crannogs</i> (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, <i>Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy</i>,
+article &ldquo;Crannogs,&rdquo; pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart,
+&ldquo;Scottish Artificial Islands or Crannogs,&rdquo; in the <i>Proceedings of the
+Society of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A.
+Bulleid, &ldquo;The Lake Village near Glastonbury,&rdquo; in <i>Proceedings of
+the Somersetshire Archaeological Society</i>, vol. xl. (1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. An.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANSAC,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department of
+Aveyron, 28m. N.W. of Rodez by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988;
+commune, 6953. The town is a coal-mining centre and has cold
+mineral springs, known in the middle ages. There are iron-mines
+in the neighbourhood. Hills to the north of the town
+contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for centuries.
+About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance château of
+Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of
+Bournazel, about 1545. The barony of Bournazel became a
+marquisate in 1624.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANSTON,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
+U.S.A., adjoining the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890)
+8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910) 21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is
+served by the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway.
+The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W. part is somewhat
+rolling. Within the city are several villages, including
+Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The
+inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the
+growing of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden
+produce; in the several villages cotton and print goods, fuses for
+electrical machinery, and automatic fire-protection sprinklers are
+manufactured. The value of Cranston&rsquo;s factory product
+increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to $2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%.
+The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S. part of the city;
+on this are the state prison, the Providence county jail, the
+state workhouse and the house of correction, the state almshouse,
+the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for
+boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls&mdash;the last two being
+departments of the state reform school. The post-office address
+of all these state institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled
+as a part of Providence about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams,
+and in 1754 was incorporated as a separate township, but in 1868,
+in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it were reannexed to Providence.
+The township is said to have been named in honour of Samuel
+Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from 1698 until
+his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANTOR,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born,
+probably about the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, at Soli in
+Cilicia. He was a fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xenocrates
+at Athens, and was the first commentator on Plato. He
+is said to have written some poems which he sealed up and
+deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog. Laërtius
+iv. 5. 25). Of his celebrated work <i>On Grief</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri penthous">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#960;&#941;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>), a
+letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death of his
+children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch&rsquo;s
+<i>Consolatio ad Apollonium</i> and in the <i>De consolatione</i> of Cicero,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span>
+who speaks of it (<i>Acad.</i> ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (<i>aureolus
+et ad verbum ediscendus</i>). Crantor paid especial attention to
+ethics, and arranged &ldquo;good&rdquo; things in the following order&mdash;virtue,
+health, pleasure, riches.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Kayser, <i>De Crantore Academico</i> (1841); M. H. E. Meier,
+<i>Opuscula academica</i>, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, <i>Geschichte der griechischen
+Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit</i>, i. (1891), p. 118.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1790-1868),
+lord chancellor of England, elder son of the Rev. E.
+Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk, on the 18th of December
+1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester, and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in
+1816, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He represented
+Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his
+promotion to the bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In
+1850 he was appointed a vice-chancellor and created Baron
+Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord chancellor in Aberdeen&rsquo;s
+ministry. He continued to hold the chancellorship in the
+administration of Palmerston until the latter&rsquo;s resignation in
+1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to
+office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he
+accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall
+of the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London
+on the 26th of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer,
+Cranworth&rsquo;s name is associated in the statute book with only one
+small measure on conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue
+to hold first rank. His judgments were marked by sound common
+sense, while he himself was remarkably free from the prejudices
+of his profession. Few men of his day enjoyed greater personal
+popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue and the title
+became extinct on his death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Times</i>, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, <i>The Builders of
+our Law</i> (1904); E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (1848-1864);
+J. B. Atlay, <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, vol. ii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAPE<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (an anglicized version of the Fr. <i>crêpe</i>), a silk fabric of
+a gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance.
+It is woven of hard spun silk yarn &ldquo;in the gum&rdquo; or natural
+condition. There are two distinct varieties of the textile&mdash;soft,
+Canton or Oriental crape, and hard or crisped crape. The wavy
+appearance of Canton crape results from the peculiar manner in
+which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two bobbins being
+twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven is
+smooth and even, having no <i>crêpé</i> appearance, but when the gum
+is subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and
+the weft, losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure
+which constitutes its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are
+used, either white or coloured, for ladies&rsquo; scarves and shawls,
+bonnet trimmings, &amp;c. The Chinese and Japanese excel in the
+manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp and elastic structure of
+hard crape is not produced either in the spinning or in the weaving,
+but is due to processes through which the gauze passes after it is
+woven. What the details of these processes are is known to only
+a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their secret that, in
+some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are conducted
+in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are
+distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes,
+according to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture.
+They are almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning
+dress, and among Roman Catholic communities for nuns&rsquo; veils,
+&amp;c. In Great Britain hard crapes are made at Braintree in Essex,
+Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and Glasgow. The crape
+formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp and
+worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into
+bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in
+Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria
+crape.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRASH,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow
+towels, from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian
+origin, the simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as
+&ldquo;Russia crash.&rdquo; The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns,
+and sometimes from boiled yarns. The simple term &ldquo;crash&rdquo; is
+given to all these narrow cloths, but the above distinction is
+very convenient, as also are the following: grey, boiled, bleached,
+plain, twilled and fancy crash. A large variety obtains with and
+without fancy borders, while of late years cotton has been
+introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute yarns for weft.
+After the cloth has passed through all the finishing operations,
+it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn
+together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller;
+for this reason it is often termed &ldquo;roller towelling.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRASHAW, RICHARD<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1613-1650), English poet, styled
+&ldquo;the divine,&rdquo; was born in London about 1613. He was the son
+of a strongly anti-papistical divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-1626),
+who distinguished himself, even in those times, by the
+excessive acerbity of his writings against the Catholics. In spite
+of these opinions, however, he was attracted by Catholic devotion,
+for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits. Richard
+Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in
+July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge,
+where he took the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of
+Herbert&rsquo;s <i>Temple</i> in 1633 seems to have finally determined the
+bias of his genius in favour of religious poetry, and next year he
+published his first book, <i>Epigrammatum sacrorum liber</i>, a
+volume of Latin verses. In March 1636 he removed to Peterhouse,
+was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and proceeded
+M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the acquaintance
+and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley.
+He was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk
+Nicholas Ferrar, and frequently visited him at his religious
+house at Little Gidding. In 1641 he is said to have gone to
+Oxford, but only for a short time; for when in 1643 Cowley left
+Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw remained behind,
+and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644. In the
+confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he
+finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had
+long been tending.</p>
+
+<p>During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected
+by an anonymous friend, and published under the title of <i>Steps to
+the Temple</i> and <i>The Delights of the Muses</i>, in one volume, in 1646.
+The first part includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of
+Marini&rsquo;s <i>Sospetto d&rsquo; Herode</i>. This same year Cowley found him in
+great destitution at Paris, and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to
+extend towards him what influence she still possessed. At her
+introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he became attendant
+to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two Latin
+hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the
+cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his
+retinue contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour
+was a source of ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English
+mystic. At last his denunciation of their excesses became so
+public that the animosity of those persons was excited against
+him, and in order to shield him from their revenge he was sent by
+the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he was made a canon of the
+Holy House. In less than three weeks, however, he sickened of
+fever, and died on the 25th of August, not without grave suspicion
+of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at
+Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled <i>Carmen
+Deo nostro</i>, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at
+the dead poet&rsquo;s desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings,
+the countess of Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen
+engravings after Crashaw&rsquo;s own designs.</p>
+
+<p>Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments;
+besides being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an
+intimate knowledge of Italian and Spanish; and his skill in music,
+painting and engraving was no less admired in his lifetime than
+his skill in poetry. Cowley embalmed his memory in an elegy
+that ranks among the very finest in our language, in which he,
+a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on the minds of
+contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic poet:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might</p>
+<p class="i05">Be wrong; his life, I&rsquo;m sure, was in the right:</p>
+<p class="i05">And I, myself, a Catholic will be,</p>
+<p class="i05">So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee!&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can
+with most success free themselves from the bondage of a traditional
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span>
+sense of the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted
+the use of images and phrases which we now justly condemn as
+incongruous and unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw
+carried this licence to excess. At the same time his verse is
+studded with fiery beauties and sudden felicities of language,
+unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own time and Shelley&rsquo;s.
+There is no religious poetry in English so full at once of gross and
+awkward images and imaginative touches of the most ethereal
+beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate
+and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost
+hysterical, passion about him, even when his ardour is most
+exquisitely expressed, and his adoring addresses to the saints have
+an effeminate falsetto that makes their ecstasy almost repulsive.
+The faults and beauties of his very peculiar style can be studied
+nowhere to more advantage than in the <i>Hymn to Saint Teresa</i>.
+Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are <i>Music&rsquo;s Duel</i>,
+which deals with that strife between the musician and the nightingale
+which has inspired so many poets, and <i>Wishes to his
+supposed Mistress</i>. In his latest sacred poems, included in the
+<i>Carmen Deo nostro</i>, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting,
+but the mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesiastical
+mannerism more harsh and repellent. The themes of
+Crashaw&rsquo;s verses are as distinct as possible from those of Shelley&rsquo;s,
+but it may, on the whole, be said that at his best moments he
+reminds the reader more closely of the author of <i>Epipsychidion</i>
+than of any earlier or later poet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Crashaw&rsquo;s works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by
+W. B. Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for
+private subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition
+was edited (1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R.
+Waller.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRASSULACEAE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons,
+containing 13 genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan
+distribution, but most strongly developed in South Africa. The
+plants are herbs or small shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems
+and leaves, adapted for life in dry, especially rocky places. The
+fleshy leaves are often reduced to a more or less cylindrical
+structure, as in the stonecrops (<i>Sedum</i>), or form closely crowded
+rosettes as in the house-leek (<i>Sempervivum</i>). Correlated with
+their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is succulent,
+forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by evaporation
+by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy
+secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The
+flowers are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and
+are markedly regular with the same number of parts in each
+series. This number is, however, very variable, and often not
+constant in one and the same species. The sepals and petals are
+free or more or less united, the stamens as many or twice as many
+as the petals; the carpels, usually free, are equal to the petals in
+number, and form in the fruit follicles with two or more seeds.
+Opposite each carpel is a small scale which functions as a nectary.
+Means of vegetative propagation are general. Many species
+spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or as in
+house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal
+leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves
+give rise to new plants by budding, as in <i>Bryophyllum</i>, where
+buds develop at the edges of the leaf and form new plants.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:404px" src="images/img380.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Stonecrop (<i>Sedum acre</i>) slightly reduced. 1, Horizontal plan of
+arrangement of flower of stonecrop; 2, flower of <i>Sedum rubens</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and
+has but few representatives in South America; it is otherwise very
+generally distributed. The largest genus, <i>Sedum</i>, contains about
+140 species in the temperate and colder parts of the northern
+hemisphere; eight occur wild in Britain, including <i>S. Telephium</i>
+(orpine) and <i>S. acre</i> (common stonecrop) (see fig.). The species
+are easily cultivated and will thrive in almost any soil. They
+are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or divisions. <i>Crassula</i>
+has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape. <i>Cotyledon</i>, a widely
+distributed genus with about 90 species, is represented in the
+British Isles by <i>C. Umbilicus</i>, pennywort, or navelwort, which
+takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It grows
+profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western
+coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers.
+The <i>Echeveria</i> of gardens is now included in this genus. <i>Sempervivum</i>
+has about 50 species in the mountains of central and
+southern Europe, in the Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries
+and Madeira; <i>S. tectorum</i>, common house-leek, is seen often
+growing on tops of walls and house-roofs. The hardy species will
+grow well in dry sandy soil, and are suitable for rockeries, old walls
+or edgings. They are readily propagated by offsets or by seed.</p>
+
+<p>The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is
+distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRASSUS<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (literally &ldquo;dense,&rdquo; &ldquo;thick,&rdquo; &ldquo;fat&rdquo;), a family name
+in the Roman gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of
+the name are the following:</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Publius Licinius Crassus</span>, surnamed <i>Dives Mucianus</i>,
+Roman statesman, orator and jurist, consul, 131 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was
+the son of P. Mucius Scaevola (consul 175) and was adopted by
+a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate friend of Tiberius
+Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his place on the
+agrarian commission (see <span class="sc">Gracchus</span>). In 131 when Crassus was
+consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son
+of Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which
+had been bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls
+were anxious to obtain the command against him; Crassus
+was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a flamen of Mars. Crassus
+declared that Flaccus could not neglect his sacred office, and imposed
+a conditional fine on him in the event of his leaving Rome.
+The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was ordered
+to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded
+to Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade
+the pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his
+military operations. But in the following year, when he was
+making preparations to return, he was surprised near Leucae.
+He was himself taken prisoner by a Thracian band, and provoked
+his captors, who were ignorant of his identity, to put him to
+death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed much military
+ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his knowledge of law
+and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a mastery
+of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in
+Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any
+of the dialects in use.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cicero, <i>De oratore</i>, i. 50; <i>Philippics</i>, xi. 8; Plutarch, <i>Tib.
+Gracchus</i>, 21; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6; Vell.
+Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Lucius Licinius Crassus</span> (140-91 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the orator, of
+unknown parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he
+made his reputation by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the
+friend of the Gracchi. The law passed by him and his colleague
+Q. Mucius Scaevola during their consulship (95), to prevent those
+passing as Roman citizens who had no right to the title, was one of
+the prime causes of the Social War (Cicero, <i>Pro Balbo</i>, xxi., <i>De
+officiis</i>, iii. 11). During his censorship Crassus suppressed the
+newly founded schools of Latin rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span>
+xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by his passionate
+speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had insulted
+the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the <i>De oratore</i>
+of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his speeches.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Publius Licinius Crassus</span>, called <i>Dives</i>, father of the
+triumvir. Little is known of him before he became consul in 97,
+except that he proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table,
+which met with general approval. During his consulship the
+practice of magic arts was condemned by a decree of the senate,
+and human sacrifice was abolished. He was subsequently
+governor of Spain for some years, during which he gained several
+successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93 was
+honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with
+L. Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain
+of the Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the
+Romans, but the proceedings seem to have been interrupted
+by certain irregularities. They also forbade the introduction of
+foreign wines and unguents. Crassus committed suicide in 87, to
+avoid falling into the hands of the Marian party.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, <i>Saturnalia</i>,
+ii. 13; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 80; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxx. 3; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i>
+i. 72; Festus, under <i>Referri</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Marcus Licinius Crassus</span> (c. 115-53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the Triumvir,
+surnamed <i>Dives</i> (rich) on account of his great wealth. His
+wealth was acquired by traffic in slaves, the working of silver
+mines, and judicious purchases of lands and houses, especially
+those of proscribed citizens. The proscription of Cinna obliged
+him to flee to Spain; but after Cinna&rsquo;s death he passed into
+Africa, and thence to Italy, where he ingratiated himself with
+Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he gained a decisive
+victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon afterwards
+he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his
+wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and
+distributing sufficient corn to last each family three months. In
+65 he was censor, and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the
+coalition known as the first triumvirate. In 55 he was again
+consul with Pompey, and a law was passed, assigning the provinces
+of the two Spains and Syria to the two consuls for five years.
+Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised to be an
+inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates
+he hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was
+defeated at Carrhae (53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the
+Parthian general, who put him to death by pouring molten gold
+down his throat. His head was cut off and sent to Orodes, the
+Parthian king. Crassus was a man of only moderate abilities,
+and owed his importance to his great wealth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Life</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar, Gaius Julius</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pompey</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>, II. &ldquo;The Republic.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATER,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually
+funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name,
+from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kratêr">&#954;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span>, a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single
+crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters
+on its flanks: the latter are sometimes called &ldquo;adventitious
+craters&rdquo; or &ldquo;craterlets.&rdquo; Much of the loose ejected material,
+falling in the neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner
+wall of the crater, and thus produces a stratification with an
+inward dip. The crater in an active volcano is kept open by
+intermittent explosions, but in a volcano which has become
+dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the bowl-shaped
+cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a
+crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a <i>Maar</i>. In some
+basaltic cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may
+be a broad shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with
+horizontal stratification. Such hollows are consequently called
+pit-craters. The name <i>caldera</i> (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested
+for such pits by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as
+having been formed by subsidence of the walls. The term
+caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in Spanish-speaking
+countries. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volcano</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATES<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span>, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished
+about 470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy
+proper, since he abandoned political lampoons on individuals,
+and introduced more general subjects and a well-developed plot
+(Aristotle, <i>Poëtica</i>, 5). He is stated to have been the first to
+represent the drunkard on the stage (Aristophanes, <i>Knights</i>,
+37 ff.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in Meineke, <i>Poëtarum Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta</i>,
+i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATES,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> the name of two Greek philosophers.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Crates</span>, of Athens, successor of Polemo as leader of the
+Old Academy.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Crates</span>, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of
+the 4th century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the
+last great representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his
+ample fortune owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more
+probable story is that he sacrificed it in accordance with his
+principles, directing the banker, to whom he entrusted it, to give
+it to his sons if they should prove fools, but to the poor if his sons
+should prove philosophers. He gave up his life to the attainment
+of virtue and the propagation of ascetic self-control. His habit of
+entering houses for this purpose, uninvited, earned him the
+nickname <span class="grk" title="Thyrepanoiktês">&#920;&#965;&#961;&#949;&#960;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;Door-opener&rdquo;). His marriage with
+Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in
+curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by
+the nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and
+ugliness, she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her
+father&rsquo;s commands. The date of his death is unknown, though he
+seems to have lived into the 3rd century. His writings were few.
+According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was the author of a number
+of letters on philosophical subjects; but those extant under the
+name of Crates (R. Hercher, <i>Epistolographi Graeci</i>, 1873) are,
+spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes Laërtius
+credits him with a short poem, <span class="grk" title="Paignia">&#928;&#945;&#943;&#947;&#957;&#953;&#945;</span>, and several philosophic
+tragedies. Plutarch&rsquo;s life of Crates is lost. The great importance
+of Crates&rsquo; work is that he formed the link between Cynicism and
+the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Postumus, <i>De Cratete Cynico</i> (1823); F. Mullach, <i>Frag.
+Philosophorum Graecorum</i>, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and
+Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>; Diog. Laërt. vi. 85-93, 96-98.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATES,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic
+philosopher of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, leader of the literary school
+and head of the library of Pergamum. His principles were
+opposed to those of Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian
+school. He was the chief representative of the allegorical theory
+of exegesis, and maintained that Homer intended to express
+scientific or philosophical truths in the form of poetry. About
+170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus II., king of
+Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to
+stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the
+first impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the
+Romans (Suetonius, <i>De grammaticis</i>, 2). His chief work was a
+critical and exegetical commentary on Homer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Wachsmuth, <i>De Cratete Mallota</i> (1860), containing an
+account of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys,
+<i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATINUS<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (c. 520-423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Athenian comic poet, chief
+representative of the old, and founder of political, comedy.
+Hardly anything is known of his life, and only fragments of his
+works have been preserved. But a good idea of their character
+can be gained from the opinions of his contemporaries, especially
+Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly distinguished by their
+direct and vigorous political satire, a marked exception being the
+burlesque <span class="grk" title="Odysseis">&#8008;&#948;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span>, dealing with the story of Odysseus in the
+cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was in force
+forbidding all political references on the stage. They were also
+remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius
+calls the author &ldquo;the bold,&rdquo; and even Pericles at the height of his
+power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the <i>Nemesis</i> and
+<i>Archilochi</i>, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently
+deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus
+was in sympathy. The <i>Panoptae</i> was a satire on the sophists
+and omniscient speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last
+comedy the plot has come down to us. It was occasioned by the
+sneers of Aristophanes and others, who declared that he was no
+better than a doting drunkard. Roused by the taunt, Cratinus
+put forth all his strength, and in 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> produced the <span class="grk" title="Pytinê">&#928;&#965;&#964;&#943;&#957;&#951;</span>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span>
+or <i>Bottle</i>, which gained the first prize over the <i>Clouds</i> of Aristophanes.
+In this comedy, good-humouredly making fun of his
+own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as the
+faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival&mdash;the
+bottle&mdash;has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from
+the archon; but her husband&rsquo;s love is not dead and he returns
+penitent to her side. In Grenfell and Hunt&rsquo;s <i>Oxyrhynchus
+Papyri</i>, iv. (1904), containing a further instalment of their
+edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by them in 1896-1897,
+one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper bearing the
+argument of a play by Cratinus,&mdash;the <i>Dionysalexandros</i> (<i>i.e.</i>
+Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the
+epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of
+Cratinus has been likened to that of Aeschylus; and Aristophanes,
+in the <i>Knights</i>, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to
+have been fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most
+successful in the lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the
+popular festal songs of his day. According to the statement of a
+doubtful authority, which is not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus
+increased the number of actors in comedy to three. He wrote
+21 comedies and gained the prize nine times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in Meineke, <i>Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum</i>, or
+Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>. A younger Cratinus
+flourished in the time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that
+some of the comedies ascribed to the elder Cratinus were really the
+work of the younger.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATIPPUS<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (fl. c. 375 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek historian. There are only
+three or four references to him in ancient literature, and his
+importance is due to the fact that he has been identified by several
+scholars (<i>e.g.</i> Blass) with the author of the historical fragment
+discovered by Grenfell and Hunt, and published by them in
+<i>Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i>, vol. v. It may be regarded as a fairly
+certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (<i>De Gloria Atheniensium</i>,
+p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was an
+Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and
+Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides,
+from the point at which the latter historian stopped (410
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) down to the battle of Cnidus (394 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fragments are published in C. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Fragmenta Historicorum
+Graecorum</i>. For authorities see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theopompus</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRATIPPUS,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> of Mitylene (1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Peripatetic
+philosopher, contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at
+Athens, and by whom he is praised in the <i>De officiis</i> as the
+greatest of his school. He was the friend of Pompey also and
+shared his flight after the battle of Pharsalia, for the purpose, it
+is said, of convincing him of the justice of providence. Brutus,
+while at Athens after the assassination of Caesar, attended his
+lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon him by
+Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to
+him is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be
+gauged by the fact that in 44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Areopagus invited him to
+succeed Andronicus of Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have
+held that, while motion, sense and appetite cannot exist apart
+from the body, thought reaches its greatest power when most free
+from bodily influence, and that divination is due to the direct
+action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human soul
+which is not dependent on the body.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cicero, <i>De divinatione</i>, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52; <i>De officiis</i>, i. 1, iii. 2;
+Plutarch, <i>Cicero</i>, 24.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAU<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (from a Celtic root meaning &ldquo;stone&rdquo;), a region of
+southern France, comprised in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone,
+and bounded W. by the canal from Arles to Port du
+Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the Alpines separating it
+from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by the hills around
+Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of the Mediterranean
+Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is a
+low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden
+inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the
+Durance, according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface
+is formed chiefly of stones varying in size from an egg to a man&rsquo;s
+head; these, mixed with a proportion of fine soil, overlie a
+subsoil formed of stones cemented into a hard mass by deposits of
+calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed of loose stones, once the
+sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime, the Crau is adapted
+for agriculture by the process of warping, carried out by means of
+the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of the 16th
+century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east
+has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the
+Durance. The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation
+and the application of artificial manures. By these aids, uncultivated
+land, which before supplied only rough and scanty
+pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted for the growth of the vine,
+olive and other fruits; where irrigation is practicable, water-meadows
+have been formed. The dryness of the climate is
+unfavourable to the production of cereals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAUCK, GUSTAVE<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born
+and died at Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works
+was erected in his honour. Though little known to the world
+at large during his long life, he ranks among the best modern
+sculptors of France. At Paris his &ldquo;Coligny&rdquo; monument is in the
+rue de Rivoli; his &ldquo;Victory&rdquo; in the Place des Arts et Métiers;
+and &ldquo;Twilight&rdquo; in the Avenue de l&rsquo;Observatoire. Among his
+finest works is his &ldquo;Combat du Centaure,&rdquo; on which he was
+engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been
+modelled after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibition
+of his works was held in the École des Beaux-Arts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAUFURD, QUINTIN<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1743-1819), British author, was born
+at Kilwinnock on the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he
+went to India, where he entered the service of the East India
+Company. Returning to Europe before the age of forty with a
+handsome fortune, he settled in Paris, where he gave himself to
+the cultivation of literature and art, and formed a good library
+and collection of paintings, coins and other objects of antiquarian
+interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the French court,
+especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who
+arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in
+1792 he returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal
+prisoners. He lived among the French <i>émigrés</i> until the peace of
+Amiens made it possible to return to Paris. Through Talleyrand&rsquo;s
+influence he was able to remain in Paris after the war was
+renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of November 1819.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He wrote, among other works, <i>The History, Religion, Learning
+and Manners of the Hindus</i> (1790), <i>Secret History of the King of France
+and his Escape from Paris</i> (first published in 1885), <i>Researches concerning
+the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and
+Modern India</i> (1817), <i>History of the Bastille</i> (1798), <i>On Pericles and
+the Arts in Greece</i> (1815), <i>Essay on Swift and his Influence on the
+British Government</i> (1808), <i>Notice sur Marie Antoinette</i> (1809),
+<i>Mémoires de Mme du Hausset</i> (1808).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAUFURD, ROBERT<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1764-1812), British major-general,
+was born at Newark, Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and
+entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As captain in the 75th regiment
+he first saw active service against Tippoo Sahib in 1790-92. The
+next year he was employed, under his brother Charles, with the
+Austrian armies operating against the French. Returning to
+England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a lieutenant-colonel,
+on Lake&rsquo;s staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later he was
+British commissioner on Suvarov&rsquo;s staff when the Russians invaded
+Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition.
+From 1801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament
+for East Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with
+Whitelock in the unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was
+almost the only one of the senior officers who added to his
+reputation in this affair, and in 1808 he received a brigade
+command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were heavily
+engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not
+present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they
+returned to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula,
+Brigadier-General Craufurd was three marches or more in rear
+of Wellesley&rsquo;s army when a report came in that a great battle was
+in progress. The march which followed is one almost unparalleled
+in military annals. The three battalions of the
+&ldquo;Light Brigade&rdquo; (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full marching
+order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of
+Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning
+their career with this famous march, these regiments and their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span>
+chief, under whom served such men as Charles and William
+Napier, Shaw and Colborne, soon became celebrated as one of the
+best corps of troops in Europe, and every engagement added to
+their laurels. Craufurd&rsquo;s operations on the Coa and Agueda in
+1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew the
+quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though
+Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time
+increased his force to a division by the addition of two picked
+regiments of Portuguese <i>Caçadores</i>. The conduct of the renowned
+&ldquo;Light Division&rdquo; at Busaco is described by Napier in one of his
+most vivid passages. The winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in
+England, and his division was commanded in the interim by
+another officer, who did not display much ability. He reappeared
+on the field of the battle of Fuentes d&rsquo;Onoro amidst the cheers of
+his men, and nothing could show his genius for war better than his
+conduct on this day, in covering the strange readjustment of his
+line which Wellington was compelled to make in the face of the
+enemy. A little later he obtained major-general&rsquo;s rank; and on
+the 19th of January 1812, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad
+Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell
+mortally wounded. His body was carried out of action by his
+staff officer, Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shaw Kennedy</a></span>),
+and, after lingering four days, he died. He was buried in the
+breach of the fortress where he had met his death, and a
+monument in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral commemorates Craufurd and
+Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of Ciudad
+Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are
+amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and
+Portuguese armies. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not
+the very first, of Wellington&rsquo;s generals, he had a fiery temper,
+which rendered him a difficult man to deal with, but to the day of
+his death he possessed the confidence and affection of his men in
+an extraordinary degree.</p>
+
+<p>His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir <span class="sc">Charles Craufurd</span>
+(1761-1821), entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made
+captain in the Queen&rsquo;s Bays in 1785, he became the equerry and
+intimate friend of the duke of York. He studied in Germany for
+some time, and, with his brother Robert&rsquo;s assistance, translated
+Tielcke&rsquo;s book on the Seven Years&rsquo; War (<i>The Remarkable Events
+of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from 1756 to 1763</i>).
+As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the French
+War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the
+Austrian headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden,
+Caesar&rsquo;s Camp, Famars, Landrecies, &amp;c. Major in 1793, and
+lieutenant-colonel in 1794, he returned to the English army in the
+latter year, and on one occasion distinguished himself at the
+head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and 1000 prisoners. When
+the British army left the continent Craufurd was again attached
+to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on the
+Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At
+the last battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further
+service, and cut short a promising career. He succeeded his
+brother Robert as member of parliament for East Retford (1806-1812).
+He died in 1821, having become a lieutenant-general and
+a G.C.B.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAVAT<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>cravate</i>, a corruption of &ldquo;Croat&rdquo;),
+the name given by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the
+scarf worn by the Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian
+regiment. Made of linen or muslin with broad edges of lace, it
+became fashionable, and the name was applied both in England
+and France to various forms of neckerchief worn at different
+times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long flowing ends,
+called a &ldquo;Steinkirk&rdquo; from the battle of 1692 of that name, to the
+elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric neckcloth
+worn during the period of Beau Brummell.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAÉ<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1808-1891),
+French author, the daughter of an <i>émigré</i> Breton nobleman,
+was born in London on the 12th of April 1808. Her father, the
+comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a close friend of the duc de
+Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to France in 1814.
+He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X. at the
+Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the duc de Berri made
+retirement imperative to the count&rsquo;s sense of honour. He was
+appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became
+foreign minister in Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in
+brilliant surroundings, but her strongest impressions were those
+which she derived from the group of Catholic thinkers gathered
+round Lamennais, and her ardent piety furnishes the key of her
+life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and Pauline, at the
+suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first literary
+essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a
+visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la
+Ferronays resigned his position, and retired with his family to
+Naples. Here Pauline met her future husband, Augustus
+Craven, who was then attaché to the British embassy. His
+father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known supporter of
+Queen Caroline, objected to his son&rsquo;s marriage with a Catholic;
+but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the
+marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman
+Catholic Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in
+the <i>Récit d&rsquo;une s&oelig;ur</i> was especially tender and intimate, suffered
+several severe bereavements in the years following on her
+marriage. The Cravens lived abroad until 1851, when the death
+of Keppel Craven made his son practically independent of his
+diplomatic career, in which he had not been conspicuously
+successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to parliament
+for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private life.
+They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to
+write the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between
+1830 and 1836, its incidents being grouped round the love story
+of her brother Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the
+<i>Récit d&rsquo;une s&oelig;ur</i> (1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically
+received and was awarded a prize by the French Academy.
+Straitened circumstances made it desirable for Mrs Craven to earn
+money by her pen. <i>Anne Sévérin</i> appeared in 1868, <i>Fleurange</i> in
+1871, <i>Le Mot d&rsquo;énigme</i> in 1874, <i>Le Valbriant</i> (Eng. trans., <i>Lucia</i>)
+in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works may be mentioned
+<i>La S&oelig;ur Natalie Narischkin</i> (1876), <i>Deux Incidents de la question
+catholique en Angleterre</i> (1875), <i>Lady Georgiana Fullerton, sa
+vie et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (1888). Mrs Craven&rsquo;s charming personality won
+her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord
+Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in
+Paris on the 1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884,
+translated the correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the
+Prince Consort into French.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven</i> (1894), by her friend Mrs
+Mary Catherine Bishop; also <i>Paolina Craven</i>, by T. F. Ravaschieri
+Fieschi (1892). There is a biography of Mrs Craven&rsquo;s father, &ldquo;En
+Emigration,&rdquo; in Étienne Lamy&rsquo;s <i>Témoins des jours passés</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1608-1697), eldest
+son of Sir William Craven, lord mayor of London, and of
+Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman William Whitmore, was born in
+June 1608, matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford, in 1623, and
+joined the society of the Middle Temple in 1624. He had already
+inherited his father&rsquo;s vast fortune by the latter&rsquo;s death in 1618,
+and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in the
+military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was
+knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in
+Berkshire in 1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of
+the unfortunate king and queen of Bohemia, driven from their
+dominions, and in 1632 joined Frederick in a military expedition
+to recover the Palatinate, meeting Gustavus Adolphus at
+Höchst, whose praise he gained by being the first, though
+wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on
+the 22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to
+allow the elector an independent command for the defence of the
+Palatinate, and Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he
+was placed on the council of Wales. In 1637 he took part in a
+second expedition in aid of the palatine family on the Lower
+Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis and his brother
+Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of £30,000, but
+their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded and
+taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom
+in 1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span>
+Elizabeth at the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously
+with funds on the cessation of her English pension owing to the
+outbreak of the Civil War. He contributed also large sums in aid
+of Charles I., and, after his execution, of Charles II., the amount
+bestowed upon the latter being alone computed at £50,000,<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+notwithstanding that since 1651 the greater part of his estates had
+been confiscated by the parliament and his house at Caversham
+reduced to ruins.<a name="FnAnchor_2j" id="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> At the Restoration he accompanied Charles to
+England, regained his estates, and was rewarded with offices and
+honours. He was made colonel of several regiments including
+the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high
+steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy
+councillor, but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William
+Temple&rsquo;s remodelled council.<a name="FnAnchor_3j" id="FnAnchor_3j" href="#Footnote_3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In 1668 he became a governor of
+the Charterhouse, was appointed lord-lieutenant of Middlesex, and
+master of the Trinity House in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner
+for Tangier. He was one of the lords proprietors of Carolina and
+a member of the Fishery Committee.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven.
+Meanwhile his devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia
+was unceasing, and on her return to England he offered her
+hospitality at his house in Drury Lane, where she remained till
+February 1662. At her death, within a fortnight afterwards, she
+bequeathed to Craven her papers and her valuable collection of
+portraits, but there is no foundation for the belief entertained
+later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the guardian
+of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms,
+Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and
+lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at
+the age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall
+on the 17th of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived.
+He refused to withdraw them at the bidding of Count Solms, the
+Dutch commander, but obeyed later James&rsquo;s own orders to
+retire. His public career now closed and he filled no office after
+the revolution. Although his claims upon the gratitude of the
+Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been
+considered a possible candidate for high political place. His
+ability was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect
+in the <i>Verney Papers</i> and by the electress Sophia in her <i>Memoirs</i>.
+The latter retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and
+Pepys was disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery
+Board, where his &ldquo;very confused and very ridiculous proceedings&rdquo;
+are also censured.<a name="FnAnchor_4j" id="FnAnchor_4j" href="#Footnote_4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a> His military prowess, however, his generosity
+and his public spirit are undoubted. He showed great activity
+during the plague and fire of London. He was a patron of
+letters and a member of the Royal Society. He inherited Combe
+Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased Hampstead
+Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of
+Heidelberg Castle.</p>
+
+<p>He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom
+became extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his
+cousin William, 2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven
+(the earldom being revived in 1801) is descended from John, a
+younger brother of the latter. The first Lord Craven&rsquo;s brother
+John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton in Shropshire and
+who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven scholarships
+at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first was
+awarded in 1649.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>
+(and Errata); <i>Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest
+daughter of James I.)</i>, vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); <i>Memoirs
+of Elizabeth Stuart</i>, by Miss Benger (1825); <i>Memoiren der Herzogin
+Sophie</i>, ed. by A. Köcher in <i>Publ. aus den k. preussischen Staatsarchiven</i>,
+Bd. iv. (1879); &ldquo;Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart&rdquo; in <i>Bibliothek
+des litterarischen Vereins</i> (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157; G. E. C.&rsquo;s
+<i>Complete Peerage</i> (1889), ii. 404; <i>Lives and Characters of the Most
+Illustrious Persons</i> (1713), p. 546; Macaulay&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i>, ii.
+584 (1858); <i>Verney Papers</i> (Camden Soc., 1853); <i>Cal. of St. Pap.
+Dom.</i>; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate in Cat. of the
+British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists in the
+Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Verney Papers</i>, 189 note.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2j" id="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Evelyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>, June 8th, 1654.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3j" id="Footnote_3j" href="#FnAnchor_3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Com.; Various Collections</i>, ii. 394.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4j" id="Footnote_4j" href="#FnAnchor_4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, EARLS OF.<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> The house of Lindsay, of which the
+earl of Crawford is the head, traces its descent back to the barons
+of Crawford who flourished in the 12th century, and has included
+a number of men who have played leading parts in the history of
+Scotland. It is said that &ldquo;though other families in Scotland may
+have been of more historic, none can in genealogical importance
+equal that of Lindsay,&rdquo; and the Lindsays claim that &ldquo;the predecessors
+of the 1st earl of Crawford were barons at the period of
+the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact, they were
+never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among
+the <i>pares</i>, of which kings are <i>primi</i>, from the commencement of
+recorded history.&rdquo; Again we are told, &ldquo;the earldom of Crawford,
+therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others
+of the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an
+<i>imperium in imperio</i>.&rdquo; Moreover, the earls &ldquo;had also a <i>concilium</i>,
+or petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom,
+with whose advice they acted on great and important occasions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanarkshire,
+was the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c.
+1357), and was related to King Robert II.; he was descended
+from Sir Alexander Lindsay of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained
+Crawford and other estates in 1297 and who was high chamberlain
+of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at Otterburn, and Froissart
+tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was succeeded by his
+cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir Alexander
+Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who married
+a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th
+and the 5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the 4th earl (d. 1454),
+called the &ldquo;tiger earl,&rdquo; was, like his father David the 3rd earl,
+who was killed in 1446, one of the most powerful of the Scottish
+nobles; for some time he was in arms against King James II., but
+he submitted in 1452. His son David, the 5th earl (c. 1440-1495),
+was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain; he went
+frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of
+Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son.
+Montrose fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and
+his son John, the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden.</p>
+
+<p>David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of
+Alexander, the 7th earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of
+Crawford (d. 1542), called the &ldquo;wicked master,&rdquo; who quarrelled
+with his father and tried to kill him. Consequently he was
+sentenced to death, and the 8th earl conveyed the earldom to his
+kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558), a descendant of the
+3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and his descendants,
+and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the
+9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked
+master&rsquo;s son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the
+earldom came back to the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl
+being called the &ldquo;interpolated earl.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574), was a supporter
+of Mary Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David
+(c. 1547-1607) as 11th earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal
+Beaton, was concerned in some of the risings under James VI.;
+he was converted to Roman Catholicism and was in communication
+with the Spaniards about an invasion of England. After his
+death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621), a lawless
+ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or Charteris
+(d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry&rsquo;s three
+sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic,
+succeeding in 1639.</p>
+
+<p>Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part
+in the strange plot of 1641 called the &ldquo;incident.&rdquo; Having
+joined Charles I. at Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at
+Newbury and elsewhere during the Civil War; in 1644, just after
+Marston Moor, the Scottish parliament declared he had forfeited
+his earldom, and, following the lines laid down when this was
+regranted in 1642, it was given to John Lindsay, 1st earl of
+Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in 1644 and
+was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out,
+and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served
+until the surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span>
+Ireland and in Spain and he died probably in France in 1652.
+He left no issue.</p>
+
+<p>The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman,
+belonged to the family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the
+Lindsays descended from Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c.
+1355), the grandfather of the 1st earl of Crawford. Sir David&rsquo;s
+descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1482), was created
+a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres in 1445, and
+his son David, the 2nd lord (d. 1490), fought for James III. at the
+battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this line
+was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of
+John the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the
+reforming party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish
+nobles to join the reformers, and he was also one of the most
+violent. He fought against the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the
+French; then during a temporary reconciliation he assisted
+Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern rebels at Corrichie in
+1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he took part in
+the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against Bothwell,
+whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at
+Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and
+ally of the regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and
+obtained her signature to the deed of abdication; he fought
+against her at Langside, and after Murray&rsquo;s murder he was one
+of the chiefs of the party which supported the throne of James
+VI. In 1578, however, he was among those who tried to drive
+Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the person of
+the king in the plot called the &ldquo;raid of Ruthven,&rdquo; afterwards
+escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when
+he died on the 11th of December 1589. His successor was his son,
+James the 7th lord (d. 1601).</p>
+
+<p>Patrick&rsquo;s great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford
+and 1st earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert
+Lindsay, 9th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as
+10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he was created earl of Lindsay, and
+having become a leader of the Covenanters he marched with the
+Scottish army into England in 1644 and was present at Marston
+Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of Crawford in the
+manner already mentioned. In the same year he became lord
+high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the parliament.
+Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of
+Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647
+he signed the &ldquo;engagement&rdquo; for the release of Charles I.,
+losing all his offices by the act of classes when his enemy, the
+marquess of Argyll, obtained the upper hand. After the defeat
+of the Scots at Dunbar, however, Crawford regained his influence
+in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to 1660 he was a prisoner in
+England. In 1661 he was restored to his former dignities, but his
+refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to resign them two
+years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and 2nd
+earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent
+covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parliament.
+Mr Andrew Lang says this earl was &ldquo;very poor, very
+presbyterian, and his letters, almost alone among those of the
+statesmen of the period, are rich in the texts and unctuous style
+of an older generation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>William&rsquo;s grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and
+4th earl of Lindsay (1702-1749), won a high reputation as a
+soldier. He held a command in the Russian army, seeing service
+against the Turk, and he also served against the same foe under
+Prince Eugene. Having returned to the English army he led the
+life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished himself at Fontenoy;
+later he served against France in the Netherlands. He left no
+sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George
+Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a
+descendant of the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and
+5th earl of Lindsay. When George&rsquo;s son, George, the 22nd earl
+(1758-1808), died unmarried in January 1808, the earldoms of
+Crawford and Lindsay were separated, George&rsquo;s kinsman, David
+Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of
+the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his
+successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the
+House of Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune, Bart.
+(1827-1894), also a descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the
+Byres, was entitled to the earldom. In 1894 John&rsquo;s cousin,
+David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became 11th earl of Lindsay.</p>
+
+<p>The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when
+this separation took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords
+adjudged it to James Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres.</p>
+
+<p>The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord
+Menmuir (1552-1598), a younger son of David Lindsay, 9th
+earl of Crawford. John, who bought the estate of Balcarres in
+Fifeshire, became a lord of session as Lord Menmuir in 1581; he
+was a member of the Scottish privy council and one of the commissioners
+of the treasury called the Octavians. He had great
+influence with James VI., helping the king to restore episcopacy
+after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy seal and a
+secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual attainments,
+left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the
+family estates on his brother&rsquo;s death in 1601. David (c. 1586-1641),
+a notable alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres
+in 1633, and in 1651 his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the
+&ldquo;Rupert of the Covenant,&rdquo; fought against Charles I. at Marston
+Moor, at Alford and at Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists,
+signing the &ldquo;engagement&rdquo; for the release of the king in 1647,
+and having been created earl of Balcarres took part in Glencairn&rsquo;s
+rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks very highly of the earl,
+who died at Breda in August 1659. His son Charles (d. 1662)
+became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin (c. 1654-1722),
+became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most
+trusted of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable <i>Memoirs
+touching the Revolution in Scotland, 1688-1690</i>; these were first
+published in 1714, and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the
+25th earl of Crawford in 1841. Having been allowed to return to
+Scotland after an exile in France, the earl joined the Jacobite
+rising in 1715. His successor was his son Alexander, the 4th
+earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another son, James, the 5th
+earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at Sheriffmuir.
+Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army,
+serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some
+<i>Memoirs of the Lindsays</i>, which were completed by his son
+Alexander, the 6th earl (1752-1825). Alexander was with the
+English troops in America during the struggle for independence,
+and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to 1801, filling a difficult
+position with great credit to himself. He became a general in
+1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he had received
+through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the 27th
+of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford,
+although he became earl <i>de jure</i> in 1808, but in 1843 his son James
+Lindsay (1783-1869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by
+the House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl of Crawford and
+7th earl of Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the
+United Kingdom as Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall.</p>
+
+<p>His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of
+Crawford (1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland,
+on the 16th of October 1812, and educated at Eton and Cambridge.
+He travelled much in Europe and the East, and was
+most learned in genealogy and history. His more important
+works include <i>Lives of the Lindsays</i> (3 vols., 1849), <i>Letters on
+Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land</i> (1838), <i>Sketches of the History of
+Christian Art</i> (1847 and 1882), <i>Etruscan Inscriptions Analysed</i>
+(1872), and <i>The Earldom of Mar during 500 years</i> (1882). He
+succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence
+on the 13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered
+that the family vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the
+body stolen. It was not until the 18th of July 1882 that the
+police, acting on the confession of an eye-witness of the desecration,
+found the remains, which were then reinterred at Haigh
+Hall, Wigan.</p>
+
+<p>His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford
+(1847-&emsp;&emsp;), British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St
+Germain-en-Laye, France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated
+at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he devoted himself to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+astronomy, in which he early achieved distinction. In 1870 he
+went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun, and, in 1874, to
+Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. In the interval,
+with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory
+at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented,
+together with his unique library of astronomical and mathematical
+works, to the New Royal Observatory on Blackford Hill,
+Edinburgh, where they were installed in 1895. His services to
+science were recognized by his election to the presidentship of
+the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in succession
+to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal
+Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from
+Edinburgh University in 1882, and in the following year was
+nominated honorary associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of
+Sciences. An enthusiastic bibliophile, he became a trustee of the
+British Museum, and acted for a term as president of the Library
+Association. To the free library of Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a
+series of oriental and English MSS. of the 9th to the 19th centuries
+in illustration of the progress of handwriting, while for the use of
+specialists and students he issued the invaluable <i>Bibliotheca
+Lindesiana</i>. He represented Wigan in the House of Commons
+from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir
+Alexander Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in
+1590, being a younger son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd
+Lord Spynie was Alexander&rsquo;s son, Alexander (d. 1646), who
+served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus and assisted
+Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd lord
+was the latter&rsquo;s son, George. When George, a royalist who was
+taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 1671 this title
+became extinct.</p>
+
+<p>The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of
+the 5th earl of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in
+the Graham family, was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of
+Crawford, but in 1853 the House of Lords gave judgment
+against the earl.</p>
+
+<p>The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several
+prelates. John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow;
+Alexander Lindsay (d. 1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he
+was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay (d. c. 1641) was bishop
+of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too, was deposed in
+1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay (1566-1644),
+bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow
+from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay
+prelates was David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the
+9th earl of Crawford. David, who married James VI. to Anne of
+Denmark at Upsala, was one of the leaders of the Kirk party; he
+became bishop of Ross under the new scheme for establishing
+episcopacy in 1600.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), <i>Lives of the Lindsays</i>
+(1849); A. Jervise, <i>History and Traditions of the Land of the Lindsays</i>
+(1882); G. E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898); H. T.
+Folkard, <i>A Lindsay Record</i> (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul&rsquo;s edition of
+the <i>Scots Peerage</i> of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1854-1909), American
+author, was born at Bagni di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August
+1854, being the son of the American sculptor Thomas Crawford
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and the nephew of Julia Ward Howe, the American poet.
+He studied successively at St Paul&rsquo;s school, Concord, New
+Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome.
+In 1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited
+the Allahabad <i>Indian Herald</i>. Returning to America he continued
+to study Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year,
+contributed to various periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first
+novel, <i>Mr Isaacs</i>, a brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life
+mingled with a touch of Oriental mystery. This book had an
+immediate success, and its author&rsquo;s promise was confirmed by the
+publication of <i>Dr Claudius</i> (1883). After a brief residence in
+New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy, where he
+made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact
+that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford&rsquo;s books stand
+apart from any distinctively American current in literature.
+Year by year he published a number of successful novels: <i>A
+Roman Singer</i> (1884), <i>An American Politician</i> (1884), <i>To Leeward</i>
+(1884), <i>Zoroaster</i> (1885), <i>A Tale of a Lonely Parish</i> (1886),
+<i>Marzio&rsquo;s Crucifix</i> (1887), <i>Saracinesca</i> (1887), <i>Paul Patoff</i> (1887),
+<i>With the Immortals</i> (1888), <i>Greifenstein</i> (1889), <i>Sant&rsquo; Ilario</i> (1889),
+<i>A Cigarette-maker&rsquo;s Romance</i> (1890), <i>Khaled</i> (1891), <i>The Witch of
+Prague</i> (1891), <i>The Three Fates</i> (1892), <i>The Children of the King</i>
+(1892), <i>Don Orsino</i> (1892), <i>Marion Darche</i> (1893), <i>Pietro Ghisleri</i>
+(1893), <i>Katharine Lauderdale</i> (1894), <i>Love in Idleness</i> (1894), <i>The
+Ralstons</i>, (1894), <i>Casa Braccio</i> (1895), <i>Adam Johnston&rsquo;s Son</i>
+(1895), <i>Taquisara</i> (1896), <i>A Rose of Yesterday</i> (1897), <i>Corleone</i>
+(1897), <i>Via Crucis</i> (1899), <i>In the Palace of the King</i> (1900),
+<i>Marietta</i> (1901), <i>Cecilia</i> (1902), <i>Whosoever Shall Offend</i> (1904),
+<i>Soprano</i> (1905), <i>A Lady of Rome</i> (1906). He also published the
+historical works, <i>Ave Roma Immortalis</i> (1898), <i>Rulers of the
+South</i> (1900)&mdash;renamed <i>Sicily, Calabria and Malta</i> in 1904,&mdash;and
+<i>Gleanings from Venetian History</i> (1905). In these his intimate
+knowledge of local Italian history combines with the romancist&rsquo;s
+imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in contemporary
+literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted
+narrator, and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and
+dramatic characterization, became widely popular among
+readers to whom the realism of &ldquo;problems&rdquo; or the eccentricities
+of subjective analysis were repellent, for he could unfold a
+romantic story in an attractive way, setting his plot amid
+picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the reader&rsquo;s intelligence
+by a style at once straightforward and accomplished. The
+<i>Saracinesca</i> series shows him perhaps at his best. <i>A Cigarette-maker&rsquo;s
+Romance</i> was dramatized, and had considerable popularity
+on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an
+original play from his pen, <i>Francesco da Rimini</i>, was produced in
+Paris by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of
+April 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, THOMAS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1814-1857), American sculptor, was
+born of Irish parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814.
+He showed at an early age great taste for art, and learnt to draw
+and to carve in wood. In his nineteenth year he entered the
+studio of a firm of monumental sculptors in his native city; and
+in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became a pupil of
+Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known
+as a man of genius was his group of &ldquo;Orpheus entering Hades
+in Search of Eurydice,&rdquo; executed in 1839. This was followed by
+other poetical sculptures, among which were the &ldquo;Babes in the
+Wood,&rdquo; &ldquo;Flora,&rdquo; &ldquo;Hebe and Ganymede,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sappho,&rdquo; &ldquo;Vesta,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;Dancers,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Hunter.&rdquo; Among his statues and busts
+are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy, executed
+for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the
+equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the
+statue of Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing
+and Henry Clay, and the colossal figure of &ldquo;Armed Liberty&rdquo; for
+the Capitol at Washington. For this building he executed also
+the figures for the pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the
+bronze doors, which were afterwards completed by W. H.
+Rinehart. The groups of the pediment symbolize the progress
+of civilization in America. Crawford&rsquo;s works include a large
+number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from both the
+Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he
+visited several times his native land&mdash;first in 1844 (in which year
+he married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He
+died in London on the 10th of October 1857.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner</i>,
+to which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, including
+that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868); Thomas
+Hicks, <i>Eulogy on Thomas Crawford</i> (New York, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1772-1834), American
+statesman, was born in Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of
+February 1772. When he was seven his parents moved into
+Edgefield district, South Carolina, and four years later into
+Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father in 1788 left
+the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what he
+could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at
+Carmel Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one
+of the largest schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+bar. From 1800 to 1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a
+digest of the laws of Georgia from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to
+1807 he was a member of the State House of Representatives,
+becoming during this period the leader of one of two personal-political
+factions in the state that long continued in bitter
+strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he
+killed his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist.
+From 1807 to 1813 he was a member of the United States Senate,
+of which he was president <i>pro tempore</i> from March 1812 to March
+1813. In 1813 he declined the offer of the post of secretary of
+war, but from that year until 1815 was minister to the court
+of France. He was then secretary of war in 1815-1816, and
+secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In 1816 in the
+congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the
+presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a
+majority being at first in his favour, but when the vote was
+finally cast 65 were for Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824,
+when the congressional caucus was fast becoming extinct,
+Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted that it should
+be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of these, 64
+voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew
+Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise
+put in the field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken
+with paralysis, and when the electoral vote was cast Jackson
+received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. It remained
+for the house of representatives to choose from Jackson, Adams
+and Crawford, and through Clay&rsquo;s influence Adams became
+president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as
+secretary of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health
+sufficiently to become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state,
+but died while on circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of
+September 1834. In his day he was undoubtedly one of the
+foremost political leaders of the country, but his reputation has
+not stood the test of time. He was of imposing presence and had
+great conversational powers; but his inflexible integrity was not
+sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of his winning
+general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful political
+organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of his
+time&mdash;Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of
+Albert Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the movement
+in 1811 to recharter the Bank of the United States; he
+earned the condemnation of posterity by his authorship in 1820 of
+the four-years-term law, which limited the term of service of
+thousands of public officials to four years, and did much to
+develop the &ldquo;spoils system.&rdquo; He was a Liberal Democrat, and
+advised the calling of a constitutional convention as preferable to
+nullification or secession.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAWFORDSVILLE,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Montgomery
+county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of
+Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 6089; (1900) 6649, including 230
+negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910) 9371. It is served by the
+Chicago, Indianapolis &amp; Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
+Chicago &amp; St Louis, and the Vandalia railways, and by interurban
+electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832 by Presbyterian
+missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27
+instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes.
+Among manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages,
+acetylene lights, wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and
+electrical machinery. North-east of the city there are valuable
+mineral springs, from which the city obtains its water-supply.
+Crawfordsville, named in honour of W. H. Crawford, was first
+settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in 1823, and was
+chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the home of
+Gen. Lew Wallace.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAWFURD, JOHN<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was
+born in the island of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783.
+After studying at Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India
+Company&rsquo;s service. He afterwards resided for some time at
+Penang, and during the British occupation of Java from 1811 to
+1817 his local knowledge made him invaluable to the government.
+In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and Cochin-China, and in
+1823 became governor of Singapore. His last political service in
+the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827. In 1861 he was
+elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at South
+Kensington on the 11th of May 1868.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Crawfurd wrote a <i>History of the Indian Archipelago</i> (1820), <i>Descriptive
+Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries</i>
+(1856), <i>Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827</i> (1829),
+<i>Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, exhibiting
+a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms</i> (1830), <i>Inquiry into
+the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior of India</i>, an
+attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper entitled
+<i>Taxes on Knowledge</i> (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and
+dictionary (1852).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAYER, GASPARD DE<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was
+born at Antwerp, and learnt the art of painting from Raphael
+Coxcie. He matriculated in the guild of St Luke at Brussels in
+1607, resided in the capital of Brabant till after 1660, and finally
+settled at Ghent. Amongst the numerous pictures which he
+painted in Ghent, one in the town museum represents the
+martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A° 1668 aet.
+86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most
+conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to
+Rubens in vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly
+equalling both in most of the essentials of painting. He was well
+known and always well treated by Albert and Isabella, governors
+of the Netherlands. The cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a
+court-painter. His pictures abound in the churches and museums
+of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely a country chapel in
+Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more of his
+canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native
+country; and some important pictures of his composition are to
+be found as far south as Aix in Provence and as far east as
+Amberg in the Upper Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist
+is shown in the panels executed for a triumphal arch at the entry
+of Cardinal Ferdinand into the Flemish capital, some of which
+are publicly exhibited in the museum of Ghent. Crayer died at
+Ghent. His best works are the &ldquo;Miraculous Draught of Fishes&rdquo;
+in the gallery of Brussels, the &ldquo;Judgment of Solomon&rdquo; in the
+gallery of Ghent, and &ldquo;Madonnas with Saints&rdquo; in the Louvre,
+the Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His
+portrait by Vandyck was engraved by P. Pontius.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAYFISH<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (Fr. <i>écrevisse</i>), the name of freshwater crustaceans
+closely allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them,
+belonging to the order Macrura. They are divided into two
+families, the <i>Astacidae</i> and <i>Parastacidae</i>, inhabiting respectively
+the northern and the southern hemispheres.</p>
+
+<p>The crayfishes of England and Ireland (<i>Astacus</i>, or <i>Potamobius</i>,
+<i>pallipes</i>) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or
+brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They
+are abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a
+calcareous nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which
+they dig for themselves in the banks and coming out at night in
+search of food. They are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating
+insects, snails, frogs and other animals, and devouring any carrion
+that comes in their way. It is stated that they sometimes come
+on land in search of vegetable food.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:292px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Crayfish (<i>Cambarus</i> sp.) from the Mississippi River. (After Morse.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On the continent of Europe, <i>Astacus pallipes</i> occurs chiefly in
+the west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+Balkan Peninsula. It is known in France as <i>écrevisse à pattes
+blanches</i> and in Germany as <i>Steinkrebs</i>, and is little used as food.
+The larger <i>Astacus fluviatilis</i> (<i>écrevisse à pattes rouges</i>, <i>Edelkrebs</i>)
+is not found in Britain, but occurs in France and Germany,
+southern Sweden, Russia, &amp;c. It is distinguished, among other
+characters, by the red colour of the under side of the large claws.
+It is the species most highly esteemed for the table. Other
+species of the genus are found in central and eastern Europe and
+as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs in the
+distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the
+Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending
+into northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky
+Mountains, the genus <i>Astacus</i> again appears, but east of the
+watershed it is replaced by the genus <i>Cambarus</i>, which is represented
+by very numerous species, ranging from the Great Lakes
+to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the subterranean
+waters of caves. The best known is <i>Cambarus pellucidus</i>,
+found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.</p>
+
+<p>The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or
+<i>Parastacidae</i> is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of
+the northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come
+into contact or overlap in Central America. None is found in any
+part of Africa, though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are
+absent also from the oriental region of zoologists, but reappear
+in Australia and New Zealand. Some of the Australian species,
+such as the &ldquo;Murray River lobster&rdquo; (<i>Astacopsis spinifer</i>), are of
+large size and are used for food. In South America crayfishes
+are found in southern Brazil, Argentina and Chile.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. T. Ca.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRAYON<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Fr. <i>craie</i>, chalk, from Lat. <i>creta</i>), a coloured material
+for drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but
+sometimes also as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and
+stony friable substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a
+base of pipe or china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion,
+umber and other pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and compounds
+of magnesium, bismuth and lead are occasionally used as
+bases. The required shades of tints are obtained by adding
+varying amounts of colouring matter to equal quantities of the
+base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings of
+colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and
+rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in
+crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger,
+with the assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is
+produced by cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in
+crayon or pastel is supposed to have originated in Germany in the
+17th century. By Johann Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was
+carried to great perfection, and in France it was early practised
+with much success. Amongst the earlier pastellists may be
+mentioned Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), W. Hoare (1707-1792),
+F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in recent
+years the art has been successfully revived. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pastel</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1812-1878), English
+historian, was born at Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton
+and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. He became a fellow of King&rsquo;s
+College in 1834, and having been called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s
+Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the Westminster
+sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of
+modern and ancient history in the university of London, and in
+1860 became chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down
+in health he returned to England in 1870, and after a further but
+short stay in Ceylon died in London on the 27th of January 1878.
+Creasy&rsquo;s most popular work is his <i>Fifteen decisive Battles of the
+World</i>, which, first published in 1851, has passed through many
+editions. He also wrote <i>The History of the Ottoman Turks</i>
+(London, 1854-1856); <i>History of England</i> (London, 1869-1870);
+<i>Rise and Progress of the English Constitution</i> (London, 1853, and
+other editions); <i>Historical and Critical Account of the several
+Invasions of England</i> (London, 1852); a novel entitled <i>Old Love
+and the New</i> (London, 1870); and various other works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM.<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> Traducianism is the
+doctrine about the origin of the soul which was taught by
+Tertullian in his <i>De anima</i>&mdash;that souls are generated from souls
+in the same way and at the same time as bodies from bodies:
+creatianism is the doctrine that God creates a soul for each
+body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted the upholders of
+original sin with holding Tertullian&rsquo;s opinion, and called them
+Traduciani (from <i>tradux</i>: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name which was
+perhaps suggested by a metaphor in <i>De an.</i> 19, where the soul is
+described &ldquo;velut surculus quidam ex matrice Adam in propaginem
+deducta.&rdquo; Hence we have formed &ldquo;traducianist,&rdquo; &ldquo;traducianism,&rdquo;
+and by analogy &ldquo;creatianist,&rdquo; &ldquo;creatianism.&rdquo; Augustine
+denied that traducianism was necessarily connected with the
+doctrine of original sin, and to the end of his life was unable to
+decide for or against it. His letter to Jerome (<i>Epist. Clas.</i> iii.
+166) is a most valuable statement of his difficulties. Jerome
+condemned it, and said that creatianism was the opinion of the
+Church, though he admitted that most of the Western Christians
+held traducianism. The question has never been authoritatively
+determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed in the
+East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians,
+and Peter Lombard&rsquo;s <i>creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo
+creat</i> was an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was
+undecided, but Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists.
+Calvin favoured creatianism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Peter Lombard&rsquo;s phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it
+was felt that some union of the two opinions was needed, and
+Augustine&rsquo;s toleration pointed in the same direction, for the traducianism
+he thought possible was one in which God <i>operatur institutas
+administrando non novas instituendo naturas</i> (<i>Ep.</i> 166. 5. 11).
+Modern psychologists teach that while &ldquo;personality&rdquo; can be discerned
+in its &ldquo;becoming,&rdquo; nothing is known of its origin. Lotze,
+however, who may be taken as representing the believers in the
+immanence of the divine Being, puts forth&mdash;but as a &ldquo;dim conjecture&rdquo;&mdash;something
+very like creatianism (<i>Microcosmus</i>, bk. iii.
+chap. v. ad fin.). It is still, as in the days of Augustine, a question
+whether a more exact division of man into body, soul <i>and spirit</i> may
+help to throw light on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>See indices to <i>Augustine</i>, vol. xi., and <i>Jerome</i>, vol. xi. in Migne&rsquo;s
+<i>Patrologia</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Anima&rdquo;; Franz Delitzsch, <i>Biblical Psychology</i>,
+ii. § 7; G. P. Fisher, <i>History of Chr. Doct.</i> pp. 187 ff.; A. Harnack,
+<i>History of Dogma</i> (passim; see Index); Liddon, <i>Elements of
+Religion</i>, Lect. iii.; Mason, <i>Faith of the Gospel</i>, iv. §§ 3, 4, 9, 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. N.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1674-1762), French
+tragic poet, was born on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon,
+where his father, Melchior Jolyot, was notary-royal. Having
+been educated at the Jesuits&rsquo; school of the town, and at the
+Collège Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed in the
+office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encouragement
+of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron&rsquo;s, he produced
+a <i>Mort des enfants de Brutus</i>, which, however, he failed to bring
+upon the stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with <i>Idoménée</i>; in
+1707 his <i>Atrée et Thyeste</i> was repeatedly acted at court; <i>Électre</i>
+appeared in 1709; and in 1711 he produced his finest play, the
+<i>Rhadamiste et Zénobie</i>, which is his masterpiece and held the
+stage for a long period, although the plot is so complicated as
+to be almost incomprehensible. But his <i>Xerxes</i> (1714) was only
+once played, and his <i>Sémiramis</i> (1717) was an absolute failure.
+In 1707 Crébillon had married a girl without fortune, who had
+since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had
+died, insolvent. His three years&rsquo; attendance at court had been
+fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him.
+Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he
+surrounded himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens,
+which he had befriended; he became utterly careless of cleanliness
+or food, and solaced himself with constant smoking. But in
+1731, in spite of his long seclusion, he was elected member of the
+French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal censor; and in
+1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of 1000
+francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage
+in 1726 with a successful play, <i>Pyrrhus</i>; in 1748 his <i>Catilina</i> was
+played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he
+was eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, <i>Le Triumvirat</i>.
+Crébillon died on the 17th of June 1754. The enemies of Voltaire
+maintained that Crébillon was his superior as a tragic poet.
+The spirit of rivalry thus provoked induced Voltaire to take the
+subjects of no less than five of Crébillon&rsquo;s tragedies&mdash;<i>Sémiramis</i>,
+<i>Électre</i>, <i>Catilina</i>, <i>Le Triumvirat</i>, <i>Atrée</i>&mdash;as subjects for tragedies
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+of his own. The so-called <i>Éloge de Crébillon</i> (1762), really a
+depreciation, which appeared in the year of the poet&rsquo;s death, is
+generally attributed to Voltaire, though he strenuously denied
+the authorship. Crébillon&rsquo;s drama is marked by a force too often
+gained at the expense of scenes of unnatural horror; his pieces
+show lack of culture and a want of care which displays itself even
+in the mechanism of his verse, though fine isolated passages are
+not infrequent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be
+noticed: <i>&OElig;uvres</i> (1772), with preface and &ldquo;éloge,&rdquo; by Joseph de la
+Porte; <i>&OElig;uvres</i> (1828), containing D&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s <i>Éloge de Crébillon</i>
+(1775); and <i>Théâtre complet</i> (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu.
+A complete bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his <i>Étude
+sur la vie et le théâtre de Crébillon</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His only son, <span class="sc">Claude Prosper Jolyot Crébillon</span> (1707-1777),
+French novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February
+1707. His life was spent almost entirely in Paris, but the
+publication of <i>L&rsquo;Écumoire, ou Tanzaï et Neadarné, histoire
+japonaise</i> (1734), which contained veiled attacks on the bull
+<i>Unigenitus</i>, the cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse du Maine,
+brought Crébillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and
+afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and
+elsewhere. With Alexis Piron and Charles Collé he founded in
+1752 the gay society which met regularly to dine at the famous
+&ldquo;Caveau,&rdquo; where many good stories were elaborated. From
+1759 onwards he was to be found at the Wednesday dinners of the
+Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes were sometimes
+guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble family,
+Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from
+1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection
+and mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than
+that between Crébillon&rsquo;s private life and the tone of his novels,
+the immorality of which lent irony to the author&rsquo;s tenure of the
+office of censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of
+Mme de Pompadour. He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777.
+The most famous of his numerous novels are: <i>Les Amours de
+Zéokinizul, roi des Kofirans</i> (1740), in which &ldquo;Zéokinizul&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Kofirans&rdquo; may be translated Louis XIV. and the French
+respectively; and <i>Le Sopha, conte moral</i> (1740), where the moral
+is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given by some
+authorities as the reason for his imprisonment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres</i> were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of
+Crébillon prefixed to O. Uzanne&rsquo;s edition of his <i>Contes dialogués</i> in
+the series of <i>Conteurs du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>. Crébillon&rsquo;s novels might
+be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two
+writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this
+particular. André Robert de Nerciat (1739-1800) produced under
+a false name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by
+Donatien, marquis de Sade.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÈCHE<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (Fr. for a &ldquo;crib&rdquo; or cradle), the name given to a
+day-nursery, a public institution for the feeding and care of
+infants while the mothers are engaged in work outside their
+homes, or are otherwise prevented from giving them proper
+attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a month old,
+and are kept till they are capable of looking after themselves.
+The advantages of such institutions are that the attention of
+skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is
+better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their
+homes, the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of
+discipline and cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases,
+react on the mothers. The nurseries are usually under medical
+supervision, and the small fees charged, which average in London
+from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the continent of Europe about 2d.,
+are much less than the cost to the mother who places her young
+children under the care of neighbours when at work or away from
+home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in 1844,
+and have been established in the majority of the large towns on
+the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and
+Germany they have helped to check infantile mortality. The
+state or municipality in nearly every case grants subsidies, but
+few are maintained entirely by public authorities; voluntary
+contributions are depended upon for the main support, and the
+organization and management are left in the hands of private
+societies and charitable institutions, although some outside
+official supervision with regard to the number of infants
+admitted to each institution, air-space, and ventilation and
+general hygienic conditions is considered useful. In Great
+Britain the establishment of such institutions has been left
+almost entirely to private initiative; and in comparison with the
+continent the provision is inadequate and unsatisfactory, Paris
+having nearly double the proportion of accommodation for
+infants to the population that is provided in London. The
+National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the
+purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of
+good methods of founding and managing a crèche.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School
+Attendance of Children below the Age of Five</i>, issued by the Board of
+Education (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉCY<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department
+of Somme, on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road.
+It is famous in history for the great victory gained here on the
+26th of August 1346 by the English under Edward III. over the
+French of King Philip of Valois. After its campaign in northern
+France, the English army retired into Ponthieu, and encamped
+on the 25th of August at Crécy, the French king in the meantime
+marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th Edward&rsquo;s
+army took up its position for battle, and Philip&rsquo;s, hearing of this,
+moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much
+disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle.
+The English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their
+right in front of the village of Crécy, their left resting on
+Wadicourt. Two of the three divisions or &ldquo;battles&rdquo; were in first
+line, that of the young prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the
+right, that of the earls of Northampton and Arundel on the left;
+the third, under the king&rsquo;s own command, in reserve, and the
+baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle consisted of a
+centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two wings of
+archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English
+archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the
+second gives a different estimate). The French were far stronger,
+having at least 12,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen
+(Genoese), perhaps 20,000 of the <i>milice des communes</i>, besides a
+certain number of foot of the feudal levy. Along with these
+served a Luxemburg contingent of horse under John, king of
+Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy Roman Empire, and
+the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:620px; height:470px" src="images/img389.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The day was far advanced when the French came upon the
+English position. Philip, near Estrées, decided to halt and
+bivouac, deferring the battle until the army was better closed up,
+but the indiscipline of his army committed him to an immediate
+action, and he ordered forward the Genoese crossbowmen, while a
+line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind them; the rest of
+the army was still marching in an irregular column of route along
+the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a short
+delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle.
+Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+long-bow proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbowmen,
+completely outmatched, were driven back with enormous
+loss. Thereupon the first line of French knights behind them
+charged down upon the &ldquo;faint-hearted rabble&rdquo; of their own
+fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the French were a mere
+mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The archers
+did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly into
+the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was
+made by another large body of knights which had arrived, and
+served but to increase the number of the casualties, though here
+and there a few charged up to the English line and fell near it,
+among them the blind king of Bohemia, who with a party of
+devoted knights penetrated, and was killed amongst, the ranks of
+the prince of Wales&rsquo;s men-at-arms. The battle was now one long
+series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a fresh onslaught
+being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the scene.
+The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles had
+been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held
+back, so that the whole line resembled a &ldquo;herse&rdquo; or harrow with
+three points formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive
+body of the French sought to come to close quarters with the men-at-arms,
+and exposed themselves therefore at short range to the
+arrows on either flank. Under these circumstances there could
+be but one issue of the battle. Though sixteen distinct attacks
+were made, and the fighting lasted until long after dark, no
+impression was made on the English line. At one moment the
+prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for
+aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere
+handful of knights to the prince&rsquo;s battle, saying, &ldquo;Let the boy
+win his spurs.&rdquo; The left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat
+to the rear, moved up into line with the prince, and the French
+attack slackened. By midnight the army of France was practically
+annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood were left dead on
+the field and counted by Edward&rsquo;s heralds, the losses of the
+remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the
+battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen
+king of Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes
+of Wales lacks foundation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John, King of Bohemia</a></span>). A
+memorial to the French and their allies was erected, by public
+subscription in France, Luxemburg and Bohemia, in 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. B. George, <i>Battles of English History</i> (London, 1895), and
+C. W. C. Oman, <i>A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages</i>
+(London, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREDENCE,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Credence Table</span>, a small side-table, originally
+an article of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble
+houses, at which the ceremony of the <i>praegustatio</i>, Italian
+<i>credenziare</i>, the &ldquo;assay&rdquo; or tasting of food and drink for poisons
+was performed by an official of the household, the <i>praegustator</i>
+or <i>credentiarius</i> as he was called in Medieval Latin. Both the
+ceremony and the table were known as <i>credentia</i> (Lat. <i>credere</i>, to
+believe, trust), Ital. <i>credenza</i>, Fr. <i>crédence</i>. After the need for the
+ceremony had disappeared the name still survived, and the table
+developed a back and several shelves for the display of plate, and
+gradually merged into the buffet (<i>q.v.</i>). It is, however, as an
+article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence table is most
+familiar. It takes the form of a small table of wood or stone,
+sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the
+piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the
+altar, and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the
+cruets containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks
+to be carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the
+ceremony of the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier
+the name of <i>paratorium</i> or <i>oblationarium</i> was given, appears to
+have come into use when the personal presentation of the oblations
+at the Mass became obsolete. When the pope celebrates
+Mass a special credence table on the Gospel side of the altar is
+used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison in the unconsecrated
+elements is still observed. In some churches in England the old
+credence tables still exist, as at the church of St Cross near
+Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example;
+more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina.
+There are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being
+with a semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a
+lower shelf. The formal use of the credence table for the unconsecrated
+elements and the holy vessels before the celebration
+has been revived in the English Church.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREDENTIALS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (<i>lettres de créance</i>), a document which
+ambassadors, ministers plenipotentiary, and chargés d&rsquo;affaires
+hand to the government to which they are accredited, for the
+purpose, chiefly, of communicating to the latter the envoy&rsquo;s
+diplomatic rank. It also contains a request that full credence be
+accorded to his official statements. Until his credentials have
+been presented and found in proper order, an envoy receives
+no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or
+minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those
+of a chargé d&rsquo;affaires by the foreign minister.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREDI, LORENZO DI<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose
+surname was Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least
+gifted of three artists who began life as journeymen with Andrea
+del Verrocchio. Though he was the companion and friend of
+Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely allied in style to
+both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the facility of the
+other. We admire in Da Vinci&rsquo;s heads a heavenly contentment
+and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and smoothness of
+finish. Credi&rsquo;s faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his pigments
+have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his
+creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities
+which hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-known
+form of tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of
+the old Umbrian school. Peculiarities of movement and attitude
+become stereotyped in his compositions; but when put on his
+mettle, he could still exhibit power, passion, pathos. Credi often
+repeated himself in Perugino&rsquo;s way; but being of a pious and
+resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his pictures a feeling
+which is yielding and gentle to the verge of coldness. Credi had a
+respectable local practice at Florence. He was consulted on most
+occasions when the opinion of his profession was required on
+public grounds, <i>e.g.</i> in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498 as to
+the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place
+due to Michelangelo&rsquo;s &ldquo;David.&rdquo; He never painted frescoes; at
+rare intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The
+greater part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he
+expended minute and patient labour. But he worked with such
+industry that numbers of his Madonnas exist in European
+galleries. The best of his altar-pieces is that which represents the
+Virgin and Child with Saints in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine
+example of his easel rounds is in the gallery of Mainz. Credi
+rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment to Savonarola; but
+he felt no inclination for the retirement of a monastery. Still, in
+his old age, and after he had outlived the perils of the siege of
+Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the hospital
+of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery,
+London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREDIT<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Lat. <i>credere</i>, to believe), in a general sense, belief or
+trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person
+has, or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense
+credit is the promise to pay at a future time for valuable consideration
+in the present: hence, a reputation of solvency and
+ability to make such payments is also termed credit. In bookkeeping
+credit is the side of the account on which payments are
+entered; hence, sometimes, the payments themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of
+wealth is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference
+may be made to K. Knies, <i>Geld und Kredit</i> (1873-1879), and H. D.
+Macleod, <i>Theory of Credit</i> (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers,
+<i>The Meaning of Money</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉDIT FONCIER,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> in France, an institution for advancing
+money on mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to
+the initiative of the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by
+virtue of a governmental decree of the 28th of February 1852.
+This decree empowered the issue of loans at a low rate of interest,
+secured by mortgage bonds, extending over a long period, and
+repayable by annuities, including instalments of capital. On its
+inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took the title
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span>
+of Banque Foncière de Paris. The parent institution in Paris
+was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles.
+These two were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the
+title of Crédit Foncier de France. The capital was increased
+to 60,000,000 francs, the government giving a subvention of
+10,000,000 francs, and exercising control over the bank by
+directly appointing the governor and two deputy-governors. The
+administration was vested in a council chosen by the shareholders,
+but its decisions have no validity without the approval of the
+governor. The Crédit Foncier has the right to issue bonds,
+repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of
+interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The
+loans must not exceed half the estimated value of the property
+mortgaged, upon which the bank has the first mortgage. The
+bank also makes advances to local bodies, departmental and
+communal, for short or long periods, and with or without
+mortgage. Its capital amounts to £13,500,000. Its charter was
+renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860 the Crédit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of
+an organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural
+and allied industries. This Crédit Agricole rendered but trifling
+services to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into
+speculation. Between 1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to
+the Egyptian government, obtaining the money by opening
+credit with the Crédit Foncier and depositing with it the securities
+of the Egyptian government. On the failure of the Egyptian
+government to meet its payments the Crédit Agricole went into
+liquidation, and the Crédit Foncier suffered severely in consequence.
+The impracticability of the credit system to aid agriculture
+as worked by the Crédit Agricole was very marked, and,
+as a consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is
+now entirely in the hands of the Banque de France.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Crédit Mobilier</i> is an institution for advancing loans on
+personal or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the
+liquidation of the Société Générale de Crédit Mobilier, founded in
+1852, which it absorbed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a construction company
+whose operations in connexion with the building of the Union
+Pacific Railroad gave rise to the most serious political scandal in
+the history of the United States Congress. The company was
+originally chartered as the Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency in 1859.
+In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock was secured by
+Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific Railroad
+Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the
+adoption of the name Crédit Mobilier of America. Durant
+proposed to utilize it as a construction company, pay it an
+extravagant sum for the work, and thus secure for the stockholders
+of the Union Pacific, who now controlled the Crédit
+Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States government.
+The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage
+bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05,
+slightly more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction.
+According to the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee,
+the Crédit Mobilier received in addition, in the form of stock,
+income bonds, and land grant bonds, $23,000,000&mdash;a profit of
+about 48%. The defenders of the company assert that several
+items of expense were not included in this report, and that the
+real net profit was considerably smaller, although they admit
+that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the
+years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse
+legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames
+(<i>q.v.</i>), a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter
+of the Crédit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among
+congressmen and senators to influence their attitude. Shares
+were sold at par when a few dividends repaid a purchaser at this
+price. Some in fact received dividends without any initial outlay
+at all. As the result of a lawsuit between Ames and H. S.
+McComb, some private letters were brought out in September
+1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House
+appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the
+Wilson committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames
+and James Brooks of New York were formally censured by the
+House, the former for disposing of the stock and the latter for
+improperly using his official position to secure part of it. Charges
+were also made against Schuyler Colfax, then vice-president but
+Speaker of the House at the time of the transaction, James A.
+Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A. Logan, and
+several other members either of the House or of the Senate. The
+Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the
+charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of
+February 1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of
+James W. Patterson, of New Hampshire; but as his term expired
+within five days no action was taken. The evidence was exaggerated
+by the Democrats for partisan purposes, but the investigation
+showed clearly that many of those accused were at least
+indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself was merely a
+type of the construction companies by which it was the custom
+to build railways between 1860 and about 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. B. Crawford, <i>The Crédit Mobilier of America</i> (Boston, 1880),
+and R. Hazard, <i>The Crédit Mobilier of America</i> (Providence, 1881),
+both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific
+Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White
+(Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James
+Ford Rhodes, <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. vii. (New York, 1906).
+The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in <i>House of Representatives
+Reports</i>, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78, and the
+report of the Senate Committee in <i>Senate Reports</i>, 42nd Congress,
+3rd session, No. 519.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREDITON,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a market town in the South Molton parliamentary
+division of Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter
+by the London &amp; South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 3974. It is situated in the narrow vale of the river
+Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between two steep hills,
+and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and the west
+or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is
+a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other
+early portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school,
+founded by Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has
+exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge universities. Shoe-making,
+tanning, agricultural trade, tin-plating, and the manufacture
+of confectionery and cider have superseded the former large
+woollen and serge industries. In 1897 Crediton was made the
+seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Exeter.</p>
+
+<p>The first indication of settlement at Crediton (<i>Credington</i>,
+<i>Cryditon</i>, <i>Kirton</i>) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was
+born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent
+of the parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909
+the seat of the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably
+only a village in 1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested
+Leo IX. to transfer the see to Exeter, as Crediton was &ldquo;an open
+town and much exposed to the incursions of pirates.&rdquo; At the
+Domesday Survey much of the land was still uncultivated, but
+its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of the twelve prebends
+of the collegiate church had a house and farmland within the
+parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the
+Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other
+rights; in 1351 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of
+judgments of 1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam,
+view of frank pledge, the gallows and assize of bread and ale.
+Two years later there was a serious riot against the increase of
+copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that the prescriptive
+borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are
+mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to
+parliament in 1306-1307, though never afterwards represented.
+A borough seal dated 1469 is extant, but the corporation is not
+mentioned in the grant made by Edward VI. of the church to
+twelve principal inhabitants. The borough and manor were
+granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but there is no
+indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the 18th
+century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the
+bishop obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow
+of St Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was
+established by 1249 and certainly continued until 1630, when the
+market for kersies is mentioned in conjunction with a saying &ldquo;as
+fine as Kirton spinning.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rev. Preb. Smith, &ldquo;Early History of Credition,&rdquo; in <i>Devonshire
+Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art,
+Transactions</i>, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, &ldquo;The
+Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition,&rdquo; in <i>Exeter
+Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions</i>, vol. iv. (Exeter, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1809-1876),
+German geologist, was born at Waltershausen near Gotha, on
+the 13th of March 1809. He investigated the geology of the
+Thüringer Waldes, of which he published a map in 1846. He
+was author of a work entitled <i>Über die Gliederung der oberen
+Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen
+Deutschland</i> (Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover
+(1865). He died at Halle on the 28th of September 1876.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Carl Hermann Credner</span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), was born at
+Gotha on the 1st of October 1841, educated at Breslau and
+Göttingen, and took the degree of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In
+1870 he was appointed professor of geology in the university of
+Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the Geological Survey of Saxony.
+He is author of numerous publications on the geology of Saxony,
+and of an important work, <i>Elemente der Geologie</i> (2 vols., 1872;
+7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in Germany.
+He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREE,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock.
+They are still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and
+living chiefly in Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg
+and the Saskatchewan river. They gave trouble by their
+constant attacks upon the Sioux and Blackfeet, but are now
+peaceable and orderly.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREECH, THOMAS<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1659-1700), English classical scholar,
+was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his
+early education from Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne
+school. In 1675 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, and
+obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls&rsquo;. He was headmaster
+of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he received
+a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The
+immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty,
+though according to some it was a love disappointment; both
+of these circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe
+primarily due to an already pronounced melancholia. Creech&rsquo;s
+fame rests on his translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed
+heroic couplets, in which, according to Otway, the pure ore of the
+original &ldquo;somewhat seems refined.&rdquo; He also published a version
+of Horace (1684), and translated the <i>Idylls of Theocritus</i> (1684),
+the <i>Thirteenth Satire</i> of Juvenal (1693), the <i>Astronomicon</i> of
+Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch, Virgil and Ovid.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREEDS<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (Lat. <i>credo</i>, I believe), or <span class="sc">Confessions of Faith</span>. We
+are accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, <i>i.e.</i>
+reasoned statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected
+with the history of Christianity. But the new study of comparative
+religion has something to teach us even here. The
+saying <i>lex orandi lex credendi</i> is true of all times and of all peoples.
+And since we must reckon praise as the highest form of prayer,
+such an early Christian hymn as is found in 1 Tim. iii. 16 must be
+acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: &ldquo;He who was
+manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of angels,
+preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received up
+in glory.&rdquo; It justifies the expansion of the second article of the
+developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest
+Christian tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our
+survey of creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and
+beliefs. The pendulum has swung back. Rather than despise
+the faulty presentation of truth which we find in heathen religions
+and their more or less degraded rites, we follow the apostle
+Paul in his endeavour to trace in them attempts &ldquo;to feel after
+God&rdquo; (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great teacher of the West,
+was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians, when he wrote
+(<i>Ep.</i> 166): &ldquo;Let every good and true Christian understand that
+truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to <i>his</i> Lord.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest
+forms of recorded religious consciousness such as animism, or
+totemism, or fetishism, were themselves degradations of a
+primitive revelation or not.<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> We are only concerned with the
+fact of experience that the human soul yearns to express its
+belief. The hymn to the rising and setting sun in the <i>Book of the
+Dead</i> (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists to be the oldest
+poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn of
+history.</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent.... Glorious is</p>
+<p class="i05">thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are</p>
+<p class="i05">illumined by thy rays.... Hail to thee, Ra, when thou</p>
+<p class="i05">returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as &ldquo;the good god
+beloved, maker of men, creator of beasts, maker of things below
+and above, lord of mercy most loving.&rdquo; A similar note is struck
+in the Indian Vedas. In the more ethical religion of the Avesta
+the creator is more clearly distinguished from the creature: &ldquo;I
+desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my praise, the lofty
+eternal, and the holy two.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_2k" id="FnAnchor_2k" href="#Footnote_2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The Persian poet is not far from
+the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered.</p>
+
+<p>The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the
+gradual purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews
+did not outgrow their religion, but their interest was always
+ethical and not speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists
+and the most fervent appeals of the prophets were progressively
+directed to the great end of praising and preaching the One true
+God, everlasting, with sincere and pure devotion. The creed of
+the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the well-remembered words,
+which have been ever on his lips, living or dying: &ldquo;Hear, O
+Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord&rdquo; (Deut. vi. 4).</p>
+
+<p>The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course
+is the strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to
+the fluid character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the
+chaos of conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks
+and Romans. As Dr J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely:
+&ldquo;The physical speculations of the Ionians and Atomists rendered
+a God superfluous, and the metaphysical and logical reasoning of
+the Eleatics declared Him to be unknowable.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_3k" id="FnAnchor_3k" href="#Footnote_3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Plato regarding
+the world as an embodiment of eternal, archetypal ideas, which he
+groups under the central idea of Good, identified with the divine
+reason, at the same time uses the ordinary language of the day,
+and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way towards the
+conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth
+again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not
+&ldquo;a clear conception of human personality.&rdquo; They were followed
+by an age of philosophizing which did little to advance speculation.
+The Stoics, for example, were more successful in criticizing
+the current creed than in explaining the underlying truth which
+they recognized in polytheism. The final goal of Greek philosophy
+was only reached when the great thinkers of the early Christian
+Church, who had been trained in the schools of Alexandria and
+Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of the Christian
+idea of God. &ldquo;In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity was the
+synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew
+and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric
+touch of the Incarnation.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_4k" id="FnAnchor_4k" href="#Footnote_4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough
+has been said to introduce the direct study of the ancient creeds
+of Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="sc">The Ancient Creeds of Christendom.</span>&mdash;The three creeds
+which may be called oecumenical, although the measure of
+their acceptance by the universal church has not been uniform,
+represent three distinct types provided for the use of the catechumen,
+the communicant, and the church teacher respectively.
+The Apostles&rsquo; Creed is the ancient baptismal creed, held in
+common both by East and West, in its final western form.
+The Nicene Creed is the baptismal creed of an eastern church
+enlarged in order to combine theological interpretation with
+the facts of the historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the
+undivided Church has been continued since the great schism,
+although the Eastern Church protests against the interpolation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span>
+of the words &ldquo;And the Son&rdquo; in clause 9. The Athanasian Creed
+is an instruction designed to confute heresies which were current
+in the 5th century.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Apostles&rsquo; Creed.</i>&mdash;The increased interest which has been
+shown in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the
+19th century is due in a great measure to the work of
+the veteran pioneer, Professor P. Caspari of Christiania,
+<span class="sidenote">Apostles&rsquo; Creed.</span>
+who began the herculean task of classifying the
+enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered
+from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England
+we owe much to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In
+Germany the monumental work of Professor Kattenbusch has
+overshadowed all other books on the subject, providing even his
+most ardent critics with an indispensable record of the literature
+of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal
+creed in the New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as
+the Lord, <i>or</i> the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the
+apostles were agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17)
+which included the doctrine of God, the person and work of
+Christ, and the person and work of the Holy Spirit, it does not
+appear that they provided any summary, which would cover
+this ground, as an authoritative statement of their belief. The
+tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the
+germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 ff.), and
+no doubt included also teaching on conduct, &ldquo;the way of a
+Christian life&rdquo; (1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its
+forms lies behind worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and
+behind ethics, to which it supplies a motive power which the
+pre-Christian system so manifestly lacked. Whether the first
+creed of the primitive Church was of the simple Christological
+character which confession of Jesus as the Lord expresses, or of
+an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt. xxviii.
+19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which
+overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which
+strove for utterance. &ldquo;With the heart man believeth unto
+righteousness, and with the mouth confession is made unto
+salvation&rdquo; (Rom. x. 10).</p>
+
+<p>When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession
+before many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than
+confession of Christ as king. He calls it &ldquo;the beautiful confession&rdquo;
+to which Christ Jesus had borne witness before Pontius
+Pilate, and charges Timothy before God, who quickeneth all
+things, to keep this commandment. Some writers, notably
+Professor Zahn,<a name="FnAnchor_5k" id="FnAnchor_5k" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13, ii. 8,
+iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles&rsquo; Creed of Antioch, the
+city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But
+there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a
+reference to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which
+would prove the apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imaginable
+as the parent of the later Eastern and Western forms. The
+eunuch&rsquo;s creed interpolated in Acts viii. 57, &ldquo;I believe that
+Jesus is the Son of God,&rdquo; since the reading was known to
+Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal confession
+used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the type
+of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence
+of the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14).</p>
+
+<p>From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of
+creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early
+hymns (1 Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv.
+1 ff.). The following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St
+Paul is an artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching,
+which naturally reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no
+attestation in the later creeds of particular churches which
+would prove its claim to be their parent form:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ,
+born of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the
+scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according
+to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the
+right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power
+being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven
+with power and great glory.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement
+(<i>Cor.</i> lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula
+(Matt. xxviii. 19). Polycarp (<i>Ep.</i> 7) echoes St John. But
+Ignatius might seem to offer in the following passage some
+confirmation of Zahn&rsquo;s theory of a primitive creed of Antioch
+(<i>Trall.</i> 9): &ldquo;Be ye deaf, therefore, when any man speaketh to you
+apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of David, who was
+the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank, was
+truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and
+died in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those
+under the earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead,
+His Father having raised Him, who in the like fashion will so
+raise us also who believe on Him&mdash;His Father, I say, will raise us&mdash;in
+Christ Jesus, apart from whom we have not true life.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The differences, however, which divide this from the later
+creed forms are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement,
+and the evidence of the Ignatian epistles generally (<i>Eph</i>. xviii.;
+<i>Smyrn.</i> i.), while it confirms the conclusion that instruction was
+given in Antioch on all points characteristic of the developed
+creed, <i>e.g.</i> the Miraculous Birth, Crucifixion, Resurrection, the
+Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the hope of resurrection,
+does not prove that this teaching was as yet combined in a
+Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under the
+work of the Holy Ghost.</p>
+
+<p>At this point a word must be said on the important question of
+interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on
+the history of the different types of creed forms, there can be no
+hope of agreement on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit
+between Unitarian and Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow
+Harnack explain &ldquo;holy spirit&rdquo; as the gift of impersonal influence,
+and between wide limits of difference agree in regarding Christ as
+Son of God by adoption and not by nature. Amid the chaos of
+conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of Jesus, the
+Gospel within the Gospel, the central question &ldquo;What think ye
+of Christ?&rdquo; emerges as the test of all theories. &ldquo;No man can
+say that Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost&rdquo; (1 Cor. xii. 3).
+Belief in the fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is
+stated in the words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the
+later creeds, stands or falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the
+guide alike of their convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal
+influence, but a living voice.</p>
+
+<p>If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare
+imitation of the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as
+Buddhists accept the religion of Buddha, still it cannot be
+denied that the early Christians put their trust in Christ rather
+than his religion. &ldquo;I am the life,&rdquo; not &ldquo;I teach the life,&rdquo; &ldquo;I am
+the truth,&rdquo; not merely &ldquo;I teach the truth,&rdquo; are not additions of
+Johannine theology but the central aspect of the presentation of
+Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and bodies, which the
+most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as the residuum
+of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would be
+out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce
+the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the
+meaning of the theological teaching both of the New Testament
+and of the earliest creeds.</p>
+
+<p>To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom
+Harnack is in general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed,
+which comes to light in the 4th century, as the parent of all
+developed forms, whether Eastern or Western. Marcellus, the
+exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by Epiphanius as presenting
+it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 340. Ussher&rsquo;s recognition of
+the fact that this profession of faith by Marcellus was the creed of
+Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of modern discussions
+of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later Rufinus, a
+priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his native
+city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is
+probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the
+Roman Church must always have been bilingual in its early days.
+It was as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;1. I believe in God (the) Father almighty;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;5. the third day He rose from the dead,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;6. He ascended into heaven,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;9. And in the Holy Ghost,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">10. (the) holy Church,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">11. (the) remission of sins,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">12. (the) resurrection of the flesh.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of
+Bishops Felix and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of
+Tertullian in the 2nd century.</p>
+
+<p>Tertullian calls the creed the &ldquo;token&rdquo; which the African
+Church shares with the Roman (<i>de Praescr.</i> 36): &ldquo;The Roman
+Church has made a common token with the African Churches, has
+recognized one God, creator of the universe, and Christ Jesus, of
+the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator, and the resurrection of
+the flesh.&rdquo; The reference is to the earthenware token which two
+friends broke in order that they might commend a stranger for
+hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their creed
+became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could
+obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals.
+The passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the
+Roman Creed, which reappears also in the following (<i>de Virg.
+vel.</i> i.):</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God
+Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of
+Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day
+raised from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the
+right hand of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead
+through the resurrection also of the flesh.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the
+Gnostic Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be
+dated <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 145. He seems to have still held to the Roman
+creed interpreted in his own way. An ingenious conjecture by
+Zahn enables us to add the words &ldquo;holy Church&rdquo; to our reconstruction
+of the creed from the writings of Tertullian. In his
+revised New Testament Marcion speaks of &ldquo;the covenant which
+is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to
+which we have vowed allegiance.&rdquo; He uses a word used by
+Ignatius of the oath taken on confession of the Christian faith.
+It follows that the words &ldquo;holy Church&rdquo; were contained in the
+Roman Creed.<a name="FnAnchor_6k" id="FnAnchor_6k" href="#Footnote_6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest
+years of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all
+similar Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its
+relation to Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the
+Roman Creed reached Gaul and Africa in the course of the 2nd
+century, and perhaps all districts of the West that possessed
+Christian congregations, also the western end of Asia Minor
+possibly in connexion with Polycarp&rsquo;s visit to Rome <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 154.
+He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
+Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern
+creeds which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or
+may be traced back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-point.
+He concludes that the Roman Creed was accepted at
+Antioch after the fall of Paul of Samosata in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 272, and was
+adapted to the dogmatic requirements of the time, all the later
+creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being dependent on it.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find
+evidence of the existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal
+or greater antiquity and distinguished from the Roman by such
+phrases as &ldquo;One&rdquo; (God), &ldquo;Maker of heaven and earth,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;suffered,&rdquo; &ldquo;shall come again in glory.&rdquo; Thus Kunze reconstructs
+a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it
+is independent of the Roman Creed.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Creed of Antioch.</i></p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;1. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty,
+         maker of all things, visible and invisible.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;2.  And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten and
+         first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all the
+         ages, through whom also the ages were established, and all
+         things came into existence;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;3.  Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the Virgin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;4.  And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;5.  And the third day rose according to the scriptures,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;6.  and ascended into heaven.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;8.  And is coming again to judge quick and dead.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">&ensp;9.  [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.]</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">10.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">11. Remission of sins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl2">12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds
+which go back to a date preceding the Nicene Council.</p>
+
+<p>A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene Council.</p>
+<p>B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem.</p>
+<p>C. Creed of Antioch quoted by Cassian.</p>
+<p>D. Creed of Antioch quoted in the Apostolic Constitutions.</p>
+<p>E. Creed of Lucian the Martyr (Antioch).</p>
+<p>F. Creed of Arius (Alexandria).</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<table class="reg f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">&ensp;1.</td> <td class="tcl">One (God), A, B, C, D, E, F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and
+        invisible (or a like phrase), A, B, C, D, E.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&ensp;2.</td> <td class="tcl">Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only begotten (or a like
+        phrase), A, B, C, D, E, F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&ensp;3.</td> <td class="tcl">Crucified under Pontius Pilate, B, C, D (A, E, F omit because
+        they are theological creeds. Loofs thinks that the baptismal
+        creeds on which they are based may have contained the words).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&ensp;5.</td> <td class="tcl">Rose the third day, A, B, D, E (F omits &ldquo;the third day&rdquo; being
+       a theological creed; the translation of C is uncertain).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&ensp;6.</td> <td class="tcl">Went up, A, B, D, E, F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">+ and ... and ... and, A, B, C, D, E, F.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&ensp;8.</td> <td class="tcl">And is coming, B, C, D, E, F; and is about to come, A;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">+ again, A, C, D, E, F(B?); + in glory, A, B; with glory, D, E.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">10.</td> <td class="tcl">+ Catholic, B, D, F (A, C, E?)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">12.</td> <td class="tcl">+ life eternal, B, C; + life of the age to come, D, F.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="noind">Sanday (<i>Journal Theol. Studies</i>, iii. 1) does not attempt a reconstruction
+on this elaborate scale, but contents himself with
+pointing out evidence, which Kattenbusch seems to him to have
+missed, for the existence of creeds of Egypt, Cappadocia and
+Palestine before the time of Aurelian. He criticizes Harnack&rsquo;s
+theory that there existed in the East, that is, in Asia Minor, or in
+Asia Minor and Syria as far back as the beginning of the 2nd
+century, a Christological instruction (<span class="grk" title="mathêma">&#956;&#940;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#945;</span>) organically related
+to the second article of the Roman Creed, and formulas which
+taught that the &ldquo;One God&rdquo; was &ldquo;Creator of heaven and earth,&rdquo;
+and referred to the holy prophetic spirit, and lasted on till they
+influenced the course of creed-development in the 4th century.
+He asks, is it not simpler to believe that there was a definite type
+in the background?</p>
+
+<p>Another English student, the Rev. T. Barns, engaged specially
+in work upon the history of the creed of Cappadocia, points out
+the importance of the extraordinary influence of Firmilian of
+Caesarea in the affairs of the church of Antioch in the early part
+of the 3rd century. He is led to argue that the creed of Antioch
+came rather from Cappadocia than Rome. Whether his conclusion
+is justified or not, it helps to show how strongly the trend
+of contemporary research is setting against the theory of Kattenbusch
+that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch became
+the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate
+against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from
+Rome to Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century. It is
+evidently impossible to arrive at a final decision until much more
+spade work has been done in the investigation of early Eastern
+creeds. Connolly&rsquo;s study of the early Syrian creed (<i>Zeitschrift
+für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft</i>, 1906, p. 202) deserves
+careful consideration. His reconstruction of the creed of
+Aphraates is interesting in relation to the other traces of a
+Syriac creed form existing prior to the 4th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>[I believe] in God the Lord of all, that made the heavens and the
+earth and the seas and all that in them is; [And in our Lord Jesus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span>
+Christ] [the Son of God,] God, Son of God, King, Son of the King,
+Light from Light, (Son and Counsellor, and Guide, and Way, and
+Saviour, and Shepherd, and Gatherer, and Door, and Pearl, and
+Lamb,) and first-born of all creatures, who came and put on a body
+from Mary the Virgin (of the seed of the house of David, from the
+Holy Spirit), and put on our manhood, and suffered, <i>or</i> and was
+crucified, went down to the place of the dead, <i>or</i> to Sheol, and lived
+again, and rose the third day, and ascended to the height, <i>or</i> to
+heaven, and sat on the right hand of His Father, and He is the Judge
+of the dead and of the living, who sitteth on the throne; [And in the
+Holy Spirit;] [And I believe] in the coming to life of the dead;
+[and] in the mystery of Baptism (of the remission of sins).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The probable battle-ground of the future between the opposing
+theories lies in the writings of Irenaeus. He has most of
+the characteristic expressions of the Eastern creeds. He inserts
+&ldquo;one&rdquo; in clause 1 and 2. He has the phrases &ldquo;Maker of heaven
+and earth,&rdquo; &ldquo;suffered,&rdquo; and &ldquo;crucified,&rdquo; with &ldquo;under Pontius
+Pilate&rdquo; after instead of before it. Probably also he had &ldquo;in
+glory&rdquo; in clause 8. But there is always the possibility to be faced
+that Irenaeus drew his creed from Rome rather than Asia Minor.
+Kattenbusch does not shrink from suggesting that he shows
+acquaintance with the Roman Creed, and that Justin Martyr
+also knew it, in which case all the so-called Eastern characteristics
+have been imprinted on the original Roman form, and are not
+derived from an Eastern archetype. But the ordinary reader need
+not feel concern about the future victory of either theory. The
+plain fact is that the same facts were taught in Palestine, Asia
+Minor and Gaul, whether gathered up in a parallel creed form
+or not. The contrast which Rufinus draws between the Roman
+Creed and others, both of the East and the West, is justified.
+In comparison with them it was guarded more carefully from
+change.<a name="FnAnchor_7k" id="FnAnchor_7k" href="#Footnote_7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> We have yet to inquire how it received the additions
+which distinguish the derived form now in use as the baptismal
+creed of all Western Christendom. Some had already found an
+entrance into Western creeds. We find &ldquo;suffered&rdquo; in the creed
+of Milan, &ldquo;descended into hell&rdquo; in the creed of Aquileia, the
+Danubian lands and Syria; the words &ldquo;God&rdquo; and &ldquo;almighty&rdquo;
+were shortly added to clause 7 in the Spanish creed; &ldquo;life
+everlasting&rdquo; had stood from an early date in the African creed.
+The creed of Caesarius of Arles (d. 543) proves that these variations
+had all been united in one Gallican creed together with
+&ldquo;catholic&rdquo; and &ldquo;communion of saints,&rdquo; but this Gallican form
+still lacked &ldquo;Maker of heaven and earth&rdquo; and the additions in
+clause 7.</p>
+
+<p>Two newly-discovered creeds help us greatly to narrow down
+the limits of the problem. The creed of Niceta of Remesiana in
+Dacia proves that c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 the Dacian church had added to the
+Roman Creed &ldquo;maker of heaven and earth,&rdquo; &ldquo;suffered,&rdquo; &ldquo;dead,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Catholic,&rdquo; &ldquo;communion of saints&rdquo; and &ldquo;life everlasting.&rdquo;
+Parallel to it is the Faith of St Jerome discovered in 1903 by
+Dom. Morin.<a name="FnAnchor_8k" id="FnAnchor_8k" href="#Footnote_8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="center pt2"><i>The Faith of St Jerome</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I believe in one God the Father almighty, maker of things
+visible and invisible. I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son
+of God, born of God, God of God, Light of Light, almighty of
+almighty, true God of true God, born before the ages, not made,
+by whom all things were made in heaven and in earth. Who
+for our salvation descended from heaven, was conceived of the
+Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered by suffering under
+Pontius Pilate, under Herod the King, crucified, buried, descended
+into hell, trod down the sting of death, rose again the third day,
+appeared to the apostles. After this He ascended into heaven,
+sitteth at the right of God the Father, thence shall come to judge
+the quick and the dead. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, God not
+unbegotten nor begotten, not created nor made, but
+co-eternal with
+the Father and the Son. I believe (that there is) remission of sins
+in the holy catholic church, communion of saints, resurrection of
+the flesh unto eternal life. Amen.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">This creed may be the form which Jerome mentions in one of his
+letters (<i>Ep.</i> 17, n. 4) as sent to Cyril of Jerusalem. It is important
+as connecting the creeds of East and West. Since Jerome was
+born in Pannonia we may conjecture that he is inserting Nicene
+phrases from the Jerusalem creed into his baptismal creed, and
+that this form added to Niceta&rsquo;s creed proves that the creed of
+the Danube lands possessed the clauses &ldquo;maker of heaven and
+earth&rdquo; and &ldquo;communion of saints.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The first occurrence of the completed form is in a treatise
+(<i>Scarapsus</i>) of the Benedictine missionary Pirminius, abbot of
+Reichenau (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 730). The difficulty hitherto has been to
+trace the source from which the clause &ldquo;maker of heaven and
+earth&rdquo; has come into it. It has been known that the forms in use
+in the south of France approximated to it but without those
+words. In the 6th century we find creed forms in use in Gaul
+which include them, but include also other variations distinguishing
+them from the form which we seek. The missing link which
+has hitherto been lacking in the evidence has been found by
+Barns in the influence of Celtic missionaries who streamed
+across from Europe until they came in touch with the remnants
+of the Old Latin Christianity of the Danube. The chief documents
+of the date <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, which contain forms almost identical with
+the received text, are connected with monasteries founded by
+Columban and his friends: Bobbio, Luxeuil, S. Gallen, Reichenau.
+From one of these monasteries the received text seems to have
+been taken to Rome. Certainly it was from Rome that it was
+spread. We can trace the use of the received text along the line
+of the journeys both of Pirminius and Boniface, and there is
+little doubt that they received it from the Roman Church, with
+which Boniface was in frequent communication. Pope Gregory
+II. sent him instructions to use what seems to have been an
+official Roman order of Baptism, which would doubtless include a
+Roman form of creed. Pirminius, who was far from being an
+original writer, made great use of a treatise by Martin of Braga,
+but substituted a Roman form of Renunciation, and refers to the
+Roman rite of Unction in a way which leads us to suppose that the
+form of creed which he substituted for Martin&rsquo;s form was also
+Roman. It seems clear, therefore, that the received text was
+either made or accepted in Rome, c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, and disseminated
+through the Benedictine missionaries. At the end of the 8th
+century Charlemagne inquired of the bishops of his empire as to
+current forms. The reply of Amalarius of Trier is important
+because it shows that he not only used the received text, but also
+connected it with the Roman order of Baptism. The emperor&rsquo;s
+wish for uniformity doubtless led in a measure to its eventual
+triumph over all other forms.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Nicene Creed</i> of the liturgies, often called the Constantinopolitan
+creed, is the old baptismal creed of Jerusalem revised
+by the insertion of Nicene terms. The idea that the
+council merely added to the last section has been
+<span class="sidenote">Nicene Creed.</span>
+disproved by Hort&rsquo;s famous dissertation in 1876.<a name="FnAnchor_9k" id="FnAnchor_9k" href="#Footnote_9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+The text of the creed of the Nicene Council was based on the
+creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a comparison of the four
+creeds side by side proves to demonstration their distinctness, in
+spite of the tendency of copyists to confuse and assimilate the
+forms.<a name="FnAnchor_10k" id="FnAnchor_10k" href="#Footnote_10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb" style="width: 50%;" colspan="2"><i>Creed of Eusebius, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325</i> (<i>Caesarea</i>).</td>
+<td class="tccm" colspan="2"><i>Revision by the Council of Nicaea, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb" colspan="2">We believe</td> <td class="tccm" colspan="2">We believe</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb">In one God the Father Almighty, the maker of all things visible and invisible.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl">In one God the Father Almighty the maker of all things visible and invisible.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one Lord Jesus Christ,the Word of God.<br /><br />
+God of God, Light of Light, (Life of Life,) only begotten Son (first-born of all
+creation, before all worlds begotten of God the Father), by whom all things were made;</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl">And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only begotten, that is
+of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not
+made, of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made, both those in heaven and
+those on earth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Who for our Salvation was incarnate (and lived as a citizen amongst men),</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl">Who for us men and for our salvation came down and was incarnate, was made man,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And Suffered,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl">And suffered,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And rose the third day,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl">And rose the third day,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And ascended (to the Father),</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl">Ascended into Heaven,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And shall come again (in glory) to judge quick and dead.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl">Is coming to judge quick and dead.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And (we believe) in (one) Holy Ghost.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl">And in the Holy Ghost.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb" colspan="2"><i>Creed of Jerusalem, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 348.</i></td>
+<td class="tccm" colspan="2"><i>Revision by Cyril, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 362. Council of Constantinople, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 381. Council of Chalcedon, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb" colspan="2">I (or We) believe</td>
+<td class="tccm" colspan="2">We believe</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl rb">In one God the Father, Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">I. 1.</td> <td class="tcl">In one God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of His Father, <br /><br />
+very God before all worlds,<br /><br />
+by whom all things were made;</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">II. 2.</td> <td class="tcl">And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of His Father before
+all worlds, [God of God,] Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of
+one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><br />was incarnate,
+<br /><br />and was made Man,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">3.</td> <td class="tcl">Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and incarnate of the
+Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, and was made Man.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crucified and buried.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">4.</td> <td class="tcl">And was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rose again the third day,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">5.</td> <td class="tcl">He rose again the third day, according to the Scriptures,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And ascended into heaven and <i>sat</i> on the right hand of the Father,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">6.</td> <td class="tcl">And ascended into heaven and sitteth on the right hand of the Father,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And shall come <i>in glory</i> to judge the quick and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">7.</td> <td class="tcl">And He shall come again to judge the quick and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in <i>One</i> Holy Ghost, <i>the Paraclete</i>,<br /><br /><br />
+who spake <i>in</i> the Prophets,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">III. 8.</td> <td class="tcl">And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life. who proceedeth from the Father
+[<i>and the Son</i>], who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified,<br />
+who spake by the Prophets,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">9.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one baptism of repentance for remission of sins,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">9.</td> <td class="tcl">In the Catholic and Apostolic Church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">10.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in one holy Catholic Church,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">10.</td> <td class="tcl">We acknowledge one baptism for remission of sins.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">11.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in resurrection <i>of the flesh</i>,</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">11.</td> <td class="tcl">We look for the resurrection of the dead,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">12.</td> <td class="tcl rb">And in life eternal.</td>
+<td class="tcr" style="white-space: nowrap;">12.</td> <td class="tcl">And in the life of the world to come.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted by Epiphanius in his
+treatise <i>The Anchored One</i>, c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 374, some years before the
+council of Constantinople (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 381). We gather that it had
+already been introduced into Cyprus as a baptismal creed. Hort&rsquo;s
+identification of it as the work of Cyril of Jerusalem is now
+generally accepted. On his return from exile in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 362 Cyril
+would find &ldquo;a natural occasion for the revision of the public
+creed by the skilful insertion of some of the conciliar language,
+including the term which proclaimed the restoration of full
+communion with the champions of Nicaea, and other phrases and
+clauses adapted for impressing on the people positive truth.&rdquo;
+Some of Cyril&rsquo;s personal preferences expressed in his catechetical
+lectures find expression, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;resurrection of the <i>dead</i>&rdquo; for
+&ldquo;flesh.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The weak point in Hort&rsquo;s theory was the suggestion that the
+creed was brought before the council by Cyril in self justification.
+The election of Meletius of Antioch as the first president of the
+council carried with it the vindication of his old ally Cyril.
+Kunze&rsquo;s suggestion is far more probable that it was used at the
+baptism of Nektarius, praetor of the city, who was elected third
+president of the council while yet unbaptized. Unfortunately
+the acts of the council have been lost, but they were quoted at
+the council of Chalcedon in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451, and the revised Jerusalem
+Creed was quoted as &ldquo;the faith of the 150 Fathers,&rdquo; that is, as
+confirmed in some way by the council of Constantinople, while at
+the time it was distinguished from &ldquo;the faith of the 318 Fathers&rdquo;
+of Nicaea. One of the signatories of the Definition of Faith made
+at Chalcedon, in which both creeds were quoted in full,
+Kalemikus, bishop of Apamea in Bithynia, refers to the council of
+Constantinople as having been held at the ordination of the most
+pious Nektarius the bishop. Obviously there was some connexion
+in his mind between the creed and the ordination.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons which brought the revised creed into prominence
+at Chalcedon are still obscure. It is possible that Leo&rsquo;s letter
+to Flavian gave the impulse to put it forward because it contained
+a parallel to words which Leo quoted from the Old Roman Creed,
+&ldquo;born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary,&rdquo; &ldquo;crucified and
+buried,&rdquo; which do not occur in the first Nicene Creed. If, as
+is probable, it was from the election of Nektarius the baptismal
+creed of Constantinople, we may even ask whether the pope did
+not refer to it when he wrote emphatically of the &ldquo;common and
+indistinguishable confession&rdquo; of all the faithful. Kattenbusch
+supposes that Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, or his archdeacon
+Aetius, who read the creed at the 2nd session of the
+council, took up the idea that through its likeness to the Roman
+Creed it would be a useful weapon against Eutyches and others
+who were held to interpret the Nicene Creed in an Apollinarian
+sense. But Kunze thinks that it was not used as a base of operations
+against Eutyches because there is some evidence that
+Monophysites were willing to accept it. Certainly it won its
+way to general acceptance in the East as the creed of the church
+of the imperial city; regarded as an improved recension of the
+Nicene Faith. The history of the introduction of the creed into
+liturgies is still obscure. Peter Fullo, bishop of Antioch, was the
+first to use it in the East, and in the West a council held by King
+Reccared at Toledo in 589. The theory of Probst that it had been
+used in Rome before this time has not been confirmed. King
+Reccared&rsquo;s council is usually credited with the introduction of
+the words &ldquo;And the Son&rdquo; into clause 9 of the creed. But some
+MSS.<a name="FnAnchor_11k" id="FnAnchor_11k" href="#Footnote_11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> omit them in the creed-text while inserting them in a canon
+of the faith drawn up at the time. Probably they were interpolated
+in the creed by mistake of copyists. When attention
+was called to the interpolation in the 9th century it became one
+cause of the schism between East and West. Charlemagne was
+unable to persuade Pope Leo III. to alter the text used in Rome
+by including the words. But it was so altered by the pope&rsquo;s
+successor.</p>
+
+<p>The interpolation really witnessed to a deep-lying difference
+between Eastern and Western theology. Eastern theologians
+expressed the mysterious relationship of the Holy Spirit to the
+Father and the Son in such phrases as &ldquo;Who proceedeth from
+the Father and receiveth from the Son,&rdquo; rightly making the
+Godhead of the Father the foundation and primary source of
+the eternally derived Godhead of the Son and the Spirit. Western
+theologians approached the problem from another point of view.
+Hilary, starting from the thought of Divine self-consciousness
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+as the explanation of the coinherence of the Father in the Son
+and the Son in the Father, says that the Spirit receives of both.
+Augustine teaches that the Father and the Son are the one
+principle of the Being of the Spirit. From this it is a short step
+to say with the <i>Quicumque vult</i> that the Spirit proceeds from the
+Son, while guarding the idea that the Father is the one fountain of
+Deity. Since Eastern theologians would be willing to say &ldquo;proceeds
+from the Father through the Son,&rdquo; it is clear that the two
+views are not irreconcilable.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Athanasian Creed</i>, so called because in many MSS.
+it bears the title &ldquo;The Faith of S. Athanasius,&rdquo; is more accurately
+designated by its first words <i>Quicumque vult</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_12k" id="FnAnchor_12k" href="#Footnote_12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Its
+history has been the subject of much controversy for
+<span class="sidenote">Athanasian Creed.</span>
+years past, but no longer presents an insoluble problem.
+Critics indeed agree on the main outline. Until 1870
+the standard work on the subject was Waterland&rsquo;s <i>Critical
+History of the Athanasian Creed</i>, first published in 1723. Having
+traced &ldquo;the opinions of the learned moderns&rdquo; from Gerard
+Vossius, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1642, &ldquo;who led the way to a more strict and critical
+inquiry,&rdquo; Waterland passed in review all the known MSS. and
+commentaries, and after a searching investigation concluded that
+the creed was written in Gaul between 420 and 430, probably
+by Hilary of Arles.</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 the controversy on the use of the creed in the Book of
+Common Prayer led to fresh investigation of the MSS., and a
+theory known as the &ldquo;Two-portion theory&rdquo; was started by
+C. A. Swainson, developed by J. R. Lumby, and adopted by
+Harnack. Swainson thought that the <i>Quicumque</i> was brought
+into its present shape in the 9th century. The so-called profession
+of Denebert, bishop-elect of Worcester, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 798 presented to
+the archbishop of Canterbury (which includes clauses 1, 3-6,
+20-22, 24, 25), and the Trèves fragment (a portion of a sermon
+in <i>Paris bibl. nat. Lat.</i> 3836, <i>saec.</i> viii., which quoted clauses
+27-34, 36-40), seemed to him to represent the component parts
+of the creed as they existed separately. He conjectured that they
+were brought together in the province of Rheims c. 860.</p>
+
+<p>This theory, however, depended upon unverified assumptions,
+such as the supposed silence of theologians about the creed at
+the beginning of the 9th century; the suggestion that the
+completed creed would have been useful to them if they had
+known it as a weapon against the heresy of Adoptianism;
+the assertion that no MS. containing the complete text was of
+earlier date than c. 813. This was Lumby&rsquo;s revised date, but
+the progress of palaeographical studies has made it possible
+to demonstrate that MSS. of the 8th century do exist which
+contain the complete creed.</p>
+
+<p>The two-portion theory was vigorously attacked by G. D. W.
+Ommanney, who was successful in the discovery of new documents,
+notably early commentaries, which contained the text
+of the creed embedded in them, and thus supplied independent
+testimony to the fact that the creed was becoming fairly widely
+known at the end of the 8th century. Other new MSS. and
+commentaries were found and collated by the Rev. A. E. Burn
+and Dom Morin. In 1897 Loofs, summing up the researches of
+25 years in his article <i>Athanasianum</i> (<i>Realencyclopädie f. prot.
+Theol. u. Kirche</i>, 3rd ed. ii. p. 177), declared that the two-portion
+theory was dead.</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion has never been seriously challenged. It has
+been greatly strengthened by the discovery of a MS. which was
+presented by Bishop Leidrad of Lyons with an autograph inscription
+to the altar of St Stephen in that town, some time before
+814. As M. Delisle at once pointed out (<i>Notices et extraits des
+manuscrits</i>, 1898), this MS. supplies a fixed date from which
+palaeographers can work in dating MSS. The <i>Quicumque</i> occurs
+in a collection of materials forming an introduction to the psalter.
+The suggestion has been made that Leidrad intended to use the
+<i>Quicumque</i> in his campaign against the Adoptianists in 798.
+But the phrases of the creed seem to have needed sharpening
+against the Nestorian tendency of the Adoptianists. It is more
+probable that Leidrad was interested in the growing use of the
+creed as a canticle, and was consulted in the preparation of the
+famous Golden Psalter, now at Vienna, which contains the same
+collection of documents as an introduction. This MS. may now
+without hesitation be assigned to the date 772-788. The earliest
+known MS. is at Milan (<i>Cod. Ambros.</i> O, 212, <i>sup.</i>), and is dated
+by Traube as early as c. 700.</p>
+
+<p>There is a reference to the <i>Quicumque</i> in the first canon of the
+fourth council of Toledo of the year 633, which quotes part or
+the whole of clauses 4, 20-22, 28 f., 31, 33, 35 f., 40. The council
+also quoted phrases from the so-called <i>Creed of Damasus</i>, a document
+of the 4th century, which in some cases they preferred to
+the phrases of the <i>Quicumque</i>. Their quotations form a connecting
+link in the chain of evidence by which the use of the creed
+may be traced back to the writings of Caesarius, bishop of Arles
+(503-543). Dom Morin has now demonstrated (&ldquo;Le Symbole
+d&rsquo;Athanase et son premier témoin S. Césaire d&rsquo;Arles,&rdquo; <i>Rev.
+Bénédictine</i>, Oct. 1901) that Caesarius used the creed continually
+as a sort of elementary catechism. The fact that it exactly
+reproduces both the qualities and the literary defects of Caesarius
+is a strong argument in favour of Morin&rsquo;s suggestion that he may
+have been the author. Further, Caesarius was in the habit of
+putting some words of a distinguished writer at the head of his
+compositions, which would account for the fact that the name
+of Athanasius was subsequently attached to the creed.</p>
+
+<p>The use, however, of the <i>Quicumque</i> by Caesarius as a catechism
+may be explained by the suggestion that it had been taught him
+in his youth, so that his style had been moulded by it. He was
+not an original thinker. Moreover, the creed is quoted by his
+rival Avitus, bishop of Vienne 490-523, who quotes clause 22,
+as from the Rule of Catholic Faith, but was not likely to value
+a composition of Caesarius so highly. Morin does not deal fully
+with the arguments from internal evidence which point back
+to the beginning of the 5th century as the date of the creed. If
+the creed-phrases needed sharpening against the revived
+Nestorian error of the Adoptianists, it is scarcely likely to have
+been written during the generation following the condemnation
+of Nestorius in 431. Burn suggests that it was written to meet
+the Sabellian and Apollinarian errors of the Spanish heretic
+Priscillian, possibly by Honoratus, bishop of Arles (d. 429).
+He suggests further that the <i>Creed of Damasus</i> was the reply
+of that pope to Priscillian&rsquo;s appeal. This would explain the
+quotation of the two documents together by the council of Toledo,
+since the heresy lasted on for a long time in Spain. But the
+theory has been carried to extravagant lengths by Künstle, who
+thinks that the creed was written in Spain in the 5th century,
+and soon taken to the monastery of Lerins. There are phrases in
+the writings of Vincentius of Lerins and of Faustus, bishop of
+Riez, which are parallel to the teaching of the creed, though they
+cannot with any confidence be called quotations. They tend in
+any case to prove that the <i>Quicumque</i> comes to us from the school
+of Lerins, of which Honoratus was the first abbot, and to which
+Caesarius also belonged.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest use of the <i>Quicumque</i> was in sermons, in which
+the clauses were quoted, as by the council of Toledo without
+reference to the creed as a whole. From the 8th century, if
+not from earlier times, commentaries were written on it. The
+writer of the Oratorian Commentary (Theodulf of Orleans?)
+addressing a synod which instructed him to provide an exposition
+of this work on the faith, writes of it, as &ldquo;here and
+there recited in our churches, and continually made the subject
+of meditation by our priests.&rdquo; It was soon used as a canticle.
+Angilbert, abbot of St Riquier (c. 814), records that it was sung
+by his school in procession on rogation days. It passed into the
+office of Prime, apparently first at Fleury. In the first Prayer
+Book of Edward VI. it was &ldquo;sung or said&rdquo; after the Benedictus
+on the greater feasts, and this use was extended in the second
+Prayer Book. In 1662 the rubric was altered and it was substituted
+for the Apostles&rsquo; Creed. It has no place in the offices of
+the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is found, without the words
+&ldquo;And the Son&rdquo; of clause 22, in the appendix of many modern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span>
+editions. In the Russian service books it appears at the beginning
+of the psalter.</p>
+
+<p>The controversy on its use in modern times has turned mainly
+on the interpretation of the warning clauses. No new translation
+can put an end to the difficulty. While it is true that the Church
+has never condemned individuals, and that the warnings refer
+only to those who have received the faith, and do not touch
+the question of the unbaptized, there is a growing feeling that
+they go beyond the teaching of Holy Scripture on the responsibility
+of intellect in matters of faith.<a name="FnAnchor_13k" id="FnAnchor_13k" href="#Footnote_13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the creed is a valuable statement of Catholic
+faith on the Trinity and the Incarnation, and its use for students
+and teachers at least is by no means obsolete. The special
+characteristic of its theology is in the first part where it owes
+most to the teaching of Augustine, who in his striving after
+self-knowledge analysed the mystery of his own triune personality
+and illustrated it with psychological images, &ldquo;I exist
+and I am conscious that I exist, and I love the existence and
+the consciousness; and all this independently of any external
+influence.&rdquo; Such a riper analysis of the mystery of his own
+personality enabled him to arrive at a clearer conception of
+the idea of divine personality, &ldquo;whose triunity has nothing
+potential or unrealized about it; whose triune elements are
+eternally actualized, by no outward influence, but from within;
+a Trinity in Unity.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_14k" id="FnAnchor_14k" href="#Footnote_14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">Modern Confessions of Faith.</span>&mdash;The second great
+creed-making epoch of Church history opens in the 16th century
+with the Confession of Augsburg. The famous theses which
+Luther nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg in 1517
+cannot be called a confession, but they expressed a protest which
+could not rest there. Some reconstruction of popular beliefs
+was needed by many consciences. There is a striking contrast
+between the crudeness of much and widely accepted medieval
+theology and the decrees of the council of Trent. Even from the
+Roman Catholic standpoint such a need was felt. Luther himself
+had a gift of words which through his catechisms made the reformed
+theology popular in Germany. In 1530 it became necessary
+to define his position against both Romanists and Zwinglians.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Confession of Augsburg</i> was drawn up by Melanchthon,
+revised by Luther, and presented to the emperor Charles V. at
+the diet of Augsburg. Some 21 of its articles dealt
+with doctrine, 7 with ecclesiastical abuses. It expounded
+<span class="sidenote">Augsburg confession.</span>
+in terse and significant teaching the doctrine
+(1) of God, (2) of original sin, (3) of the Son of God, (4) of justification
+..., (21) of the worship of saints. The abuses which
+it was maintained had been corrected by Lutheranism were
+discussed in articles (1) on Communion in both kinds, (2) on
+the marriage of clergy, (3) on the Mass, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augsburg,
+Confession of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The main difference between these, the first of a long series
+of articles of religion and the ancient creeds, lies in the fact that
+they are manifestoes embodying creeds and answering more
+than one purpose. This is the reason of their frequent failure
+to convey any sense of proportion in the expression of truth.
+The disciplinary question of clerical marriage is not of the same
+primary importance as the doctrinal questions involved in the
+restoration of the cup to the laity, or discussed in the subsequent
+article on the mass. As has been well said by a learned Baptist
+theologian, Dr Green: &ldquo;It was by a true divine instinct that the
+early theologians made Christ Himself, in His divine-human personality,
+their centre of the creeds.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_15k" id="FnAnchor_15k" href="#Footnote_15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> The fundamental questions
+of Christianity, exhibited in the Apostles&rsquo; Creed, should be marked
+off as standing on a higher plane than others. In this respect
+catechisms of modern times, from Luther&rsquo;s down to the recent
+Evangelical catechism of the Free Churches, and including
+from their respective points of view both the catechism of the
+Church of England and the catechism of the council of Trent, are
+markedly superior to articles and synodical decrees. The failure
+of the latter was really inevitable. In the 16th century a spirit
+of universal questioning was rife, and it is this utter unsettlement
+of opinion which is reflected in the discussions of doubts on
+matters only remotely connected with &ldquo;the faith once for all
+delivered unto the saints&rdquo; (Jude 3). Moreover, fresh complications
+arose from the confusion in which the question of the duties
+and rights of the civil power was entangled. In an age when the
+foundations of the system on which society had rested for centuries
+were seriously shaken, such subjects as the right of the
+magistrate to interfere with the belief of the individual, and the
+limits of his authority over conscience, naturally assumed a
+prominence hitherto unknown.<a name="FnAnchor_16k" id="FnAnchor_16k" href="#Footnote_16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Other Lutheran Formularies.</i>&mdash;For the purpose of classification
+it will be convenient to discuss Lutheran, Zwinglian and
+Calvinistic confessions separately.</p>
+
+<p>An elaborate <i>Apology</i> for the confession of Augsburg was drawn
+up by Melanchthon in reply to Roman Catholic criticisms.
+This, together with the confession, the articles of
+Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther in 1536, Luther&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Lutheran.</span>
+catechisms, and the Formula of Concord which was an attempt
+to settle doctrinal divisions promulgated in 1580, sum up what
+is called &ldquo;the confessional theology of Lutheranism.&rdquo; Of less
+influence in the subsequent history of Lutheranism, but of
+interest as used by Archbishop Parker in the preparation of the
+Elizabethan articles of 1563, is the confession of Württemberg.
+It was presented to the council of Trent by the ambassador of the
+state of Württemberg in 1552. Its thirty-five articles contain a
+moderate statement of Lutheran teaching.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Zwinglian and Calvinistic Confessions.</i>&mdash;The confession of
+the Four Cities, Strassburg, Constance, Memmingen and London,
+was drawn up by M. Bucer and was presented to Charles
+V. at <span class="correction" title="amended from Ausburg">Augsburg</span> in 1530. These cities were inclined to
+<span class="sidenote">Zwinglian and Calvinist.</span>
+follow Zwingli in his sacramental teaching which was
+more fully expressed in the Confession of Basel (1534)
+and the First Helvetic Confession (1536). Calvin&rsquo;s views were
+expressed in the Gallican Confession, containing forty articles,
+which was drawn up in 1559, and was presented both to Francis II.
+of France and to Charles IX. On the same lines the Belgian
+Confession of 1561, written by Guido de Brès in French, and
+translated into Dutch was widely accepted in the Netherlands
+and confirmed by the synod of Dort (1619). The second Helvetic
+Confession was the work of Bullinger, published at the request
+of the Elector Palatine Frederick III. in 1566, and was held in
+repute in Switzerland, Poland and France as well as the Palatinate.
+It was sanctioned in Scotland and was well received
+in England.</p>
+
+<p>These confessions teach the root idea of Calvin&rsquo;s theology,
+the immeasurable awfulness of God, His eternity, and the
+immutability of His decrees. Such strict Calvinism was the
+strength also of the Westminster Confession (see below), but was
+soon weakened in Germany. This same Elector Frederick invited
+two young divines, Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus,
+to prepare the afterwards celebrated Heidelberg catechism,
+which in 1563 superseded Calvin&rsquo;s catechism in the Palatinate.
+While Calvin began sternly with the question: &ldquo;What is the
+chief end of human life?&rdquo; Ans.: &ldquo;That men may know God
+by whom they were created,&rdquo;&mdash;the Heidelberg catechism has:
+&ldquo;What is thy only comfort in life and death?&rdquo; Ans.: &ldquo;That I
+with body and soul, both in life and death, am not my own, but
+belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ.&rdquo; This catechism
+has been called the charter of the German Reformed Church.
+It contains three divisions dealing with (1) man&rsquo;s sin, misery,
+redemption, (2) the Trinity, (3) thankfulness, under which is
+included all practical Christian life lived in gratitude for mercies
+received.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>English Articles of Religion.</i>&mdash;The ten articles of 1536
+were drawn up by Convocation at the bidding of Henry VIII.
+&ldquo;to stablysh Christian Quietnes and Unitie.&rdquo; They
+exhibit a traditional character, a compromise between
+<span class="sidenote">Articles of religion.</span>
+the old and the new learning. Thus the
+doctrine of the Real Presence is asserted, but no mention is
+made of Transubstantiation. Medieval ceremonies are described
+as useful but without power to remit sins. Two years later, after
+negotiations with the Lutheran princes, a conference on theological
+matters was held at Lambeth with Lutheran envoys. Thirteen
+articles were drawn up, which, though never published (they were
+found among Cranmer&rsquo;s papers at the beginning of the 19th
+century), had some influence on the forty-two articles. Some
+of them were taken from the confession of Augsburg, but the
+sections on Baptism, the Eucharist and penance, show that the
+English theologians desired to lay more emphasis on the character
+of sacraments as channels of grace. The Statute of the Six Articles
+(1539), &ldquo;the whip with six strings,&rdquo; was the outcome of the retrograde
+policy which distinguished the latter years of Henry VIII.</p>
+
+<p>With the accession of Edward VI. liturgical reforms were
+set on foot before an attempt was made to systematize doctrinal
+teaching. But as early as 1549 Cranmer had in hand &ldquo;Articles
+of Religion&rdquo; to which he required all preachers and lecturers
+to subscribe. In 1552 they were revised by other bishops and
+were laid before the council and the royal chaplains. They were
+then published as &ldquo;Articles agreed on by the bishops and other
+learned men in the Synod of London.&rdquo; But there is considerable
+doubt whether they really received the sanction of Convocation
+(Gibson, p. 15). They were not devised as a complete scheme
+of doctrine, but only as a guide in dealing with current errors of
+(i.) the Medievalists and (ii.) the Anabaptists. Under (i.) they
+condemned the doctrine of the school authors on congruous
+merit (Art. xii.), the doctrine of grace <i>ex opere operato</i> (xxvi.).
+Transubstantiation (xxix.). Under (ii.) they laid stress on the
+fundamental articles of the faith (Art. i.-iv.), affirmed the Three
+Creeds (vii.), since many Anabaptists held Arian and Socinian
+opinions which were rife in Switzerland, Italy and Poland,
+condemning also their views on original sin (viii.), community
+of goods (xxxvii.), and on other subjects in articles which do not
+mention them by name.</p>
+
+<p>The revision undertaken in 1563 by Archbishop Parker,
+aided by Edm. Guest, bishop of Rochester, shows &ldquo;an attempt to
+give greater completeness to the formulary,&rdquo; and to make
+clearer the Catholic position of the Church of England. For
+the clause (Art. xxviii.) which denied the Real Presence was
+substituted one by Guest with the desire &ldquo;not to deny the
+reality of the presence of the Body of Christ in the Supper, but
+only the grossness and sensibleness in the receiving thereof.&rdquo;
+At the same time the substitution of &ldquo;Romish doctrine&rdquo; for
+&ldquo;doctrine of School authors&rdquo; (Art. xxii.) marks an effort to define
+the line of the Church of England sharply against current Roman
+teaching. The revision was passed by Convocation and again
+revised in 1571, when the queen had been excommunicated by
+papal bull, and an act was passed ordering all clergy to subscribe
+to them. They have remained unchanged ever since, though
+the terms of subscription have been modified.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt was made to add nine articles of a strong Calvinistic
+tone, which were drawn up by Dr Whitaker, regius professor
+of divinity at Cambridge, and submitted to Archbishop Whitgift.
+They were rejected both by Queen Elizabeth, and, after the Hampton
+Court Conference petitioned about them, by King James I.</p>
+
+<p>The first Scottish confession dates from 1560. It is a memorial
+of the intellectual power and enthusiasm of John Knox. It
+exhibits the leading features of the Reformed theology, but
+&ldquo;disclaims Divine authority for any fixed form of church government
+or worship.&rdquo; It also asks that &ldquo;if anyone shall note in
+this our confession any articles or sentence repugnant of God&rsquo;s
+Holy Word, that it would please him of his gentleness and for
+Christian charity&rsquo;s sake, to admonish of the same in writing,&rdquo;
+promising that if the teaching cannot be proved, to reform it.
+Between this and the Westminster Confession must be noted
+the first Baptist confession, published in Amsterdam in 1611.
+It shows the influence of Arminian theology against Calvinism,
+which was vigorously upheld in the <i>Quin-particular</i> formula, put
+forward by the synod of Dort in 1619 to uphold the five points of
+Calvinism, after heated discussion, in which English delegates took
+part, of the problems of divine omniscience and human free-will.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Westminster Confession</i> (1648), with its two catechisms,
+is perhaps the ablest of the reformed confessions from the standpoint
+of Calvinism. Its keynote is sovereignty.
+&ldquo;The Decrees of God are His eternal Purpose according
+<span class="sidenote">Westminster Confession.</span>
+to the Counsel of His Will, whereby for His Own Glory
+He hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass.&rdquo;
+Man&rsquo;s part is to accept them with submission. As the Anglican
+divines soon ceased to attend the assembly, and the Independents
+were few in number, it was the work of Presbyterians only, the
+Scottish members carrying their proposal to make it an independent
+document and not a mere revision of the Thirty-nine Articles.
+After discussions lasting for two years it was debated in parliament,
+finished on the 22nd of March 1648, and was adopted by
+the Scottish parliament in the following year. It is the only
+confession which has been imposed by authority of parliament
+on the whole of the United Kingdom. This lasted in England for
+ten years. In Scotland its influence has continued to the present
+day, contributing not a little to mould the high qualities of
+religious insight and courage and perseverance which have honourably
+distinguished Scottish Presbyterians all the world over.
+This was the last great effort in constructive theology of the
+Reformation period. When Cromwell before his death in 1658
+allowed a conference to prepare a new confession of faith for the
+whole commonwealth, the Westminster Confession was accepted
+as a whole with an added statement on church order and discipline.
+We must note, however, that the Baptist divines who
+were excluded from the Westminster Assembly issued a declaration
+of their principles under the title, &ldquo;A Confession of Faith of
+seven Congregations or Churches in London which are commonly
+but unjustly called Anabaptists, for the Vindication of the Truth
+and Information of the Ignorant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two other declarations may be quoted to show how necessary
+such confessions are even to religious societies which refuse to be
+bound by them. In 1675 Robert Barclay published an &ldquo;Apology
+for the Society of Friends,&rdquo; in which he declared what they held
+concerning revelation, scripture, the fall, redemption, the inward
+light, freedom of conscience.</p>
+
+<p>In 1833 the Congregational Union published a Declaration or
+Confession of Faith, Church Order and Discipline. It was prepared
+by Dr George Redford <span class="correction" title="amended from or">of</span> Worcester, and was presented, not as a
+scholastic or critical confession of faith, but merely such a statement
+as any intelligent member of the body might offer as containing
+its leading principles. It deals with the Bible as the final
+appeal in controversy, the doctrines of God, man, sin, the Incarnation,
+the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, &ldquo;both the
+Son of man and the Son of God,&rdquo; the work of the Holy Spirit, justification
+by faith, the perpetual obligation of Baptism and the
+Lord&rsquo;s Supper, final judgment, the law of Christian fellowship.
+The same principles have been lucidly stated in the Evangelical
+Free Church catechism.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Confessions in the Eastern Orthodox Church.</i>&mdash;The Eastern
+Church has no general doctrinal tests beyond the Nicene Creed,
+but from time to time synods have approved expositions
+of the faith such as the Athanasian Creed
+<span class="sidenote">Greek church.</span>
+(without the words &ldquo;And the Son&rdquo;), and the
+Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern
+Church. This was the work of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan
+of Kiev, and other theologians. It was written in 1640
+in Russian, was translated into Greek, and approved by the
+council of Jassy and the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria,
+Antioch and Jerusalem. It was affirmed by the council
+of Jerusalem in 1672, which also affirmed the Confession of
+Dositheus, patriarch of Jerusalem. Both of these confessions
+were drawn up to confute the teaching of a remarkable man who
+had been patriarch of Constantinople, Cyril Lucar. He was a
+student of Western theology, a correspondent of Archbishop
+Laud, and had travelled in Germany and Switzerland. In 1629 he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span>
+published a confession in which he attempted to incorporate ideas
+of the reformers while preserving the leading ideas of Eastern
+traditional theology. The controversy chiefly turned on the
+question of the necessity of episcopacy. Dositheus taught that
+the existence of bishops is as necessary to the Church as &ldquo;breath
+to a man and the sun to the world.&rdquo; Christ is the universal
+and perpetual Head of the Church, but he exercises his rule by
+means of &ldquo;the holy Fathers,&rdquo; that is, the bishops whom the
+Holy Ghost has appointed to be in charge of local churches.</p>
+
+<p>Mention may also be made of the longer catechism of the
+Orthodox Catholic Church compiled by Philaret, metropolitan
+of Moscow, revised and adopted by the Russian Holy Synod in
+1839. The Church is defined as &ldquo;a divinely-instituted community
+of men, united by the orthodox faith, the law of God, the hierarchy
+and the sacraments.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Roman Catholic Formularies.</i>&mdash;For our present purpose the
+distinctive features of Roman Catholicism may be said to be
+summed up in the decrees of the council of Trent and
+the creed of Pope Pius IV. The council sat at intervals
+<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholic.</span>
+from 1545-1563, but there was a marked divergence
+between the opinions advocated by prominent members of the
+council and its final decrees. Cardinal Pole had to leave the
+council because he advocated the doctrine of justification by
+faith. Even at the later sessions the cardinal of Lorraine with
+the French prelates supported the German representatives in
+requests for the cup for the laity, the permission of the marriage of
+priests, and the revision of the breviary. Finally the decisions
+of the council were promulgated in a declaration of XII. articles,
+usually called the Creed of Pius IV., which reaffirmed the Nicene
+Creed, and dealt with the preservation of the apostolic and
+ecclesiastical traditions, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures
+&ldquo;according to the sense which our Holy Mother Church has held,&rdquo;
+the seven sacraments, the offering of the mass, transubstantiation,
+purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, images, the efficacy
+of indulgences, the supremacy of the Roman Church and of the
+bishop of Rome as vicar of Christ. To this summary of doctrine
+should be added the dogmas of the immaculate conception of
+the Blessed Virgin declared in 1854, and of papal infallibility
+decreed by the Vatican council of 1870.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conclusion.</i>&mdash;In this survey of Christian confessions it has
+been impossible to do more than barely name many which
+deserve discussion. This is a subject which has grown in importance
+and is likely to grow further. The very intensity of that
+phase of modern thought which declaims fervently against all
+creeds, and would maintain what George Eliot called &ldquo;the right
+of the individual to general haziness,&rdquo; is likely to draw all
+Christian thinkers nearer to one another in sympathy through
+acceptance of the Apostles&rsquo; Creed as the common basis of Christian
+thought. In the words of Hilary of Poitiers, &ldquo;Faith gathers
+strength through opposition.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The question at once arises. Can the simple historic faith be
+maintained without adding theological interpretations, those
+arid wastes of dogma in which the springs of faith and reverence
+run dry? The answer is No. We cannot ask to be as if through
+nineteen centuries no one had ever asked a question about the
+relation of the Lord Jesus Christ to the Father and the Holy
+Spirit. If we could come back to the Bible and use biblical terms
+only, as Cyril of Jerusalem wished in his early days, we know
+from experience that the old errors would reappear in the form
+of new questions, and that we should have to pass through the
+dreary wilderness of controversy from implicit to explicit dogma,
+from &ldquo;I believe that Jesus is the Lord&rdquo; to the confession that
+the Only Begotten Son is &ldquo;of one substance with the Father.&rdquo;
+In the words of Hilary again:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Faithful souls would be contented with the word of God which
+bids us: &lsquo;Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the
+Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.&rsquo; But also we are
+drawn by the faults of our heretical opponents to do things unlawful,
+to scale heights inaccessible, to speak out what is unspeakable, to
+presume where we ought not. And whereas it is by faith alone
+that we should worship the Father and reverence the Son, and be
+filled with the Spirit, we are now obliged to strain our weak human
+language in the utterance of things beyond its scope; forced into
+this evil procedure by the evil procedure of our foes. Hence what
+should be matter of silent religious meditation must now needs be
+imperilled by exposition in words.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The province of reverent theology is to aid accurate thinking
+by the use of metaphysical or psychological terms. Its definitions
+are no more an end in themselves than an analysis of good
+drinking water, which by itself leaves us thirsty but encourages
+us to drink. So the Nicene Creed is the analysis of the river of
+the water of life of which the Sermon on the Mount is a description,
+flowing on from age to age, freely offered to the thirsty souls
+of men.</p>
+
+<p>This justification of the ancient creeds carries with it the
+justification of later confessions so far as they answered questions
+which would be fatal to religion if they were not answered.
+As Principal Stewart puts it very clearly: &ldquo;The answer given is
+based on the philosophy or science of the period. It does not
+necessarily form part of the religion itself, but is the best which
+with the materials at its command, in its own defence and in
+its love for truth, the religion (and its advocates) can give. But
+the answers may be superseded by better answers, or they may
+be rendered unnecessary because the questions are no longer
+asked. Thus the Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries
+elaborated answers to questions, which if no attempt had been
+made to answer them, would have perplexed earnest souls and
+condemned the system; but many parts of the system are now
+obsolete, because the conditions which suggested the questions
+which they sought to answer no longer exist or have no longer
+any interest or importance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;See J. Pearson, <i>Exposition of the Creed</i> (new ed.,
+1849); A. E. Burn, <i>Introduction to the Creeds</i> (1899), and <i>The
+Athanasian Creed</i> in vol. iv. of <i>Texts and Studies</i> (1896); H. B. Swete,
+<i>The Apostles&rsquo; Creed</i> (1899); F. Kattenbusch, <i>Das apostolische
+Symbol</i> (1894-1900); C. A. Heurtley, <i>Harmonia Symbolica</i> (1858):
+C. P. Caspari, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und der Glaubensregel</i>
+(Christiania, 1866); and <i>Alte und neue Quellen</i> (1879). T. Zahn,
+<i>Das apostolische Symbolum</i> (1893); C. A. Swainson, <i>The Nicene and
+Apostles&rsquo; Creed</i> (1875); G. D. W. Ommanney, <i>The Athanasian Creed</i>
+(1897); B. F. Westcott, <i>The Historic Faith</i> (1882); J. Jayne, <i>The
+Athanasian Creed</i> (1905); J. A. Robinson, <i>The Athanasian Creed</i>
+(1905); E. C. S. Gibson, <i>The Three Creeds</i> (1908); F. J. A. Hort,
+<i>Two Dissertations</i> (1876); D. Waterland, <i>Crit. Hist.</i> edited by E.
+King (Oxford, 1870); F. Loofs and A. Harnack articles in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (&ldquo;Athanasianum&rdquo; and &ldquo;Konstantino-politanisches
+Symbol&rdquo;) (1896), &amp;c.; K. Künstle, <i>Antipriscilliana</i>
+(Freiburg i. B., 1905); A. Stewart, <i>Croall Lectures</i> (in the press);
+S. G. Green, <i>The Christian Creed</i> (1898); P. Hall, <i>Harmony of
+Protestant Confessions</i> (London, 1842); F. Kattenbusch, <i>Confessionskunde</i>
+(Freiburg i. B., 1890); Winex&rsquo;s <i>Confessions of
+Christendom</i> (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1865); A. Seeberg, <i>Der
+Katechismus der Urchristenheit</i> (Leipzig, 1903); F. Wiegand, <i>Die
+Stellung des apostolischen Symbols</i> (Leipzig, 1899); H. Goodwin, <i>The
+Foundations of the Creed</i> (London, 1889); T. H. Bindley, <i>The
+Oecumenical Documents of the Faith</i> (London, 1906); J. Kunze,
+<i>Das nicänisch-konstantinopolitanische Symbol</i>; S. Baeumer, <i>Das
+apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis</i> (Mainz, 1893); B. Döxholt, <i>Das
+Taufsymbol. der alten Kirche</i> (Paderborn, 1898); L. Hahn,
+<i>Bibliothek der Symbole u. Glaubensregeln</i> (Breslau, 1897); A. C.
+McGiffert, <i>The Apostles&rsquo; Creed</i> (Edinburgh, 1902); and F. Loofs,
+<i>Symbolik</i> (Leipzig, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Jevons, <i>Introd. to the History of Religion</i>, p. 394.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2k" id="Footnote_2k" href="#FnAnchor_2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, xxxi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3k" id="Footnote_3k" href="#FnAnchor_3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Personality, Human and Divine</i> (cheap edition), p. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4k" id="Footnote_4k" href="#FnAnchor_4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ib. p. 38.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5k" id="Footnote_5k" href="#FnAnchor_5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit</i>, p. 85. Zahn&rsquo;s reasoned argument
+stands in contrast to the blind reliance on tradition shown by
+Macdonald, <i>The Symbol of the Apostles</i>, and the fanciful reconstruction
+of the primitive creed by Baeumer, Harnack or Seeberg.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6k" id="Footnote_6k" href="#FnAnchor_6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> McGiffert, on the other hand, argues that the Roman Creed was
+composed to meet the errors of Marcion, p. 58 ff. He omits, however,
+to mention this, which is Zahn&rsquo;s strongest argument.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7k" id="Footnote_7k" href="#FnAnchor_7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> It is probable that &ldquo;one&rdquo; has dropped out of the first clause.
+Zahn acutely suggests that it was omitted in the time of Zephyrinus
+to counteract Monarchian teaching such as the formula: &ldquo;believe
+in one God, Jesus Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8k" id="Footnote_8k" href="#FnAnchor_8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Anecdota Maredsolana</i>, iii. iii. p. 199.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9k" id="Footnote_9k" href="#FnAnchor_9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Dörholt has shown that Petavius (d. 1652) was the first to remark
+that the so-called Constantinopolitan form was quoted by Epiphanius
+before the Council met, but was not able to explain the fact.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10k" id="Footnote_10k" href="#FnAnchor_10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Burn, &ldquo;Note on the Old Latin text,&rdquo; <i>Journal of Theol. Studies.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11k" id="Footnote_11k" href="#FnAnchor_11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Cod. Escurial J.c. 12, <i>saec.</i> x. xi. In Cod. Matritensis, p. 21
+(1872), <i>saec.</i> x. xi., and Cod. Matritensis 10041 (begun in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+948), the words are omitted under the heading council of Constantinople
+but inserted under the heading council of Toledo, in the
+former MS., above the line and in a later hand, which shows conclusively
+how the interpolation crept in.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12k" id="Footnote_12k" href="#FnAnchor_12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The first person who doubted the authorship seems to have
+been Joachim Camerarius, 1551, who was so fiercely attacked in
+consequence that he omitted the passage from his Latin edition.
+<i>Zeitschrift für K.G.</i> x. (1889), p. 497.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13k" id="Footnote_13k" href="#FnAnchor_13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> In response to an invitation issued by the archbishop of Canterbury,
+acting on a resolution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908, a
+committee of eminent scholars met in April and May 1909 for the
+purpose of preparing a new translation. Their report, issued on the
+18th of October, stated that they had &ldquo;endeavoured to represent the
+Latin original more exactly in a large number of cases.&rdquo; The general
+effect of the new version is to make the creed more comprehensible,
+<i>e.g.</i> by the substitution of &ldquo;infinite&rdquo; and &ldquo;reasoning&rdquo; for such
+archaisms as &ldquo;incomprehensible&rdquo; and &ldquo;reasonable.&rdquo; The sense of
+the damnatory clauses has, however, not been weakened. [Ed.]</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14k" id="Footnote_14k" href="#FnAnchor_14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Illingworth, <i>Personality, Human and Divine</i>, p. 40.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15k" id="Footnote_15k" href="#FnAnchor_15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>The Christian Creed and the Creeds of Christendom</i>, p. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16k" id="Footnote_16k" href="#FnAnchor_16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Gibson, <i>The Thirty-nine Articles</i>, p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREEK<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (Mid. Eng. <i>crike</i> or <i>creke</i>, common to many N.
+European languages), a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in
+a river formed by the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow
+harbour for small <span class="correction" title="amended from vessles">vessels</span>. In America and Australia especially
+there are many long streams which can be everywhere forded and
+sometimes dry up, and are navigable only at their tidal estuaries,
+mere brooks in width which are of great economic importance.
+They form complete river-systems, and are the only supply of
+surface water over many thousand square miles. They are at
+some seasons a mere chain of &ldquo;water-holes,&rdquo; but occasionally
+they are strongly flooded. Since exploration began at the coast
+and advanced inland, it is probable that the explorers, advancing
+up the narrow inlets or &ldquo;creeks,&rdquo; used the same word for the
+streams which flowed into these as they followed their courses
+upward into the country. The early settlers would use the same
+word for that portion of the stream which flowed through their
+own land, and in Australia particularly the word has the same
+local meaning as brook in England. On a map the whole system
+is called a river, <i>e.g.</i> the river Wakefield in South Australia gives
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+its name to Port Wakefield, but the stream is always locally
+called &ldquo;the creek.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREEK<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> or <span class="bold">MUSKOGEE</span> (<span class="sc">Muscogee</span>) <span class="bold">INDIANS</span> (Algonquin
+<i>maskoki</i>, &ldquo;creeks,&rdquo; in reference to the many creeks and rivulets
+running through their country), a confederacy of North American
+Indians, who formerly occupied most of Alabama and Georgia.
+The confederacy seems to have been in existence in 1540, and then
+included the Muskogee, the ruling tribe, whose language was
+generally spoken, the Alabama, the Hichiti, Koasati and others
+of the Muskogean stock, with the Yuchi and the Natchez,
+a large number of Shawano and the Seminoles of Florida as a
+branch. The Creeks were agriculturists living in villages of log
+houses. They were brave fighters, but during the 18th century
+only had one struggle, of little importance, with the settlers.
+The Creek War of 1813-14 was, however, serious. The confederacy
+was completely defeated in three hard-fought battles,
+and the peace treaty which followed involved the cession to the
+United States government of most of the Creek country. In the
+Civil War the Creeks were divided in their allegiance and suffered
+heavily in the campaigns. The so-called Creek nation is now
+settled in Oklahoma, but independent government virtually
+ceased in 1906. In 1904 they numbered some 16,000, some
+two-thirds being of pure or mixed Creek blood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREETOWN,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a seaport of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 991. It is situated near the head of Wigtown Bay,
+18 m. W. of Castle Douglas, but 23½ m. by the Portpatrick and
+Wigtownshire Railway. The granite quarries in the vicinity
+constitute the leading industry, the stone for the Liverpool docks
+and other public works having been obtained from them. The
+village dates from 1785, and it became a burgh of barony in
+1792. Sir Walter Scott laid part of the scene of <i>Guy Mannering</i>
+in this neighbourhood. Dr Thomas Brown, the metaphysician
+(1778-1820), was a native of the parish (Kirkmabreck) in which
+Creetown lies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREEVEY, THOMAS<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1768-1838), English politician, son of
+William Creevey, a Liverpool merchant, was born in that city
+in March 1768. He went to Queen&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, and
+graduated as seventh wrangler in 1789. The same year he became
+a student at the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar
+in 1794. In 1802 he entered parliament through the duke of
+Norfolk&rsquo;s nomination as member for Thetford, and married
+a widow with six children, Mrs Ord, who had a life interest in a
+comfortable income. Creevey was a Whig and a follower of Fox,
+and his active intellect and social qualities procured him a considerable
+intimacy with the leaders of this political circle. In
+1806, when the brief &ldquo;All the Talents&rdquo; ministry was formed, he
+was given the office of secretary to the Board of Control; in
+1830, when next his party came into power, Creevey, who had
+lost his seat in parliament, was appointed by Lord Grey treasurer
+of the ordnance; and subsequently Lord Melbourne made him
+treasurer of Greenwich hospital. After 1818, when his wife died,
+he had very slender means of his own, but he was popular with
+his friends and was well looked after by them; Greville, writing
+of him in 1829, remarks that &ldquo;old Creevey is a living proof that
+a man may be perfectly happy and exceedingly poor. I think
+he is the only man I know in society who possesses nothing.&rdquo;
+He died in February 1838. He is remembered through the
+<i>Creevey Papers</i>, published in 1903 under the editorship of Sir
+Herbert Maxwell, which, consisting partly of Creevey&rsquo;s own
+journals and partly of correspondence, give a lively and valuable
+picture of the political and social life of the late Georgian era,
+and are characterized by an almost Pepysian outspokenness.
+They are a useful addition and correction to the <i>Croker Papers</i>,
+written from a Tory point of view. For thirty-six years Creevey
+had kept a &ldquo;copious diary,&rdquo; and had preserved a vast miscellaneous
+correspondence with such people as Lord Brougham, and
+his step-daughter, Elizabeth Ord, had assisted him, by keeping
+his letters to her, in compiling material avowedly for a collection
+of Creevey Papers in the future. At his death it was found that
+he had left his mistress, with whom he had lived for four years,
+his sole executrix and legatee, and Greville notes in his <i>Memoirs</i>
+the anxiety of Brougham and others to get the papers into their
+hands and suppress them. The diary, mentioned above, did not
+survive, perhaps through Brougham&rsquo;s success, and the papers
+from which Sir Herbert Maxwell made his selection came into
+his hands from Mrs Blackett Ord, whose husband was the grandson
+of Creevey&rsquo;s eldest step-daughter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREFELD,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krefeld</span>, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+Rhine province, on the left side of and 3 m. distant from the
+Rhine, 32 m. N.W. from Cologne, and 15 m. N.W. from Düsseldorf,
+with which it is connected by a light electric railway. Pop. (1875)
+62,905; (1905) 110,410. The town is one of the finest in the
+Rhine provinces, being well and regularly built, and possessing
+several handsome squares and attractive public gardens. A
+striking point about the inner town is that it forms a large rectangle,
+enclosed by four wide boulevards or &ldquo;walls.&rdquo; This feature,
+rare in German towns, is due to the fact that Crefeld was always
+an &ldquo;open place,&rdquo; and that therefore the circular form of a
+fortress town could be dispensed with. It has six Roman Catholic
+and four Evangelical churches (of which the Gothic Friedenskirche
+with a lofty spire, and the modern church of St Joseph, in
+the Romanesque style, are alone worth special mention); there
+are also a Mennonite and an Old Catholic church. The town hall,
+decorated with frescoes by P. Janssen (b. 1844), and the Kaiser
+Wilhelm Museum are the most noteworthy secular buildings.
+In the promenades are monuments to Moltke, Bismarck and
+Karl Wilhelm, the composer of the <i>Wacht am Rhein</i>. Among the
+schools and scientific institutions of the town the most important
+is the higher grade technical school for the study of the textile
+industries, which is attended by students from all parts of the
+world. Connected with this are subsidiary schools, notably one
+for dyeing and finishing.</p>
+
+<p>Crefeld is the most important seat of the silk and velvet
+manufactures in Germany, and in this industry the larger part
+of the population of town and neighbourhood is employed.
+There are upwards of 12,000 silk power-looms in operation, and
+the value of the annual output in this branch alone is estimated
+at £3,000,000. A special feature is the manufacture of silk for
+covering umbrellas; while of its velvet manufacture that of velvet
+ribbon is the chief. The other industries of the town, notably
+dyeing, stuff-printing and stamping, are very considerable,
+and there are also engineering and machine shops, chemical,
+cellulose, soap, and other factories, breweries, distilleries and
+tanneries. The surrounding fertile district is almost entirely
+laid out in market gardens. Crefeld is an important railway
+centre, and has direct communication with Cologne, Rheydt,
+München-Gladbach and Holland (via Zevenaar).</p>
+
+<p>Crefeld is first mentioned in records of the 12th century.
+From the emperor Charles IV. it received market rights in 1361
+and the status of a town in 1373. It belonged to the counts of
+Mörs, and was annexed to Prussia, with the countship, in 1702.
+It remained a place of little importance until the 17th century,
+when religious persecution drove to it a number of Calvinists and
+Separatists from Jülich and Berg (followed later by Mennonites),
+who introduced the manufacture of linen. The number of such
+immigrants still further increased in the 18th century, when,
+the silk industry having been introduced from Holland, the town
+rapidly developed. The French occupation in 1795 and the
+resulting restriction of trade weighed for a while heavily upon
+the new industry; but with the termination of the war and the
+re-establishment of Prussian rule the old prosperity returned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREIGHTON, MANDELL<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1843-1901), English historian and
+bishop of London, was born at Carlisle on the 5th of July 1843,
+being the eldest son of Robert Creighton, a well-to-do upholsterer
+of that city. He was educated at Durham grammar school and
+at Merton College, Oxford, where he was elected to a postmastership
+in 1862. He obtained a first-class in <i>literae humaniores</i>, and
+a second in law and modern history in 1866. In the same year he
+became tutor and fellow of Merton. He was ordained deacon, on
+his fellowship, in 1870, and priest in 1873; in 1872 he had
+married Louise, daughter of Robert von Glehn, a London
+merchant (herself a writer of several successful books of history).
+Meanwhile he had published several small historical works;
+but his college and university duties left little time for writing,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span>
+and in 1875 he accepted the vicarage of Embleton, a parish on
+the coast of Northumberland, near Dunstanburgh, with an
+ancient and beautiful church and a fortified parsonage house,
+and within reach of the fine library in Bamburgh Keep. Here
+he remained for nearly ten years, acquiring that experience of
+parochial work which afterwards stood him in good stead, taking
+private pupils, studying and writing, as well as taking
+an active part in diocesan business. Here too he planned and
+wrote the first two volumes of his chief historical work, the
+<i>History of the Papacy</i>; and it was in part this which led to his
+being elected in 1884 to the newly-founded Dixie professorship
+of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge, where he went into
+residence early in 1885. At Cambridge his influence at once
+made itself felt, especially in the reorganization of the historical
+school. His lectures and conversation classes were extraordinarily
+good, possessing as he did the rare gift of kindling the
+enthusiasm without curbing the individuality of his pupils.
+In 1886 he combined with other leading historians to found the
+<i>English Historical Review</i>, of which he was editor for five years.
+Meanwhile the vacations were spent at Worcester, where he had
+been nominated a canon residentiary in 1885. In 1891 he was
+made canon of Windsor; but he never went into residence,
+being appointed in the same year to the see of Peterborough.
+He threw himself with characteristic energy into his new work,
+visiting, preaching and lecturing in every part of his diocese.
+He also found time to preach and lecture elsewhere, and to deliver
+remarkable speeches at social functions; he worked hard with
+Archbishop Benson on the Parish Councils Bill (1894); he became
+the first president of the Church Historical Society (1894), and
+continued in that office till his death; he took part in the Laud
+Commemoration (1895); he represented the English Church at
+the coronation of the tsar (1896). He even found time for
+academical work, delivering the Hulsean lectures (1893-1894)
+and the Rede lecture (1894) at Cambridge, and the Romanes
+lecture at Oxford (1896).</p>
+
+<p>In 1897, on the translation of Dr Temple to Canterbury, Bishop
+Creighton was transferred to London. During Dr Temple&rsquo;s
+episcopate ritual irregularities of all kinds had grown up, which
+left a very difficult task to his successor, more especially in view
+of the growing public agitation on the subject, of which he had
+to bear the brunt. As was only natural, his studied fairness
+did not satisfy partisans on either side; and his efforts towards
+conciliation laid him open to much misunderstanding. His
+administration, none the less, did much to preserve peace. He
+strained every nerve to induce his clergy to accept his ruling
+on the questions of the reservation of the Sacrament and of the
+ceremonial use of incense in accordance with the archbishop&rsquo;s
+judgment in the Lincoln case; but when, during his last illness,
+a prosecutor brought proceedings against the clergy of five
+recalcitrant churches, the bishop, on the advice of his archdeacons,
+interposed his veto. One other effort on behalf of
+peace may be mentioned. In accordance with a vote of the
+diocesan conference, the bishop arranged the &ldquo;Round Table
+Conference&rdquo; between representative members of various
+parties, held at Fulham in October 1900, on &ldquo;the doctrine of the
+Holy Eucharist and its expression in ritual,&rdquo; and a report of
+its proceedings was published with a preface by him. The true
+work of his episcopate was, however, positive, not negative.
+He was an excellent administrator; and his wide knowledge,
+broad sympathies, and sound common sense, though they placed
+him outside the point of view common to most of his clergy,
+made him an invaluable guide in correcting their too often indiscreet
+zeal. He fully realized the special position of the
+English Church in Christendom, and firmly maintained its
+essential teaching. Yet he was no narrow Anglican. His love
+for the English Church never blinded him to its faults, and no
+man was less insular than he. As he was a historian before he
+became a bishop, so it was his historical sense which determined
+his general attitude as a bishop. It was this, together with a
+certain native taste for ecclesiastical pomp, which made him&mdash;while
+condemning the unhistorical extravagances of the ultra-ritualists&mdash;himself
+a ritualist. He was the first bishop of London,
+since the Reformation, to &ldquo;pontificate&rdquo; in a mitre as well as the
+cope, and though no man could have been less essentially
+&ldquo;sacerdotal&rdquo; he was always careful of correct ceremonial
+usage. His interests and his sympathies, however, extended
+far beyond the limits of the church. He took a foremost part
+in almost every good work in his diocese, social or educational,
+political or religious; while he found time also to cultivate
+friendly relations with thinking men and women of all schools,
+and to help all and sundry who came to him for advice and
+assistance. It was this multiplicity of activities and interests
+that proved fatal to him. By degrees the work, and especially
+the routine work, began to tell on him. He fell seriously ill
+in the late summer of 1900, and died on the 14th of January 1901.
+He was buried in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral, where a statue surmounts
+his tomb.</p>
+
+<p>He was a man of striking presence and distinguished by a fine
+courtesy of manner. His <span class="correction" title="amended from irrespressible">irrepressible</span> and often daring humour,
+together with his frank distaste for much conventional religious
+phraseology, was a stumbling-block to some pious people. But
+beneath it all lay a deep seriousness of purpose and a firm faith
+in what to him were the fundamental truths of religion.</p>
+
+<p>Bishop Creighton&rsquo;s principal published works are: <i>History of
+the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i> (5 vols., 1882-1897,
+new ed.); <i>History of the Papacy from the Great Schism
+to the Sack of Rome</i> (6 vols., 1897); <i>The Early Renaissance in
+England</i> (1895); <i>Cardinal Wolsey</i> (1895); <i>Life of Simon de
+Montfort</i> (1876, new ed. 1895); <i>Queen Elizabeth</i> (1896). He also
+edited the series of <i>Epochs of English History</i>, for which he
+wrote &ldquo;The Age of Elizabeth&rdquo; (13th ed., 1897); <i>Historical
+Lectures and Addresses by Mandell Creighton, &amp;c.</i>, edited by
+Mrs Creighton, were published in 1903.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, &amp;c.</i>, by his wife (2 vols.,
+1904); and the article &ldquo;Creighton and Stubbs&rdquo; in <i>Church Quarterly
+Review</i> for Oct. 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREIL,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of Oise,
+32 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway, on which it is an
+important junction. Pop. (1906) 9234. The town is situated on
+the Oise, on which it has a busy port. The manufacture of
+machinery, heavy iron goods and nails, and copper and iron
+founding, are important industries, and there are important
+metallurgical and engineering works at Montataire, about 2 m.
+distant; bricks and tiles and glass are also manufactured, and
+the Northern railway has workshops here. The church (12th
+to 15th centuries) is in the Gothic style. There are some traces
+of a castle in which Charles VI. resided during the period of his
+madness. Creil played a part of some importance in the wars of
+the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRELL<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Krell</span>), <span class="bold">NICHOLAS</span> (c. 1551-1601), chancellor of
+the elector of Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the
+university of his native town. About 1580 he entered the service
+of Christian, the eldest son of Augustus I., elector of Saxony,
+and when Christian succeeded his father as elector in 1586, became
+his most influential counsellor. Crell&rsquo;s religious views were
+Calvinistic or Crypto-Calvinistic, and both before and after his
+appointment as chancellor in 1589 he sought to substitute his
+own form of faith for the Lutheranism which was the accepted
+religion of electoral Saxony. Calvinists were appointed to many
+important ecclesiastical and educational offices; a translation of
+the Bible with Calvinistic annotations was brought out; and
+other measures were taken by Crell to attain his end. In foreign
+politics, also, he sought to change the traditional policy of
+Saxony, acting in unison with John Casimir, administrator
+of the Rhenish Palatinate, and promising assistance to Henry IV.
+of France. These proceedings, coupled with the jealousy felt
+at Crell&rsquo;s high position and autocratic conduct, made the chancellor
+very unpopular, and when the elector died in October
+1591 he was deprived of his offices and thrown into prison by
+order of Frederick William, duke of Saxe-Altenburg, the regent
+for the young elector Christian II. His trial was delayed until
+1595, and then, owing partly to the interference of the imperial
+court of justice (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>), dragged on for six years.
+At length it was referred by the emperor Rudolph II. to a court
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span>
+of appeal at Prague, and sentence of death was passed. This
+was carried out at Dresden on the 9th of October 1601.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. V. Richard, <i>Der kurfürstliche sächsische Kanzler Dr
+Nicolaus Krell</i> (Frankfort, 1860); B. Bohnenstädt, <i>Das Prozessverfahren
+gegen den kursächsischen Kanzler Dr Nikolaus Krell</i> (Halle,
+1901); F. Brandes, <i>Der Kanzler Krell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus</i>
+(Leipzig, 1873); and E. L. T. Henke, <i>Caspar Peucer und Nicolaus
+Krell</i> (Marburg, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMA,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the
+province of Cremona, 26 m. N.E. by rail from the town of
+Cremona. Pop. (1901) town, 8027; commune, 9609. It is
+situated on the right bank of the Serio, 240 ft. above sea-level,
+in the centre of a rich agricultural district. The cathedral has a
+fine Lombard Gothic façade of the second half of the 14th century;
+the campanile belongs to the same period; the rest of the church
+has been restored in the baroque style. The clock tower opposite
+dates from the period of Venetian dominion in the 16th and 17th
+centuries. The castle, which was one of the strongest in Italy,
+was demolished in 1809. The church of S. Maria, ¾ m. E. of the
+town, was begun in 1490 by Giov. Batt. Battaggio; it is in the
+form of a Greek cross, with a central dome, and the exterior is
+a fine specimen of polychrome Lombard work (E. Gussalli in
+<i>Rassegna d&rsquo; arte</i>, 1905, p. 17).</p>
+
+<p>The date of the foundation of Crema is uncertain. In the
+10th century it appears to have been the principal place of the
+territory known as Isola Fulcheria. In the 12th century it
+was allied with Milan and attacked by Cremona, but was taken
+and sacked by Barbarossa in 1160. It was rebuilt in 1185.
+It fell under the Visconti in 1338, and joined the Lombard
+republic in 1447; but was taken by the Venetians in 1449, and,
+except from 1509 to 1529, remained under their dominion
+until 1797.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMATION<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cremare</i>, to burn), the burning of human
+corpses. This method of disposal of the dead may be said to have
+been the general practice of the ancient world, with the important
+exceptions of Egypt, where bodies were embalmed, Judaea,
+where they were buried in sepulchres, and China, where they were
+buried in the earth. In Greece, for instance, so well ascertained
+was the law that only suicides, unteethed children, and persons
+struck by lightning were denied the right to be burned. At
+Rome, one of the XII. Tables said, &ldquo;Hominem mortuum in urbe
+ne sepelito, neve urito&rdquo;; and in fact, from the close of the
+republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, burning on the
+pyre or rogus was the general rule.<a name="FnAnchor_1l" id="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Whether in any of these
+cases cremation was adopted or rejected for sanitary or for
+superstitious reasons, it is difficult to say. Embalming would
+probably not succeed in climates less warm and dry than the
+Egyptian. The scarcity of fuel might also be a consideration.
+The Chinese are influenced by the doctrine of Feng-Shui, or
+incomprehensible wind water; they must have a properly placed
+grave in their own land, and with this view their corpses are sent
+home from long distances abroad. Even the Jews used cremation
+in the vale of Tophet when a plague came; and the modern
+Jews of Berlin and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews at Mile
+End cemetery were among the first to welcome the lately revived
+process. Probably also, some nations had religious objections
+to the pollution of the sacred principle of fire, and therefore
+practised exposure, suspension, throwing into the sea, cave-burial,
+desiccation or envelopment.<a name="FnAnchor_2l" id="FnAnchor_2l" href="#Footnote_2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Some at least of these
+methods must obviously have been suggested simply by the
+readiest means at hand. Cremation is still practised over a great
+part of Asia and America, but not always in the same form.
+Thus, the ashes may be stored in urns, or buried in the earth,
+or thrown to the wind, or (as among the Digger Indians) smeared
+with gum on the heads of the mourners. In one case the three
+processes of embalming, burning and burying are gone through;
+and in another, if a member of the tribe die at a great distance
+from home, some of his money and clothes are nevertheless
+burned by the family. As food, weapons, &amp;c., are sometimes
+buried with the body, so they are sometimes burned with the
+body, the whole ashes being collected.<a name="FnAnchor_3l" id="FnAnchor_3l" href="#Footnote_3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Siamese have a
+singular institution, according to which, before burning, the
+embalmed body lies in a temple for a period determined by the
+rank of the dead man,&mdash;the king for six months, and so downwards.
+If the poor relatives cannot afford fuel and the other
+necessary preparations, they bury the body, but exhume it for
+burning when an opportunity occurs.</p>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that the practice of cremation in
+modern Europe was at first stopped, and has since been prevented
+in great measure, by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection
+of the body; partly also by the notion that the Christian&rsquo;s body
+was redeemed and purified.<a name="FnAnchor_4l" id="FnAnchor_4l" href="#Footnote_4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Some clergymen, however, as the
+late Mr Haweis in his <i>Ashes to Ashes, a Cremation Prelude</i>
+(London, 1874), have been prominent in favour of cremation.
+The objection of the clergy was disposed of by the philanthropist
+Lord Shaftesbury when he asked, &ldquo;What would in such a case
+become of the blessed martyrs?&rdquo; The very general practice of
+burying bodies in the precincts of a church in order that the
+dead might take benefit from the prayers of persons resorting to
+the church, and the religious ceremony which precedes both European
+burials and Asiatic cremations, have given the question a
+religious aspect. It is, however, in the ultimate resort, really a
+sanitary one. The disgusting results of pit-burial made cemeteries
+necessary. But cemeteries are equally liable to overcrowding,
+and are often nearer to inhabited houses than the old
+churchyards. It is possible, no doubt, to make a cemetery safe
+approximately by selecting a soil which is dry, close and porous,
+by careful drainage, and by rigid enforcement of the rules
+prescribing a certain depth (8 to 10 ft.) and a certain superficies
+(4 yds.) for graves. But a great mass of sanitary objections may
+be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries.
+A dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas,
+is the worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is
+strikingly illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs
+to absorb the carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins,
+even when sawdust charcoal is used, is still more dangerous
+than ordinary burial. It must also be remembered that the
+cemetery system can only be temporary. The soil is gradually
+filled with bones; houses crowd round; the law itself permits
+the reopening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. We
+shall not, indeed, as Browne says, &ldquo;be knaved out of our graves
+to have our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned
+into pipes!&rdquo; But on this ground of sentiment cremation would
+certainly prevent any interruption of that &ldquo;sweet sleep and
+calm rest&rdquo; which the old prayer that the earth might lie lightly
+has associated with the grave. And in the meantime we should
+escape the horror of putrefaction and of the &ldquo;small cold worm
+that fretteth the enshrouded form.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In Europe Christian burial was long associated entirely with the
+ordinary practice of committing the corpse to the grave. But
+in the middle of the 19th century many distinguished physicians
+and chemists, especially in Italy, began prominently to advocate
+cremation. In 1874, a congress called to consider the matter at
+Milan resolved to petition the Chamber of Deputies for a clause
+in the new sanitary code, permitting cremation under the supervision
+of the syndics of the commune. In Switzerland Dr
+Vegmann Ercolani was the champion of the cause (see his
+<i>Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead</i>,
+4th ed., Zurich, 1874). So long ago as 1797 cremation was
+seriously discussed by the French Assembly under the Directory,
+and the events of the Franco-Prussian War again brought the
+subject under the notice of the medical press and the sanitary
+authorities. The military experiments at Sédan, Chalons and
+Metz, of burying large numbers of bodies with quicklime, or
+pitch and straw, were not successful, but very dangerous. The
+matter was considered by the municipal council of Paris in connexion
+with the new cemetery at Méry-sur-Oise; and the prefect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span>
+of the Seine in 1874 sent a circular asking information to all the
+cremation societies in Europe. In Britain the subject had
+slumbered for two centuries, since in 1658 Sir Thomas Browne
+published his quaint <i>Hydriotaphia, or Urn-burial</i>, which was
+mainly founded on the <i>De funere Romanorum</i> of the learned
+Kirchmannus. In 1817 Dr J. Jamieson gave a sketch of the
+&ldquo;Origin of Cremation&rdquo; (<i>Proc. Royal Soc. Edin.</i>, 1817), and for
+many years prior to 1874 Dr Lord, medical officer of health for
+Hampstead, continued to urge the practical necessity for the
+introduction of the system.</p>
+
+<p>It was Sir Henry Thompson, however, who first brought the
+question prominently before the public. Thompson&rsquo;s problem
+was&mdash;&ldquo;Given a dead body, to resolve it into carbonic acid, water
+and ammonia, rapidly, safely and not unpleasantly.&rdquo; To solve
+this problem, experiments were made by Dr Polli at the Milan
+gas works, fully described in Dr Pietra Santa&rsquo;s book, <i>La Crémation
+des morts en France et à l&rsquo;étranger</i>, and by Professor Brunetti,
+who exhibited an apparatus at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873,
+and who stated his results in <i>La Cremazione dei cadaveri</i> (Padua,
+1873). Polli obtained complete incineration or calcination of
+dogs by the use of coal-gas mixed with atmospheric air, applied
+to a cylindrical retort of refracting clay, so as to consume the
+gaseous products of combustion. The process was complete
+in two hours, and the ashes weighed about 5% of the weight
+before cremation. Brunetti used an oblong furnace of refracting
+brick with side-doors to regulate the draught, and above a cast-iron
+dome with movable shutters. The body was placed on
+a metallic plate suspended on iron wire. The gas generated
+escaped by the shutters, and in two hours carbonization was
+complete. The heat was then raised and concentrated, and at the
+end of four hours the operation was over; 180 &#8468; of wood costing
+2s. 4d. sterling was burned. In a reverberating furnace used by
+Sir Henry Thompson a body, weighing 144 &#8468;, was reduced in
+fifty minutes to about 4 &#8468; of lime dust. The noxious gases,
+which were undoubtedly produced during the first five minutes
+of combustion, passed through a flue into a second furnace and
+were entirely consumed. In the ordinary Siemens regenerative
+furnace (which was adapted by Reclam in Germany for cremation,
+and also by Sir Henry Thompson) only the hot-blast was
+used, the body supplying hydrogen and carbon; or a stream
+of heated hydrocarbon mixed with heated air was sent from a
+gasometer supplied with coal, charcoal, peat or wood,&mdash;the brick
+or iron-cased chamber being thus heated to a high degree before
+cremation begins.</p>
+
+<p>Steps were at once taken to form an English society to promote
+the practice of cremation. A declaration of its objects was
+drawn up and signed on the 13th January 1874 by the following
+persons&mdash;Shirley Brooks, William Eassie, Ernest Hart, the
+Rev. H. R. Haweis, G. H. Hawkins, John Cordy Jeaffreson, F.
+Lehmann, C. F. Lord, W. Shaen, A. Strahan, (Sir) Henry Thompson,
+Major Vaughan, Rev. C. Voysey and (Sir) T. Spencer Wells;
+and they frequently met to consider the necessary steps in order
+to attain their object. The laws and regulations having been
+thoroughly discussed, the membership of the society was constituted
+by an annual contribution for expenses, and a subscription
+to the following declaration:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and
+desire to substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the
+body into its component elements by a process which cannot offend
+the living, and shall render the remains absolutely innocuous.
+Until some better method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually
+known as cremation.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Finally, on 29th April a meeting was held, a council was
+formed, and Sir H. Thompson was elected president and chairman.
+Mr Eassie (who in 1875 published a valuable work on
+<i>Cremation of the Dead</i>) was at the same time appointed honorary
+secretary.<a name="FnAnchor_5l" id="FnAnchor_5l" href="#Footnote_5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> In 1875 the following were added:&mdash;Mrs Rose Mary
+Crawshay, Mr Higford Burr, Rev. J. Long, Mr W. Robinson
+and the Rev. Brooke Lambert. Subsequently followed Lord
+Bramwell, Sir Chas. Cameron, Dr Farquharson, Sir Douglas
+Galton, Lord Playfair, Mr Martin Ridley Smith, Mr James A.
+Budgett, Mr Edmund Yates, Mr J. S. Fletcher, Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham,
+the duke of Westminster (on Lord Bramwell&rsquo;s
+death), and Sir Arthur Arnold. These may be considered the
+pioneers of the movement for reform.</p>
+
+<p>On account of difficulties and prejudices<a name="FnAnchor_6l" id="FnAnchor_6l" href="#Footnote_6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the council was unable
+to purchase a freehold until 1878, when an acre was obtained
+at Woking, not far distant from the cemetery. At this time the
+furnace employed by Professor Gorini of Lodi, Italy, appeared
+to be the best for working with on a small scale; and he was
+invited to visit England to superintend its erection. This was
+completed in 1879, and the body of a horse was cremated
+rapidly and completely without any smoke or effluvia from the
+chimney. No sooner was this successful step taken than the
+president received a communication from the Home Office,
+which resulted in a personal interview with the home secretary;
+the issue of which was that if the society desired to avoid direct
+hostile action, an assurance must be given that no cremation
+should be attempted without leave first obtained from the
+minister. This of course was given, no further building took
+place, and the society&rsquo;s labours were confined to employing
+means to diffuse information on the subject. Sir Spencer Wells
+brought it before the annual meeting of the British Medical
+Association in 1880, when a petition to the home secretary for
+permission to adopt cremation was largely signed by the leading
+men in town and country, but without any immediate result.
+The next important development was an application to the
+council in 1882, by Captain Hanham in Dorsetshire, to undertake
+the cremation of two deceased relatives who had left express instructions
+to that effect. The home secretary was applied to, and
+refused. The bodies were preserved, and Captain Hanham erected
+a crematorium on his estate, and the cremation took place there.
+He himself, dying a year later, was cremated also; in both cases
+the result was attained under the supervision of Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham,
+who succeeded Mr Eassie in 1888 as honorary
+secretary to the society. The government took no notice. But
+in 1883 a cremation was performed in Wales by a man on the body
+of his child, and legal proceedings were taken against him. Mr
+Justice Stephen, in February 1884, delivered his well-known
+judgment at the Assizes there, declaring cremation to be a
+legal procedure, provided no nuisance were caused thereby to
+others. The council of the society at once declared themselves
+absolved from their promise to the Home Office, and publicly
+offered to perform cremation, laying down strict rules for careful
+inquiry into the cause of death in every case. They stated that
+they were fully aware that the chief practical objection to cremation
+was that it removed traces of poison or violence which
+might have caused death. Declining to trust the very imperfect
+statement generally made respecting the cause of death in the
+ordinary death certificate (unless a coroner&rsquo;s inquest had been
+held), they adopted a system of very stringent inquiry, the result
+of which in each case was to be submitted to the president, to
+be investigated and approved by him before cremation could take
+place, with the right to decline or require an inquest if he thought
+proper; and this course has been followed ever since the first
+cremation.</p>
+
+<p>It was on 26th March 1885 that the first cremation at
+Woking took place, the subject being a lady.<a name="FnAnchor_7l" id="FnAnchor_7l" href="#Footnote_7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In 1888 it became
+necessary, nearly 100 bodies having been by this date cremated,
+to build a large hall for religious service, as well as waiting-rooms,
+in connexion with the crematorium there. The dukes of Bedford
+and Westminster headed the appeal for funds, each with £105.
+The former (the 9th duke of Bedford) especially took great
+interest in the progress of the society, and offered to furnish
+further donations to any extent necessary. During the next
+two years he generously defrayed costs to the amount of £3500,
+and built a smaller crematorium adjacent for himself and family.
+The latter building was first used on the 18th of January 1891,
+a few days after the duke&rsquo;s own death. The number of cremations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+slowly increased year by year, and the total at the end of
+1900 was 1824. Many of these were persons of distinction&mdash;by
+rank, or by attainments in art, literature and science, or in
+public life.</p>
+
+<p>The council next turned their attention to the need for a
+national system of death certification, to be enforced by law
+as an essential and much-needed reform in connexion
+with cremation. On the 6th of January 1893 the duke
+<span class="sidenote">Death certification.</span>
+of Westminster introduced a deputation to the secretary
+of state for the home department, Mr Asquith, and the
+president of the Cremation Society opened the case, showing that
+no less than 7% of the burials in England took place without any
+certificate, while in some districts it was far greater. In consequence
+of this the home secretary appointed a select committee
+of the House of Commons, which was presided over by Sir Walter
+Foster, of the Local Government Board, to &ldquo;inquire into the
+sufficiency of the existing law as to the disposal of the dead ...
+and especially for detecting the causes of death due to poison,
+violence, and criminal neglect.&rdquo; After a prolonged inquiry
+and careful consideration of the evidence, a full report and
+conclusions drawn therefrom were unanimously agreed to, and
+published as a blue-book in the autumn of 1893.<a name="FnAnchor_8l" id="FnAnchor_8l" href="#Footnote_8l"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following conclusions are quoted from this volume:&mdash;Page iii.
+&ldquo;So far as affording a record of the true cause of death and the
+detection of it in cases where death may have been due to violence,
+poison, or where criminal neglect is concerned, the class of certified
+deaths leaves much to be desired.&rdquo; Page iv. Certification is extremely
+important as a deterrent of crime, and numerous proofs are
+given at length in support of the statement.... &ldquo;Contrast this
+class with that of uncertified deaths, when the result is such as to
+force upon your Committee the conviction that vastly more deaths
+occur annually from foul play and criminal neglect than the law
+recognizes.&rdquo; Page vii. Great uncertainty in resorting to the coroner&rsquo;s
+court, and want of system in connexion with the practice of it, are
+affirmed to exist. Page x. It is stated that the opportunity for
+perpetrating crime is great in the considerable class of uncertified
+cases ... &ldquo;in short, the existing procedure plays into the hands of
+the criminal classes.&rdquo; &ldquo;Your Committee are much impressed with
+the serious possibilities implied in a system which permits death
+and burial to take place without the production of satisfactory
+medical evidence of the cause of death.&rdquo; Page xii. &ldquo;Your Committee
+have arrived at the conclusion that the appointment of medical
+officials, who should investigate all cases of death which are not
+certified by a medical practitioner in attendance, is a proposal which
+deserves their support.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In considering cremation, the committee reported as follows:&mdash;Page
+xxii. &ldquo;Your Committee are of opinion that there is only one
+question in connexion with this method of disposing of a dead body
+to which it is necessary for them to refer. That question is the supposed
+danger to the community arising from the fact that with the
+destruction of the body the possibility of obtaining evidence of the
+cause of death by <i>post-mortem</i> examination also disappears.&rdquo; The
+mode of proceeding adopted by the Cremation Society of England
+having been described, &ldquo;your Committee are of opinion that with the
+precautions adopted in connexion with cremation, as carried out by
+the Cremation Society, there is little probability that cases of crime
+would escape detection, but inasmuch as these precautions are
+purely voluntary, your Committee consider that in the interests of
+public safety such regulations should be enforced by law.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cremation Society felt that this report much strengthened
+the case for legislation amending the law of death certification.
+In August 1894 the president of the society laid the results of the
+select committee before the British Medical Association at
+Bristol, and a unanimous vote was obtained in favour of the
+suggestions made by it. In November a second deputation
+waited on Mr Asquith, in which the president of the society
+begged him to carry out the system recommended. The home
+secretary replied that the business belonged to the department
+of the Local Government Board, and that it was already dealing
+with the question and bringing it to a satisfactory solution. Soon
+afterwards, however, the government changed, other questions
+became pressing and further consideration of the subject was
+postponed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>With reference to the recommendations of the select committee
+before mentioned, the regulations necessary for registration of
+death and the disposal of the dead may be outlined as follows:&mdash;
+(1) That no body should be buried, cremated, or otherwise disposed
+of without a medical certificate of death signed, after personal
+knowledge and observation, or by information obtained after investigation
+made by a qualified medical officer appointed for the
+purpose. (2) A qualified medical man should be appointed as official
+certifier in every parish, or district of neighbouring parishes, his duty
+being to inquire into all cases of death and report the cause in
+writing, together with such other details as may be deemed necessary.
+This would naturally fall within the duties of the medical
+officer of health for the district, and registration should be made
+at his office. (3) If the circumstances of death obviously demand
+a coroner&rsquo;s inquest, the case should be transferred to his court and
+the cause determined, with or without autopsy. If there appears
+to be no ground for holding an inquest, and autopsy be necessary
+to the furnishing of a certificate, the official certifier should make it,
+and state the result in his report. (4) No person or company should
+be henceforth permitted to construct or use an apparatus for cremating
+human bodies without license from the Local Government Board
+or other authority. (5) No crematory should be so employed unless
+the site, construction, and system of management have been approved
+after survey by an officer appointed by government for the
+purpose. But the licence to construct or use a crematory should
+not be withheld if guarantees are given that the conditions required
+are or will be complied with. All such crematories to be subject at
+all times to inspection by an officer appointed by the government.
+(6) The burning of a human body, otherwise than in an officially
+recognized crematory, should be illegal, and punishable by penalty.
+(7) No human body should be cremated unless the official examiner
+added the words &ldquo;Cremation permitted.&rdquo; This he should be bound
+to do if, after due inquiry, he can certify that the deceased has died
+from natural causes, and not from ill-treatment, poison or violence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cremation Act 1902 (2 Ed. VII. ch. 8), and the regulations<a name="FnAnchor_9l" id="FnAnchor_9l" href="#Footnote_9l"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+made thereunder by the home secretary, have since
+given legislative effect to some of the foregoing recommendations
+and have laid down a code of laws applicable and binding where
+cremation is resorted to. But the amendments in the law of
+death certification generally, so long pressed for by the Cremation
+Society of England and recommended by the select committee,
+are none the less necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly in populous communities and in crowded
+districts the burial of dead bodies is liable to be a source of
+danger to the living. As early as 1840 a commission had been
+appointed, including some of the earliest authorities on sanitary
+science,&mdash;namely, Drs Southwood Smith, Chadwick, Milroy,
+Sutherland, Waller Lewis and others,&mdash;to conduct a searching
+inquiry into the state of the burial-grounds of London and large
+provincial towns. By the report<a name="FnAnchor_10l" id="FnAnchor_10l" href="#Footnote_10l"><span class="sp">10</span></a> the existence of such a danger
+was strikingly demonstrated, and intramural interments were in
+consequence made illegal. The advocates of burial then declared
+that interment in certain light soils would safely and efficiently
+decompose the putrefying elements which begin to be developed
+the moment death takes place, and which rapidly become
+dangerous to the living, still more so in the case of deaths from
+contagious disease. But these light dry soils and elevated spots
+are precisely those best adapted for human habitation; to say
+nothing of their value for food-production. Granted the
+efficiency of such burial, it only effects in the course of a few
+years what exposure to a high temperature accomplishes with
+absolute safety in an hour. In a densely populated country
+the struggle between the claims of the dead and the living to
+occupy the choicest sites becomes a serious matter. All decaying
+animal remains give off effluvia&mdash;gases&mdash;which are transferred
+through the medium of the atmosphere to become converted into
+vegetable growth of some kind&mdash;trees, crops, garden produce,
+grass, &amp;c. Every plant absorbs these gases by its leaves, each
+one of which is provided with hundreds of stomata&mdash;open mouths&mdash;by
+which they fix or utilize the carbon to form woody fibre,
+and give off free oxygen to the atmosphere. Thus it is that the
+air we breathe is kept pure by the constant interaction between
+the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may be taken as certain
+that the gaseous products arising from a cremated body&mdash;amounting,
+although invisible, to no less than 97% of its weight,
+3% only remaining as solids, in the form of a pure white ash&mdash;become
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+in the course of a few hours integral and active elements
+in some form of vegetable life. The result of this reasoning has
+been that, by slow degrees, crematoria have been constructed
+at many of the populous cities in Great Britain and abroad
+(see <i>Statistics</i> below).</p>
+
+<p>The subject of employing cremation for the bodies of those
+who die of contagious disease is a most important one. Sir H.
+Thompson advocated this course in a paper read before the
+International Congress of Hygiene held in London in 1891; and
+a resolution strongly approving the practice was carried unanimously
+at a large meeting of experts and medical officers of health.
+Such diseases are small-pox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, consumption,
+malignant cholera, enteric, relapsing and puerperal fevers,
+the annual number of deaths from which in the United Kingdom
+is upwards of 80,000. Complete disinfection takes place by
+means of the high temperature to which the body is exposed.
+At the present day it is compulsory to report any case in the
+foregoing list, whenever it occurs, to the medical officer of health
+for the district; and it is customary to disinfect the rooms
+themselves, as well as the clothes and furniture used by the
+patient if the case be fatal; but the body, which is the source
+and origin of the evil, and is itself loaded with the germs of a
+specific poison, is left to the chances which attach to its preservation
+in that condition, when buried in a fit or unfit soil or
+situation.</p>
+
+<p>The process of preparing a body for cremation requires a brief
+notice. The plan generally adopted is to place it (in the usual
+shroud) in a light pine shell, discarding all heavy oak or other
+coffin, and to introduce it into the furnace in that manner.
+Thus there is no handling or exposure of the body after it reaches
+the crematorium. The type of furnace in general use is on the
+reverberatory principle, the body being consumed in a separate
+chamber heated to over 2000° Fahr. by a coke fire. In a few
+instances a furnace burning ordinary illuminating gas instead of
+coke is in use.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Th.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Statistics.</i>&mdash;The following statistics show the history of modern
+cremation and its progress at home and abroad:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Foreign Countries.</i>&mdash;The first experiment in Italy was made by
+Brunetti in 1869, his second and third in 1870. Gorini and Polli
+published their first cases in 1872. Brunetti exhibited his at Vienna
+in 1873. All were performed in the open air. The next in Europe
+was a single case at Breslau in 1874. Soon after, an English lady
+was cremated in a closed apparatus (Siemens) at Dresden. The next
+cremation in a closed receptacle took place at Milan in 1876. In
+the same year a Cremation Society was formed, a handsome building
+was erected, and two Gorini furnaces were at work in 1880. In
+1899 the total number of cremations was 1355. In Italy 28 crematoria
+exist, viz. at Alessandria, Asti, Bologna, Bra, Brescia, Como,
+Cremona, Florence, Genoa, Leghorn, Lodi, Mantua, Milan, Modena,
+Novara, Padua, Perugia, Pisa, Pistoia, Rome, San Remo, Siena,
+Spezia, Turin, Udine, Verona and Venice. The total number of
+cremations in Italy in 1906 was 440.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the first crematorium was erected at Gotha; it was
+opened in 1878, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907,
+numbered 4584. At Ohlsdorf, Hamburg, the crematorium was
+opened in November 1892, and the total cremations down to
+September 1st, 1907, numbered 2521. At Heidelberg the crematorium
+was opened in 1891, and the total cremations down to
+September 1st, 1907, numbered 1741. Throughout the German
+empire there are, in addition to the above, crematoria at Bremen,
+Eisenach, Jena, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Mainz, Offenbach, Heilbronn,
+Ulm, Chemnitz and Stuttgart, besides over eighty societies for promoting
+cremation. The total number of cremations which took
+place in Germany in 1906 was 2057, making a total of 13,614 down
+to September 1st, 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Other societies exist in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Sweden,
+Norway and Switzerland. At the crematorium at Copenhagen
+77 bodies were cremated in 1906, the total being 500. The Stockholm
+crematorium was opened in October 1887, and the cremations
+in 1906 numbered 56. The Gothenburg crematorium (also in
+Sweden) was opened in January 1890, and the cremations there
+in 1906 were 14. Switzerland has four crematoria, viz. at Basel,
+Geneva, Zurich and St Gallen&mdash;524 cremations took place in that
+country in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>In Paris a cremation society was founded in 1880, and in 1886-1887
+a large crematorium was constructed by the municipal council
+at Père Lachaise, containing three Gorini furnaces. It was first
+used in October 1887 for two men who died of small-pox. The
+demand became large; an improved furnace was soon devised, the
+unclaimed bodies at the hospitals and the remains at the dissecting
+rooms being cremated there, besides a large number of embryos.
+In 1906 the number, including the last-named class, was 6906.
+The total number of incinerations at Père Lachaise down to
+December 31st, 1906 (including both classes) was 86,962; but the
+employment of cremation for the purposes named has deterred a
+resort to it by many. Had a separate establishment been organized
+for the public, its success would have been greater. A magnificent
+edifice has been constructed by the municipality of Paris for the
+conservation of the ashes of persons who have been cremated.
+Crematoria have been established also at Rouen, Rheims and
+Marseilles, and the construction of crematoria in other of the great
+provincial centres of France was in contemplation.</p>
+
+<p>In Buenos Aires, since 1844, the bodies of all persons dying of
+contagious disease are cremated, and there is also a separate establishment
+for the use of the public.</p>
+
+<p>At Tokio in Japan no fewer than 22 crematoria exist, and about
+an equal number of cremations and burials in earth take place.</p>
+
+<p>At Calcutta a crematorium was opened in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>At Montreal, Canada, there is a crematorium which began operations
+in 1902, and completed 44 cremations up to the 31st of
+December 1905.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;There were 33 crematoria in the United States on
+September 1st, 1907. At Fresh Pond, New York, erected in 1885,
+the total number of cremations to December 31st, 1906, being 8514.
+At Buffalo, N.Y., the first cremation taking place in 1885, and the
+total number down to December 31st, 1905, being 787. At Troy
+(Earl Crematorium), N. Y., the first cremation taking place in 1890, and
+the total number down to December 31st, 1905, 249. At Swinburne
+Island, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1890, total to December 31st,
+1905, 123. At Waterville, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1893, total
+to December 31st, 1906, 62. At St Louis, Missouri, cremations beginning
+in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, 2151. At Philadelphia,
+Penn., cremations beginning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907,
+1685. At San Francisco, Cal., &ldquo;Odd Fellows,&rdquo; opened in 1895,
+total to December 31st, 1906, 6151. Also at San Francisco, Cal.,
+&ldquo;Cypress Lawn,&rdquo; opened in 1893, total to December 31st, 1905,
+1492. At Los Angeles, Cal., No. 1, Rosedale, opened in 1887, total
+to December 31st, 1905, 866; No. 2, Evergreen, opened in 1902,
+total to December 31st, 1905, 413; No. 3, Gower Street, opened in
+1907 with 54 down to September 1st. At Boston, Mass., opened in
+1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2493. At Cincinnati, Ohio,
+opened in 1887, total to September 1st, 1907, 1245. At Chicago,
+opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2188. At Detroit,
+Michigan, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 689. At
+Pittsburg, Penn., opened in 1886, total to September 1st, 1907, 377.
+At Baltimore, opened in 1889, total to December 31st, 1905, 263.
+At Lancaster, Penn., opened in 1884, total to December 31st, 1906,
+106. At Davenport, Iowa, opened in 1891, total to September 1st,
+1907, 331. At Milwaukee, opened in 1896, total to October 1905, 442.
+At Washington, opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, 275.
+The Le Moyne (Washington, Pa.) crematory, the first in the United
+States, was erected by Dr F. Julius le Moyne in 1876, for private
+use. The first cremation was that of the baron de Palin, of New York,
+December 6th, 1876. Dr F. Julius le Moyne died October 1879, and
+his remains were cremated in his own crematory. Total number
+of cremations (to 1907) 41. At Pasadena, Cal., opened in 1895, total
+to September 1st, 1907, 491. At St. Paul, Minn., opened in 1897,
+total to December 31st, 1905, 145. At Fort Wayne, Ind., opened in
+1897, total to September 1st, 1907, 41. At Cambridge, Mass.,
+opened in 1900, total to September 1st, 1907, 1090. At Cleveland,
+Ohio, opened in 1901, total to December 31st, 1905, 283. At Denver,
+Col., opened in 1904, total to December 31st, 1905, 109. At Indianapolis,
+opened in 1904, total to December 31st, 1905, 32. At Oakland,
+Cal., opened in 1902, total to September 1st, 1907, 2196. At Portland,
+Ore., opened in 1901, total to December 31st, 1905, 327. At
+Seattle, Washington, opened in 1905, with 21 to the end of that
+year.</p>
+
+<p><i>United Kingdom.</i>&mdash;There were 13 crematoria in operation in the
+United Kingdom on September 1st, 1907. The oldest is that at
+Woking, Surrey, which was first used for the cremation of human
+remains in 1885. In that year three cremations took place there,
+the number gradually increasing each year until in 1901 301 bodies
+were cremated. Up to September 1st, 1907, the total number of
+cremations at Woking was 2939. Then followed the crematorium
+at Manchester, opened in 1892 with 90 in 1906 and a total of 1085;
+at Glasgow, opened in 1895 with 45 in 1906 and a total of 252; at
+Liverpool, opened in 1896, with 46 in 1906 and a total of 374; at
+Hull, opened in 1901 (the first municipal crematorium), with 17 in
+1906 and a total of 116; at Darlington, also opened in 1901, with 13
+in 1906 and a total of 33. The Leicester Corporation crematorium
+was opened in 1902, with 12 in 1906 and a total of 50. Next in order
+came the Golder&rsquo;s Green crematorium, Hampstead, London, which
+was opened in December 1902. In 1906 298 cremations took place
+there, making a total of 1091. After this followed the Birmingham
+crematorium, opened in 1903, with 21 in 1906 and a total of 84; the
+City of London crematorium at Little Ilford, opened in 1905, with
+23 for 1906 and a total of 46; the Leeds crematorium, opened in
+1905, with 15 in 1906 and a total of 42; the Bradford Corporation
+crematorium, opened in 1905, with 13 in 1906, and a total of 20;
+and the Sheffield Corporation crematorium, opened in 1905, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+6 in 1906 and a total of 26. Thus there were 739 cremations in the
+United Kingdom in 1906, making a total at the above crematoria
+down to September 1st, 1907, of 6158. The Golder&rsquo;s Green crematorium,
+situated on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath,
+stands in its own grounds of 12 acres, and is but 35 minutes&rsquo; drive
+from Oxford Circus. London thus has two crematoria within
+driving distance of its centre, and the Woking crematorium within
+easy reach of the south-west suburbs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. C. S.-H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1l" id="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger Theodosius
+(Gibbon v. 411).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2l" id="Footnote_2l" href="#FnAnchor_2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The Colchians, says Sir Thos. Browne, made their graves in the
+air, <i>i.e.</i> on trees.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3l" id="Footnote_3l" href="#FnAnchor_3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In the case of a great man there was often a burnt offering of
+animals and even of slaves (see Caesar, <i>De bell. Gall.</i> iv.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4l" id="Footnote_4l" href="#FnAnchor_4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A temple of the Holy Ghost (see Tertullian, <i>De anima</i>, c. 51, cited
+in Müller, <i>Lex. des Kirchenrechts</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Begräbniss&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5l" id="Footnote_5l" href="#FnAnchor_5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This was the first society formed in Europe for the promotion of
+cremation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6l" id="Footnote_6l" href="#FnAnchor_6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For a full account of these, see <i>Modern Cremation: Its History
+and Practice to the Present Date</i>, by Sir H. Thompson, Bart., F.R.C.S.,
+&amp;c. (4th ed., Smith, Elder, Waterloo Place, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7l" id="Footnote_7l" href="#FnAnchor_7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>The Times</i>, 27th March 1885.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8l" id="Footnote_8l" href="#FnAnchor_8l"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Reports on Death Certification</i> (1893), Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode,
+London (373,472).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9l" id="Footnote_9l" href="#FnAnchor_9l"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Statutory Rules and Orders</i>, 1903, No. 286, Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10l" id="Footnote_10l" href="#FnAnchor_10l"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>A Special Inquiry into the Practice of Interment in Towns</i>, by
+Edwin Chadwick (London, 1843), is replete with evidence, and should
+be read by those who desire to pursue the inquiry further.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1837-1880), Dutch novelist, born
+at Arnhem in September 1837, started life as a painter, but soon
+exchanged the brush for the pen. The great success of his first
+novelettes (<i>Betuwsche Novellen</i> and <i>Overbetuwsche Novellen</i>),
+published about 1855&mdash;reprinted many times since, and translated
+into German and French&mdash;showed Cremer the wisdom of
+his new departure. These short stories of Dutch provincial life
+are written in the quaint dialect of the Betuwe, the large flat
+Gelderland island, formed by the Rhine, the name recalling the
+presumed earliest inhabitants, the Batavi. Cremer is strongest
+in his delineation of character. His picturesque humour, coming
+out, perhaps, most forcibly in his numerous readings of the
+Betuwe novelettes, soon procured him the name of the &ldquo;Dutch
+Fritz Reuter.&rdquo; In his later novels Cremer abandons both the
+language and the slight love-stories of the Betuwe, depicting
+the Dutch life of other centres in the national tongue. The
+principal are: <i>Anna Rooze</i> (1867), <i>Dokter Helmond en zijn Vrouw</i>
+(1870), <i>Hanna de Freule</i> (1873), <i>Daniel Sils</i>, &amp;c. Cremer was
+less successful as a playwright, and his two comedies, <i>Peasant
+and Nobleman</i> and <i>Emma Bertholt</i>, did not enhance his fame;
+nor did a volume of poems, published in 1873. He died at the
+Hague in June 1880. His collected novels have appeared at
+Leiden. An English novel, founded by Albert Vandam upon
+<i>Anna Rooze</i>, considered by many his best work, was published
+in London (1877, 3 vols.) under the title of <i>An Everyday Heroine</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMERA<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (mod. <i>Fosso della Valchetta</i>), a small stream in
+Etruria which falls into the Tiber about 6 m. N. of Rome. The
+identification with the Fosso della Valchetta is fixed as correct
+by the account in Livy ii. 49, which shows that the Saxa Rubra
+were not far off, and this we know to be the Roman name of the
+post station of Prima Porta, about 7 m. from Rome on the Via
+Flaminia. It is famous for the defeat of the three hundred Fabii,
+who had established a fortified post on its banks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉMIEUX, ISAAC MOÏSE<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> [known as <span class="sc">Adolphe</span>] (1796-1880),
+French statesman, was born at Nîmes, of a rich Jewish family.
+He began life as an advocate in his native town. After the revolution
+of 1830 he came to Paris, formed connexions with numerous
+political personages, even with King Louis Philippe, and became
+a brilliant defender of Liberal ideas in the law courts and in the
+press,&mdash;witness his <i>Éloge funèbre</i> of the bishop Grégoire (1830),
+his <i>Mémoire</i> for the political rehabilitation of Marshal Ney (1833),
+and his plea for the accused of April (1835). Elected deputy in
+1842, he was one of the leaders in the campaign against the
+Guizot ministry, and his eloquence contributed greatly to the
+success of his party. On the 24th of February 1848 he was chosen
+by the Republicans as a member of the provisional government,
+and as minister of justice he secured the decrees abolishing
+the death penalty for political offences, and making the office
+of judge immovable. When the conflict between the Republicans
+and Socialists broke out he resigned office, but continued to sit
+in the constituent assembly. At first he supported Louis
+Napoleon, but when he discovered the prince&rsquo;s imperial ambitions
+he broke with him. Arrested and imprisoned on the 2nd of
+December 1851, he remained in private life until November 1869,
+when he was elected as a Republican deputy by Paris. On the 4th
+of September 1870 he was again chosen member of the government
+of national defence, and resumed the ministry of justice.
+He then formed part of the Delegation of Tours, but took no
+part in the completion of the organization of defence. He
+resigned with his colleagues on the 14th of February 1871.
+Eight months later he was elected deputy, then life senator in
+1875. He died on the 10th of February 1880. Crémieux did
+much to better the condition of the Jews. He was president of
+the Universal Israelite Alliance, and while in the government
+of the national defence he secured the franchise for the Jews in
+Algeria. This famous <i>Décret Crémieux</i> was the origin of the anti-Semitic
+movement in Algiers. Crémieux published a <i>Recueil</i>
+of his political cases (1869), and the <i>Actes de la délégation de Tours
+et de Bordeaux</i> (2 vols., 1871).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMONA, LUIGI<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1830-1903), Italian mathematician, was
+born at Pavia on the 7th of December 1830. In 1848, when
+Milan and Venice rose against Austria, Cremona, then only a
+lad of seventeen, joined the ranks of the Italian volunteers, and
+remained with them, fighting on behalf of his country&rsquo;s freedom,
+till, in 1849, the capitulation of Venice put an end to the hopeless
+campaign. He then returned to Pavia, where he pursued his
+studies at the university under Francesco Brioschi, and determined
+to seek a career as teacher of mathematics. His first
+appointment was as elementary mathematical master at the
+gymnasium and lyceum of Cremona, and he afterwards obtained
+a similar post at Milan. In 1860 he was appointed to the professorship
+of higher geometry at the university of Bologna, and in
+1866 to that of higher geometry and graphical statics at the
+higher technical college of Milan. In this same year he competed
+for the Steiner prize of the Berlin Academy, with a treatise
+entitled &ldquo;Memoria sulle superficie de terzo ordine,&rdquo; and shared
+the award with J. C. F. Sturm. Two years later the same prize
+was conferred on him without competition. In 1873 he was
+called to Rome to organize the college of engineering, and was
+also appointed professor of higher mathematics at the university.
+Cremona&rsquo;s reputation had now become European, and in 1879 he
+was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society. In
+the same year he was made a senator of the kingdom of Italy.
+He died on the 10th of June 1903.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1856 Cremona had begun to contribute to the
+<i>Annali di scienze matematiche e fisiche</i>, and to the <i>Annali di
+matematica</i>, of which he became afterwards joint editor. Papers
+by him have appeared in the mathematical journals of Italy,
+France, Germany and England, and he has published several
+important works, many of which have been translated into other
+languages. His manual on <i>Graphical Statics</i> and his <i>Elements
+of Projective Geometry</i> (translated by C. Leudesdorf), have been
+published in English by the Clarendon Press. His life was
+devoted to the study of higher geometry and reforming the more
+advanced mathematical teaching of Italy. His reputation mainly
+rests on his <i>Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle curve piane</i>,
+which proclaims him as a follower of the Steinerian or synthetical
+school of geometricians. He notably enriched our knowledge of
+curves and surfaces.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMONA,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy,
+the capital of the province of Cremona, situated on the N. bank
+of the Po, 155 ft. above sea-level, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Milan.
+Pop. (1901) town, 31,655; commune, 39,344. It is oval in shape,
+and retains its medieval fortifications. The line of the streets
+is as a rule irregular, but the town as a whole is not very
+picturesque.</p>
+
+<p>The finest building is the cathedral, in the Lombard Romanesque
+style, begun in 1107 and consecrated in 1190. The wheel
+window of the main façade dates from 1274. The transepts,
+added in the 13th and 14th centuries (before 1370), have picturesque
+brick façades, with fine terra-cotta ornamentation. The
+great Torrazzo, a tower 397 ft. high, which stands by the cathedral,
+and is connected with it by a series of galleries, dates from 1267-1291.
+It is square below, with an octagonal summit of a slightly
+later period. The main façade of the cathedral was largely
+altered in 1491, to which date the statues upon it belong; the
+portico in front was added in 1497. The building would be
+much improved by isolation, which it is hoped may be effected.
+The interior is fine, and is covered with frescoes by Cremonese
+masters of the 16th century (Boccaccio Boccaccino, Romanino,
+Pordenone, the Campi, &amp;c.), which are not of first-rate importance.
+The choir has fine stalls of 1489-1490, upon one of which
+there is a view of the façade of the cathedral before its alteration
+in 1491. The treasury contains a richly worked silver crucifix
+9 ft. high, of 1478, the base of which was added in 1774-1775.
+It contains 408 statues and busts altogether, the central three
+of which belong to an earlier cross of 1231. Adjacent to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span>
+cathedral is the octagonal baptistery of 1167, 92 ft. in height
+and 75 ft. in external diameter, also in the Lombard Romanesque
+style. The so-called Campo Santo, close to the baptistery,
+contains a mosaic pavement with emblematic figures belonging
+probably to the 8th and 9th centuries, and running under the
+cathedral. Of the other churches, S. Michele has a simple and
+good Lombard Romanesque 13th-century façade, and a plain
+interior of the 10th century; and S. Agata a good campanile in
+the former style. Many of them contain paintings by the later
+Cremonese masters, especially Galeazzo Campi (d. 1536) and his
+sons Giulio and Antonio. The latter are especially well represented
+in S. Sigismondo, 1½ m. outside the town to the E. On the
+side of the Piazza del Comune opposite to the cathedral are two
+13th-century Gothic palaces in brick, the Palazzo Comunale and
+the former Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, now the seat of the commissioners
+for the water regulation of the district. Another
+palace of the same period is now occupied by the Archivio
+Notarile. The modern Palazzo Ponzoni contains a museum
+and a technical institute. In front of it is a statue of the composer
+Amilcare Ponchielli, who was a native of Cremona. The
+Palazzo Fodri, now the Monte di Pietà, has a beautiful 15th-century
+frieze of terra-cotta bas-reliefs, as have some other
+palaces in private hands.</p>
+
+<p>Cremona was founded by the Romans in 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (the same
+year as Placentia) as an outpost against the Gallic tribes. It
+was strengthened in 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the sending of 6000 new settlers
+and soon became one of the most flourishing towns of upper
+Italy. It probably acquired municipal rights in 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but
+Augustus, owing to the fact that it did not support him, assigned
+a part of its territory to his veterans in 41 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and henceforth it
+is once more called <i>colonia</i>. It remained prosperous (we may note
+that Virgil came here to school from Mantua) until it was taken
+and destroyed by the troops of Vespasian after the second battle
+of Betriacum (Bedriacum) in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69; the temple of Mefitis
+alone being left standing (see Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> iii. 15 seq.). One of
+the bronze plates which decorated the exterior of the war-chest
+of the <i>legio III. Macedonica</i>, one of the legions which had been
+defeated at Betriacum, has been found near Cremona itself
+(F. Barnabei in <i>Notiz. scavi</i>, 1887, p. 210). Vespasian ordered
+its immediate reconstruction, but it never recovered its former
+prosperity, though its position on the N. bank of the Po, at the
+meeting-point of roads from Placentia, Mantua (the Via Postumia
+in both cases), Brixellum (where the roads from Cremona and
+Mantua to Parma met and crossed the river), Laus Pompeia
+and Brixia, still gave it considerable importance. It was
+destroyed once more by the Lombards under Agilulf in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 605,
+and rebuilt in 615, and was ruled by dukes; but in the 9th
+century the bishops of Cremona began to acquire considerable
+temporal power. Landulf, a German to whom the see was
+granted by Henry II., was driven out in 1022, and his palace
+destroyed, but other Germans were invested with the see afterwards.
+The commune of Cremona is first mentioned in a document
+of 1098, recording its investiture by the countess Matilda
+with the territory known as Isola Fulcheria. It had to sustain
+many wars with its neighbours in order to maintain itself in its
+new possessions. In the war of the Lombard League against
+Barbarossa, Cremona, after having shared in the destruction of
+Crema in 1160 and Milan in 1162, finally joined the league, but
+took no part in the battle of Legnano, and thus procured itself
+the odium of both sides. In the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles
+Cremona took the latter side, and defeated Parma decisively in
+1250. It was during this period that Cremona erected its finest
+buildings. There was, however, a Guelph reaction in 1264; the
+city was taken and sacked by Henry VII. in 1311, and was a prey
+to struggles between the two parties, until Galeazzo Visconti
+took possession of it in 1322. In 1406 it fell under the sway
+of Cabrino Fondulo, who received with great festivities both the
+emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII., the latter on his way
+to the council at Constance; he, however, handed it over to
+Filippo Maria Visconti in 1419. In 1499 it was occupied by
+Venetians, but in 1512 it came under Massimiliano Sforza.
+In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under Spanish domination,
+and was compelled to furnish large money contributions.
+The population fell to 10,000 in 1668. The surprise of the
+French garrison on the 2nd of February 1702, by the Imperialists
+under Prince Eugene, was a celebrated incident of the War of the
+Spanish Succession. The Imperialists were driven from Cremona
+after a sharp struggle, but captured Marshal Villeroi, the French
+commander. Hence the celebrated verse:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Français, rendons grâce à Bellone;</p>
+<p class="i05">Notre bonheur est sans égal;</p>
+<p class="i05">Nous avons conservé Cremoneé,</p>
+<p class="i05">Et perdu notre général.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In the 18th century the prosperity of Cremona revived. In the
+Italian republic it was the capital of the department of the upper
+Po. Like the rest of Lombardy it fell under Austria in 1814,
+and became Italian in 1859.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Guida di Cremona</i> (Cremona, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREMORNE GARDENS,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> formerly a popular resort by the
+side of the Thames in Chelsea, London, England. Originally the
+property of the earl of Huntingdon (c. 1750), father of Steele&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Aspasia,&rdquo; who built a mansion here, the property passed
+through various hands into those of Thomas Dawson, Baron
+Dartrey and Viscount Cremorne (1725-1813), who greatly
+beautified it. It was subsequently sold and converted into a
+proprietary place of entertainment, being popular as such from
+1845 to 1877. It never, however, acquired the fashionable fame
+of Vauxhall, and finally became so great an annoyance to
+residents in the neighbourhood that a renewal of its licence was
+refused; and the site of the gardens was soon built over. The
+name survives in Cremorne Road.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRENELLE<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (an O. Fr. word for &ldquo;notch,&rdquo; mod. <i>créneau</i>; the
+origin is obscure; cf. &ldquo;cranny&rdquo;), a term generally considered
+to mean an embrasure of a battlement, but really applying to
+the whole system of defence by battlements. In medieval times
+no one could &ldquo;crenellate&rdquo; a building without special licence
+from his supreme lord.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREODONTA,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> a group of primitive early Tertiary Carnivora,
+characterized by their small brains, the non-union in most cases
+of the scaphoid and lunar bones of the carpus, and the general
+absence of a distinct pair of &ldquo;sectorial&rdquo; teeth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>).
+In many respects the Lower Eocene creodonts come very close
+to the primitive ungulates, or Condylarthra (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phenacodus</a></span>),
+from which, however, they are distinguished by the approximation
+in the form of the skull to the carnivorous type, the more
+trenchant teeth (at least in most cases) and the more claw-like
+character of the terminal joints of the toes. The general character
+of the dentition in the more typical forms, such as <i>Hyaenodon</i>
+(see fig.), recalls that of the carnivorous marsupials, this being
+especially the case with the Patagonian species, which have been
+separated as a distinct group under the name of Sparassodonta
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The skull, however, is not of the marsupial type, and in
+the European forms at any rate there is a complete replacement
+of the milk-molars by pre-molars, while the minute structure of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+the enamel of the teeth is of the carnivorous as distinct from
+the marsupial type. The head is large in proportion to the body,
+the lumbar region is unusually rigid, owing to the complexity of
+the articulations, and the tail and hind-limbs are relatively long
+and powerful. In life the tail probably passed almost imperceptibly
+into the body, as in the Tasmanian thylacine.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:334px" src="images/img408.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2">Dentition of <i>Hyaenodon leptorhynchus</i>, from the Lower Oligocene
+of France. The last upper molar is concealed by the penultimate
+tooth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>That the Creodonta are the ancestors of the modern Carnivora
+is now generally admitted. They are apparently the most
+generalized and primitive of all (placental?) mammals, and
+probably the direct descendants of the mammal-like anomodont
+or theromorphous reptiles of the Triassic epoch; the evolution
+from that group having perhaps taken place in Africa or in the
+lost area connecting that continent with India. The relationship
+of the creodonts to the carnivorous marsupials is not yet determined,
+but it seems scarcely probable that the remarkable
+resemblance existing between the teeth of the two groups can be
+solely due to parallelism; and it has been suggested by Dr L.
+Wortman that both creodonts and marsupials are descended
+from a common non-placental stock. In other words, the latter
+are a side-branch from the anomodont-creodont line of descent.
+Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out that certain of the Egyptian
+creodonts appear to have been aquatic or subaquatic in their
+habits; and it is possible that from such types are derived the
+true seals, or <i>Phocidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Australasia, and perhaps South Africa,
+creodonts (on the supposition that the Patagonian forms are
+rightly included) appear to have had a nearly world-wide distribution.
+In Europe and North America they date from the
+Lowest Eocene and lived till the early Oligocene, while in India
+they apparently survived till a much later epoch. Some of the
+Oligocene forms, alike as regards dentition, the union of the
+scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and the complexity of the
+brain, approximated to modern Carnivora.</p>
+
+<p>As regards classification Mr W. D. Matthew includes in the
+typical family <i>Hyaenodontidae</i> not only the widely spread genera
+<i>Hyaenodon</i> and <i>Pterodon</i>, but likewise <i>Sinopa</i> (<i>Stypolophus</i>),
+<i>Cynohyaenodon</i> and <i>Proviverra</i>; but <i>Viverravus</i> (<i>Didymictis</i>)
+and <i>Vulpavus</i> (<i>Miacis</i>) are assigned to a separate family (<i>Viverravidae</i>).
+It is these latter forms which come nearest to modern
+Carnivora, most of them being of Oligocene age. The American
+and European <i>Oxyaena</i> apparently represents a family by itself,
+as does the American <i>Oxyclaena</i>; and <i>Palaeonictis</i> and <i>Patriofelis</i>
+are assigned to yet another family; while the North American
+Lower Eocene and Eocene <i>Arctocyon</i> typifies a family characterized
+by the somewhat bear-like type of dentition. <i>Mesonyx</i>
+is also a very distinct type, from the North American Eocene
+and Oligocene. Some of the species of <i>Patriofelis</i> and <i>Hyaenodon</i>
+attained the size of a tiger, although with long civet-like skulls.
+In the earlier forms the claws often retained somewhat of a hoof-like
+character.</p>
+
+<p>The South American <i>Borhyaenidae</i> include <i>Borhyaena</i>, <i>Prothylacinus</i>,
+<i>Amphiproviverra</i>, and allied forms from the Santa Cruz
+beds of Patagonia, and have been referred to a distinct group,
+the Sparassodonta, mainly on account of the alleged replacement
+of some only of the milk-molars by premolars. By their first
+describer, Dr F. Ameghino, they were regarded as nearly related
+to the marsupials, to which group they were definitely referred
+in 1905 by Mr W. J. Sinclair, by whom they are considered
+near akin to <i>Thylacinus</i>, but this view seems to be disproved by
+the investigations of Mr C. S. Tomes into the structure of the
+dental enamel.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added that Dr J. L. Wortman transfers <i>Viverravus</i>
+and its allies, together with <i>Palaeonictis</i>, to the true Carnivora,
+the latter genus being regarded as the ancestral type of the sabre-toothed
+cats (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machaerodus</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J. L. Wortman, &ldquo;Eocene Mammalia in the Peabody
+Museum, pt. i. Carnivora,&rdquo; <i>Amer. J. Sci.</i> vols. xi.-xiv. (1901-1902);
+W. D. Matthew, &ldquo;Additional Observations on the Creodonta,&rdquo;
+<i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i> vol. xiv. p. i. (1901); C. W. Andrews,
+<i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum</i>, British
+Museum (1906); W. J. Sinclair, &ldquo;The Marsupial Fauna of the
+Santa Cruz Beds,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xlix. p. 73 (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREOLE<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (the Fr. form of <i>criollo</i>, a West Indian, probably a
+negro corruption of the Span, <i>criadillo</i>, the dim. of <i>criado</i>, one
+bred or reared, from <i>criar</i>, to breed, a derivative of the Lat.
+<i>creare</i>, to create), a word used originally (16th century) to denote
+persons born in the West Indies of Spanish parents, as distinguished
+from immigrants direct from Spain, aboriginals,
+negroes or mulattos. It is now used of the descendants of non-aboriginal
+races born and settled in the West Indies, in various
+parts of the American mainland and in Mauritius, Reunion and
+some other places colonized by Spain, Portugal, France, or (in
+the case of the West Indies) by England. In a similar sense the
+name is used of animals and plants. The use of the word by
+some writers as necessarily implying a person of mixed blood is
+totally erroneous; in itself &ldquo;creole&rdquo; has no distinction of colour;
+a Creole may be a person of European, negro, or mixed extraction&mdash;or
+even a horse.</p>
+
+<p>Local variations occur in the use of the word as applied to
+people. In the West Indies it designates the descendants of any
+European race; in the United States the French-speaking native
+portion of the white race in Louisiana, whether of French or
+Spanish origin. The French Canadians are never termed creoles,
+nor is the word now used of the South Americans of Spanish or
+Portuguese descent, but in Mexico whites of pure Spanish extraction
+are still called creoles. In all the countries named,
+when a non-white creole is indicated the word negro is added.
+In Mauritius, Reunion, &amp;c., on the other hand, creole is commonly
+used to designate the black population, but is also occasionally
+used of the inhabitants of European descent. The difference in
+type between the white creoles and the European races from
+whom they have sprung, a difference often considerable, is due
+principally to changed environment&mdash;especially to the tropical
+or semi-tropical climate of the lands they inhabit. The many
+patois founded on French and Spanish, and used chiefly by creole
+negroes, are spoken of as creole languages, a term extended by
+some writers to include similar dialects spoken in countries
+where the word creole is rarely used.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. W. Cable, <i>The Creoles of Louisiana</i> (1884); A. Coelho, &ldquo;Os
+Dialetos romanicos on neo latinos na Africa, Asia e America,&rdquo; <i>Bol.
+Soc. Geo. Lisboa</i> (1884-1886), with bibliography. For the Creole
+French of Haiti see an article by Sir H. H. Johnston in <i>The Times</i>,
+April 10th, 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREON,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Lycaethus, king of Corinth
+and father of Glauce or Creusa, the second wife of Jason.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREON,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Menoeceus, king of Thebes
+after the death of Laius, the husband of his sister Jocasta.
+Thebes was then suffering from the visitation of the Sphinx, and
+Creon offered his crown and the hand of the widowed queen to
+whoever should solve the fatal riddle. Oedipus, the son of Laius,
+ignorant of his parentage, successfully accomplished the task
+and married Jocasta, his mother. By her he had two sons,
+Eteocles and Polyneices, who agreed after their father&rsquo;s death
+to reign in alternative years. Eteocles first ascended the throne,
+being the elder, but at the end of the year refused to resign,
+whereupon his brother attacked him at the head of an army
+of Argives. The war was to be decided by a single combat
+between the brothers, but both fell. Creon, who had resumed
+the government during the minority of Leodamas, the son of
+Eteocles, commanded that the Argives, and above all Polyneices,
+the cause of all the bloodshed, should not receive the rites of
+sepulture, and that any one who infringed this decree should be
+buried alive. Antigone, the sister of Polyneices, refused to obey,
+and sprinkled dust upon her brother&rsquo;s corpse. The threatened
+penalty was inflicted; but Creon&rsquo;s crime did not escape unpunished.
+His son, Haemon, the lover of Antigone, killed
+himself on her grave; and he himself was slain by Theseus.
+According to another account he was put to death by Lycus,
+the son or descendant of a former ruler of Thebes (Euripides,
+<i>Herc. Fur.</i> 31; Apollodorus iii. 5, 7; Pausanias ix. 5).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREOPHYLUS<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> of Samos, one of the earliest Greek epic
+poets. According to an epigram of Callimachus (quoted in
+Strabo xiv. p. 638) he was the author of a poem called <span class="grk" title="Oichalias halôsis">
+&#927;&#7984;&#967;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#7941;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> , which told the story of the conquest of Oechalia by
+Heracles. Creophylus was said to have been a friend or relative
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+of Homer, who, according to another tradition, was himself the
+author of the <span class="grk" title="Halôsis">&#8158;&#913;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, and presented it to Creophylus in return
+for the latter&rsquo;s hospitality.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. G. Welcker, <i>Der epische Cyclus</i> (1865-1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREOSOTE,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> <span class="sc">Creasote</span> or <span class="sc">Kreasote</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kreas">&#954;&#961;&#941;&#945;&#962;</span>, flesh,
+and <span class="grk" title="sôzein">&#963;&#974;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to preserve), a product of the distillation of coal,
+bone oil, shale oil, and wood-tar (more especially that made
+from beech-wood). The creosote is extracted from the distillate
+by means of alkali, separated from the filtered alkaline solution
+by sulphuric acid, and then distilled with dilute alkali; the
+distillate is again treated with alkali and acid, till its purification
+is effected; it is then redistilled at 200° C., and dried by means
+of calcium chloride. It is a highly refractive, colourless, oily
+liquid, and was first obtained in 1832 by K. Reichenbach from
+beech-wood tar. It consists mainly of a mixture of phenol,
+cresol, guaiacol, creosol, xylenol, dimethyl guaiacol, ethyl
+guaiacol, and various methyl ethers of pyrogallol. Creosote has
+a strong odour and hot taste, and burns with a smoky flame.
+It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins, and many acids and
+colouring matters; and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and carbon
+disulphide, and in 80 parts by volume of water. It is distinguished
+from carbolic acid by the following properties:&mdash;it
+rotates the plane of polarized light to the right, forms with
+collodion a transparent fluid, and is nearly insoluble in glycerin;
+whereas carbolic acid has no effect on polarized light, gives with
+about two-thirds of its volume of collodion a gelatinous mass,
+and is soluble in all proportions in glycerin; further, alcohol and
+ferric chloride produce with creosote a green solution, turned
+brown by water, with carbolic acid a brown, and on the addition
+of water a blue solution. Creosote, like carbolic acid, is a
+powerful antiseptic, and readily coagulates albuminous matter;
+wood-smoke and pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar owe to its
+presence their efficacy in preserving animal and vegetable substances
+from putrefaction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Creosote oil</i> is the name generally applied to the fraction of the
+coal tar distillate which boils between 200° and 300° C. (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal Tar</a></span>). It is a greenish-yellow fluorescent liquid, usually
+containing phenol, cresol, naphthalene, anthracene, pyridine,
+quinoline, acridine and other substances. Its chief use is for the
+preservation of timber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pharmacology and Therapeutics.</i>&mdash;Creosote derived from wood-tar
+is given medicinally in doses of from one to five minims, either
+suspended in mucilage, or in capsules. It should always be
+administered after a meal, when the gastric contents dilute it
+and prevent irritation. Creosote and carbolic acid (<i>q.v.</i>) have a
+very similar pharmacology; but there is one conspicuous exception.
+Beech-wood creosote alone should be used in medicine,
+as its composition renders it much more valuable than other
+creosotes. Its constituents circulate unchanged in the blood
+and are excreted by the lungs. Although carbolic acid has no
+value in phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) or in any other
+bacterial condition of the lungs, creosote, having volatile constituents
+which are excreted in the expired air and which are
+powerfully antiseptic, may well be of much value in these conditions.
+In phthisis creosote is now superseded by both its
+carbonate (creosotal)&mdash;given in the same doses&mdash;which causes
+less gastric disturbance, and by guaiacol itself, which may be
+given in doses up to thirty minims in capsules. The phosphate
+(phosote or phosphote), phosphite (phosphotal), and valerianate
+(eosote) also find application. Similarly the carbonate of guaiacol
+may be given in doses even as large as a drachm. Creosote may
+also be used as an inhalation with a steam atomizer. It is applicable
+not only in phthisis but in bronchiectasis, bronchitis,
+broncho-pneumonia, lobar pneumonia and all other bacterial
+lung diseases. Like carbolic acid, creosote may be used in
+toothache, and the local antiseptic and anaesthetic action which
+it shares with that substance is often of value in relieving gastric
+pain due to simple ulcer or cancer, and in those forms of vomiting
+which are due to gastric irritation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the determination and separation of the various constituents
+of creosote see F. Tiemann, <i>Ber.</i> (1881), 14, p. 2005; A. Béhal and C.
+Choay, <i>Comptes rendus</i> (1893), 116, p. 197; and L. F. Kebler, <i>Amer.
+Jour. Pharm.</i> (1899), p. 409.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREPUSCULAR<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>crepusculum</i>, twilight), of or
+belonging to the twilight, hence indistinct or glimmering; in
+zoology the word is used of animals that appear before sunrise
+or nightfall.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉQUY,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a French family which originated in Picardy, and
+took its name from a small lordship in the present Pas-de-Calais.
+Its genealogy goes back to the 10th century, and from it originated
+the noble houses of Blécourt, Canaples, Heilly and Royon.
+Henri de Créquy was killed at the siege of Damietta in 1240;
+Jacques de Créquy, marshal of Guienne, was killed at Agincourt
+with his brothers Jean and Raoul; Jean de Créquy, lord of
+Canaples, was in the Burgundian service, and took part in the
+defence of Paris against Joan of Arc in 1429, received the order
+of the Golden Fleece in 1431, and was ambassador to Aragon
+and France; Antoine de Créquy was one of the boldest captains
+of Francis I., and died in consequence of an accident at the siege
+of Hesdin in 1523. Jean VIII., sire de Créquy, prince de Poix,
+seigneur de Canaples (d. 1555), left three sons, the eldest of whom,
+Antoine de Créquy (1535-1574), inherited the family estates on
+the death of his brothers at St Quentin in 1557. He was raised
+to the cardinalate, and his nephew and heir, Antoine de Blanchefort,
+assumed the name and arms of Créquy.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I. de Blanchefort, marquis de Créquy, prince de Poix,
+duc de Lesdiguières (1578-1638), marshal of France, son of the
+last-named, saw his first fighting before Laon in 1594, and was
+wounded at the capture of Saint Jean d&rsquo;Angély in 1621. In
+the next year he became a marshal of France. He served through
+the Piedmontese campaign in aid of Savoy in 1624 as second in
+command to the constable, François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières,
+whose daughter Madeleine he had married in 1595. He
+inherited in 1626 the estates and title of his father-in-law, who
+had induced him, after the death of his first wife, to marry
+her half-sister Françoise. He was also lieutenant-general of
+Dauphiné. In 1633 he was ambassador to Rome, and in 1636
+to Venice. He fought in the Italian campaigns of 1630, 1635,
+1636 and 1637, when he helped to defeat the Spaniards at
+Monte Baldo. He was killed on the 17th of March 1638 in an
+attempt to raise the siege of Crema, a fortress in the Milanese.
+He had a quarrel extending over years with Philip, the bastard of
+Savoy, which ended in a duel fatal to Philip in 1599; and in 1620
+he defended Saint-Aignan, who was his prisoner of war, against
+a prosecution threatened by Louis XIII. Some of his letters
+are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and his
+life was written by N. Chorier (Grenoble, 1683).</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, François, comte de Sault, due de Lesdiguières
+(1600-1677), governor and lieutenant-general of Dauphiné,
+took the name and arms of Bonne. The younger, Charles II.
+de Créquy, seigneur de Canaples, was killed at the siege of
+Chambéry in 1630, leaving three sons&mdash;Charles III., sieur de
+Blanchefort, prince de Poix, duc de Créquy (1623?-1687);
+Alphonse de Créquy, comte de Canaples (d. 1711), who became
+on the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1702
+duc de Lesdiguières, and eventually succeeded also to his younger
+brother&rsquo;s honours; and François, chevalier de Créquy and
+marquis de Marines, marshal of France (1625-1687).</p>
+
+<p>The last-named was born in 1625, and as a boy took part in
+the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, distinguishing himself so greatly that
+at the age of twenty-six he was made a <i>maréchal de camp</i>, and
+a lieutenant-general before he was thirty. He was regarded
+as the most brilliant of the younger officers, and won the favour
+of Louis XIV. by his fidelity to the court during the second
+Fronde. In 1667 he served on the Rhine, and in 1668 he commanded
+the covering army during Louis XIV.&rsquo;s siege of Lille,
+after the surrender of which the king rewarded him with the
+marshalate. In 1670 he overran the duchy of Lorraine. Shortly
+after this Turenne, his old commander, was made marshal-general,
+and all the marshals were placed under his orders. Many resented
+this, and Créquy, in particular, whose career of uninterrupted
+success had made him over-confident, went into exile
+rather than serve under Turenne. After the death of Turenne
+and the retirement of Condé, he became the most important
+general officer in the army, but his over-confidence was punished
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+by the severe defeat of Conzer Brück (1675) and the surrender of
+Trier and his own captivity which followed. But in the later
+campaigns of this war (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>) he showed himself
+again a cool, daring and successful commander, and, carrying on
+the tradition of Turenne and Condé, he was in his turn the
+pattern of the younger generals of the stamp of Luxembourg
+and Villars. He died in Paris on the 3rd of February 1687.</p>
+
+<p>Alphonse de Créquy had not the talent of his brothers, and
+lost his various appointments in France. He went to London in
+1672, where he became closely allied with Saint Évremond,
+and was one of the intimates of King Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>Charles III. de Créquy served in the campaigns of 1642 and
+1645 in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and in Catalonia in 1649. In 1646,
+after the siege of Orbitello, he was made lieutenant-general by
+Louis. By faithful service during the king&rsquo;s minority he had won
+the gratitude of Anne of Austria and of Mazarin, and in 1652 he
+became duc de Créquy and a peer of France. The latter half of
+his life was spent at court, where he held the office of first gentleman
+of the royal chamber, which had been bought for him by
+his grandfather. In 1659 he was sent to Spain with gifts for the
+infanta Maria Theresa, and on a similar errand to Bavaria in
+1680 before the marriage of the dauphin. He was ambassador
+to Rome from 1662 to 1665, and to England in 1677; and became
+governor of Paris in 1675. He died in Paris on the 13th of
+February 1687. His only daughter, Madeleine, married Charles
+de la Trémoille (1655-1709).</p>
+
+<p>The marshal François de Créquy had two sons, whose brilliant
+military abilities bade fair to rival his own. The elder, François
+Joseph, marquis de Créquy (1662-1702), already held the grade
+of lieutenant-general when he was killed at Luzzara on the
+13th of August 1702; and Nicolas Charles, sire de Créquy, was
+killed before Tournai in 1696 at the age of twenty-seven.</p>
+
+<p>A younger branch of the Créquy family, that of Hémont, was
+represented by Louis Marie, marquis de Créquy (1705-1741),
+author of the <i>Principes philosophiques des saints solitaires
+d&rsquo;Égypte</i> (1779), and husband of the marquise separately noticed
+below, and became extinct with the death in 1801 of his son,
+Charles Marie, who had some military reputation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a detailed genealogy of the family and its alliances see Moreri,
+<i>Dictionnaire historique; Annuaire de la noblesse française</i> (1856 and
+1867). There is much information about the Créquys in the <i>Mémoires</i>
+of Saint-Simon.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRÉQUY, RENÉE CAROLINE DE FROULLAY,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquise de</span>
+(1714-1803), was born on the 19th of October 1714, at the château
+of Monfleaux (Mayenne), the daughter of Lieutenant-General
+Charles François de Froullay. She was educated by her maternal
+grandmother, and married in 1737 Louis Marie, marquis de
+Créquy (see above), who died four years after the marriage.
+Madame de Créquy devoted herself to the care of her only son,
+who rewarded her with an ingratitude which was the chief
+sorrow of her life. In 1755 she began to receive in Paris, among
+her intimates being D&rsquo;Alembert and J. J. Rousseau. She had
+none of the frivolity generally associated with the women of her
+time and class, and presently became extremely religious with
+inclinations to Jansenism. D&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s visits ceased when she
+adopted religion, and she was nearly seventy when she formed
+the great friendship of her life with Sénac de Meilhan, whom she
+met in 1781, and with whom she carried on a correspondence
+(edited by Édouard Fournier, with a preface by Sainte-Beuve
+in 1856). She commented on and criticized Meilhan&rsquo;s works and
+helped his reputation. She was arrested in 1793 and imprisoned
+in the convent of Les Oiseaux until the fall of Robespierre
+(July 1794). The well-known <i>Souvenirs de la marquise de
+Créquy</i> (1710-1803), printed in 7 volumes, 1834-1835, and
+purporting to be addressed to her grandson, Tancrède de Créquy,
+was the production of a Breton adventurer, Cousin de Courchamps.
+The first two volumes appeared in English in 1834 and
+were severely criticized in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the notice prefixed by Sainte-Beuve to the <i>Lettres</i>; P. L.
+Jacob, <i>Énigmes et découvertes bibliographiques</i> (Paris, 1866); Quérard,
+<i>Superchéries littéraires</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Créquy&rdquo;; <i>L&rsquo;Ombre de la marquise de
+Créquy aux lecteurs des souvenirs</i> (1836) exposes the forgery of the
+<i>Mémoires</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (1340-1410), Spanish
+philosopher. His work, <i>The Light of the Lord</i> (<i>&rsquo;Or &rsquo;Adonai</i>),
+deeply affected Spinoza, and thus his philosophy became of
+wide importance. Maimonides (<i>q.v.</i>) had brought Jewish thought
+entirely under the domination of Aristotle. The work of Crescas,
+though it had no immediate success, ended in effecting its liberation.
+He refused to base Judaism on speculative philosophy
+alone; there was a deep emotional side to his thought. Thus he
+based Judaism on love, not on knowledge; love was the bond
+between God and man, and man&rsquo;s fundamental duty was love as
+expressed in obedience to God&rsquo;s will. Spinoza derived from
+Crescas his distinction between attributes and properties; he
+shared Crescas&rsquo;s views on creation and free will, and in the whole
+trend of his thought the influence of Crescas is strongly marked.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. G. Hirsch, <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>, iv. 350.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESCENT<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crescens</i>, growing), originally the waxing
+moon, hence a name applied to the shape of the moon in its first
+quarter. The crescent is employed as a charge in heraldry, with
+its horns vertical; when they are turned to the dexter side of the
+shield, it is called increscent, when to the sinister, decrescent.
+A crescent is used as a difference to denote the second son of a
+house; thus the earls of Harrington place a crescent upon a
+crescent, as descending from the second son of a second son.
+An order of the crescent was instituted by Charles I. of Naples
+and Sicily in 1268, and revived by René of Anjou in 1464. A
+Turkish order or decoration of the crescent was instituted by
+Sultan Selim III. in 1799, in memory of the diamond crescent
+which he had presented to Nelson after the battle of the Nile, and
+which Nelson wore on his coat as if it were an order.</p>
+
+<p>The crescent is the military and religious symbol of the
+Ottoman Turks. According to the story told by Hesychius
+of Miletus, during the siege of Byzantium by Philip of Macedon
+the moon suddenly appeared, the dogs began to bark and
+aroused the inhabitants, who were thus enabled to frustrate
+the enemy&rsquo;s scheme of undermining the walls. The grateful
+Byzantines erected a statue to &ldquo;torch-bearing&rdquo; Hecate, and
+adopted the lunar crescent as the badge of the city. It is generally
+supposed that it was in turn adopted by the Turks after the
+capture of Constantinople in 1453, either as a badge of triumph,
+or to commemorate a partial eclipse of the moon on the night of
+the final attack. In reality, it seems to have been used by them
+long before that event. Ala ud-din, the Seljuk sultan of Iconium
+(1245-1254), and Ertoghrul, his lieutenant and the founder of
+the Ottoman branch of the Turkish race, assumed it as a device,
+and it appeared on the standard of the janissaries of Sultan
+Orkhan (1326-1360). Since the new moon is associated with
+special acts of devotion in Turkey&mdash;where, as in England, there
+is a popular superstition that it is unlucky to see it through glass&mdash;it
+may originally have been adopted in consequence of its religious
+significance. According to Professor Ridgeway, however,
+the Turkish crescent, like that seen on modern horse-trappings,
+has nothing to do with the new moon, but is the result of the base-to-base
+conjunction of two claw or tusk amulets, an example of
+which has been brought to light during the excavations of the
+site of the temple of Artemis Orthia at Sparta (see <i>Athenaeum</i>,
+March 21, 1908). There is nothing distinctively Turkish in
+the combination of crescent and star which appears on the
+Turkish national standard; the latter is shown by coins and
+inscriptions to have been an ancient Illyrian symbol, and is of
+course common in knightly and decorative orders. It is doubtful
+whether any opposition between crescent and cross, as symbols
+of Islam and Christianity, was ever intended by the Turks; and
+it is an historical error to attribute the crescent to the Saracens
+of crusading times or the Moors in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Crescent is also the name of a Turkish musical instrument.
+In architecture, a crescent is a street following the arc of a circle;
+the name in this sense was first used in the Royal Crescent at
+Bath.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (1663-1728), Italian
+critic and poet, was born at Macerata in 1663. Having been
+educated by a French priest at Rome, he entered the Jesuits&rsquo;
+college of his native town, where he produced a tragedy on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span>
+story of Darius, and versified the <i>Pharsalia</i>. In 1679 he received
+the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1680 he removed again to
+Rome. The study of Filicaja and Leonico having convinced
+him that he and all his contemporaries were working in a wrong
+direction, he resolved to attempt a general reform. In 1690,
+in conjunction with fourteen others, he founded the celebrated
+academy of the Arcadians, and began the contest against false
+taste and its adherents. The academy was most successful;
+branch societies were opened in all the principal cities of Italy;
+and the influence of Marini, opposed by the simplicity and elegance
+of such models as Costanzo, soon died away. Crescimbeni
+officiated as secretary to the Arcadians for thirty-eight years.
+In 1705 he was made canon of Santa Maria; in 1715 he obtained
+the chief curacy attached to the same church; and about two
+months before he died (1728) he was admitted a member of the
+order of Jesus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal work is the <i>Istoria della volgar poesia</i> (Rome, 1698),
+an estimate of all the poets of Italy, past and contemporary, which
+may yet be consulted with advantage. The most important of his
+numerous other publications are the <i>Commentarij</i> (5 vols., Rome,
+1702-1711), and <i>La Bellezza della volgar poezia</i> (Rome, 1700).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESILAS,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> a Cretan sculptor of Cydonia. He was a contemporary
+of Pheidias, and one of the sculptors who vied in
+producing statues of amazons at Ephesus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>)
+about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As his amazon was wounded (<i>volnerata</i>; Pliny,
+<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 75), we may safely identify it with the figure,
+of which several copies are extant, who is carefully removing
+her blood-stained garment from a wound under the right breast.
+Another work of Cresilas of which copies survive is the portrait
+of Pericles, the earliest Greek portrait which has been with
+certainty identified, and which fully confirms the statement
+of ancient critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and
+added nobility to men of noble type. An extant portrait of
+Anacreon is also derived from Cresilas.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESOLS<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Methyl Phenols</span>, C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O or C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·CH<span class="su">3</span>·OH.
+The three isomeric cresols are found in the tar obtained in the
+destructive distillation of coal, beech-wood and pine. The crude
+cresol obtained from tar cannot be separated into its different
+constituents by fractional distillation, since the boiling points of
+the three isomers are very close together. The pure substances
+are best obtained by fusion of the corresponding toluene sulphonic
+acids with potash.</p>
+
+<p>Ortho-cresol, CH<span class="su">3</span>(1)·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·OH(2), occurs as sulphate in the
+urine of the horse. It may be prepared by fusion of ortho-toluene
+sulphonic acid with potash; by the action of phosphorus pentoxide
+on carvacrol; or by the action of zinc chloride on camphor.
+It is a crystalline solid, which melts at 30° C. and boils at 190.8°
+C. Fusion with alkalis converts it into salicylic acid.</p>
+
+<p>Meta-cresol, CH<span class="su">3</span>(1)·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·OH(3), is formed when thymol
+(para-isopropyl-meta-cresol)
+is heated with phosphorus pentoxide.
+Propylene is liberated during the reaction, and the phosphoric
+acid ester of meta-cresol which is formed is then fused with
+potash. It can also be prepared by distilling meta-oxyuvitic acid
+with lime, or by the action of air on boiling toluene in the presence
+of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, <i>Ann. Chim.
+Phys.</i>, 1888 [6], 14, p. 436). It solidifies in a freezing mixture, on
+the addition of a crystal of phenol, and then melts at 3°-4° C.
+It boils at 202°.8 C. Its aqueous solution is coloured bluish-violet
+by ferric chloride.</p>
+
+<p>Para-cresol, CH<span class="su">3</span>(1)·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·OH(4), occurs as sulphate in the
+urine of the horse. It is also found in horse&rsquo;s liver, being one of
+the putrefaction products of tyrosine. It may be prepared by the
+fusion of para-toluene sulphonic acid with potash; by the action
+of nitrous acid on para-toluidine; or by heating para-oxyphenyl
+acetic acid with lime. It crystallizes in prisms which melt at
+36° C. and boil at 201°.8 C. It is soluble in water, and the aqueous
+solution gives a blue coloration with ferric chloride. When
+treated with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate, no
+chlorinated quinones are obtained (M. S. Southworth, <i>Ann.</i>
+(1873), 168, p. 271), a behaviour which distinguishes it from
+ortho- and meta-cresol.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the composition of commercial cresylic acid see A. H. Allen,
+<i>Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry</i> (1890), 9, p. 141. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Creosote</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESPI, DANIELE<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1590-1630), Italian historical painter,
+was born near Milan, and studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi
+and Giulio Procaccini. He was an excellent colourist; his
+drawing was correct and vigorous, and he grouped his compositions
+with much ability. His best work, a series of pictures from
+the life of Saint Bruno, is in the monastery of the Carthusians
+at Milan. Among the most famous of his paintings is a &ldquo;Stoning
+of St Stephen&rdquo; at Brera, and there are several excellent examples
+of his work in the city of his birth and at Pavia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1557-1663), called Il Cerano,
+Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano in
+the Milanese. He was a scholar of considerable attainments,
+and held a position of dignity in his native city. He was head of
+the Milanese Academy founded by Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo,
+and he was the teacher of Guercino. He is most famous as a
+painter; and, though his figures are neither natural nor graceful,
+his colouring is good, and his designs full of ideal beauty.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1665-1747), Italian painter,
+called &ldquo;Lo Spagnuolo&rdquo; from his fondness for rich apparel,
+was born at Bologna, and was trained under Angelo Toni,
+Domenico Canuti and Carlo Cignani. He then went through
+a course of copying from Correggio and Barocci; this he followed
+up with a journey to Venice for the sake of Titian and Paul
+Veronese; and late in life he proclaimed himself a follower of
+Guercino and Pietro da Cortona. He was a good colourist and
+a facile executant, and was wont to employ the camera obscura
+with great success in the treatment of light and shadow; but
+he was careless and unconscientious. He was a clever portrait-painter
+and a brilliant caricaturist; and his etchings after
+Rembrandt and Salvator are in some demand. His greatest
+work, a &ldquo;Massacre of the Innocents,&rdquo; is at Bologna; but the
+Dresden gallery possesses twelve examples of him, among which
+is his celebrated series of the Seven Sacraments.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESS,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> in botany. &ldquo;Garden Cress&rdquo; (<i>Lepidium sativum</i>) is
+an annual plant (nat. ord. Cruciferae), known as a cultivated
+plant at the present day in Europe, North Africa, western Asia
+and India, but its origin is obscure. Alphonse de Candolle
+(<i>L&rsquo;Origine des plantes cultivées</i>) says its cultivation must date from
+ancient times and be widely diffused, for very different names
+for it exist in the Arab, Persian, Albanian, Hindustani and
+Bengali tongues. He considered the plant to be of Persian
+origin, whence it may have spread after the Sanskrit epoch
+(there is no Sanskrit name for it) into the gardens of India,
+Syria, Greece and North Africa. It is used in salads, the young
+plants being cut and eaten while still in the seed-leaf, forming,
+along with plants of the white mustard in the same stage of
+growth, what is commonly called &ldquo;small salad.&rdquo; The seeds
+should be sown thickly broadcast or in rows in succession every
+ten or fourteen days, according to the demand. The sowings
+may be made in the open ground from March till October, the
+earliest under hand-glasses, and the summer ones in a cool
+moist situation, where water from trees, shrubs, walls, &amp;c.,
+cannot fall on or near them. The grit thrown up by falling
+water pierces the tender tissues of the cress, and cannot be
+thoroughly removed by washing. During winter they must be
+raised on a slight hotbed, or in shallow boxes or pans placed
+in any of the glass-houses where there is a temperature of 60°
+or 65°. Cress is subject to the attack of a fungus (<i>Pythium debaryanum</i>)
+if kept too close and moist. The pest very quickly
+infects a whole sowing. There is no cure for it; preventive
+measures should therefore be taken by keeping the sowings
+fairly dry and well ventilated. The seed should be sown on new
+soil, and should not be covered.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Golden&rdquo; or &ldquo;Australian&rdquo; cress is a dwarf, yellowish-green,
+mild-flavoured sort, which is cut and eaten when a little
+more advanced in growth but while still young and tender. It
+should be sown at intervals of a month from March onwards, the
+autumn sowing, for winter and spring use, being made in a
+sheltered situation.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;curled&rdquo; or &ldquo;Normandy&rdquo; cress is a very hardy sort,
+of good flavour. In this, which is allowed to grow like parsley,
+the leaves are picked for use while young; and, being finely cut
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+and curled, they are well adapted for garnishing. It should be
+sown thinly, in drills, in good soil in the open borders, in March,
+April and May, and for winter and spring use at the foot of a south
+wall early in September, and about the middle of October.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water-cress.</i>&mdash;&ldquo;Water-cress&rdquo; (<i>Nasturtium officinale</i>) is a
+member of the same natural order, and a native of Great Britain.
+Although now so largely used, it does not appear to have been
+cultivated in England prior to the 19th century, though in
+Germany, especially near Erfurt, it had been grown long previously.
+Its flavour is due to an essential oil containing sulphur.
+Water-cress is largely cultivated in shallow ditches, prepared
+in wet, low-lying meadows, means being provided for flooding
+the ditches at will. Where the amount of water available is
+limited, the ditches are arranged at successively higher levels,
+so as to allow of the volume admitted to the upper ditch being
+passed successively to the others. The ditches are usually
+puddled with clay, which is covered to the depth of 9 to 12 in.
+with well-manured soil.</p>
+
+<p>A stock of plants may be raised in two ways&mdash;by cuttings, and
+by seeds. If a stock is to be raised from cuttings, the desired
+quantity of young shoots is gathered&mdash;those sold in bunches for
+salad serve the purpose well&mdash;and reduced where necessary to
+about 3 in. in length, the basal and frequently rooted portion
+being rejected. They are dibbled thickly into one of the ditches,
+and only enough water admitted to just cover the soil. If the
+start is made in late spring, the cuttings will be rooted in a week.
+They are allowed to remain for another week or two, and are then
+taken up and dropped about 9 in. apart into the other ditches,
+which have been slightly flooded to receive them. There is no
+need to plant them&mdash;the young roots will very soon be securely
+anchored. The volume of water is increased as the plants grow.
+If raised from seed, the seed-bed is prepared as for cuttings, and
+seed sown either in drills or broadcast. No flooding is done until
+the seedlings are up. Water is then admitted, the level being
+raised as the plants grow. When 5 or 6 in. high, they are taken
+up and dropped into their permanent quarters precisely like
+those raised from cuttings.</p>
+
+<p>Cultivated as above described, the plants afford frequent
+cuttings of large clean cress of excellent flavour for market
+purposes. Sooner or later growth will become less vigorous and
+flowering shoots will be produced. This will be accompanied by
+a pronounced deterioration of the remaining vegetative shoots.
+These signs will be interpreted by the grower to mean that his
+plants, as a market crop, are worn out. He will therefore take
+steps to repeat the routine of culture above described. In the
+winter the ditches are flooded to protect the cress from frost.</p>
+
+<p>The best-flavoured water-cress is produced in the pure water of
+running streams over chalk or gravel soil. Should the water be
+contaminated by sewage or other undesirable matter, the plants
+not only absorb some of the impurities but also serve to anchor
+much of the solid particles washed as scum among them. This is
+extremely difficult to dislodge by washing, and renders the cress a
+source of danger as food.</p>
+
+<p>Water-cress for domestic use may be raised as a kitchen-garden
+crop if frequently watered overhead. Beds to afford cress during
+the summer should be made in broad trenches on a border facing
+north. It may also be raised in pots or pans stood in saucers of
+water and frequently watered overhead.</p>
+
+<p>In recent years in America attention has been paid to the
+injury done to water-cress beds by the &ldquo;water-cress sow-bug&rdquo;
+(<i>Mancasellus brachyurus</i>), and the &ldquo;water-cress leaf-beetle&rdquo;
+(<i>Phaedon aeruginosa</i>). Another species of <i>Phaedon</i> is known in
+England as &ldquo;blue beetle&rdquo; or &ldquo;mustard beetle,&rdquo; and is a pest
+also of mustard, cabbage and kohlrabi (see F. H. Chittenden, in
+<i>Bulletin</i> 66, part ii. of Bureau of Entomology, United States
+Department of Agriculture, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;nasturtium&rdquo; is applied in gardens, but incorrectly,
+to species of <i>Tropaeolum</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESSENT, CHARLES<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1685-1768), French furniture-maker,
+sculptor and <i>fondeur-ciseleur</i>. As the second son of François
+Cressent, <i>sculpteur du roi</i>, and grandson of Charles Cressent, a
+furniture-maker of Amiens, who also became a sculptor, he
+inherited the tastes and aptitudes which were likely to make a
+finished designer and craftsman. Even more important perhaps
+was the fact that he was a pupil of André Charles Boulle.
+Trained in such surroundings, it is not surprising that he should
+have reached a degree of achievement which has to a great
+extent justified the claim that he was the best decorative artist
+of the 18th century. Cressent&rsquo;s distinction is closely connected
+with the regency, but his earlier work had affinities with the
+school of Boulle, while his later pieces were full of originality.
+He was an artist in the widest sense of the word. He not
+only designed and made furniture, but created the magnificent
+gilded enrichments which are so characteristic of his work. He
+was likewise a sculptor, and among his plastic work is known
+to have been a bronze bust of Louis, duc d&rsquo;Orléans, the son
+of the regent, for whom Cressent had made one of the finest
+examples of French furniture of the 18th century&mdash;the famous
+<i>médaillier</i> now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. Cressent&rsquo;s bronze
+mounts were executed with a sharpness of finish and a grace and
+vigour of outline which were hardly excelled by his great contemporary
+Jacques Caffieri. His female figures placed at the
+corners of tables are indeed among the most delicious achievements
+of the great days of the French metal worker. Much of
+Cressent&rsquo;s work survives, and can be identified; the Louvre and
+the Wallace collection are especially rich in it, and his commode
+at Hertford House with gilt handles representing Chinese dragons
+is perhaps the most elaborate piece he ever produced. The work
+of identification is rendered comparatively easy in his case by the
+fact that he published catalogues of three sales of his work. These
+catalogues are highly characteristic of the man, who shared in no
+small degree the personal <i>bravoura</i> of Cellini, and could sometimes
+execute almost as well. He did not hesitate to describe himself
+as the author of &ldquo;a clock worthy to be placed in the very finest
+cabinets,&rdquo; &ldquo;the most distinguished bronzes,&rdquo; or pieces of &ldquo;the
+most elegant form adorned with bronzes of extra richness.&rdquo; He
+worked much in marqueterie, both in tortoiseshell and in brilliant
+coloured woods. He was indeed an artist to whom colour
+appealed with especial force. The very type and exemplar of
+the &ldquo;feeling&rdquo; of the regency, he is worthy to have given his own
+name to some of the fashions which he deduced from it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1794-1863), English judge,
+was a descendant of an old Northumberland family, and was born
+at Newcastle in 1794. He was educated at the Charterhouse and
+at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1814,
+and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the profession of the
+law he studied at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in
+1819. He joined the northern circuit, and was not long in earning
+a distinguished position among his professional brethren. In 1837
+he entered parliament as Conservative member for Liverpool,
+and he soon gained a reputation as an acute and learned debater
+on all constitutional questions. In January 1842 he was made a
+judge of the court of common pleas, being knighted at the same
+time; and this post he occupied for sixteen years. When the
+new court for probate, divorce and matrimonial causes was
+established (1858), Sir Cresswell Cresswell was requested by the
+Liberal government to become its first judge and undertake the
+arduous task of its organization. Although he had already
+earned a right to retire, and possessed large private wealth,
+he accepted this new task, and during the rest of his life devoted
+himself to it most assiduously and conscientiously, with complete
+satisfaction to the public. In one case only, out of the very large
+number on which he pronounced judgment, was his decision
+reversed. His death was sudden. By a fall from his horse on the
+11th of July 1863 his knee-cap was injured. He was recovering
+from this when on the 29th of the same month he died of disease
+of the heart.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Foss&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i>
+(1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (c. 1605-1674), English Benedictine
+monk, whose religious name was Serenus, was born at
+Wakefield, Yorkshire, about 1605. He went to Oxford at the
+age of fourteen, and in 1626 became a fellow of Merton College.
+Having taken orders, he rose to the dignity of dean of Leighlin,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span>
+Ireland, and canon of Windsor. He also acted as chaplain to Lord
+Wentworth, afterwards the celebrated earl of Strafford. For some
+time he travelled abroad as tutor to Lord Falmouth, and in 1646,
+during a visit to Rome, joined the Roman Catholic Church. In
+the following year he published his <i>Exomologesis</i> (Paris, 1647), or
+account of his conversion, which was highly valued by Roman
+Catholics as an answer to William Chillingworth&rsquo;s attacks.
+Cressy entered the Benedictine Order in 1649, and for four years
+resided at Somerset House as chaplain to Catherine of Braganza,
+wife of Charles II. He died at West Grinstead on the 10th
+of August 1674. Cressy&rsquo;s chief work, <i>The Church History of
+Brittanny or England, from the beginning of Christianity to the
+Norman Conquest</i> (1st vol. only published, Rouen, 1668), gives an
+exhaustive account of the foundation of monasteries during the
+Saxon heptarchy, and asserts that they followed the Benedictine
+rule, differing in this respect from many historians. The work
+was much criticized by Lord Clarendon, but defended by Antony
+à Wood in his <i>Athenae Oxoniensis</i>, who supports Cressy&rsquo;s statement
+that it was compiled from original MSS. and from the
+<i>Annales Ecclesiae Britannicae</i> of Michael Alford, <i>Dugdale&rsquo;s
+Monasticon</i>, and the <i>Decem Scriptores Historiae Anglicanae</i>. The
+second part of the history, which has never been printed, was
+discovered at Douai in 1856. To Roman Catholics Cressy&rsquo;s name
+is familiar as the editor of Walter Hilton&rsquo;s <i>Scale of Perfection</i>
+(London, 1659); of Father A. Baker&rsquo;s <i>Sancta Sophia</i> (2 vols.,
+Douai, 1657); and of Juliana of Norwich&rsquo;s <i>Sixteen Revelations
+on the Love of God</i> (1670). These books, which would have been
+lost but for Cressy&rsquo;s zeal, have been frequently reprinted, and
+have been favourably regarded by a section of the Anglican
+Church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a complete list of Cressy&rsquo;s works see J. Gillow&rsquo;s <i>Bibl. Dict.
+of Eng. Catholics</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREST,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department of
+Drôme, on the right bank of the Drôme, 20 m. S.S.E. of Valence
+by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 3971; commune, 5660. It carries
+on silk-worm breeding, silk-spinning, and the manufacture of
+woollens, paper, leather and cement. There is trade in truffles.
+On the rock which commands the town stands a huge keep, the
+sole survival of a castle (12th century) to which Crest was indebted
+for its importance in the middle ages and the Religious
+Wars. The rest of the castle was destroyed in the first half of
+the 17th century, after which the keep was used as a state prison.
+Crest ranked for a time as the capital of the duchy of Valentinois,
+and in that capacity belonged before the Revolution to the
+prince of Monaco. The communal charter, graven on stone and
+dating from the 12th century, is preserved in the public archives.
+Ten miles south-east of Crest lies the picturesque Forest of
+Saon.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREST<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crista</i>, a plume or tuft), the &ldquo;comb&rdquo; on an
+animal&rsquo;s head, and so any feathery tuft or excrescence, the
+&ldquo;cone&rdquo; of a helmet (by transference, the helmet itself), and the
+top or summit of anything. In heraldry (<i>q.v.</i>) a crest is a device,
+originally borne as a cognizance on a knight&rsquo;s helmet, placed on
+a wreath above helmet and shield in armorial bearings, and used
+separately on a seal or on articles of property.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cresting</i>, in architecture, is an ornamental finish in the wall
+or ridge of a building, which is common on the continent of
+Europe. An example occurs at Exeter cathedral, the ridge of
+which is ornamented with a range of small <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> in lead.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESTON,<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Union county, Iowa,
+U.S.A., about 60 m. S.W. of Des Moines, at the crossing of the
+main line and two branches of the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy
+railway. Pop. (1890) 7200; (1900) 7752; (1905, state census)
+8382 (753 foreign-born); (1910) 6924. The city is on the crest
+of the divide between the Mississippi and the Missouri basins
+at an altitude of about 1310 ft.&mdash;whence its name. It is situated
+in a fine farming and stock-raising region, for which it is a
+shipping point. The site was chosen in 1869 by the Burlington
+&amp; Missouri River Railroad Company (subsequently merged in
+the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy Railroad Company) for the
+location of its shops. Creston was incorporated as a town in
+1869, and was chartered as a city in 1871.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESWICK, THOMAS<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (1811-1869), English landscape-painter,
+was born at Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham.
+At Birmingham he first began to paint. His earliest
+appearance as an exhibitor was in 1827, at the Society of British
+Artists in London; in the ensuing year he sent to the Royal
+Academy the two pictures named &ldquo;Llyn Gwynant, Morning,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Carnarvon Castle.&rdquo; About the same time he settled in
+London; and in 1836 he took a house in Bayswater. He soon
+attracted some attention as a landscape-painter, and had a
+career of uniform and encouraging, though not signal success.
+In 1842 he was elected an associate, and in 1850 a full member
+of the Royal Academy, which, for several years before his death,
+numbered hardly any other full members representing this branch
+of art. In his early practice he set an example, then too much
+needed, of diligent study of nature out of doors, painting on the
+spot all the substantial part of several of his pictures. English
+and Welsh streams may be said to have formed his favourite
+subjects, and generally British rural scenery, mostly under its
+cheerful, calm and pleasurable aspects, in open daylight. This
+he rendered with elegant and equable skill, colour rather grey in
+tint, especially in his later years, and more than average technical
+accomplishment; his works have little to excite, but would, in
+most conditions of public taste, retain their power to attract.
+Creswick was industrious and extremely prolific; he produced,
+besides a steady outpouring of paintings, numerous illustrations
+for books. He was personally genial&mdash;a dark, bulky man,
+somewhat heavy and graceless in aspect in his later years. He
+died at his house in Bayswater, Linden Grove, on the 28th of
+December 1869, after a few years of declining health. Among
+his principal works may be named &ldquo;England&rdquo; (1847); &ldquo;Home
+by the Sands, and a Squally Day&rdquo; (1848); &ldquo;Passing
+Showers&rdquo; (1849); &ldquo;The Wind on Shore, a First Glimpse of the
+Sea, and Old Trees&rdquo; (1850); &ldquo;A Mountain Lake, Moonrise&rdquo;
+(1852); &ldquo;Changeable Weather&rdquo; (1865); also the &ldquo;London
+Road, a Hundred Years ago&rdquo;; &ldquo;The Weald of Kent&rdquo;; the
+&ldquo;Valley Mill&rdquo; (a Cornish subject); a &ldquo;Shady Glen&rdquo;; the
+&ldquo;Windings of a River&rdquo;; the &ldquo;Shade of the Beech Trees&rdquo;;
+the &ldquo;Course of the Greta&rdquo;; the &ldquo;Wharfe&rdquo;; &ldquo;Glendalough,&rdquo;
+and other Irish subjects, 1836 to 1840; the &ldquo;Forest Farm.&rdquo;
+Frith for figures, and Ansdell for animals, occasionally worked in
+collaboration with Creswick.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1873 T. O. Barlow, the engraver, published a catalogue of
+Creswick&rsquo;s works.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRESWICK,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia.
+85½ m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3060. It is the
+centre of a mining, pastoral and agricultural district. Gold is
+found both in alluvial and quartz formations, the quartz being
+especially rich. The surrounding country is fertile and well-timbered,
+and there is a government plantation and nursery in
+connexion with the forests department.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> in geology, the group of stratified
+rocks which normally occupy a position above the Jurassic
+system and below the oldest Tertiary deposits; therefore it is
+in this system that the closing records of the great Mesozoic era
+are to be found. The name furnishes an excellent illustration of
+the inconvenience of employing a local lithological feature in
+the descriptive title of a wide-ranging rock-system. The white
+chalk (Lat. <i>creta</i>), which gives its name to the system, was first
+studied in the Anglo-Parisian basin, where it takes a prominent
+place; but even in this limited area there is a considerable
+thickness and variety of rocks which are not chalky, and the
+Cretaceous system as a whole contains a remarkable diversity
+of types of sediment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;The earlier subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks
+were founded upon the uncertain ground of similarity in lithological
+characters, assisted by observed stratigraphical sequence.
+This method yielded poor results even in a circumscribed area like
+Great Britain, and it breaks down utterly when applied to the
+correlation of rocks of similar age in Europe and elsewhere.
+Study of the fossils, however, has elicited the fact that certain
+forms characterize certain &ldquo;zones,&rdquo; which are preceded and
+succeeded by other zones each bearing a peculiar species or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+distinctive assemblage of species. By these means the Cretaceous
+rocks of the world have now been correlated zone with zone,
+with a degree of exactitude proportional to the palaeontological
+information gained in the several areas of occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>The Cretaceous system falls naturally into two divisions,
+an upper and a lower, in all but a few limited regions. In the
+table on page 288 the names of the principal stages are
+enumerated; these are capable of world-wide application.
+The sub-stages are of more local value, and too much importance
+must not be attached to them for the correlation of distant
+deposits. The general table is designed to show the relative
+position in the system of some of the more important and better-known
+formations; but it must be remembered that the Cretaceous
+rocks of Europe can now be classified in considerable detail
+by their fossils, the most accurate group for this purpose being
+the cephalopods. The smaller table was compiled by T. C.
+Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury to show the main subdivisions
+of the North American Cretaceous rocks. The correlation of the
+minor subdivisions of Europe and America are only approximate.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:600px; height:473px" src="images/img415.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Relation of the Cretaceous Strata to the Systems above and below.</i>&mdash;In
+central and northern Europe the boundary between the
+Cretaceous and Tertiary strata is sharply defined by a fairly
+general unconformity, except in the Danian and Montian beds,
+where there is a certain commingling of Tertiary with Cretaceous
+fossils. The relations with the underlying Jurassic rocks are not
+so clearly defined, partly because the earliest Cretaceous rocks are
+obscured by too great a thickness of younger strata, and partly
+because the lowest observable rocks of the system are not the
+oldest, but are higher members of the system that have overlapped
+on to much older rocks. However, in the south of England,
+in the Alpine area, and in part of N.W. Germany the passage from
+Jurassic to Cretaceous is so gradual that there is some divergence
+of opinion as to the best position for the line of separation.
+In the Alpine region this passage is formed by marine beds, in
+the other two by brackish-water deposits. In a like manner
+the Potomac beds of N. America grade downwards into the
+Jurassic; while in the Laramie formation an upward passage is
+observed into the Eocene deposits. There is a very general
+unconformity and break between the Lower and Upper Cretaceous;
+this has led Chamberlin and Salisbury to suggest that the
+Lower Cretaceous should be regarded as a separate period with
+the title &ldquo;Comanchean.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Physiographical Conditions and Types of Deposit.</i>&mdash;With the
+opening of the Cretaceous in Europe there commenced a period
+of marine transgression; in the central and western European
+region this took place from the S. towards the N., slow at first and
+local in effect, but becoming more decided at the beginning of
+the upper division. During the earlier portion of the period, S.
+England, Belgium and Hanover were covered by a great series of
+estuarine sands and clays, termed the Wealden formation (<i>q.v.</i>),
+the delta of a large river or rivers flowing probably from the N.W.
+Meanwhile, in the rest of Europe alternations of marine and
+estuarine deposits were being laid down; but over the Alpine
+region lay the open sea, where there flourished coral reefs and
+great banks of clam-like molluscs. The sea gradually encroached
+upon the estuarine Wealden area, and at the time of the Aptian
+deposits uniform marine conditions prevailed from western
+Europe through Russia into Asia. This extension of the sea is
+illustrated in England by the overlap of the Gault over the
+Lower Greens and on to the older rocks, and by similar occurrences
+in N. France and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Almost throughout the Upper Cretaceous period the marine
+invasion continued, varied here and there by slight movements
+in the opposite sense which did not, however, interfere with the
+quiet general advance of the sea. This marine extension made
+itself felt over the old central plateau of France, the N. of Great
+Britain, the Spanish peninsula, the Armorican peninsula, and
+also in the Bavarian Jura and Bohemia; it affected the northern
+part of Africa and East Africa; in N. America the sea spread
+over the entire length of the Rocky Mountain region; and in
+Brazil, eastern Asia and western Australia, Upper Cretaceous
+deposits are found resting directly upon much older rocks.
+Indeed, at this time there happened one of the greatest changes
+in the distribution of land and water that have been recorded
+in geological history.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that in early Cretaceous times marine limestones
+were being formed in southern Europe, while estuarine sands and
+muds were being laid down in the Anglo-German delta, and that
+beds of intermediate character were being made in parts of N.
+France and Germany. During later Cretaceous times this striking
+difference between the northern and southern facies was maintained,
+notwithstanding the fact that the later deposits were of
+marine origin in both regions. In the northern region the gradual
+deepening and accompanying extension of the sea caused the
+sandy deposits to become finer grained in N.W. Europe. The
+sandy beds and clays then gave way to marly deposits, and in
+these early stages glauconitic grains are very characteristically
+present both in the sand and in the marls. In their turn these
+marly deposits in the Anglo-Parisian basin were succeeded
+gradually and somewhat intermittently by the purer, soft limestone
+of the chalk sea, and by limestones, similar in character, in
+N. France, extra-Alpine Germany, S. Scandinavia, Denmark and
+Russia. Meanwhile, the S. European deposits maintained the
+characters already indicated; limestones (not chalk) prevailed,
+except in certain Alpine and Carpathian tracts where detrital
+sandstones were being laid down.</p>
+
+<p>The great difference between the lithological characters of the
+northern and southern deposits is accompanied by an equally
+striking difference between their respective organic contents. In
+the north, the genera <i>Inoceramus</i> and <i>Belemnitella</i> are particularly
+abundant. In the south, the remarkable, large, clam-like,
+aberrant pelecypods, the <i>Hippuritidae</i>, <i>Rudistes</i>, <i>Caprotina</i>, &amp;c.,
+attained an extraordinary development; they form great
+lenticular banks, like the clam banks of warm seas, or like our
+modern oyster-beds; they appear in successive species in the
+different stages of the Cretaceous system of the south, and can be
+used for marking palaeontological horizons as the cephalopods
+are used elsewhere. Certain genera of ammonites, <i>Haploceras</i>,
+<i>Lytoceras</i>, <i>Phylloceras</i>, rare in the north, are common in the
+south; and the southern facies is further characterized by the
+peculiar group of swollen belemnites (<i>Dumontia</i>), by the gasteropods
+<i>Actionella</i>, <i>Nerinea</i>, &amp;c., and by reef-building corals. The
+southern facies is far more widespread and typical of the period
+than is the chalk; it not only covers all southern Europe, but
+spreads eastwards far into Asia and round the Mediterranean
+basin into Africa. It is found again in Texas, Alabama, Mexico,
+the West Indies and Colombia; though limestones of the chalk
+type are found in Texas, New Zealand, and locally in one or two
+other places. The marine deposits are organically formed
+limestones, in which foraminifera and large bivalve mollusca
+play a leading part, marls and sandstones; dolomite and oolitic
+and pisolitic limestones are also known.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">European Classification.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Germany, &amp;c., several<br />
+      other parts of Europe.</td> <td class="tccm" rowspan="4">
+      Hippurite<br />limestones<br />of<br />Southern<br />France<br />and<br />Mediterranean<br />Region</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="allb tcc">Stages.</td> <td class="allb tcc">Sub-stages.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Upper<br />Cretaceous.</td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br />Montian. <br /><br /><br />Danian.<br /><br /><br />Aturian.<br /><br />
+     &emsp;&emsp;Senonian.<br /><br />Emscherian.<br /><br /><br /><br />Turonian.<br /><br /><br /><br />
+     Cenomanian.<br /><br /><br /></td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br />(placed by some<br />in the Tertiary).<br /><br /><br />
+     Maestrichtian<br />&emsp;(Dordonian).<br /><br />Campanian.<br /><br />Santonian.
+     <br /><br />Coniacian.<br /><br />Angoumian.<br /><br />Ligerian.<br /><br />Carentonian.
+     <br /><br />Rothomagian.<br /><br /></td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br /><br />Chalk of Trimingham.<br /><br />Upper Chalk with<br />
+     &emsp;Flints.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Middle Chalk without<br />&emsp;Flints.
+     <br /><br /><br /><br />Grey Chalk.<br />Chalk marl.<br />Cambridge Greensand.</td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br />Marls and pisolitic<br />&ensp;Limestone of Meudon.<br /><br />
+     Limestone of Saltholm<br />&ensp;and Faxö (Denmark).<br /><br />Upper Quader Sandstone.
+     <br /><br /><br />Quader Marls and<br />&ensp;Pläner Marls.<br /><br /><br />Upper Pläner.
+     <br /><br /><br /><br />Lr. Pläner and Lr.<br />&ensp;Quader.<br /><br />Tourtia of Mons, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Lower<br />Cretaceous.</td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Albian.<br /><br /><br />Aptian.<br /><br /><br />Barremian.
+     <br /><br />Neocomian.<br /><br /><br /><br /></td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Gault.<br /><br />Gargasian.<br /><br />Bedoulian.<br /><br /><br />
+     Hauterivian.<br /><br />Valangian.<br /><br />Berriasian.<br /></td>
+   <td class="tcl allb">Selbornian.<br /><br />&emsp;&emsp;Gault and Upper<br />&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Greensand.
+      <br />__________________<br /><br />Lower Greensand.<br /><br /><br />
+      Weald Clay<br />&emsp;&emsp;and<br />Hastings sands.<br /><br />&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Marine<br />
+      &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Beds of<br />&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Specton.</td>
+   <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Flammen mergel. Clay<br />&ensp;of N. Germany.<br />
+     Urgonian<br />Requienia<br />&ensp;(caprotina) Kalk<br />&ensp;or Schrattenkalk.<br /><br /><br />
+     &emsp;&emsp;North<br />&emsp;&emsp;German<br />&emsp;&emsp;Hills<br />&emsp;&emsp;formation<br /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rbd">Upper Cretaceous.</td>
+    <td class="tccm tb bb rb">Lower Cretaceous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Alpine Region.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Aptychenkalk in E. Alps ... Cretaceous Flysch...<br />Biancone of S. Alps.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb">... Cretaceous Flysch ...<br />Carpathian and Vienna Sandstones,<br />&emsp;
+       Gosau formation of E. Alps.<br />Seewan beds of N. Alps.<br />Scaglia of S. Alps.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Africa.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd"><span style="padding-left: 11em;">Nubian Sandstone of ...</span><br />
+      Uitenhage Beds S. Africa.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb">... N. Africa and Syria.<br /><span style="padding-left: 4em;">
+      Pondoland Beds S. Africa.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">India.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Oomia and Utatur Group.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb"><span style="padding-left: 3em;">Arialoor Beds (Deccan Trap).</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Australia.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Rolling Down Formation.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb"><span style="padding-left: 8em;">Desert Sandstone.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">New Zealand.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Thick conglomeratic Series with Bitumous coals.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb">Waipara Beds and Limestones, Chalk,<br />&emsp;
+      with Flints, Marls and Greensand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">S. America.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Puegiredon Series.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Belgrano ...</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb">... Series.  San Martin Series.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Japan.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Torinosa Limestone and Ryoseki Series.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb">Izumi Sandstone and Hokkaido Series.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Greenland.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rbd">Kome Group.</td>
+    <td class="tcl bb rb">Atani Group.  Patoot Group (part).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt1"><i>Note to Table.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Montian</td> <td class="tcc">from</td> <td class="tcl">Mons in Belgium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Danian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Denmark = <i>Garumnien</i> of Leymerie.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aturian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Adour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Maestrichtian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Maestricht.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Campanian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Champagne.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Emscherian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Emscher river in Westphalia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Santonian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Saintonge.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Coniacian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Cognac.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Senonian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Sens in department of Yonne.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Turonian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Touraine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Angoumian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Angoumois.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ligerian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">the Loire.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cenomanian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Le Mans (Cenomanum).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carentonian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Charente.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rothomagian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Rouen (<i>Rothomagus</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Albian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">dept. of Aube.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Selbornian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Selborne in Hampshire.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aptian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Apt in Vaucluse.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gargasian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Gargas near Apt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bedoulian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">la Bedoule (Var) = <i>Rhodanien</i> of Renevie</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Barremian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Barrême in Basses Alpes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hauterivian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Hauterive on Lake of Neuchâtel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Valangian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Château de Valangin near Neuchâtel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Neocomian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Neuchâtel (<i>Neocomum</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Berriasian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Berrias (<i>Ardéche</i>) near Besseges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Urgonian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Orgon near Arles.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Cretaceous seas were probably comparatively shallow;
+this was certainly the case where the deposits are sandy, and in
+the regions occupied by the hippuritic fauna. Much discussion
+has taken place as to the depth of the chalk sea. Stress has been
+laid upon the resemblance of this deposit to the modern deep-sea
+globigerina-ooze; but on the whole the evidence is in favour of
+moderate depth, perhaps not more than 1000 fathoms; the
+freedom of the deposit from detrital matter being regarded as due
+to the low elevation of the surrounding land, and the main lines of
+drainage being in other directions. Sandy and shore deposits are
+common throughout the system in every region. Besides the
+Weald, there were great lacustrine and terrestrial deposits in
+N. America (the Potomac, Kootenay, Morrison, Dakota and
+Laramie formations) as well as in N. Spain, and in parts of
+Germany, &amp;c. The general distribution of land and sea is indicated
+in the map.</p>
+
+<p><i>Earth Movements and Vulcanicity.</i>&mdash;During the greater part of
+the Cretaceous period crustal movements had been small and
+local in effect, but towards the close a series of great deformative
+movements was inaugurated and continued into the next period.
+These movements make it possible to discriminate between the
+Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, because the conditions of sedimentation
+were profoundly modified by them, and in most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+parts of the world there resulted a distinct break in the sequence
+of fossil remains. Great tracts of our modern continental land
+areas gradually emerged, and several mountainous tracts began
+to be elevated, such as the Appalachians, parts of the Cordilleras,
+and the Rocky Mountains, and their northern continuation, and
+indeed the greater part of the western N. American continent was
+intensely affected; the uplifting was associated with extensive
+faulting. Volcanic activity was in abeyance in Europe and in
+much of Asia, but in America there were many eruptions and
+intrusions of igneous rock towards the close of the period.
+Diabases and peridotites had been formed during the Lower
+Cretaceous in the San Luis Obispo region. Great masses of ash
+and conglomerate occur in the Crow&rsquo;s Nest Pass in Canada;
+porphyries and porphyritic tuffs of later Cretaceous age are
+important in the Andes; while similar rocks are found in the
+Lower Cretaceous of New Zealand. It is, however, in the Deccan
+lava flows of India that we find eruptions on a scale more vast
+than any that have been recorded either before or since. These
+outpourings of lava cover 200,000 sq. m. and are from 4000 to
+6000 ft. thick. They lie upon an eroded Cenomanian surface and
+are to some extent interbedded with Upper Cretaceous sediments.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Atlantic Coast.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eastern Gulf<br />Region.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Western Gulf<br />Region.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Western Interior.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Pacific Coast.</td> <td class="tccm allb">European.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb bbd" rowspan="4">CRETACEOUS<br /><br />Upper<br />Cretaceous.</td>
+ <td class="tcl allb">Manasquan.<br /><br />Rancocas.</td> <td class="tccm allb">......</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">......</td> <td class="tcl allb">Denver, Livingstone,<br />&emsp;(possibly Eocene). &amp;c.<br /><br />Laramie.</td>
+ <td class="tcl allb"><br />Not differentiated<br />&emsp;or wanting.</td>
+ <td class="tcl allb"><br /><br /><br />Danian.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb"><br />Monmouth.<br /><br />Matawan.</td>
+ <td class="tcl allb">Ripley.<br /><br />Selma.<br /><br />Eutaw.<br /><br /></td>
+ <td class="tcl allb"><br />Montana Series<br />Navarro.<br /><br />Colorado Series<br />&ensp;2. Austin<br />&ensp;1. Eagle Ford</td>
+ <td class="tcl allb">Montana Series<br />&ensp;2. Fox Hills.<br />&ensp;1. Fort Pierre and<br />&emsp;Belly River.
+   <br />Colorado Series.<br />&ensp;2. Niobrara.<br />&ensp;1. Benton.</td>
+ <td class="tcl"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Chico.</td>
+ <td class="tcl allb"><br />Senonian.<br /><br /><br /><br />Turonian.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb bbd" rowspan="2">......</td> <td class="tccm rb">......</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb">Dakota.<br />Woodbine.</td> <td class="tcl rb bbd" rowspan="2">Dakota.</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bbd" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bbd" rowspan="2">Cenomanian.<br />Albian.<br />Unconformity<br />&emsp;in places.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb bbd" colspan="2">U n c o n f o r m i t y.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb bb">COMANCHEAN<br /><br />Lower<br />Cretaceous.</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Potomac Series.<br />&emsp;4. Raritan.<br />&emsp;3. Patapsco.
+  <br /><br />&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Jurassic?<br />&ensp;2. Arundel<br />&ensp;1. Patuxent</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br /><br />Tuskaloosa<br />&emsp;Series.</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb"><br />Washita.<br /><br />Fredericksburg.<br /><br /><br /><br />Trinity.</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb"><br /><br /><br />Kootenay and<br />&emsp;Morrison (or Como).</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb">Horsetown.<br /><br />Knoxville.<br /><br />&emsp;&emsp;Shastan.</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb">Aptian.<br /><br />Urgonian.<br /><br />Neocomian.<br />Wealden.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Economic Products of Cretaceous Rocks.</i>&mdash;Coal is one of the
+most important products of the rocks of this system. The
+principal Cretaceous coal-bearing area is in the western interior
+of N. America, where an enormous amount of coal&mdash;mostly
+lignitic, but in places converted into anthracite&mdash;lies in the rocks
+at the foot of the Rocky Mountains; most of this is of Laramie
+age. Similar beds occur locally in Montana. Coal seams of Lower
+Cretaceous age are found in the Black Hills (S. Dakota), Alaska,
+Greenland, and in New Zealand; and the &ldquo;Upper Quader&rdquo; of
+Löwenberg in Silesia also contains coal seams. Coals also occur
+in the brackish and fresh-water deposits of Carinthia, Dalmatia
+and Istria, while unimportant lignitic beds are known in many
+other regions. The Fort Pierre beds are oil-bearing at Boulder,
+Colorado; and the Trinity formation bears asphalt and bitumen.
+Important clay deposits are worked in the Raritan formation of
+New Jersey, &amp;c., and pottery clays are found in the Löwenberg
+district in Germany. The Washita beds yield the well-known
+hone stone. Great beds of gypsum exist in the Cretaceous rocks
+of S. America. Near Salzburg a variety of the hippuritic limestone
+is quarried for marble. Lithographic stone occurs in the
+Pyrenees. The economic products peculiar to the chalk are
+mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalk</a></span>. Beds of iron ore are found in the
+Lower Cretaceous of Germany and England.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Life of the Cretaceous Period.</i>&mdash;The fossils from the
+Cretaceous series comprise marine, fresh-water and terrestrial
+animals and plants. Foremost in interest and importance is the
+appearance in the Lower Potomac (Lower Cretaceous) of eastern
+and central N. America of the earliest representatives of angiospermous
+dicotyledons, and undoubted monocotyledons, the
+progenitors of our modern flowering plants. The angiosperms
+spread outward from the Atlantic coast region of N. America, and
+first appeared in Europe in the Aptian of Portugal; towards the
+close of the Lower Cretaceous period they occupied parts of
+Greenland, the remaining land areas of N. America, and were
+steadily advancing in every quarter of the globe. At first the
+Jurassic plants, the Cycads, ferns and conifers, lived on and
+were the dominant plant forms. Gradually, however, they took a
+subordinate place, and by the close of the Cretaceous period the
+angiosperms had gained the upper hand. The earliest of these
+fossil angiosperms is not in a true sense a primitive form, and no
+records of such types have yet been discovered. Some of the
+early forms of the Lower Cretaceous are distinctly similar to
+modern genera, such as <i>Ficus</i>, <i>Sassafras</i> and <i>Aralia</i>; others
+bore leaves closely resembling our elm, maple, willow, oak,
+eucalyptus, &amp;c. Before the close of the period many other
+representatives of living genera had appeared, beech, walnut,
+tamarisk, plane, laurel (<i>Laurus</i>), cinnamon, ivy, ilex, viburnum,
+buckthorn, breadfruit, oleander and others; there were also
+junipers, thujas, pines and sequoias and monocotyledons such
+as <i>Potamogeton</i> and <i>Arundo</i>. This flora was widely spread and
+uniform; there was great similarity between that of Europe and
+N. America, and in parts of the United States (Virginia and
+Maryland) the plants were very like those in Greenland. The
+general aspect of the flora was sub-tropical; the eucalyptus and
+other plants then common in Europe and N. America are now
+confined to the southern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>The marine fauna comprised foraminifera which must have
+swarmed in the Chalk and some of the limestone seas; their
+shells have formed great thickness of rock. Common forms are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span>
+the genera <i>Alveolina</i>, <i>Cristellaria</i>, <i>Rotalia</i>, <i>Textularia</i>, <i>Orbitolina</i>,
+<i>Globigerina</i>. Radiolarians were doubtless abundant, but
+their remains are rare. Sponges with calcareous (<i>Peronidilla</i>,
+<i>Barroisia</i>) and siliceous skeletons (<i>Siphonia</i>, <i>Coeloptychium</i>,
+<i>Ventriculites</i>) were very numerous in certain of the Cretaceous
+waters. Corals were comparatively rare, <i>Trochosmilia</i>, <i>Parasmilia</i>,
+<i>Holocystis</i> being typical genera; reefs were formed in the
+Maestricht beds of Denmark and Faxoe, in the Neocomian and
+Turonian of France, in the Turonian of the Alps and Pyrenees,
+and also in the Gosau beds and in the Utatur group of India.
+Sea-urchins were a conspicuous feature, and many nearly allied
+forms are still living; <i>Cidaris</i>, <i>Micraster</i>, <i>Discoidea</i> are examples.
+Crinoids were represented by <i>Marsupites</i>, <i>Uintacrinus</i> and
+<i>Bourgueticrinus</i>; starfish (<i>Calliderma</i> and <i>Pentagonaster</i>) were
+not uncommon. Polyzoa were abundant; brachiopods were
+fairly common, though subordinate to the pelecypods; they were
+mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, which lived side by
+side with the ancient forms, like <i>Crania</i> and <i>Discina</i>. The
+bivalve mollusca were very important during this period,
+<i>Inoceramus</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Spondylus</i>, <i>Gervillia</i>, <i>Exogyra</i>, <i>Pecten</i>,
+<i>Trigonia</i> being particularly abundant in the northern seas,
+while in the southern waters the remarkable <i>Hippurites</i>, <i>Radiolites</i>,
+<i>Caprotina</i>, <i>Caprina</i>, <i>Monopleura</i> and <i>Requienia</i> prevailed.
+Gasteropods were well represented and included many modern
+genera. Cephalopods were important as a group, but the
+ammonites, so vigorous in the foregoing period, were declining
+and were assuming curious degenerate forms, often with a
+tendency to uncoil the shell; <i>Baculites</i>, <i>Hoplites</i>, <i>Turrilites</i>,
+<i>Ptychoceras</i>, <i>Hamites</i> are some of the typical genera, while
+<i>Belemnites</i> and <i>Belemnitella</i> were abundant in the northern seas.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebrate fauna of the Cretaceous period differed in many
+features from that of the present day; mammals appear to have
+been only poorly represented by puny forms, related to Triassic
+and Jurassic types; they were mainly marsupials (<i>Batodon</i>,
+<i>Cimolestes</i>) with a few monotreme-like forms; carnivores,
+rodents and ungulates were still unknown. As in Jurassic times,
+reptiles were the dominant forms, and not a few genera lived
+on from the former period into the Cretaceous; but, on the whole,
+the reptilian assemblage was no longer so varied, and most of the
+distinctive mesozoic types had passed away
+before the close of this period. Dinosaurs
+were represented by herbivorous and carnivorous
+genera as in the Jurassic period, but the
+latter were less abundant than before. The
+<i>Iguanodon</i> of the Sussex-Weald and Bernissart
+in Belgium is perhaps the best-known genus;
+but there were many others, their remains
+being particularly abundant and well-preserved
+in the Cretaceous deposits of N. America.
+<i>Titanosaurus</i>, <i>Acanthopholis</i>, <i>Megalosaurus</i>
+and <i>Hypsilophodon</i> may be mentioned, some
+of these being of great size, while <i>Diclonius</i>
+was a curious duck-billed creature; but most
+remarkable in appearance must have been the
+horned Dinosaurs, <i>Ceratops</i> and <i>Triceratops</i>,
+gross, unwieldy creatures, 25 to 30 ft. long,
+whose huge heads were grotesquely armed
+with horns and bony frills.</p>
+
+<p>Coincident, perhaps, with the widespread extension of the
+sea was the development of aquatic habits and structures suitable
+thereto amongst all the reptilian groups including also the birds.
+The foremost place was undoubtedly taken by the pythonomorphs
+or sea-serpents, including <i>Mosasaurus</i> and many others;
+these were enormously elongated creatures, reaching up to 75 ft.,
+with swimming flappers and powerful swimming tails, and they
+lived a predatory life in the open sea. Ichthyosaurians soon
+disappeared from Cretaceous waters; but the plesiosaurians
+(<i>Cimoliosaurus</i> and others) reached their maximum development
+in this period. The remarkable flying lizards, pterosaurs,
+likewise attained their great development and then passed away;
+they ranged in size from that of a pigeon to creatures with a
+wing-spread of 25 ft.; notable genera are <i>Pteranodon</i>, <i>Ornithocheirus</i>,
+<i>Nyctiosaurus</i>. Ordinary lizard-like forms were represented
+by <i>Coniosaurus</i>, <i>Dolichosaurus</i>, &amp;c.; and true crocodiles,
+<i>Goniopholis</i>, <i>Suchosaurus</i>, appeared in this period, and continued
+to approximate to modern genera. The earliest known river
+turtles are found in the Belly River deposits of Canada; marine
+turtles also made their first appearance and were widely represented,
+some of them, <i>Archelon</i> and <i>Protostega</i>, being of great
+size. True snakes appeared later in the period.</p>
+
+<p>The birds, as far as existing evidence goes, were aquatic;
+some, like <i>Ichthyornis</i>, were built for powerful flight; others, like
+<i>Hesperornis</i>, were flightless. <i>Enaliornis</i> is a form well known
+from the Cambridge Greensand. They were toothed birds having
+structural affinities with the Dinosaurs and Pterodactyles.</p>
+
+<p>Fish remains of this period show that a marked change was
+taking place; teleosteans (with bony internal skeleton) were
+taking a more prominent place, and although ganoids were still
+represented (<i>Macropoma</i>, <i>Lepidotus</i>, <i>Amiopris</i>, &amp;c.) they had
+quite ceased to be the dominant types before the close of Cretaceous
+times. Sharks and rays were of the modern types, though
+distinct in species. Amongst the early forms of Cretaceous
+teleosteans may be mentioned <i>Elopopsis</i>, <i>Ichthyodectes</i>, <i>Diplomystus</i>
+(herring), <i>Haplopteryx</i> and <i>Urenchelys</i> (eel).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further information see the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chalk</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greensand</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wealden</a></span>. Sir A. Geikie&rsquo;s <i>Text-book of Geology</i>, vol. ii. (4th ed.,
+1903), contains in addition to a full general account of the system
+very full references to the literature.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRETE<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Krêtê">&#922;&#961;&#942;&#964;&#951;</span>; Turk. <i>Kirid</i>, Ital. <i>Candia</i>), after Sicily, Sardinia
+and Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situated
+between 34° 50&prime; and 35° 40&prime; N. lat. and between 23° 30&prime; and 26° 20&prime; E.
+long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about
+110 m. from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being partly
+filled by the islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western,
+Cape Grabusa, is within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea.
+Crete thus forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean
+and the Archipelago. The island is of elongated form; its length
+from E. to W. is 160 m., its breadth from N. to S. varies from
+35 to 7½ m., its area is 3330 sq. m. The northern coast-line is
+much indented. On the W. two narrow mountainous promontories,
+the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa
+(ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bay
+of Kisamos; beyond the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rocky
+peninsula of Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbour
+of Suda (8½ sq. m.), the only completely protected anchorage
+for large vessels which the island affords. Farther E. are the bays
+of Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay of
+Sitia. The south coast is less broken, and possesses no natural
+harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a wall
+from the sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmost
+point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messará on the
+W. Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of
+Kali Liménes or Fair Havens, where the ship conveying St Paul
+took refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the islands in the neighbourhood
+of the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+xxvii. 16), about 25 m. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the
+middle ages the see of a bishop. On the N. side the small island
+of Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a convenient
+shelter against northerly gales. Three small islands on the
+northern coast&mdash;Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at the
+entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay&mdash;remained
+for some time in the possession of Venice after the
+conquest of Crete by the Turks. Grabusa, long regarded as an
+impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the
+flags of Turkey and the four protecting powers are now hoisted)
+and Spinalonga in 1715.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:720px; height:394px" src="images/img418.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Natural Features.</i>&mdash;The greater part of the island is occupied
+by ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In
+the western portion rises the massive range of the White
+Mountains (<i>Aspra Vouna</i>), directly overhanging the southern
+coast with spurs projecting towards the W. and N.W. (highest
+summit, Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the centre is the smaller,
+almost detached mass of Psiloriti (<span class="grk" title="Hypsiloreition">&#8025;&#968;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#943;&#959;&#957;</span>, ancient Ida),
+culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the highest summit in the
+island. To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with Aphenti Christos
+(7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with Aphenti
+Kavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separate
+the central plain of Messará from the southern coast. The
+isolated peak of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia,
+was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the burial-place of
+Zeus. The principal groups are for the greater part of the year
+covered with snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughout
+the summer; the intervals between them are filled by connecting
+chains which sometimes reach the height of 3000 ft. The largest
+plain is that of Monofatsi and Messará, a fertile tract extending
+between Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range, about 37 m. in
+length and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather slope,
+adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianú, through which the
+Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty and
+fertility. A peculiar feature is presented by the level upland
+basins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summer
+months; the more remarkable are the Omalo in the White
+Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets
+(<span class="grk" title="katábothra">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#946;&#959;&#952;&#961;&#945;</span>), Nida (<span class="grk" title="eis tên Idan">&#949;&#7984;&#962; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#7996;&#948;&#945;&#957;</span>) in Psiloriti (between 5000 and
+6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a more extensive
+area, on which are several villages. Another remarkable
+characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines (<span class="grk" title="pharángia">&#966;&#945;&#961;&#940;&#947;&#947;&#953;&#945;</span>),
+bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous
+districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates.
+Numerous large caves exist in the mountains; among the most
+remarkable are the famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves of
+Melidoni, in Mylopotamo, and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered
+hundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and the
+Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place of Zeus. The so-called
+Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a subterranean quarry
+from which the city was built. The principal rivers are the
+Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of
+Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively
+of the Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards
+from the White Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the
+Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) flowing northwards from Psiloriti
+to the sea E. of Retimo.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i><a name="FnAnchor_1m" id="FnAnchor_1m" href="#Footnote_1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>&mdash;The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a series
+some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied composition.
+They include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a
+basic series of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines).
+Glaucophane rocks are widely spread. In the centre of the folds
+fossiliferous beds with crinoids have been found, and the black slates
+at the top of the series contain <i>Myophoria</i> and other fossils, indicating
+that the rocks are of Triassic age. It is, however, not impossible
+that the metamorphic series includes also some of the Lias. The later
+beds of the island belong to the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary
+systems. At the western foot of the Ida massif calcareous beds with
+corals, brachiopods (<i>Rhynchonella inconstans</i>, &amp;c.) have been found,
+the fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimmeridge clay. Lower
+Cretaceous limestones and schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc extensively
+developed; and in many parts of the island Upper Cretaceous
+limestones with <i>Rudistes</i> and Eocene beds with nummulites
+have been found. All these are involved in the earth movements
+to which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the
+Miocene beds (with <i>Clypeaster</i>) and later deposits lie almost undisturbed
+upon the coasts and the low-lying ground. With the
+Jurassic beds is associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks
+(gabbro, peridotite, serpentine, diorite, granite, &amp;c.); they are
+chiefly of Jurassic age, but the eruptions may have continued into
+the Lower Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>The structure of the island is complex. In the west the folds run
+from north to south, curving gradually westward towards the
+southern and western coasts; but in the east the folds appear to
+run from west to east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric
+folds of the Balkan peninsula. The structure is further complicated
+by a great thrust-plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower
+Cretaceous beds upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Vegetation.</i>&mdash;The forests which once covered the mountains
+have for the most part disappeared and the slopes are now
+desolate wastes. The cypress still grows wild in the higher
+regions; the lower hills and the valleys, which are extremely
+fertile, are covered with olive woods. Oranges and lemons also
+abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing almost the whole
+supply of continental Greece and Constantinople. Chestnut
+woods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the valonia
+oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundant
+and supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples,
+quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines;
+the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which
+they possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cotton
+succeed well in the plains and low grounds, though not at present
+cultivated to any great extent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Animals.</i>&mdash;Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat or
+<i>agrimi (Capra aegagrus)</i> alone need be mentioned; it is still found
+in considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and
+the White Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasus
+and Mount Taurus, and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin of
+the Alps. Crete, like several other large islands, enjoys immunity
+from dangerous serpents&mdash;a privilege ascribed by popular belief
+to the intercession of Titus, the companion of St Paul, who according
+to tradition was the first bishop of the island, and became in
+consequence its patron saint. Wolves also are not found in the
+island, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The native
+breed of mules is remarkably fine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of Crete under the Venetians was
+estimated at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest it
+greatly diminished, but afterwards gradually rose, till it was
+supposed to have attained to about 260,000, of whom about half
+were Mahommedans, at the time of the outbreak of the Greek
+revolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from 1821 to 1830,
+and the emigration that followed, caused a great diminution, and
+the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only about
+130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased;
+it was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000.
+According to the census taken in 1881, the complete publication
+of which was interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population
+of the island was 279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre.
+Of this total, 141,602 were males, 137,563 females; 33,173 were
+literate, 242,114 illiterate; 205,010 were orthodox Christians,
+73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other religious persuasions. The
+Moslem element predominated in the principal towns, of which
+the population was&mdash;Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; Retimo,
+9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the population
+of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased
+to 267,266, while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. The
+Moslems, as well as the Christians, are of Greek origin and speak
+Greek.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns.</i>&mdash;The three principal towns are on the northern coast
+and possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught.
+Candia, the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete
+(pop. in 1900, 22,501), is officially styled Herákleion; it is
+surrounded by remarkable Venetian fortifications and possesses
+a museum with a valuable collection of objects found at Cnossus,
+Phaestus, the Idaean cave and elsewhere. It has been occupied
+since 1897 by British troops. Canea (Xaviá), the seat of government
+since 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in the Italian style; its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+walls and interesting galley-slips recall the Venetian period.
+The residence of the high commissioner and the consulates of
+the powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo  <span class="grk" title="Rethumnos">&#929;&#941;&#952;&#965;&#956;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> is,
+like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other towns,
+Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Production and Industries.</i>&mdash;Owing to the volcanic nature of
+its soil, Crete is probably rich in minerals. Recent experiments
+lead to the conclusion that iron, lead, manganese, lignite and
+sulphur exist in considerable abundance. Copper and zinc have
+also been found. A large number of applications for mining concessions
+have been received since the establishment of the autonomous
+government. The principal wealth of the island is derived from
+its olive groves; notwithstanding the destruction of many thousands
+of trees during each successive insurrection, the production
+is apparently undiminished, and will probably increase very considerably
+owing to the planting of young trees and the improved
+methods of cultivation which the Government is endeavouring to
+promote. The orange and lemon groves have also suffered considerably,
+but new varieties of the orange tree are now being introduced,
+and an impulse will be given to the export trade in this fruit
+by the removal of the restriction on its importation into Greece.
+Agriculture is still in a primitive condition; notwithstanding the
+fertility of the arable land the supply of cereals is far below the
+requirements of the population. A great portion of the central plain
+of Monofatsi, the principal grain-producing district, is lying fallow
+owing to the exodus of the Moslem peasantry. The cultivation of
+silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing industry, has greatly declined in
+recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it. There
+are few manufactures. Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the
+principal towns, and there are two distilleries of cognac at Candia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded
+by many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the
+harbours, the want of direct steamship lines to England and other
+countries, and the deficiency of internal communications. The total
+value of imports in the four years 1901-1904 was £1,756,888, of
+exports £1,386,777; excess of imports over exports, £370,111.
+Exports in 1904 were valued at £419,642, the principal items being
+agricultural products (oranges, lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes,
+valonia, &amp;c.), value £153,858, olives and products of olives (oil, soap,
+&amp;c.), £134,788, and wines and liquors, £48,544. The countries which
+accept the largest share of Cretan produce are Turkey, England,
+Egypt, Austria and Russia. Imports in 1904 were valued at
+£549,665, including agricultural products (mainly flour and corn),
+value £162,535, and textiles, £129,349. Cereals are imported from
+the Black Sea and Danube ports, ready-made clothing from Austria
+and Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and France, and
+cotton textiles from England. Imports are charged 8%, exports
+1% <i>ad valorem</i> duty. According to a law published in 1899, Turkish
+merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of foreign
+nations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Government.</i>&mdash;During the past half-century
+the affairs of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention of
+Europe. Owing to the existence of a strong Mussulman minority
+among its inhabitants, the warlike character of the natives, and
+the mountainous configuration of the country, which enabled a
+portion of the Christian population to maintain itself in a state
+of partial independence, the island has constantly been the scene
+of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which the numerical
+superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the aid
+rendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappy
+state of affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues
+set on foot at Constantinople against successive governors of the
+island, the conflicts between the Palace and the Porte, the
+duplicity of the Turkish authorities, the dissensions of the
+representatives of the great powers, the machinations of Greek
+agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, and prolonged financial
+mismanagement. A long series of insurrections&mdash;those of 1821,
+1833, 1841, 1858, 1866-1868, 1878, 1889 and 1896 may be
+especially mentioned&mdash;culminated in the general rebellion of
+1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the intervention of
+the great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish authorities, and
+the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government under
+the suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomous
+constitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in Prince
+George of Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting
+powers. The authority thus conferred was confided exclusively
+to the prince, and was declared liable to modification by law in the
+case of his successor. The modified constitution of February 1907
+curtailed the large exceptional legislative and administrative
+powers then accorded. The high commissioner is irresponsible,
+but his decrees, except in certain specified cases, must be countersigned
+by a member of his council. He convokes, prorogues and
+dissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises the right of
+pardon in case of political offences, represents the island in its
+foreign relations and is chief of its military forces. The chamber
+(<span class="grk" title="boulê">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span>), which is elected in the proportion of one deputy to every
+5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two months.
+New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercises
+a complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed without
+its consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administration
+by a cabinet of three members, styled &ldquo;councillors&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="symbouloi">&#963;&#973;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#953;</span>), who superintend the departments of justice,
+finance, education, public security and the interior. The
+councillors, who are nominated and dismissed by the high commissioner,
+are responsible to the chamber, which may impeach
+them before a special tribunal for any illegal act or neglect of duty.</p>
+
+<p>In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative
+spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems
+established in Greece and the Balkan States. A further point of
+difference is the more liberal payment of public functionaries in
+Crete. For administrative purposes the departmental divisions
+existing under the Turkish government have been retained.
+There are 5 <i>nomoi</i> or prefectures (formerly <i>sanjaks</i>) each under a
+prefect (<span class="grk" title="nomárchos">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>), and 23 eparchies (formerly <i>kazas</i>) each under
+a sub-prefect (<span class="grk" title="éparchos">&#7956;&#960;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>). All these functionaries are nominated
+by the high commissioner. The prefects are assisted by departmental
+councils. The system of municipal and communal
+government remains practically unchanged. The island is
+divided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an assistant-mayor,
+and a communal council elected by the people. The
+councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes,
+maintain roads, bridges, &amp;c., and generally superintend local
+affairs. Public order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie
+(<span class="grk" title=" chôrophulakê">&#967;&#969;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#965;&#955;&#945;&#954;&#942;</span>) organized and at first commanded by Italian
+officers, who were replaced by Greek officers in December
+1906. The constitution authorizes the formation of a militia
+(<span class="grk" title="politophulakê">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#966;&#965;&#955;&#945;&#954;&#942;</span>) to be enrolled by conscription, but in existing
+circumstances the embodiment of this force seems unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The administration of justice is on the French model.
+A supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions of
+a court of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts at
+Canea and Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard to
+serious offences (<span class="grk" title="kakourgêmata ">&#954;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>). Minor offences (<span class="grk" title="plêmmelêmata">&#960;&#955;&#951;&#956;&#956;&#949;&#955;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>)
+and civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the
+five departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whose
+decision are referred slight contraventions of the law (<span class="grk" title="ptaismata">&#960;&#964;&#945;&#943;&#963;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>)
+and civil causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs.
+These functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various
+communes. The judges are chosen without regard to religious
+belief, and precautions have been taken to render them
+independent of political parties. They are appointed, promoted,
+transferred or removed by order of the council of justice, a body
+composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, sitting at Canea.
+An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon a conviction
+for some specified offence before a court of law. The
+jury system has not been introduced. The Greek penal code
+has been adopted with some modifications. The Ottoman civil
+code is maintained for the present, but it is proposed to establish
+a code recently drawn up by Greek jurists which is mainly based
+on Italian and Saxon law. The Mussulman cadis retain their
+jurisdiction in regard to religious affairs, marriage, divorce,
+the wardship of minors and inheritance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion and Education.</i>&mdash;The vast majority of the Christian
+population belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which is
+governed by a synod of seven bishops under the presidency of
+the metropolitan of Candia. The Cretan Church is not, strictly
+speaking, autocephalous, being dependent on the patriarchate
+of Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek churches
+in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques,
+4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education is
+nominally compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools
+(527 Christian and 20 Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span>
+(all Christian). About £20,000 is granted annually by the state
+for the purposes of education.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections,
+the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the
+districts formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population,
+and the drain of gold resulting from the sale of Moslem lands and
+emigration of the former proprietors, together with other causes,
+the financial situation has been unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding
+the advance of £160,000 made by the four protecting powers after
+the institution of autonomous government and the profits (£61,937)
+derived from the issue of a new currency in 1900, there was at the
+beginning of 1906 an accumulated deficit of £23,470, which represents
+the floating debt. In addition to the above-mentioned debt to the
+powers, the state contracted a loan of £60,000 in 1901 to acquire
+the rights and privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the salt
+monopoly has been conceded for 20 years. In the budgets for 1905
+and 1906 considerable economies were effected by the curtailment
+of salaries, the abolition of various posts, and the reduction of the
+estimates for education and public works. The estimated revenue
+and expenditure for 1906 were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2">Expenditure.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Drachmae (gold).</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Drachmae (gold).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Direct taxes</td> <td class="tcr">1,494,000</td> <td class="tcl">High Commissioner</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Indirect taxes</td> <td class="tcr">1,715,000</td> <td class="tcl">Financial administration</td> <td class="tcr">694,670</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Stamp dues</td> <td class="tcr">351,700</td> <td class="tcl">Interior (including gendarmerie)</td> <td class="tcr">1,678,566</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other sources</td> <td class="tcr">780,967</td> <td class="tcl">Education and Justice</td> <td class="tcr">1,453,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">4,341,667</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">4,026,736</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000
+drachmae.</p>
+
+<p>Improved communications are much needed for the transport of
+agricultural produce, but the state of the treasury does not admit of
+more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public
+works. On these the average yearly expenditure between 1898 and
+1905 was £13,404. The prosperity of the island depends on the
+development of agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits
+by the people, and the abandonment of political agitation. The
+Cretans were in 1906 more lightly taxed than any other people in
+Europe. The tithe had been replaced by an export tax on exported
+agricultural produce levied at the custom-houses, and the smaller
+peasant proprietors and shepherds of the mountainous districts
+were practically exempt from any contribution to the state. The
+communal tax did not exceed on the average two francs annually
+for each family. The poorer communes are aided by a state
+subvention.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Archaeology.</i></p>
+
+<p>The recent exploration and excavation of early sites
+in Crete have entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its
+remote past, and afforded the most astonishing
+evidence of the existence of a highly advanced
+<span class="sidenote">Early, Middle and Late &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; periods.</span>
+civilization going far back behind the historic period.
+Great &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; palaces have been brought to
+light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together with a minor
+but highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada near
+Phaestus. &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; towns, some of considerable extent,
+have been discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro,
+and at Zakro. The cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus
+has been explored, and throughout the whole length and
+breadth of the island a mass of early materials has now
+been collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the discovery
+of Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan
+palaces covers the close of the third and the first half of the
+second millennium before our era. But the contents of early tombs
+and dwellings and indications supplied by such objects as stone
+vases and seal-stones show that the Cretans had already attained
+to a considerable degree of culture, and had opened out communication
+with the Nile valley in the time of the earliest
+Egyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of the indigenous
+culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable, is known
+as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first
+half of the third millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The succeeding period, to
+which the first palaces are due and to which the name of
+Middle Minoan is appropriately given, roughly coincides with the
+Middle Empire of Egypt. An extraordinary perfection was at
+this time attained in many branches of art, notably in the painted
+pottery, often with polychrome decoration, of a class known as
+&ldquo;Kamares&rdquo; from its first discovery in a cave of that name on
+Mount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were found by
+Flinders Petrie among XIIth Dynasty remains at Kahun.
+The beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to the
+Middle Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts as
+gem engraving show great advance. By the close of this period
+a manufactory of fine faience was attached to the palace of
+Cnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan period, best illustrated
+by the later palace at Cnossus and that at Hagia Triada, corresponds
+in Egypt with the Hyksos period and the earlier part of
+the New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan civilization
+attains its acme, and the succeeding style already shows
+much that may be described as rococo. The later phase, which
+follows on the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds
+with the diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and elsewhere,
+is already partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finest
+aspect is best illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wall
+paintings, and <i>gesso duro</i> reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stucco
+designs at Hagia Triada, and the steatite vases found on the same
+site with zones in reliefs exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors,
+toreadors, gladiators, wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal
+throng perhaps representing a kind of &ldquo;harvest home.&rdquo; Of
+the more conventional side of Late Minoan life a graphic illustration
+is supplied by the remains of miniature wall paintings found
+in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies in
+curiously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades
+of a sanctuary. A grand &ldquo;palace style&rdquo; of vase painting was
+at the same time evolved, in harmony with the general decoration
+of the royal halls.</p>
+
+<p>It had been held till lately that the great civilization of prehistoric
+Greece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann&rsquo;s discoveries
+at Mycenae, was not possessed of the art of writing.
+In 1893, however, Arthur Evans observed some signs on
+<span class="sidenote">Minoan script.</span>
+seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe that a
+hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times.
+Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for
+the purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the
+island, fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear
+as well as a semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the
+island at a very early period (&ldquo;Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician
+Script,&rdquo; <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiv. pt. 11).
+In 1895 he obtained a libation-table from the Dictaean cave with
+a linear dedication in the prehistoric writing (&ldquo;Further Discoveries,&rdquo;
+&amp;c., <i>J.H.S.</i> xvii.). Finally in 1900 all scepticism in
+the learned world was set at rest by his discovery in the palace of
+Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets inscribed both
+in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of the Minoan
+script (Evans, &ldquo;Palace of Knossos,&rdquo; <i>Reports of Excavation,
+1900-1905</i>; <i>Scripta Minoa</i>, vol. i., 1909). Supplementary
+finds of inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada
+(F. Halbherr, <i>Rapporto, &amp;c., Monumenti antichi</i>, 1903) and
+elsewhere (Palaikastro, Zakro and Gournia). It thus appears
+that a highly developed system of writing existed in Minoan
+Crete some two thousand years earlier than the first introduction
+under Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this, as in so
+many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking
+confirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved by
+Diodorus (v. 74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but
+simply altered their forms.</p>
+
+<p>There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and
+pictorial signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary
+with the first Egyptian dynasties. It is, however,
+during the Middle Minoan age, the centre point of which
+<span class="sidenote">Earlier pictographic script.</span>
+corresponds with the XIIth Egyptian dynasty, according
+to the Sothic system of dating, c. 2000-1850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+that a systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes
+its appearance which is common both to signets and clay tablets.
+During the Third Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of
+which approach 1600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, this pictographic script finally gives
+way to a still more developed linear system&mdash;which is itself
+divided into an earlier and a later class. The earlier class (A)
+is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus belonging
+to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span>
+palace, and this class is specially well represented in the
+tablets of Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class
+(B) of the linear script is that used on the great bulk of the
+clay tablets of the Cnossian palace, amounting in number to
+nearly 2000.</p>
+
+<p>These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and
+business documents. Their general purport is shown in many
+cases by pictorial figures relating to various objects which appear
+on them&mdash;such as chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases,
+arms and implements, stores of corn, &amp;c., flocks and herds. Many
+showing human figures apparently contain lists of personal names.
+A decimal system of numeration was used, with numbers going
+up to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet undeciphered, though
+it is clear that certain words have changing suffixes, and that
+there were many compound words. The script also recurs on
+walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes ink-written;
+and from the number of seals originally attached to perishable
+documents it is probable that parchment or some similar material
+was also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where the
+aboriginal &ldquo;Eteocretan&rdquo; element survived to historic times
+(Praesus, Palaikastro), later inscriptions have been discovered
+belonging to the 5th and succeeding centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, written in
+Greek letters but in the indigenous language (Comparetti, <i>Mon.
+Ant.</i> iii. 451 sqq.; R. S. Conway, <i>British School Annual</i>, viii.
+125 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a remarkable discovery was made
+by the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a clay disk with imprinted
+hieroglyphic characters belonging to a non-Cretan system and
+probably from W. Anatolia.</p>
+
+<p>The remains of several shrines within the building, and the
+religious element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a considerable
+part of the Palace of Cnossus was devoted
+to purposes of cult. It is clear that the rulers, as so
+<span class="sidenote">Character of Minoan religion.</span>
+commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well as
+royal functions. The evidence supplied by this and
+other Cretan sites shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a
+kind of <i>Magna Mater</i>, a Great Mother or nature goddess, with
+whom was associated a male satellite. The cult in fact corresponds
+in its main outlines with the early religious conceptions of
+Syria and a large part of Anatolia&mdash;a correspondence probably
+explained by a considerable amount of ethnic affinity existing
+between a large section of the primitive Cretan population and
+that of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is sometimes
+seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more
+celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of her
+religious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in that
+of Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, <i>Ariadne</i> ( = the exceeding
+holy), takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under her
+native name, Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, she
+approaches Artemis and Leto, again associated with an infant
+god, and this Cretan virgin goddess was worshipped in Aegina
+under the name of Aphaea. It is noteworthy that whereas, in
+Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme position, the old superiority
+of the Mother Goddess is still visible in the Cretan traditions
+of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus.</p>
+
+<p>Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the
+principal objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic
+class; in many cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and
+mountain peaks, with their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida
+or of Dicte. Trees and curiously shaped stones were also
+worshipped, and artificial pillars of wood or stone. These latter,
+as in the well-known case of the Lion&rsquo;s Gate at Mycenae, often
+appear with guardian animals as their supporters. The essential
+feature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial spirit by
+proper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the dove
+perched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is a
+primitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by the
+pillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally &ldquo;Bethel&rdquo; or the
+&ldquo;House of God.&rdquo; The story of the <i>baetylus</i>, or stone swallowed
+by Saturn under the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus,
+seems to cover the same idea and has been derived from the same
+Semitic word.</p>
+
+<p>A special form of this &ldquo;baetylic&rdquo; cult in Minoan Crete was the
+representation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form
+by double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in
+the palace of Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small
+palace at Gournia, and many specimens of the sacred emblem
+occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of Dicte, the mythical birthplace
+of the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of worship in which libations
+are poured before the Sacred Axes are, moreover, given on a fine
+painted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada.</p>
+
+<p>The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case of
+Zeus Labrandeus, whose name is derived from <i>labrys</i>, the native
+name for the double axe, and it had already been
+suggested on philological grounds that the Cretan
+<span class="sidenote">Labyrinth and Minotaur.</span>
+&ldquo;labyrinthos&rdquo; was formed from a kindred form of
+the same word. The discovery that the great Minoan
+foundation at Cnossus was at once a palace and a sanctuary of
+the Double Axe and its associated divinities has now supplied a
+striking and it may well be thought an overwhelming confirmation
+of this view. We can hardly any longer hesitate to recognize
+in this vast building, with its winding corridors and subterranean
+ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a matter of fact a
+maze pattern recalling the conventional representation of the
+Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of
+the corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not to
+connect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace
+illustrating the cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in which
+girls as well as youths took part, with the legend of the Minotaur,
+or bull of Minos, for whose grisly meals Athens was forced to pay
+annual tribute of her sons and daughters. It appears certain
+from the associations in which they are found at Cnossus, that
+these Minoan bull sports formed part of a religious ceremony.
+Actual figures of a monster with a bull&rsquo;s head and man&rsquo;s body
+occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other
+Cretan sites.</p>
+
+<p>It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may
+have been interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they
+have a solid substratum of reality. With such remains
+before us it is no longer sufficient to relegate Minos to
+<span class="sidenote">Historic substratum of Cretan myths.</span>
+the regions of sun-myths. His legendary presentation
+as the &ldquo;Friend of God,&rdquo; like Abraham, to whom as to
+Moses the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls
+up indeed just such a priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuary
+of Cnossus itself presupposes. It seems possible even that
+the ancient tradition which recorded an earlier or later king of the
+name of Minos may, as suggested above, cover a dynastic title.
+The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus and Phaestus, and the
+interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a succession of
+dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it is certainly
+convenient to apply the name &ldquo;Minoan.&rdquo; It is interesting, as
+bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat,
+that an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the
+later palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two official
+signets with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the
+&ldquo;associations&rdquo; on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear that
+the later traditions in many respects accurately summed up the
+performances of the &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; dynast who carried out the great
+buildings now brought to light. The palace, with its wonderful
+works of art, executed for Minos by the craftsman Daedalus,
+has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The extraordinary
+architectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science revealed in
+details of the building, bring us at the same time face to face
+with the power of mechanical invention with which Daedalus
+was credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic control
+visible in the clay documents of the palace point to a highly
+developed legal organization. The powerful fleet and maritime
+empire which Minos was said to have established will no doubt
+receive fuller illustration when the sea-town of Cnossus comes to
+be explored. The appearance of ships on some of the most
+important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to show how
+widely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouring
+Mediterranean regions.</p>
+
+<p>The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other
+fabrics of the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+activity on the part of the islanders going back to the days of the
+<span class="sidenote">Early relations with Egypt.</span>
+first Egyptian dynasties. In a deposit at Kahun, belonging to
+the XIIth Dynasty, c. 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, were already found
+imported polychrome vases of &ldquo;Middle Minoan&rdquo;
+fabric. In the same way the important part played by
+Cretan enterprise in the days of the New Egyptian
+empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late Minoan pottery
+on Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover, belonging
+to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the representatives
+<span class="sidenote">The Kefts and Philistines.</span>
+of the Kefts or peoples of &ldquo;The Ring&rdquo; and of the
+&ldquo;Lands to the West&rdquo; in the fashionable costume of
+the Cnossian court, bearing precious vessels and other
+objects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to the east
+the recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer have
+brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the
+later palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known
+in the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the
+Minoan name and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at
+<span class="sidenote">Early relations with Cyprus and N. Aegean.</span>
+Gaza to the latest classical days. Similar evidence
+of Minoan contact, and indeed of wholesale colonization
+from the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The culture of
+the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us
+by the excavations of the British School at Phylakopi
+in Melos, also attest a growing influence from the
+Cretan side, which, about the time of the later palace at
+Cnossus, becomes finally predominant.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing
+remains of a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which
+Schliemann first brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae,
+and which from those discoveries received the general
+<span class="sidenote">Minoan influence on mainland of Greece.</span>
+name of &ldquo;Mycenaean,&rdquo; in the main represent a transmarine
+offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlier
+remains both at Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectly
+investigated, show that this Cretan influence goes back to the
+Middle Minoan age, with its characteristic style of polychrome
+vase decoration. The contents of the royal tombs, on the other
+hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with the fabrics of the
+first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan age, as
+illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the later
+palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada.
+The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to
+be slightly lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the
+painted vases and gold cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta,
+with their marvellous reliefs showing scenes of bull-hunting,
+represent the late palace style at Cnossus in its final development.</p>
+
+<p>The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are
+thus indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites are
+similar, and the religious representations show an identical form
+of worship. At the same time the local traditions and conditions
+differentiate the continental from the insular branch. In Crete,
+in the later period, when the rulers could trust to the &ldquo;wooden
+walls&rdquo; of the Minoan navy, there is no parallel for the massive
+fortifications that we see at Tiryns or Mycenae. The colder winter
+climate of mainland Greece dictated the use of fixed hearths,
+whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been of a portable
+kind, and the different usage in this respect again reacted
+on the respective forms of the principal hall or &ldquo;Megaron.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on the
+Acropolis at Athens,&mdash;a corroboration of the tradition which
+made the Athenians send their tribute children to
+Minos. Similar traces extend through a large part of
+<span class="sidenote">Minoan influences in N. Greece.</span>
+northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to
+Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near
+mod. Volo), the legendary embarking place of the Argonauts.
+This circumstance deserves attention owing to the special connexion
+traditionally existing between the Minyans of Iolcus and
+those of Orchomenus, the point of all others on this side where
+the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken root. The
+Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest
+period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between
+the name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race,
+and that of Minos.</p>
+
+<p>Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is
+perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its
+traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It is
+well marked throughout southern Italy from Taranto
+<span class="sidenote">Adriatic and Italian extension.</span>
+to Naples. It was with Sicily, however, that the later
+history of Minos and his great craftsman Daedalus was
+in a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as in
+Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx,
+and it was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western
+campaign, was said to have met with a violent death at the
+hands of the native king Kokalos (Cocalus) and his daughters.
+His name is preserved in the Sicilian Minoa, and his tomb was
+pointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, with a shrine
+above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the dove;
+and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx
+perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of
+the worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed
+to us in the palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancient
+indications of a Minoan connexion with Sicily have now received
+interesting confirmation in the numerous discoveries, principally
+due to the recent excavations of P. Orsi, of arms and painted vases
+of Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age tombs of the provinces of
+Syracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging to the late Bronze
+Age. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of swords and
+vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals going
+back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age.</p>
+
+<p>The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preserved
+by Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of the
+Greeks in Crete to a widespread desolation that had
+fallen on the central regions. It is certain that by
+<span class="sidenote">Minoan crisis: c. 1400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span>
+the beginning of the 14th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the signs
+of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the
+imported pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna,
+some heavy blows had fallen on the island power.
+Shortly before this date the palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus
+had undergone a great destruction, and though during the ensuing
+period both these royal residences were partially reoccupied
+it was for the most part at any rate by poorer denizens, and their
+great days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere at Cnossus,
+in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the town
+houses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followed
+by an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again
+at Palaikastro and other early settlements in the east of Crete.
+At the same time, to whatever cause this serious setback of
+Minoan civilization was owing, it would be very unsafe to infer
+as yet any large displacement of the original inhabitants by the
+invading swarms from the mainland or elsewhere. The evidence
+of a partial restoration of the domestic quarter of the palace of
+Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic continuity.
+There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the
+indigenous language did not die out during this period, and that
+therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not
+yet. The recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to the
+close of the great palace period, and in a greater degree to the
+age succeeding the catastrophe, has now conclusively shown
+that there was no real break in the continuity of Minoan culture.
+This third Late Minoan period&mdash;the beginning of which may be
+fixed about 1400&mdash;is an age of stagnation and decline, but the
+point of departure continued to be the models supplied by the
+age that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, and
+its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives
+of the great palace style. Not only the native form of writing,
+but the household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious
+rites remain substantially the same. The third Late Minoan age
+corresponds generally with the Late Mycenaean stage in the
+Aegean world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>). It is an age indeed
+in which the culture as a whole, though following a lower level,
+attains the greatest amount of uniformity. From Sicily and even
+the Spanish coast to the Troad, southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and
+Palestine,&mdash;from the Nile valley to the mouth of the Po, very
+similar forms were now diffused. Here and there, as in Cyprus,
+we watch the development of some local schools. How far Crete
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span>
+itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonably
+be ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It is
+certain that towards the close of this third and concluding
+Late Minoan period in the island certain mainland types of swords
+and safety-pins make their appearance, which are symptomatic
+of the great invasion from that side that was now impending or
+had already begun.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Principal Minoan Sites.</i></p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more
+important Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan
+sites.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Cnossus.</i>&mdash;The palace of Cnossus is on the hill of Kephala about
+4 m. inland from Candia. As a scene of human settlement this site
+is of immense antiquity. The successive &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; strata, which
+go well back into the fourth millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, reach down to a depth
+of about 17 ft. But below this again is a human deposit, from
+20 to 26 ft. in thickness, representing a long and gradual course of
+Neolithic or Later Stone-Age development. Assuming that the lower
+strata were formed at approximately the same rate as the upper,
+we have an antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the
+first Neolithic settlement on this spot. The hill itself, like a Tell of
+Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements.
+The palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way
+communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill.
+This road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal
+armoury, and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two
+sides (theatral area). The palace itself approximately formed a
+square with a large paved court in the centre. It had a N.S. orientation.
+The principal entrance was to the north, but what appears to
+have been the royal entrance opened on a paved court on the west
+side. This entrance communicated with a corridor showing frescoes
+of a processional character. The west side of the palace contained
+a series of 18 magazines with great store jars and cists and large
+hoards of clay documents. A remarkable feature of this quarter is
+a small council chamber with a gypsum throne of curiously Gothic
+aspect and lower stone benches round. The walls of the throne room
+show frescoes with sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile
+landscape, and a small bath chamber&mdash;perhaps of ritual use&mdash;is
+attached. This quarter of the palace shows the double axe sign
+constantly repeated on its walls and pillars, and remains of miniature
+wall-paintings showing pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes
+stuck into the wooden columns. Here too were found the repositories
+of an early shrine containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs,
+including a snake goddess&mdash;another aspect of the native divinity&mdash;and
+her votaries. The central object of cult in this shrine was
+apparently a marble cross. Near the north-west angle of the palace
+was a larger bath chamber, and by the N. entrance were remains of
+great reliefs of bull-hunting scenes in painted <i>gesso duro</i>. South of
+the central court were found parts of a relief in the same material,
+showing a personage with a fleur-de-lis crown and collar. The east
+wing of the palace was the really residential part. Here was what
+seems to have been the basement of a very large hall or &ldquo;Megaron,&rdquo;
+approached directly from the central court, and near this were found
+further reliefs, fresco representations of scenes of the bull-ring with
+female as well as male toreadors, and remains of a magnificent
+gaming-board of gold-plated ivory with intarsia work of crystal
+plaques set on silver plates and blue enamel (<i>cyanus</i>). The true
+domestic quarter lay to the south of the great hall, and was approached
+from the central court by a descending staircase, of which three
+flights and traces of a fourth are preserved. This gives access to
+a whole series of halls and private rooms (halls &ldquo;of the Colonnades,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;of the Double Axes,&rdquo; &ldquo;Queen&rsquo;s Megaron&rdquo; with bath-room attached
+and remains of the fish fresco, &ldquo;Treasury&rdquo; with ivory figures and
+other objects of art), together with extensive remains of an upper
+storey. The drainage system here, including a water-closet, is of the
+most complete and modern kind. Near this domestic quarter was
+found a small shrine of the Double Axes, with cult objects and
+offertory vessels in their places. The traces of an earlier &ldquo;Middle
+Minoan&rdquo; palace beneath the later floor-levels are most visible on
+the east side, with splendid ceramic remains. Here also are early
+magazines with huge store jars. At the foot of the slope on this side,
+forming the eastern boundary of the palace, are massive supporting
+walls and a bastion with descending flights of steps, and a water-channel
+devised with extraordinary hydraulic science (Evans,
+&ldquo;Palace of Knossos,&rdquo; &ldquo;Reports of Excavations 1900-1905,&rdquo; in
+<i>Annual of British School at Athens</i>, vi. sqq.; <i>Journ. R.I.B.A.</i>
+(1902), pt. iv. For the palace pottery see D. Mackenzie, <i>Journ. of
+Hellenic Studies</i>, xxiii.). The palace site occupies nearly six acres.
+To the N.E. of it came to light a &ldquo;royal villa&rdquo; with staircase, and a
+basilica-like hall (Evans, <i>B.S. Annual</i>, ix. 130 seq.). To the N.W.
+was a dependency containing an important hoard of bronze vessels
+(ib. p. 112 sqq.). The building on the hill to the W. approached
+by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller palace
+(<i>B.S. Annual</i>, xii., 1906). Many remains of private houses belonging
+to the prehistoric town have also come to light (Hogarth, <i>B.S.A.</i> vi.
+[1900], p. 70 sqq.). A little N. of the town, at a spot called Zafer
+Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated in
+1904 (Evans, <i>The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus</i>, 1906), and on a height
+about 2 m. N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square chamber,
+which originally had a pointed vault of &ldquo;Cyclopaean&rdquo; structure
+approached by a forehall or rock-cut passage. This monumental
+work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age, but has
+been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans, <i>Archaeologia</i>,
+1906, p. 136 sqq.). It is possibly the traditional tomb of
+Idomeneus. (For later discoveries see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cnossus</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Phaestus.</i>&mdash;The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan
+Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara. On the eastern
+hill of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F. Halbherr on behalf
+of the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out
+by L. Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much
+resembling on a somewhat smaller scale that of Cnossus. The plan
+here too was roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing
+to the erosion of the hillside a good deal of the eastern quarter has
+disappeared. The Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods,
+and the earlier or &ldquo;Middle Minoan&rdquo; part is better preserved than
+at Cnossus. The west court and entrance belonging to the earlier
+building show many analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court
+was commanded to the north by tiers of stone benches like those of
+the &ldquo;theatral area&rdquo; at Cnossus on a larger scale. Magazines with
+fine painted store jars came to light beneath the floor of the later
+&ldquo;propylaeum.&rdquo; The most imposing block of the later building is
+formed by a group of structures rising from the terrace formed by
+the old west wall. A fine paved corridor running east from this gives
+access to a line of the later magazines, and through a columnar hall
+to the central court beyond, while to the left of this a broad and
+stately flight of steps leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper
+terrace. North of the central court is a domestic quarter presenting
+analogies with that of Cnossus, but throughout the later building
+there was a great dearth of the frescoes and other remains such as
+invest the Cnossian palace with so much interest. There are also
+few remaining traces here of upper storeys. It is evident that in this
+case also the palace was overtaken by a great catastrophe, followed
+by a partial reoccupation towards the close of the Late Minoan age
+(L. Pernier, <i>Scavi della missione italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti
+antichi</i>, xii. and xiv.).</p>
+
+<p>About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near
+the village of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light
+in 1901, belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni,
+<i>Necropoli di Phaestos</i>, 1905).</p>
+
+<p><i>Hagia Triada.</i>&mdash;On a low hill crowned by a small church of the
+above name, about 3 m. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a
+small palace or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavated
+by the Italian Mission. In its structure and general arrangements
+it bears a general resemblance to the palace of Phaestus and Cnossus
+on a smaller scale. The buildings themselves, with the usual halls,
+bath-rooms and magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother
+Goddess, occupy two sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a
+higher level approached by flights of stairs. Repositories also came
+to light containing treasure in the shape of bronze ingots. In contrast
+to the palace of Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved
+exceptionally rich, and derive a special interest from the fact that
+the catastrophe which overwhelmed the building belongs to a
+somewhat earlier part of the Late Minoan age than that which
+overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus. Clay tablets were here found
+belonging to the earlier type of the linear script (Class A), together
+with a great number of clay sealings with religious and other devices
+and incised countermarks. Both the signet types and the other
+objects of art here discovered display the fresh naturalism that
+characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan period. A
+remarkable wall-painting depicts a cat creeping over ivy-covered
+rocks and about to spring on a pheasant. The steatite vases with
+reliefs are of great importance. One of these shows a ritual procession,
+apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the sound of
+a sistrum. On another a Minoan warrior prince appears before his
+retainers. A tall funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a considerable
+part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing
+bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume,
+the whole executed in a most masterly manner. The small palace
+was reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level.
+To a period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian
+palace must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging to a
+neighbouring cemetery. The chest is of limestone coated with stucco,
+adorned with life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with
+the sacred Double Axes of Minoan cult. There have also come to
+light remains of a great domed mortuary chamber of primitive construction
+containing relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr,
+<i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, xiii. (1903), p. 6 sqq., and <i>Memorie del
+instituto lombardo</i>, 1905; Paribeni, <i>Lavori eseguiti della missione
+italiana nel Palazzo e nella necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti</i>,
+&amp;c., xi. and xii.; Savignoni, <i>Il Vaso di Haghia Triada</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Palaikastro.</i>&mdash;Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of
+Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a
+considerable Minoan town. The buildings here show a stratification
+analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus. The town was traversed
+by a well-paved street with a stone sewer, and contained several
+important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span>
+a small palace. Among the more interesting relics found were ivory
+figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric. On an adjacent
+hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times
+a temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich
+deposits of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the
+religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back
+to prehistoric times. On the neighbouring height of Petsofà, by a
+rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to
+light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interesting
+votive offerings of terra-cotta, many of them apparently relating
+to cures or to the warding off of diseases (R. C. Bosanquet, <i>British
+School Annual</i>, viii. 286 sqq., ix. 274 sqq.; R. M. Dawkins, ibid.
+ix. 290 sqq., x.; J. L. Myres, ibid. ix. 356 sqq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="sc f80 noind pt2">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:495px" src="images/img424a1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;PALACE OF CNOSSUS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM THE EAST.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:501px" src="images/img424a2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;VIEW OF PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF COLONNADES
+(WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUS).<br />
+<span class="f80">(<i>By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.</i>)</span></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="sc f80 noind pt2">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:700px; height:464px" src="images/img424b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;LARGE OIL-JARS IN EAST MAGAZINES (CNOSSUS).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:320px; height:438px" src="images/img424b2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+ <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:320px; height:439px" src="images/img424b3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE
+ON WALL) (CNOSSUS).</td>
+ <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">(<i>By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.</i>)</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gournia.</i>&mdash;Near this hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in
+east Crete, the American archaeologist Miss Harriet Boyd has excavated
+a great part of another Minoan town. It covers the sides of a long
+hill, its main avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small
+palace. It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was
+rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and
+pottery for household use. The bulk of the remains belong here, as
+at Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but
+there are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age. The
+remains supply detailed information as to the everyday life of a
+Cretan country town about the middle of the second millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+(H. Boyd, <i>Excavations at Gournia</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Zakro.</i>&mdash;Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast
+important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia
+were explored by D. G. Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits
+containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety
+of seal impressions. The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known
+port of call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds
+of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same stead to the
+Minoan shipping (D. G. Hogarth, <i>Annual of the British School</i>, vii. 121
+sqq., and <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i>, xxii. 76 sqq. and 333 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Dictaean Cave.</i>&mdash;Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range,
+answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with
+the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. This cavern also shared
+with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos, Moses-like,
+received the law from Zeus. The exploration begun by the
+Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found
+here the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by
+Hogarth in 1900. Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern,
+which served as the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a
+lower sanctuary going down deep into the bowels of the earth. Great
+quantities of votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish
+double axes and stone tables of offering, were found both above and
+below. In the lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite
+had been used as objects of worship, and bronze votive objects
+thrust into their crevices (Halbherr, <i>Museo di antichità classica</i>, ii.
+pp. 906-910; Evans, <i>Further Discoveries</i>, &amp;c., p. 350 sqq., <i>Myc. Tree
+and Pillar Cult</i>, p. 14 sqq.; Hogarth, &ldquo;The Dictaean Cave,&rdquo;
+<i>Annual of British School at Athens</i>, vi. 94 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseira and Mochlos.</i>&mdash;On these two islets on the northern coast
+of E. Crete, R. Seager, an American explorer, has found striking
+remains of flourishing Minoan settlements. The contents of a series
+of tombs at Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of
+the Early Minoan age.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea
+of the extent to which the remains of the great Minoan civilization
+are spread throughout the island. The &ldquo;hundred
+cities&rdquo; ascribed to Crete by Homer are in a fair way
+<span class="sidenote">Third Late Minoan period.</span>
+of becoming an ascertained reality. The great days
+of Crete lie thus beyond the historic period. The
+period of decline referred to above (Late Minoan III.), which
+begins about the beginning of the 14th century before our era,
+must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of considerable
+duration. As to the character of the invading elements that
+hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary
+Egyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu who
+represented Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period
+of the Cnossian palace (Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on
+Egyptian monuments towards the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty
+(c. 1350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and their place is taken by the &ldquo;Peoples of the
+Sea.&rdquo; The Achaeans, under the name <i>Akaiusha</i>, already appear
+among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of Rameses
+III. (c. 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall,
+&ldquo;Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea,&rdquo; <i>Annual of British School
+at Athens</i>, viii. 157 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>About the same time the evidences of imports of
+Late Minoan or &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; fabrics in Egypt
+definitely cease. In the <i>Odyssey</i> we already find the
+<span class="sidenote">Greek settlementsin Crete.</span>
+Achaeans together with Dorians settled in central
+Crete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal
+&ldquo;Eteocretan&rdquo; element, however, as represented respectively
+by the Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions
+written in Greek characters show that the old language survived
+to the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic
+changes in Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of widespread
+destruction and by a considerable break in
+the continuity of the insular civilization. New burial
+<span class="sidenote">The dark ages.</span>
+customs, notably the rite of cremation in place of the
+older corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier
+tombs were pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use of
+iron for arms and implements now finally triumphed over
+bronze. Northern forms of swords and safety-pins are now
+found in general use. A new geometrical style of decoration
+like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan
+models. The civic foundations which belong to this period,
+and which include the greater part of the massive ruins of
+Goulas and Anavlachos in the province of Mirabello and of
+Hyrtakina in the west, affect more or less precipitous sites and
+show a greater tendency to fortification. The old system of
+writing now dies out, and it is not till some three centuries
+later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a
+Semitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilization
+is awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true
+dark ages of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were
+preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced
+to a subject condition, and that these finally leavened the whole
+lump, so that once more&mdash;this time under a Hellenic guise&mdash;Crete
+was enabled to anticipate mainland Greece in nascent
+civilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhöfer (<i>Anfänge der
+Kunst</i>) had called attention to certain remarkable examples
+of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery
+of the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and
+notably the shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that
+by the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cretan technique in metal not only held
+its own beside imported Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctly
+ahead of that of the rest of Greece (Halbherr, <i>Bronzi
+del antro di Zeus Ideo</i>). The recent excavations by the British
+School on the site of the Dictaean temple at Palaikastro bear
+out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of Apollo found
+at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at fault in
+recording the existence of a very early school of Greek sculpture
+in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and Scyllis.</p>
+
+<p>The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed
+descent from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their
+sanction in the laws which Minos was said to have received
+from the hands of the Cretan Zeus. The great monument
+of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius (<i>Monumenti
+antichi</i>, iii.) is the most important monument of early law
+hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world.</p>
+
+<p>Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned,
+besides the great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian
+Apollo at Gortyna, a plain square building with a
+<i>pronaos</i> added in later times, excavated by Halbherr,
+<span class="sidenote">Greek remains.</span>
+1885 and 1887 (<i>Mon. Ant.</i> iii. 2 seqq.), the Hellenic
+bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city
+walls of Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the
+rock-cut throne of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a
+temple. The most interesting record, however, that has been
+preserved of later Hellenic civilization in the island is the
+coinage of the Cretan cities (J. N. Svoronos, <i>Numismatique de
+la Crete ancienne</i>; W. Wroth, <i>B. M. Coin Catalogue, Crete, &amp;c.</i>;
+P. Gardner, <i>The Types of Greek Coins</i>), which during the good
+period display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style distinct
+from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes indicative
+of a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these artistic
+efforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses into
+barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Under the <i>Pax Romana</i>, the Cretan cities again enjoyed a
+large measure of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices
+still existing at the time of the Venetian occupation. A good
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+account of these is preserved in a MS. description of the island
+<span class="sidenote">Roman remains.</span>
+drawn up under the Venetians about 1538, and existing in the
+library of St Mark (published by Falkener, <i>Museum
+of Classical Antiquities</i>, ii. pp. 263-303). Very little
+of all this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest
+and the ravages caused by the incessant insurrections of the last
+two centuries. The ruin-field of Gortyna still evokes something
+of the importance that it possessed in Imperial days, and at
+Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple of Aesculapius
+and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this city.
+At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Roman
+monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly
+disappeared. Among the early Christian remains of the island
+far and away the most important is the church of St Titus at
+Gortyna, which perhaps dates from the Constantinian age.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;See the authorities already quoted, for further
+details. Previous to the extensive excavations referred to above,
+Crete had been carefully examined and explored by Tournefort,
+Pococke, Olivier and other travellers, <i>e.g.</i> Pashley (<i>Travels in Crete</i>,
+2 vols., London, 1837) and Captain Spratt (<i>Travels and Researches
+in Crete</i>, 2 vols., London, 1865). A survey sufficiently accurate as
+regards the maritime parts was also executed, under the orders of
+the British admiralty, by Captain Graves and Captain (afterwards
+Admiral) Spratt. Most that can be gathered from ancient authors
+concerning the mythology and early history of the island is brought
+together by Meursius (<i>Creta</i>, &amp;c., in the 3rd vol. of his works) and
+Hoeck (<i>Kreta</i>, 3 vols., Göttingen, 1823-1829), but the latter work
+was published before the researches which have thrown so much
+light on the topography and antiquities of the island. Much new
+material, especially as to the western provinces of Crete, has been
+recently collected by members of the Italian Archaeological Mission
+(<i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, vol. vi. 154 seqq., ix. 286, 1899; xi. 286 seqq.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. E.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>History.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Ancient.</i>&mdash;Lying midway between three continents, Crete
+was from the earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the
+passage of early culture from Egypt and the East to mainland
+Greece. On all this the recent archaeological discoveries (see
+the section on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>) have thrown great light, but the
+earliest written history of Crete, like that of most parts of
+continental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and fable to
+so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any clear
+conclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimed
+for their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parent
+of all the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the
+Olympian deities. But passing from this region of pure mythology
+to the semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early
+legends and traditions of the island grouped around the name
+of Minos. According to the received tradition, Minos was a
+king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a son of Zeus, and enjoyed
+through life the privilege of habitual intercourse with his divine
+father. It was from this source that he derived the wisdom
+which enabled him to give to the Cretans the excellent system
+of laws and governments that earned for him the reputation
+of being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same time
+he was reported to have been the first monarch who established
+a naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks
+the <i>Thalassocracy</i>, or dominion of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact
+both by Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few years
+received striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recently
+brought to light on Cretan soil tend to show that already some
+2000 years before the Dorian conquest the island was exercising a
+dominant influence in the Aegean world. The great palaces now
+excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus, as well as the royal villa
+of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive phases of a brilliant primitive
+civilization which had already attained mature development
+by the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty. To this civilization
+as a whole it is convenient to give the name &ldquo;Minoan,&rdquo; and
+the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover
+a dynastic even more than a personal significance in much the
+same way as such historic terms as &ldquo;Pharaoh&rdquo; or &ldquo;Caesar.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual
+existence of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as
+Sicily and on the other as the coast of Canaan. The historic
+tradition which identifies with the Cretans the principal element
+of the Philistine confederation, and places the tomb of Minos
+himself in western Sicily, thus receives remarkable confirmation.
+Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked by the occurrence
+of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of Minoan fabric
+among the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlier
+dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian
+fabrics to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in the
+Homeric poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan
+civilization was already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only
+Greek people who attempted to compete with the Phoenicians
+as bold and adventurous navigators. In the Homeric age the
+population of Crete was of a very mixed character, and we are
+told in the <i>Odyssey</i> (xix. 175) that besides the Eteocretes, who,
+as their name imports, must have been the original inhabitants,
+the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and Dorians. Subsequently
+the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by
+fresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during the
+historical period all the principal cities of the island were either
+Dorian colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect and
+institutions. It is certain that at a very early period the Cretan
+cities were celebrated for their laws and system of government,
+and the most extensive monument of early Greek law is the
+great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884. The origin of the
+Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but they
+had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as
+well as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed,
+according to one tradition, copied in great measure from those
+already existing in Crete.<a name="FnAnchor_2m" id="FnAnchor_2m" href="#Footnote_2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have
+possessed for the internal regulation of the different cities, they
+had the one glaring defect, that they made no provision for any
+federal bond or union among them, or for the government of the
+island as a whole. It was owing to the want of this that the
+Cretans scarcely figure in Greek history as a people, though the
+island, as observed by Aristotle, would seem from its natural
+position calculated to exercise a preponderating influence over
+Greek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the Persian or in
+the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil contests
+in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were engaged.
+At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on
+this account that the few notices we find of them in history always
+represent them as engaged in local wars among one another; and
+Polybius tells us that the history of Crete was one continued
+series of civil wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosity
+exceeding all that was known in the rest of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took
+the lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of <i>hegemony</i> or supremacy
+over the whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia.
+But besides these three, there were many other independent
+cities, which, though they generally followed the lead of one or
+other of these more powerful rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy,
+and were able to shift at will from one alliance to another. Among
+the most important of these were&mdash;Lyttus or Lyctus, in the
+interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between Cnossus and
+Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna
+and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the
+island; Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda;
+Eleutherna and Axus, on the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and
+Lappa, between the White Mountains and the sea. Phalasarna
+on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north, seem to have
+been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia and
+Lyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains just
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+above the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island were
+Praesus in the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east,
+while Hierapytna on the south coast was the only place of
+importance on the side facing Africa, and on this account
+rose under the Romans to be one of the principal cities of the
+island.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. J. E.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Medieval to 19th Century.</i>&mdash;Though it was continually torn by
+civil dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the
+various Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but
+having incurred the enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the
+great Mithradates, and afterwards by taking active part with
+their neighbours, the pirates of Cilicia, the Cretans were at length
+attacked by the Roman arms, and, after a resistance protracted
+for more than three years, were finally subdued by Q. Metellus,
+who earned by this success the surname of Creticus (67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The
+island was now reduced to a Roman province, and subsequently
+united for administrative purposes with the district of Cyrenaica
+or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This arrangement
+lasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete was
+incorporated in the prefecture of Illyria. It continued to form
+part of the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fell
+into the hands of the Saracens (823). It then became a formidable
+nest of pirates and a great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of
+the Byzantine sovereigns to recover it till the year 960, when it
+was reconquered by Nicephorus Phocas. In the partition of the
+Greek empire after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins
+in 1204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface, marquis of Montferrat,
+but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus passed under the
+dominion of that great republic, to which it continued subject for
+more than four centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally
+built by the Saracens, and called by them &ldquo;Khandax,&rdquo; became
+the seat of government, and not only rose to be the capital and
+chief city of the island, but actually gave name to it, so that it
+was called in the official language of Venice &ldquo;the island of
+Candia,&rdquo; a designation which from thence passed into modern
+maps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however, always
+retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its
+place in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Crete
+by the Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies,
+very arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous
+insurrections were the consequence. Daru, in his history of
+Venice, mentions fourteen between the years 1207 and 1365, the
+most important being that of 1361-1364,&mdash;a revolt not of the
+natives against the rule of their Venetian masters, but of the
+Venetian colonists against the republic. But with all its defects
+their administration did much to promote the material prosperity
+of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it
+is probable that the island was more prosperous than at any
+subsequent time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to the
+islanders external tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks
+were content to leave them in undisturbed possession of this
+opulent and important island for nearly two centuries after the
+fall of Constantinople. The Cretans themselves, however, were
+eager for a change, and, disappointed in the hope of a Genoese
+occupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of a Venetian
+commissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that of
+the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at
+any rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that the
+Turks made any serious attempt to effect the conquest of the
+island; but in that year they landed with an army of 50,000 men,
+and speedily reduced the important city of Canea. Retimo fell the
+following year, and in 1648 they laid siege to the capital city of
+Candia. This was the longest siege on record, having been
+protracted for more than twenty years; but in 1667 it was
+pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand
+vizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled
+to surrender (September 1669). Its fall was followed by the
+submission of the whole island. Venice was allowed to retain
+possession of Grabusa, Suda and Spinalonga on the north, but in
+1718 these three strongholds reverted to the Turks, and the
+island was finally lost to Venice.</p>
+
+<p>From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule
+without interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution.
+After the conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced
+Mahommedanism, and thus secured to themselves the chief share
+in the administration of the island. But far from this having a
+favourable effect upon the condition of the population, the result
+was just the contrary, and according to R. Pashley (<i>Travels in
+Crete</i>, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province of the Turkish
+empire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero of
+which was &ldquo;Master&rdquo; John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with
+great cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinople
+were wholly unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, who
+exercised without restraint every kind of violence and oppression.
+In 1813 the ruthless severity of the governor-general, Haji
+Osman, who obtained the co-operation of the Christians, broke
+the power of the janissaries; but after Osman had fallen a victim
+to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete again came under their
+control. When in 1821 the revolution broke out in continental
+Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a massacre at
+Canea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They carried
+on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves
+masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks
+and Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities.
+The sultan then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha of
+Egypt, who despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilities
+continued with no decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of
+further reinforcements enabled the Turkish commander to
+reduce the island to submission. In 1827 the battle of Navarino
+took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February) Greece was declared
+independent. The allied powers (France, England and Russia)
+decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the
+islands annexed to the newly-formed kingdom of Greece; but
+recognizing that some change was necessary, they obtained from
+the sultan Mahmud II. its cession to Egypt, which was confirmed
+by a firman of the 20th of December 1832. This change
+of masters brought some relief to the unfortunate Cretans, who
+at least exchanged the licence of local misrule for the oppression
+of an organized despotism; and the government of Mustafa
+Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for
+a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and
+intelligent than that of most Turkish governors. He encouraged
+agriculture, improved the roads, introduced an Albanian police,
+and put down brigandage. The period of his administration
+has been called the &ldquo;golden age&rdquo; of Crete.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced
+under the dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still
+retained his governorship until he left for Constantinople to
+become grand vizier in 1852. Four years later an insurrection
+broke out, owing to the violation of the provisions of an imperial
+decree (February 1856), whereby liberty of conscience and
+equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been conferred
+upon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms until
+a firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised concessions.
+These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the
+inhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up for
+presentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan&rsquo;s
+reply was couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were
+ordered to render unquestioning obedience to the authorities.
+After a period of great distress and cruel oppression, in 1866,
+on the demand for reforms being again refused, a general insurrection
+took place, which was only put down by great exertions
+on the part of the Porte. It was followed by the concession of
+additional privileges to the Christians of the island and of a kind
+of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in
+what is known as the &ldquo;Organic Statute&rdquo; of 1868.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Modern Constitutional.</i>&mdash;Cretan constitutional history may be
+said to date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrection
+which had extended over three years, the Turkish government
+consented to grant a certain measure of autonomy to the
+island. The privileges now accorded were embodied in what is
+known as the Organic Statute, an instrument which eventually
+obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be
+introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Various
+privileges already acquired by the Christian population were
+confirmed; a general council, or representative body, was
+brought into existence, composed of deputies from every district
+in the island; mixed tribunals were introduced, together with
+a highly elaborate administrative system, under which all the
+more important functionaries, Christian and Mussulman, were
+provided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The new
+constitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failed
+to satisfy either section of the population. The Christians were
+ready for another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government,
+finding Hellenic aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano,
+gave the signal for agitation in the island. During the insurrection
+which followed, the usual barbarities were committed on both
+sides; the Christians betook themselves to the mountains, and
+the Mussulman peasants crowded into the fortified towns.
+Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of England,
+which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was
+<span class="sidenote">Pact of Halepa.</span>
+ready to accept, and the convention known as the
+Pact of Halepa was drawn up in 1878 under the auspices
+of Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and Adossides
+Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan
+population. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute
+were confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and
+administrative systems were maintained; the judges were
+declared independent of the executive, and an Assembly composed
+of forty-nine Christian and thirty-one Mussulman deputies
+took the place of the former general council. A parliamentary
+régime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare for a time took
+the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems attaching
+themselves to one or other of the political factions which now
+made their appearance among the Christians. The material
+interests of the island were neglected in the scramble for place and
+power; the finances fell into disorder, and the party which came
+off worst in the struggle systematically intrigued against the
+governor-general of the day and conspired with his enemies at
+Constantinople. A crisis came about in 1889, when the &ldquo;Conservative&rdquo;
+leaders, finding themselves in a minority in the
+chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains. Though
+the outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latent
+fanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island once
+more became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the two
+preceding movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourably
+for the Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greek
+government to persuade the insurgents not to oppose the occupation
+of several strategic posts, despatched a military governor
+to the island, proclaimed martial law, and issued a firman
+abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa Pact.
+The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the number
+of its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had
+hitherto been shared with the island, was appropriated by the
+Turkish treasury. The firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it
+violated a convention possessing a quasi-international sanction,
+but the Christians were unable to resist, and the powers abstained
+from intervention. The elections held under the new system
+proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls, and
+for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a succession
+of Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad to
+worse, the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, which
+received no pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied.
+In 1894 the Porte, at the instance of the powers, nominated a
+Christian, Karatheodory Pasha, to the governorship, and the
+Christians, mollified by the concession, agreed to take part in
+the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked; no steps,
+however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which
+became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. The
+refusal of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been
+illegally diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction
+a loan to meet immediate requirements caused no little exasperation
+in the island, which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory
+(March 1895). Before that event an Epitropé, or
+&ldquo;Committee of Reform,&rdquo; had appeared in the mountains&mdash;the
+harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the emancipation
+<span class="sidenote">Insurrection of 1896-97.</span>
+of Crete. The Epitropé was at first nothing
+more than a handful of discontented politicians who had
+failed to find places in the administration, but some
+slight reverses which it succeeded in inflicting on the
+Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians to its
+side, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest
+the important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantry
+now flocked to the fortified towns and civil war began. Serious
+disturbances broke out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were
+only quelled by the arrival of foreign warships. The foreign
+consuls intervened in the hope of bringing about a peaceful
+settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment of force,
+and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of that
+town with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detachment
+through the western districts, where other garrisons were
+besieged, was marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000
+Christian peasants took refuge on the desolate promontory of
+Spada, where they suffered extreme privations. These events,
+which produced much excitement in Greece, quickened the
+energies of the powers. An international blockade of the island
+was proposed by Austria but rejected by England. The
+ambassadors at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the
+Porte, and the Sultan, alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian
+outbreak, began to display a conciliatory disposition. The Pact
+of Halepa was restored, the troops were withdrawn from the
+interior, financial aid was promised to the island, a Christian
+governor-general was appointed, the assembly was summoned,
+and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an
+arrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderate
+scheme of reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a
+few exceptions, were approved by the powers and eventually
+sanctioned by the sultan.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted
+the new constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers
+for their intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the
+arrangement, which the powers undertook to guarantee, and,
+notwithstanding some symptoms of discontent at Candia,
+there was every reason to hope that the island was now entering
+upon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident, however,
+that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of the
+new reforms. Several months passed without any step being
+taken towards this realization; difficulties were raised with
+regard to the composition of the international commissions
+charged with the reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial
+system; intrigues were set on foot against the Christian governor-general;
+and the presence of a special imperial commissioner,
+who had no place under the constitution, proved so injurious
+to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers demanded his
+immediate recall. The indignation of the Christians increased,
+a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants refused
+to return to their homes. A new factor now became apparent
+in Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek
+government had loyally co-operated with the powers in their
+efforts for the pacification of the island, but towards the close of
+the year a secret society known as the Ethniké Hetaeria began to
+arrogate to itself the direction of Greek foreign policy. The aim
+of the society was a war with Turkey with a view to the acquisition
+of Macedonia, and it found a ready instrument for its
+designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan Christians.
+Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large consignments
+of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the
+<span class="sidenote">Greek Intervention.</span>
+island was practically in a state of insurrection. On
+the 21st of January the Greek fleet was mobilized.
+Affairs were brought to a climax by a series of conflicts
+which took place at Canea on the 4th of February;
+the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration broke
+out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge
+on the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government now
+despatched an ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were
+followed a few days later by a torpedo flotilla commanded by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span>
+Prince George. The prince soon retired to Melos, but on the night
+of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary force under
+Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its commander
+issued a proclamation announcing the occupation of the
+island in the name of King George. On the same day Georgi
+Pasha, the Christian governor-general, took refuge on board a
+Russian ironclad, and, on the next, naval detachments from
+the warships of the powers occupied Canea. This step paralysed
+the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few slight engagements
+with the Turks remained practically inactive in the interior.
+The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and
+their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st
+February). The intervention of Greece caused immense excitement
+among the Christian population, and terrible massacres of
+Moslem peasants took place in the eastern and western districts.
+The forces of the powers shortly afterwards occupied Candia
+and the other maritime towns, while the international fleet
+blockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were followed by
+the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and
+<span class="sidenote">Decision of the powers.</span>
+Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the
+decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case
+in present circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2)
+in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of the
+reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomous
+administration, intended to secure to it a separate
+government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
+the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet from the
+island, while the Turkish troops were to be concentrated in the
+fortresses and eventually withdrawn. The cabinet of Athens,
+however, declined to recall the expeditionary force, which
+remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the Greek
+reverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its return.
+Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March).
+After the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who
+had hitherto demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced
+in the decision of the powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under
+its president Dr Sphakianakis, a man of good sense and moderation,
+co-operated with the international commanders in the
+maintenance of order. The pacification of the island, however,
+was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the inability
+of the powers to agree in the choice of a new governor-general.
+The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the
+withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish
+pretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the remaining
+powers divided the island into four departments, which
+they severally undertook to administer. An attack made by the
+Moslems of Candia on the British garrison of that town, with
+the connivance of the Turkish authorities, brought home to the
+powers the necessity of removing the Ottoman troops, and the
+last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the 14th of November
+1898.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince George
+of Greece as high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a
+period of three years (renewed in 1901) was formally
+announced, and on the 21st of December the prince
+<span class="sidenote">Prince George&rsquo;s administration.</span>
+landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea
+amid enthusiastic demonstrations. For some time
+after his arrival complete tranquillity prevailed in the island,
+but the Moslem population, reduced to great distress by the
+prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large numbers. On the
+27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was voted
+by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local
+administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the international
+authorities. The extensive powers conferred by the
+constitution upon Prince George were increased by subsequent
+enactments. In 1901 M. Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy
+part in the last insurrection, was dismissed from the post of
+councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards became leader of a
+strong opposition party, which denounced the arbitrary methods
+of the government. During the next four years party spirit ran
+high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and politicians
+addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the following
+year a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised the
+standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. The
+insurgents, who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis,
+proclaimed the union of the island with Greece (March 1905),
+and their example was speedily followed by the assembly at
+Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their decision to maintain
+the <i>status quo</i>, and increased their military and naval
+forces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia,
+and some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place,
+the international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie.
+In the autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtained
+an amnesty, laid down their arms. A commission appointed
+by the powers to report on the administrative and financial
+situation drew up a series of recommendations in January 1906,
+and a constituent assembly for the revision of the constitution
+met at Canea in the following June. On the 25th of July the
+powers announced a series of reforms, including the reorganization
+of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a
+preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international
+troops, and the extension to Crete of the system of financial
+control established in Greece. On the 14th of September, under
+an agreement dated the 14th of August, they invited King
+George of Greece, in the event of the high commissionership
+becoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post, to be
+nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the
+25th of September Prince George left the island. He had done
+much for the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party
+struggles and his attitude towards the representatives of the
+powers had rendered his position untenable. His successor,
+M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime minister of Greece, arrived
+in Crete on the 1st of October.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p>On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner,
+took the oath to the new constitution elaborated after much
+debate by the Cretan national assembly. His position was one
+of singular difficulty. Apart from the rivalry of the factions
+within the Assembly, there was the question of the Mussulman
+minority, dwindling it is true,<a name="FnAnchor_3m" id="FnAnchor_3m" href="#Footnote_3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> but still a force to be reckoned
+with. The high commissioner, true to his reputation as a prudent
+statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in dealing
+with the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitude
+of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to
+identify himself with any faction. In such matters as appointments
+to the judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartiality
+offended both parties; but on the whole his administration was
+a marked success, and the cessation of the chronic state of disturbance
+in the island justified the powers in preparing for the
+withdrawal of their troops. In spite of the admission of their
+co-religionists to high office in the government, the Mussulmans,
+it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment having
+for its object their expatriation; but these complaints were
+declared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parliament,
+to be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed the
+conditions preliminary to evacuation&mdash;(1) the organization of a
+native gendarmerie, (2) the maintenance of the tranquillity
+of the island, (3) the complete security of the Mussulman population.
+On the 20th of March 1908 M. Zaimis called the attention
+of the powers to the fact that these conditions had been fulfilled,
+and on the 11th of May the powers announced to the high
+commissioner their intention of beginning the evacuation at once
+and completing it within a year. The first withdrawal of the
+troops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan Christians,
+led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves
+abandoned to their fate.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards the
+annexation of the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where
+he arranged for a loan with the Greek National Bank and engaged
+Greek officers for the new gendarmerie. The issue was precipitated
+by the news of the revolution in Turkey. On the 12th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the union with
+Greece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis&mdash;who had gone for a
+holiday to Santa Maura&mdash;elected a committee of six to govern
+the island in the name of the king of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandum
+addressed to the British secretary of state for foreign
+affairs. His reply, while stating that his government would
+safeguard the interests of the Mussulmans, left open the question
+of the attitude of the powers, complicated now by sympathy
+with reformed Turkey. The efforts of diplomacy were directed
+to allaying the resentment of the &ldquo;Young Turks&rdquo; on the one
+hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and
+meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably
+in the name of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powers
+announced to the Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance,
+their decision to withdraw their remaining troops from Crete
+by July 26 and to station four war-ships off the island to protect
+the Moslems and to safeguard &ldquo;the supreme rights&rdquo; of the
+Ottoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly carried
+out, was avowedly &ldquo;provisional&rdquo; and satisfied neither party,
+leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional
+crises of 1909 and 1910.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Pashley, <i>Travels in Crete</i> (2 vols., Cambridge and
+London, 1837); Spratt, <i>Travels and Researches in Crete</i> (2 vols.,
+London, 1867); Raulin, <i>Description physique de l&rsquo;île de Crète</i> (3 vols,
+and Atlas, Paris, 1869); W. J. Stillman, <i>The Cretan Insurrection of
+1866-68</i> (New York, 1874); Edwardes, <i>Letters from Crete</i> (London,
+1887); Stavrakis, <span class="grk" title="Statistikê tou plêthysmou tês Krêtês">&#931;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#960;&#955;&#951;&#952;&#965;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#8166; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#922;&#961;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1890);
+J. H. Freese, <i>A Short Popular History of Crete</i> (London, 1897);
+Bickford-Smith, <i>Cretan Sketches</i> (London, 1897); Laroche, <i>La Crète
+ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1898); Victor Berard, <i>Les Affaires de
+Crète</i> (Paris, 1898); <i>Monumenti Veneti dell&rsquo; isola de Creta</i> (published
+by the Venetian Institute), vol. i. (1906), vol. ii. (1908). See also
+Mrs Walker, <i>Eastern Life and Scenery</i> (London, 1886), and <i>Old Tracks
+and New Landmarks</i> (London, 1897); H. F. Tozer, <i>The Islands of
+the Aegean</i> (Oxford, 1890); J. D. Bourchier, &ldquo;The Stronghold of the
+Sphakiotes,&rdquo; <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (August 1890); E. J. Dillon, &ldquo;Crete
+and the Cretans,&rdquo; <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (May 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1m" id="Footnote_1m" href="#FnAnchor_1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See L. Cayeux, &ldquo;Les Lignes directrices des plissements de l&rsquo;île
+de Crète,&rdquo; <i>C.R. IX. Cong. géol. internat. Vienna</i>, pp. 383-392 (1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2m" id="Footnote_2m" href="#FnAnchor_2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Among the features common to the two were the <i>syssitia</i>, or
+public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common. Indeed,
+the Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at
+training up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens
+of more mature age, in all their habits and relations of life. The
+supreme governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi,
+answering in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was
+nothing corresponding to the two kings at Sparta. These Cretan
+institutions were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but
+receive only qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle
+(<i>Polit.</i> ii. 10).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3m" id="Footnote_3m" href="#FnAnchor_3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000
+in 1907, and the emigration was still continuing. The loss to the
+country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has
+been very serious.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRETINISM,<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> the term given to a chronic disease, either
+sporadic or endemic, arising in early childhood, and due to
+absence or deficiency of the normal secretion of the thyroid
+gland. It is characterized by imperfect development both of
+mind and body. The thyroid gland is either congenitally absent,
+imperfectly developed, or there is definite goitre. The origin
+of the word is doubtful. Its southern French form <i>Chrestiaa</i>
+suggested to Michel a derivation from <i>cresta</i> (<i>crête</i>), the goose foot
+of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots,
+however, were not cretins. The word is usually explained as
+derived from <i>chrétien</i> (Christian) in the sense of &ldquo;innocent.&rdquo;
+But <i>Christianus</i> (which appears in the Lombard <i>cristanei</i>;
+compare the Savoyard <i>innocents</i> and <i>gens du bon dieu</i>) is probably
+a translation of the older <i>cretin</i>, and the latter is probably
+connected with <i>creta</i> (<i>craie</i>)&mdash;a sallow or yellow-earthy complexion
+being a common mark of cretinism.</p>
+
+<p>The endemic form of cretinism prevails in certain districts,
+as in the valleys of central Switzerland, Tirol and the Pyrenees.
+In the United Kingdom cretins have been found in England at
+Oldham, Sholver Moor, Crompton, Duffield, Cromford (near
+Matlock), and other points in Derbyshire; endemic goitre has
+been seen near Nottingham, Chesterfield, Pontefract, Ripon, and
+the mountainous parts of Staffordshire and Yorkshire, the east
+of Cumberland, certain parts of Worcester, Warwick, Cheshire,
+Monmouth, and Leicester, near Horsham in Hampshire, near
+Haslemere in Surrey, and near Beaconsfield in Buckingham.
+There are cretins at Chiselborough in Somerset. In Scotland
+cretins and cases of goitre have been seen in Perthshire, on the
+east coast of Fife, in Roxburgh, the upper portions of Peebles
+and Selkirk, near Lanark and Dumfries, in the east of Ayrshire,
+in the west of Berwick, the east of Wigtown, and in Kirkcudbright.
+The disease is not confined to Europe, but occurs in North and
+South America, Australia, Africa and Asia. Wherever endemic
+goitre is present, endemic cretinism is present also, and it has
+been constantly observed that when a new family moves into a
+goitrous district, goitre appears in the first generation, cretinism
+in the second. The causation of goitre has now been shown to
+be due to drinking certain waters, though the particular impurity
+in the water which gives rise to this condition has not been
+determined (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goitre</a></span>). The causation of the sporadic form
+of cretinism is, however, obscure.</p>
+
+<p>Cretinism usually remains unrecognized until the child reaches
+some eighteen months or two years, when its lack of mental
+development and uncouth bodily form begin to attract attention.
+Occasionally the child appears to be normal in infancy, but the
+cretinoid condition develops later, any time up to puberty. The
+essential point in the morbid anatomy of these cases is the absence
+or abnormal condition of the thyroid gland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metabolic
+Diseases</a></span>). It may be congenitally absent, atrophied, or the
+seat of a goitre, though this last condition is very rare in cases
+of sporadic cretinism. The skeleton shows arrested growth,
+most marked in the case of the long bones. The skull in the
+endemic form of cretinism is usually brachycephalic, but in
+the sporadic cases it is more commonly dolichocephalic. The
+pathology of cretinism and its allied condition myxoedema (<i>q.v.</i>)
+has now been conclusively worked out, and its essential cause
+has been shown to be loss of function of the thyroid gland.</p>
+
+<p>The condition has existed and been described in far back
+ages, but mingled with so many other entirely different deformities
+and degenerations that it is now often almost impossible
+to classify them satisfactorily. The following is a vivid picture
+by Beaupré (<i>Dissertation sur les crétins</i>, translated in Blackie
+on <i>Cretinism</i>, Edin., 1855):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I see a head of unusual form and size, a squat and bloated
+figure, a stupid look, bleared hollow and heavy eyes, thick projecting
+eyelids, and a flat nose. His face is of a leaden hue, his skin dirty,
+flabby, covered with tetters, and his thick tongue hangs down over
+his moist livid lips. His mouth, always open and full of saliva,
+shows teeth going to decay. His chest is narrow, his back curved,
+his breath asthmatic, his limbs short, misshapen, without power.
+The knees are thick and inclined inward, the feet flat. The large
+head drops listlessly on the breast; the abdomen is like a bag.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When fully grown the height rarely exceeds 4 ft., and is often
+less than 3 ft. The skin feels doughy from thickening of the subcutaneous
+tissues, and it hangs in folds over the abdomen and
+the bends of the joints. Very frequently there is an umbilical
+hernia. The hair has a far greater resemblance to horse-hair
+than to that of a human being, and is usually absent on the body
+of an adult cretin. The temperature is subnormal, and the
+exposed parts tend to become blue in cold weather. The blood
+is usually deficient in haemoglobin, which is often only 40-50%
+of the normal. The mental capacity varies within narrow limits;
+an intelligent adult cretin may reach the intellectual development
+of a child 3-4 years of age, though more often the standard
+attained is even below this. The child cretin learns neither
+to walk nor talk at the usual time. Often it is unable even to
+sit without support. Some years later a certain power of movement
+is acquired, but the gait is waddling and clumsy. Speech
+is long delayed, or in bad cases may be almost entirely lacking.
+The voice is usually harsh and unpleasant. Of the senses smell
+and taste are but slightly developed, more or less deafness is
+generally present, and only the sight is fairly normal. In the
+adult the genital organs remain undeveloped. If the cretin
+is untreated he rarely has a long life, thirty years being an
+exceptional age. Death results from some intercurrent disease.</p>
+
+<p>Cretinism has to be distinguished from the state of a Mongolian
+idiot, in whom there is no thickening of the subcutaneous tissues,
+and much greater alertness of mind; from achondroplasia, in
+which condition there is usually no mental impairment; and
+from infantilism, which covers a group of symptoms whose only
+common point is that the primary and secondary sexual
+characteristics fail to appear at the proper time.</p>
+
+<p>Before 1891 there was no treatment for this disease. The
+patients lived in hopeless imbecility until their death. But in
+that year Dr George Murray published his discovery of the
+effect of hypodermic injections of thyroid gland extract in
+cases of myxoedema. In the following year Drs Hector Mackenzie,
+E. L. Fox of Plymouth, and Howitz of Copenhagen,
+each working independently, showed the equally potent effect
+of the gland administered by the mouth. The remedy was soon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+after applied to cretinism and its effects were found to be even
+more wonderful. It has to be used, however, with the greatest
+care and discrimination, since personal idiosyncrasy seems to
+be a very variable factor. Even small doses, if beyond the
+patient&rsquo;s power, may produce fever, excitement, headache,
+insomnia and vomiting. The administration must be persisted
+in throughout life, otherwise myxoedematous symptoms appear.
+The first most apparent results are those of growth, and this
+may supervene even in patients up to 25-30 years of age. Once
+started, 4 to 6 in. may be gained in stature in the first year&rsquo;s
+treatment, though this is usually in inverse ratio to the age of
+the patient, and also diminishes in later stages of treatment.
+In young adolescents it may be so rapid that the patient has to
+be kept lying down to prevent permanent bending of the long
+bones of the leg, softened by their rapid growth. A very typical
+case under Dr Hector Mackenzie, showing what can be expected
+from early treatment, is that of a cretin aged 11 years in 1893,
+when thyroid treatment was started. He grew very rapidly
+and became a normal child, passed through school, and in 1908
+was at one of the universities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Sardinian Commission, &ldquo;Relazione della commissione
+di Sardegna per studiare il cretinismo&rdquo; (Torino, 1848);
+C. Hilton Fagge, &ldquo;On Sporadic Cretinism occurring in England,&rdquo;
+<i>Med. Chir. Trans.</i> (London, 1870); Vincenzo Allara, &ldquo;Sulla causa
+del cretinesimo,&rdquo; studio (Milano, 1892); Victor Horsley, &ldquo;Remarks
+on the Function of the Thyroid Gland,&rdquo; <i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i> (1892);
+&ldquo;The Treatment of Myxoedema and Cretinism, being a Review of
+the Treatment of those Diseases by Thyroid Gland,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Ment. Sc.</i>
+(London, 1893); W. Osler, &ldquo;On Sporadic Cretinism in America,&rdquo;
+<i>Am. Journ. of Med. Sc.</i> (1893); C. A. Ewald, <i>Die Erkrankungen der
+Schilddrüse, Myxödeme und Cretinismus</i> (Wien, 1896); G. R.
+Murray, <i>Diseases of the Thyroid Gland</i>, part i. (1900); R. Virchow,
+&ldquo;Über Cretinismus,&rdquo; <i>Würzburger Verhand.</i>; Hector Mackenzie,
+&ldquo;Organotherapy,&rdquo; <i>Textbook of Pharmacology and Therapeutics</i> (1901);
+Weygandt, <i>Der heutige Stand der Lehre vom Kretinismus</i> (Halle,
+1903); Hector Mackenzie, &ldquo;Cretinism,&rdquo; Allbutt &amp; Rolleston&rsquo;s <i>System
+of Medicine</i>, part iv. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRETONNE,<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen
+warp and linen weft. The word is said to be derived from Creton,
+a village in Normandy where the manufacture of linen was
+carried on. It is now applied to a strong, printed cotton cloth,
+stouter than chintz but used for very much the same purposes. It
+is usually unglazed and may be printed on both sides and even
+with different patterns. Frequently the cretonne has a woven
+fancy pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed
+design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREUSE,<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> a department of central France, comprising the
+greater portion of the old province of Marche, together with
+portions of Berry, Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Limousin and
+Poitou. Area, 2164 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 274,094. It lies on the
+north-western border of the central plateau and is bounded N.
+by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by Allier and Puy-de-Dôme,
+S. by Corrèze and W. by Haute-Vienne. The surface is
+hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the direction
+of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of
+Auvergne and Limousin, branches of which project into the
+south of the department. The chief of these starts from the
+Plateau de Gentioux, and under the name of the Mountains of
+Marche extends along the left bank of the Creuse. The highest
+point is in the forest of Châteauvert (3050 ft.) in the extreme
+south-east of the department. Rivers, streams and lakes are
+numerous, but none are navigable; the principal is the Creuse,
+which rises on the north side of the mass of Mount Odouze on
+the border of the department of Corrèze, and passes through
+the department, dividing it into two nearly equal portions,
+receiving the Petite Creuse from the right, and afterwards
+flowing on to join the Vienne. The valleys of the head-streams
+of the Cher and of its tributary the Tardes, which near Évaux
+passes under a fine viaduct 300 ft. in height, occupy the eastern
+side; those of the heads of the Vienne and its tributary the
+Thaurion, and of the Gartempe joining the Creuse, are in the
+west of the department. The climate is in general cold, moist
+and variable; the rigorous winter covers the higher cantons
+with snow; rain is abundant in spring, and storms are frequent
+in summer, but the autumn is fine. Except in the valleys the
+soil is poor and infertile, and agriculture is also handicapped by
+the dearness of labour, due to the annual emigration of from
+15,000 to 20,000 of the inhabitants to other parts of France,
+where they serve as stonemasons, &amp;c. The produce of cereals,
+chiefly rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat, is not sufficient for home
+consumption. The chestnut abounds in the north and west;
+hemp and potatoes are also grown. Cattle-rearing and sheep-breeding
+are the chief industries of the department, which
+supplies Poitou and Vendée with draught oxen. Coal is mined
+to some extent, chiefly in the basin of Ahun. There are thermal
+springs at Évaux in the east of the department, where remains
+of Roman baths are preserved. The chief industrial establishments
+are the manufactories of carpets and hangings and
+the dyeworks of Aubusson and Felletin. Saw-mills and the
+manufacture of wooden shoes and hats have some importance.
+Exports include carpets, coal, live-stock and hats; imports
+comprise raw materials for the manufactures and food-supplies.
+The department is served by the Orléans railway company,
+whose line from Montluçon to Périgueux traverses it from east
+to west. It is divided into the four arrondissements of Guéret,
+the capital Aubusson, Bourganeuf, and Boussac, and further
+into 25 cantons and 266 communes. With Haute-Vienne,
+Creuse forms the diocese of Limoges, where also is its court of
+appeal. It forms part of the académie (educational division)
+of Clermont and of the region of the XII. army corps. The
+principal towns are Guéret and Aubusson. La Souterraine,
+Chambon-sur-Voueize and Bénévent-l&rsquo;Abbaye possess fine
+churches of the 12th century. At Moutier-d&rsquo;Ahun there is a
+church, which has survived from a Benedictine abbey. The
+nave of the 15th century with a fine portal, and the choir with
+its carved stalls of the 17th century, are of considerable interest.
+The small industrial town of Bourganeuf has remains of a priory,
+including a tower (15th century) in which Zizim, brother of the
+sultan Bajazet II., is said to have been imprisoned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP,<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1729-1785), Swedish poet,
+was born in Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in
+Åbo he received a post in the court of chancery at Stockholm
+in 1751. Here he met Count Gyllenborg, with whom his name
+is indissolubly connected. They were closely allied with Fru
+Nordenflycht, and their works were published in common;
+to their own generation they seemed equal in fame, but posterity
+has given the palm of genius to Creutz. His greatest work is
+contained in the 1762 volume, the idyll of <i>Atis och Camilla</i>;
+the exquisite little pastoral entitled &ldquo;Daphne&rdquo; was published
+at the same time, and Gyllenborg was the first to proclaim the
+supremacy of his friend. In 1763 Creutz practically closed his
+poetical career; he went to Spain as ambassador, and after
+three years to Paris in the same capacity. In 1783 Gustavus
+III. recalled him and heaped honours upon him, but he died
+soon after, on the 30th of October 1785. <i>Atis och Camilla</i>
+was long the most admired poem in the Swedish language;
+it is written in a spirit of pastoral which is now to some degree
+faded, but in comparison with most of the other productions
+of the time it is freshness itself. Creutz introduced a melody
+and grace into the Swedish tongue which it lacked before, and
+he has been styled &ldquo;the last artificer of the language.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Creutz och Gyllenborgs Vitterhetsarbeten</i> (Stockholm, 1795).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> (1771-1858), German philologist
+and archaeologist, was born on the 10th of March 1771,
+at Marburg, the son of a bookbinder. Having studied at Marburg
+and Jena, he for some time lived at Leipzig as a private tutor;
+but in 1802 he was appointed professor at Marburg, and two
+years later professor of philology and ancient history at Heidelberg.
+The latter position he held for nearly forty-five years,
+with the exception of a short time spent at the university of
+Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch climate.
+He was one of the principal founders of the Philological Seminary
+established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Academy of Inscriptions
+of Paris appointed him one of its members, and from the grand-duke
+of Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor. He
+died on the 16th of February 1858. Creuzer&rsquo;s first and most
+famous work was his <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span>
+besonders der Griechen</i> (1810-1812), in which he maintained
+that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from an Eastern
+source through the Pelasgians, and was the remains of the symbolism
+of an ancient revelation. This work was vigorously
+attacked by Hermann in his <i>Briefen über Homer und Hesiod</i>,
+and in his letter, addressed to Creuzer, <i>Über das Wesen und die
+Behandlung der Mythologie</i>; by J. H. Voss in his <i>Antisymbolik</i>;
+and by Lobek in his <i>Aglaophamos</i>. Of Creuzer&rsquo;s other works
+the principal are an edition of Plotinus; a partial edition of
+Cicero, in preparing which he was assisted by Moser; <i>Die
+historische Kunst der Griechen</i> (1803); <i>Epochen der griech.
+Literaturgeschichte</i> (1802); <i>Abriss der römischen Antiquitäten</i>
+(1824); <i>Zur Geschichte altrömischer Cultur am Oberrhein und
+Neckar</i> (1833); <i>Zur Gemmenkunde</i> (1834); <i>Das Mithreum von
+Neuenheim</i> (1838); <i>Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker</i> (1839); <i>Zur
+Geschichte der classischen Philologie</i> (1854).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the autobiographical <i>Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors</i>
+(Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his
+death <i>Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors</i> (Frankfort,
+1858); also Starck, <i>Friederich Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang und seine
+bleibende Bedeutung</i> (Heidelberg, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREVASSE,<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> a French word used in two senses. (1) In French
+Switzerland, and thence universally in high mountain regions, it
+designates a fissure in a glacier caused by gigantic cracks in the
+ice-mass, sometimes of great depth, into which climbers frequently
+fall through a light bridge of snow which conceals the
+crevasse. (2) Adopted from the French of Louisiana, it signifies
+locally a wide crack or breach in the bank of a canal or river,
+and particularly of the &ldquo;levee&rdquo; of the Mississippi.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> (1693-1765), French
+author, was born at Paris, where his father was a printer. He
+studied under Rollin and held the professorship of rhetoric in
+the college of Beauvais for twenty years. He completed Rollin&rsquo;s
+<i>Histoire romaine</i> by the addition of six volumes (1750-1756);
+he also published two editions of Livy, with notes; <i>L&rsquo;Histoire
+des empereurs des Romains, jusqu&rsquo;à Constantin</i> (1749); <i>Histoire
+de l&rsquo;Université de Paris</i>, and a <i>Rhétorique françoise</i>, which
+enjoyed much popularity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREVILLENTE<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span>, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
+Alicante, and on the Murcia-Alicante railway. Pop. (1900)
+10,726. Crevillente is a picturesque old town built among the
+eastern foothills of the Sierra de Crevillente. Its flat-roofed
+Moorish houses are enclosed by gardens of cactus, dwarf palm,
+orange and other subtropical plants, interspersed with masses
+of rock. The surrounding country, though naturally sterile, is
+irrigated from two adjacent springs, which differ in temperature
+by no less than 25° F. The district is famous for its melons,
+and also produces wine, olives, wheat and esparto grass. Local
+industries include the manufacture of coarse cloth, esparto
+fabrics, oil and flour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREW, NATHANIEL CREW,<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Baron</span> (1633-1721), bishop
+of Durham, was a son of John Crew (1598-1679), who was created
+Baron Crew of Stene in 1661, and a grandson of Sir Thomas Crew
+(1565-1634), speaker of the House of Commons. Born on the
+31st of January 1633, Nathaniel was educated at Lincoln College,
+Oxford, and was appointed rector of the college in 1668. He
+became dean and precentor of Chichester in 1669, clerk of the
+closet to Charles II. shortly afterwards, bishop of Oxford in
+1671, and bishop of Durham in 1674. He owed his rapid preferment
+to James, then duke of York, whose favour he had gained
+by conniving at the duke&rsquo;s leanings to the Roman Church. After
+the accession of James II. Crew received the deanery of the Chapel
+Royal. He served in 1686 on the revived ecclesiastical commission
+which suspended Compton, bishop of London, and then
+shared the administration of the see of London with Sprat,
+bishop of Rochester. In 1687 he was a member of another
+ecclesiastical commission, which suspended the vice-chancellor
+of the university of Cambridge for refusing the degree of M.A.
+to a monk who would not take the customary oath. On the decline
+of James&rsquo;s power Crew dissociated himself from the court,
+and made a bid for the favour of the new government by voting
+for the motion that James had abdicated. He was excepted
+from the general pardon of 1690, but afterwards was allowed to
+retain his see. He left large estates to be devoted to charitable
+ends, and his benefaction to Lincoln College and to Oxford
+University is commemorated in the annual Crewian oration.
+In 1697 Crew succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Crew,
+He died on the 18th of September 1721, when the barony became
+extinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREW<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian
+origin, cf. O. Icel. <i>krú</i>, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as
+a shortened form of <i>accrue</i>, <i>accrewe</i>, used in the 16th century
+in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. <i>acreue</i>, from <i>accroître</i>,
+to grow, increase), a band or body of men associated for a
+definite purpose, a gang who jointly carry out a particular piece
+of work, and especially those who man a ship, exclusive of the
+captain, and sometimes also of the officers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES,<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1858-&emsp;&emsp;), English statesman and writer, was
+born on the 12th of January 1858, being the son of Lord Houghton
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and was educated at Harrow and Trinity, Cambridge.
+In 1880 he married Sibyl Marcia Graham, who died in 1887,
+leaving him with two daughters. He inherited his father&rsquo;s
+literary tastes, and published <i>Stray Verses</i> in 1890, besides other
+miscellaneous literary work. A Liberal in politics, he became
+private secretary to Lord Granville when secretary of state for
+foreign affairs (1883-1884), and in 1886 was made a lord-in-waiting.
+In the Liberal administration of 1892-1895 he was
+lord-lieutenant for Ireland, having Mr John Morley as chief
+secretary. In 1895 he was created 1st earl of Crewe, his maternal
+grandfather, the 2nd Baron Crewe, having left him his heir.
+In 1899 he married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of the
+5th earl of Rosebery. In 1905 he became lord president of the
+council in the Liberal government; and in 1908, in Mr Asquith&rsquo;s
+cabinet, he became secretary of state for the colonies and Liberal
+leader in the House of Lords.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREWE,<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span> a municipal borough in the Crewe parliamentary
+division of Cheshire, England, 158 m. N.W. of London, on the
+main line of the London &amp; North-Western railway. Pop. (1901)
+42,074. The town was built on an estate called Oak Farm in
+the parish of Monk&rsquo;s Coppenhall, and takes its name from the
+original stations having been placed in the township of Crewe, in
+which the seat of Lord Crewe is situated. It is a railway junction
+where lines converge from London, Manchester, North Wales
+and Holyhead, North Stafford and Hereford. It is inhabited
+principally by persons in the employment of the London &amp;
+North-Western railway company, and was practically created
+by that corporation, at a point where in 1841 only a farmhouse
+stood in open country. Crewe is not only one of the busiest
+railway stations in the world, but is the locomotive metropolis of
+the London &amp; North-Western company, which has centred here
+enormous workshops for the manufacture of the material and
+plant used in railways. In 1901 the 4000th locomotive was turned
+out of the works. A series of subterranean ways extending many
+miles have been constructed to enable merchandise traffic to pass
+through without interfering with passenger trains on the surface
+railways. The company possesses one of the finest electric
+stations in the world, and electrical apparatus for the working of
+train signals is in operation. The station is fitted with an
+extensive suite of offices for the interchange of postal traffic,
+the chief mails to and from Ireland and Scotland being stopped
+here and arranged for various distributing centres. Its enormous
+railway facilities and its geographical situation as the junction
+of the great trunk lines running north and south, tapping also
+the Staffordshire potteries on the one side and the great mineral
+districts of Wales on the other, constitute Crewe station one of
+the most important links of railway and postal communication
+in the kingdom. The railway company built its principal schools,
+provided it with a mechanics&rsquo; institute, containing library,
+science and art classes, reading rooms, assembly rooms, &amp;c.
+Victoria Park, also the gift of the company, was opened in 1888.
+The municipal corporation built the technical school and school
+of art. The borough incorporated in 1877, is under a mayor,
+7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2185 acres.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CREWKERNE,<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> a market town in the southern parliamentary
+division of Somersetshire, England, 132 m. W.S.W. of London
+by the London &amp; South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 4226. It is pleasantly situated in a wooded hollow,
+in the upper valley of the river Parret. The church of St
+Bartholomew, one of the finest in the county, is in the Perpendicular
+style characteristic of the district. The ornamentation
+throughout is beautiful, and the west front especially notable.
+The grammar school dates from 1499, but occupies modern buildings.
+Sail-cloth, horsehair, cloth and webbing are manufactured.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIB<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf.
+Dutch <i>krib</i> and Ger. <i>Krippe</i>; it has a common origin with
+the O. Eng. &ldquo;cratch,&rdquo; a manger or crib, cf. Fr. <i>crêche</i>),
+a manger or framework receptacle for holding fodder for cattle
+and horses, and so, from early times in English, particularly the
+manger in which Jesus was laid. It is thus used of a &ldquo;cradle,&rdquo;
+from which in form it should be distinguished as being a small
+bed with high closed-in sides. The word has many transferred
+meanings, as a rough, small hut or dwelling, from which comes
+the slang use of &ldquo;crib&rdquo; as a berth or situation, or, as a burglar&rsquo;s
+term for a house to be broken into; also, technically, in engineering
+for a timber framework for masonry constructed with a
+caisson in laying foundations below water, or in mining for a
+timber lining to a shaft. &ldquo;Crib-biting&rdquo; is a vicious habit in
+horses, probably due in the first instance to indigestion; the
+horse seizes the manger or other object in its teeth, and draws
+in the breath, known as &ldquo;wind-sucking&rdquo;; the habit may be
+checked by the use of a throat-strap. The slang meaning of the
+verb &ldquo;crib,&rdquo; to steal, especially used of petty thefts, is probably
+derived from an obsolete use of the substantive for a small
+wicker basket; this meaning occurs in the expression &ldquo;time-cribbing,&rdquo;
+used of an illicit increase of the hours of labour in
+a factory or workshop, especially by the running of machinery
+each day slightly beyond the time of ceasing work. &ldquo;Crib&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;cribbing&rdquo; in this sense are also applied to any unacknowledged
+appropriation or plagiarism from an author, and particularly
+to the secret copying by a schoolboy of another&rsquo;s work or
+from a book, and also to the secret use of a translation and to
+such translation itself. &ldquo;Crib,&rdquo; in the game of cribbage, of
+which it is a shortened form, is the term for the cards thrown
+away by each player and scored by the dealer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIBBAGE,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> a game of cards. A very similar game called
+&ldquo;Noddy&rdquo; was formerly played, the game being fifteen or twenty-one
+up, marked with counters, occasionally by means of a noddy
+board. Cribbage seems to be an improved form of Noddy.
+According to John Aubrey (<i>Brief Lives</i>) it was invented by Sir
+John Suckling (1609-1642).</p>
+
+<p>A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage
+board for scoring, drilled with sixty holes for each player and
+one hole (called &ldquo;the game hole&rdquo;) at each end, the players usually
+scoring from opposite ends. Each player has two scoring pegs.
+The game is marked by inserting the pegs in the holes, one after
+the other, as the player makes a fresh score, commencing with the
+outer row at the game-hole end and going up the board. When
+the thirtieth hole is reached the player comes down the board,
+using the inner row of holes, until he places his foremost peg in the
+game-hole. If the losing player fails to obtain half the holes,
+his adversary wins a &ldquo;lurch,&rdquo; or double game.</p>
+
+<p>The game may be played by two players, five or six cards
+being dealt to each, and each putting out two for what is called
+&ldquo;crib&rdquo;; or by three players (with a triangular scoring board),
+five cards being dealt to each, each putting out one for crib,
+and a card from the top of the pack being dealt to complete the
+crib; or by four players (two being partners against the other
+two, sitting and playing as at whist, and one partner scoring for
+both), five cards being dealt to each, and each putting out one card
+for crib.</p>
+
+<p>Two-handed five-card cribbage was formerly considered the
+most scientific game, but this verdict has now been reversed in
+favour of the six-card game. In six-card cribbage both hands
+and crib contain four cards, and 121 holes are scored.</p>
+
+<p>The players cut for deal, the lowest dealing. If more than one
+game is played, the winner of the last game deals. The cards
+rank from king (highest) to the ace (lowest). At the two-handed
+five-card game, the non-dealer scores three holes (called &ldquo;three
+for last&rdquo;) at any time during the game, but usually while the
+dealer is dealing the first hand. This is not part of the six-card
+game, which we take as our example.</p>
+
+<p>The dealer deals six cards to each, singly. The undealt cards
+are placed face downwards on the table. The players then
+look at their hands and &ldquo;lay out,&rdquo; each putting two cards face
+downwards on the table, on the side of the board nearest to the
+dealer, for the &ldquo;crib.&rdquo; A player must not take back into his hand
+a card he has laid out if the cards have been covered, nor must
+the crib be touched during the play of his hand.</p>
+
+<p>After laying out, the non-dealer (when more than two play,
+the player to the dealer&rsquo;s left) cuts the pack, and the dealer turns
+up the top card of the lower packet, called the &ldquo;start,&rdquo; or &ldquo;turn-up.&rdquo;
+If this is a knave, the dealer marks two &ldquo;for his heels.&rdquo;
+This score is forfeited if not marked before the dealer plays a
+card.</p>
+
+<p>The non-dealer plays first by laying face upwards on the table
+on his side of the board any card from his hand; the dealer then
+does the same, and so on alternately. When more than two play,
+the player to the leader&rsquo;s left plays the second card, and so on.
+As soon as the first card is laid down the player calls out the
+number of pips on it; if a picture card, ten. When the second
+card is laid down, the player calls out the sum of the pips on the
+two cards played, and so on until all the cards are played, or
+until neither player can play without passing the number thirty-one.
+If one player has a card or cards that will come in and the
+other has not, he is at liberty to play them; at the six-card game
+he must play as long as they can come in, and he can score
+runs or make pairs, &amp;c., with them. If one player&rsquo;s cards are
+exhausted, the adversary plays out his own, and can score with
+them. When more than two play, the player next in rotation
+is bound to play, and so on until no one can come in. At the two-handed
+five-card game, when neither can come in the play stops;
+at the other games the cards are played turned down, and the
+remainder of the cards are played in rotation, and so on until
+all are played out.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the play is to make <i>pairs</i>, <i>fifteens</i>,
+<i>sequences</i>,
+and the &ldquo;go,&rdquo; and to prevent the adversary from scoring.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Pairs.</i>&mdash;If a card is put down of the same denomination as the one
+last played, the player pairing scores two holes. If a third card of
+the same denomination is next played, a &ldquo;pair royal&rdquo; (abbreviated
+to &ldquo;prial&rdquo;) is made, and the maker scores six holes. If a fourth
+card of the same denomination is next played, twelve holes are scored
+for the &ldquo;double pair royal.&rdquo; Kings pair only with kings, queens
+with queens, and so with knaves and tens, notwithstanding that they
+all count ten in play.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifteens.</i>&mdash;If either player during the play reaches fifteen exactly,
+by reckoning the values of all the played cards, he marks two.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sequences.</i>&mdash;If during the play of the hand three or more cards are
+consecutively played which make an ascending or descending
+sequence, the maker of the sequence marks one hole for each card
+forming the sequence or run. King, queen, knave and ten reckon
+in sequence in this order, notwithstanding that they are all tenth
+cards in play; the other cards according to the number of their
+pips. The ace is not in sequence with king, queen. If one player
+obtains a run of three, his adversary can put down a card in sequence
+and mark four, and so on. And, if there is a break in the sequence,
+and the break is filled up during the play, without the intervention
+of a card not in sequence, the player of the card that fills the break
+scores a run. Thus the cards are played in this order: A-4, B-3,
+A-2, B-ace, A gets a run of three, B a run of four. Had B&rsquo;s last
+card been a five, he would similarly have scored a run of four, as
+there is no break. Had B&rsquo;s last card been a four, he would have
+scored a run of three. The cards need not be played in order. Thus
+the cards being played in this order, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-6, A-4,
+B-2, A-5, B-3, A-5, B-6, B takes a run of four for the fourth card
+played, but there is no run for any one else, as the second five intervenes.
+Again, if the cards at six-card cribbage are thus played, A-4,
+B-2, A-3, B-ace, A-5, B-2, A-4, B-ace, A takes a run of three, B a
+run of four, A a run of five. B then playing the deuce has no run,
+as the deuce previously played intervenes.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;go,&rdquo; end hole or last card is scored by the player who
+approaches most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles
+to a score of one. If thirty-one is reached exactly, it is a go of two
+instead of one. After a go no card already played can be counted
+for pairs or sequences.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Compound Scores.</i>&mdash;More than one of the above scores can be made
+at the same time. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will
+come in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a
+sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together.</p>
+
+<p>When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud.
+The non-dealer has first show and scores and marks first; the dealer
+afterwards counts, scores and marks what he has in hand, and then
+takes what is in crib. In counting both hands and crib the &ldquo;start&rdquo;
+is included, so that five cards are involved.</p>
+
+<p>The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are
+fifteen, pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes and &ldquo;his nob.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifteens.</i>&mdash;All the combinations of cards that, taken together,
+make fifteen exactly, count two. For example, a ten (King, Queen,
+Knave or Ten) card and a five reckon two, called as &ldquo;fifteen two.&rdquo;
+Another five in the hand or turned up would again combine with the
+ten card, and entitle to another fifteen (&ldquo;fifteen four&rdquo;); if the other
+cards were a two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted
+(&ldquo;fifteen six,&rdquo; &ldquo;fifteen eight&rdquo;)&mdash;one for the combination of the
+three and two with the ten card, and one for the combination of the
+two fives with the three and two. Similarly two ten cards and two
+fives reckon eight; a nine and three threes count six; and so on for
+other cards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pairs.</i>&mdash;Pairs are reckoned as in play.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sequences.</i>&mdash;Three or more cards in sequence count one for each
+card. If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the
+same denomination, the sequence reckons again. For example, 3,4,5
+and a 3 turned up reckon two sequences of three; with another 3
+there would be three sequences of three, and so on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flushes.</i>&mdash;If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is
+reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one
+is reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned unless the
+start is of the same suit as the cards in crib.</p>
+
+<p><i>His Nob.</i>&mdash;If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up for the
+start he counts one &ldquo;for his nob.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A dialogue will illustrate the technical conversation of the game,
+in a game at six-card cribbage. The cards for crib having been discarded,
+A holds knave of hearts, a four and a pair of twos: B holds
+a pair of nines, a six and a four. Two of hearts is turned up by B.
+The hand might be played thus. A lays down a two and says
+&ldquo;Two&rdquo;: B plays a nine and says &ldquo;Eleven&rdquo;: A follows with a
+four, saying &ldquo;Fifteen two&rdquo;; pegging two holes at once: B plays
+his four and says &ldquo;Nineteen; two for a pair,&rdquo; and pegs: A putting
+on his knave, &ldquo;Twenty-nine&rdquo;; B says &ldquo;Go.&rdquo; A lays down his
+two, his last card, and says &ldquo;Thirty-one; good for two.&rdquo; B plays
+his nine and six, saying &ldquo;Fifteen two, and one for my last&mdash;three.&rdquo;
+The points are marked as they are made. A then counts his hand
+aloud. &ldquo;Six for a pair-royal&rdquo; or &ldquo;Three twos&mdash;good for six,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;One for his nob&mdash;seven,&rdquo; and throws down his hand for B&rsquo;s
+inspection. B, &ldquo;Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight,
+and a pair are ten.&rdquo; B then looks at his crib and counts it. It
+contains, say, king, eight, three, ace and the &ldquo;start&rdquo; is also reckoned.
+B counts &ldquo;Fifteen two and a run of three&mdash;five.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are
+shuffled and dealt again, and so on alternately until the game is won.</p>
+
+<p>The highest possible score in hand is 29&mdash;three fives and a knave,
+with a five, of the same suit as the knave, turned up.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRICCIETH,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> a watering-place and contributory parliamentary
+borough of Carnarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan Bay, served by
+the Cambrian railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1406. It is
+interesting for its high antiquity and the ruined castle, a fortress
+on an eminence where a neck of land ends, projecting into the sea.
+Portions of two towers are on the very verge of the rock. A double
+fosse and vallum, with the outer and inner court lines, can
+be traced. Apparently British, the castle was repaired later,
+probably in the time of Edward I. Across the bay is seen
+Harlech castle, backed by the Merionethshire hills. An old
+county-family mansion near Criccieth is Gwynfryn (happy hill),
+the seat of the Nanneys, situated near the stream Dwyfawr and
+within some 7 m. of Pwllheli. Not far is a tumulus, <i>Tomen
+fawr</i>. At a distance of 5 m. is Tremadoc (which owes its name.
+Town of Madocks&mdash;as does Portmadoc&mdash;to Mr W. Madocks,
+of Morfa Lodge, who made the embankment here). Criccieth
+has become a favourite watering-place, as well as a centre of
+excursions. The neighbourhood is agreeable, and the Cardigan
+Bay shore is shelving and suitable for safe bathing. Cantref y
+Gwaelod (the hundred of the bottom) is the Welsh literary
+name of this bay, on the shores of which geological depression
+has certainly taken place. Mythical history relates how
+Seithennin&rsquo;s drunkenness inundated the land now covered by the
+bay, and how King Arthur&rsquo;s ship was wrecked upon Meisdiroedd
+Enlli near Bardsey. The <i>Mabinogion</i> tell how Harlech was a
+port. Similarly, in Carnarvon Bay, about 2 m. seaward, at
+low water, are visible the ruins of Caerarianrhod (fortified town
+of the silver wheel), a submerged town&mdash;due to another geological
+depression.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRICHTON, JAMES<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> (1560-? 1582), commonly called the
+&ldquo;Admirable Crichton,&rdquo; was the son of Robert Crichton, lord
+advocate of Scotland in the reign of Mary and James VI., and of
+Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stewart of Beath, through
+whom he claimed royal descent. He was born probably at
+Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1560, and when ten years old was sent
+to St Salvator&rsquo;s College, St Andrews, where he took his B.A. in
+1574 and his M.A. in 1575. In 1577 Crichton was undoubtedly in
+Paris, but his career on the continent is difficult to follow. That
+he displayed considerable classical knowledge, was a good
+linguist, a ready and versatile writer of verse, and above all that
+he possessed an astounding memory, seems certain, not only
+from the evidence of men of his own time, but from the fact that
+even Joseph Scaliger (<i>Prima Scaligerana</i>, p. 58, 1669) speaks of
+his attainments with the highest praise. But those works of his
+which have come down to us show few traces of unusual ability;
+and the laudation of him as a universal genius by Sir Thomas
+Urquhart and Aldus Manutius requires to be discounted.
+Urquhart (in his <i>Discovery of a most exquisite jewel</i>) states that
+while in Paris Crichton successfully held a dispute in the college of
+Navarre, on any subject and in twelve languages, and that the
+next day he won a tilting match at the Louvre. There is, however,
+no contemporary evidence for this, the only certain facts
+being that for two years Crichton served in the French army, and
+that in 1579 he arrived in Genoa. The latter event is proved by a
+Latin address (of no particular merit) to the Doge and Senate
+entitled <i>Oratio J. Critonii Scoti pro Moderatorum Genuensis
+Reipubl. electione coram Senatu habita....</i> (Genoa, 1579). The
+next year Crichton was in Venice, and won the friendship of Aldus
+Manutius by his Latin ode <i>In appulsu ad urbem Venetam de
+Proprio statu J. Critonii Scoti Carmen ad Aldum Manuccium....</i>
+(Venice, 1580). The best contemporary evidence for Crichton&rsquo;s
+stay in Venice is a handbill printed by the Guerra press in 1580
+(and now in the British Museum), giving a short biography and an
+extravagant eulogy of his powers; he speaks ten languages, has a
+command of philosophy, theology, mathematics; he improvises
+Latin verses in all metres and on all subjects, has all Aristotle
+and his commentators at his fingers&rsquo; ends; is of most beautiful
+appearance, a soldier from top to toe, &amp;c. This work is undoubtedly
+by Manutius, as it was reprinted with his name in
+1581 as <i>Relatione della qualità di ... Crettone</i>, and again in
+1582 (reprinted Venice, 1831).</p>
+
+<p>In Venice Crichton met and vanquished all disputants except
+Giacomo Mazzoni, was followed from place to place by crowds of
+admirers, and won the affection of the humanists Lorenzo Massa
+and Giovanni Donati. In March 1581 he went to Padua, where
+he held two great disputations. In the first he extemporized
+in succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught on Aristotelian
+ignorance, and an oration in praise of ignorance. In the second,
+which took place in the Church of St John and St Paul, and lasted
+three days, he undertook to refute innumerable errors in Aristotelians,
+mathematicians and schoolmen, to conduct his dispute
+either logically or by the secret doctrine of numbers, &amp;c. According
+to Aldus, who attended the debate and published an account of
+it in his dedication to Crichton prefixed to Cicero&rsquo;s &ldquo;Paradoxa&rdquo;
+(1581), the young Scotsman was completely successful. In June
+Crichton was once more in Venice, and while there wrote two
+Latin odes to his friends Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati, but
+after this date the details of his life are obscure. Urquhart
+states that he went to Mantua, became the tutor of the young
+prince of Mantua, Vincenzo di Gonzaga, and was killed by the
+latter in a street quarrel in 1582. Aldus in his edition of Cicero&rsquo;s
+<i>De universitate</i> (1583), dedicated to Crichton, laments the 3rd
+of July as the fatal day; and this account is apparently confirmed
+by the Mantuan state papers recently unearthed by Mr
+Douglas Crichton (<i>Proc. Soc. of Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, 1909).
+Mr Sidney Lee (<i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>) argued against this date, on the
+ground that in 1584 and 1585 Crichton was alive and in Milan,
+as certain works of his published in that year testified, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+regarded it as probable that he died in Mantua c. 1585/6. But
+these later works seem to have been by another man of the same
+name. The epithet &ldquo;admirable&rdquo; (<i>admirabilis</i>) for Crichton
+first occurs in John Johnston&rsquo;s <i>Heroes Scoti</i> (1603). It is probably
+impossible to recover the whole truth either as to Crichton&rsquo;s
+death or as to the extent of his attainments, which were so
+quickly elevated into legendary magnitude.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Sir Thomas Urquhart&rsquo;s <i>Discovery of a most
+excellent jewel</i> (1652; reprinted in the Maitland Club&rsquo;s edition of
+Urquhart&rsquo;s Works in 1834) is written with the express purpose of
+glorifying Scotland. The panegyrics of Aldus Manutius require to
+be received with some caution, since he was given to exaggerating
+the merits of his friend, and uses almost the same language about a
+young Pole named Stanilaus Niegosevski; see John Black&rsquo;s <i>Life of
+Torquato Tasso</i>, ii. 413-451 (1810), for a criticism. The <i>Life of
+Crichton</i>, by P. Fraser Tytler (2nd ed., 1823), contains many extracts
+from earlier writers; see also &ldquo;Notices of Sir Robert Crichton of
+Cluny and of his son James,&rdquo; by John Stuart, in <i>Proceedings Soc. of
+Antiquaries of Scotland</i>, vol. ii. pp. 103-118 (1855); and the article
+by Andrew Lang, &ldquo;The death of the Admirable Crichton,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Morning Post</i> (London), Feb. 25, 1910. W. Harrison-Ainsworth in
+his novel <i>Crichton</i> (new ed., 1892) reprints and translates some
+documents relating to Crichton, as well as some of his poems.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRICKET<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> (<i>Gryllidae</i>), a family of saltatory Orthopterous
+Insects, closely related to the Locustidae. The wings when
+folded form long slender filaments, which often reach beyond the
+extremity of the body, and give the appearance of a bifid tail,
+while in the male they are provided with a stridulating apparatus
+by which the well-known chirping sound, to which the insect
+owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of the female ends in a
+long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not exserted in the
+mole cricket. The house cricket (<i>Gryllus domesticus</i>) is of a
+greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses,
+especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat
+monotonous, chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of
+the fireplace. It is particularly fond of warmth, and is thus
+frequently found in bakeries, where its burrows are often sunk to
+within a few inches of the oven. In the hot summer it goes out of
+doors, and frequents the walls of gardens, but returns again to its
+place by the hearth on the first approach of cold, where, should
+the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes dormant. It is
+nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search of food,
+which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen.
+The field cricket (<i>Gryllus campestris</i>) is a larger insect than the
+former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a
+depth of from 6 to 12 in., and in the evening the male may be
+observed sitting at the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until
+a female approaches, &ldquo;when,&rdquo; says Bates, &ldquo;the louder notes are
+succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician
+caresses with his antennae the mate he has won.&rdquo; The musical
+apparatus in this species consists of upwards of 130 transverse
+ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the wing cover,
+which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure on
+the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs&mdash;about 200 in
+number&mdash;on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which
+resemble the perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form
+burrows for themselves in which they pass the winter. The
+mole cricket (<i>Gryllotalpa vulgaris</i>) owes its name to the striking
+analogy in its habits and structure to those of the common
+mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical in shape, and it burrows
+by means of its front legs, which are short and greatly flattened
+out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched so as
+somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy
+ground in which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft
+from which long horizontal galleries are given off; and in making
+those excavations it does immense injury to gardens and vineyards
+by destroying the tender roots of plants, which form its principal
+food. It also feeds upon other insects, and even upon the weak
+of its own species in the absence of other food. It is exceedingly
+fierce and voracious, and is usually caught by inserting a stem of
+grass into its hole, which being seized, is retained till the insect is
+brought to the surface. The female deposits her eggs in a neatly
+constructed subterranean chamber, about the size of a hen&rsquo;s egg,
+and sufficiently near the surface to allow of the eggs being hatched
+by the heat of the sun.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRICKET.<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span> The game of cricket may be called the national
+summer pastime of the English race. The etymology of the word
+itself is the subject of much dispute. The <i>Century Dictionary</i>
+connects with O. Fr. <i>criquet</i>, &ldquo;a stick used as a mark in the game of
+bowls,&rdquo; and denies the connexion with A.S. <i>crice</i> or <i>cryce</i>, a staff.
+A claim has also been made for <i>cricket</i>, meaning a stool, from the
+stool at which the ball was bowled, while in the wardrobe account
+of King Edward I. for the year 1300 (p. 126) is found an allusion
+to a game called <i>creag</i>. Skeat, in his <i>Etymological Dictionary</i>,
+states that the word is probably derived from A.S. <i>crice</i> (repudiated
+by the first authority quoted), the meaning of which is a
+staff, and suggests that the &ldquo;et&rdquo; is a diminutive suffix; the word
+is of the same origin as &ldquo;crutch.&rdquo; Finally the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i> traces the O. Fr. <i>criquet</i>, defined by Littré as &ldquo;<i>jeu
+d&rsquo;addresse</i>,&rdquo; to M. Flem. <i>Krick, Krüke, baston à s&rsquo;appuyer,
+quinette, potence</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In a MS. of the middle of the 13th century, in the
+King&rsquo;s library, 14 Bv, entitled <i>Chronique d&rsquo;Angleterre, depuis
+Ethelberd jusqu&rsquo;à Hen. III.</i>, there is found a grotesque delineation
+of two male figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is
+undoubtedly the first known drawing of what was destined to
+develop into the scientific cricket of modern times. The left-hand
+figure is that of the batsman, who holds his weapon upright
+in the right hand with the handle downwards. The right-hand
+figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at once apparent by the
+extension of his hands. In another portion of the same MS.,
+however, there is a male figure pointing a bat towards a female
+figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. In a
+Bodleian Library MS., No. 264, dated the 18th of April 1344, and
+entitled <i>Romance of the Good King Alexander</i>, fielders for the
+first time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the
+players are monks (not female figures, as Strutt misinterprets
+their dress in his <i>Sports and Pastimes</i>), and on the extreme left
+of the picture, the bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the
+right hand with the arm nearly horizontal. The batsman comes
+next with his cowl down, a little way only to the right, standing
+sideways to the bowler with a long roughly-hewn and slightly-curved
+bat, held upright, handle downwards in the left hand.
+On the extreme right come four figures&mdash;with cowls alternately
+down and up, and all having their hands raised in an attitude to
+catch the ball. It has been argued that the bat was always
+held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of
+the same MS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and
+also holding a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement in
+his left hand; but it is unsafe to assume that the accuracy of
+the artist can be trusted.</p>
+
+<p>The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages
+certain games on account of their interfering with the practice of
+archery, where the game of cricket is probably included among the
+pastimes denounced as &ldquo;ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut
+valentes.&rdquo; In this instance cricket was clearly considered fit for
+the lower orders only, though it is evident from the entry in
+King Edward&rsquo;s wardrobe account, already mentioned, that in
+1300 the game of <i>creag</i> was patronized by the nobility. Judging
+from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the game
+consisted of bowling, batting and fielding, though it is known
+that there was an in-side and an out-side, for sometime during the
+15th century the game was called &ldquo;Hondyn or Hondoute,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Hand in and Hand out.&rdquo; Under this title it was interdicted
+by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1477-1478), as one of those illegal games
+which still continued to be so detrimental to the practice of
+archery. By this statute, any one allowing the game to be played
+on his premises was liable to three years&rsquo; imprisonment and £20
+fine, any player to two years&rsquo; imprisonment and £10 fine, and
+the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in and
+hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the
+Hon. Daines Barrington&rsquo;s <i>Observations on the more Ancient Statutes
+from Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27</i>. Writing in 1766, he
+comments thus on the above statute, viz.: &ldquo;This is, perhaps,
+the most severe law ever made against gaming, and some
+of these forbidden sports seem to have been manly exercises,
+particularly the <i>handyn</i> and <i>handoute</i>, which I should suppose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still retained in
+that game.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;cricket&rdquo; occurs about the year 1550. In Russell&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Guildford</i> it appears there was a piece of waste land in
+the parish of Holy Trinity in that city, which was enclosed by
+one John Parish, an innholder, some five years before Queen
+Elizabeth came to the throne. In 35 Elizabeth (1593) evidence
+was taken before a jury and a verdict returned, ordering the
+garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed. Amongst other
+witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H.M.&rsquo;s coroners for
+Surrey, <i>aetat.</i> fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for
+fifty years or more, and &ldquo;when he was a scholler in the free
+school of Guildford, he and several of his fellowes did runne
+and play there at <i>crickett</i> and other plaies.&rdquo; In the original
+edition of Stow&rsquo;s <i>Survey of London</i> (1598) the word does not
+occur, though he says, &ldquo;The ball is used by noblemen and
+gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the meaner sort in
+the open fields and streets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Some noteworthy references to the game may be cited. In
+Giovanni Florio&rsquo;s dictionary <i>A Worlde of Wordes most Copious
+and Exact</i>, published in Italy in 1595 and in London three years
+later, <i>squillare</i> is defined as &ldquo;to make a noise as a cricket, to
+play cricket-a-wicket and be merry.&rdquo; Sir William Dugdale
+states that in his youth Oliver Cromwell, who was born in 1599,
+threw &ldquo;himself into a dissolute and disorderly course,&rdquo; became
+&ldquo;famous for football, cricket, cudgelling and wrestling,&rdquo; and
+acquired &ldquo;the name of royster.&rdquo; In Randle Cotgrave&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary
+of French and English</i>, dated 1611, <i>Crosse</i> is translated
+&ldquo;crosier or bishop&rsquo;s staffe wherewith boys play at cricket,&rdquo; and
+<i>Crosser</i> &ldquo;to play at cricket.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest traces of cricket at public schools is an
+allusion to be found in the <i>Life of Bishop Ken</i> by William Lisle
+Bowles (1830). Concerning the subject of this biography, who
+was admitted to Winchester on the 13th of January 1650/1,
+it is said &ldquo;on the fifth or sixth day, our junior ... is found
+for the first time attempting to wield a cricket bat.&rdquo; In 1688 a
+&ldquo;ram and bat&rdquo; is charged in an Etonian&rsquo;s school bill, but it is
+possible this may only refer to a cudgel used for ram-baiting.
+In <i>The Life of Thomas Wilson, Minister of Maidstone</i>, published
+anonymously in 1672, Wilson having been born in 1601 and
+dying in or about 1653, occurs the following passage (p. 40):
+&ldquo;Maidstone was formerly a very profane town, in as much as I
+have seen morrice-dancing, cudgel-playing, stool-ball, crickets,
+and many other sports openly and publicly indulged in on the
+Lord&rsquo;s Day.&rdquo; Cricket is found enumerated as one of the games
+of Gargantua in <i>The Works of Rabelais</i>, translated in 1653 by
+Sir Thomas Urchard (Urquhart), vol. i. ch. xxii. p. 97. In a
+poem entitled <i>The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence or the Arts of
+Wooing and Complimenting</i> (1658), by Edward Phillips, John
+Milton&rsquo;s nephew, the mistress of a country bumpkin when she
+goes to a fair with him says &ldquo;Would my eyes had been beaten out
+of my head with a cricket ball.&rdquo; The St Alban&rsquo;s Cricket Club
+was founded in 1661, one of its earliest presidents being James
+Cecil, 4th earl of Salisbury (1666-1694).</p>
+
+<p>In 1662 John Davies of Kidwelly issued his translation of
+Adam Olearius&rsquo; work entitled <i>The Voyages and Travels of the
+Ambassadors from the Duke of Holstein to the Grand Duke of
+Muscovy, and the King of Persia. Begun in the year 1633 and
+finished in 1639</i>. On page 297 is a description of the exercises
+indulged in by the Persian grandees in 1637, and the statement
+is made that &ldquo;They play there also at a certain game,
+which the Persians call <i>Kuitskaukan</i>, which is a kind of <i>Mall</i>,
+or <i>Cricket</i>.&rdquo; In the Clerkenwell parish book of 1668 the
+proprietor of the Rum Inn, Smithfield, is found rated for a
+cricket field.</p>
+
+<p>The chaplain of H.M.S., &ldquo;Assistance,&rdquo; Rev. Henry Teonge,
+states in his diary that during a visit to Antioch on the 6th of
+May 1676, several of the ship&rsquo;s company, accompanied by the
+consul, rode out of the city early and amongst other pastimes
+indulged in &ldquo;krickett.&rdquo; During the first half of the 18th century
+the popularity of the game increased and is frequently mentioned
+by writers of the time, such as Swift, who alludes sneeringly to
+&ldquo;footmen at cricket,&rdquo; D&rsquo;Urfey, Pope, Soame Jenyns, Strype
+in his edition of Stow&rsquo;s <i>Survey of London</i>, and Arbuthnot in
+<i>John Bull</i>, iv. 4, &ldquo;when he happened to meet with a football or
+a match at cricket.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game
+under the statute 9 Anne, cap. 19, the court of king&rsquo;s bench
+holding &ldquo;that it was a very manly game, not bad in itself,
+but only in the ill use made of it by betting more than ten
+pounds on it; but that was bad and against the law.&rdquo; Frederick
+Louis, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal injuries caused
+by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden House.
+Games at this period were being played for large stakes, ground
+proprietors and tavern-keepers farming and advertising matches,
+the results of which were not always above suspicion. The old
+Artillery Ground at Finsbury was one of the earliest sites of this
+type of fixture. Here it was that the London Club&mdash;formed
+about 1700&mdash;played its matches. The president was the prince
+of Wales, and many noblemen were among its supporters. It
+flourished for more than half a century. One of the very earliest
+full-scores kept in the modern fashion is that of the match
+between Kent and All England, played on the Artillery Ground
+on the 18th of June 1744.</p>
+
+<p>Cricket, however, underwent its most material development
+in the southern counties, more especially in the hop-growing
+districts. It was at the large hop-fairs, notably that of Weyhill,
+to which people from all the neighbouring shires congregated,
+that county matches were principally arranged.</p>
+
+<p>The famous Hambledon Club lasted approximately from 1750
+to 1791. Its matches were played on Broad Half-Penny and
+Windmill Downs, and in its zenith the club frequently contended
+with success against All England. The chief players were more
+or less retainers of the noblemen and other wealthy patrons of
+cricket. The original society was broken up in 1791 owing to
+Richard Nyren, their &ldquo;general,&rdquo; abandoning the game, of which
+in consequence &ldquo;the head and right arm were gone.&rdquo; The
+dispersion of the players over the neighbouring counties caused
+a diffusion of the best spirit of the game, which gradually extended
+northward and westward until, at the close of the 18th
+century, cricket became established as the national game, and
+the custom became general to play the first game of each year on
+Good Friday.</p>
+
+<p>The M.C.C. (or Marylebone Cricket Club), which ranks as
+the leading club devoted to the game in any part of the globe,
+sprang from the old Artillery Ground Club, which played at
+Finsbury until about 1780, when the members migrating to
+White Conduit Fields became the White Conduit Cricket Club.
+In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title, and
+moved to Lord&rsquo;s ground, then on the site of what is now Dorset
+Square; thence in 1811 to Lord&rsquo;s second ground nearer what
+is now the Regent&rsquo;s Canal; and in 1814, when the canal was cut,
+to what is now Lord&rsquo;s ground in St John&rsquo;s Wood. Thomas
+Lord, whose family were obliged to leave their native Scotland
+on account of their participation in the rebellion of 1745, was
+born in Thirsk, Yorkshire, in 1757, and is first heard of as an
+attendant at the White Conduit Club, London, in 1780. Soon
+afterwards he selected and superintended a cricket ground for
+the earl of Winchilsea and other gentlemen, which was called
+after his name. He died in 1832 on a farm at West Meon,
+Hampshire, of which he took the management two years before.
+Lord took away the original turf of his cricket-ground at each
+migration and relaid it. In 1825 the pavilion was burnt down,
+invaluable early records of the game being destroyed; and in
+the same year the ground would have been broken up into
+building plots had not William Ward purchased Lord&rsquo;s interest.
+Dark bought him out in 1836, selling the remainder of his lease
+to the club in 1864. Meanwhile, in 1860, the freehold had been
+purchased at public auction by a Mr Marsden&mdash;<i>né</i> Moses&mdash;for
+£7000, and he sold it to the club six years later for nearly £18,500,
+a similar sum being paid in 1887 for additional ground. In 1897
+the Great Central railway company conveyed a further portion
+to the club, making the ground complete as it now is; the total
+area is about 20 acres, including the site of various villas adjoining
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span>
+the ground which are part of the property. The number of
+members now considerably exceeds five thousand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laws.</i>&mdash;The oldest laws of cricket extant are those drawn up by
+the London Club in 1744. These were amended at the &ldquo;Star
+and Garter&rdquo; in Pall Mall, London, in 1755, and again in 1774,
+and were also revised by the M.C.C. in 1788. From this time
+the latter club has been regarded as the supreme authority,
+even though some local modifications have in recent years been
+effected in Australia. Alterations and additions have been
+frequently made, and according to the present procedure they
+have to be approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members
+present at the annual general meeting of the whole club; the
+administration being in the hands of a president, annually
+nominated by his outgoing predecessor, a treasurer and a
+committee composed of sixteen members, four annually retiring,
+in conjunction with a secretary and a large subordinate staff.</p>
+
+<p><i>Implements.</i>&mdash;Concerning the implements of the game, in the
+1744 rules it was declared that the weight of the ball must be
+&ldquo;between five and six ounces,&rdquo; and it was not until 1774 that it
+was decided that it &ldquo;shall weigh not less than five ounces and
+a half nor more than five ounces and three-quarters,&rdquo; as it is
+to the present day. Not until 1838 however came the addition,
+&ldquo;it shall measure not less than nine inches nor more than nine
+inches and a quarter in circumference.&rdquo; The materials out of
+which the old balls were made are not on record. At present
+a cube of cork forms the foundation, round which layers of fine
+twine and thin shavings of cork are accumulated till the proper
+size and shape are attained, when a covering of red leather is
+sewn on with six parallel seams. Various &ldquo;compositions&rdquo;
+have been tried as a substitute for cork and leather, but without
+taking their place.</p>
+
+<p>For the bat, English willow has been proverbially found the
+best wood. The oldest extant bats resemble a broad and curved
+hockey stick, and it has been claimed to be an evolution of the
+club employed in the Irish game of &ldquo;hurley.&rdquo; The straight
+blade was adopted as soon as the bowler began to pitch the ball
+up, an alteration which took place about 1750, but pictures
+show slightly curved bats almost to the time of the battle of
+Waterloo. The oldest were all made in one piece and were
+so used until the middle of the 19th century, when handles
+of ash were spliced into the blade, and the whole cane-handle
+was introduced about 1860. No limit was set to the length
+of the bat until 1840, though the width was restricted to 4¼ in.
+&ldquo;in the widest part&rdquo; by the laws of 1788, and a gauge was made
+for the use of the Hambledon Club. The length of the bat is
+now restricted to 38 in., 36 being more generally used, as a rule the
+handle being 14 in. long and the blade 22 in. As to weight,
+though there is no restriction, 2 &#8468; 3 oz. is considered light, 2 &#8468;
+6 oz. fairly heavy; but W. Ward (1787-1849) used a bat weighing
+4 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>At present the wicket consists of three stumps (round straight
+pieces of wood) of equal thickness, standing 27 in. upright out
+of the ground. On the top are two &ldquo;bails,&rdquo; short pieces of
+wood which fit into grooves made in the top of the stumps so
+as not to project more than half an inch above them. But the
+evolution of the wicket has been very gradual, and the history
+of it is very obscure, since different types of wickets seem to
+have existed simultaneously. If early pictures are to be trusted,
+no wicket was required in primitive times: the striker was
+either caught out, or run out, the fieldsman having to put the
+ball into a hole scooped in the ground, before the batsman could
+put his bat into it. A single stump, it is supposed, was sometimes
+substituted for the hole to save collision between the bat and
+the fieldsman&rsquo;s fingers. In due course, but at an unknown
+date, a wicket&mdash;a &ldquo;skeleton gate&rdquo;&mdash;was raised over the hole;
+it consisted of two stumps each 12 in. high, set 24 in. apart,
+with a third laid on the top of them. John Nyren, however,
+writing in 1833, and discussing some memoranda given him by
+Mr W. Ward, says apropos of these dimensions, &ldquo;There must
+be a mistake in this account of the width of the wicket.&rdquo; Undoubtedly
+such wickets were all against the bowler, who must
+have bowled over or through the wicket twenty times for every
+occasion when he succeeded in hitting either the uprights or the
+cross stump. In pictures of cricket played about 1743 we find
+only two stumps and a cross stump, or bail, the wicket varying
+apparently both in height and width. In a picture, the property
+of H.M. the King, entitled &ldquo;A Village Match in 1768,&rdquo; three
+stumps and a bail are distinctly shown. Two stumps are shown
+as used in 1779, afterwards three always with one exception.
+Two prints, advertisements, representing matches played
+between women on consecutive days in 1811, show, one of them
+a wicket of three stumps, the other a wicket of two. The addition
+of the third stump, as is universally agreed, was due to an
+incident which occurred in a match of the Hambledon Club in
+1775. &ldquo;It was observed at a critical point in the game, that
+the ball passed three times between Mr Small&rsquo;s two stumps
+without knocking off the bail; and then, first a third stump
+was added, and seeing that the new style of balls which rise
+over the bat also rise over the wicket, then but 1 ft. high,
+the wicket was altered to the dimensions of 22 in. by 8, and to
+its present dimensions of 27 in. by 8 in 1817.&rdquo; So writes the Rev.
+J. Pycroft (1813-1895), quoting fairly closely from Nyren, who
+wrote many years after the event; but Pycroft is wrong in
+writing 22 by 8, which should really be 22 by 6. It is hard to
+believe that the 12 by 24 wicket lasted as long as 1775, for in the
+laws issued after the meeting held at the &ldquo;Star and Garter,&rdquo;
+Pall Mall, where many &ldquo;noblemen and gentlemen&rdquo; attended
+&ldquo;finally to settle&rdquo; the laws of the game, we read that the
+stumps are to be 22 in. and the bail 6. &ldquo;N.B.&mdash;It is lately settled
+to use three stumps instead of two to each wicket, the bail the
+same length as before.&rdquo; Regarding all the circumstances one
+is tempted to believe that Small defended a wicket of two stumps,
+22 in. high and 6 in. apart, strange as is the circumstance
+that the ball should thrice in a short innings&mdash;for Small only
+made 14 runs&mdash;pass through them without dislodging the bail,
+even though the diameter of the ball is a trifle less than 3 in.
+Allusion is also found to a wicket 12 in. by 6, but it is hard to
+believe in its existence, unless it was used as a form of handicap.
+It should be recorded that in advertisements of matches about
+this time (1787) the fact that three stumps will be used &ldquo;to
+shorten the game&rdquo; is especially mentioned, and that the <i>Hampshire
+Chronicle</i> of the 15th of July 1797 records that &ldquo;The earl
+of Winchilsea has made an improvement in the game of cricket,
+by having four stumps instead of three, and the wickets 2 in.
+higher. The game is thus rendered shorter by easier bowling
+out.&rdquo; In 1788, however, when the M.C.C. revised the laws,
+reference is made to stumps (no number given, but probably
+three) 22 in. high and a bail of 6 in. Big scoring in 1796 caused
+the addition next year of 2 in. to the height and of 1 to the
+breadth, making the wicket 24 in. by 7. That three stumps
+were employed is shown by a print of the medallion of the
+Oxfordshire County C.C. 1797, forming the frontispiece to
+Taylor&rsquo;s <i>Annals of Lord&rsquo;s</i> (1903). In 1817 the dimensions
+now in use were finally settled, three stumps 27 in. high, and a
+wicket 8 in. wide. Larger wickets have occasionally been used
+by way of handicap or experiment. The distance between the
+wickets seems always, or at least as far back as 1700, to have
+been 22 yds.&mdash;one chain.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Game.</i>&mdash;Cricket is defined in the <i>New English Dictionary</i> as
+&ldquo;an open-air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two
+sides of eleven players each; the batsman defends his wicket
+against the ball which is bowled by a player of the opposing side,
+the other players of this side being stationed about the field in
+order to catch or stop the ball.&rdquo; The laws define that the score
+shall be reckoned by runs. The side which scores the greatest
+number of runs wins the match. Each side has two innings
+taken alternately, except that the side which leads by 150 runs
+in a three days&rsquo; match or by 100 runs in a two days&rsquo; match or
+by 75 runs in a one day match shall have the option of requiring
+the other side to &ldquo;follow their innings.&rdquo; In England cricket
+is invariably played on turf wickets, but in the Colonies matting
+wickets are often employed, and sometimes matches have taken
+place on sand, earth and other substances. The oldest form
+of the game is probably single wicket, which consists of one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+batsman defending one wicket, but this has become obsolete,
+though it was very popular in the time when matches were
+played for money with only one or two, or perhaps four or five,
+players on a side. Matches between an unequal number of
+players are still sometimes arranged, but mainly in the case of
+local sides against touring teams, or &ldquo;colts&rdquo; playing against
+eleven experienced cricketers. In any case two umpires are
+always appointed, and for English first-class county cricket
+these are now annually chosen beforehand by the county captains.
+Two scorers are officially recognized. All the arrangements as
+to scoreboards, and accommodation for players, members of the
+club and general spectators, vary considerably according to
+local requirements. Between six and seven acres forms the most
+suitable area for a match, but the size of a cricket ground has
+never been defined by law.</p>
+
+<p>The wickets are pitched opposite and parallel to one another
+at a distance of 22 yds.; the &ldquo;bowling crease&rdquo; being
+marked with whitewash on the turf on a line with the stumps
+8 ft. 8 in. in length, with short &ldquo;return creases&rdquo; at right
+angles to it at each end; but the &ldquo;popping crease,&rdquo; marked
+parallel to the wicket and 4 ft. in front of it, is deemed
+of unlimited length. The captains of the opposing sides toss for
+choice of innings, and the winner of the toss, though occasionally,
+owing to the condition of the ground or the weather prospects,
+electing to put his adversaries in first, as a general rule elects for
+his own side to bat first. The captain of the batting side sends
+his eleven (or whatever the number of his team may be) in to
+bat in any order he thinks best, and much judgment is used in
+deciding what this order shall be. Two batsmen with strong
+defensive powers and good nerve are usually selected to open
+the innings, the most brilliant run-getters immediately following
+them, and the weakest batsmen going in last. As there must
+always, except in the obsolete single-wicket cricket, be two
+batsmen in together, it follows that when ten of the side (in a
+side of eleven) have been put out, one of the final pair must be
+&ldquo;not out&rdquo;; that is to say, his innings is terminated without
+his getting out because there is none of his side left to become
+his partner. The batsman who is thus &ldquo;not out&rdquo; is said to
+&ldquo;carry his bat,&rdquo; a phrase that recalls a period when two bats
+sufficed for the whole side, each retiring batsman leaving the
+implement on the ground for the use of his successor, till at the
+close of the innings the &ldquo;not out&rdquo; man carried it back to the
+tent or pavilion. As the phrase is not also applied to the last
+batsman to get out, who would of course have carried the second
+bat off the ground, it was possibly at one time restricted to a
+player who going in first survived through the whole innings.
+It should be observed that the term &ldquo;wicket&rdquo; is used by
+cricketers in a number of different senses. Besides being the
+name given to the set of three stumps with their two bails when
+pitched for a match, it is in an extended sense applied to that
+portion of the ground, also called the &ldquo;pitch,&rdquo; on which the
+stumps are pitched, as when it is described as being &ldquo;a fast
+wicket,&rdquo; a &ldquo;sticky wicket&rdquo; and so forth. It also in several
+idiomatic expressions signifies the getting out of a batsman
+and even the batsman himself, as in the phrases: &ldquo;Grace lost
+his wicket without scoring,&rdquo; &ldquo;Grace went in first wicket down,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;when Grace got out England lost their best wicket,&rdquo; &ldquo;England
+beat Australia by two wickets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The umpires are required to decide questions arising in the
+course of play and to call the &ldquo;overs,&rdquo; the &ldquo;over&rdquo; being a series
+of successive deliveries of the ball (usually six) by the bowler
+from one end of the pitch, the rest of the &ldquo;out&rdquo; side, or fielders,
+being stationed in various positions in the field according to
+well-defined principles. When an &ldquo;over&rdquo; has been bowled
+from one end a different bowler then bowls an &ldquo;over&rdquo; from the
+opposite end, the alternation being continued without interruption
+throughout the innings, and the bowlers being selected and
+changed from time to time by the captain of their side at his
+discretion. At the end of every over the fielders &ldquo;change over&rdquo;
+or otherwise rearrange their places to meet the batting from
+the other end. An over from which no runs are made off the
+bat is called a &ldquo;maiden.&rdquo; A &ldquo;run&rdquo; is made when the two
+batsmen change places, each running from his own to the opposite
+wicket without being &ldquo;run out.&rdquo; The aim of the batting side
+is to make as many runs as possible, while the object of the
+fielding side is to get their opponents out, and to prevent their
+making runs while in.</p>
+
+<p>There are nine ways in which the batsman, or &ldquo;striker,&rdquo; can
+be put out. Of these the following five are the most important.
+(1) The striker is &ldquo;bowled&rdquo; out if the bowler hits the wicket
+with the ball, when bowling, and dislodges the bail; (2) he is
+&ldquo;caught&rdquo; out if the ball after touching his bat or hand be held
+by any member of the fielding side before it touches the ground;
+(3) he is &ldquo;stumped&rdquo; out if the wicket-keeper dislodges the bail
+with the ball, or with his hand holding the ball, at a moment
+when the striker in playing at the ball has no part of his person
+or bat in contact with the ground behind the popping crease,
+<i>i.e.</i> when the batsman is &ldquo;out of his ground&rdquo;; (4) he is out
+&ldquo;l.b.w.&rdquo; (leg before wicket) if he stops with any part of his
+person other than his hand, or arm below the elbow, a ball
+which in the umpire&rsquo;s judgment pitched straight between the
+wickets, and would have bowled the striker&rsquo;s wicket; (5) if
+when the batsmen are attempting to make a run a wicket
+is put down (<i>i.e.</i> the bail dislodged) by the ball, or by the hand
+of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a moment when neither
+batsman has any part of his person or bat on the ground behind
+the popping crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket
+so put down is &ldquo;run out.&rdquo; The remaining four ways in which
+a batsman may be dismissed are (6) hit wicket, (7) handling the
+ball, (8) hitting the ball more than once &ldquo;with intent to score,&rdquo;
+and (9) obstructing the field.</p>
+
+<p>The positions of the fieldsmen are those which experience proves
+to be best adapted for the purpose of saving runs and getting
+the batsmen caught out. During the middle of the 19th century
+these positions became almost stereotyped according to the pace
+of the bowler&rsquo;s delivery and whether the batsmen were right
+or left handed. A certain number of fielders stood on the &ldquo;on&rdquo;
+side, <i>i.e.</i> the side of the wicket on which the batsman stands, and
+a certain number on the opposite or &ldquo;off&rdquo; side, towards which
+the batsman faces. &ldquo;Point&rdquo; almost invariably was placed
+square with the striker&rsquo;s wicket some ten or a dozen yards
+distant on the &ldquo;off&rdquo; side; &ldquo;cover point&rdquo; to the right of
+&ldquo;point&rdquo; (as he is looking towards the batsman) and several
+yards deeper; &ldquo;mid on&rdquo; a few yards to the right of the bowler,
+and &ldquo;mid off&rdquo; in a corresponding position on his left, and so
+forth. Good captains at all times exercised judgment in modifying
+to some extent the arrangement of the field according to
+circumstances, but in this respect much was learnt from the
+Australians, who on their first visit to England in 1878 varied
+the positions of the field according to the idiosyncrasies of the
+batsmen and other exigencies to a degree not previously practised
+in England. The perfection of wicket-keeping displayed by
+the Australian, McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855), taught English
+cricketers that on modern grounds the &ldquo;long stop&rdquo; could
+be altogether dispensed with; and this position, which in
+former days was considered a necessary and important one,
+has since been practically abolished. In many matches at the
+present day, owing to the character of modern bowling, no more
+than a single fieldsman is placed on the &ldquo;on&rdquo; side, while the
+number and positions of those &ldquo;in the slips,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> behind the
+wicket on the &ldquo;off&rdquo; side, are subject to no sort of rule, but vary
+according to the nature of the bowling, the state of the ground,
+or any other circumstances that may influence the judgment
+of the captain of the fielding side. Charts such as were once
+common, showing the positions of the fielders for fast, slow and
+medium bowling respectively, would therefore to-day give no
+true idea of the actual practice; and much of the skill of modern
+captaincy is shown in placing the field.</p>
+
+<p>The score is compiled by runs made by the batsman and by the
+addition of &ldquo;extras,&rdquo; the latter consisting of &ldquo;byes,&rdquo; &ldquo;leg-byes,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;wides&rdquo; and &ldquo;no-balls.&rdquo; All these are included in the
+designation &ldquo;runs,&rdquo; of which the total score is composed, though
+neither &ldquo;wides&rdquo; nor &ldquo;no-balls&rdquo; involve any actual run on the
+part of the batsmen. They are called by the umpire on his own
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+initiative, in the one case if the bowler&rsquo;s delivery passes the
+batsman beyond the reach of his bat (&ldquo;wide&rdquo;), and in the other
+if he delivers the ball without having either foot touching the
+ground behind the &ldquo;bowling crease&rdquo; and within the &ldquo;return
+crease,&rdquo; or if the ball be jerked or thrown instead of being <i>bona
+fide</i> &ldquo;bowled.&rdquo; &ldquo;Wides&rdquo; and &ldquo;no-balls&rdquo; count as one &ldquo;run&rdquo;
+each, and all &ldquo;extras&rdquo; are added to the score of the side without
+being credited to any individual batsman. The batsman may,
+however, hit a &ldquo;no-ball&rdquo; and make runs off it, the runs so made
+being scored to the striker&rsquo;s credit instead of the &ldquo;no-ball&rdquo;
+being entered among the &ldquo;extras.&rdquo; The batsman may be &ldquo;run
+out&rdquo; in attempting a run off a &ldquo;no-ball,&rdquo; but cannot be put out
+off it in any other way. &ldquo;Byes&rdquo; are runs made off a ball which
+touches neither the bat nor the person of the batsman, &ldquo;leg-byes&rdquo;
+off a ball which, without touching the bat or hand, touches any
+other part of his person. With the exception of these &ldquo;extras&rdquo;
+the score consists entirely of runs made off the bat.</p>
+
+<p>Batting is the most scientific feature of the game. Proficiency
+in it, as in golf and tennis, depends in the first instance to a great
+extent on the player assuming a correct attitude for
+making his stroke, the position of leg, shoulder and
+<span class="sidenote">Batting.</span>
+elbow being a matter of importance; and although a quick and
+accurate eye may occasionally be sufficient by itself to make a
+tolerably successful run-getter, good style can never be acquired,
+and a consistently high level of achievement can seldom be
+gained, by a batsman who has neglected these rudiments. Good
+batting consists in a defence that is proof against all the bowler&rsquo;s
+craft, combined with the skill to seize every opportunity for
+making runs that the latter may inadvertently offer. If the
+batsman&rsquo;s whole task consisted in keeping the ball out of his
+wicket, the accomplishment of his art would be comparatively
+simple; it is the necessity for doing this while at the same time he
+must prevent the ball from rising off his bat into the air in the
+direction of any one of eleven skilfully-placed fielders, each eager
+to catch him out, that offers scope for the science of a Grace, a
+MacLaren or a Trumper. In early days when the wickets were
+low and the ball was trundled along the ground, the curved bats of
+the old pictures were probably well adapted for hitting, defence
+being neglected; but when the height of the wickets was raised,
+and bowlers began to pitch the ball closer to the batsman so that
+it would reach the wicket on the first bound, defence of the wicket
+became more necessary and more difficult. Hence the modern
+straight-bladed bat was produced, and a more scientific method of
+batting became possible. Batting and bowling have in fact
+developed together, a new form of attack requiring a new form of
+defence. One of the first principles a young batsman has to
+learn is to play with a &ldquo;a straight bat&rdquo; when defending his wicket
+against straight balls. This means that the whole blade of the
+bat should be equally opposite to the line on which the ball is
+travelling towards him, in order that the ball, to whatever height
+it may bound from the ground, may meet the bat unless it
+rises altogether over the batsman&rsquo;s hands; the tendency of the
+untutored cricketer being on the contrary to hold the bat sloping
+outwards from the handle to the point, as the golf-player holds his
+&ldquo;driver,&rdquo; so that the rise of the ball is apt to carry it clear of the
+blade. Standing then in a correct position and playing with a
+straight bat, the batsman&rsquo;s chief concern is to calculate accurately
+the &ldquo;length&rdquo; of the ball as soon as he sees it leave the bowler&rsquo;s
+hand. The &ldquo;length&rdquo; of the ball means the distance from the
+batsman at which it pitches, and &ldquo;good length&rdquo; is the first
+essential of the bowler&rsquo;s art. The distance that <span class="correction" title="amended from consistutes">constitutes</span>
+&ldquo;good length&rdquo; is not, however, to be defined by precise measurement;
+it depends on the condition of the ground, and on the
+reach of the batsman. A &ldquo;good-length ball&rdquo; is one that pitches
+too far from the batsman for him to reach out to meet it with the
+bat at the moment it touches the ground or immediately it begins
+to rise, in the manner known as &ldquo;playing forward&rdquo;; and at the
+same time not far enough from him to enable him to wait till after
+it has reached the highest point in its bound before playing it
+with the bat, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;playing back.&rdquo; When, owing to the good
+length of the ball, the batsman is unable to play it in either of
+these two ways, but is compelled to play at it in the middle of its
+rise from the ground, he is almost certain, if he does not miss it
+altogether, to send it up in the air with the danger of being caught
+out. If through miscalculation the batsman plays forward to a
+short-pitched ball, he will probably give a catch to the bowler or
+&ldquo;mid off,&rdquo; if he plays back to a well-pitched-up ball, he will
+probably miss it and be bowled out. The bowler is therefore
+continually trying to pitch balls just too short for safe forward
+play, while the batsman defends his wicket by playing forward
+or back as his judgment directs so long as the bowling is straight
+and of approximately good length, and is ready the instant he
+receives a bad-length ball, or one safely wide of the wicket, to hit it
+along the ground clear of the fieldsmen so as to make as many
+runs as he and his partner can accomplish before the ball is
+returned to the wicket-keeper or the bowler. But even those
+balls off which runs are scored are not to be hit recklessly or
+without scientific method. A different stroke is brought into
+requisition according to the length of the ball and its distance
+wide of the wicket to the &ldquo;off&rdquo; or &ldquo;on&rdquo; as the case may be; and
+the greatest batsmen are those who with an almost impregnable
+defence combine the greatest variety of strokes, which as occasion
+demands they can make with confidence and certainty. There
+are, however, comparatively few cricketers who do not excel in
+some particular strokes more than in others. One will make most
+of his runs by &ldquo;cuts&rdquo; past &ldquo;point,&rdquo; or by wrist strokes behind
+the wicket, while others, like the famous Middlesex Etonian
+C. I. Thornton, and the Australian C. J. Bonnor, depend mainly
+on powerful &ldquo;drives&rdquo; into the deep field behind the bowler&rsquo;s
+wicket. Some again, though proficient in all-round play, develop
+exceptional skill in some one stroke which other first-class players
+seldom attempt. A good illustration is the &ldquo;glance stroke&rdquo; off
+the legs which K. S. Ranjitsinhji made with such ease and grace.
+All great cricketers in fact, while observing certain general
+principles, display some individuality of style, and a bowler who
+is familiar with a batsman&rsquo;s play is often aware of some idiosyncrasy
+of which he can take advantage in his attack.</p>
+
+<p>Bowling is, indeed, scarcely less scientific than batting. It is
+not, however, so systematically taught to young amateurs, and
+it may be partly in consequence of this neglect that
+amateur bowling is exceedingly weak in England as
+<span class="sidenote">Bowling.</span>
+compared with that of professionals. The evolution of the art
+of bowling, for it has been an evolution, is an interesting chapter
+in the history of cricket which can only be briefly outlined here.
+The fundamental law as to the proper mode of the bowler&rsquo;s
+delivering the ball is that the ball must be bowled, not thrown
+or jerked. When bowling underhand along the ground was
+superseded by &ldquo;length bowling,&rdquo; it was found that the ball
+might be caused, by jerking, to travel at a pace which on the
+rough grounds was considered dangerous; hence the law against
+jerking, which was administered practically by chalking the inside
+of the bowler&rsquo;s elbow; if a chalk mark was found on his side,
+the ball was not allowed as fair. The necessity of keeping the
+elbow away from the side led gradually to the extension of the
+arm horizontally and to round-arm bowling, the invention of
+which is usually attributed to John Wills (or Willes; b. 1777)
+of Kent and Sussex. Nyren, however, says &ldquo;Tom Walker
+(about 1790) began the system of throwing instead of bowling
+now so much the fashion&rdquo;; and, &ldquo;The first I recollect seeing
+revive this fashion was Wills, a Sussex man,&rdquo; the date of the
+revival being 1807. Walker was no-balled. Beldham (1766-1862)
+says, &ldquo;The law against jerking was owing to the frightful
+pace Tom Walker put on, and I believe that he afterwards
+tried something more like the modern throwing-bowling. Willes
+was not the inventor of that kind, or round-arm bowling. He
+only revived what was forgotten or new to the young folk.&rdquo;
+Curiously enough, Beldham also writes of the same Tom Walker
+that he was &ldquo;the first lobbing slow bowler&rdquo; he ever saw,
+and that he &ldquo;did feel so ashamed of such baby bowling, but
+after all he did more than even David Harris himself.&rdquo; Round-arm
+bowling was long and vigorously opposed, especially in 1826
+when three matches were arranged between England and Sussex,
+the Sussex bowlers being round-arm bowlers. When England
+had lost the first two matches, nine of the professionals refused
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+to take part in the third, &ldquo;unless the Sussex bowlers bowl fair,
+that is, abstain from throwing.&rdquo; Five of them did play and
+Sussex lost, but the new style of bowling had indicated its
+existence. In 1844 the M.C.C.&rsquo;s revised law reads, &ldquo;The ball
+must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand must not
+be above the shoulder in delivery.&rdquo; Round-arm bowling was
+thenceforth legal. In 1862 Willsher (1828-1885), the Kent
+bowler, was no-balled by the umpire (Lillywhite) for raising his
+hand too high, amid a scene of excitement that almost equalled
+a tumult. Overhand bowling was legalized on the 10th of June
+1864 after strenuous opposition. In early days much importance
+was attached to great pace, but the success of the slow lobbing
+bowling (pitched up underhand) led to its cultivation; in both
+styles some of the best performers delivered the ball with a
+curious high action, thrusting the ball, as it were, from close under
+the arm-pit. When the advantages of bias (or twist, or break)
+were first known is not closely recorded, but we read of one
+Lamborn who (about 1800) could make the ball break from leg
+so that &ldquo;the Kent and Surrey men could not tell what to make
+of that cursed twist of his.&rdquo; Whatever the pace of bowling,
+accuracy is the essential point, or, more correctly, the power of
+accurately varying pace, pitch and direction, so that the batsman
+is never at peace. If the bowler is a mere machine, the batsman
+soon becomes his master; but the question as to which of the
+two is supreme depends very largely on the condition of the
+turf, whether it be hard and true, soft and wet, hard and rough
+or soft and drying: the first pair of conditions favour the batsmen,
+the second pair the bowler.</p>
+
+<p>The immense amount of labour and expense devoted to the
+preparation and care of cricket grounds has produced during
+the past quarter of a century a perfection of smoothness in the
+turf which has materially altered the character of the game. On
+the rough and fiery pitches of earlier days, on which a &ldquo;long
+stop&rdquo; was indispensable, the behaviour of the ball could not be
+reckoned upon by the batsman with any degree of confidence.
+The first ball of an &ldquo;over&rdquo; might be a &ldquo;shooter,&rdquo; never rising
+as much as an inch off the ground, the next might bound over
+his head, and the third pursue some equally eccentric course.
+But on the best grounds of to-day, subject to the well-understood
+changes due to weather, the bound of the ball is so regular as
+to be calculable with reasonable certainty by the batsman.
+The result has been that in fine weather, when wickets are true
+and fast, bowlers have become increasingly powerless to defeat
+the batsmen. In other words the defence has been strengthened
+out of proportion to the attack. Bowlers have consequently to
+a great extent abandoned all attempt to bowl the wicket down,
+aiming instead at effecting their purpose by bowling close to but
+clear of the wicket, with the design of getting the batsman to
+give catches. Many batsmen of the stubbornly defensive type,
+known in cricket slang as &ldquo;stonewallers,&rdquo; retaliated by leaving
+such balls alone together, or stopping them deliberately with the
+legs instead of the bat.</p>
+
+<p>These tactics caused the game to become very slow; over after
+over was bowled without an attempt being made to score a run
+and without apparent prospect of getting a wicket. This not
+only injured the popularity of the game from the spectator&rsquo;s
+point of view, but, in conjunction with the enormous scores that
+became common in dry seasons, made it so difficult to finish a
+match within the three days to which first-class matches in
+England are invariably limited, that nearly 70% of the total
+number of fixtures in some seasons were drawn. Cricketers of
+an older generation have complained that the cause of this is
+partly to be found in the amount of time wasted by contemporary
+cricketers. These critics see no reason why half of a summer&rsquo;s
+day should be allowed to elapse before cricket begins, and they
+comment with some scorn on the interval for tea, and the
+fastidiousness with which play is frequently interrupted on
+account of imperfect light or for other unimperative reasons.
+Various suggestions have been made, including proposals for
+enlarging the wicket, for enabling the attack to hold its own
+against the increasing strength of the defence. But the M.C.C.,
+the only recognized source of cricket legislation, has displayed
+a cautious but wise conservatism, due to the fact that its authority
+rests on no sanction more formal than that of prestige tacitly
+admitted by the cricketing world; and consequently no drastic
+changes have been made in the laws of the game, the only important
+amendments of recent years being that which now
+permits a side to close its innings voluntarily under certain
+conditions, and that which, in substitution for the former hard
+and fast rule for the &ldquo;follow on,&rdquo; has given an option in the
+matter to the side possessing the requisite lead on the first
+innings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Players.</i>&mdash;If the era of the present form of cricket can
+very properly be dated from the visit of the first Australian team
+to England in 1878, some enumeration must be made of a few of
+the cricketers who took part in first-class matches in the earlier
+portion of the 19th century. Among amateurs should be noted
+the two fast bowlers, Sir F. H. Bathurst (1807-1881; Eton,
+Hampshire), and Harvey Fellowes (b. 1826; Eton); the
+batsman N. Felix (1804-1876; Surrey and Kent), who was
+a master of &ldquo;cutting&rdquo; and one of the earliest to adopt batting
+gloves; the cricketing champion of his time Alfred Mynn (1807-1861;
+Kent); and the keen player F. P. Miller (1828-1875;
+Surrey). The three Marshams, Rev. C. D. Marsham (b. 1835),
+R. H. B. Marsham (b. 1833) and G. Marsham (b. 1849), all of
+Eton and Oxford, were as famous as the Studds in the &rsquo;eighties;
+and R. Hankey (1832-1886; Harrow and Oxford) was a great
+scorer. In the next generation one of the greatest bats of his
+own or any time was R. A. H. Mitchell (1843-1905; Eton, Oxford,
+Hants). A very attractive run-getter was C. F. Buller (b.
+1846; Harrow, Middlesex); an all too brief career was that
+of C. J. Ottaway (1850-1878; Eton, Oxford, Kent and Middlesex);
+whilst A. Lubbock (b. 1845; Eton, Kent) was a sound bat,
+and D. Buchanan (1830-1900; Rugby and Cambridge) a destructive
+bowler, as was also A. Appleby (1843-1902; Lancashire).</p>
+
+<p>Of the professionals, Fuller Pilch (1803-1870) and E. G.
+Wenman (1803-1897) were great bats; T. Box (1808-1876) the
+most skilled wicket-keeper of his time; W. Lillywhite (1792-
+1854), one of the first round-arm bowlers, renowned for the
+accuracy of his pitch, and W. Clark (1798-1856) possessed
+wonderful variety of pace and pitch. It was the last-named who
+organized the All England Eleven, and he was not chosen to
+represent the players until he had reached the age of forty-seven.
+George Parr (1826-1891), the greatest leg-hitter in England, had
+no professional rival until the advent of Richard Daft (1835-
+1900). J. Dean (1816-1891) was the finest long-stop, Julius
+Caesar (1830-1878) a hard clean hitter, as was G. Anderson (1826-1902),
+and T. Lockyer (1826-1869) seems to have been the first
+prominent wicket-keeper who took balls wide on the leg-side.
+Of bowlers, E. Willsher (1828-1885) would seem to have been the
+most difficult, W. Martingell (1818-1897) being a very good
+medium-paced bowler, and J. Wisden (1826-1884) a very fast
+bowler but short in his length. Four famous bowlers of a later
+date are George Freeman (1844-1895), J. Jackson (1833-1901),
+G. Tarrant (1838-1870) and G. Wootton (b. 1834). With them
+must be mentioned the great batsmen, T. Hayward (1835-1876)
+and R. Carpenter (1830-1901), as well as two other keen cricketers,
+H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896) and T. Hearne (1826-1900).</p>
+
+<p>Since the first half of the 19th century the sort of cricket to
+engage public attention has very greatly changed, and the change
+has become emphasized since the exchange of visits between
+Australian and English teams has become an established feature
+of first-class cricket. First-class cricket has become more formal,
+more serious and more spectacular. The contest for the county
+championship has introduced an annual competition, closely
+followed by the public, between standing rivals familiar with each
+other&rsquo;s play and record; an increased importance has become
+attached to &ldquo;averages&rdquo; and &ldquo;records,&rdquo; and it is felt by some
+that the purely sporting side of the game has been damaged by
+the change. Professionalism has increased, and it is an open
+secret that not a few players who appear before the public as
+amateurs derive an income under some pretext or other from
+the game. Cricket on the village green has in many parts of the
+country almost ceased to exist, while immense crowds congregate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+to watch county matches in the great towns; but this must no
+doubt be in part attributed to the movement of population from
+the country districts; and some compensation is to be found in
+league cricket (see below), and in the numerous clubs for the
+employees of business firms and large shops, and for the members
+of social institutes of all kinds, which play matches in the suburbs
+of London and other cities. At an earlier period two great professional
+organizations, &ldquo;The All England,&rdquo; formed in 1846, and
+&ldquo;The United All England,&rdquo; toured the country, mainly for profit,
+playing local sides in which &ldquo;given men,&rdquo; generally good professional
+players, figured. They did much good work in popularizing
+the game, and an annual match between the two at
+Lord&rsquo;s on Whit-Monday was once a great feature of the season;
+but the increase of county cricket led eventually to their
+disbandment.</p>
+
+<p>At this period, and much later, the first-class matches of
+&ldquo;M.C.C. and ground&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> ground-staff, or professionals attached
+to the club) occupied a far greater amount of importance than is
+at present the case. In recent years over 150 minor matches of
+the utmost value in propagating the best interests of cricket are
+annually played by the leading club. League cricket has of late
+become exceedingly popular, especially in the North of England,
+a number of clubs&mdash;about twelve to sixteen&mdash;combining to form
+a &ldquo;League&rdquo; and playing home-and-home matches, each one
+with each of the others in turn; points are scored according as
+each club wins, loses, or draws matches, the championship of the
+&ldquo;League&rdquo; being thus decided.</p>
+
+<p><i>English County Cricket.</i>&mdash;The first English inter-county
+match which is recorded was played on Richmond Green in
+1730 between Surrey and Middlesex; but for very many years,
+though counties played counties, there was no systematic organization,
+matches often being played at odds or with &ldquo;given&rdquo;
+players, who had no county connexion with the side they represented.
+This was the natural outcome of the custom of playing
+for stakes. It was not till 1872 that any real effort was made
+to organize county cricket. In that year the M.C.C. took the
+initiative by offering a cup for competition between the counties,
+six of which were to be selected by the M.C.C., the matches to
+be played at Lord&rsquo;s, but the scheme fell through owing to the
+coolness of the counties themselves. It was only in 1890 that the
+counties were formally and officially classified, Notts (the county
+club dating from 1859), Lancashire (1864), Surrey (1845), Kent
+(1842), Middlesex (1864), Gloucestershire (1869), Yorkshire
+(1862), and Sussex (1839), being regarded as &ldquo;first-class,&rdquo; as
+indeed had been the case from the time of their existence; and
+by degrees other counties were promoted to this class; Somerset
+in 1893; Derbyshire, Essex, Leicestershire, Warwickshire in
+1894; Hampshire in 1895; Worcestershire in 1899; Northamptonshire
+in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>In 1887 the County Cricket Council had been formed, working
+with and not against the Marylebone Club, for the management
+of county cricket, but the council dissolved itself in 1890, and
+it was then arranged that the county secretaries and delegates
+should meet and discuss such matters, and request the M.C.C. to
+consider the result of their deliberations, and practically to act
+as patron and arbitrator. In 1905 an Advisory Cricket Committee
+was formed &ldquo;with the co-operation of the counties, with
+a view to improve the procedure in dealing with important
+matters arising out of the development of cricket, the effect of
+which will be&rdquo; (the quotation is from the annual report of M.C.C.
+in 1905) &ldquo;to bring the counties into closer touch with the
+M.C.C.&rdquo; Various methods have been tried as to the assignment
+of points or marks, the following being the list of champion
+counties up to 1909:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">1864</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1873</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Surrey</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1865</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1874</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Gloucestershire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1866</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Middlesex</td> <td class="tcc">1875</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1867</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1876</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Gloucestershire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1868</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1877</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Gloucestershire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1869</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1878</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1870</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1879</td> <td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tccm" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1871</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Notts</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1872</td> <td class="tcl">Surrey</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Gloucestershire</td> <td class="tcc">1881</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Lancashire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1882</td> <td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Surrey</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Lancashire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1884</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Surrey</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1886</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1887</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1888</td> <td class="tcl">Surrey</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Notts</td> <td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Middlesex</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1889</td> <td class="tcl">Lancashire</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #657383;">}</span>equal</td> <td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Lancashire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1906</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Kent</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1907</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Notts</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">1908</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Yorkshire</td> <td class="tcc">1909</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">Kent</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcl rb" colspan="2">Surrey</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>English county cricket is now the most firmly established cricketing
+institution in the world, but in its earlier stages it owed much in
+different counties to enthusiastic individuals and famous
+cricketing families whose energies were devoted to its
+<span class="sidenote">The Graces and Gloucestershire.</span>
+encouragement and support. To Gloucestershire belongs
+the honour of the greatest name in the history of the game.
+Dr W. G. Grace (<i>q.v.</i>) was not only the most brilliant all-round
+cricketer in the world, but he remained supreme after reaching
+an age when most cricketers have long abandoned the game. He
+and his two famous brothers, E. M. Grace (b. 1841) and G. F. Grace
+(1850-1880), rendered invaluable service to their county for many
+years; and not to their county alone, for the great part they played
+for a generation in first-class cricket did much to increase the growing
+popularity of the county fixtures. A separate article is devoted to
+Dr W. G. Grace, whose name as the champion of the game will
+always be associated with its history. And of Dr E. M. Grace it
+may be mentioned that, besides being the most daring field at
+&ldquo;point&rdquo; ever seen, he altogether took 11,092 wickets and scored
+75,625 runs. In more recent years some excellent cricketers
+have been associated with Gloucestershire, such as F. Townsend,
+and the professional Board; but foremost stands G. L. Jessop,
+a somewhat &ldquo;unorthodox&rdquo; batsman famous for his powers of
+hitting.</p>
+
+<p>What W. G. Grace did for Gloucestershire, Lord Harris (b. 1851)
+did for Kent, and his services are not to be estimated by his performances
+in the field alone, great as they were. His influence
+was always exerted to impart a spirit of sportsmanship
+<span class="sidenote">Kent.</span>
+and honourable distinction to the national game. Kent had been a
+home of cricket since the first half of the 18th century, but it was
+Lord Harris more than any other individual who made it a first-class
+county, celebrated for the number of distinguished amateurs who
+have taken part in its matches. The Hon. Ivo Bligh, afterwards
+Lord Darnley (b. 1859), and F. Marchant (b. 1864), both Etonians
+like Lord Harris himself; the two Harrovians, W. H. Patterson
+(b. 1859) and M. C. Kemp (b. 1862), and the Wykehamist J. R.
+Mason (b. 1874) are names that show the place taken by public
+school men in the annals of Kent cricket, while the family of Hearnes
+supplied the county with some famous professionals. Amateur
+batsmen like W. Rashleigh, C. J. Burnup, E. W. Dillon and A. P.
+Day have been prominent in the Kent eleven; and in Fielder and
+Blythe they have had two first-class professional bowlers. The
+&ldquo;Kent nursery&rdquo; at Tonbridge has proved a valuable institution for
+training young professional players, and contributed not a little to
+the rising reputation of Kent, which justified itself when the county
+won the championship in 1906, largely owing to the admirable
+batting of the amateur K. L. Hutchings.</p>
+
+<p>Middlesex and Lancashire, not less than Kent, have been indebted
+to the great public schools, and especially to Harrow, which provided
+both counties with famous captains who directed their
+fortunes for an uninterrupted period of over twenty years.
+<span class="sidenote">Middlesex and Lancashire.</span>
+I. D. Walker, the most celebrated of seven cricketing
+brothers, all Harrovians, who founded the Middlesex
+County Club, handed on the captaincy, after a personal record of
+astonishing brilliancy, to a younger Harrow and Oxford cricketer,
+A. J. Webbe, who was one of the finest leg-hitters and one of the
+safest out-fielders of his day, and a captain of consummate judgment
+and knowledge of the game. A. N. Hornby, a contemporary at
+Harrow of I. D. Walker, was for many years the soul of Lancashire
+cricket, and was succeeded in the captaincy of the county by the
+still more famous Harrovian, A. C. MacLaren, one of the greatest
+batsmen in the history of cricket, whose record for England in test
+matches against Australia was almost unrivalled. In 1895, when he
+headed the batting averages, MacLaren made the highest individual
+score in a first-class match, viz. 424 against Somersetshire. Middlesex
+has also the distinction of having produced the two greatest amateur
+wicket-keepers in the history of English cricket, namely, the Hon.
+Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857) and Gregor MacGregor, both of whom,
+after playing for Cambridge University, gave their services to the
+Metropolitan county; while Lancashire can boast of the greatest
+professional wicket-keeper in Richard Pilling (1855-1891), whose
+reputation has not been eclipsed by that of the most proficient of
+more recent years. Another famous Cambridge University cricketer,
+a contemporary of Lyttelton, who was invaluable to Lancashire for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span>
+some years when he was one of the very finest all-round cricketers
+in the country, was A. G. Steel (b. 1858), equally brilliant as a batsman
+and as a slow bowler; and other names memorable in Lancashire
+cricket were R. G. Barlow (b. 1859), whose stubborn batting
+was a striking contrast to the rapid run-getting of Hornby and the
+perfect style of Steel; John Briggs (1862-1902), whose slow left-hand
+bowling placed him at the head of the bowling averages in
+1890; John Crossland (1853-1903) and A. Mold (b. 1865), both of
+whom were destructive fast bowlers; J. T. Tyldesley and R. H.
+Spooner, both among the most brilliant batsmen of a later generation;
+and W. Brearley, the amateur fast bowler.</p>
+
+<p>Middlesex, like Kent, has been better served by amateurs than
+professionals. Indeed, with the notable exceptions of J. T. Hearne,
+who headed the bowling averages in 1891, 1896 and 1898, and of the
+imported Australian A. E. Trott, few professionals of high merit are
+conspicuously associated with the history of the county cricket.
+Trott, in 1899 and again in 1900, performed the previously unprecedented
+feat of taking over two hundred wickets and scoring over
+one thousand runs in the same season. And in his &ldquo;benefit match&rdquo;
+in May 1907 at Lord&rsquo;s he achieved the &ldquo;hat trick&rdquo; twice in one
+innings, taking first four and then three wickets with successive
+balls. But if there has been a dearth of professionals in Middlesex
+cricket, the county has produced an abundance of celebrated
+amateurs. In addition to the Walkers and A. J. Webbe, the metropolitan
+county was the home of the celebrated hitter, C. I. Thornton,
+and of the Studd family, who learnt their cricket at Eton and
+Cambridge University. C. T. Studd, one of the most polished
+batsmen who ever played cricket, was at the same time an excellent
+medium-paced bowler, and his brother G. B. Studd is remembered
+especially for his fielding, though like his elder brother, J. E. K.
+Studd, he was an all-round cricketer of the greatest value to a
+county team. Sir T. C. O&rsquo;Brien, who made his reputation by a fine
+innings for Oxford University against the Australian team of 1882,
+sustained it in the following years by many brilliant performances
+for Middlesex. A. E. Stoddart for several years was the best run-getter
+in the Middlesex eleven; and W. J. Ford and his younger
+brother, F. G. J. Ford, were conspicuous among many prominent
+Middlesex batsmen. In more recent times the Oxonian P. F. Warner
+(b. 1873), both as captain and as batsman, did splendid work; and
+B. J. T. Bosanquet, besides assisting powerfully with the bat,
+became famous for inaugurating a new style of curly bowling
+(&ldquo;googlies&rdquo;) of a very effective type.</p>
+
+<p>A glance at the table given above shows the high place occupied
+by Surrey in the past. Surrey county cricket can be traced as far
+back as 1730. Pycroft observes that &ldquo;the name of Surrey
+as one united county club is quite lost in the annals of
+<span class="sidenote">Surrey.</span>
+cricket from 1817 to 1845.&rdquo; But before that date two of the most
+celebrated cricketers, William Lillywhite and Fuller Pilch, had
+occasionally played for the county, and so also had James Broadbridge
+(1796-1843) and W. Lambert (1779-1851). Kennington Oval
+became the Surrey county ground in 1845, the property being leased
+from the duchy of Cornwall; and in the years immediately following
+the county team included H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896), Caffyn
+(b. 1828), N. Felix, and Lockyer (1826-1869); among a later generation
+appeared such well-remembered names as Jupp, Southerton,
+Pooley and R. Humphrey. After being champion county in 1873,
+Surrey did not again attain the same position for fourteen years,
+but for the next ten years maintained an almost uninterrupted
+supremacy. The greatest credit was due to the energetic direction
+of J. Shuter (b. 1855), who kept together a remarkable combination
+of cricketers, such as W. W. Read (1855-1906), Maurice Read (b.
+1859), George Lohmann (1865-1901), and Robert Abel (b. 1859),
+all of whom were among the greatest players of their period. Lohmann
+in 1885-1890 would alone have made any side famous; and
+in the same years when he was heading the bowling averages and
+proving himself the most deadly bowler in the country, W. W. Read
+was performing prodigies of batting. No sooner did the latter begin
+to decline in power than Abel took his place at the head of the
+batting averages, scoring with astonishing consistency in 1897-1900.
+In 1899 he made 357 not out in an innings against Somersetshire,
+and in 1901 his aggregate of 3309 was the largest then compiled.
+The Oxonian K. J. Key was another famous batsman whose services
+as captain were also exceedingly valuable to the county. An almost
+inexhaustible supply of professionals of the very highest class has
+been at Surrey&rsquo;s service. W. Lockwood (b. 1868) became almost as
+deadly a bowler as Lohmann, and Tom Richardson (b. 1870) was the
+terror of all Surrey&rsquo;s opponents for several seasons after 1893.
+Richardson took in all no less than 1340 wickets at the cost of 20,000
+runs. Tom Hayward (b. 1867), nephew of the renowned Cambridge
+professional of the same name, succeeded Abel as the leading Surrey
+batsman, his play in the test matches of 1899, when he averaged 65,
+being superb. During the following years his reputation was fully
+maintained, and in 1906 he had a particularly successful season.
+Key was followed in the captaincy by D. L. A. Jephson, but the
+county did not in the opening years of the 20th century maintain
+the high place it occupied during the last quarter of the 19th. It
+possessed some excellent professionals, however, in Hayes, Hobbs
+and Lees, and the season of 1906, under the captaincy of Lord
+Dalmeny, showed a revival, a new fast bowler being found in N. A.
+Knox, and a fine batsman and bowler in J. N. Crawford.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the celebrated cricketers of early times already mentioned
+as having played for the Surrey club were more closely
+associated with the adjoining county of Sussex, whose
+records go back as far as 1734, in which year a match was
+<span class="sidenote">Sussex.</span>
+played against Kent, the chief promoters of which were the duke
+of Richmond and Sir William Gage. One of the earliest famous
+cricketers, Richard Newland (d. 1791), was a Sussex man; and James
+Broadbridge, W. Lambert, Tom Box, and the great Lillywhite
+family were all members of the Sussex county team. Lambert, in
+a match against Epsom, played at Lord&rsquo;s in 1817, made a &ldquo;century&rdquo;
+(one hundred runs) in each innings, a feat not repeated in first-class
+cricket for fifty years; and the occasion was the first when the
+aggregate of a thousand runs was scored in a match. Broadbridge
+played for Sussex in five reigns, while Box (1808-1876) kept wicket
+for the county for twenty-four years without missing a match.
+Notwithstanding this distinguished history, Sussex never attained
+the highest place in the county rivalry, and for a number of years
+towards the end of the 19th century the left-handed batting of F. M.
+Lucas (1860-1887) alone saved the county from complete insignificance.
+A revival came when W. L. Murdoch (b. 1855), of Australian
+celebrity, qualified for Sussex; and at a still later date the fortunes
+of the county were raised by the inclusion in its eleven of Kumar
+Shri Ranjitsinhji, afterwards H.H. the Jam of Nawanagar (b. 1872),
+the Indian prince, who had played for Cambridge University.
+Ranjitsinhji&rsquo;s dexterity, grace and style were unrivalled. He
+scored 2780 runs in 1896, averaging 57, while in county matches in
+1899 his aggregate was 2555, with an average of 75. Even this
+performance was beaten in 1900 when he scored a total of 2563 runs,
+giving an average for the season of 83. In all matches his aggregates
+were 3159 in 1899, and 3065 in 1900. Not less remarkable was the
+cricket of C. B. Fry (b. 1872), who came from Oxford University to
+become a mainstay of Sussex cricket, and who in 1901 performed
+the unparalleled feat of scoring in successive innings 106, 209, 149,
+105, 140 and 105, his aggregate for the season being 3147 with an
+average of 78. In 1905 his average for Sussex was 86, but in the
+following year an accident kept him out of the cricket field throughout
+the season; and in 1909 he transferred his services to Hampshire.</p>
+
+<p>If Kent and Middlesex may be described as the counties of
+amateurs, Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire should be called the
+counties of famous professionals. Between 1864 and
+1889 Nottinghamshire was champion county twelve times
+<span class="sidenote">Notts.</span>
+and the county eleven was as a rule composed almost entirely of
+professional players, among whom have been many of the greatest
+names in the history of the game. Richard Daft (1835-1900), after
+playing as an amateur, became a professional in preference to
+abandoning the game, scorning to resort to any of the pretexts by
+which cricketers have been known to accept payment for their
+services while continuing to cling to the status of the amateur.
+William Oscroft (1843-1905) was one of Nottinghamshire&rsquo;s early
+batting heroes, and in Alfred Shaw (b. 1842) and F. Morley (1850-1884)
+the county possessed an invaluable pair of bowlers. William
+Gunn (b. 1858), besides being a magnificent fielder &ldquo;in the country,&rdquo;
+was an exceptionally able batsman; but his performances did not
+equal those of his greater contemporary, Arthur Shrewsbury, who in
+six years between 1885 and 1892 headed the English batting averages.
+Shrewsbury&rsquo;s perfect style combined with inexhaustible patience
+placed him in the front rank of the &ldquo;classical&rdquo; batsmen of English
+cricket. Of the batsmen nicknamed &ldquo;stonewallers,&rdquo; who at one time
+endangered the popularity of first-class cricket, was W. Scotton
+(1856-1893); and among the other numerous professionals whose
+cricket contributed to the renown of Nottinghamshire were Barnes
+(1852-1899), at times a most formidable bat; Flowers (b. 1856),
+always useful both with the bat and the ball; W. Attewell (b. 1861),
+a remarkably steady bowler who bowled an abnormal number of
+maiden overs; Mordecai Sherwin (b. 1851), an excellent successor
+to T. Plumb (b. 1833) and F. Wild (1847-1893) as wicket-keeper
+for the county; and among more recent players, J. Iremonger (b.
+1877) and John Gunn, both of whom proved themselves cricketers
+worthy of the Notts traditions. J. A. Dixon (b. 1861), one of the
+few amateurs of the Nottinghamshire records, was for some time
+captain of the county team; and he was succeeded by A. O. Jones
+(b. 1873), a dashing batsman, who in 1899 was partner with Shrewsbury
+when the pair scored 391 for the first wicket in a match against
+Gloucestershire.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Yorkshire cricket is modern in comparison with
+that of Surrey, Sussex or Kent. The county club only dates from
+1861, and for some years the team was composed entirely
+of professionals. But though Yorkshire attained the
+<span class="sidenote">Yorkshire.</span>
+championship three times during the first ten years of the county
+club&rsquo;s existence, thirteen years elapsed after 1870 before it again
+occupied the place of honour. In the ten years 1896-1906 Yorkshire
+was no less than six times at the head of the list, this position of
+supremacy being in no small measure due to the captaincy of Lord
+Hawke (b. 1860), who played continuously for the county from his
+university days for more than twenty years, and whose influence on
+Yorkshire cricket was unique. But before his time Yorkshire had
+already produced some notable cricketers, such as George Ulyett
+(1857-1898), who headed the batting averages in 1878, and who
+was also a fine fast bowler; Louis Hall (b. 1852), a patient bat;
+and another excellent scorer, Ephraim Lockwood (b. 1845). William
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+Bates (1855-1900), too, was effective both as batsman and bowler;
+and Tom Emmett (1841-1904), long proverbial for bowling &ldquo;a
+wide and a wicket,&rdquo; was deservedly popular. To the earlier period
+belonged two fast bowlers, George Freeman (1844-1895) and Allan
+Hill (b. 1845), and the eminent wicket-keeper Pincher (1841-1903),
+who was succeeded by J. Hunter (1857-1891), and later by his
+brother Daniel Hunter (b. 1862). The full effect of Lord Hawke&rsquo;s
+energetic captaincy was seen in 1900, when Yorkshire played through
+a programme of twenty-eight fixtures without sustaining a defeat;
+and the county&rsquo;s record was but little inferior in both the following
+years and again in 1905, in each of which years it retained the
+championship. It was during this period that as notable a group of
+cricketers wore the Yorkshire colours as ever appeared in county
+matches. Edmund Peate (1856-1900), one of the finest bowlers
+in his day, did not survive to take part in the later triumphs of his
+county; but the period beginning in 1890 saw J. T. Brown, J. Tunnicliffe,
+R. Peel, W. Rhodes, George Hirst and the Hon. F. S. Jackson
+in the field. The two first named became famous for their first
+wicket partnerships. In 1896 in a match against Middlesex at Lord&rsquo;s
+these two batsmen scored 139 before being separated in the first
+innings, and in the second knocked off the 147 required to win the
+match. In the following year they made 378 for the first wicket
+against Surrey, and during their careers they scored over a hundred
+for the first wicket on no less than fifteen occasions, the greatest feat
+of all being in 1898, when they beat the world&rsquo;s record by staying
+together till 554 runs had been compiled. Peel was for many years
+an untiring bowler, and Yorkshire was fortunate in discovering a
+successor of even superior skill in Wilfrid Rhodes, who in 1900 took
+over 200 wickets at a cost of 12 runs each in county matches alone,
+and was also an excellent bat. Hirst and Jackson were the two
+finest all-round cricketers in England about 1905. The Hon. F. S.
+Jackson (b. 1870), like his fellow-Harrovian A. C. MacLaren, had a
+wonderful record in test matches against Australia; he captained the
+England eleven in 1905, and his wonderful nerve enabled him to
+extricate his side when in a difficulty, and to render his best service
+at an emergency. Hirst (b. 1871) in 1904 and in 1905 scored over
+2000 runs and took more than 100 wickets; and in 1906 he surpassed
+all previous records by scoring over 2000 runs and taking over 200
+wickets during the season. A concourse of 78,000 people watched
+his &ldquo;benefit&rdquo; match (Yorkshire against Lancashire) in August 1904.
+Besides cricketers like these, such fine players were included in the
+team as Wainwright (b. 1865), Haigh (b. 1871), Denton (b. 1874),
+and E. Smith (b. 1869); with such material the Yorkshire eleven
+had no &ldquo;tail,&rdquo; and was able to win the championship six times in
+a decade.</p>
+
+<p>Somersetshire hardly fulfilled the promise held out by the success
+achieved in the closing decade of the 19th century; this had been
+largely owing to the captaincy and brilliant batting of
+H. T. Hewett (b. 1864), who in partnership with L. C. H.
+<span class="sidenote">Somersetshire.</span>
+Palairet (b. 1870), famous for his polished style, scored
+346 for the first wicket in a match against Yorkshire in 1892. Hewett
+was succeeded in the command of the county eleven by the Cambridge
+fast bowler, S. M. J. Woods (b. 1868); and among other members
+of the eleven the most valuable was L. C. Braund (b. 1876), a professional
+who excelled as an all-round cricketer.</p>
+
+<p>The counties above referred to are those which have figured most
+prominently in the history of county cricket. Individual players of
+the highest excellence are, however, to be found from time
+to time in all parts of the country. Warwickshire, for
+<span class="sidenote">Minor counties.</span>
+example, can boast of having had in A. A. Lilley (b. 1867)
+the best wicket-keeper of his day, who represented England
+against Australia in the test matches; while Worcestershire produced
+one of the best all-round professionals in the country for a
+number of years in Arnold (b. 1877), and a batsman of extreme
+brilliancy in R. E. Foster, a member of a cricketing family to whom
+belongs the credit of raising Worcestershire into a cricketing county
+of the first class. Derbyshire, similarly, can claim some well-known
+cricket names, the bowler W. Mycroft (1841-1894), W. Chatterton
+(b. 1863), and W. Storer (b. 1868), a first-class wicket-keeper. Essex
+possesses at Leyton one of the best county grounds in the country,
+and the club was helped over financial difficulties by the munificent
+support of an old Uppingham and Cambridge cricketer, C. E. Green.
+It has produced a fair number of excellent players, notably the batsmen
+P. Perrin, C. MacGahey, and the fast bowler C. J. Kortright;
+and A. P. Lucas, afterwards a member of the county club, was a
+famous cricketer who played for England in 1880 in the first Australian
+test match. Hampshire had a fine batsman in Captain E. G. Wynyard,
+and its annals are conspicuous for the phenomenal scores made
+during the single season of 1899 by Major R. M. Poore; these two
+put together 411 against Somersetshire in that year before being
+separated. Among the later Hants professionals, Llewellyn was most
+prominent.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of cricketing ability in England might be the
+subject of some interesting speculation. In the first forty years
+of the annual competition for the championship six counties alone
+gained the coveted distinction, and three of these, Surrey, Notts and
+Yorkshire, won it thirty-four times between them. Why, it may be
+asked, is it that one county excels in the game while another has no
+place whatever in the history of cricket? How comes it that great
+names recur continually in the annals of Surrey and Yorkshire, for
+example, while those of Berkshire and Lincolnshire are entirely
+barren? No doubt proximity to great centres of population favours
+the cultivation of the game, but in this respect Kent and Sussex are
+no better situated than Hertfordshire, nor does it account for Nottinghamshire
+having so illustrious a record while Staffordshire has none
+at all, nor for Somersetshire having outclassed Devon. It is strange,
+moreover, that while the universities are the chief training-grounds
+for amateur cricketers, neither Oxfordshire nor Cambridgeshire has
+made any mark among the counties. The influence of individuals
+and families, such as the Graces in Gloucestershire, the Walkers in
+Middlesex, and in recent times the Fosters in Worcestershire, has
+of course been of inestimable benefit to cricket in those counties;
+but Buckinghamshire and Norfolk and Cheshire send their sons to
+the public schools and universities no less than Lancashire or Kent.
+It is difficult, therefore, to understand why county cricket should
+so persistently confine itself to a small number of counties; but
+such is the fact.</p>
+
+<p>Cricket has never flourished vigorously in Scotland, Ireland or
+Wales, a fact that may partly be accounted for by the comparative
+difficulty of obtaining good grounds in those parts of the kingdom,
+and by the inferiority, for the purpose of cricket, of their climate.
+In the south of Scotland, and especially in the neighbourhood of
+Edinburgh, there are clubs which keep the game alive; and Scotland,
+though it has produced no great cricketers, either amateur or professional,
+has sent a few players to the English university elevens
+who have found places in English county teams. In Ireland cricket
+is fairly popular, especially in those parts of the island where local
+sides can obtain assistance from soldiers quartered in the neighbourhood.
+One or two counties play annual matches, that between
+Kildare and Cork in particular exciting keen rivalry. Trinity
+College, Dublin, has turned out some excellent players; and the
+Phoenix and Leinster clubs in Dublin, and the North of Ireland club
+in Belfast, play a full programme of matches every season. D. N.
+Trotter, who played for county Meath for many years towards the
+close of the 19th century, was a batsman who would have found a
+place in any English county eleven; so also would William Hone,
+one of several brothers all of whom were keen and skilful cricketers.
+About the same period Lieutenant Dunn scored so many centuries
+in Irish cricket that he was played, though without any great success,
+for his native county of Surrey. More recently L. H. Gwynn (1873-1902)
+batted in a style and with a success that proved him capable
+of great things. Sir T. C. O&rsquo;Brien, though an Irishman, belongs as a
+cricketer to Middlesex; but T. C. Ross, who was chosen to play for
+Gentlemen v. Players at Lord&rsquo;s in 1902, was a bowler who played
+regularly for county Kildare.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gentlemen v. Players.</i>&mdash;The most important match of the year as
+far as purely English cricket is concerned is the match between the
+gentlemen and players (amateurs and professionals) played at Lord&rsquo;s.
+For many years a match played between sides similarly composed
+at the Oval excited equal interest, but latterly county cricket has
+rather starved this particular game, though it still continues as a
+popular fixture. Other matches with the same title have been played
+in London on Prince&rsquo;s Ground (now built over), and at Brighton,
+Hastings and Scarborough and elsewhere, but those games in no
+way rank with the London matches.</p>
+
+<p>The Lord&rsquo;s fixture was first established in 1806, in which year two
+matches were played; it became annual in 1819, but in those days
+the amateurs, being no match for their opponents, generally received
+odds, while in 1832 they defended wickets 22 in. by 6, and in 1837
+the professionals stood in front of wickets of four stumps, measuring
+in all 36 in. by 12 in. This match was known as &ldquo;The Barndoor
+Match&rdquo; or &ldquo;Ward&rsquo;s Folly,&rdquo; and the professionals won by an innings
+and 10 runs. Odds were not given after 1838, the gentlemen having
+then won eight matches and lost thirteen. From 1839 to 1866 the
+gentlemen only won 7 matches as compared with 21 losses. In 1867
+the tide turned, for the brothers Grace, especially Dr W. G. Grace,
+became a power in the cricket-field, and from 1867 to 1884 the
+gentlemen, winning fifteen matches, only lost one. From 1885 the
+balance swung round, and by 1903 the professionals had won eleven
+matches and lost but four. The gentlemen won on nine successive
+occasions between 1874 and 1884, a draw intervening; while beginning
+with 1854 the professionals won eleven matches &ldquo;off the reel.&rdquo;
+The professionals won in 1860 by an innings and no less than 181
+runs; in 1900 they only won by two wickets, but to do so had to
+make, and did make, 501 runs in the last innings of the match. In
+1903 the gentlemen, heavily in arrears after each side had played an
+innings, actually scored 500 in their second innings with only two
+men out. In 1904 the gentlemen won by two wickets after being
+156 runs behind on the first innings, thanks to fine play by K. S.
+Ranjitsinhji and A. O. Jones. J. H. King had scored a century in
+each innings, a feat previously only performed by R. E. Foster in
+1900. C. B. Fry&rsquo;s 232 not out in 1903 was the largest innings scored
+in the match. Dr W. G. Grace, who is credited with eight centuries,
+is the only cricketer who exceeded the hundred more than twice at
+Lord&rsquo;s in the fixture, 164 by J. T. Brown being the highest innings
+by a professional. There were seven instances before 1864 of two
+bowlers being unchanged in the match, and the Hon. F. S. Jackson
+and S. M. J. Woods repeated this in 1894. The Oval match was first
+played in 1857. The amateurs effected their first win in 1866, and
+though several games were drawn the professionals did not win again
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+till 1880. As at Lord&rsquo;s, it was the era of Grace, but from this point
+the amateurs could only win two matches, and by the narrowest of
+margins, till 1903, this making their sum of victories up to then
+thirteen, as opposed to twenty-three. In 1879 the gentlemen won
+in one innings by 126 runs, the heaviest beating that one side had
+inflicted on the other. The highest individual score was Robert
+Abel&rsquo;s 247, and the next Dr W. G. Grace&rsquo;s 215. Hayward scored
+203 in 1904; A. G. Steel and A. H. Evans bowled unchanged in
+1879.</p>
+
+<p><i>School and Club Cricket.</i>&mdash;Cricket is the standing summer game
+at every English private and public school, where it is taught as
+carefully and systematically as either classics or mathematics. There
+are also numbers of amateur clubs which possess no grounds of their
+own and are connected with no particular locality, but which are in
+fact mere associations of cricketers who play matches against the
+universities, schools or local teams, or against each other. Of these
+the best known, perhaps, is I Zingari (The Wanderers), popularly
+known as I.Z., whose well-known colours, red, yellow and black
+stripes, are prized rather as a social than as a cricketing distinction.
+This club was founded in 1845 by Lorraine Baldwin and Sir Spencer
+Ponsonby-Fane. The first rule of the club humorously declares that
+&ldquo;the entrance fee shall be nothing, and the annual subscription
+shall not exceed the entrance fee.&rdquo; It is a rule of the club that no
+member shall play on the opposing side. I.Z. has long been connected
+with the social festivities forming a feature of the &ldquo;Canterbury
+Week,&rdquo; a cricket festival held at Canterbury during the first
+week in August, of the Scarborough week, and of the Dublin horse-show.
+Dr W. G. Grace, who almost invariably appeared in the
+cricket field wearing the red and yellow stripes of the M.C.C., and
+some other notable amateurs, never belonged to I.Z. or any similar
+club; but Dr Grace was instrumental in the formation of the London
+county club, whose ground was at the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
+Other amateur clubs, similar to I Zingari, are the Free Foresters,
+Incogniti, Etceteras, and in Ireland Na Shuler; while the Eton
+Ramblers, Harrow Wanderers, Old Wykehamists, and others are
+clubs whose membership is restricted to &ldquo;old boys.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Oxford and Cambridge universities match was first played in
+1827, but was not an annual fixture till 1838. Five matches, those
+of 1829, 1843, 1846, 1848 and 1850, were played at Oxford, the rest
+at Lord&rsquo;s. The &ldquo;&rsquo;Varsity match,&rdquo; and that between the two great
+public schools, Eton and Harrow, are great &ldquo;society&rdquo; events at
+Lord&rsquo;s every summer. Up to 1909 Eton won thirty times, and
+Harrow on thirty-five occasions. D. C. Boles by scoring 183 in
+1904 set up a new record for this match, beating the 152 obtained
+in 1841 by Emilius Bayley (afterwards the Rev. Sir John Robert
+Laurie); and in 1907 the Harrow captain, M. C. Bird, established a
+further record by scoring over a hundred runs in each innings. Of
+the contests between Oxford and Cambridge, the latter (up to 1909)
+had lost thirty-one and won thirty-five. Oxford&rsquo;s 503 in 1900 and
+Cambridge&rsquo;s 392 in the same match furnished the highest aggregates.
+The largest individual innings was 172 not out by J. F. Marsh in
+1904; but as a feat of batting it was intrinsically inferior to the 171
+by R. E. Foster in 1900. Of the thirty centuries scored up to 1909,
+Oxford was credited with sixteen. Eustace Crawley (b. 1868) made
+a hundred both in the Eton v. Harrow and Oxford v. Cambridge
+matches. In the match of 1870 F. C. Cobden (b. 1849) took the last
+three Oxford wickets with consecutive balls, winning the match for
+Cambridge by 2 runs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Australian Cricket.</i>&mdash;Naturally popular in a British colony,
+cricket made but little progress in Australia before the arrival of an
+English professional eleven in 1861-1862, which carried all before it.
+Subsequent visits, and the coaching of imported professionals, so
+promoted the game that in 1878 a representative eleven of Australians
+visited England. The visits were repeated biennially till
+1890, and then triennially. The visits of the Australian teams to
+England aroused unparalleled interest and acted as an immense
+incentive to the game. A great sensation was caused when the first
+team, captained by D. W. Gregory, on the 27th of May 1878, defeated
+a powerful M.C.C. eleven in a single day, disposing of them for 33
+and 19, the fast bowler F. R. Spofforth (b. 1853) taking 6 wickets
+for 4 runs, and H. F. Boyle (b. 1847) 5 for 3. Their prowess was well
+maintained when in September 1880 Australia for the first time met
+the whole strength of England, such matches between representatives
+of Australia and England being known as &ldquo;test matches,&rdquo; a term
+that was applied later to matches between England and South
+Africans also. Although in 1880 the old country won by 5 wickets,
+the honours were fairly divided, especially as Spofforth could not
+play. Dr W. G. Grace with a score of 152 headed the total of 420,
+but even finer was the Australian captain W. L. Murdoch&rsquo;s imperturbable
+display, when he carried his bat for 153. From 1882 onwards
+the Colonials, with two exceptions, at Blackpool and Skegness, only
+played eleven-a-side matches. Such bowlers as Spofforth, Boyle,
+G. E. Palmer (b. 1861), T. W. Garrett (b. 1858), and G. Giffen (1859)
+became household names. Nor was the batting less admirable,
+for Murdoch was supported by H. H. Massie (b. 1854), P. S.
+McDonnell (1860-1896), A. C. Bannerman (b. 1859), T. Horan
+(b. 1855), C. J. Bonnor (b. 1855), and S. P. Jones (b. 1861), whilst
+the wicket-keeper was McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855). This visiting
+side in 1882 was the greatest team of all; 23 matches were won,
+only 4 lost, and England was defeated at the Oval by 7 runs. In
+1884 English cricket had improved, and the visiting record was
+hardly so good. The match against England at the Oval will not
+soon be forgotten. The Colonials scored 551 (Murdoch 211, McDonnell
+103, Scott 102), and England responded with 346, Scotton and
+W. W. Read adding 151 for the ninth wicket.</p>
+
+<p>The team of H. J. H. Scott (b. 1858) in 1886 proved less successful,
+for all three test matches were lost, and eight defeats had to be set
+against nine victories, but Giffen covered himself with distinction.
+This was the first tour under the auspices of the Melbourne Club.
+McDonnell&rsquo;s team in 1888 marked the appearance of the bowlers
+C. T. B. Turner (b. 1862) and J. J. Ferris (1867-1900). The former
+took 314 wickets for 11 runs each, and the latter 220 for 14 apiece.
+To all appearance they redeemed a poor tour, 19 matches being
+won and 14 lost. The 1890 tour, though Murdoch reappeared as
+captain, proved disappointing, both the test matches being lost and
+defeats for the first time exceeding victories, though the two bowlers
+again performed marvellously well. After an interval of three years,
+M. Blackham captained the seventh team, which was moderately
+fortunate. H. Graham (b. 1870) and S. E. Gregory (b. 1870) batted
+admirably, and the 149 of J. J. Lyons (b. 1863) in the match against
+M.C.C. was an extraordinary display of punishing cricket. In
+1896, though they did not win the rubber of test matches, the
+colonials were most successful, 19 matches being victories and only
+6 lost. S. E. Gregory, J. Darling (b. 1870), F. A. Iredale (b. 1867),
+G. Giffen, C. Hill (b. 1877), and G. H. S. Trott (1866-1905) were
+the best bats, and the last-named made an admirable captain.
+H. Trumble (1867) kept an excellent length, and E. Jones (1869) was
+deadly with his fast bowling.</p>
+
+<p>The Australian representatives in 1899 demonstrated that they
+were the best since 1882, 16 successes and only 3 defeats (v. Essex,
+Surrey and Kent) being emphasized by a victory over England at
+Lord&rsquo;s by 10 wickets, the only one of the five test matches brought to
+a conclusion. M. A. Noble (b. 1873) and Victor Trumper (b. 1877), both
+newcomers, batted superbly. The latter, v. Sussex, made 300, the
+largest individual score hitherto made by an Australian in England,
+the previous best having been 286 by Murdoch in the corresponding
+match in 1882. H. Trumble scored 1183 runs and took 142 wickets
+for 18 runs apiece, and Darling not only made a judicious captain,
+but scored the biggest aggregate, 1941, up to then obtained by any
+batsman touring with a colonial eleven in England. On the home side,
+Hayward did sound service with the bat, and his stand with F. S.
+Jackson in the fifth test match yielded 185 runs for the first wicket.</p>
+
+<p>In 1902 another fine Australian eleven, captained by Darling,
+won 23 and lost only 2 matches. They won the rubber of test
+matches at Manchester by 3 runs, but lost the final at the Oval by
+one wicket after an even more remarkable struggle, G. L. Jessop
+having scored 104 in an hour and a quarter. The other defeat
+was by Yorkshire by 5 wickets, when they were dismissed for 23
+by Hirst and Jackson. The rest of the tour was characterized
+by brilliant batting. The performance of Trumper in making 2570
+runs (with an average of 48) surpassed anything previously seen;
+R. A. Duff (b. 1878) also proved a brilliant run-getter. W. W.
+Armstrong (b. 1879) was useful in all departments, and J. V. Saunders
+(b. 1876) proved a successful left-handed bowler.</p>
+
+<p>In 1905 there was a marked falling-off, as England won two and
+drew the other three test matches; but only one other defeat, by
+Essex by 19 runs, had to be set against 16 Australian victories. The
+persistent bowling off the wicket by Armstrong, and the inability
+to finish games within three days, were the chief drawbacks. Armstrong
+eclipsed all previous colonial records in England by heading
+both tables of averages, scoring 2002 (average 48) and taking 130
+wickets at a cost of 17 runs each. He also compiled the largest
+individual score (303 not out v. Somerset) ever made on an Australian
+tour. M. A. Noble also exceeded 2000 runs. For a long time the
+fast bowler, A. Cotter (b. 1882, N.S.W.), failed, but eventually
+&ldquo;came off,&rdquo; just as F. Laver (b. 1869), who had taken many wickets
+in the earlier part of the tour, was becoming less formidable. Duff
+saved the colonials by a great innings in the fifth test match;
+Trumper was less certain than formerly, and Clement Hill more
+reckless; whilst J. J. Kelly (b. 1867) on his fifth tour was better
+than ever before with the gloves.</p>
+
+<p>The Australians who visited England under the leadership of
+M. A. Noble in 1909 were generally held to be a weaker team than
+most of their predecessors, but they greatly improved as the season
+advanced, proving that the side included several cricketers of the
+highest merit, and as a captain Noble has seldom been surpassed in
+consummate generalship. Their record of thirteen wins to four
+defeats offered little evidence of inferiority, while the large number
+of twenty-one drawn matches was accounted for by the cold wet
+weather that largely prevailed throughout the summer. Two out of
+the five test matches were unfinished, and Australia won the rubber
+by two matches to one. In all the test matches England was under
+the command of A. C. MacLaren, but the great Harrovian was no
+longer the batsman he had been some years earlier; Jackson had
+abandoned first-class cricket; Hirst and Hayward were becoming
+veterans; and, speaking generally, the English batting was decidedly
+inferior, and it collapsed feebly in three of the test matches.
+England&rsquo;s failure, for which poor fielding and missed catches were
+also responsible, was the more disappointing since they began well
+by winning the first test match at Birmingham by ten wickets.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span>
+C. B. Fry and Hobbs knocking off the 105 runs required to win in the
+second innings without the loss of a wicket. In the third test match,
+at Leeds, England was deprived of the services of Hayward and
+Blythe through illness, and an accident to Jessop during the match
+compelled the side to play a man short. It was in bowling that the
+Australians were thought to be least strong; but Laver&rsquo;s analysis
+in the Manchester test match, when he took 8 wickets for 31 runs in
+England&rsquo;s first innings, was the most notable feature of the match;
+and although his record at the head of the bowling averages for the
+tour, 70 wickets at an average cost of 14.9 runs, had frequently been
+beaten in earlier Australian tours in England, it proved him a worthy
+successor of Spofforth, Boyle and Turner. Armstrong, although he
+did not equal his record of 1905, again scored over 1000 runs and took
+over 100 wickets, his exact figures being 1439 runs and 120 wickets.
+The most remarkable Australian batting was that of two young
+left-handed players who on this occasion visited England for the
+first time, W. Bardsley (b. 1884) and Vernon Ransford (b. 1885), the
+latter of whom headed the averages both for test matches (58.8)
+and for the whole tour (45.5), his principal achievement being an
+innings of 143 not out in the test match at Lord&rsquo;s. Bardsley, who
+was second in the test matches averages (39.6), fell into the third
+place slightly below Armstrong in the averages for the tour; but he
+alone scored over 200 in an innings, which he accomplished twice,
+and over 2000 in aggregate for the tour, and he established a test
+match &ldquo;record&rdquo; by scoring 136 and 130 in the match at the Oval.
+Of the twenty-two &ldquo;centuries&rdquo; scored by Australians during the
+season Bardsley and Ransford each made six. Trumper and Noble
+each scored over a thousand runs, and Macartney was an invaluable
+member of the side both in batting and bowling. As a wicket-keeper
+Carter worthily filled the place of Kelly, and the fielding of
+the Colonials fully maintained the brilliant Australian standard of
+former years.</p>
+
+<p>The following &ldquo;records&rdquo; of Australian cricket in England up to
+1909 are of interest:&mdash;Highest total by an Australian team: 843
+v. Past and Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893.
+Highest total against an Australian team: 576 by England at the
+Oval in 1899. Lowest total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in
+1896. Lowest total against an Australian team: 17 by Gloucestershire
+in 1896. Highest individual Australian score in one innings:
+303 not out by W. W. Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest
+individual Australian aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in
+1902. Two centuries in a match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v.
+Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and 130 v. England in 1909 (test
+match record).</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting
+and bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Batting.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Inn.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Not<br />out.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Runs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Most.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aver.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. Bannerman, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">723</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">465</td> <td class="tcr rb">*153</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1711</td> <td class="tcr rb">*286</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1378</td> <td class="tcr rb">211</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcl rb">G. Giffen, S.A.</td> <td class="tcc rb">63</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1453</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl rb">P. M&lsquo;Donnell, V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1393</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1459</td> <td class="tcr rb">*158</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Graham, V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1492</td> <td class="tcr rb">219</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">S. E. Gregory, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1464</td> <td class="tcr rb">154</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcl rb">J. Darling, S.A.</td> <td class="tcc rb">56</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1941</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">V. T. Trumper, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2570</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. W. Armstrong, V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2002</td> <td class="tcr rb">*303</td> <td class="tcc rb">48.82</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">V. S. Ransford</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1778</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">190</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc f80" colspan="7">* Not out.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Bowling.</i></p>
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">O.</td> <td class="tccm allb">M.</td> <td class="tccm allb">R.</td> <td class="tccm allb">W.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aver.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcl rb">T. W. Garrett, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;296.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">394</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcl rb">F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;240.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">396</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. F. Boyle, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1200.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">1680</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl rb">F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1544.32</td> <td class="tcr rb">649</td> <td class="tcr rb">2642</td> <td class="tcr rb">216</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcl rb">G. Giffen, S.A.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1693.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">722</td> <td class="tcr rb">2711</td> <td class="tcr rb">159</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">2589.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1222</td> <td class="tcr rb">3492</td> <td class="tcr rb">314</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1651.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">724</td> <td class="tcr rb">2725</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcl rb">C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1148</td> <td class="tcr rb">450</td> <td class="tcr rb">2202</td> <td class="tcr rb">160</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcl rb">T. R. M&lsquo;Kibbin, N.S.W.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;647.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">198</td> <td class="tcr rb">1441</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Trumble, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1249.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">431</td> <td class="tcr rb">2618</td> <td class="tcr rb">142</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcl rb">H. Trumble, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;948</td> <td class="tcr rb">305</td> <td class="tcr rb">1998</td> <td class="tcr rb">140</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. W. Armstrong, V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1027</td> <td class="tcr rb">308</td> <td class="tcr rb">2288</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1909</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">F. Laver</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;495.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">161</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1048</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14.97</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862,
+and was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891)
+took out the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur.
+In 1873 the Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an
+eleven, and three years later James Lillywhite conducted a team of
+professionals. On this tour for the first time colonials contended on
+equal terms, one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the
+other lost by 45 runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a
+team of amateurs assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and
+losing 3 eleven-a-side encounters, Emmett&rsquo;s 137 wickets averaging
+8 runs each. Shaw, Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized
+the expedition of 1881, when Australia won the second test match
+by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in
+1882 took a fine team, which was crippled owing to an injury sustained
+by the bowler F. Morley. Four victories could be set against
+three defeats; Australia winning the only test match, owing to the
+batting of Blackham. Shaw&rsquo;s second tour in 1884 showed Barnes
+heading both batting and bowling averages, while six victories
+counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour Shrewsbury became
+captain, but the English for the first time encountered the bowling
+of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for 113 runs in two matches.
+Australia was twice defeated, the English captain batting in fine
+form. On this tour was played the Smokers v. Non-Smokers, when
+the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236, W. Bruce 131,
+Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle, Lohmann, Palmer
+and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams in Australia,
+one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under Shrewsbury
+and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being
+headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with
+58. The ill-success of Lord Sheffield&rsquo;s team in two out of three test
+matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G.
+Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support
+from Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann
+all possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart&rsquo;s first team (in
+1894) achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first
+test match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by
+10 runs, Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51,
+scoring 173 in the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who
+made 228 v. Victoria), Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The
+last tour conducted by Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of
+the five test matches being lost, and some friction being caused by
+various incidents. K. S. Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made
+175 in a test match and 189 v. South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren,
+who scored five hundreds and averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward
+also doing good work; but the bowling broke down. Weakness
+in bowling was the cause of the ill success of A. C. MacLaren&rsquo;s
+side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by an innings and 124 runs
+at Sydney, the other four test matches were all lost. MacLaren
+himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward and Tyldesley.
+Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in 1903
+officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in
+every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three
+test matches were won and two lost, while two new records were
+set up, one by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other
+by R. E. Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled
+287. Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen;
+Rhodes and Braund both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase
+about &ldquo;bringing back the ashes&rdquo; became almost proverbial; its
+origin is to be found in the <i>Sporting Times</i> in 1882 after Australia
+had defeated England at the Oval.</p>
+
+<p><i>New Zealand.</i>&mdash;Although cricket has not attained a degree of
+perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it
+is keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in
+1902-1903 which won all the eighteen matches arranged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cricket in India.</i>&mdash;Not only the English who live in India, but
+the natives also&mdash;Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike&mdash;play
+cricket. A Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888.</p>
+
+<p><i>South Africa.</i>&mdash;South African cricketers visiting England are
+handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets
+used in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer
+War in 1901 won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with
+Worcestershire, and showing marked improvement on the team which
+had visited England in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a
+fine wicket-keeper, J. H. Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round cricketer,
+J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872)
+clever with the ball. In 1904 more decided success was achieved,
+for on a more ambitious programme ten victories could be set against
+two defeats by Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex.
+The most important success was a victory by 189 runs over a
+powerful England eleven at Lord&rsquo;s, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875)
+scored 102 and 26, and took 8 wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjitsinhji
+twice. Kotze and Sinclair again bore the brunt of the attack.
+Of the English teams visiting South Africa, that taken by Lord
+Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such important opposition as the
+one he led in 1900, yet the side came back undefeated, having won
+all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F. Mitchell, with Tyldesley,
+were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and Cuttell bowling finely.
+In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a side under P. F. Warner,
+but it lost four out of the five test matches, F. L. Fane and J. N.
+Crawford being the most successful of the Englishmen, and G. C. White
+(1882) and A. D. Nourse proving themselves great colonial batsmen.
+In 1907 a representative South African team came to England, and
+their improved status in the cricketing world was shown by the
+arrangement of test matches. In the winter of 1909-1910 an English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span>
+team under Mr Leveson Gower went to South Africa, and played
+test matches.</p>
+
+<p><i>West Indies.</i>&mdash;West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900,
+winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A.
+Olivierre (b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The
+brunt of the bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878).
+In 1897 teams under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both
+visited West Indies, Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations.
+R. S. Lucas (b. 1867) had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A
+much weaker combination in 1902 suffered five defeats but won
+13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E. R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M.
+Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief performers. In 1906 another West
+Indian side visited England, but were not particularly successful.</p>
+
+<p><i>America.</i>&mdash;In the United States cricket has always had to contend
+with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival attractions
+of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity,
+Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World.</p>
+
+<p>The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play
+annually for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the
+Associated Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood
+of New York matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District
+Cricket League and the New York Cricket Association; similar
+organizations are the Northwestern, the California and the Massachusetts
+associations, while the Intercollegiate Cricket League
+consists of college teams representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and
+Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b. 1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849)
+may almost claim to be the fathers of cricket in the United States;
+while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did much for the game in Canada.
+Other eminent names in American cricket are A. M. Wood; H.
+Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three centuries in
+one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of Pennsylvania, a
+very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made 344 not out
+for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved most effective
+during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894 W.
+Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss
+of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not out.
+A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United
+States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in
+which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the
+course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average
+cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the
+side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester
+(b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be
+cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen
+(b. 1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not,
+however, include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen
+in America. The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908,
+when they won 7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour
+King surpassed his former English record by taking 115 wickets, and
+Wood, who played one fine innings of 132, was the most successful
+of the American batsmen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Countries.</i>&mdash;The English residents of Portugal support
+the game, but were no match for a moderate English team that
+visited them in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem,
+cricket is played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch
+elevens have visited England, and English elevens have crossed to
+Holland, the most important visit being that of the gentlemen of
+the M.C.C. in 1902, the Englishmen winning all the matches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Professionalism.</i>&mdash;The remuneration of the first-class English
+professionals is £6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid;
+a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from £2, 10s. to £3, 10s.
+a week when not away playing matches. A professional player
+generally receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the
+amount being sometimes a fixed sum of £1 for every fifty runs, more
+frequently a sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation
+of the captain. Some counties give their men winter pay, others try
+to provide them with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get
+cricket in other countries during the English winter. For international
+matches professional players and &ldquo;reserves&rdquo; receive
+£20 each, though before 1896 the fee was only £10; players (and
+reserves) in Gentlemen v. Players at Lord&rsquo;s are paid £10. A good
+county professional generally receives a &ldquo;benefit&rdquo; after about ten
+years&rsquo; service; but the amount of the proceeds varies capriciously
+with the weather, the duration of the match, and the attendance.
+In the populous northern counties of England benefits are far more
+lucrative than in the south, but £800 to £1000 may be regarded
+as a good average result. County clubs generally exercise some
+control over the sums received. Umpires are paid £6 a match; in
+minor games they receive about £1 a day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Records.</i>&mdash;Records other than those already cited may be added for
+reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in
+1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy&rsquo;s match,
+being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566
+for Break o&rsquo; Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being
+911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886.
+In first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is
+A. C. MacLaren&rsquo;s 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in
+1895. Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March
+1898, this being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C.
+and Ground made 735 v. Wiltshire in 1888, the highest total at Lord&rsquo;s.
+In the match between A. E. Stoddart&rsquo;s team and New South Wales
+at Sydney in 1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled
+in first-class cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class
+match is 918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. Yorkshire
+scored 887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The
+lowest total in a first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v.
+Gloucestershire in June 1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by
+S. Colman and P. Coles at Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partnership
+on record is 623 by Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh
+in 1895. The best stand that has been made for the last wicket in
+a first-class match is 230 runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls
+and Roche playing for Middlesex v. Kent at Lord&rsquo;s in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;averages&rdquo; of individual players for batting and bowling
+annually excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that
+some players may think too much of their averages and too little of
+the sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages
+during a series of years would be misleading, owing to improvements
+in grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number
+of innings.</p>
+
+<p>The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to
+the end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of
+historic cricketers; it will serve to supplement some details already
+given above about them and others.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Batting.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Innings.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Not Out.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Runs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Most.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aver.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">K. S. Ranjitsinhji</td> <td class="tcc rb">448</td> <td class="tcc rb">57</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,277</td> <td class="tcc rb">285</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">C. B. Fry</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,865</td> <td class="tcc rb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">T. Hayward</td> <td class="tcc rb">667</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,225</td> <td class="tcc rb">315</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">J. T. Tyldesley</td> <td class="tcc rb">491</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,683</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dr W. G. Grace</td> <td class="tcc rb">1463&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">103&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">54,073</td> <td class="tcc rb">344</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A. Shrewsbury</td> <td class="tcc rb">784</td> <td class="tcc rb">88</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,819</td> <td class="tcc rb">267</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">R. Abel</td> <td class="tcc rb">964</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,810</td> <td class="tcc rb">357</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A. C. MacLaren</td> <td class="tcc rb">526</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,364</td> <td class="tcc rb">424</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">G. H. Hirst</td> <td class="tcc rb">626</td> <td class="tcc rb">92</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,615</td> <td class="tcc rb">341</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hon. F. S. Jackson</td> <td class="tcc rb">490</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,498</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. Gunn</td> <td class="tcc rb">821</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,286</td> <td class="tcc rb">273</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. W. Read</td> <td class="tcc rb">739</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,919</td> <td class="tcc rb">328</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">A. E. Stoddart</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">513</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16,081</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">221</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32.2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Bowling.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Overs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Maid.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Runs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Wkts.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aver.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A. Shaw</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,803</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,887</td> <td class="tcr rb">1916</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">F. R. Spofforth</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,342</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,168</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,773</td> <td class="tcr rb">682</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">C. T. B. Turner</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,396</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,419</td> <td class="tcr rb">649</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">T. Emmett</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,870</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,811</td> <td class="tcr rb">1523</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">G. Lohmann</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,196</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,508</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,958</td> <td class="tcr rb">1734</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">F. Morley</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,610</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,938</td> <td class="tcr rb">1213</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">E. Peate</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,669</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,593</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">1061</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. Rhodes</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,336</td> <td class="tcr rb">1564</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. Attewell</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,461</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,408</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,671</td> <td class="tcr rb">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">J. Briggs</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,275</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,411</td> <td class="tcr rb">2161</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">R. Peel</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,255</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,856</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">1733</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">S. Haigh</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,749</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,279</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,516</td> <td class="tcr rb">1102</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">J. T. Hearne</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,895</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,395</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,532</td> <td class="tcr rb">2350</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">W. H. Lockwood</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,733</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,241</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,981</td> <td class="tcr rb">1273</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">T. Richardson (1904)</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,474</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,126</td> <td class="tcr rb">2081</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dr W. G. Grace (1904)</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">2730</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">G. H. Hirst</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,586</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,525</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27,028</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1377</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19.8</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-known
+annuals:&mdash;H. Bentley&rsquo;s <i>Scores from 1786 to 1822</i> (published
+in 1823); John Nyren&rsquo;s <i>Young Cricketer&rsquo;s Tutor</i> (1833); N. Wanostrocht&rsquo;s
+<i>Felix on the Bat</i> (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lillywhite&rsquo;s
+<i>Cricket Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840</i> (1862); Rev. J.
+Pycroft&rsquo;s <i>Cricket Field</i> (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box&rsquo;s
+<i>Theory and Practice of Cricket</i> (1868); F. Gale&rsquo;s <i>Echoes from Old
+Cricket Fields</i> (1871, new ed. 1896); <i>Marylebone Cricket Club
+Scores and Biographies</i> (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite&rsquo;s
+<i>Scores and Biographies</i>; C. Box&rsquo;s <i>English Game of Cricket</i> (1877);
+<i>History of a Hundred Centuries</i>, by W. G. Grace (1895); <i>History
+of the Middlesex County Cricket Club</i>, by W. J. Ford (1900); <i>History
+of the Cambridge University Cricket Club</i>, by W. J. Ford (1902);
+<i>History of Yorkshire County Cricket</i>, by R. S. Holmes (1904);
+<i>History of Kent County Cricket</i>, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); <i>Annals
+of Lord&rsquo;s</i>, by A. D. Taylor (1903); <i>Curiosities of Cricket</i>, by F. S.
+Ashley Cooper (1901); &ldquo;Cricket,&rdquo; by Lord Hawke, in <i>English Sport</i>,
+by A. E. T. Watson (1903); <i>Cricket</i>, edited by H. G. Hutchinson
+(1903); <i>Cricket Form at a Glance</i>, by Home Gordon (1903); <i>Cricket</i>
+(Badminton Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904);
+<i>Old English Cricketers</i>, by Old Ebor (1900); <i>Cricket in Many Climes</i>,
+by P. F. Warner (1903); <i>How We Recovered the Ashes</i>, by P. F. Warner
+(1904); <i>England v. Australia</i>, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877
+to 1904) (1904); <i>The Jubilee Book of Cricket</i>, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji
+(1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRICKHOWELL,<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales,
+14 m. E. of Brecon, beautifully situated on the left bank of the
+Usk, which divides it from Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The
+nearest railway stations are Govilon (5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.)
+on the London &amp; North-Western railway, but a mail and
+passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and
+Brecon passes through the town. It is also served by the
+Brecon &amp; Newport Canal, which passes through Llangattock
+about a mile distant. Agriculture is almost the sole industry
+of the district. The town derives its name from a British fortress,
+Crûg Hywel, commonly called Table Mountain, about 2 m.
+N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of which only a tower
+remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of the
+country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a
+borough by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having
+possessed any municipal institutions. The church is in transitional
+Decorated style.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRICKLADE,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary
+division of Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the
+Midland &amp; South-Western Junction railway. Pop. (1901)
+1517. It is pleasantly situated in the plain which borders the
+south bank of the Thames, not far from the Thames &amp; Severn
+Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly Perpendicular,
+with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in
+its churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early
+English tower, Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch.
+There is some agricultural trade.</p>
+
+<p>Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek
+philosophers before the Roman conquest, and the name is given
+as &ldquo;Greeklade&rdquo; in Drayton&rsquo;s <i>Polyolbion</i>. It owed its importance
+in Saxon times to its position at the passage of the Thames.
+During the revolt of Æthelwald the Ætheling in 905 he and
+his army &ldquo;harried all the Mercian&rsquo;s land until they came to
+Cricklade and there they went over the Thames&rdquo; (Anglo-Sax.
+Chron. <i>sub anno</i>), and in 1016 Canute came with his army over
+the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade (ibid.). There was a mint at
+Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I.,
+and William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of
+Stephen. In the reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to
+St John the Baptist was founded at Cricklade, and placed under
+the government of a warden or prior. Cricklade was a borough
+by prescription at least as early as the Domesday Survey, and
+returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised
+by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough
+was never incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption
+from toll and passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry
+III. and confirmed by successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin
+de Insula obtained a grant of a Thursday market, and an annual
+three days&rsquo; fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. The market
+was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was much frequented
+by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now inconsiderable. During
+the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the dowry of the
+queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship was
+acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter
+Hungerford granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and
+chapter of Salisbury cathedral to aid towards the repair of their
+belfry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIEFF,<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of
+Strathearn, 17¾ m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway.
+Pop. (1901) 5208. Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on
+the left bank of the Earn, here crossed by a bridge, it practically
+consists of a main street, with narrower streets branching off
+at right angles. Its climate is the healthiest in mid-Scotland,
+the air being pure and dry. Its charter is said to date from 1218,
+and it was the seat of the courts of the earls of Strathearn till
+1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A Runic
+sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old
+town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for
+which Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770.
+It was probably in connexion with this market that the &ldquo;kind
+gallows of Crieff&rdquo; acquired their notoriety, for they were mostly
+used for the execution of Highland cattle-stealers. The principal
+buildings are the town hall, tolbooth, public library, assembly
+rooms, mechanics&rsquo; institute, Morison&rsquo;s academy (founded in
+1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment
+built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered
+by the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist
+of manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and
+leather. Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for
+its gardens. They cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in
+terraces, and illustrate Italian, Dutch and French styles. They
+were planned by the 2nd earl of Perth (d. 1662), and take rank
+with the most magnificent in the United Kingdom. The keep
+of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the original building
+was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by Cromwell.
+The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction
+of the Jacobite rebellion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIME<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> (Lat. <i>crimen</i>, accusation), the general term for offences
+against the <span class="sc">Criminal Law</span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Crime has been defined as
+&ldquo;a failure or refusal to live up to the standard of conduct
+deemed binding by the rest of the community.&rdquo; Sir James
+Stephen describes it as &ldquo;some act or omission in respect of
+which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is
+in default whether by acting or omitting to act.&rdquo; Such action
+or neglect of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It
+is a wrong or tort, to be prevented and corrected by the strong
+arm of the law.</p>
+
+<p>Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under
+different circumstances of place and custom, that which at one
+time is denounced as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious
+act. It was once an imperative duty for the family to avenge
+the death of a kinsman, and the blood feud had a sanction that
+made killing no murder. Again, among primitive tribes to make
+away with parents at an advanced age or suffering from an
+incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was sometimes
+encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval;
+religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy,
+heresy, sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter
+to accepted dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when
+people gathered into communities and the rights of property
+and of personal security were understood and established. The
+law of the strongest might still interfere with individual ownership;
+the weakest went to the wall; authority, whether exercised
+by one master or by the combined government of the many,
+was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As civilization
+spread and the bulk of the population settled into orderliness,
+society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection, would
+not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all law-breakers
+decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy.
+Then began that constant warfare between criminals and the
+forces of law and order which has been continuously waged
+through the centuries with varying degrees of bitterness.</p>
+
+<p>The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty.
+Extreme penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent,
+and the principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law.
+The harshness of ancient codes makes a more humane age
+shudder. It was the custom to hang or decapitate, or otherwise
+take life in some more or less barbarous fashion, on the smallest
+excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous torture. It was
+performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to
+death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dismemberment
+and flaying or boiling alive. These were the
+aggravations of the original idea of riddance, of checking crime
+by the absolute removal of the offender. Only slowly and
+gradually milder methods came into force. Revenge and
+retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a larger
+mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity
+to mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period
+from the sphere of his baneful activity was something; to subject
+him to more or less irksome processes, to solitary confinement
+upon short diet, deprived of all the solaces of life, with severe
+labour, were sharp lessons limited in effect to those actually
+subjected to them, but too remote to deter the outside crowd
+of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the administrator
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to reform the
+criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed
+characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved
+in this direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more
+and more steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in
+principle that to eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off
+recruits from the permanent army of crime the work must be
+undertaken when the subject is of an age susceptible of
+reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more
+enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becoming
+more and more largely accepted in practice among civilized
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally
+present in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favourable
+to its growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their
+earliest years. They exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment,
+mendacity; they are often intensely selfish, are strongly acquisitive,
+greedy of gain, ready to steal and secrete things at the first
+opportunity. Happily the fatal consequences that would otherwise
+be inevitable are checked by the gradual growth of inhibitory
+processes, such as prudence, reflection, a sense of moral duty, and
+in many cases the absence of temptation. From this Dr
+Nicholson deduces that &ldquo;in proportion as this development is
+prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or
+by lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of
+the individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual
+crime.&rdquo; In the lowest strata of society this risk is largely
+increased from the conditions of life. The growth of criminals
+is greatly stimulated where people are badly fed, morally and
+physically unhealthy, infected with any forms of disease and
+vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is too often the
+evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of criminals
+are constantly impelled to follow in their parents&rsquo; footsteps by
+the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness.
+The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds
+congenial soil in which to take root and flourish.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines
+and has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result
+of marked propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and
+lust. Malicious crimes may be amplified into offences against
+the person originating in hatred, resentment, violent temper,
+and rising from mere assaults into manslaughter and murder.
+Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the whole range of
+thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all sorts;
+obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies;
+house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust
+embrace the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of
+ungovernable passion and criminal depravity. The proportions
+in which these three categories are manifested have been
+worked out in England and Wales to give the following figures.
+The percentage in any 100,000 of the population is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crimes of malice</td> <td class="tcc">15%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crimes of greed</td> <td class="tcc">75%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crimes of lust</td> <td class="tcc">10%</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The members of these categories do not form distinct classes;
+their crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime
+in many is progressive and passes through all the stages from
+minor offences to the worst crimes. Murder&mdash;the culminating
+point of malice&mdash;is constantly preceded by petty larceny; theft
+by forcible entry; and robbery is associated with violence and
+armed resistance to capture. Criminality rising into its highest
+development shows itself under many forms. It is instinctive,
+passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the outcome
+of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense.
+The causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive
+is idleness, leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily
+acquired without the labour of continuous effort. To deprive
+the more industrious or more happily placed of their hard-won
+earnings or possessions, inspires the bulk of modern serious
+crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar feature in modern
+crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out. The
+greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies
+are planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole
+is worked by wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals.</p>
+
+<p>Other features of modern crime are especially interesting.
+It is extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years
+commit murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met
+with as professional thieves. Again, the comparative proportions
+of crime in the two sexes may be considered. Everywhere
+women are less criminal than men. Naturally they have fewer
+facilities for committing crimes of violence, although they have
+offences peculiar to their sex, such as infanticide, and are more
+frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70% against 30%.
+Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm fix the
+percentage of female criminals at 3% in Japan, the East generally,
+South America and some parts of North America. In
+some states of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20%;
+in Europe generally it varies between 10% and 21%. In France
+the proportion of accused women is fifteen to eighty-five men.
+In Great Britain it is now one in four, but has been less. The total
+sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and imprisonment
+was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up
+by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is
+that one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already
+been convicted from eleven to twenty times. It has been well
+said from the above proportions that women are less criminal
+according to the figures, because when a woman wants a crime
+committed she can generally find a man to do it for her.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react
+upon the criminality of the country; whether, in other words,
+severity of treatment <i>deters</i>, while milder methods encourage the
+wrongdoers to despise the penalties imposed by the law.
+Evidence for and against the verdict may be drawn from the
+whole civilized world. In England, as judged by the increase
+or decrease of the prison population, it might be supposed that
+the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing crime.
+Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers
+because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable
+increase in the number of crimes and proportionately of those
+imprisoned. The figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in
+criminality for that year as compared with the years immediately
+preceding. The proportion of indictable offences had increased
+in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494 in 1899, or in the proportion
+of 171.01 per 100,000 of the population as against 158.97, a very
+marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless the figures for
+1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on eight
+occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were
+available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the
+quinquennial period 1860-1864 the annual average was 280 per
+100,000 as compared with 171.01 for 1906 and 175 for the quinquennial
+period 1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and
+while offences against property have increased, those against the
+person have constantly fallen. Quite half the whole number
+of crimes were committed by old offenders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Recidivism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other
+countries, but some authentic figures may be quoted for France,
+where the number of thefts increased while offences against the
+person diminished. In Belgium there has been a satisfactory
+decrease in recent years. In Prussia the prison population has
+on the whole increased, but there has been a slight diminution
+in more serious crime. Some very noticeable figures are forthcoming
+from the United States, and comparison is possible of
+the relative amount of crime in the two countries, America and
+England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is
+much to be regretted. On the general question serious crime
+in the ten years between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while
+petty crime was very considerably less during the period.
+Charges for homicide have been much more numerous. There
+were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9.1 to 100,000 of the population;
+but in 1890 these offences rose to 7351, or a ratio of 11.7. Comparing
+America with England, it has been calculated in round
+numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general population
+was in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England
+1 to every 1764 persons. As regards the more serious crimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span>
+the number in English convict prisons was as 1 to 10,000, and
+in the American state prisons (the corresponding institutions)
+the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the lesser prisons, <i>i.e.</i> the
+English local prisons and the American city or county gaols,
+the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1
+to 2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that
+much of the crime in America is attributable to the preponderance
+of foreign immigrants, but the ratio of native born prisoners is
+that of 1237 to the million, of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the
+million.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A. MacDonald, <i>Criminology</i> (New York, 1893);
+A. Drähms, <i>The Criminal</i> (New York, 1900); E. Ferri, <i>La Sociologie
+criminelle</i>, trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905); all these contain extensive
+bibliographies. See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminology</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. G.)</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMEA<a name="ar267" id="ar267"></a></span> (ancient <i>Tauris</i> or Tauric Chersonese, called by the
+Russians by the Tatar name <i>Krym</i> or <i>Crim</i>), a peninsula on the
+north side of the Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government
+of Taurida, with the mainland of which it is connected
+by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m. across). It is rudely rhomboid
+in shape, the angles being directed towards the cardinal points,
+and measures 200 m. between 44° 23&prime; and 46° 10&prime; N., and 110 m.
+between 32° 30&prime; and 36° 40&prime; E. Its area is 9700 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east,
+where is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated
+from the Sea of Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are
+broken by several bays and harbours&mdash;on the west side of the
+Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of Karkinit; on the south-west
+by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores of which the allies
+landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria, Sevastopol and
+Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the
+Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or
+Feodosiya (Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south
+side of the same. The south-east coast is flanked at a distance
+of 5 to 8 m. from the sea by a parallel range of mountains, the
+Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow mountains, and these are backed,
+inland, by secondary parallel ranges; but 75% of the remaining
+area consists of high arid prairie lands, a southward continuation
+of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently north-westwards from
+the foot of the Yaila-dagh. The main range of these mountains
+shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of
+the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at
+the south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc.
+<i>Parthenium</i>), supposed to have been crowned by the temple
+of Artemis in which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On
+the higher parts of this range are numerous flat mountain pastures
+(Turk, <i>yailas</i>), which, except for their scantier vegetation, are
+analogous to the <i>almen</i> of the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by
+various passes (<i>bogaz</i>), of which only six are available as carriage
+roads. The most conspicuous summits in this range are the
+Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh (5060 ft.),
+Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The second
+parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft.,
+likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle
+slope towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands
+of small caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and
+several rivers pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley,
+10 to 12 m. wide, separates this range from the main range,
+while another valley 2 to 3 m. across separates it from the third
+parallel range, which reaches altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft.
+Evidences of a fourth and still lower ridge can be traced towards
+the south-west.</p>
+
+<p>A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable,
+leap down the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring,
+<i>e.g.</i> the Chernaya, Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea,
+and the Salghir, with its affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash
+lagoon.</p>
+
+<p>In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differences
+between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral,
+with the slopes of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former,
+although grasses and Liliaceae grow on them in great variety
+and luxuriance in the early spring, become completely parched
+up by July and August, while the air is then filled with clouds
+of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms, hailstorms
+and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this
+region produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports
+numbers of cattle, sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are,
+however, impregnated with salt, or studded with saline lakes;
+there nothing grows except the usual species of <i>Artemisia</i> and
+<i>Salsola</i>. As a rule water can only be obtained from wells sunk
+200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now being bored
+in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered
+numerous <i>kurgans</i> or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians.
+The picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-dagh
+is of an altogether different character. Here the narrow
+strip of coast and the slopes of the mountains are smothered
+with greenery. This Russian Riviera stretches all along the
+south-east coast from Cape Sarych (extreme S.) to Feodosiya
+(Theodosia), and is studded with summer sea-bathing resorts&mdash;Alupka,
+Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia. Numerous
+Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian
+imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of
+ancient Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling
+to the acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel
+and other nuts, the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs,
+olives and pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco
+plantations, and gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while
+the higher slopes of the mountains are thickly clothed with
+forests of oak, beech, elm, pines, firs and other Coniferae. Here
+have become acclimatized, and grow in the open air, such plants
+as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias, myrtles, camellias,
+mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover over
+19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3½ million gallons annually)
+enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in
+abundance. In some winters the tops of the mountains are
+covered with snow, but snow seldom falls to the south of them,
+and ice, too, is rarely seen in the same districts. The heat of
+summer is moderated by breezes off the sea, and the nights
+are cool and serene; the winters are mild and healthy. Fever
+and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts for a few weeks in
+autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April and May,
+but seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between
+the different parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following
+data: annual mean, at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop,
+48° Fahr.; at Simferopol, just within the mountains, 50°; at
+Yalta, on the south-east coast, 56.5°; the respective January
+means being 20°, 31° and 39.5°, and the July means 74°, 70°
+and 75.5°. The rainfall is small all over the peninsula, the
+annual average on the steppes being 13.8 in., at Simferopol 17.5,
+and at Yalta 18 in. It varies greatly, however, from year to
+year; thus at Simferopol it ranges between the extremes of
+7.5 and 26.4 in.</p>
+
+<p>Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned,
+are salt, porphyry and limestone, and ironstone has recently
+been brought to light at Kerch. Fish abound all round the
+coast, such as red and grey mullet, herring, mackerel, turbot,
+soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock, pilchard, a species of
+pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon. Manufacturing
+industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills, ironworks,
+jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The
+Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially
+in the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming
+from Kharkov, crosses the peninsula from north to south,
+terminating at Sevastopol and sending off branch lines to
+Theodosia and Kerch.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are
+racially modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic
+elements. The remainder of the population is made up of
+Russians, Germans, Karaite Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians.
+The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom only 150,000 lived in
+the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of note, in
+addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and Bakhchisarai,
+the old Tatar capital.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any
+authentic traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span>
+by the Scythians during the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A remnant, who
+took refuge in the mountains, became known subsequently as
+the Tauri. In that same century Greek colonists began to settle
+on the coasts, <i>e.g.</i> Dorians from Heraclea at Chersonesus, and
+Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum (also
+called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the archon
+or ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus,
+a state which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying
+that city with wheat and other commodities. The last of these
+kings, Paerisades V., being hard pressed by the Scythians, put
+himself under the protection of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus,
+in 114 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After the death of this latter sovereign his son
+Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered to the Romans
+in their war against his father, was (63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) invested by Pompey
+with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was once more
+restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a
+tributary state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries
+the Crimea was overrun or occupied successively by the Goths
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250), the Huns (376), the Khazars (8th century), the
+Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050), and the Mongols
+(1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or seized
+the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on
+the Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria,
+Cembalo (Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia),
+flourishing trading towns, which existed down to the conquest
+of the peninsula by the Ottoman Turks in 1475. Meanwhile
+the Tatars had got a firm footing in the northern and central
+parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th century, and after
+the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they founded
+an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan,
+who is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned
+first at Solkhat (Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th
+century at Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary
+princes of the Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been
+defeated by Suvarov they became dependent upon Russia, and
+finally in 1783 the whole of the Crimea was annexed to the
+Russian empire. Since that date the only important phase of its
+history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56, which is treated
+of under a separate article. At various times, <i>e.g.</i> after the
+acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and
+in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in
+large numbers to the Ottoman empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Antiquités du Bosphore cimmérien</i> (3 vols., St Petersburg,
+1854); C. Bossoll, <i>The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea</i> (52 large
+drawings, London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, <i>Notices hist. et topogr.
+concernant les colonies italiennes en Gazarie</i> (St Petersburg, 1866);
+J. B. Telfer, <i>The Crimea and Transcaucasia</i> (2 vols., London, 2nd ed.,
+1877); F. Remy, <i>Die Krim in ethnographischer, landschaftlicher und
+hygienischer Beziehung</i> (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-Purgstall,
+<i>Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft</i>
+(Vienna, 1856); M. G. Canale, <i>Della Crimea e dei suoi dominatori
+dalle sue origini fino al trattato di Parigi</i> (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-1856);
+and Sir Evelyn Wood, <i>The Crimea in 1854 and 1894</i> (London,
+1895). (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bosporus Cimmerius</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMEAN WAR.<a name="ar268" id="ar268"></a></span> The war of 1853-56, usually known by
+this name, arose from causes the discussion of which will be
+found under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: <i>History</i>. When Turkey,
+after a period of irregular fighting, declared war on Russia in
+October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently assisted
+by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this intervention
+was represented merely by the presence of an allied squadron
+in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great
+Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at
+Sinope (30th November) soon impelled these powers to more
+active measures. On the 27th of January 1854 they declared
+war on the tsar, and prepared to carry their armaments to the
+Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war, the Turks had
+hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The
+Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed
+the Pruth with two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun
+Moldavia and Wallachia without difficulty. Omar Pasha,
+however, disposing of superior forces, was able to check any
+further advance. During October, November and December
+the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at Oltenitza
+(Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later
+Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati)
+before reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained
+was for the time being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months
+later, the Russians, now under command of the veteran Prince
+Paskievich, took the offensive in great force. Crossing the
+Danube near its mouth at Galatz and Braila, they advanced
+through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of Silistria,
+which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect all
+the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported
+by the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented
+a close investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive
+encounter, and the stormers stood ready in the trenches before
+Silistria, when the siege was suddenly raised. The decision had
+passed into other hands. The tsar had learned that the Austrian
+army of observation in Transylvania, 50,000 strong under
+Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the wishes of the
+&ldquo;Four Powers.&rdquo; The Russian offensive was at an end, the
+army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last
+man recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once
+occupied by Hess.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:517px; height:589px" src="images/img450.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>The Invasion of the Crimea.</i>&mdash;The primary object of the war
+had thus easily been obtained. But Great Britain and France
+were by no means content with a triumph that left untouched
+the vast resources of an enemy who was certain to employ them
+at the next opportunity. The two nations felt that Sevastopol,
+the home of the Black Sea fleet, the port whence Admiral
+Nachimov had sailed for Sinope, must be crippled for some years
+at least, and as early as June 29th Lord Raglan and Marshal
+Saint Arnaud, the allied commanders of England and France,
+had received instructions to &ldquo;concert measures for the siege
+of Sevastopol.&rdquo; Dynastic considerations reinforced the arguments
+of policy and popular opinion in the case of France; in
+Great Britain soldier and civilian alike saw the menace of a
+Russian Mediterranean fleet in the unfinished forts and busy
+dockyards. The popular strategy for once coincided with the
+views of the responsible leaders. Yet there is no sign that
+either the commanders on the spot or their governments realized
+the magnitude of the undertaking. Few but the most urgently
+necessary preparations were made, and cholera, breaking out
+virulently amongst the French at this time, reduced the army
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+at Varna, and even the fleet at sea, to impotence. The troops
+were so weakened that, even in September, the five-mile march
+from camp to transport exhausted most of the men. Heavy
+weather still further delayed the start, and it was not until
+the 7th of September that the expedition began to cross the
+Black Sea. One hundred and fifty war-vessels and transports
+conveyed the army, which, guarded on all sides by the fighting
+fleet, crossed without incident and drew up on the Crimean coast
+on September 13th. Tactical considerations prevailed in the
+choice of place. The landlocked harbours south of Sevastopol
+were for the time being neglected, and a spot known as Old
+Fort preferred, because the long beach, the heavy metal of the
+ships&rsquo; broadsides, and a line of lagoons covering the front
+offered singularly favourable conditions for the delicate operation
+of disembarkation. Still, on this side of Sevastopol there was
+no good harbour, and it is quite open to question whether in
+this case the strategic necessities of the situation were not
+neglected in favour of purely tactical and temporary advantages.
+As a matter of fact no opposition was offered to the landing,
+but the weather prevented the disembarkation being completed
+until the 18th. St Arnaud and Raglan had at this time under
+their orders 51,000 British, French and Turkish infantry, 1000
+British cavalry, and 128 guns, and on the 19th this force (less
+some detachments) began the southward march in order of
+battle, the British (who alone had their cavalry present) on the
+exposed left flank, the French next the sea, the fleet moving
+in the same direction parallel to the troops.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Alma.</i>&mdash;Old Fort was beyond the reach of Menshikov,
+the Russian commander, but, as the fortress communicated with
+the interior of Russia via Kerch and Simferopol, it was to be
+expected that he would either accept battle on the Sevastopol
+road, or cover Simferopol by a flank attack on Lord Raglan.
+Both these contingencies were provided for by the order of
+march, and in due course it was ascertained that the Russians
+adopted the former alternative, and barred the Sevastopol road
+on the heights of the river Alma. Menaced by the guns of the
+fleet, Menshikov had wheeled back his left, and at the same time
+he strengthened his right in order to cover the Simferopol road.
+From this it followed naturally that the brunt of the attack fell
+upon the British divisions, whilst the French, nearer the sea,
+struck to some extent <i>dans le vide</i>. The two commanders, after
+a reconnaissance, decided upon their plan. The French divisions
+in echelon from the right were to cross the river and force Menshikov
+inwards, whilst the British were to move straight to their
+front against the strongest part of the Russian line. Substantially
+this plan was carried out on the 20th of September. Owing to
+want of men (he had but 36,400 against over 50,000) Menshikov
+was unable to hold his left wing very strongly, and the French
+were scarcely checked save by physical obstacles; but opposite
+the British force the ground sloped glacis-wise up to the Russian
+line, and nothing but their iron discipline, the best heritage of
+the Peninsular War, brought them victorious to the crest of
+Kurghane hill. The Russians had no option but to retreat,
+which they did without molestation. The allies lost about 3000
+men, mostly British (though Prince Napoleon&rsquo;s men also suffered
+heavily); the Russians reported 5709 casualties.</p>
+
+<p><i>The March on Sevastopol.</i>&mdash;On the 23rd of September the
+advance was resumed, and by the 25th Sevastopol was in full
+view of the allied outposts. It was now that the necessary
+consequences of the choice of Old Fort as the landing-place
+presented themselves as a problem for instant solution. Whatever
+chance there had been of assaulting the north side of
+Sevastopol was now gone. Menshikov had sacrificed some ships
+in order to seal up the harbour mouth, and naval co-operation
+in attack was now impossible, while the other Russian ships
+could in safety aid the defenders with their heavy guns. A
+siege, based on the beach of Old Fort or the open roads of
+Kacha, was out of the question, as was re-embarkation for a
+fresh landing. There remained only a flank march by Mackenzie&rsquo;s
+farm and the river Chernaya. Once established on the south
+side, the allies could use the excellent harbours of Kamiesh
+and Balaklava; this could almost certainly be effected without
+fighting, while in besieging Sevastopol itself and not merely
+the north side, the allies would be striking at the heart. But
+a flank march is almost always in itself a hazardous undertaking,
+and in this case the invaders were required further to abandon
+their line of retreat on Old Fort. In point of fact, the army,
+covered by a division opposite the Russian works, successfully
+accomplished the task. At the same moment Menshikov, after
+providing for the defence of Sevastopol, had marched out with
+a field army towards Bakhchiserai, and on the 25th of September
+each army, without knowing it, actually crossed the other&rsquo;s
+front. On arrival at Balaklava the allies regained contact with
+the fleet, and the detachment left on the north side, its mission
+being at an end, followed the same route and rejoined the main
+body. The French now took possession of Kamiesh, the British
+of Balaklava.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:522px; height:448px" src="images/img451.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Beginning of the Siege.</i>&mdash;Thus secured, the allies closed upon
+the south side of the fortress. A siege corps was formed, and the
+British army and General Bosquet&rsquo;s French corps covered its
+operations against interruption from the Russian field army.
+The harbour of Sevastopol, formed by the estuary of the Chernaya,
+was protected against attack by sea not only by the Russian
+war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by heavy granite forts
+on the south side and by the works which had defied the allies on
+the north. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb
+the trace of the works had been laid down for years. The
+Malakoff, a great tower of stone, covered the suburb, flanked
+on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town
+was covered by a line of works marked by the Flagstaff and
+central bastions, and separated from the Redan by the inner
+harbour. Lieut.-Col. Todleben, the Russian chief engineer,
+had very early begun work on these sites, and daily re-creating,
+rearming and improving the fortifications, finally connected
+them by a continuous enceinte. Yet Sevastopol was not, early
+in October 1854, the towering fortress it afterwards became,
+and Todleben himself maintained that, had the allies immediately
+assaulted, they would have succeeded in taking the place.
+There were, however, many reasons against so decided a course,
+and it was not until the 17th of October that the first attack
+took place. All that day a tremendous artillery duel raged.
+The French siege corps lost heavily and its guns were overpowered.
+The fleet engaged the harbour batteries close inshore, and
+suffered a loss of 500 men, besides severe damage to the ships.
+On the other hand the British siege batteries silenced the Malakoff
+and its annexes, and, if failure had not occurred at the other
+points of attack, an assault might have succeeded. As it was,
+Todleben, by daybreak, had repaired and improved the damaged
+works. Meanwhile General Canrobert had succeeded St Arnaud
+(who died on the 29th of September) in the joint leadership of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span>
+the allies. It was not long before Menshikov and the now
+augmented field army from Bakhchiserai appeared on the
+Chernaya and moved towards the Balaklava lines and the British
+base.</p>
+
+<p><i>Balaklava.</i>&mdash;A long line of works on the upland secured the
+siege corps from interference, and the Balaklava lines themselves
+were strong, but the low Vorontsov ridge between the two was
+weakly held, and here the Russian commander hoped to sever
+the line of communications. On the 25th of October Liprandi&rsquo;s
+corps carried its slight redoubts at the first rush. But the British
+cavalry stationed at the foot of the upland was situated on their
+flank, and as the Russian cavalry moved towards Kadikoï, the
+&ldquo;Heavy Brigade&rdquo; under General Scarlett charged home with
+such effect that Menshikov&rsquo;s troopers only rallied behind their
+field batteries near Traktir bridge. At the same time some of the
+Russian squadrons, coming upon the British 93rd regiment
+outside the Balaklava lines, were completely broken by the steady
+volleys of the &ldquo;thin red line.&rdquo; The &ldquo;Light Brigade&rdquo; of British
+cavalry, farther north, had hitherto remained inactive, even
+when the Russians, broken by the &ldquo;Heavies,&rdquo; fled across their
+front. The cavalry commander, Lord Lucan, now received
+orders to prevent the withdrawal of the guns taken by Liprandi.
+The aide-de-camp who carried the order was killed by the first
+shell, and the whole question of responsibility for what followed
+is wrapped in obscurity. Lord Cardigan led the Light Brigade
+straight at the Russian field batteries, behind which the enemy&rsquo;s
+squadrons had re-formed. From the guns in front, on the
+Fedukhin heights, and on the captured ridge to their right,
+the advancing squadrons at once met a deadly converging fire,
+but the gallant troopers nevertheless reached the guns and cut
+down the artillerymen. Small parties even charged the cavalry
+behind, and at least two unbroken squadrons struck out right and
+left with success, but the combat could only end in one way.
+The 4th Chasseurs d&rsquo;Afrique relieved the British left by a dashing
+charge. The &ldquo;Heavies&rdquo; made as if to advance, but came under
+such a storm of fire that they were withdrawn. By twos and
+threes the gallant survivors of the &ldquo;Light Brigade&rdquo; made their
+way back. Two-thirds of its numbers were left on the field, and
+the day closed with the Russians still in possession of the
+Vorontsov ridge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inkerman.</i>&mdash;If the heights lost in this action were not absolutely
+essential to the safety of the allies, the point selected for the
+next attempt at relief was of vital importance. The junction
+of the covering army and the siege corps near Inkerman was the
+scene of a slight action on the day following Balaklava, and
+the battle of Inkerman followed on the 5th of November. By
+that time the French had made good the losses of the 17th of
+October, their approaches were closing upon Flagstaff bastion,
+and the British batteries daily maintained their superiority
+over the Malakoff. On the 5th there was to have been a meeting
+of generals to fix the details of an assault, but at dawn the
+Russian army, now heavily reinforced from Odessa, was attacking
+with the utmost fury the British divisions guarding the angle
+between Bosquet and the siege corps. The battle of Inkerman
+defies description; every regiment, every group of men bore its
+own separate part in the confused and doubtful struggle, save
+when leaders on either side obtained a momentary control over
+its course by means of reserves which, carrying all before them
+with their original impetus, soon served but to swell the mêlée.
+It was a &ldquo;soldiers&rsquo; battle&rdquo; pure and simple. After many
+hours of the most desperate fighting the arrival of Bosquet
+(hitherto contained by a force on the Balaklava ground) confirmed
+a success won by supreme tenacity against overwhelming
+odds, and Menshikov sullenly drew off his men, leaving over
+12,000 on the field. The allies had lost about 3300 men, of
+whom more than two-thirds belonged to the small British force
+on which the strain of the battle fell heaviest. Their losses
+included several generals who could ill be spared, but they had
+held their ground, which was all that was required of them, with
+almost unrivalled tenacity. Lord Raglan was promoted to be
+field marshal after the battle.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Winter of 1854-1855.</i>&mdash;It was now obvious that the army
+must winter in the Crimea, and preparations in view of this
+were begun betimes. But on the night of November 14th a
+violent storm arose which wrecked nearly thirty vessels with
+their precious cargoes of treasure, medical comforts, forage,
+clothing and other necessaries. After so grave a calamity it
+was to be expected that the troops would be called upon to
+undergo great hardships. But the direct cause of sufferings
+that have become a byword for the utmost depths of misery
+was the loss of twenty days&rsquo; forage in the great storm. Of food
+and clothing enough was in store to tide over temporary difficulties,
+but the only paved road from Balaklava to the British
+camps was now in Russian hands, and the few starving transport
+animals were utterly inadequate for the work of drawing wagons
+over the miry plain; things went from bad to worse with Raglan&rsquo;s
+troops, until from the outposts before the Redan to the hospitals
+at Scutari a state of the utmost misery prevailed, relieved only
+by the example of devotion and self-sacrifice set by officers and
+men. The British hospital returns showed eight thousand sick
+at the end of November. Even the French, whose base of
+Kamiesh had escaped the storm, were not unhurt by the severity
+of the winter, but Napoleon III. sent freely all the men his
+general asked, while the Russians in Sevastopol, who had made
+long painful marches from the interior, were the survivors of
+the fittest. Canrobert took over the lines before the Malakoff
+to relieve the British. He had at the end of January 1855
+78,000 men for duty; Raglan could barely muster 12,000. But,
+with the advent of spring, paved roads and a railway were
+promptly taken in hand, and during the remainder of the war
+the British troops were so well cared for that their death-rate
+was lower than at home, while the hospitals in rear, thanks to
+the energy and devotion of Florence Nightingale and her nurses,
+became models of good management.</p>
+
+<p><i>Course of the Siege.</i>&mdash;Meanwhile the siege works were making
+but slow progress, and the fortress grew day by day under the
+skilful direction of Todleben. Rifle-pits pushed out in front of
+the defenders&rsquo; lines were connected so as to form a veritable
+envelope. Beyond the left wing a new line, the &ldquo;White Works,&rdquo;
+sprang up in a single night, and the hill of the Mamelon was
+suddenly crowned with a lunette to cover the still defiant
+Malakoff. But the absence of bomb-proof cover exposed the
+huge working parties necessary for these defences to an almost
+incessant <i>feu d&rsquo;enfer</i>, by which the Russians every week suffered
+the losses of a pitched battle. Meanwhile the field army was
+idle, Menshikov had been replaced by Prince Michael Gorchakov,
+Liprandi&rsquo;s corps had withdrawn from the Vorontsov ridge, and
+Omar Pasha, with a detachment of the troops he had led at
+Oltenitza and Cetatea, repulsed a Russian attack on Eupatoria
+(Feb. 17th). The besiegers steadily approached the White
+Works, Mamelon, Redan and Flagstaff bastion, and as spring
+arrived the logistic and material advantages of the allies returned.
+On Easter Sunday (April 8th, 1855) another terrific bombardment
+began, which lasted almost uninterruptedly for ten days. The
+White Works and the Mamelon were practically destroyed,
+and the Russians, drawn up in momentary expectation of
+assault, lost between six and seven thousand men.</p>
+
+<p>But the bombardment ceased, and assault did not follow.
+For, at the allied headquarters and at Paris, grave differences
+of opinion on the conduct of the war had developed. Napoleon
+III. wished active operations to be undertaken against the
+Simferopol field army, whereas the leaders on the spot, while
+admitting the theoretical soundness of the French emperor&rsquo;s
+views, considered that they were wholly beyond the means of
+the two armies. The discussions culminated in Canrobert&rsquo;s
+resignation of the chief command, though he would not leave
+the army, and took a subordinate post, which he filled with great
+distinction to the end of the war. His successor, General
+Pélissier, was a soldier trained in the hard school of Algerian
+warfare, and endowed, as was soon evident, with the most
+inflexible resolution of character. He did not hesitate to take up
+and maintain a position of decided opposition to his sovereign&rsquo;s
+views; and the capture of Kerch (24th May 1855), carried out
+by a joint expedition, was the first earnest of new vigour in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+operations. This success served all the purposes of a complete
+investment of Sevastopol, the want of which had greatly troubled
+the allied generals. The line of communication and supply
+between Sevastopol and the interior was cut, vast stores intended
+for the fortress were destroyed, and the sea of Azov was cleared
+of shipping. On the 25th Canrobert established himself on the
+Fedukhin heights, his right continued along the Chernaya by
+General la Marmora&rsquo;s newly arrived Sardinians, 15,000 strong,
+while masses of Turks occupied the Vorontsov ridge and the
+old Balaklava battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>As June approached, Raglan and Pélissier, who, unlike most
+allied commanders, were in complete accord and sympathy,
+initiated very vigorous methods of attack. They decided that
+the works west of Flagstaff could be comparatively neglected,
+and the full weight of the bombardment once more fell upon
+the Mamelon and the Malakoff. Once more these works were
+reduced to ruins, but the rest of the defences still held out.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Assault of the Redan.</i>&mdash;On the 7th of June 1855 the French
+stormed the Mamelon and the White Works, the British captured
+and maintained some quarries close to the Redan, and next
+morning the whole of Todleben&rsquo;s envelope had become a siege-parallel.
+The losses were, as usual, heavy, 8500 to the Russians,
+6883 to the allies. This was merely a preliminary to the great
+assault fixed for the 18th, the fortieth anniversary of Waterloo.
+But meanwhile Pélissier&rsquo;s temper and Raglan&rsquo;s health had been
+strained to breaking-point by continued dissensions with Paris
+and London. The telegraph, a new strategic factor, daily
+tormented the unfortunate commanders with the latest ideas
+of the Paris strategists, and on the fateful day the two armies
+rushed on to failure. The French attack on the Malakoff
+dwindled away into a meaningless fire-fight: the British,
+attacking the Redan in face of a cross-fire of one hundred heavy
+guns, at first succeeded in entering the work, but in the end
+sustained a bloody and disastrous repulse. Of the six generals
+who led the two attacks, four were killed and one wounded, and
+on the 17th and 18th the losses to the Russians were 5400, to the
+allies 4000. But the defenders&rsquo; resources were almost at an end,
+and the bombardment reopened at once with increased fury.
+On the 20th Todleben was wounded, and soon afterwards
+Nakhimov, the victor of Sinope, found a grave by the side of
+three other admirals who had fallen in the defence. Pélissier
+resolutely clung to his plans, in spite of the failure of the 18th,
+against ever-increasing opposition at home. Raglan, worn out
+by his troubles and heartbroken at the Redan failure, died on
+the 28th, mourned by none more deeply than by his stern
+colleague.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Storming of the Malakoff.</i>&mdash;During July the Russians lost
+on an average 250 men a day, and at last it was decided that
+Gorchakov and the field army must make another attack at the
+Chernaya&mdash;the first since Inkerman. On the 16th of August
+the corps of Generals Liprandi and Read furiously attacked the
+37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights above Traktir
+Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest determination,
+but the result was never for one moment doubtful. At the end
+of the day the Russians drew off baffled, leaving 260 officers and
+8000 men on the field. The allies only lost 1700. With this
+defeat vanished the last chance of saving Sevastopol. On the
+same day (Aug. 16th) the bombardment once more reduced the
+Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with
+absolute confidence in the result that Pélissier planned the final
+assault. On the 8th of September 1855 at noon, the whole of
+Bosquet&rsquo;s corps suddenly swarmed up to the Malakoff. The
+fighting was of the most desperate kind. Every casemate, every
+traverse, was taken and retaken time after time, but the French
+maintained the prize, and though the British attack on the
+Redan once more failed, the Russians crowded in that work
+became at once the helpless target of the siege guns. Even on
+the far left, opposite Flagstaff and Central bastions, there was
+severe hand-to-hand fighting, and throughout the day the bombardment
+mowed down the Russian masses along the whole line.
+The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege. All night the
+Russians were filing over the bridges to the north side, and on
+the 9th the victors took possession of the empty and burning
+prize. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy, to
+the allies over 10,000 men, to the Russians 13,000. No less than
+nineteen generals had fallen on that day. But the crisis was
+surmounted. With the capture of Sevastopol the war loses its
+absorbing interest. No serious operations were undertaken
+against Gorchakov, who with the field army and the remnant of
+the garrison held the heights at Mackenzie&rsquo;s Farm. But Kinburn
+was attacked by sea, and from the naval point of view the attack
+is interesting as being the first instance of the employment of
+ironclads. An armistice was agreed upon on the 26th of February
+and the definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 30th of March
+1856.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decisive Importance of the Victory.</i>&mdash;The importance of the
+siege of Sevastopol, from the strategical point of view, lies
+beneath the surface. It may well be asked, why did the fall of a
+place, at first almost unfortified, bring the master of the Russian
+empire to his knees? At first sight Russia would seem to be
+almost invulnerable to a sea power, and no first success, however
+crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed the capture
+of Sevastopol in October 1854 would have been far from decisive
+of the war, but once the tsar had decided to defend to the last
+this arsenal, the necessity for which he was in the best position
+to appreciate, the factor of unlimited resources operated in the
+allies&rsquo; favour. The sea brought to the invaders whatever they
+needed, whilst the desert tracks of southern Russia were marked
+at every step with the corpses of men and horses who had fallen
+on the way to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications,
+which, daily crushed by the fire of a thousand guns, had
+to be re-created every night, made huge and therefore unprotected
+working parties necessary, and the losses were correspondingly
+heavy. The double cause of loss completely exhausted even
+Russia&rsquo;s resources, and, when large bodies of militia appeared
+in line of battle at Traktir Bridge, it was obvious that the end
+was at hand. The novels of Tolstoy give a graphic picture of the
+war from the Russian point of view; the miseries of the desert
+march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the
+almost daily ordeal of manning the lines under shell-fire to meet an
+assault that might or might not come; and no student of the
+siege can leave it without feeling the profoundest respect for the
+courage, discipline and stubborn loyalty of the defenders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minor Operations.</i>&mdash;A few words may be added on the minor
+operations of the war. The Asiatic frontier was the scene of
+severe fighting between the Turks and the Russians. Hindered
+at first by Shamyl and his Caucasian mountaineers, the Russians
+stood on the defensive during 1853, but next year they took the
+offensive, and, while their coast column won an action on the 16th
+of June at the river Churuk, another force from Erivan gained an
+important success on the Araxes and took Bayazid, and General
+Bebutov completely defeated a Turkish column from Kars at
+Kuruk Dere (July 31st, 1854). Next year Count Muraviev
+completely isolated the garrison of Kars, which made a magnificent
+defence, inspired by Fenwick Williams Pasha and other
+British officers. In one assault alone 7000 Russians were killed
+and wounded, and it was not until the 26th of November 1855
+that the fortress was forced to surrender. The naval operations
+in the Baltic furnish many interesting examples for the study
+of naval war. The allied fleet in 1854, after a first repulse,
+succeeded in landing a French force under Baraguay d&rsquo;Hilliers
+before Bomarsund, and the place fell after an eight days&rsquo; siege.
+In 1855 seventy allied warships appeared before Kronstadt,
+which defied them. Reinforced they attacked Sveåborg, but
+after two days&rsquo; fighting had to draw off baffled.</p>
+
+<p>The numbers engaged in the Crimean War and the cost in men
+and money is stated in round numbers below. In May 1855 the
+Crimean theatre of war occupied 174,500 allies (of whom 32,000
+were British) and 170,000 Russians. The losses in battle were:
+allies 70,000 men, Russians 128,700; and the total losses, from
+all causes and in all theatres of the war: allies 252,600 (including
+45,000 English), Russians 256,000 men (Berndt, <i>Die Zahl im
+Kriege</i>, p. 35). In the siege of Sevastopol the Russians are stated
+by Berndt to have lost 102,670 men dead, wounded and missing.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span>
+Mulhall (<i>Dict. of Statistics</i>, 1903 ed., pp. 586-587) gives much
+greater losses to each of the four powers principally engaged.
+The cost of the war in money is stated by Mulhall to have been
+£69,000,000 to Great Britain, £93,000,000 to France, £142,000,000
+to Russia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Of the many works on the Crimean War those of
+the greatest value are the following. English: the official work on
+the <i>Siege of Sebastopol</i>; A. W. Kinglake, <i>The Invasion of the Crimea</i>
+(London, 1863; &ldquo;Student&rsquo;s edition&rdquo; by Sir G. S. Clarke); Sir E. B.
+Hamley, <i>The War in the Crimea</i> (London, 1891); (Sir) W. H. Russell,
+<i>The War in the Crimea</i> (London, 1855-1856); Sir Evelyn Wood,
+<i>The Crimea in 1854 and in 1894</i> (London, 1895); Sir D. Lysons,
+<i>The Crimean War from First to Last</i> (London, 1895); Col. A. Lake,
+<i>The Defence of Kars</i> (London, 1857). French: Official, <i>Guerre de
+l&rsquo;Orient, Hist. de l&rsquo;artillerie</i> (Paris, 1859); (Marshal Niel), <i>Siège de
+Sébastopol</i> (official account of engineer operations, Paris, 1858), and
+<i>Atlas historique et topographique de la guerre de Crimée</i> (see also the
+map of Russia by the French staff, sheets 56 and 57); Baron C. de
+Bazancourt, <i>L&rsquo;Expédition de Crimée</i> (Paris, 1856); C. Rousset,
+<i>Histoire de la guerre de Crimée</i> (Paris, 1877). Russian: the work of
+Todleben, <i>Die Vertheidigung von Sevastopol</i> (St. Petersburg, 1864);
+<i>Défense de Sébastopol</i> (St Petersburg, 1863); Anitschkoff, <i>Feldzug in
+der Krim</i> (German trans., Berlin, 1857); Bogdanovitch, <i>Der Orientkrieg</i>
+(St Petersburg, 1876); Petroff, <i>Der Donaufeldzug Russlands
+gegen Türkei</i> (German trans., Berlin, 1891). Of German works the
+most useful are: Kunz, <i>Die Schlachten und Treffen des Krimkrieges</i>
+(Berlin, 1889); <i>Der Feldzug in der Krim; Sammlung der Berichte
+beider Parteien</i> (Leipzig, 1855-1856).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMINAL LAW.<a name="ar269" id="ar269"></a></span> By criminal, or penal, law is now understood
+the law as to the definition, trial and punishment of crimes,
+<i>i.e.</i> of acts or omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously
+public rights, or constitute a breach of duties due to the whole
+community. The sovereign is taken to be the person injured by
+the crime, as he represents the whole community, and prosecutions
+are in his name. Criminal law includes the rules as to the
+prevention, the investigation, prosecution and punishment of
+crime (<i>q.v.</i>). It lays down what constitutes a criminal offence,
+what proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal offence
+and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or justification
+for the act or omission can be legally admitted, what procedure
+should be followed in a criminal court, what degrees and kinds
+of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which
+come up for trial. Finally, it regulates the constitution of the
+tribunals established for the trial of offences according to the
+gravity of the infraction of law, and deals with the organization
+of the police and the proper management of prisons, and the
+maintenance of prison discipline. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Evidence</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prison</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Police</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and
+classified as offences and punished by fine or imprisonment,
+cannot be said to have a strictly criminal character, since they
+do not fall within the popular conception of crime. To this class
+belong such matters as stopping up a highway under claim of
+right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a chimney to emit
+black smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch fire from being
+unswept, or breach of building by-laws, or driving a motor car
+on a highway at a speed in excess of the legal limit. Such breaches
+of law are under the French law described as <i>contraventions</i>.
+In England most of them are described as petty misdemeanours
+or offences punishable on summary conviction, or less happily
+as &ldquo;summary offences,&rdquo; and some writers speak of them as
+<i>mala prohibita</i> as distinguished from <i>mala in se</i>, <i>i.e.</i> as not involving
+any breach of ordinary morality other than a breach of
+positive regulations. Continental jurists at times speak of
+crimes <i>de droit commun</i> (<i>i.e.</i> offences common to all systems
+of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a
+particular municipal law). To this class of crimes <i>de droit commun</i>
+belong most of the offences included in extradition treaties.</p>
+
+<p>Criminal and civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions
+are not only &ldquo;wrongs&rdquo; for which the person injured is entitled
+to recover compensation for his own personal injury or damage,
+but also &ldquo;offences&rdquo; for which the offender may be prosecuted
+and punished in the interest of the state. In non-English
+European systems care is taken to prevent civil remedies from
+being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual for the
+civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, the
+individual appearing as <i>partie civile</i> and receiving an award of
+compensation by the judgment which determines the punishment
+to be inflicted for the offence against the state. Under English
+law it is now exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies
+to be pursued concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to
+award compensation to the injured party in criminal proceedings,
+and he is usually left to seek his remedy by action. Among the
+exceptions are the restitution of stolen goods on conviction
+of the thief if the prosecution has been at the instance or with
+the aid of the owner of the goods (Larceny Act 1861, § 100),
+and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered
+injury to property by felony (Forfeiture Act 1870).</p>
+
+<p>As Sir Henry Maine says (<i>Ancient Law</i>, ed. 1906, p. 381), &ldquo;All
+civilized systems of law agree in drawing a distinction between
+offences against the state or community (crimes or
+<i>crimina</i>) and offences against the individual (wrongs,
+<span class="sidenote">Development of modern criminal law.</span>
+<i>torts</i> or <i>delicta</i>).&rdquo; But the process of historical development
+by which this distinction has been ultimately
+established has given great occasion for study of
+early laws and institutions by eminent men, whose researches
+have disclosed the extremely gradual evolution of the modern
+notion of criminal law enforced by the state from the primitive
+conceptions and customs of barbarous or semi-civilized communities.
+Of the oldest codes or digests of customs which
+are available to the student it has been said the more archaic
+a code the fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this
+penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of
+crimes, but of wrongs. The intervention of the community
+or tribe is in the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged
+person or his family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a
+blood feud and to accept compensation for the wrong collectively
+or individually sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation
+preserved in early laws the importance of the injured person
+was the measure of the compensation or vengeance which he
+was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the scales of punishment
+or compensation are fixed from this point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of Khammurabi (2285-2242), the oldest extant code,
+contain definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments,
+and indicate the existence of tribunals to try the
+offences and to award the appropriate remedy. The
+<span class="sidenote">Babylon.</span>
+punishments are very severe. It is not distinctly indicated
+whether the proceedings were at the instance of the state or
+the person wronged, but compensation and penalty could be
+awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the
+<i>lex talionis</i> and scale of compensation for injuries tend to show
+that the procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf
+of the state (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonian Law</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Of the early criminal laws of Greece only fragments survive,
+<i>e.g.</i> those of Solon and Draco. In Athens in early times crime
+was dealt with in the Areopagus from the point of view
+<span class="sidenote">Greece.</span>
+of religion and by the archons from the point of view of
+compensation: and it was only when the state interests were
+directly affected that proceedings by way of <span class="grk" title="eisangelia">&#949;&#7984;&#963;&#945;&#947;&#947;&#949;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> or
+impeachment were taken. In classical times crimes fell to be
+tried by panels of jurors or judges drawn from the assembly and
+described as <span class="grk" title="dikastêria">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#945;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of
+Rome are to be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII. The
+criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in books 47
+and 48 of the Digest. The classification of crimes
+<span class="sidenote">Rome.</span>
+therein is capricious and anomalous. &ldquo;In the early Roman
+law the idea of legislative power was so fully grasped and that
+of judicial power so little understood that the criminal jurisdiction
+arose in the form of a legislative enactment applicable
+to particular cases.&rdquo; Crimes were classified according to the
+mode of prosecution into:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Publica judicia</i>, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden
+by definite laws, which took the place of the standing commissions
+(<i>quaestiones perpetuae</i>) of the time of the republic.
+In the earlier stages of Roman law the state only interfered to
+punish offences which gravely affected it, and did so by <i>privilegia</i>,
+which correspond to impeachment or Bill of Pains and Penalties.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Extraordinaria crimina</i>, crimes for which no special procedure
+or punishment was provided: the punishment being,
+within limits, left to the discretion of the judge and the
+prosecution to the injured party.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Privata delicta</i>, offences for which a special form of action
+was open to the injured party, <i>e.g. actio furti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced
+under the empire by a complete organization of the judiciary
+throughout the districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the
+emperor in his privy council (see Maine, <i>Ancient Law</i>, ed. 1906,
+p. 393). Public prosecution under the empire began by arrest of
+the accused, who was taken before an <i>eirenarcha</i>, who examined
+him (by torture in the case of a slave or parricide) and sent him
+on for trial before the <i>praeses</i> of the diocese (<span class="grk" title="dioikêsis">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>). Private
+prosecution followed, a procedure closely resembling that of
+civil actions, beginning with <i>citatio</i> (summons), followed by
+<i>libellus</i> or accusation, and appointment of a day for hearing.
+The right of either party to call witnesses was very imperfectly
+established.</p>
+
+<p>The early laws of the Celtic races are preserved as to Wales
+in the laws of Hywel Dda, and as to Ireland in the Book of
+Aicill and other Brehon law tracts, which are professional
+collections of precedents and formulae made
+<span class="sidenote">Celtic law.</span>
+by the hereditary law caste (Brehons), whose business it was
+&ldquo;to pass sentence from precedents and commentaries.&rdquo; (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brehon Laws</a></span>.) The development of Celtic law was arrested
+by the Saxon and Anglo-Norman conquest: but the materials
+preserved indicate an origin common with that of Germanic law.</p>
+
+<p>The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be
+so called, were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable,
+and no legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or
+enforce it.</p>
+
+<p>2. All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation
+was made by assessment of damages by a consensual tribunal
+whose power to make awards depended on submission of the
+parties and the ultimate sanction of public opinion or custom.
+A customary tariff for compensation existed for all offences
+from wilful murder downwards. No crime was unamendable.
+The Irish law recognized a body price or compensation (S. <i>bot</i>)
+and an honour price or <i>eric</i> (S. <i>wer</i>), for which the family or tribe
+of the offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly
+ascertained equivalent to the Saxon <i>wite</i>, or fine to the chief.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the
+<i>Germania</i> of Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known
+as the Salic and Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum,
+the Dooms of Æthelberht and the collections of
+<span class="sidenote">Germanic law.</span>
+Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in Thorpe&rsquo;s
+<i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of England</i>), do not indicate any
+adequate or definite division between crimes and causes of civil
+action, but, like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and
+contain the tariffs of compensation for wrongs. The idea of
+the compensation was originally to put an end (<i>finis</i>) to blood
+feuds and private war or vengeance.</p>
+
+<p>These laws formed the foundation of the criminal law of
+Germany, including the Netherlands, of England and of Scandinavia.
+But in each country the development of criminal law
+has been affected by influences other than Germanic, mainly
+consisting in an infusion more or less great of ideas derived from
+Roman law. In England under Alfred some part of the Levitical
+law (Exod. xxi. 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567 the
+criminal law as to incest in Scotland was taken bodily from
+Leviticus xviii.</p>
+
+<p>The stage which the development of criminal law had reached
+in England by the reign of Edward the Confessor is thus described
+by Pollock and Maitland (<i>Hist. Eng. Law</i>, ii. 447):
+&ldquo;On the eve of the Norman Conquest what we may call
+<span class="sidenote">Anglo-Saxon law.</span>
+the criminal law of England (but it was also the law
+of torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which
+deserve attention: Its past history had in the main consisted
+of the varying relations between them. We have to speak of
+outlawry, of the blood feud (<i>faidus</i>), of the tariffs of <i>wer</i> and <i>wite</i>
+(<i>fredus</i> or <i>friede</i>), and <i>bot</i>, of punishment in life and limb. As
+regards the malefactor the community may assume one of four
+attitudes: it may make war on him; it may have him exposed
+to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it may suffer
+him to make atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate
+punishment, death, mutilation or the like.&rdquo; The <i>wite</i> or sum
+paid to the king or lord is now thought to have been originally
+not a penalty but a fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and
+determining a controversy. But at an early stage fines for
+breach of peace were imposed. An evil result from the public
+point of view followed from the system of atoning for crime by
+pecuniary mulct. &ldquo;Criminal jurisdiction became a source of
+revenue.&rdquo; So early as Canute&rsquo;s time certain crimes were pleas of
+the crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the attendant
+forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of
+manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (<i>e.g.</i>
+the criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the <i>soke</i> (<i>soc</i>) of
+Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, <i>e.g.</i> Nottingham,
+to forfeitures). Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punishment,
+and became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to
+justice (Crown Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-110). Certain crimes,
+such as murder, rape, arson and burglary, became unamendable
+or bootless, <i>i.e.</i> placed the offender&rsquo;s life, limb, lands and goods
+at the king&rsquo;s mercy. These crimes came to be generally described
+by the name felony (<i>q.v.</i>). Other crimes became punishable by
+fines which took the place of <i>wites</i>. These were styled trespasses
+and correspond to what is now called misdemeanour (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or nuisance, were dealt with
+in seigniorial and borough courts by presentment of the jurors
+of courts baron and courts leet, and punished by fine
+or in some cases by pillory, tumbril or stocks. Grave
+<span class="sidenote">Anglo-Norman period.</span>
+acts were dealt with by the sheriff as breaches of the
+peace. He sat with the freeholders in the county
+court, which sat twice a year, or in the hundred court, which sat
+every four weeks. So far as this involved dealing with pleas
+of the crown the sheriff&rsquo;s jurisdiction was abolished and was
+ultimately replaced by that of the justices or conservators of
+the peace. The sheriff then ceased to be a judge in criminal cases,
+but remained and still is in law responsible for the peace of his
+county, and is the officer for the execution of the law. The royal
+control over crime was effectually established by the itinerant
+justices sent regularly throughout the realm, who not only dealt
+with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown
+but also with the graver crimes (treason and felony), and ultimately
+were commissioned to deal with the less grave offences
+now classed as indictable misdemeanours. The change resulted
+from the strengthening of royal authority throughout England,
+which enabled the crown gradually to enlarge the pleas of the
+crown and to weaken and finally to supersede the criminal
+jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates and lords
+in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises. &ldquo;In the early
+English laws and constitution there existed a national sovereignty
+and original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative
+power and crime were very slowly developed.&rdquo; During the 12th
+century the criminal law was affected by the influence of the
+church, which introduced into it elements from the Canon and
+Mosaic laws, and also by the memory of the Roman empire and
+the renewed study of the Roman law, which enabled lawyers
+to draw a clearer distinction than had before been recognized
+between the criminal (<i>dolus</i>) and civil (<i>culpa</i>) aspect of wrongful
+acts. The Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an
+admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source
+is probably due the more careful analysis of the mental elements
+necessary to create criminal responsibility, summed up in
+the somewhat misleading expression <i>nemo reus est nisi mens
+sit rea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the 14th century justices of the peace and quarter sessions
+were established to deal with offences not sufficiently important
+for the king&rsquo;s judges, and from that time the course of criminal
+justice in England has run substantially on the same lines, with
+the single and temporary interruption caused by the court of
+star chamber.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span></p>
+
+<p>The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat
+differently, but in the main on the same general principles,
+dividing them into:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Offences against the external and internal
+<span class="sidenote">Classification of crimes.</span>
+order and security of the state.</p>
+
+<p>2. Offences against the administration of police and
+against public authority.</p>
+
+<p>3. Acts injurious to the public in general.</p>
+
+<p>4. Offences against the person (life, health, liberty and
+reputation), and conjugal and parental rights and duties.</p>
+
+<p>5. Offences relating to property and contracts (including
+theft, fraud, forgery and malicious damage).</p>
+
+<p>The terminology by which crimes are described by reference
+to their comparative gravity varies considerably. In many
+continental codes distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger.
+<i>Verbrechen</i>; Norse <i>vorbrydelser</i>; Span. <i>crimenes</i>; Ital.
+<i>reato</i>), delicts (Ger. <i>Vergehen</i>; Ital. <i>delitti</i>; Span, <i>delitos</i>), and
+contraventions (Ital. <i>contravenzioni</i>; Span, <i>faltas</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The classification adopted by English law is peculiar to itself,
+&ldquo;treason,&rdquo; &ldquo;felony&rdquo; and &ldquo;misdemeanour,&rdquo; with a tentative
+fourth class described as &ldquo;summary offences.&rdquo; The particular
+distinctions between these three classes are dealt with under the
+titles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Treason</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Felony</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Misdemeanour</a></span>, &amp;c. Here it is
+enough to say that the distinction is a result of history and is
+marked for abolition and reclassification. Treason and most
+felonies and some misdemeanours would under foreign codes
+fall under the head of crime. Misdemeanour, roughly but not
+exactly, corresponds to the French <i>délit</i>, and summary offence
+to <i>contravention</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In all systems of criminal law it is found necessary
+to determine the criterion of criminal responsibility,
+the mental elements of crime, the degrees of criminality
+<span class="sidenote">Elements of criminal responsibility.</span>
+and the point at which the line is to be drawn
+between intention and commission.</p>
+
+<p>The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by
+implication a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems
+of criminal law, competent age, sanity and some degree of
+freedom from coercion, are assumed to be essential to criminality;
+and it is also generally recognized that an act does not fall within
+the sanction of the criminal law if done by pure accident or in an
+honest and reasonable belief in circumstances which if true
+would make it innocent; <i>e.g.</i> when a married person marries
+again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief that the
+former spouse is dead. Honest and reasonable mistake of fact
+stands on the same footing as absence of the reasoning faculty,
+as in infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally,
+particular mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved
+in the definition of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory
+offences adequately and carefully defined, the mental elements
+necessary to constitute the crime may be limited by the definition
+so as to make the prohibition of the law against a particular act
+absolute for all persons who are not infants or lunatics. As a
+general rule of English law, it is enough to prove that the acts
+alleged to constitute a crime were done by the accused, and to
+leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the natural
+consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing
+him or otherwise making him not liable. Children are conclusively
+presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of
+age; and from seven to fourteen the presumption is against the
+capacity, but is not absolute.</p>
+
+<p>Under the common law, insanity was an absolute answer to
+an accusation of crime. Since 1883, where insanity is proved
+to have existed at the date of the commission of the incriminated
+acts, the accused is found guilty of the acts but insane when he
+did them, and is relegated to a criminal lunatic asylum. There
+was also at common law a presumption that a married woman
+committing certain crimes in the presence of her husband did
+so under his coercion. But under modern decisions and practice
+the presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (<i>R</i>. v.
+<i>Mary Baines</i>, 1900, 69 L.J. Q.B. 681). Distinctions are also
+drawn between degrees of guilt or complicity.</p>
+
+<p>English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if
+the attempt passes from the stage of resolution or intention
+to the stage of action, when the completion of the full offence
+is frustrated by something other than the will of the accused.
+Except in the case of attempt to commit murder, which is
+a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as misdemeanours.
+It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of
+others to commit crime, as a separate offence if the incitement
+fails, as the offence of being accessory before the fact or abettor
+if the offence is committed as a result of the incitement; and
+it punishes persons who, after a more serious crime&mdash;felony&mdash;has
+been committed, do any act to shield the offender from
+justice. In the case of the crimes described as felonies the law
+distinguishes between principals in the first or second degree
+and accessories before or after the fact. In the case of misdemeanours
+the same punishment is incurred by the principal
+offenders, and by persons who are present aiding and abetting the
+commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled
+or procured the commission of the offence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accessory</a></span>). Besides
+these degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English
+law known as conspiracy, <i>i.e.</i> an agreement to commit crime or to
+do illegal acts (including interference with the due course of
+justice), which is punishable even if the conspiracy does not get
+beyond the stage of agreement. The exact nature of this form
+of crime and the propriety of abolishing it or limiting its scope
+have been the subject of much controversy, especially with
+reference to combinations by trade unions.</p>
+
+<p>The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow
+the jury to reduce the penalty of an offence by finding in their
+verdict that the commission of the offence was attended by
+extenuating circumstances; but when the jury recommend
+to mercy a person whom they find guilty the judge may give
+effect to the recommendation or report it to the Home Office.</p>
+
+<p>In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of
+crime or degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or
+without modification, but as to conspiracy with a good deal of
+alteration. In the Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy
+is limited to cases of treason (§ 121 A), and when it goes beyond
+agreement in the case of other offences it is merely a form of
+abetment or participation (§ 107).</p>
+
+<p>The criminal law of England<a name="FnAnchor_1n" id="FnAnchor_1n" href="#Footnote_1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is not codified, but is composed
+of a large number of enactments resting on a basis of common
+law. A very large part is reduced to writing in
+statutes. The unwritten portion of the law includes
+<span class="sidenote">Definitions of particular crimes.</span>
+(1) principles relating to the excuse or justification of
+acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2)
+the definitions of many offences, <i>e.g.</i> murder, assault, theft,
+forgery, perjury, libel, riot, (3) parts of the law relating to
+procedure. The law is very rich in principles and rules embodied
+in judicial decisions and is extremely detailed and explicit,
+leaving to the judges very little latitude of interpretation or
+expression. So far as the legislature is concerned there is an
+absence of systematic arrangement. The definitions of particular
+crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the decisions
+of the judges. The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most part
+leave definitions as they stood, <i>e.g.</i> the Larceny Act 1861 does
+not define the crime of larceny. The consequence is that exact
+definitions are very difficult to frame, and the technical view of
+a crime sometimes includes more, sometimes less, than it ought.
+Thus the crime of murder, as settled by the existing law, would
+include offences of such very different moral gravity as killing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span>
+a man deliberately for the sake of robbing him, and killing a man
+accidentally in an attempt to rob him. On the other hand,
+offences which ought to have been criminal were constantly
+declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of the
+particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly
+had to fill up the <i>lacunae</i> in the law as interpreted by the judges.</p>
+
+<p>The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial,
+and can be exercised only as to acts done within the territory
+or territorial waters, or on the ships of the law-giver.
+<i>Extra territorium jus dicenti impune non paretur.</i> No
+<span class="sidenote">Jurisdiction.</span>
+state will enforce the penal laws of another nor permit
+the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own
+territory. But international law recognizes the competence of
+a state to make its criminal law binding on its own subjects
+wherever they are, and perhaps even to punish foreigners who
+outside its territory do acts which menace its internal or external
+security, <i>e.g.</i> by dynamite plots or falsification of coin. Apart
+from extradition arrangements the national law cannot reach
+such persons, be they citizens or aliens, until they come within
+the territory of the state whose law has been broken.</p>
+
+<p>The codes of France, Germany and Italy make the penal law
+national or personal and not territorial. In some British colonies
+whose legislatures have a derived and limited legislative
+authority, indirect methods have been taken to deal within
+the colony with persons who commit offences outside its
+territory.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the development of the English criminal law it
+showed and retains one particular characteristic that crime
+was treated as local, which means not merely that the common
+law of England was limited to English soil, but that an offence
+on English soil could be &ldquo;inquired of, dealt with, tried, determined
+and punished&rdquo; only in the particular territorial division
+of England in which it was committed, which was and is known
+as the venue (<i>q.v.</i>). Each township was responsible for crimes
+within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the
+&ldquo;view of frankpledge,&rdquo; now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence
+of every man had to be determined by his neighbours. This
+rule excluded from trial by the courts of common law, treasons,
+&amp;c. committed by Englishmen abroad and piracy; and it was
+not till Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign (1536, 1544) that the common-law
+mode of trial was extended to these offences. The legislature
+has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no
+settled plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the
+instance of the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, no attempt has been
+made to make the English criminal law apply generally to
+subjects when outside the realm; and in view of the complicated
+nature of the British empire and the absence of a common
+criminal code it has been found desirable to remain content
+with extradition in the case of crimes abroad, and with the
+provisions of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 in the case of
+criminals who flee from one part to another of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>The localization in England of crime, and the procedure for
+punishing it, differ largely from the view taken in France and
+most European countries. The French theory is that a Frenchman
+owes allegiance to the French state, and commits a breach
+of that allegiance whenever he commits a crime against French
+law, even although he is not at the time within French territory.
+In modern days this theory has been extended so as to allow
+French and German courts to punish their subjects for crimes
+committed in foreign countries, and by reason of this power
+certain countries refuse to extradite their subjects who have
+committed crimes in other states.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the French law, though not expressly recognized
+in England, must be invoked to justify two departures
+from the English principle&mdash;(1) as regards offences
+on the high seas, and (2) as regards certain offences
+<span class="sidenote">Offences on the high seas.</span>
+committed outside the United Kingdom. In early
+days offences committed by Englishmen on the high
+seas were punished by the lord high admiral, and he encroached
+so much on the ordinary courts as to render it necessary to pass
+an act in Richard II.&rsquo;s reign (15 Rich. II. st. 2, c. 3) to restrain
+him.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Henry VIII. (1536, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15) an act
+was passed stating that, as the admiral tried persons according
+to the course of civil law, they could not be convicted unless
+either they confessed or they or the witnesses were submitted
+to torture, and that therefore it was expedient to try the offences
+according to the course of the common law. Under that act
+a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued to try these
+offences at the Old Bailey, and English law was satisfied by permitting
+the indictment to state that the offence was committed
+on board a ship on the high seas, to wit in the county of Middlesex.
+Since 1861 these special commissions have been rendered unnecessary
+by the provision (contained in each of the Criminal Law
+Consolidation Acts of that year) that all offences committed on
+the high seas may be tried as if they had been committed in
+England. As regards offences on land, it was found necessary
+as early as the reign of Henry VIII. (1544) to provide for the trial
+in England of treasons and murders committed on land outside
+England. This was largely due to the constant presence in
+<span class="sidenote">Offences committed on land outside England.</span>
+France of the king and many of his nobles and knights,
+but the aid of this statute had to be invoked in 1903
+in the case of Lynch, tried for treason in South Africa.
+The latest legislation on the subject was in 1861
+(Offences against the Person Act, § 9), and any murder
+or manslaughter committed on land out of the United Kingdom,
+whether within the king&rsquo;s dominions or without, and whether
+the person killed were a subject of His Majesty or not, may be
+dealt with in all respects as if it were committed in England.
+The jurisdiction has been extended to a few other cases such as
+slave trade, bigamy, perjury, committed with reference to
+proceedings in an English court, and offences connected with
+explosives. But these offences must be committed on land and
+not on board a foreign ship, because if a man takes service on
+board a foreign ship he is treated for the time as being a member
+of the foreign state to which that ship belongs. The principle
+<span class="sidenote">Misdemeanours committed by public officers in colonies.</span>
+has been also extended to misdemeanours (but not to
+felonies) committed by public officers out of Great
+Britain, whether within or without the British
+dominions. Thus a governor or an inferior officer of a
+colony, if appointed by the British government, may be
+prosecuted for any misdemeanour committed by him by
+virtue of his office in the colony; and cases have occurred where
+governors have been so prosecuted, such as that of General
+Picton at the beginning of the 19th century, and of Governor
+Eyre of Jamaica in 1865, and the attempt to prosecute Governor
+MacCallum of Natal in 1906. As a corollary to the system of
+&ldquo;capitulations&rdquo; applied to certain non-Christian states in Asia
+and Africa, it has been necessary to take powers for punishing
+under English law offences by British subjects in those states,
+which would otherwise go unpunished either by the law of the
+land where the offence was committed or by the law of the state
+to which the offender belonged (Jenkyns, <i>Foreign Jurisdiction
+of the Crown</i>).</p>
+
+<p>An essential part of the criminal law is the punishment or
+sanction by which the state seeks to prevent or avenge offences.
+See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminology</a></span>. Here it is enough
+<span class="sidenote">Punishment.</span>
+to say that during the 19th century great changes
+have been made throughout the world in the modes
+of punishing crime.</p>
+
+<p>In England until early in the 19th century, punishments for
+crime were ferocious. The severity of the law was tempered
+by the rule as to benefit of clergy and by the rigid adherence of
+the judges (<i>in favorem vitae</i>) to the rules of correct pleading and
+proof, whereby the slightest error on the part of the prosecution
+led to an acquittal. Bentham pointed out that certainty of
+punishment was more effective than severity, that severe
+punishments induced juries to acquit criminals, and that thus
+the certainty of punishment was diminished. But his arguments
+and the eloquence of Sir Samuel Romilly produced no effect
+until after the reform of parliament in 1832, shortly after which
+statutes were passed abolishing the death sentence for all felonies
+where benefit of clergy existed. The severity of capital sentences
+had already been modified by the pardoning power of the crown,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+which pardoned convicts under sentence of death on their
+consenting to be transported to convict settlements in the colonies.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deportation</a></span>.) For some years this was only done by the
+consent of the convict, who agreed to be transported if his death
+sentence was remitted, but in 1824, when a convict refused to
+give this consent, parliament authorized the crown to substitute
+transportation for a death sentence, and the same course was
+adopted in Ireland in 1851 when some treason-felony prisoners
+refused commutation of their sentence to transportation.</p>
+
+<p>The punishments now in use under the English law for indictable
+offences are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Death, inflicted by hanging, with a provision that other
+modes of execution may be authorized by royal warrant in cases
+of high treason.</p>
+
+<p>2. Penal servitude, which in 1853 was substituted for transportation
+to penal settlements outside the United Kingdom.
+The minimum term of penal servitude is three years (Penal
+Servitude Act 1891), and the sentence is carried out in a convict
+prison, in the United Kingdom, but there is still power to send
+the convicts out of the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>3. Imprisonment in a local prison, which must be without hard
+labour unless a statute specially authorizes a sentence of hard
+labour. At common law there is no limit to a term of imprisonment
+for misdemeanour; but for many offences (both felonies
+and misdemeanours) the term is limited by statute to two years,
+and in practice this limit is not exceeded for any offence. The
+treatment of prisoners is regulated by the prison acts and rules.</p>
+
+<p>4. Police supervision, on conviction or indictment of felony
+and certain misdemeanours after a previous conviction of such
+offences. Prevention of Crimes Act, c. 112, §§ 8, 20.</p>
+
+<p>5. Pecuniary fine, a punishment appropriate only to misdemeanours
+and never imposed for a felony except under
+statutory authority, <i>e.g.</i> manslaughter (Offences against the
+Person Act, § 5). The amount of the fine is in the discretion of
+the judge, subject to the directions of Magna Carta and the
+Bill of Rights and of any statute limiting the maximum for a
+particular offence.</p>
+
+<p>6. Whipping was a common law punishment for misdemeanants
+of either sex. Under the present law the whipping of females
+is prohibited, and the punishment is not inflicted on males except
+under statutory authority, which is given in the case of certain
+assaults on the sovereign, of certain forms of robbery with
+violence or assaults with intent to commit felony (Garrotters
+Act 1863), of incorrigible rogues, larceny and malicious damage,
+and certain other offences by youthful offenders.</p>
+
+<p>7. Recognizances (caution) to keep peace and be of good
+behaviour, <i>i.e.</i> a bond with or without sureties creating a debt
+to the crown not enforceable unless the conditions as to conduct
+therein made are broken. This bond may be taken from any
+misdemeanant, and, under statutory authority, from persons
+convicted of any felony (except murder) falling within the
+Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861.</p>
+
+<p>8. In the case of any offence which is not capital the court,
+if it is a first offence or if any other grounds for mercy appear,
+may simply bind the offender over to come up for judgment
+when required, intimating to him that if his conduct is good no
+further steps will be taken to punish him.</p>
+
+<p>Except in the case of the death penalty, the court of trial
+has a discretion as to the <i>quantum</i> of a particular punishment,
+no minimum being fixed. In the case of offences punishable
+on summary conviction the maximum punishment is always
+fixed by statute. It consists of imprisonment with or without
+hard labour, or a fine of a limited amount, or both. The imprisonment
+in very few cases may exceed six months. If the maximum
+exceeds three months the accused must be informed that he has a
+right, if he so elects, to be tried by a jury.</p>
+
+<p>Where power is given to deal summarily with offences which
+under ordinary circumstances would be tried on indictment,
+the punishments are as follows (Summary Jurisdiction Act
+1879):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(a) In the case of adults pleading guilty, imprisonment not
+exceeding six months without the option of a fine.</p>
+
+<p>(b) In the case of adults (consenting to be summarily tried),
+where the offence affects property not worth over forty shillings,
+imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding £20.</p>
+
+<p>(c) In the case of young persons, between twelve and sixteen
+years, imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding
+£10.</p>
+
+<p>(d) In the case of children under twelve, imprisonment not
+over one month, or fine not exceeding forty shillings.</p>
+
+<p>If the offence is trifling, the accused may be discharged
+without punishment, and under the First Offenders Act (1887)
+the justices have a discretionary power to forgo punishment.
+The justices have also the power, under the Prevention of Crime
+Act 1908, in lieu of passing a sentence of penal servitude or
+imprisonment, to commit persons between the ages of sixteen and
+twenty-one to a Borstal institution, for a period of detention
+ranging from one to three years (see <span class="sc">Juvenile Offenders</span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the criminal law of Europe the scale of punishments is
+on similar lines in most states, and is more elaborate than that
+of England, and less is left to the discretion of the court of trial.
+The following examples will indicate the kind of punishments
+awarded under the French penal code. Punishments are
+classified as (1) <i>afflictives et infamantes</i>, including death, <i>travaux
+forcés à perpétuité ou à temps</i>, <i>déportation</i>, <i>détention</i>, <i>reclusion</i>;
+(2) <i>infamantes</i>, viz. banishment and civil degradation; (3)
+<i>peines en matière correctionnelle</i>, viz. imprisonment in a house
+of correction (six days to five years), interdiction from certain
+civic rights, and fine. The punishments in no case have any
+effect to extinguish the civil claims of individuals who have
+suffered by the offence (arts. 6 and 55). Special provisions are
+made for <i>récidivistes</i>, police supervision and first offenders (<i>Loi
+Bérenger</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In the German code of 1872 the legal punishments are: (1)
+death; (2) penal servitude for life or for a term not exceeding
+fifteen years nor less than one year; (3) imprisonment with
+labour for a term not exceeding five years nor less than one day;
+(4) confinement in a fortress (terms same as for penal servitude
+but involving only withdrawal of freedom and supervision); (5)
+arrest for not more than six weeks nor less than one day; (6)
+fine (not less than three marks in the case of crimes or delicts
+nor one mark in case of petty offences). Sentence of imprisonment
+is in certain cases followed by liability to be placed under
+police supervision for a term after release. In the case of a
+sentence of death or of penal servitude, the court may order
+forfeiture of civil privileges, and a condemnation to penal
+servitude permanently disqualifies for service in the army and
+public office (Code pt. 1, chap. 1, arts. 13-40).</p>
+
+<p>Under the Italian code of 1889 (arts. 11-30) the punishments
+are (1) <i>ergastolo</i> (for life); (2) <i>reclusione</i> (from three days to
+twenty-four years), which involves hard labour and cellular
+confinement; (3) <i>detenzione</i> (like term), which involves labour
+and at night separate confinement; (4) <i>confino</i> (one month to
+three years), a form of banishment from the commune of origin
+or residence of the offender; (5a) fine (<i>multa</i>), from ten to ten
+thousand lire; (5b) <i>amende</i>, from one to two thousand lire; (6)
+arrest (one day to two years); (7) interdiction from public
+office; (8) suspension from professional calling. Punishments
+(5b), (6) and (8) are applied only to contraventions, the others
+to crimes (<i>delitti</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish law (<i>Codigo Penal</i>, title 3, chaps. 2 and 3) contains
+a general scale of punishments classified as afflictive, correctional,
+light and accessory. The first class begins with death and runs
+down through many forms of imprisonment to disqualification
+(<i>inhabilitacion</i>). The second includes forms of imprisonment,
+(<i>presidio</i> and <i>prisión</i>), and arrest, public censure and suspension
+from the exercise of certain offices or callings. The slight
+punishments are minor arrest and private censure. Offenders
+in any of the three classes may also be fined or put under recognizance
+(<i>caución</i>). The accessory punishments include payment
+of costs, degradation, civil interdiction.</p>
+
+<p>In England indictable offences (<i>i.e.</i> offences which must be
+tried by a judge and jury) are thus dealt with:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Courts of assize (sitting under old commissions known as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+commissions of assize, oyer and terminer, and general gaol
+delivery) are held twice or oftener in every year in each county
+<span class="sidenote">Tribunals.</span>
+and also in some large cities and boroughs. They are
+the lineal successors of the justices <i>in eyre</i><a name="FnAnchor_2n" id="FnAnchor_2n" href="#Footnote_2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> of the
+middle ages; but they are now integral parts of the High Court
+of Justice. These courts can try any indictable offence presented
+by a grand jury for the district in which they sit.</p>
+
+<p>2. For the counties of London and Middlesex and certain
+adjoining districts, a special court of assize known as the central
+criminal court sits monthly.</p>
+
+<p>3. In all counties and many boroughs the justices of the
+peace sit quarterly or oftener under the commission of the peace
+to try the minor indictable offences. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quarter Sessions,
+Court of</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>4. The High Court of Justice in the king&rsquo;s bench division
+tries a few special offences in its original jurisdiction, and where
+justice requires may transfer indictments from other courts
+for trial before itself.</p>
+
+<p>5. The court of criminal appeal has been instituted by the
+Criminal Appeal Act 1907; to it all persons convicted on
+indictment have a right of appeal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The substantive law as to crime applies in England to all
+persons except the reigning sovereign, and criminal procedure
+is the same for all subjects alike, except in the case of peers or
+peeresses charged with felony, who have the right of trial by
+their peers in the House of Lords if it be sitting, or in the court
+of the lord high steward.</p>
+
+<p>There are in England no courts of a special character, such
+as exist in some foreign countries, for the determination of
+disputes between the governing classes themselves
+or with the governed classes, whether of a civil or
+<span class="sidenote">Special tribunals.</span>
+criminal character. There are a few exceptional
+courts with criminal jurisdiction. The court of chivalry, which
+used to punish offences committed within military lines outside
+the kingdom, is obsolete. Special tribunals exist for trying
+naval or military offences committed by members of the navy
+and army, but those members are not exempt from being tried
+by the ordinary tribunals for offences against the ordinary law,
+as though they were civilians. The naval courts can be held
+only on board a ship, and can as a general rule try only persons
+entered on the books of a king&rsquo;s ship. The military courts can
+only try persons who are actually members of the army at the
+time, and their authority is annually renewed by parliament,
+in consequence of the jealousy still felt against the trial of any
+man except by the ordinary courts of law. Military and naval
+courts can try in any part of the world, and whenever the forces are
+in active service can try followers of the camp as if they were
+actual members of the forces. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Military Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Martial
+Law</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The ecclesiastical courts, which were formerly very powerful
+in England, and punished persons for various offences, such as
+perjury, swearing, and sexual offences, have now
+almost fallen into disuse. Their authority over
+<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical courts.</span>
+Protestant dissenters from the established church
+was taken away by statute; their authority over lay
+members of the Church of England has disappeared by disuse.
+Occasionally suits are instituted in them against the clergy for
+offences either against morality or against doctrine or ritual.
+In these cases their sentences are enforced by penalties, such as
+suspension, or deprivation of benefice, or by imprisonment;
+which has replaced the old punishment of excommunication.</p>
+
+<p>A system of procedure, with the judicial machinery required
+to work it, may be created either by the direct legislative action
+of the supreme power or by custom and the action
+of the courts. Both at Rome and in England it was
+<span class="sidenote">Procedure.</span>
+through usage and by the courts themselves that
+the earlier system was slowly moulded: both at Rome and in
+England it was direct legislation that established the later
+system. (See Bryce, <i>Studies in History and Jurisprudence</i>, 1901,
+ii. 334.)</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of English criminal procedure which most
+distinguish it from the procedure of other countries are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. It is litigious or accusatory and not inquisitorial (Stephen,
+<i>Prel. View Cr. Law</i>). It is for the prosecutor to prove by evidence
+the commission of the alleged offence. No power exists to
+interrogate the accused unless he consents to be sworn as a
+witness in his own defence, which since 1898 he may do. The
+right to cross-examine him even when he is so sworn is limited
+by law, with the object of excluding inquiry into his past
+character or into past offences not relevant to the particular
+charge on which he is being tried.</p>
+
+<p>2. The forms of criminal pleading still in use are in substance
+framed on the lines of the old system of pleading at common
+law in civil cases, which was swept away by the judicature acts.
+Criminal pleadings have, however, one peculiarity. Indictments,
+being in form the presentment of a grand jury, could not be
+amended until provision for that purpose was made in 1851.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indictment</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>3. Criminal prosecutions are ordinarily undertaken by the
+individuals who have suffered by a crime. There is not in
+England, as in Scotland and all European countries, a public
+department concerned to deal with all prosecutions for crime.
+The result is that the prosecution of most ordinary crime is left
+to individual enterprise or the action of the local police force or
+the justices&rsquo; clerk.</p>
+
+<p>The attorney-general has always represented the crown in
+criminal matters, and in state prosecutions appears in person
+on behalf of the crown, and when he so appears has certain
+privileges as respects the reply to the prisoner&rsquo;s defence and
+the mode of trial. In the Prosecution of Offences Acts of 1879,
+1884 and 1908 there is to be found the nucleus of a system of
+public prosecution such as obtains in other countries in case of
+crime. Under these acts the director of public prosecutions (up
+to 1908 an office conjoint with that of solicitor to the Treasury)
+acts under the attorney-general, but unless specially directed he
+only undertakes a limited number of prosecutions, <i>e.g.</i> for murder,
+coining and serious crimes affecting the government.</p>
+
+<p>4. Where an indictable offence is supposed to have been
+committed the accused is arrested, with or without the warrant
+of a justice, according to the nature of the offence, or is summoned
+by a justice before him. On his appearance a preliminary
+inquiry is held for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is
+a prima facie case against him. The procedure is regulated by
+the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and is entirely different from
+the procedure for summary offences. It may be, though usually
+it is not, held in private; it is an inquiry and not a trial; the
+justices have to consider not whether the man is guilty, but
+whether there is such a prima facie case against him that he
+ought to be tried. If they think that there is, they commit him
+to prison to wait his trial, or require him to give security, with
+or without sureties, to the amount named by them, for appearing
+to take his trial. If they think the charge unsubstantial they
+discharge the accused at once. The prosecutor in cases of felony
+may if he likes go before the grand jury whether the case has
+or has not been the subject of a preliminary inquiry, but in the
+case of many misdemeanours it is obligatory first to have a
+preliminary inquiry, as a protection against vexatious indictments.</p>
+
+<p>Whether there has or has not been a preliminary inquiry
+before a magistrate, no person can be tried for any of the graver
+crimes, treason or felony, except upon indictment
+found by a grand jury of the county or place where
+<span class="sidenote">The grand jury.</span>
+the offence is said to have been committed or is by
+statute made cognizable. In olden days, and even now in theory,
+the grand jury inquire of their own knowledge, by the oath of
+good and lawful men of the neighbourhood, into the crime of
+the county, but in practice the charges against the accused
+persons are always first submitted to the proper officer of the
+court. The grand jurors are instructed as to their inquisition
+by a charge from the judge, as regards the indictments concerning
+which they are called upon to enquire whether there is a
+prima facie case to send them for trial to the petty jury. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span>
+grand jury must consist of not less than twelve, nor more than
+twenty-three, good and lawful men of the county. But any
+person who prefers an indictment is entitled to have it presented
+to the grand jury. Officers of the court lay the indictments before
+the grand jury. The charges are then called bills, and if the
+grand jury considers that there is no prima facie case the foreman
+endorses the bill with the words &ldquo;no true bill,&rdquo; and it is then
+presented to the judge. The jury are then said to have ignored
+the bill, and if the person charged is in custody he is released,
+but is liable to be indicted again on better evidence.</p>
+
+<p>As a means of constitutional protection in times of monarchical
+aggression this practice had no doubt a great value, but in the
+present day, when few offenders are tried without a preliminary
+inquiry by justices, the functions of a grand jury are of secondary
+importance, and the jurors&rsquo; time is perhaps needlessly occupied.
+The institution of the grand jury prevented the crown in the
+days of its great power from removing a person whom it wished
+to get rid of from among his neighbours, and placing him on trial
+in a strange place where the influence of the crown was greater.
+This is still true to a certain extent, as great injustice may be
+caused to a man by removing him from his neighbours and
+trying him at a distance from his friends, and from the witnesses
+whom he might call for his defence. In Ireland, for instance,
+the greatest injustice might be done by removing an Orangeman
+from Belfast and trying him in a Roman Catholic county or
+vice versa. But it has its evils where the area from which the
+jurors are drawn is small, such as a town of a few thousand
+inhabitants. In that case a man charged, say, with fraud, may
+be protected by his friends from being properly punished for
+that fraud. But where justice requires, an order may be made
+for the trial of the offence in another county or at the central
+criminal court.</p>
+
+<p>In many colonies the Scottish system has been adopted,
+by which the ordinary form of accusation is by indictment
+framed by the public prosecutor, and a grand jury is only impannelled
+in cases where an individual claims to prosecute an
+offence as to which the public officials decline to proceed. In
+England criminal informations by the attorney-general, or by
+leave of the court without the intervention of a grand jury, are
+permitted in cases of misdemeanour, but are now rarely preferred.</p>
+
+<p>If a coroner&rsquo;s jury, on inquiring into any sudden death, finds
+that murder or manslaughter has been committed, that finding
+has the same effect as an indictment by a grand jury,
+and the man charged may be tried by the petty jury
+<span class="sidenote">Coroner&rsquo;s courts.</span>
+accordingly. The law and procedure of the coroner&rsquo;s
+courts are now regulated by the Coroners Act 1887. When
+there is a dead body of a person lying within the area of his
+jurisdiction, and there is reasonable cause to suspect that such
+person died a violent or unnatural death, or a sudden death of
+which the cause is unknown, or has died in prison, the coroner
+is entitled to hold an inquest, and if the verdict or inquisition
+finds murder or manslaughter, it is followed by trial in the same
+way as if the person accused had been indicted.</p>
+
+<p>When an indictment is found by the grand jury (twelve at
+least must concur) the person charged is brought before the
+court, the indictment is read to him, he is asked
+whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he pleads guilty
+<span class="sidenote">Trial by jury.</span>
+he is then sentenced by the court; if he pleads not
+guilty, a petty jury of twelve is formed from the panel or list of
+jurors who have been summoned by the sheriff to attend the
+court. He is tried by these jurors in open court. The common
+law method of trial of crimes by a jury of twelve, native to
+English law, has been in modern times transplanted to European
+countries. It was not the original form of trial, for it was preceded
+by wager of battle (which was not finally abolished
+till 1819); and by ordeal, which was suppressed as to criminal
+trials in 1219 in consequence of the decree of the Lateran Council
+(1216). The first was allowed only on an appeal by an individual
+accuser; the second was resorted to on an accusation by public
+fame, which the accused was allowed to meet by submitting to the
+ordeal. It was after 1219 that trial by the jury of twelve (known
+as trial in pais) began to develop. At the outset the accused
+used to be asked how he would be tried, and could not be directly
+compelled to plead to the charge or to accept trial by a jury;
+which led to the indirect pressure known as the <i>peine forte et dure</i>,
+which fell into disuse after the Revolution and was formally
+abolished in 1772. But it was not until 1827 that refusal to
+plead was treated as a plea of not guilty, entailing a trial by a
+jury, and some old-fashioned officials still ask the old question
+&ldquo;How will you be tried?&rdquo; to which the old answer was &ldquo;By
+God and my country.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The original trial jury or inquest certainly acted on its own
+knowledge or inquiries without necessarily having evidence laid
+before it in court. The impartiality of the jurors was to some
+extent secured by the power of challenge. The exact time when
+the jury came into its present position is difficult accurately to
+define. On the trial before the petty jury the procedure and the
+rules of evidence differ in very few points from an ordinary civil
+case. The proceedings as already stated are accusatory. The
+prosecutor must begin to prove his case. Confessions (which are
+the object sought by French procedure) are regarded with some
+suspicion, and admissions alleged to have been made by the
+accused are not admitted unless it is clear that they were not
+extracted by inducements of a temporal nature held out by persons
+in authority over him. During the spring assizes of 1877 a
+prisoner was charged with having committed a murder twenty
+years before, and the counsel for the prosecution, with the consent
+of the judge, withdrew from the case because the only evidence,
+besides the prisoner&rsquo;s own confession, was that of persons who
+either had never known him personally or could not identify
+him. The accused may not be interrogated by the judge or the
+prosecuting counsel unless he consents to be sworn as a witness.
+In this respect the contrast between a criminal trial in England
+and a criminal trial in France is very striking. The interrogation
+and browbeating of the prisoner by the judge, consistent as it
+may be with the inquisitorial theory of their procedure, is strange
+to English lawyers, accustomed to see in every criminal trial a
+fair fight between the prisoner and the prosecution, and not a
+contest between the judge and the prisoner. The accused may,
+if he choose, be defended by counsel, and if poor may get legal
+aid at the public expense if the court certify for it. He is entitled
+to cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution and to call
+witnesses in his defence. At the conclusion of the evidence
+and speeches the judge sums up to the jury both as to the facts
+and the law, and the jury by their verdict acquit or convict.
+Immediate discharge follows on acquittal; sentence by the
+judge on conviction.</p>
+
+<p>Justices of the peace may under many statutes convict in
+a summary manner (without the intervention of a jury) for
+offences of minor importance. The procedure for
+punishing summary offences is before two justices,
+<span class="sidenote">Summary trials.</span>
+or a stipendiary magistrate. This proceeding must not
+be confused with the preliminary inquiry already mentioned
+before justices for an indictable offence, nor with the procedure
+before justices in relation to civil matters, such as the recovery
+of small sums of money. The proceeding begins either by the
+issue of a warrant for the arrest of the person charged, in which
+case a sworn information must be filed, or by a summons directing
+the person charged to appear on a certain day to answer the
+complaint made by the prosecutor. The justices hear the case
+in open court; the person charged can make his defence either in
+person or by his solicitor or counsel, he can cross-examine
+<span class="sidenote">Procedure for summary offences.</span>
+the witnesses for the prosecution, call his own witnesses,
+and address the justices in his defence. The
+justices, after hearing the case, either acquit or convict
+him, and in case of conviction award the sentence.
+If the sentence is a fine, and the fine is not paid, the person convicted
+is liable to be imprisoned for the term fixed by the justices,
+not exceeding a scale fixed by an act of 1879, the maximum of
+which is one month. The imprisonment may be with or without
+hard labour.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years this summary jurisdiction of the justices has
+received very large extensions, and many offences which were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+formerly prosecuted as serious offences by an indictment before
+the court of assize or quarter sessions have, where the offence was
+a trivial one, been made punishable, on summary proceedings
+before justices, by a small fine or a short term of imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>The extension of the jurisdiction of the justices is open to the
+observation that it deprives a person charged of the protection
+of a jury, and also that it throws upon him, if convicted, and upon
+the prosecution if there is no conviction, the cost of the proceedings.
+The former objection is much mitigated by the enactment
+made in 1879, that a person if liable on conviction to be sentenced
+to imprisonment for more than three months, or to a fine exceeding
+£100, can claim to be tried by a jury. But the objection as
+to the costs remains, and the payment of costs is often a very
+serious addition to the trivial fine; and it is anomalous that a
+person convicted of a trifling offence should bear the cost of the
+prosecution, while if he is convicted before a superior tribunal of
+the most serious offence he does not pay the costs.</p>
+
+<p>In English law until 1907, where a criminal case had been tried
+by a jury the verdict of the jury of guilt or innocence was final
+and there was no appeal on the facts. Any considerable
+defect or informality in the procedure might be the
+<span class="sidenote">Appeal.</span>
+subject of a writ of error. And if any question of law arose at
+the trial, the judge might, if he chose, reserve it for the opinion
+of the court for the consideration of crown cases reserved, by
+whom the conviction might be either quashed or confirmed.</p>
+
+<p>By the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, a new court was established,
+to which any person convicted on indictment might appeal.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appeal</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The expenses of prosecution for crime in England are dealt
+with in the following manner. Prosecutions for high treason
+and the cognate offence known as treason-felony
+are at the expense of the state, which alone undertakes
+<span class="sidenote">Costs.</span>
+such prosecutions. In the case of all other felonies and of many
+misdemeanours the expense of the prosecution falls on the local
+rate. In the case of other misdemeanours the expense falls on
+the prosecutor. Where an offence is summarily prosecuted the
+costs are in the discretion of the court, which may order the
+accused to pay them, if convicted, or the prosecutor to pay on
+acquittal, or may leave the parties to pay their own expenses.
+On charges of felony and a few misdemeanours the court may
+order the accused person to pay the expenses of his prosecution
+in relief of the local rate. In a few cases, chiefly where the
+prosecution is vexatious, the court may order the prosecution
+to pay the expenses of the defence. The expenses of witnesses
+for the defence in any indictable offence may be paid out of the
+local rate when they have been called at the preliminary inquiry;
+and where the court in the case of a poor prisoner has certified
+that he should have legal aid, the expenses of the defence may
+be charged to the local rate. The local rate upon which the
+expenses fall is usually that of the county or borough in which
+the offence was committed; but sometimes is that of the place
+where the offence is tried.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1852 and 1888 parliament reimbursed to the local
+authorities the expense imposed on the local rate. In 1888 the
+proceeds of certain taxes were set aside and handed over to the
+local authorities as a set-off to the expense incurred in prosecutions.
+In one class of case, offences committed in the admiralty
+jurisdiction, <i>i.e.</i> outside England, the treasury directly reimburses
+to the local authorities the expense incurred.</p>
+
+<p>Under most, if not all, European codes, the state pays for
+the prosecution, subject to reimbursement by the accused, if
+the court so orders.</p>
+
+<p>The English system of criminal procedure is the basis of that
+of most of the states which form the United States of America,
+and, with few exceptions, of the procedure throughout
+<span class="sidenote">Non-British criminal procedure.</span>
+the British empire.</p>
+
+<p>The French penal code and code of criminal
+procedure are substantially the model of all systems
+of continental criminal law. They were promulgated in 1811
+by Napoleon I., and although he called in the aid of the greatest
+French jurists, he guided, and occasionally even revised, their
+labours. The French codes have been improved upon by later
+European codes, and more especially by the Italian penal code.
+All European codes have an opening chapter where the general
+principles of criminal law in its practical application are enunciated,
+such as, for instance, the rules that&mdash;(1) no person is liable
+to punishment for any act not expressly declared to be an
+offence; (2) no person can be punished for an act which by
+virtue of a subsequent law is declared not to be an offence;
+(3) whoever commits an offence within the kingdom is tried and
+punished according to the criminal law of the kingdom, and by
+the tribunals created for the administration of justice, to the
+exclusion of special tribunals created for temporary purposes.
+This rule really lays down that no citizen can be deprived of
+his own judges when he is accused of a criminal offence. (4)
+A citizen, although he may have been tried in a foreign country
+for an offence committed within the kingdom, can be retried
+according to the law of the kingdom. (5) Extradition only
+applies to foreigners, not to citizens. The preliminary chapter
+is followed by the classification of offences according to the
+importance of the punishments the law assigns to them. The
+lowest degree of offence is denominated &ldquo;contravention.&rdquo; It
+applies mainly to the pettiest offences, or to infractions of police
+regulations, and can be punished by fine or by imprisonment
+under a week, or by both fine and imprisonment, limited to a
+week. Next comes the &ldquo;<i>délit</i>,&rdquo; which includes all offences
+punished by imprisonment over a week and under five years.
+Then, finally, we arrive at the &ldquo;<i>crime</i>,&rdquo; the highest form of
+offence in French criminal law. It includes all offences subject
+to a more severe sentence than the punishment assigned to a
+<i>délit</i>. All cases are held to be crimes where death, life-imprisonment
+with or without hard labour, deportation out of the kingdom,
+detention or seclusion in a fortress or other expressly
+assigned place, are the punishments mentioned by the law. A
+certain number of explanatory definitions follow, of which the
+most important concern <i>attempts</i> to commit offences, and in
+&ldquo;crimes&rdquo; they are punishable if the execution of the attempt
+was only prevented by circumstances beyond the will of the
+offender, whilst in &ldquo;<i>délits</i>&rdquo; an attempt is not punishable as an
+offence unless the law specially provides that it should be
+punished. As regards &ldquo;contraventions,&rdquo; attempts not carried
+out are not held to be offences at all. Accomplices are generally
+subject to the same punishment as the principal. Old offenders
+(<i>récidivistes</i>) are subject to severer punishments. The usual
+exceptions as regards responsibility for crime, such as madness
+and extreme youth and <i>force majeure</i>, are to be found in all
+codes. The excuse of youth extends to all offenders under the
+age of sixteen, when the tribunal decides whether the offender
+has acted without &ldquo;discernment,&rdquo; and acquits where the discernment
+is not found, whilst one-half of the usual punishment
+is inflicted where discernment is found. Foreign codes differ
+from the English law in allowing the injured party to claim
+damages in the criminal suit, appearing as <i>partie civile</i>. On
+another question there is a wide divergence on the continent
+of Europe from English law. According to the law of England
+there is no prescription in criminal law (with a few exceptions
+created by statute). An offender is always liable to punishment
+whatever time may have elapsed since the committal of the
+offence. On the continent of Europe the limitation of a judgment
+and sentence for a crime is twenty years; five years for
+a <i>délit</i>, and for a contravention two years. No proceedings can
+be taken as regards a crime after a lapse of ten years, whilst as
+regards a <i>délit</i> the limit is three years, and two years for a
+contravention.</p>
+
+<p>There are three main differences between English criminal
+procedure and European criminal procedure.</p>
+
+<p>1. A criminal prosecution directed on European criminal
+procedure at once passes into the hands of the state as an infringement
+of law which must be repressed, on the ground that the
+whole community bases its security on obedience to law. In
+England the repression of all minor crime is left to the injured
+party.</p>
+
+<p>2. In England every criminal trial from beginning to end is,
+and has always been, public. Preliminary inquiries into an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+indictable offence may be, but rarely if ever are, conducted
+in private. On the continent of Europe, with rare exceptions,
+all preliminary proceedings in a criminal charge are secret.
+Outside English-speaking countries this secret investigation
+continues more or less. But of the two systems, accusatory
+or inquisitorial&mdash;the first meaning the right of the accused to
+defend himself, the second meaning the right of the state to
+examine any legal offence in private in order to ensure the safety
+of society,&mdash;the accusatory is gaining ground in every country.
+In English-speaking countries it is an established law that an
+accused person should have the right of publicity of the proceedings
+and the right to defend himself by counsel and by
+witnesses. In Europe the inquisitorial system is gradually being
+abandoned. Perhaps the best code of criminal procedure in
+Europe is that promulgated in Austria in 1873. It followed a
+fundamental law of the Empire which laid down <i>inter alia</i> that
+all legal proceedings, civil or criminal, should be oral and public,
+and that the accusatory system in criminal cases should be
+adopted. Germany followed this example. Italy, Holland.
+Switzerland and Spain have followed Austria and Germany as
+regards the preliminary investigation; Italy and Belgium have
+surrounded the accused with guarantees against arbitrary
+confinement before trial; Holland has conferred upon the accused
+the right of seeing the adverse testimony and of being confronted
+with the witnesses, and, further, has formally insisted that no
+insidious questions, such as questions assuming a fact as true
+which is not known to be true, should be allowed. Other
+countries still remain on the old lines. But everywhere, whether
+reform has actually been accomplished or not, there is a demand
+for even-handed justice, and a growing conviction that the
+accused should have all his rights, now that society is no longer
+in danger from undiscovered criminals and unpunished crime.
+Even in France, the champion of the inquisitorial system, a
+change is being made. Up to 1897 secrecy was imposed invariably
+in the preliminary investigation of crime, and was held
+necessary for the discovery and punishment of the offender.
+The <i>Loi de l&rsquo;instruction contradictoire</i>, December 8, 1897,
+however, was a long step towards complete justice in the treatment
+of the accused in the preliminary inquiry. The main
+reform is that the accused, after he has once appeared before
+the judge and a formal charge has been made against him, is
+entitled to the assistance of counsel, either chosen by himself or
+assigned to him if he is poor. If he is in prison he is allowed
+to communicate freely with his counsel, who is entitled to see all
+the proceedings, and in every appearance before the judge his
+counsel accompanies him. There are, however, certain limitations.
+The counsel cannot address the judge without leave,
+which may be refused, nor can he insist on any proceeding he
+thinks necessary in his client&rsquo;s interest. He can only solicit.
+He has no right to be present at the examination of witnesses,
+who continue to be interrogated by the judge alone and not in
+the presence of the accused; but he must receive twenty-four
+hours&rsquo; notice of every appearance of the accused, and he is
+entitled to be present whenever his client, after the first formal
+appearance, comes before the judge. In England, as already
+pointed out, although the prosecution is in the name of the crown,
+and although a public prosecutor has been appointed, still as
+a rule it is conducted by the person injured as the person injured,
+or by the police.</p>
+
+<p>3. In England the single-judge system is universal, save in
+appeal; on the continent of Europe plurality of judges is insisted
+upon, save in the most trivial cases, where the punishment is
+insignificant. In most countries of the continent of Europe
+the whole machinery for the prevention, investigation and
+punishment of crime, is conducted by what is called the <i>parquet</i>,
+which represents society as a collective unit and not the individual
+injured. The head of the whole parquet in France is the <i>procureur-général</i>,
+who holds equal rank with the members of the supreme
+court. Under him there are procureurs-généraux attached to
+each of the courts of appeal, of which in France there are twenty-six,
+and under each of these subordinate procureurs there are
+procureurs (prosecutors) of a lesser degree. The next stage
+to the parquet is the <i>juge d&rsquo;instruction</i>, who corresponds to the
+English magistrate, and is the most formidable personage in the
+whole system of French criminal law. He can detain and
+accuse a person in prison, can send for him at any time and ask
+him such questions as he pleases.</p>
+
+<p>After the first examination the prisoner is entitled, in most
+European countries, to the assistance of counsel, but the powers
+of counsel are so limited that the juge d&rsquo;instruction has a complete
+discretionary power regarding the investigation of the case.
+The natural consequence of this procedure is that the preliminary
+investigation really decides the ultimate result, and the final
+trial becomes more or less a solemn form.</p>
+
+<p>The criminal law of Ireland is to a great extent the same as
+that of England, resting on the same common law and on statutes
+which extend to both countries or are in almost the
+same terms, and is administered by courts of assize
+<span class="sidenote">Ireland.</span>
+and quarter sessions, and by justices, as in England. In a few
+instances statutes passed for England or Great Britain before
+the Union have not been extended to Ireland, or statutes passed
+by the Irish parliament before the Union or by the British parliament
+since the Union create offences not known to English law.
+In Ireland the system of prosecution is nominally the same as
+in England, but in practice almost all prosecutions are instituted
+and conducted under the direction of the attorney-general for
+Ireland, who is a member of the government of the day, and so
+responsible to parliament, as in the case of the lord advocate.
+In Ireland, owing to the police being a centralized force, under the
+management of commissioners residing in Dublin, any prosecution
+which in England might be conducted by the local police,
+would in Ireland be conducted under the direction of the chief
+of the police in Dublin, who is necessarily in close communication
+with and under the control of the attorney-general.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland hardly any crimes are constituted by statute
+law, the common law being to the effect that if a judge will
+direct any act to be a crime, and a jury will convict,
+that act is a crime. This great elasticity of the common
+<span class="sidenote">Scotland.</span>
+law to include every sort of new crime which might arise was
+in times past very dangerous to political liberty, as it greatly
+enlarged the power of the crown to oppress political opponents,
+but in modern days it has its convenience in facilitating the
+punishment of persons committing crimes for the punishment
+of which in England a new act of parliament may be necessary.
+Criminal procedure in Scotland is regulated by an act of 1887
+which greatly simplified indictments and proceedings. The
+prosecution of crime is in the hands of public officers, procurators
+fiscal, under the control of the lord advocate. Private prosecutions
+are possible, but rare. Except in the case of the law
+of treason, imported from England at the Union, no grand jury
+is required, and the indictments are filed by the public officer.</p>
+
+<p>The criminal law of England forms the basis of the criminal
+law of all British possessions abroad, with a few exceptions, <i>e.g.</i>
+the Channel Islands (still subject to the custom of
+Normandy) and the anomalous case of Cyprus, where
+<span class="sidenote">Other British possessions.</span>
+Mahommedan law is to some extent in force. As to
+India, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">infra</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In many British colonies the criminal law has been codified
+or at the least consolidated. Criminal codes have been passed
+in Canada, New Zealand (1893), Queensland (1899) and W.
+Australia (1901). Many crown colonies have codes framed on
+the model prepared by the late Sir R. S. Wright for Jamaica
+and revised in 1901, and in British Guiana opportunity was taken
+(in 1893) to abolish the remnants of Roman-Dutch criminal
+law.</p>
+
+<p>The criminal law of South Africa, which is based on the Roman-Dutch
+law, including the <i>Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</i> (1532),
+is not codified. In the Transvaal and Orange River colonies
+codes of criminal procedure are in force, drawn mainly from the
+common and statute law of the Cape Colony with the addition
+of provisions borrowed from English and colonial legislation.</p>
+
+<p>In Mauritius the criminal law is comprised in a penal code of
+1838 and a procedure code of 1853, which, with the incorporated
+amendments, are to be found in the <i>Revised Laws of Mauritius</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+(1903-1904), ii. 466 et seq. The penal code is based on the Code
+Napoléon.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Criminal law has everywhere grown out of custom, and has
+in all civilized states been largely dealt with by direct legislation.
+In most civilized states (including Japan) it has been
+codified by statute, to the general satisfaction of the
+<span class="sidenote">Codification.</span>
+people; and the conspicuous success of the Indian
+penal code shows that English criminal law is susceptible of
+being so treated&rdquo; (Bryce, <i>Studies</i>, ii. 34).</p>
+
+<p>The expediency, if not the necessity, of codifying the criminal
+law of England has long been apparent. The writings of Bentham
+drew attention to many of its substantial defects, and the efforts
+of Romilly and Mackintosh led to certain improvements embodied
+in what are known as Peel&rsquo;s Acts (1826 to 1832). In 1833, at
+the instance of Lord Chancellor Brougham, a royal commission
+was appointed to deal with the criminal law. The nature of
+the instructions indicate the crudity of the ideas then ruling as to
+codification. The commissioners were directed to digest into
+one statute all enactments touching crimes and the punishment
+thereof, and into another statute the provisions of the common
+unwritten law touching the same. The commission was renewed
+in 1836 and 1837, and in 1843 a second commission was appointed.
+Numerous and voluminous reports were published, including
+(1848) a bill for consolidating and amending the law as to crimes
+and punishments, and (1849) a like bill for criminal procedure,
+indicating that the commissioners had in the meantime learned
+the distinction between substantive and adjective law. Lord
+Brougham in 1848 unsuccessfully introduced the first bill, and in
+the end the only fruit of the reports has been certain amendments
+of procedure in 1851 and the passing of the seven Criminal
+Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, which deal with the statute law
+as to theft, forgery, malicious injuries to property, coinage
+offences and offences against the person. The reports, however,
+proved of value in the revision of Macaulay&rsquo;s draft of the Indian
+penal code, and led to the formation of the Statute Law Committee,
+which has relieved the statute book of much dead matter.
+On his return from India, impressed by the success of the Indian
+penal code, Sir J. Stephen made a strong effort to obtain codification.
+In 1878, at the instance of Lord Cairns, he prepared a
+draft code (based on his well-known <i>Digest of the Criminal Law</i>),
+which was laid before parliament and then submitted to judicial
+criticism and revision. As a result of this revision a code bill
+was introduced in 1880; but a dissolution intervened and no
+serious effort was then made. The obstacle in the way is not
+lack of reports or digests on which to frame a code, but the incapacity
+of parliament to do the work itself, and its unwillingness
+to trust the work to other hands.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian penal code and criminal procedure code, by their
+history, their form, and the extent and diversity of the races
+and peoples to which they apply, are perhaps the
+most important codes in the whole world. While the
+<span class="sidenote">India.</span>
+East India Company was merely a trading company holding
+certain forts and trading ports in India and elsewhere, such
+criminal justice as was administered under its auspices was in
+the main based on the English criminal law, said to have been
+introduced to some extent by the company&rsquo;s charter of 1661,
+but reintroduced into the presidency laws by later charters of
+1726, 1753 and 1774. (See <i>Nuncomar and Impey</i>, by Sir J.
+Stephen.) From 1771 until 1860 the criminal law administered
+was the Mahommedan law. When in 1771 the East Indian
+Company determined to stand forth as diwan, Warren Hastings
+required the courts of the mofussil (provinces), as distinct from
+those of the presidency town of Fort William, to be guided in
+the administration of criminal justice by Mahommedan law,
+which under the Moguls had been used in criminal cases to the
+exclusion of Hindu law. Difficulties arose in administration,
+from the definition of crime, the nature of punishments, and in
+matters of procedure, which were removed by regulations and
+by enactments on English lines, especially in Bombay (1827);
+and great delays and considerable injustice were caused by the
+want of unity in judicial organization.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1834 and 1837 Macaulay with three other commissioners,
+Macleod, Anderson and Millet, prepared a draft
+penal code for India, for which they drew not only upon English
+and Indian laws and regulations but also upon Livingstone&rsquo;s
+Louisiana code and the Code Napoléon. Little or nothing was
+taken from the Mahommedan law. A revised draft of the penal
+code by Sir B. Peacock, Sir J. W. Colville and others was completed
+in 1856. In framing it the reports of the English criminal
+law commissioners (published after Macaulay&rsquo;s draft code)
+were considered. The draft was presented to the legislative
+council in 1856, but owing to the mutiny and to objections from
+missionaries, &amp;c., its passing was delayed till the 6th of October
+1860. A draft scheme of criminal procedure was prepared in
+India in 1847-1848, which, after submission to a commission
+in England in 1853 (Government of India Act 1853), was moulded
+into a draft code which passed the India legislative council
+in 1861 (Act No. XXV.) and came into force in 1862. It has
+been re-enacted with amendments in 1872 (Act X.), 1882
+(Act X.) and 1898 (Act V.).</p>
+
+<p>The result is that in India the criminal law is the law of the
+conqueror, though for many civil purposes the law of race,
+religion and caste governs. Under the codes, one set of courts
+has been established throughout the country, composed of
+well-paid, well-educated judges, most of the higher judicial
+appointments being held by Englishmen; all those who hold
+subordinate judicial posts at the same time are subjected to
+a combined system of appeal and revision. The arrangement
+of the Indian penal code is natural as well as logical; its basis
+is the law of England stripped of technicality and local peculiarities,
+whilst certain modifications are introduced to meet the
+exigencies of a country such as British India. It opens with a
+chapter of general explanations, and interpretations of the terms
+used throughout the code. It then describes the various punishments
+to which offenders are liable; follows with a list of the
+exceptions regarding criminal responsibility under which a
+person who otherwise would be liable to punishment is exempted
+from the penal consequences of his act, such as offences committed
+by children, by accident or misfortune without any
+criminal intention, offences committed by lunatics, offences
+committed in the exercise of the right of private defence. It
+may be worth while to add, as an innovation on English law,
+that an act which results in harm so slight that no person of
+ordinary sense and temper would complain of such harm is not
+considered an offence under the code. Then follows a chapter
+on abetment, in other words, the instigation of a person to
+do a wrongful act. The next chapters deal with offences against
+the public, including the state, the army and navy, public
+tranquillity, public servants, contempts of the lawful authority
+of public servants, perjury; offences relating to coin and
+government stamps, to weights and measures; offences affecting
+the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals;
+offences relating to religion; and offences relating to the human
+body, from murder down to the infliction of any hurt. The code
+then passes on to offences against property; offences relating
+to forgery, including trade marks, criminal breach of contracts
+for service; offences relating to marriage, defamation, criminal
+intimidation, insult and annoyance. Under this last head is
+included an attempt to cause a person to do anything which
+that person is not legally bound to do, by inducing him to
+believe that he would otherwise become subject to Divine
+displeasure. The last chapter deals with attempts to commit
+offences punishable by the code with transportation or imprisonment,
+and the punishment is limited to one-half of the longest
+term provided for the offence had it been carried out.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>One peculiarity of the Penal Code which has proved eminently
+successful lies in the system of illustration of the offence declared in
+every section by a brief statement of some concrete case. For
+instance, as illustration of the offence of an attempt to commit an
+offence the following examples are given:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. &ldquo;A. makes an attempt to steal some jewels by breaking open
+a box, and finds on opening the box there is no jewel in it. He has
+done an act towards the commission of theft, and therefore is guilty
+under this section.</p>
+
+<p>II. &ldquo;A. makes an attempt to pick the pocket of Z. by thrusting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span>
+his hand into Z.&rsquo;s pocket. A. fails in the attempt in consequence
+of Z. having nothing in his pocket. A. is guilty under this section.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Passing on to the system of criminal procedure which is set
+forth in detail in the Code of Criminal Procedure as amended
+in 1898, it is no doubt modelled on the English system,
+but with considerable modifications. The principal
+<span class="sidenote">Indian code of criminal procedure.</span>
+steps are&mdash;(1) arrest by the police and inquiries by
+the police; (2) the issue of summons or warrant by
+the magistrate; (3) the mode of procedure before the magistrate,
+who may either try the accused himself or commit him to the
+sessions or the High Court, according to the importance of the
+case; (4) procedure before the court of session; (5) appeals,
+reference and revision by the High Court.</p>
+
+<p>Elaborate provision is made for the prevention of offences,
+as regards security for keeping the peace and for good behaviour,
+the dispersion of unlawful assemblies, the suppression of nuisances,
+disputes as to immovable property, which in all Oriental
+countries constitute one of the most frequent causes of a breach
+of the peace.</p>
+
+<p>Ample provision is thus made for the prevention of offences,
+and the code next deals with the mode of prosecution of offences
+actually committed.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, every offence is inquired into and tried by
+the court within the local limits of whose jurisdiction it was
+committed. Differing from the practice of continental countries,
+all offences, even attempts, may be prosecuted after any lapse of
+time. As in England, there is no statutory limitation to a
+criminal offence.</p>
+
+<p>A simple procedure is provided for what are called summons
+cases, as distinguished from warrant cases&mdash;the first being
+offences for which a police officer may arrest without warrant,
+the second being offences where he must have a warrant, or,
+in other words, minor offences and important offences. In
+summons cases no formal charge need be framed. The magistrate
+tells the accused the particulars of the offence charged; if he
+admits his guilt, he is convicted; if he does not, evidence is
+taken, and a finding is given in accordance with the facts as
+proved. When the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the
+magistrate has the power to fine the complainant. The code
+gives power of criminal appeal which goes much further than
+the system in England.</p>
+
+<p>In cases tried by a jury, no appeal lies as to matters of fact,
+but it is allowed as to matters of law; in other cases, criminal
+appeal is admitted on matters of law and fact.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the system of appeal, the superior courts are
+entrusted with a power of revision, which is maintained automatically
+by the periodical transmission to the High Courts of
+calendars and statements of all cases tried by the inferior courts;
+and at the same time, whenever the High Court thinks fit, it
+can call for the record of any trial and pass such orders as it
+deems right. All sentences of death must be confirmed by the
+High Court. No appeal lies against an acquittal in any criminal
+case. This system of appeal, superintendence and revision
+would be totally inapplicable to England, but it has proved
+eminently successful as applied to the present social condition
+of the inhabitants of India. The appeals keep the judges up to
+their work, revision corrects all grave mistakes, superintendence
+is necessary as a kind of discipline over the conduct of judges,
+who are not subjected, as in England, to the criticism of
+enlightened public opinion.</p>
+
+<p>These Indian codes form the basis of the penal, &amp;c., codes in
+force in Ceylon (superseding there the Roman-Dutch law), the
+Straits Settlements, the Sudan and the East Africa protectorates.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been stated that most European states have
+codified their criminal law. The earliest of continental codes
+is that of Charles V., promulgated in 1532, and known
+as <i>Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</i>. Austria made
+<span class="sidenote">Foreign codes.</span>
+further codes in 1768 (<i>Constitutio Criminalis
+Theresiana</i>) and 1787 (Emperor Joseph&rsquo;s code). A new code
+was framed in 1803, and amended in 1852 by reference to the Code
+Napoléon; and in 1906 a completely new code existed in draft.
+The Hungarian penal code dates from 1880. The Bavarian code
+of 1768 of Maximilian, revised in 1861, and the Prussian code
+of 1780, have been superseded by the German penal code
+of 1872.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of the continental criminal codes are those
+of France, the <i>Code Pénal</i> (1810) and the <i>Code d&rsquo;Instruction
+Criminelle</i> (1808)&mdash;the work of Napoleon the Great and his
+advisers, which professedly incorporate much of the Roman law.</p>
+
+<p>The Belgian codes (1867), and the Dutch penal code (1880),
+closely follow the French model. In Spain the penal code dates
+from 1870, the procedure code from 1886. The Spanish American
+republics for the most part also have codes. Portugal has a
+penal code (1852). In Italy the procedure code and the penal
+code, perhaps the completest yet framed, are of 1890. The
+Swedish code dates from 1864. The Norwegian code was passed
+in May 1902, and came into force in 1905. Japan has a code
+based on a study of European and American models; and
+Switzerland is framing a federal criminal code.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States no federal criminal code is possible; but
+most states, following the lead of Louisiana, have digested their
+criminal law and procedure more or less effectually into penal
+codes.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1n" id="Footnote_1n" href="#FnAnchor_1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;It is founded,&rdquo; said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863,
+&ldquo;on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most
+important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation
+there was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an
+entire and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enactments
+of which were for the most part intended to supply the
+deficiencies of the original system. These acts have been re-enacted
+twice over in the present generation&mdash;once between 1826 and 1832
+and once in 1861; besides which they were all amended in 1837.
+Finally, every part of the whole system has been made the subject
+of judicial comments and constructions occasioned by particular
+cases, the great mass of which have arisen within the last fifty years.&rdquo;
+(<i>View of the Criminal Law of England</i>, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2n" id="Footnote_2n" href="#FnAnchor_2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Itinerant justices. From the Latin <i>in itinere</i>, on a journey.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMINOLOGY,<a name="ar270" id="ar270"></a></span> the name given to a new branch of social
+science, devoted to the discussion of the genesis of crime (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which has received much attention in recent years. The expression
+is one of modern coinage, and originated with the speculative
+theories first advanced by the school of sociologists which had
+the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso, at its head. He discovered
+or was supposed to have discovered a criminal type,
+the &ldquo;instinctive&rdquo; or &ldquo;born&rdquo; criminal, a creature who had
+come into the world predestined to evil deeds, and who could
+be surely recognized by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical,
+even moral birthmarks, the possession of which, presumably
+ineradicable, foredoomed him to the commission of crime. Dr
+Lombroso, in his ingenious work <i>L&rsquo;Uomo delinquente</i>, found many
+attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted followers. Large
+numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the conclusions of the
+Italian school have been warmly contested and on very plausible
+grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory of
+free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that
+we have no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled
+to crime by congenital causes, entirely beyond his control.
+The &ldquo;instinctive&rdquo; criminal, under this reasoning, must be
+classed with the lunatic whom we cannot justly, and practically
+never do, punish. There are other points on which proof of the
+existence of the criminal type fails absolutely. The whole
+theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine,
+and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern
+thought that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school
+must be examined and disposed of.</p>
+
+<p>The alleged discovery of the &ldquo;born-criminal&rdquo; as a separate
+and distinct genus of the human species was first published by
+Dr Lombroso in 1876 as the result of long continued investigation
+and examination of a number of imprisoned criminals. The
+personality of this human monster was to be recognized by
+certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all displayed
+by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction
+and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined
+as follows:&mdash;various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding
+foreheads; massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without
+symmetry; ears long, large and projecting (the ear <i>ad ansa</i>);
+noses rectilinear, wrinkles strongly marked, even in the young
+and in both sexes, hair abundant on the head, scanty on the cheeks
+and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold, glassy, ferocious; bad repellent
+faces. Much stress is laid upon the physiognomy, and it is said
+that it is independent of nationality; two natives of the same
+country do not so nearly resemble each other as two criminals of
+different countries. Other peculiarities are:&mdash;great width of
+the extended arms (<i>l&rsquo;envergure</i> of the French), extraordinary
+ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism;
+obtuse sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although
+the eyesight is superior to that of normal people. &ldquo;In general,&rdquo;
+to quote Lombroso, &ldquo;the born criminal has projecting ears, thick
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+hair and thin beard, projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws,
+a square and protruding chin, large cheek bones and frequent
+gesticulation.&rdquo; So much for the anatomical and physiological
+peculiarities of the criminal. There remain the psychological
+or mental characteristics, so far as they have been observed.
+Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience that
+never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to
+be generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want
+of proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads
+so often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly
+marked and shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements
+rather than personal appearance.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner was this new theory made public than the very
+existence of the supposed type was questioned and more evidence
+demanded. A French savant declared that Lombroso&rsquo;s portraits
+were very similar to the photographs of his friends. Save for the
+dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and the misery so often seen
+on it, the face of the criminal does not differ from that of an honest
+man&rsquo;s. It was pointed out that if certain traits denoted the
+criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A
+pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made
+from insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon
+a comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their
+discoveries applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected
+from too small an area and no definite conclusions could be based
+upon them. Moreover, the criminologists were by no means
+unanimous. They differed amongst themselves and often contradicted
+one another as to the characteristics exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent
+persons have been arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso
+was supported by Colajanni, Ferri, Garofalo; in France by
+J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has found few
+followers; Dr Naëcke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the
+most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was
+any special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only
+a qualified approval. In England it stands generally condemned,
+because it gives no importance to circumstance and passing
+temptation, or to domestic or social environment, as affecting
+the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of Broadmoor has said that
+&ldquo;if the criminal is such by predestination, heredity or accidental
+flaws or anomalies in brain or physical structure, he is such for
+good and all; no cure is possible, all the plans and processes
+for his betterment, education, moral training and disciplinary
+treatment are nugatory and vain.&rdquo; No weight can then be
+attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings,
+in moulding and forming character, particularly during the more
+plastic periods of childhood and youth.</p>
+
+<p>The pertinent question remains, has the study and development
+of criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can
+come of it in its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning
+and embraces larger researches. It has inquired into the sources
+and causes of crime, it has collected criminal statistics and
+deduced valuable lessons from them, it has sought and obtained
+guidance in the best methods of prevention, repression, and
+forms of procedure. The champions of law and order have been
+greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the continual
+combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated
+of social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulating
+a number of curious details, in recording the psychology,
+the secret desires, the springs of the criminal&rsquo;s nefarious actions,
+his corrigibility or the reverse, &ldquo;prepared the way to his sociological
+explanation&rdquo; (Tarde). Thanks to the labours of the
+criminologist we are moving steadily forward to a future improved
+treatment of the criminal, and may thus arrive at the
+increased morality and greater safety of society. Very appreciable
+advance has been made in the increased attention paid to
+juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now
+well established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period
+when the moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation
+to crime, when happily human nature is more malleable and
+susceptible to improvement and reform.</p>
+
+<p>The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy
+us that the true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomical
+anomalies of individuals, or in the fact that there are people
+who under &ldquo;any social conditions whatever and of any nationality
+at no matter what epoch, would have undoubtedly become
+murderers and thieves.&rdquo; On the contrary it may be safely
+assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they had,
+<i>e.g.</i>, been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that
+drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of
+their surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the
+hands of administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance
+of child-rescue and judicious direction of adults, have
+held the balance between penal methods, advocating the moralizing
+effect of open-air labour as opposed to prolonged isolation,
+and have insisted upon the desirability of indefinite detention
+for all who have obstinately determined to wage perpetual war
+against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;See A. Weingart, <i>Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch
+für das Untersuchen von Verbrechen</i> (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines,
+<i>Punishment and Reformation</i> (New York, 1895); C. Perrier, <i>Les
+Criminels</i> (Paris, 1905); G. Macé, <i>Femmes criminelles</i> (Paris, 1904);
+E. Carpenter, <i>Prisons, Police and Punishment</i> (1905); R. R. Rentoul,
+<i>Proposed Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates</i>
+(1904); R. Sommer, <i>Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psychopathologie
+auf naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage</i> (Leipzig, 1904);
+F. Kitzinger, <i>Die internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung</i> (1905);
+Reports of Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to
+Secondary Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of
+Commons Committee of 1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of
+the departmental committee of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M.
+inspectors for Great Britain and Ireland.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMMITZSCHAU,<a name="ar271" id="ar271"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Krimmitschau</span>, a town of Germany,
+in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-Hof
+railway, 7 m. N.W. from Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845.
+The most important industries of the town are the manufacture
+of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and vicuna-wool,
+and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning connected
+with these. Among other manufactures are brushes,
+boilers and the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the
+cases and other parts of watches. The town has a modern
+school (Realschule), a commercial school, and technical schools
+for weaving and finishing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMP<a name="ar272" id="ar272"></a></span> (possibly connected with &ldquo;crimp,&rdquo; to draw together,
+or fold in parallel lines, in the sense of &ldquo;confine&rdquo;; the primary
+meaning, however, seems to be that of &ldquo;agent,&rdquo; and the word
+may be a distinct one, of which the origin is lost), an agent for
+the supplying of soldiers and sailors, by kidnapping, drugging,
+decoying or other illegal means. Crimps were formerly regularly
+employed in the days of impressment (<i>q.v.</i>). Now the term is
+used, first of any one who engages to supply merchant seamen
+without a licence from the Board of Trade, and is not either the
+owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the servant,
+and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a superintendent
+(Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 111); and, with a
+wide application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house
+keepers, who are generally in league with the &ldquo;crimp&rdquo; proper.</p>
+
+<p>Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the
+protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from
+imposition. Local authorities at seaports have power to make
+by-laws for the licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for
+sailors, and to inflict penalties for the infringement thereof.
+If this power be not exercised, the Board of Trade may do so.
+Penalties are also imposed by the act for overcharging by
+lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen&rsquo;s effects, and for
+soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from boarding
+a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a port
+may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on discharge,
+and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses.
+Facilities are also given for having wages sent home from foreign
+ports at a small charge. These provisions have practically
+killed &ldquo;crimping&rdquo; in the United Kingdom. In the ports of the
+United States of America crimping was long prevalent, especially
+on the Pacific coast, and its prevention was very difficult, but
+state regulations as to the licensing of boarding-houses, and
+the limitation of the amount of so-called &ldquo;blood-money&rdquo; paid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span>
+by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to ships denuded
+by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;to shanghai&rdquo; is used of a more serious offence.
+Literally meaning &ldquo;to ship to Shanghai,&rdquo; in China, it is applied
+to the drugging or rendering unconscious by violence or other
+means of persons, whether sailors or not, and shipping them
+to distant ports, in order fraudulently to obtain money in advance
+of wages, or for the sake of the premium paid for supplying crews.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIMSON<a name="ar273" id="ar273"></a></span>, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to
+a greater or less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye
+produced from the dried bodies of the cochineal insect (<i>Coccus
+cacti</i>). The word, in its earlier forms <i>cremesin, crymysyn</i>, also
+<i>cramoysin</i>, cf. &ldquo;cramoisy,&rdquo; the name of a red cloth, is adapted
+from the Med. Lat. <i>cremesinus</i> for <i>kermesinus</i> or <i>carmesinus</i>,
+the dye produced from the insect <i>Kermes</i> (<i>Coccus ilicis</i>), Arab.
+<i>quirmiz</i>, which Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) connects with the
+Sanskrit <i>krimi</i>, cognate with Lat. <i>vermis</i> and Eng. &ldquo;worm.&rdquo;
+From the Lat. <i>carminus</i>, a shortened form of carmesinus,
+comes &ldquo;carmine&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRINAGORAS<a name="ar274" id="ar274"></a></span>, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished
+during the reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number
+of epigrams appear under his name in the Greek Anthology.
+From inscriptions discovered at Mytilene, he appears to have
+been one of the ambassadors sent from that city to Rome in
+45 and 26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRINOLINE<a name="ar275" id="ar275"></a></span> (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. <i>crinis</i>, hair, and
+<i>linum</i>, thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and
+cotton or linen thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-like
+material used in making hat shapes, are also known by the
+same name. From the use of the material to expand ladies&rsquo; skirts
+the term was applied, during the third quarter of the 19th
+century, when the fashion of wearing greatly expanded skirts
+was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops employed
+to support the skirts thus worn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>). The term is also
+used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the
+framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection
+for a warship against torpedo attack.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRINUM<a name="ar276" id="ar276"></a></span>, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous
+plants with rather broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing
+a cluster of handsome white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers.
+They are well known in cultivation, and owing to the wide
+distribution of the genus different methods are adopted with
+different species. Some require the hot, moist temperature of
+a stove; such are <i>C. amabile</i>, a native of Sumatra, <i>C. amoenum</i>
+(India), <i>C. Balfourii</i> (Socotra), <i>C. giganteum</i> (West tropical
+Africa), <i>C. Kirkii</i> (Zanzibar), <i>C. latifolium</i> (India), <i>C. zeylanicum</i>
+(tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a greenhouse;
+such are <i>C. asiaticum</i>, a widely distributed plant on the
+sea-coast of tropical Asia, <i>C. capense</i> and <i>C. longiflorum</i>, from
+the Cape, and <i>C. Macowani</i> and <i>C. Moorei</i> from Natal. <i>C.
+asiaticum</i>, <i>C. capense</i> and <i>C. Macowani</i> will also thrive in sheltered
+positions in the garden.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIOBOLIUM<a name="ar277" id="ar277"></a></span>, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and
+the Great Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony
+instituted after the rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium
+(<i>q.v.</i>), which was performed in honour of the Great Mother, for
+the purpose of giving fuller recognition to Attis in the duality
+which he formed with the Mother. There is no evidence of its
+existence either in Asia or in Italy before the taurobolium came
+into prominence (after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 134). When the criobolium was
+performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar was
+almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while
+the inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium
+only was performed. The celebration of the criobolium was
+widespread, and its importance such that it was sometimes
+performed in place of the taurobolium (<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> vi.
+505, 506). The details and effect of the ceremony were no doubt
+similar to those of the taurobolium.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIPPLE CREEK<a name="ar278" id="ar278"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Teller county,
+almost at the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of
+the phenomenal mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900)
+10,147 (1408 foreign-born); (1910) 6206. The city is served
+by three railways&mdash;the Colorado Springs &amp; Cripple Creek
+District (a branch of the Colorado &amp; Southern), the Midland
+Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with
+the Colorado Midland), and the Florence &amp; Cripple Creek.
+Cripple Creek is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid
+the ranges, about 9600 ft. above the sea at the head of the stream
+after which it is named. The municipal water-supply is drawn
+from Pike&rsquo;s Peak, 10 m. distant. The interest of the city is in
+its extraordinary mines and their history. Cripple Creek&rsquo;s site
+was frequently prospected after 1860, and &ldquo;colours&rdquo; and gold
+&ldquo;float&rdquo; were always found, but not until February 1891 was
+the source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle
+range. In 1891 the output of gold in the district was valued
+at $449, in 1892 at $583,010, and in the next three years at
+$2,010,367, $2,908,702 and $6,879,137 respectively. From
+1891 to 1906 the total production of gold was valued at
+$168,584,331; in 1905<a name="FnAnchor_1o" id="FnAnchor_1o" href="#Footnote_1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the product of gold was valued at
+$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at
+$25,023,973; in 1906 the output for the district was valued
+at $14,253,245, out of $23,210,629 for the entire state. The
+development of the camp into a yellow-pine town and then into
+something more like a substantial city was marvellously rapid.
+The first railway was completed in 1894. In the same year a
+great strike&mdash;one of the most famous in American industrial
+history&mdash;threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines;
+in 1896 fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second
+strike, lasting more than a year and greater than the first,
+occurred. The first strike, which was for an eight-hour day
+and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners. The second, for the
+recognition outright of the union organization of the miners,
+secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The ores
+are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most characteristic
+form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very
+rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this
+accounted for the late opening of the field. The field covers a
+district about 8 × 10 m. Some peculiarities of the ores have
+required the use of new methods in their treatment, and in
+general the development of mining methods and machinery is
+of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is
+seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are
+dotted everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous
+mines have been the &ldquo;Independence&rdquo; (1891) and the &ldquo;Portland&rdquo;
+(1892). The latter had in 1904 more than 25 m. of
+workings above the 1100-ft. level. In 1903 the El Paso drain
+was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to the
+880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs;
+in 1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on
+a long bore was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and
+cyanide extracters in the district, but the bulk of the ore product
+is shipped to other places for treatment. Among the towns
+around Cripple Creek in the same mining district is Victor,
+pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as a city in
+1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, <i>Geology and Gold Deposits of
+the Cripple Creek District, Colorado</i>, with maps (Washington, 1906),
+being Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological
+Survey; and Benjamin McKie Rastall, <i>The Labor History of the
+Cripple Creek District; A Study in Industrial Evolution</i> (Madison,
+Wis., 1908), a full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1o" id="Footnote_1o" href="#FnAnchor_1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The value of gold mined in 1899-1902 was greater, annually,
+than the product of 1905 or 1906; up to 1905 the greatest annual
+value was in 1900, $18,073,539.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRISA<a name="ar279" id="ar279"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Crissa</span>, in ancient geography, one of the oldest
+cities of Greece, situated in Phocis, on one of the spurs of
+Parnassus. Its name occurs both in the <i>Iliad</i> and in the Homeric
+<i>Hymns</i>, where it is described as a powerful place, with a rich
+and fertile territory, reaching to the sea, and including within
+its limits the sanctuary of Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew
+up around the shrine, and the seaport of Cirrha arose on the
+Crisean Gulf, Crisa gradually lost much of its importance. By
+the ancients themselves the name of Cirrha was so often substituted
+for that of Crisa, that it soon became doubtful whether
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span>
+these names indicated the same city or not. The question was
+practically settled by the investigations of H. N. Ulrichs. From
+its position Cirrha commanded the approach to Delphi, and its
+inhabitants became obnoxious to the Greeks from the heavy
+tolls which they exacted from the devotees who thronged to
+the shrine. The Amphictyonic Council declared war (the first
+Sacred War) against the Criseans in 595 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and having taken
+the town, razed it to the ground, and consecrated its territory
+to the temple at Delphi. The plunder of the town was sold to
+defray the expenses of the Pythian games. In 339 the people
+of Amphissa began to rebuild the town of Cirrha and to cultivate
+the plain. This act brought on the second Sacred War, the
+conduct of which was entrusted by the Amphictyons to Philip
+of Macedon, who took Amphissa (mod. Salona) in the following
+year. The ruins of Crisa may be still seen where the ravine of
+the Pleistus joins the plain; its name is probably preserved by
+the modern Chryso.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. G. Frazer&rsquo;s <i>Pausanias</i>, v. 459 (note on x. 37.5).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRISPI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar280" id="ar280"></a></span> (1819-1901), Italian statesman, was
+born at Ribéra in Sicily on the 4th of October 1819. In 1846
+he established himself as advocate at Naples. On the outbreak
+of the Sicilian revolution at Palermo (January 12, 1848) he
+hastened to the island and took an active part in guiding the
+insurrection. Upon the restoration of the Bourbon government
+(May 15, 1849) he was excluded from the amnesty and compelled
+to flee to Piedmont. Here he unsuccessfully applied for a
+situation as communal secretary of Verolengo, and eked out a
+penurious existence by journalism. Implicated in the Mazzinian
+conspiracy at Milan (February 6, 1853), he was expelled from
+Piedmont, and obliged to take refuge at Malta, whence he fled
+to Paris. Expelled from France, he joined Mazzini in London,
+and continued to conspire for the redemption of Italy. On the
+15th of June 1859 he returned to Italy after publishing a letter
+repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont, and proclaiming
+himself a republican and a partisan of national unity.
+Twice in that year he went the round of the Sicilian cities
+in disguise, and prepared the insurrectionary movement of
+1860.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to Genoa he organized, with Bertani, Bixio,
+Medici and Garibaldi, the expedition of the Thousand, and
+overcoming by a stratagem the hesitation of Garibaldi, secured
+the departure of the expedition on the 5th of May 1860. Disembarking
+at Marsala on the 11th, Crispi on the 13th, at Salemi,
+drew up the proclamation whereby Garibaldi assumed the
+dictatorship of Sicily, with the programme: &ldquo;Italy and Victor
+Emmanuel.&rdquo; After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed
+minister of the interior and of finance in the Sicilian provisional
+government, but was shortly afterwards obliged to resign on
+account of the struggle between Garibaldi and the emissaries of
+Cavour with regard to the question of immediate annexation.
+Appointed secretary to Garibaldi, Crispi secured the resignation
+of Depretis, whom Garibaldi had appointed pro-dictator, and
+would have continued his fierce opposition to Cavour at Naples,
+where he had been placed by Garibaldi in the foreign office, had
+not the advent of the Italian regular troops and the annexation
+of the Two Sicilies to Italy brought about Garibaldi&rsquo;s withdrawal
+to Caprera and Crispi&rsquo;s own resignation. Entering parliament
+in 1861 as deputy of the extreme Left for Castelvetrano, Crispi
+acquired the reputation of being the most aggressive and most
+impetuous member of the republican party. In 1864, however,
+he made at the chamber a monarchical profession of faith, in
+the famous phrase afterwards repeated in his letter to Mazzini:
+&ldquo;The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us.&rdquo;
+In 1860 he refused to enter the Ricasoli cabinet; in 1867 he
+worked to impede the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states,
+foreseeing the French occupation of Rome and the disaster of
+Mentana. By methods of the same character as those subsequently
+employed against himself by Cavallotti, he carried on
+the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which sundry
+conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused
+of corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
+worked energetically to impede the projected alliance with
+France, and to drive the Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death of
+Ratazzi in 1873 induced Crispi&rsquo;s friends to put forward his
+candidature to the leadership of the Left; but Crispi, anxious
+to reassure the crown, secured the election of Depretis. After
+the advent of the Left he was elected (November 1876) president
+of the chamber. During the autumn of 1877 he went to London,
+Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial
+personal relationships with Gladstone, Granville and other
+English statesmen, and with Bismarck.</p>
+
+<p>In December 1877 he replaced Nicotera as minister of the
+interior in the Depretis cabinet, his short term of office (70 days)
+being signalized by a series of important events. On January 9,
+1878, the death of Victor Emmanuel and the accession of King
+Humbert enabled Crispi to secure the formal establishment of a
+unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the title of Humbert
+I. of Italy instead of Humbert IV. of Savoy. The remains of
+Victor Emmanuel were interred in the Pantheon instead of being
+transported to the Savoy Mausoleum at Superga. On the 9th
+of February, 1879, the death of Pius IX. necessitated a conclave,
+the first to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped
+by Mancini and Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), persuaded
+the Sacred College to hold the conclave in Rome, and prorogued
+the chamber lest any untoward manifestation should mar the
+solemnity of the event. The statesmanlike qualities displayed
+on this occasion were unavailing to avert the storm of indignation
+conjured up by Crispi&rsquo;s opponents in connexion with a charge
+of bigamy not susceptible of legal proof. Crispi was compelled
+to resign office, although the judicial authorities upheld the
+invalidity of his early marriage, contracted at Malta in 1853,
+and ratified his subsequent union with Signora Barbagallo.
+For nine years Crispi remained politically under a cloud, but in
+1887 returned to office as minister of the interior in the Depretis
+cabinet, succeeding to the premiership upon the death of Depretis
+(July 29, 1887).</p>
+
+<p>One of his first acts as premier was a visit to Bismarck, whom
+he desired to consult upon the working of the Triple Alliance.
+Basing his foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by
+the naval <i>entente</i> with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor,
+Count Robilant, Crispi assumed a resolute attitude towards
+France, breaking off the prolonged and unfruitful negotiations
+for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty, and refusing the
+French invitation to organize an Italian section at the Paris
+Exhibition of 1889. At home Crispi secured the adoption of the
+Sanitary and Commercial Codes, and reformed the administration
+of justice. Forsaken by his Radical friends, Crispi governed with
+the help of the Right until, on the 31st of January 1891, an
+intemperate allusion to the <i>sante memorie</i> of the conservative
+party led to his overthrow. In December 1893 the impotence
+of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public order, then menaced by
+disturbances in Sicily and in Lunigiana, gave rise to a general
+demand that Crispi should return to power. Upon resuming
+office he vigorously suppressed the disorders, and steadily
+supported the energetic remedies adopted by Sonnino, minister
+of finance, to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken
+by the bank and financial crises of 1892-1893. Crispi&rsquo;s uncompromising
+suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon
+either the Triple Alliance or the Eritrean colony, or to forsake
+his colleague Sonnino, caused a breach between him and the
+radical leader Cavallotti. Cavallotti then began against him a
+pitiless campaign of defamation. An unsuccessful attempt upon
+Crispi&rsquo;s life by the anarchist Lega brought a momentary truce,
+but Cavallotti&rsquo;s attacks were soon renewed more fiercely than
+ever. They produced so little effect that the general election of
+1895 gave Crispi a huge majority, but, a year later, the defeat
+of the Italian army at Adowa in Abyssinia brought about his
+resignation. The ensuing Rudini cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti&rsquo;s
+campaign, and at the end of 1897 the judicial authorities applied
+to the chamber for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzlement.
+A parliamentary commission, appointed to inquire into
+the charges against him, discovered only that Crispi, on assuming
+office in 1893, had found the secret service coffers empty, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span>
+had borrowed from a state bank the sum of £12,000 for secret
+service, repaying it with the monthly instalments granted in
+regular course by the treasury. The commission, considering
+this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the chamber adopted,
+a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution. Crispi
+resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an overwhelming
+majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents.
+For some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on
+account of his growing blindness. A successful operation for
+cataract restored his eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstanding
+his 81 years he resumed to some extent his former political
+activity. Soon afterwards, however, his health began to give
+way permanently, and he died at Naples on the 12th of August
+1901.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of Crispi in Italian public life depended less
+upon the many reforms accomplished under his administrations
+than upon his intense patriotism, remarkable fibre, and capacity
+for administering to his fellow-countrymen the political tonic of
+which they stood in constant need. In regard to foreign politics
+he greatly contributed to raise Italian prestige and to dispel
+the reputation for untrustworthiness and vacillation acquired
+by many of his predecessors. If in regard to France his policy
+appeared to lack suavity and circumspection, it must be remembered
+that the French republic was then engaged in active
+anti-Italian schemes and was working, both at the Vatican and
+in the sphere of colonial politics, to create a situation that should
+compel Italy to bow to French exigencies and to abandon the
+Triple Alliance. Crispi was prepared to cultivate good relations
+with France, but refused to yield to pressure or to submit to dictation;
+and in this attitude he was firmly supported by the bulk
+of his fellow-countrymen. The criticism freely directed against
+him was based rather upon the circumstances of his unfortunate
+private life and the misdeeds of an unscrupulous <i>entourage</i> which
+traded upon his name than upon his personal or political shortcomings.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Scritti e discorsi politici di F. Crispi, 1847-1890</i> (Rome, 1890);
+<i>Francesco Crispi</i>, by W. J. Stillman (London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRISPIN<a name="ar281" id="ar281"></a></span> and <span class="bold">CRISPINIAN</span>, the patron saints of shoemakers,
+whose festival is celebrated on the 25th of October. Their
+history is largely legendary, and there exists no trace of it earlier
+than the 8th century. It is said that they were brothers and
+members of a noble family in Rome. They gave up their property
+and travelled to Soissons (Noviodunum, Augusta Sucessionum),
+where they supported themselves by shoemaking and made many
+converts to Christianity. The emperor Maximianus (Herculius)
+condemned them to death. His prefect Rictiovarus endeavoured
+to carry out the sentence, but they emerged unharmed from all
+the ordeals to which he subjected them, and the weapons he used
+recoiled against the executioners. Rictiovarus in disgust cast
+himself into the fire, or the caldron of boiling tar, from which
+they had emerged refreshed. At last Maximian had their heads
+cut off (c. 287-300). Their remains were buried at Soissons,
+but were afterwards removed, partly by Charlemagne to Osnabrück
+(where a festival is observed annually on the 20th of June)
+and partly to the chapel of St Lawrence in Rome. The abbeys
+of St Crépin-en-Chaye (the remains of which still form part of a
+farmhouse on the river Aisne, N.N.W. of Soissons), of St Crépin-le-Petit,
+and St Crépin-le-Grand (the site of which is occupied
+by a house belonging to the Sisters of Mercy), in or near Soissons,
+commemorated the places sanctified by their imprisonment and
+burial. There are also relics at Fulda, and a Kentish tradition
+claims that the bodies of the martyrs were cast into the sea and
+cast on shore on Romney Marsh (see <i>Acta SS. Bolland</i>, xi. 495;
+A. Butler, <i>Lives of the Saints</i>. October 25th).</p>
+
+<p>Especially in France, but also in England and in other parts of
+Europe, the festival of St Crispin was for centuries the occasion
+of solemn processions and merry-making, in which gilds of shoemakers
+took the chief part. At Troyes, where the gild of St
+Crispin was reconstituted as late as 1820, an annual festival is
+celebrated in the church of St Urban. In England and Scotland
+the day acquired additional importance as the anniversary of
+the battle of Agincourt (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Henry V.</i> iv. 3); the
+symbolical processions in honour of &ldquo;King Crispin&rdquo; at Stirling
+and Edinburgh were particularly famous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For other examples see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 1st series, v. 30, vi. 243;
+W. S. Walsh, <i>Curiosities of Popular Customs</i> (London, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRITIAS<a name="ar282" id="ar282"></a></span>, Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty
+Tyrants. In his youth he was a pupil of Gorgias and Socrates,
+but subsequently devoted himself to political intrigues. In
+415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae and
+imprisoned. In 411 he helped to put down the Four Hundred,
+and was instrumental in procuring the recall of Alcibiades.
+He was banished (probably in the democratic reaction of 407)
+and fled to Thessaly, where he stirred up the Penestae (the helots
+of Thessaly) against their masters, and endeavoured to establish
+a democracy. Returning to Athens he was made ephor by the
+oligarchical party; and he was the most cruel and unscrupulous
+of the Thirty Tyrants who in 404 were appointed by the Lacedaemonians.
+He was slain in battle against Thrasybulus and the
+returning democrats. Critias was a man of varied talents&mdash;poet,
+orator, historian and philosopher. Some fragments of his
+elegies will be found in Bergk, <i>Poetae Lyrici Graeci</i>. He was
+also the author of several tragedies and of biographies of distinguished
+poets (possibly in verse).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, ii. 3. 4. 19, <i>Memorabilia</i>, i. 2; Cornelius
+Nepos, <i>Thrasybulus</i>, 2; R. Lallier, <i>De Critiae tyranni vita ac
+scriptis</i> (1875); Nestle, <i>Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl. Altert.</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRITICISM<a name="ar283" id="ar283"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kritês">&#954;&#961;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, a judge, <span class="grk" title="krinein">&#954;&#961;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to decide,
+to give an authoritative opinion), the art of judging the qualities
+and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or the
+fine arts.<a name="FnAnchor_1p" id="FnAnchor_1p" href="#Footnote_1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It involves, in the first instance, the formation
+and expression of a judgment on the qualities of anything, and
+Matthew Arnold defined it in this general sense as &ldquo;a disinterested
+endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and
+thought in the world.&rdquo; It has come, however, to possess a
+secondary and specialized meaning as a published analysis
+of the qualities and characteristics of a work in literature or fine
+art, itself taking the form of independent literature. The sense
+in which criticism is taken as implying censure, the &ldquo;picking
+holes&rdquo; in any statement or production, is frequent, but it is
+entirely unjustifiable. There is nothing in the proper scope of
+criticism which presupposes blame. On the contrary, a work
+of perfect beauty and fitness, in which no fault could possibly
+be found with justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to deal
+with as a work of the greatest imperfection. It may be perfectly
+just to state that a book or a picture is &ldquo;beneath criticism,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> is so wanting in all qualities of originality and technical
+excellence that time would merely be wasted in analysing it.
+But it can never be properly said that a work is &ldquo;above criticism,&rdquo;
+although it may be &ldquo;above censure,&rdquo; for the very complexity
+of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the
+skill of the analyser and reward it.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary at the threshold of an examination of the
+history of criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing
+is more confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose
+that it consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy.
+Candid criticism should be neither benevolent nor adverse;
+its function is to give a just judgment, without partiality or bias.
+A critic (<span class="grk" title="kritikos">&#954;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>) is one who exercises the art of criticism,
+who sets himself up, or is set up, as a judge of literary and
+artistic merit. The irritability of mankind, which easily forgets
+and neglects praise, but cannot forgive the rankling poison of
+blame, has set upon the word <i>critic</i> a seal which is even more
+unamiable than that of <i>criticism</i>. It takes its most savage form
+in Benjamin Disraeli&rsquo;s celebrated and deplorable <i>dictum</i>, &ldquo;the
+critics are the men who have failed in literature and art.&rdquo; It
+is plain that such names as those of Aristotle, Dante, Dryden,
+Joshua Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not
+to be thus swept by a reckless fulmination. There have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+many critics who brought from failure in imaginative composition
+a cavilling, jealous and ignoble temper, who have mainly
+exercised their function in indulging the evil passion of envy.
+But, so far as they have done this, they have proved themselves
+bad critics, and neither minute care, nor a basis of learning, nor
+wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must be,
+can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on
+the desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure
+unfairly. The examination of what has been produced by other
+ages of human thought is much less liable to this dangerous error
+than the attempt to estimate contemporary works of art and
+literature. There are few indeed whom personal passion can
+blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a poem of the
+17th century. In the higher branches of historical criticism,
+prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and therefore,
+in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to leave out
+of consideration that invidious and fugitive species which bears
+the general name of &ldquo;reviewing.&rdquo; This pedestrian criticism,
+indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very
+nature, ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks.
+Even when the reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is
+almost impossible for him to stand far enough back from the
+object under review to see it in its proper perspective. He is
+dazzled, or scandalized, by its novelty; he has formed a preconceived
+notion of the degree to which its author should be
+encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases, an element
+in the mental condition which he attempts to judge, and if
+not positively a defendant is at least a juryman in the court over
+which he ought to preside with remote impartiality.</p>
+
+<p>It may be laid down as the definition of criticism in its pure
+sense, that it should consist in the application, in the most competent
+form, of the principles of literary composition. Those
+principles are the general aesthetics upon which taste is founded;
+they take the character of rules of writing. From the days of
+Aristotle the existence of such rules has not been doubted, but
+different orders of mind in various ages have given them diverse
+application, and upon this diversity the fluctuations of taste
+are founded. It is now generally admitted that in past ages
+critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate
+taste rigidly, and to lay down rules that shall match every case
+with a formula. Over-legislation has been the bane of official
+criticism, and originality, especially in works of creative imagination,
+has been condemned because it did not conform to existing
+rules. Such instances of want of contemporary appreciation
+as the reception given to William Blake or Keats, or even Milton,
+are quoted to prove the futility of criticism. As a matter of
+fact they do nothing of the kind. They merely prove the
+immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic
+products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed
+during the life-times of those illustrious men. False critics have
+built domes of glass, as Voltaire put it, between the heavens and
+themselves, domes which genius has to shatter in pieces before
+it can make itself comprehended. In critical application formulas
+are often useful, but they should be held lightly; when the
+formula becomes the tyrant where it should be the servant of
+thought, fatal error is imminent. What is required above all
+else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with good sense, and
+combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste. He who possesses
+these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his error
+cannot become radical, and he is always open to correction. It
+is not his business crudely to pronounce a composition &ldquo;good&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;bad&rdquo;; he must be able to show why it is &ldquo;good&rdquo; and
+wherein it is &ldquo;bad&rdquo;; he must admire with independence and
+blame with careful candour. He must above all be assiduous
+to escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal lack of
+thought under a flow of words. The finest criticism should take
+every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it
+necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book.
+A large part of the reason why the criticism of productions of
+the past is so much more fruitful than mere contemporary
+reviewing, is that by remoteness from the scene of action the
+critic is able to make himself familiar with all the elements of
+age, place and medium which affected the writer at the moment
+of his composition. In short, knowledge and even taste are not
+sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion of a still
+rarer quality, breadth of sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to
+reach maturity, but from very early times the instinct which
+induces mankind to review what it has produced led to the
+composition of imperfect but often extremely valuable bodies
+of opinion. What makes these early criticisms tantalizing is
+that the moral or political aspects of literature had not disengaged
+themselves from the purely intellectual or aesthetic.</p>
+
+<p>To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find
+that in antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the father and almost
+as the founder of literary criticism. Yet before his day, three
+Greek writers of eminence had examined, in more or less fulness,
+the principles of composition; these were Plato, Isocrates and
+Aristophanes. The comedy of <i>The Frogs</i>, by the latter, is the
+earliest specimen we possess of hostile literary criticism, being
+devoted to ridicule of the plays of Euripides. In the cases of
+Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form mainly of an
+examination of the rules of rhetoric. We reach, however, much
+firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose <i>Poetics</i> and
+<i>Rhetoric</i> are among the most valuable treatises which antiquity
+has handed down to us. Of what existed in the literature of his
+age, extremely rich in some branches, entirely empty in others,
+Aristotle speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G.
+Saintsbury has justly remarked that as his criticism of poetry
+was injuriously affected by the non-existence of the novelist, so
+his criticism of prose was injuriously affected by the omnipresence
+of the orator. This continues true of all ancient criticism. A
+work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study of Homer
+is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in
+the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less
+important than the foundation on which all subsequent European
+criticism has been raised. It does not appear that any of the
+numerous disciples of Aristotle understood his attitude to literature,
+nor do the later philosophical schools offer much of interest.
+The Neoplatonists, however, were occupied with analysis of the
+Beautiful, on which both Proclus and Plotinus expatiated;
+still more purely literary were some of the treatises of Porphyry.
+There seems to be no doubt that Alexandria possessed, in the
+third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians; the names
+of Zenodotus, of Crates and of Aristarchus were eminent in this
+connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived.
+They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere
+rhetoricians of the last Greek schools, such as Hermogenes and
+Aphthonius. In the 2nd century of our era, Dio Chrysostom,
+Aristides of Smyrna, and Maximus of Tyre were the main
+representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded by Philostratus
+and Libanius. The most modern of post-Christian Greek
+critics, however, is unquestionably Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+who leads up to Lucian and Cassius Longinus. The last-mentioned
+name calls for special notice; in &ldquo;the lovely and
+magnificent personality of Longinus&rdquo; we find the most intelligent
+judge of literature who wrote between Aristotle and the
+moderns. His book <i>On the Sublime</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri hupsous">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#8021;&#968;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>), probably
+written about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 260, and first printed in 1554, is of extreme
+importance, while his intuitions and the splendour of his style
+combine to lift Longinus to the highest rank among the critics
+of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent
+position. In early days the rhetorical works of Cicero and the
+famous <i>Art of Poetry</i> of Horace exhaust the category. During the
+later Augustan period the only literary critic of importance was
+the elder Seneca. Passing over the valuable allusions to the art
+of writing in the poets, especially in Juvenal and Martial, we
+reach, in the Silver Age, Quintilian, the most accomplished
+of all the Roman critics. His <i>Institutes of Oratory</i> has been
+described as the fullest and most intelligent application of
+criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one
+which places the name of Quintilian not far below those of
+Aristotle and Longinus. He was followed by Aulus Gellius,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span>
+by Macrobius (whose reputation was great in the middle ages),
+by Servius (the great commentator on Virgil), and, after a long
+interval, by Martianus Capella. Latin criticism sank into mere
+pedantry about rhetoric and grammar. This continued throughout
+the Dark Ages, until the 13th century, when rhythmical treatises,
+of which the <i>Labyrinthus</i> of Eberhard (1212?) and the <i>Ars
+rhythmica</i> of John of Garlandia (John Garland) are the most
+famous, came into fashion. These writings testified to a growing
+revival of a taste for poetry.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the masterly technical treatise <i>De vulgari
+eloquio</i>, generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in
+Italian) in 1529, that modern poetical criticism takes its first step.
+The example of this admirable book was not adequately followed;
+throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, criticism is mainly
+indirect and accidental. Boccaccio, indeed, is the only figure
+worthy of mention, between Dante and Erasmus. With the
+Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in Italy,
+producing such excellent specimens as the <i>Sylvae</i> of Poliziano,
+the <i>Poetics</i> (1527) of Vida, and the <i>Poetica</i> of Trissino, the best
+of a whole crop of critical works produced, often by famous
+names, between 1525 and 1560. These were followed by sounder
+scholars and acuter theorists: by Scaliger with his epoch-making
+<i>Poetices</i> (1561); by L. Castelvetro, whose <i>Poetica</i> (1570)
+started the modern cultivation of the Unities and asserted the
+value of the Epic; by Tasso with his <i>Discorsi</i> (1587); and by
+Francesco Patrizzi in his <i>Poetica</i> (1586).</p>
+
+<p>In France, the earliest and for a long time the most important
+specimen of literary criticism was the <i>Défense et illustration de
+la langue française</i>, published in 1549 by Joachim du Bellay.
+Ronsard, also, wrote frequently and ably on the art of poetry.
+The theories of the Pléiade were summed up in the <i>Art poétique</i>
+of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which belongs to 1574 (though not
+printed until 1605).</p>
+
+<p>In England, the earliest literary critic of importance was
+Thomas Wilson, whose <i>Art of Rhetoric</i> was printed in 1553,
+and the earliest student of poetry, George Gascoigne, whose
+<i>Instruction</i> appeared in 1575. Gascoigne is the first writer
+who deals intelligently with the subject of English prosody.
+He was followed by Thomas Drant, Harvey, Gosson, Lodge
+and Sidney, whose controversial pamphlets belong to the period
+between 1575 and 1580. Among Elizabethan &ldquo;arts&rdquo; or &ldquo;defences&rdquo;
+of English poetry are to be mentioned those of William
+Webbe (1586), George Puttenham (1589), Thomas Campion
+(1602), and Samuel Daniel (1603). With the tractates of Ben
+Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the Renaissance may
+be said to close.</p>
+
+<p>A new era began throughout Europe when Malherbe started,
+about 1600, a taste for the neo-classic or anti-romantic school
+of poetry, taking up the line which had been foreshadowed by
+Castelvetro. <i>Enfin Malherbe vint</i>, and he was supported in his
+revolution by Regnier, Vaugelas, Balzac, and finally by Corneille
+himself, in his famous prefatory discourses. It was Boileau,
+however, who more than any other man stood out at the close of
+the 17th century as the law-giver of Parnassus. The rules of the
+neo-classics were drawn together and arranged in a system by
+René Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared
+between 1668 and 1674. It is in writings of this man, and of
+the Jesuits, Le Bossu and Bouhours, that the preposterous
+rigidity of the formal classic criticism is most plainly seen. The
+influence of these three critics was, however, very great throughout
+Europe, and we trace it in the writings of Dryden, Addison
+and Rymer. In the course of the 18th century, when the neoclassic
+creed was universally accepted, Pope, Blair, Kames,
+Harris, Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were its most distinguished
+exponents in England, while Voltaire, Buffon (to
+whom we owe the phrase &ldquo;the style is the man&rdquo;), Marmontel,
+La Harpe and Suard were the types of academic opinion in
+France.</p>
+
+<p>Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when
+the neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe
+at the very close of the 18th century. It has been heralded in
+Germany by the writings of Lessing, and in France by those of
+Diderot. Of the reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th
+century it is impossible to speak here with any fulness, it is
+contained in the record of the recent literature of each European
+language. It is noticeable, in England, that the predominant
+place in it was occupied, in violent contrast with Disraeli&rsquo;s
+dictum, by those who had obviously <i>not</i> failed in imaginative
+composition, by Wordsworth, by Shelley, by Keats, by Landor,
+and pre-eminently by S. T. Coleridge, who was one of the most
+penetrative, original and imaginative critics who have ever lived.
+In France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored
+or even qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains
+as much a master as he was a precursor. He was followed by
+Théophile Gautier, Saint-Marc, Girardin, Paul de Saint Victor,
+and a crowd of others, down to Taine and the latest school of
+individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew Arnold, Pater,
+and their followers in England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Saintsbury, <i>A History of Criticism</i> (3 vols., 1902-1904);
+J. E. Spingarn, <i>A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance</i>
+(2nd ed. 1908); Théry, <i>Histoire des opinions littéraires</i> (1849); J. A.
+Symonds, <i>The Revival of Learning</i> (1877); Matthew Arnold, <i>Essays
+in Criticism</i>, i. (1865), ii. (1868); Bourgoin, <i>Les Maîtres de la critique
+au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1889); Paul Hamelius, <i>Die Kritik in der englischen
+Literatur</i> (1897); S. H. Butcher, <i>The Poetics of</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from Artistotle"><i>Aristotle</i></span> (1898);
+H. L. Havell and Andrew Lang, <i>Longinus on the Sublime</i> (1890).
+See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew Arnold, F. Brunetière,
+Anatole France, Walter Pater, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1p" id="Footnote_1p" href="#FnAnchor_1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in this
+article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses,
+generally with some word of qualification, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;textual criticism&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;higher criticism&rdquo;; see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Textual Criticism</a></span> and the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span> for an outstanding example of both &ldquo;textual&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;higher.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRITIUS<a name="ar284" id="ar284"></a></span> and <span class="bold">NESIOTES</span>, two Greek sculptors of uncertain
+school, of the time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried
+away to Persia the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton made
+by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were commissioned to replace
+them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two statues at Naples,
+wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified as copies of
+the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the words
+in which Lucian (<i>Rhetor. praecepta</i>, 9) describes the works of
+Critius and Nesiotes, &ldquo;closely knit and sinewy, and hard and
+severe in outline.&rdquo; Critius also made a statue of the armed
+runner Epicharinus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRITOLAUS<a name="ar285" id="ar285"></a></span>, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in
+the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He lived to the age of eighty-two and died
+probably before 111 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He studied philosophy under Aristo
+of Ceos and became one of the leaders of the Peripatetic school
+by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a moralist. There
+has been considerable discussion as to whether he was the
+immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and
+unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peripatetic
+succession (cf. Cicero, <i>De fin.</i> v. 5 &ldquo;C. imitari antiquos
+voluit&rdquo;), though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors.
+For example, he held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, <i>Noctes
+Atticae</i>, ix. 5. 6), and definitely maintained that the soul consists
+of aether. The end of existence was to him the general perfection
+of the natural life, including the goods of the soul and the body,
+and also external goods. Cicero says in the <i>Tusculans</i> that the
+goods of the soul entirely outweighed for him the other goods
+(&ldquo;tantum propendere illam bonorum animi lancem&rdquo;). Further,
+he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic doctrine of the
+eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the human race.
+There is no observed change in the natural order of things;
+mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the
+capacity given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is
+heir, though fatal to individuals, do not avail to modify the
+whole. Just as it is absurd to suppose that man is merely
+earth-born, so the possibility of his ultimate destruction is
+inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation of eternal order,
+must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not recorded.
+One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero (<i>Acad.</i> ii. 45) it
+appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome
+in 156-155 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed
+on Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three
+ambassadors lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much
+success that Cato was alarmed and had them dismissed the
+city. Gellius describes his arguments as <i>scita et teretia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Consult the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peripatetics</a></span>, and histories of ancient philosophy,
+<i>e.g.</i> Zeller.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN<a name="ar286" id="ar286"></a></span> (1787-1863), American
+statesman, was born in Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of
+September 1787. After graduating at the College of William
+and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in his native
+state. He served for three months, in 1810, as attorney-general
+of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky, and during
+the War of 1812 he was for a time on the staff of General Isaac
+Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of Representatives,
+being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a
+United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high
+rank as a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Representatives
+in 1825 and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter
+period, and from 1827 to 1829 was United States district-attorney.
+He was removed by President Jackson, to whom he was radically
+opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was again elected to the United
+States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841, but resigned to enter
+the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as attorney-general,
+continuing after President Tyler&rsquo;s accession and serving from
+March until September. He was again a member of the United
+States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor
+of Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of
+Clay&rsquo;s compromise measures, and in 1850 he entered President
+Fillmore&rsquo;s cabinet as attorney-general, serving throughout the
+administration. From 1855 to 1861 he was once more a member
+of the United States Senate. During these years he was perhaps
+the foremost champion of Union in the South, and strenuously
+opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared prophetically
+would unite the various elements of opposition in the
+North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable.
+Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of compromise,
+gave his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket
+in 1860, and in 1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for
+the adoption by congress of the compromise measures which bear
+his name. When war became inevitable he threw himself
+zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great influence to
+keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member
+of the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating
+the prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures
+as the division of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the
+Conscription Acts. He died at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the
+26th of July 1863.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life of J. J. Crittenden</i>, by his daughter Mrs Chapman
+Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">George Bibb Crittenden</span> (1812-1880), soldier, was
+born in Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and
+graduated at West Point in 1832, but resigned his commission
+in 1833. He re-entered the army as a captain of mounted rifles
+in the Mexican War, served with distinction, and was breveted
+major for bravery at Contreras and Churubusco. After the
+war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained the rank
+of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered
+the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-general
+and given a command in south-east Kentucky and
+Tennessee, but after the defeat of his forces by General George H.
+Thomas at Mill Springs (January 9, 1862), he was censured and
+gave up his command. He served subsequently as a volunteer
+aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams. From 1867 to 1871
+he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at Danville,
+Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Another son, <span class="sc">Thomas Leonidas Crittenden</span> (1815-1893),
+soldier, was also born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied
+law, and practised with his father, and in 1842 became commonwealth&rsquo;s
+attorney. He served in the Mexican War as a lieutenant-colonel
+of Kentucky volunteers, and was an aide on Gen. Zachary
+Taylor&rsquo;s staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From 1849 to
+1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like
+his father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861
+he was commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general
+of volunteers. He commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry
+in which battle he was promoted major-general in July 1862.
+He was in command of a corps in the army of the Ohio under
+Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of Stone River
+and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia
+campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December
+1864, but in July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank
+of colonel of infantry, receiving the brevet of brigadier-general
+in 1867, served on the frontier and in several Indian wars, and
+retired in 1881. He died on the 23rd of October 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CRIVELLI, CARLO<a name="ar287" id="ar287"></a></span>, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier
+part of the 15th century. The only dates that can with certainty
+be given are 1468 and 1493; these are respectively the earliest
+and the latest years signed on his pictures&mdash;the former on an
+altar-piece in the church of San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo,
+and the latter on a picture in the Oggioni collection in Milan.
+Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to have worked chiefly
+in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near Ascoli;
+there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian building,
+both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is said
+to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as
+late at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only
+a boy. The latter always signed as &ldquo;Carolus Crivellus Venetus&rdquo;;
+from 1490 he added &ldquo;Miles,&rdquo; having been then knighted
+(&ldquo;Cavalière&rdquo;) by Ferdinand II. of Naples. He painted in
+tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in subject pictures
+of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape backgrounds;
+and was particularly partial to giving fruits and
+flowers (the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories,
+often in pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is
+well supplied with examples of Crivelli; the &ldquo;Annunciation,&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;Beato Ferretti&rdquo; (of the same family as Pope Pius IX.)
+in religious ecstasy, may be specified. Another of his principal
+pictures is in San Francesco di Matelica; in Berlin is a
+&ldquo;Madonna and Saints&rdquo; (1491); in the Vatican Gallery a &ldquo;Dead
+Christ,&rdquo; and in the Brera of Milan the painter&rsquo;s own portrait,
+with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked individuality,&mdash;hard
+in form, crudely definite in contour; stern, forced,
+energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and expression,
+and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply
+vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes
+admitting into his pictures objects actually raised in surface;
+distinct and warm in colour, with an effect at once harsh and
+harmonious. His pictures gain by being seen in half-light, and
+at some little distance; under favouring conditions they grip
+the spectator with uncommon power. Few artists seem to have
+worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more forthright
+command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised that
+Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli
+(who was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello)
+and Vittorio Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, <i>Venetian
+Painters of the Renaissance</i> (1899); Morelli, <i>Italian Painters</i> (1892-1893);
+Rushforth, <i>Carlo Crivelli</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROATIA-SLAVONIA<a name="ar288" id="ar288"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Hrvatska i Slavonija</i>;
+Hung. <i>Horvát-Szlavonország</i>; Ger. <i>Kroatien und Slawonien</i>), a
+kingdom of the Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by
+Carniola, Styria and Hungary proper; E. by Hungary and
+Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and W. by the
+Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the
+N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by
+a section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now
+the county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom
+of Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county
+of Agram, is usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the
+Balkan Peninsula; and thus the greater part of Croatia, lying
+south of this river, falls within the peninsular boundary, while
+the remainder, with all Slavonia, belongs to the continental
+mainland. According to the official survey of 1900, the total
+area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian littoral extends
+for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A
+narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna),
+separates it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian
+islands. The city and territories of Fiume, the sole
+important harbour on this coast, are included in Hungary proper,
+and controlled by the Budapest government. Westward from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span>
+Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria, Carniola, Istria,
+Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is generally
+mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and
+eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the
+north, and the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its
+point at Semlin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features</i>.&mdash;Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided
+into two great sections, the highlands of the west and the lowlands
+of the east.</p>
+
+<p>The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of
+the bare and desolate mountain chains between the Save and
+the Adriatic, notably the Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela),
+which link together the Karst and the Dinaric Alps, culminating
+in Biela La&#382;ica (5029 ft.); the Plje&#353;evica or Pli&#353;evica Planina
+(5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river Una; and the
+Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the coast,
+and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any
+considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border,
+this range attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of
+Sveto Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large
+tracts of the Croatian highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it
+is only in the more sheltered hollows that sufficient soil collects
+for large trees to flourish. In northern Croatia and Slavonia
+the mountains are far more fertile, being often densely wooded
+with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the Uskoken
+Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks
+(<i>q.v.</i>) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their
+stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak
+of Ivansci&#269;a (3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in
+Sljeme or Slema (3396 ft.), and including the beautiful stretches
+of Alpine pasture known as the Zagorje, or &ldquo;land beyond the
+hills&rdquo;; the Bilo Gebirge, or White Mountains, a low range of
+chalk, and, farther to the south, several groups of mountains,
+among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni Vrh (2833
+ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All
+these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central
+watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In
+the east Slavonian county of Syrmia<a name="FnAnchor_1q" id="FnAnchor_1q" href="#Footnote_1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the Fru&#353;ka Gora or
+Vrdnik Mountains rise to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern
+bank of the Danube, their picturesque vineyards and pine or
+oak woods contrasting strongly with the plains that surround
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and
+Kulpa, belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alföld.
+Besides the sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as
+pasture, and so sparsely populated that it is possible to travel
+for many hours without encountering any sign of human life
+except a primitive artesian well or a shepherd&rsquo;s hut, there are
+wide expanses of fen-country, regularly flooded in spring and
+autumn. The marshes which line the Save below Sissek are
+often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river
+is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to
+abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation
+exceeds 200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains
+are sometimes strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain,
+fruit and wine.</p>
+
+<p>The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave
+and Save, are fully described under separate headings. After
+reaching Croatian territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave
+flows along the northern frontier for 155 m., receiving the
+Bednja and Karasnica on the right, and falling, near Esseg,
+into the Danube, which serves as the Hungaro-Slavonian
+boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the country
+16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to Jasenovac,
+constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets
+the Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina,
+Lonja, Ilova, Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central watershed;
+but its only large tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian
+stream, which springs in the Dinaric Alps, and skirts the Croatian
+border for 40 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac; and
+the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m. from its
+headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at
+Sissek. The Mre&#382;nica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand
+tributaries of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven
+streams of the Lika unite and plunge into a rocky chasm near
+Gospi&#263;, and the few small brooks of this region usually vanish
+underground in a similar manner. Near Fiume, the Recina,
+Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a brief course.
+There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland pools
+and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their
+beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers
+flood the mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed
+by the river Gajka, near Oto&#269;ac, has occasionally filled its basin
+to a depth of 160 ft.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Minerals</i>.&mdash;The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable
+of further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to
+the mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and
+sulphur are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise
+at Krapina, at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in
+different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent
+changes, and especially to the <i>bora</i>, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which
+renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in
+winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts.
+The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all
+other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below
+zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common
+among the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the
+great winds and sandstorms which sweep down the Alföld. At
+Agram, during the years 1896-1900, the mean annual temperature
+was 52° F., with 34.6 in. of rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures
+for the same period were 57° and 71 in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture</i>.&mdash;The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5%
+of the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows,
+pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as
+mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land
+occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near Warasdin
+and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens are
+of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of cereals,
+but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides hemp,
+flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive vineyards
+were much injured by <i>phylloxera</i> towards the close of the
+19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes,
+besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of <i>sliwowitz</i>
+or <i>shlivovitsa</i>. Near Fiume the orange, lemon, pomegranate, fig
+and olive bear well; mulberries are planted on many estates for
+silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central region
+favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the oak
+and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the
+highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last
+years of the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace
+the mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion
+of sheep to other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic
+lands, and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding
+is a favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902
+many thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in
+South Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the
+quality of live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes,
+and other measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept
+improvements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forests</i>.&mdash;Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered
+3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property. Especially
+valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and Sissek.
+Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries</i>.&mdash;Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered
+throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the
+rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco
+factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia
+are at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Ré. Only 8.3 of
+the population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than
+farming, which occupied 85.2%. The exports mainly consist of
+foodstuffs, especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses,
+and of timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and
+colonial products; with machinery and other finished articles.
+Goods in transit to and from Hungary figure largely in the official
+returns for Fiume<a name="FnAnchor_2q" id="FnAnchor_2q" href="#Footnote_2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Semlin, which are the centres of the
+foreign trade. In 1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking
+establishments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i>.&mdash;The commerce of the country is furthered by
+upwards of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span>
+being the Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and
+the Josephina, which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent
+highways were built for strategic purposes before the abolition of
+the Military Frontier in 1881. The railways, which are all owned
+and managed by the Hungarian state, intersect most parts of the
+country except the mountains south of Ogulin, where there is,
+nevertheless, a considerable traffic over the passes into Dalmatia
+and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway centre, from which
+lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria, N.N.E. to Warasdin
+and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of Kostajnica.
+The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod, where it
+meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out two
+branch lines to Br&#269;ka and &#352;amac in Bosnia, and several branches
+on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross the
+Hungarian frontier at Zákány, Barcs, Esseg, Erdar and Peterwardein.
+Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts of timber;
+east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but, despite its
+great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting sandbanks
+interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the Una, the
+Drave below Barcs, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are
+partially drained by the so-called &ldquo;Canal of Probus,&rdquo; the one large
+artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the
+Romans in the 3rd century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chief Towns</i>,&mdash;The principal towns are Agram, the capital,
+with 61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia
+(24,930); Semlin (15,079); Mitrovica (11,518); Warasdin (12,930);
+Karlstadt (7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824);
+Karlowitz (5643); Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and
+Buccari (1870). These are described in separate articles. The
+centre of the coasting trade is Novi, and other small seaports are
+San Giorgio (<i>Sveto Juraj</i>), Porto Ré (<i>Kraljevica</i>) and Carlopago.
+Agram, Gospi&#263; (10,799), Ogulin (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar
+(6056) are respectively the capitals of the five counties which belong
+to Croatia proper,&mdash;Agram (Hung. <i>Zágráb</i>), Modru&#353;-Fiume, Lika-Krbava,
+Warasdin (<i>Varasd</i>) and Bjelovar (<i>Belovár-Körös</i>); while
+the capitals of the three Slavonian counties, Virovitica (<i>Veröcze</i>),
+Po&#382;ega (<i>Pozsega</i>) and Syrmia (<i>Szerém</i>), are Esseg, Po&#382;ega (5000)
+and Semlin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population and National Characteristics</i>.&mdash;The population rose
+from 1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of
+little less than one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death
+rate, with a high marriage and birth rate, and characterized
+by that preponderance of male over female children which is
+common to all the South Slavonic lands. More than 75% of the
+inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder being Serbs,
+who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside Croatia-Slavonia,
+the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and northern
+Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of
+Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the
+whole nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The
+distinction between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less
+extent, linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single
+branch of the Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian
+branch. The literary language of the two nations is identical,
+but the Croats use the Latin alphabet,<a name="FnAnchor_3q" id="FnAnchor_3q" href="#Footnote_3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> while the Serbs prefer
+a modified form of the Cyrillic. The two nations have also been
+politically separated since the 7th century, if not for a longer
+period; but this division has produced little difference of
+character or physical type. Even the costume of the Croatian
+peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries
+are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs;
+their songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of
+their customs and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little
+changed by its closer contact with Western civilization, may
+be studied in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>) itself. In both countries rural society
+was based on the old-fashioned household community, or <i>zadruga</i>,
+which still survives in the territories that formed the Military
+Frontier, though everywhere tending to disappear and be
+replaced by individual ownership. The Croatian peasantry
+are least prosperous in the riverside districts, where marsh-fevers
+prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many
+of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch.
+As in Servia, there is practically no middle class between the
+peasants and the educated minority; and the commercial
+element consists to a great extent of foreigners, especially
+Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews. Numerically this
+alien population is insignificant. The Italians are chiefly
+confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and
+Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western
+frontier, where they have introduced their language, and so
+greatly modified the local dialect; the gipsies wander from city
+to city, as horse-dealers, metal workers or musicians; there are
+numerous Moravian and Bohemian settlements; and near
+Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is impossible to
+give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in the
+compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test
+of nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country
+where every educated person speaks two or three languages.
+Croatian nationalists also maintain that official figures are
+systematically altered in the Hungarian interest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Government</i>.&mdash;By the fundamental law of the
+21st of December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes
+of internal government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian
+empire, and Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and
+Croatia-Slavonia. In theory the viceroy, or <i>ban</i> of Croatia-Slavonia
+is nominated by the crown, and enjoys almost unlimited
+authority over local affairs; in practice the consent of the crown
+is purely formal, and the <i>ban</i> is appointed by the Hungarian
+premier, who can dismiss him at any moment. The provincial
+government is subject to the <i>ban</i>, and comprises three ministries&mdash;the
+interior, justice, and religion and education,&mdash;for whose
+working the <i>ban</i> is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to
+the national assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (<i>Narodna Skup&#353;tina</i>).
+This body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of
+elected deputies, partly of privileged members, whose numbers
+cannot exceed half those of the deputies. There are 69 constituencies,
+besides the 21 royal free cities which also return
+deputies. Electors must belong to certain professions or pay a
+small tax. The privileged members are the heads of the nobility,
+with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule, they
+represent the &ldquo;Magyarist&rdquo; section of society, which sympathizes
+with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion,
+education, justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but
+even within this limited sphere all its important enactments
+must be countersigned by the minister for Croatia-Slavonia,
+a member, without portfolio, of the Hungarian cabinet. At
+the polls, all votes are given orally, a system which facilitates
+corruption; the officials who control the elections depend for
+their livelihood on the <i>ban</i>, usually a Magyarist; and thus,
+even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable
+to Hungary can usually be secured. The constitutional relations
+between Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the
+agreement, or <i>nagoda</i>, of 1868. This instrument determines the
+functions of the <i>ban</i>; the control of common interests, such as
+railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones, commerce, industry,
+agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates by the
+chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below,
+under <i>History</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8
+rural counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties,
+or municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg.
+These are subdivided into rural and urban communes,
+<span class="sidenote">Local administration.</span>
+each with its representative council. The affairs of each
+rural county are managed by an assembly chosen for 6
+years, which comprises not only elected members, but delegates
+from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain high
+ecclesiastics and officials.</p>
+
+<p>The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral
+Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal
+<span class="sidenote">Justice.</span>
+courts of appeal, the county courts of first instance,
+and the district courts or magistracies.</p>
+
+<p>Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic
+Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg
+and Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics,
+with a bishop at Kreuz (<i>Kri&#382;evac</i>). The Serb congregations,
+<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span>
+who had previously been classed as Orthodox Greek, were
+officially recognized as members of the Orthodox Church of Servia
+after 1883. Their episcopal sees of Karlowitz and Pakrac depend
+upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but from 1830 to 1838
+Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian Church.</p>
+
+<p>During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of
+education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+of the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the
+educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy
+of Sciences and Arts (<i>Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti
+i Umjetnosti</i>), founded by Strossmayer and others in
+1867, as an improvement on a learned society which had existed
+since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the nationalist
+propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes biased
+by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian history,
+law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded in
+1874, possesses three faculties&mdash;theology, philosophy and law;
+but, unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medicine.
+Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In
+1900 there were also 19 <i>real-gymnasia</i>, teaching science, art and
+modern languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400
+elementary schools; and a few special institutions, such as the naval
+and military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and
+commercial colleges. In almost every case the language of instruction
+is Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education,
+without a corresponding advance of technical education, has created
+an intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several
+painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence;
+it also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional
+careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a
+strong native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia
+in their present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised
+north-western Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now
+known as Upper Croatia. The whole country between the Drave
+and Save, thus including a large part of modern Croatia, was
+called in Latin <i>Slavonia</i>, in German <i>Windisches Land</i>, and in
+Hungarian <i>Tótország</i>, to distinguish it from the territories in
+which the Croats were racially supreme (<i>Horvátország</i>). At the
+time of their conquest by the Romans (35 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) both these
+divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had
+displaced an older population, the Scordisci; and both were
+included in the Roman province of Pannonia Inferior, although
+Slavonia had the distinctive name of Pannonia Savia (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pannonia</a></span>). When the Roman dominions were broken up in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western empire.
+The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by
+Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were
+in turn expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people
+from the western Carpathians, who, according to some authorities,
+had occupied the territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia,
+and been driven thence in the 6th century by the Czechs. The
+main body of the Croats, whose tribal and racial names respectively
+are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and Slavonia,
+entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by
+the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had
+led the way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the
+western division of the great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats
+which colonized the lands between Bulgaria and the Adriatic.
+Contemporary chroniclers called them <i>Chrobati</i>, <i>Belochrobati</i>
+(&ldquo;White Croats&rdquo;), <i>Chrovati</i>, <i>Horvati</i>, or by some similar Latin
+or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic <i>Khrvaty</i>. The Croats
+occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia,
+Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing
+the earlier inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian
+littoral, where the Italian city-states usually maintained their
+independence, and in certain districts of Slavonia, where, out
+of a mixed population of Slavonic immigrants, Avars and
+Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the Serbo-Croats, gradually
+became predominant. The Croats brought with them their
+primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly military,
+partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the
+Serbs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span>); agriculture, war and hunting were their
+chief pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien
+sovereign, they passed gradually under Italian influence in the
+extreme west, and under Byzantine influence in the south and
+south-east. In 806 the northern and north-eastern districts
+were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus won for the
+Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated
+by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines
+to Syrmia; it is still commemorated by the name Fru&#353;ka Gora,
+&ldquo;Mountains of the Franks,&rdquo; in that province.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091.</i>&mdash;In 877 the Croats
+were temporarily subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after
+successive insurrections which tended to centralize their loosely
+knit tribal organization, and to place all power in the hands of
+a military chief, they regained their independence and founded
+a national kingdom about 910. It is probable that Tomislav or
+Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed the title
+of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that
+Tomislav only bore the title of <i>veliki &#382;upan</i> or &ldquo;paramount chief,&rdquo;
+and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced
+without interruption back to 818. On this view, Dr&#382;islav
+(c. 978-1000) was the first king properly so called. But Tomislav,
+whatever his official style, was certainly the first of a series of
+independent national rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries.
+The records of this period, regarded by many Croats as the golden
+age of their country, are often scanty, and its chronology is still
+unsettled. Little is known of Trpimir, who preceded Dr&#382;islav,
+or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a few of the kings gained a more
+lasting fame by their success in war and diplomacy. Among
+these were Kre&#353;imir I. (c. 940&mdash;946), his successor Miroslav, and
+especially Kre&#353;imir II., surnamed the Great (c. 1000-1035),
+who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation, and
+conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the
+Italian cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had
+built a fleet, which they used first for piracy and afterwards for
+trade. Their skill in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the
+9th century by the pagan corsairs of the Narenta (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalmatia</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>), and later by the numerous Dalmatian and Croatian
+sailors who served in the navies of Venice and Austria, is remarkable
+in a Slavonic people, and one which had so recently migrated
+from central Europe. At the end of the 10th century they even
+for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but their power
+was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians captured
+and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This
+Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat
+of the kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing
+the grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine
+court. Kre&#353;imir II. and Kre&#353;imir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero
+of many national legends and lays, restored the naval power of
+the Croats. After the death of Kre&#353;imir Peter, Slavic or Slavi&#382;a
+reigned until 1076, when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir
+or Zvoinimir) Demetrius. Zvonimir was crowned by the legate
+of Pope Gregory VII, and appears to have been regarded as a
+vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a nephew of
+Kre&#353;imir II., died in 1089.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hungarian Supremacy: 1091-c. 1526.</i>&mdash;Amid the strife of
+rival claimants to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen,
+appealed for aid to her brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary.
+Ladislaus took possession of the country in 1091. He founded
+the bishopric of Agram and introduced Hungarian law. His
+death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist insurrection, but
+after two years the rebels were crushed by his successor Coloman.
+This monarch reorganized the administration on a system which
+has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by almost
+all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of
+the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic
+affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially
+the control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as
+the ban (<i>q.v.</i>). This office was sometimes held by princes of
+the royal house, often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also
+extended his authority over Dalmatia and the islands of the
+Quarnero, but the best modern authorities reject the tradition
+that in 1102 he was crowned king of Croatia, Slavonia and
+Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed to Bulgaria
+from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019,
+was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much
+liberty to the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class,
+ever ready for civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the
+Bosnian heretics. Their most powerful leaders were the counts
+of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir), whose surname was &#352;ubi&#263;. This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span>
+family played an important part in local politics from the 13th
+century to 1670, when Peter &#352;ubi&#263; was its last member to hold
+the office of ban. Paul &#352;ubi&#263; (d. 1312) and Mladen &#352;ubi&#263; (d. 1322)
+even for a short period united Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia and part
+of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to 1326 the
+Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary
+and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they
+carried on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the
+Krajina (Turkish Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals
+until the Turkish conquest.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718.</i>&mdash;Here, as elsewhere,
+the Ottoman invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian
+sects. When King Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend
+Slavonia in 1490 it was too late; Matthias lost Syrmia and died
+in the same year. His successor Ladislaus of Poland (1490-1516)
+added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal title, which
+now included the words &ldquo;King of Dalmatia and Croatia and
+Slavonia&rdquo; (<i>Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae</i>). But he
+failed to repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of
+Hungary at the battle of Mohács. In 1527 the Croats were
+compelled to swear allegiance to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who
+had been elected king of Hungary. Ferdinand founded the
+generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the foundation of the
+military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin and
+Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia,
+to counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Throughout
+the century the Turks continued to extend their conquests
+until, in 1606, the emperor retained only western Croatia, with
+the cities of Agram, Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During
+the same period the doctrines of the Reformation had spread
+among the Croats; but they were forcibly suppressed in 1607-1610.
+The military occupation by the Turks left little permanent
+impression; colonization was never attempted; and the
+continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge
+their dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction
+of Moslem religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus
+in the reconquest of Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the
+local opposition which afterwards hindered the Austrian occupation
+of Bosnia. The successes of Prince Eugene in 1697 led
+two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which the Turks
+ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria;
+and the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of
+Passarowitz. Only Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of
+the Ottoman empire.</p>
+
+<p><i>Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718-1814.</i>&mdash;Austrian
+influence predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during
+most of the 18th century, although Slavonia was constitutionally
+regarded as belonging to Hungary. Despite Magyar protests
+the misleading name &ldquo;Croatia&rdquo; was popularly and even in
+official documents applied to the whole country, including the
+purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Po&#382;ega and Syrmia.
+From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were collectively
+named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of
+these divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom,
+with a separate administration, while the military frontier
+remained under military rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard,
+which had previously been under the same administration as
+the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to Croatia, but three
+years later Fiume was declared an integral part of Hungary.
+These administrative changes, and especially the brief existence
+of united &ldquo;Illyria,&rdquo; stimulated the dormant nationalism of the
+Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria
+was forced to surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia,
+with Dalmatia, Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Görz and Gradisca.
+These territories received the name of the Illyrian Provinces,
+and remained under French rule until 1813. All the Croats
+capable of service were enrolled under the French flag; their
+country was divided for administrative purposes into <i>Croatie
+civile</i> and <i>Croatie militaire</i>. In 1814 Dalmatia was incorporated
+in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Görz and Gradisca
+became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their
+united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia were
+declared appanages of the Hungarian crown&mdash;<i>partes adnexae</i>,
+or subject provinces, according to the Magyars; <i>regna socia</i>,
+or allied kingdoms, according to their own view. Each phrase
+afterwards became the watchword of a political party: neither
+is accurate. The Croats preserved their local autonomy, the
+use of their language for official purposes, their elected diet and
+other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was represented
+by the ban.</p>
+
+<p><i>The National Revival.</i>&mdash;The Croats acquiesced in their position
+of inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to
+introduce Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist
+or &ldquo;Illyrist&rdquo; party was formed under Count Dra&#353;kovi&#263; and
+Bishop J. Strossmayer (<i>q.v.</i>) to combat Hungarian influence
+and promote the union of the &ldquo;Illyrian&rdquo; Slavs, <i>i.e.</i> the Slovenes,
+Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading Croatian publicist,
+strongly supported the movement. The elections of 1842 were
+marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists
+and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to
+office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed
+ban in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with
+Carinthia, Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted
+as much by the apathy of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the
+Magyars. A Croatian deputation was received at Innsbruck
+by Ferdinand V., but before its arrival the Hungarians had
+obtained a royal manifesto hostile to Illyrism. But failure only
+increased the agitation among the southern Slavs; all attempts
+at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of August
+the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was
+on their side. On the 11th of September the advance-guard of
+their army crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich.
+On the 29th they were driven back from Pákozd by the
+Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna; they subsequently
+aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian revolutionaries
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jellachich, Josef</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>). The constitution
+of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from
+Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which
+was annexed the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian
+supremacy lasted until 1867; no ban was appointed, and owing
+to the suspension of local autonomy from 1850 to 1860 this
+period is known as &ldquo;the ten years of reaction.&rdquo; It was ended
+by the celebrated &ldquo;October Diploma&rdquo; of the 20th of October
+1860, which promised the restoration of constitutional liberty.
+But the so-called &ldquo;Constitution of February&rdquo; (21st February
+1861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive
+controlled by the government at Vienna. The newly elected
+diet was soon dissolved for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic
+confederation under imperial rule, and no other was elected
+until 1865.</p>
+
+<p>From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured
+to secure the formation of a subordinate Austrian
+kingdom comprising Dalmatia, Croatia-Slavonia and the
+islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had, however, resolved
+to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St Stephen, and in
+1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral machinery.
+The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin Rauch,
+was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867
+a majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and
+on the 29th of January the diet passed a resolution in favour
+of reunion with Hungary. The whole Opposition refused to
+take any part in the proceedings, as a protest against the alleged
+illegality of the elections; but by the 25th of June the Croatian
+commissioners and the Hungarian government had framed a
+new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides
+substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided
+that the diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject
+to the Croatian minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that
+Croatia-Slavonia should pay 55% of its revenue to Hungary for
+mutual and imperial expenses, but should be represented in
+the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six delegates, and should
+continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official language. Hungary
+guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial government
+should be not less than two and a half million gulden (£250,000).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the
+Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed
+revenue to £350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their
+representatives at Budapest, and a promise that the military
+frontier should be incorporated in the existing civil provinces.
+In 1877 a convention with Hungary regulated the control of
+public estates in the military frontier, and on the 15th of July
+1881 the frontier, including the district of Sichelburg claimed
+by Carniola, was handed over to the local administration.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating
+in the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived
+the agitation for a &ldquo;Great Croatia.&rdquo; A party separate from
+the regular Opposition, and known as the &ldquo;Party of the Right,&rdquo;
+was formed to oppose the Magyarists. Its activity resulted
+in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty quelled; in 1885
+its leader, N. Star&#269;evi&#263;, was condemned to imprisonment for
+the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count Khuen-Héderváry.
+In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its
+leader, Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on
+account of his famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strossmayer</a></span>). In 1889 the financial agreement with
+Hungary was revised and the contribution of Croatia-Slavonia
+to the expenses shared with Hungary or common to the whole
+of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added
+burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a
+deficit in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count
+Khuen-Héderváry was responsible for several administrative
+improvements, but the prosperity of the country declined from
+year to year. The government was accused of illegal interference
+with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian arms
+and language in official documents, and with undue harshness
+in the censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks
+of rioting in Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious
+agrarian disturbances directed against the Magyarist landowners;
+in a debate in the Reichsrath (18th May) an Austrian
+deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted to induce the
+imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count
+Khuen-Héderváry was made Hungarian prime minister; Count
+T. Peja&#269;evi&#263; succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by
+promising freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press.
+Since 1898 the financial agreement had only been renewed from
+year to year. But the estimates for 1904 revealed another
+heavy deficit; and this was only paid by Hungary on condition
+that the agreement should be renewed until the 31st of December
+1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained.</p>
+
+<p>The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the
+nationalist agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian
+deputies met at Spalato to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and
+in 1906 the municipality of Agram endeavoured to petition the
+king in favour of union with Bosnia and Herzegovina. This
+propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch, appointed
+ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not
+command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909
+by the trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy
+of the nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under
+the king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary&mdash;upwards
+of 4,500,000&mdash;was less visionary than the older Illyrism,
+and less aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to
+include Carinthia, Carniola and Styria in the proposed
+&ldquo;Great Croatia.&rdquo; It was opposed by Austria as tending to
+create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within the Dual
+Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance
+in Transleithania.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Language and Literature.</i></p>
+
+<p>For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic
+languages generally, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Slavs</a></span>. The Croatian dialects, like
+the Servian, have gradually developed from the Old Slavonic,
+which survives in medieval liturgies and biblical or apocryphal
+writings. The course of this development was similar in both
+cases, except that the Croats, owing to their dependence on
+Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as the Serbs by
+Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian linguistic
+forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs,
+moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while
+the Roman Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a
+few liturgical books which are written in the ancient Glagolitic
+script. As the literary language of both nations is now practically
+the same, and is, indeed, commonly known as &ldquo;Serbo-Croatian,&rdquo;
+the reader may be referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span>:
+<i>Language and Literature</i>, for an account of its history, of its
+chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and inclusive
+of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences between
+the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia.</p>
+
+<p>The three most important Croatian dialects are known as
+the <i>&#268;akavci</i>, <i>&#268;akav&#353;tina</i> or, in Servian, <i>Chakavski</i>, spoken along
+the Adriatic littoral; the <i>&#352;tokavci</i> (<i>&#352;tokav&#353;tina</i>, <i>Shtokavski</i>),
+spoken in Servia and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan
+Peninsula; and the <i>Kajkavci</i> (<i>Kajkav&#353;tina</i>, <i>Kaykavski</i>), spoken
+by the partly Slovene population of the districts of Agram,
+Warasdin and Kreuz. This classification is based on the form,
+varying in different localities, of the pronoun <i>&#269;a</i>, <i>&#353;to</i>, or <i>kaj</i>,
+meaning &ldquo;what.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the
+Dalmatian writers of the 15th and 16th centuries&mdash;the golden
+age of Serbo-Croatian literature. Its history is indissolubly
+interwoven with that of the &#352;tokavci, which ultimately superseded
+it, and became the literary language of all the Serbo-Croats,
+as it had long been the language of the best national
+ballads and legends.</p>
+
+<p>Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature,
+consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or
+educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings
+possess more philological interest than literary merit, and are
+hardly known outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts
+of Austria.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian
+literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded
+as the common heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic
+and literary reforms which Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk
+Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia about the close of
+this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a new interest
+in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and folk-tales.
+One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful
+attempt made between 1814 and 1830 to raise the &#268;akavci
+dialect to the rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia;
+but the Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption
+of the &#352;tokavci, which was already the vernacular of the majority
+of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj (1809-1872), though he failed
+to create an artificial literary language by the fusion of the
+principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, was
+by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing the
+triumph of the &#352;tokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent,
+and one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other
+writers of the first half of the 19th century may be mentioned
+Ivan Ma&#382;urani&#263; (1813-1890), whose first poems were published
+in the <i>Danica ilirska</i> (&ldquo;Illyrian Dawnstar&rdquo;), a journal founded
+and for a time edited by Gaj. In 1846 Ma&#382;urani&#263; published his
+<i>Smrt Smail Aga &#268;engi&#263;a</i> (&ldquo;Death of Ismail Aga &#268;engi&#263;&rdquo;),
+called by Serbo-Croats the &ldquo;Epos of Hate.&rdquo; This remarkable
+poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives a
+vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the
+hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In
+later life Ma&#382;urani&#263; distinguished himself as a statesman, and
+became ban of Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers representative
+of Croatian literature before 1867 were the lyric poet
+Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854),
+the author of many patriotic songs.</p>
+
+<p>With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram,
+in 1867, the study of science and history received a new impetus.
+Under the presidency of Franko Ra&#269;ki (1825-1894) the academy,
+with its journal the <i>Rad jugoskovenske Akademije</i>, became the
+headquarters of an active group of savants, among whom may
+be mentioned Vastroslav Jagi&#263; (b. 1838), sometime editor of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span>
+<i>Archiv für slavische Philologie</i>; the historians &#352;ime Ljubi&#263;
+(1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klai&#263;, author of several standard
+works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer Bogoslav
+&#352;ulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko
+Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal
+<i>Slovinac</i> has served, like the Agram <i>Rad</i>, as a focus of literary
+activity, there have been numerous poets and prose writers,
+associated, in many cases, with the Illyrist or the nationalist
+propaganda. Among these may be mentioned Count Medo
+Pu&#269;i&#263; (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban (1818-1903),
+whose tragedy <i>Meyrimah</i> is considered by many the finest
+dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For the topography, products, inhabitants and
+modern condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see <i>Bau und Bild Österreichs</i>,
+by C. Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903);
+<i>Die österreich-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild</i>, vol. xxiv.,
+edited by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902); <i>Führer durch Ungarn,
+Kroatien und Slawonien</i>, by B. Alföldi (Vienna, 1900); <i>Reiseführer
+durch Kroatien und Slawonien</i>, by A. Luk&#353;i&#263; (Agram, 1893); <i>Vegetationsverhältnisse
+von Kroatien</i>, by A. Neilreich (Vienna, 1868);
+&ldquo;Die Slowenen,&rdquo; by J. &#352;uman, and &ldquo;Die Kroaten,&rdquo; by F. Staré,
+in vol. x. of <i>Die Völker Österreich-Ungarns</i> (Vienna, 1881-1882);
+<i>Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Küstenländer</i>, by A. Weisbach
+(Berlin, 1884); and the map <i>Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije</i>, by
+M. Katzenschläger (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one
+in Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native
+authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram,
+from 1861). It is largely based on the following works: <i>Vetera
+monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia</i>, containing
+documents from the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome,
+1860); <i>Vetera monumenta historiam Slavorum meridionalium
+illustrantia</i>, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram,
+1863, &amp;c.); <i>Jura regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privilegiis</i>,
+by J. Kukuljevi&#263; (Agram, 1861-1862); <i>Monumenta historica
+Slavorum meridionalium</i>, by V. Makushev, in Latin and Italian,
+with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade, 1885); <i>De regno Dalmatiae et
+Croatiae</i>, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalmatia</a></span>, under
+bibliography); <i>Regno degli Slavi</i>, by M. Orbini (Pesaro, 1601);
+and, for ecclesiastical history, <i>Illyricum sacrum</i>, by D. Farlatus and
+others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also <i>Hrvatska i Hrvati</i>, by V. Klai&#263;
+(Agram, 1890, &amp;c.); and <i>Slawonien vom 10. bis zum 13. Jahrhundert</i>,
+translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klai&#263; by J. von Vojni&#269;i&#263;
+(Agram, 1882).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1q" id="Footnote_1q" href="#FnAnchor_1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Also written <i>Sirmia</i> and <i>Sirmium</i>; Serbo-Croatian <i>Sriem</i>;
+Hungarian <i>Szerém</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2q" id="Footnote_2q" href="#FnAnchor_2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian
+trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and
+is the main outlet for Hungarian emigration and maritime commerce.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3q" id="Footnote_3q" href="#FnAnchor_3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is important to notice the value of the following letters and
+signs, which recur frequently:&mdash;<i>c</i> = <i>ts</i>; <i>&#269;</i> = <i>ch</i> (hard); <i>&#263;</i> = <i>ch</i> (soft);
+<i>j</i> = y, or j in German; <i>&#353;</i> = <i>sh</i>; <i>&#382;</i> = <i>zh</i>, or <i>j</i> in French.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCIDOLITE,<a name="ar289" id="ar289"></a></span> a mineral described in 1815 by M. H. Klaproth
+under the name <i>Blaueisenstein</i> (blue ironstone), and in 1831
+by J. F. Hausmann, who gave it its present name on account of
+its nap-like appearance (Gr. <span class="grk" title="krokus">&#954;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#973;&#962;</span>, nap of cloth). It is a blue
+fibrous mineral belonging to the amphibole group and closely
+related to riebeckite; chemically it is an iron sodium silicate.
+Its resemblance to asbestos has gained for it the name Cape
+Asbestos, the chief occurrence being in Cape Colony. The
+mineral suffers alteration by removal of alkali and peroxidation
+of the ferrous iron, and further by deposition of silica between
+the fibres, or by their replacement by silica; a hard siliceous
+mineral is thus formed which when polished shows, in consequence
+of its fibrous structure, a beautiful chatoyance or silky
+lustre. This is the ornamental stone which is known when blue
+as &ldquo;hawk&rsquo;s-eye,&rdquo; and when of rich golden brown colour as
+&ldquo;tiger-eye.&rdquo; The latter, which represents the final alteration
+of the crocidolite, has become very fashionable as &ldquo;South
+African cat&rsquo;s eye,&rdquo; and is often termed &ldquo;crocidolite,&rdquo; though
+practically only a mixture of quartz with brown oxide of iron.
+The following are analyses by A. Renard and C. Klement of the
+unaltered crocidolite and of the blue and brown products of
+alteration:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Crocidolite.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hawk&rsquo;s-eye.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tiger-eye.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica</td> <td class="tcc rb">51.89&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">93.45&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">93.05&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferric oxide</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.22&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.41</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferrous oxide</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.53&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soda</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.71</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potash</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Water</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.76</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcc allb">101.69&emsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">98.69&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">100.11&emsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Another alteration product of the crocidolite, consisting of
+silica and ferric hydrate, has been called griqualandite. Crocidolite
+and the minerals resulting from its alteration occur in
+seams, associated with magnetite and other iron-ores, in the
+jasper-slates of the Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West,
+Cape Colony. It is known also from a few other localities, but
+only in subordinate quantity. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cat&rsquo;s-Eye</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCKET<a name="ar290" id="ar290"></a></span> (Ital. <i>uncinetti</i>, Fr. <i>crochet</i>, <i>crosse</i>, Ger. <i>Häklein</i>,
+<i>Knollen</i>), in architecture, an ornament running up the sides of
+gablets, hood-moulds, pinnacles, spires; generally a winding
+stem like a creeping plant, with flowers or leaves projecting at
+intervals, and terminating in a finial.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCKETT, DAVID<a name="ar291" id="ar291"></a></span> (1786-1836), American frontiersman,
+was born in Greene county, Tennessee, on the 17th of August
+1786. His education was obtained chiefly in the rough school
+of experience in the Tennessee backwoods, where he acquired
+a wide reputation as a hunter, trapper and marksman. In 1813-1814
+he served in the Creek War under Andrew Jackson, and
+subsequently became a colonel in the Tennessee militia. In
+1821-1824 he was a member of the state legislature, having won
+his election not by political speeches but by telling stories. In
+1827 he was elected to the national House of Representatives as
+a Jackson Democrat, and was re-elected in 1829. At Washington
+his shrewdness, eccentric manners and peculiar wit made him
+a conspicuous figure, but he was too independent to be a supporter
+of all Jackson&rsquo;s measures, and his opposition to the
+president&rsquo;s Indian policy led to administration influences being
+turned against him with the result that he was defeated for
+re-election in 1831. He was again elected in 1833, but in 1835
+lost his seat a second time, being then a vigorous opponent
+of many distinctively Jacksonian measures. Discouraged and
+disgusted, he left his native state, and emigrated to Texas, then
+engaged in its struggle for independence. There he lost his life
+as one of the defenders of the Alamo at San Antonio on the 6th
+of March 1836.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A so-called &ldquo;autobiography,&rdquo; which he very probably dictated
+or at least authorized, was published in Philadelphia in 1834; a
+work purporting to be a continuation of this autobiography and
+entitled <i>Colonel Crockett&rsquo;s Exploits and Adventures in Texas</i> (Philadelphia,
+1836) is undoubtedly spurious. These two works were
+subsequently combined in a single volume, of which there have been
+several editions. Numerous popular biographies have been written,
+the best by E. S. Ellis (Philadelphia, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD<a name="ar292" id="ar292"></a></span> (1860-&emsp;&emsp;), Scottish
+novelist, was born at Duchrae, Galloway, on the 24th of
+September 1860, the son of a Galloway farmer. He was brought
+up on a Galloway farm, and graduated from Edinburgh University
+in 1879. After some years of travel he became in 1886 minister
+of Penicuik, but eventually abandoned the Free Church ministry
+for novel-writing. The success of Mr J. M. Barrie had created
+a demand for stories in the Scottish dialect when Mr Crockett
+published his successful story of <i>The Stickit Minister</i> in 1893.
+It was followed by a rapidly produced series of popular novels
+dealing often with the past history of Scotland, or with his native
+Galloway. Such are <i>The Raiders</i>, <i>The Lilac Sun-bonnet</i> and
+<i>Mad Sir Uchtred</i> in 1894; <i>The Men of the Moss Hags</i> in 1895;
+<i>Cleg Kelly</i> and <i>The Grey Man</i> in 1896; <i>The Surprising Adventures
+of Sir Toady Lion</i> (1897); <i>The Red Axe</i> (1898); <i>Kit
+Kennedy</i> (1899); <i>Joan of the Sword Hand</i> and <i>Little Anna Mark</i>
+in 1900; <i>Flower o&rsquo; the Corn</i> (1902); <i>Red Cap Tales</i> (1904), &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCKFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar293" id="ar293"></a></span> (1775-1844), proprietor of Crockford&rsquo;s
+Club, was born in London in 1775, the son of a fishmonger,
+and for some time himself carried on that business. After
+winning a large sum of money&mdash;according to one story £100,000&mdash;either
+at cards or by running a gambling establishment, he
+built, in 1827, a luxurious gambling house at 50 St James&rsquo;s
+Street, which, to ensure exclusiveness, he organized as a club.
+Crockford&rsquo;s quickly became the rage; every English social
+celebrity and every distinguished foreigner visiting London
+hastened to become a member. Even the duke of Wellington
+joined, though, it is averred, only in order to be able to blackball
+his son, Lord Douro, should he seek election. Hazard was the
+favourite game, and very large sums changed hands. Crockford
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span>
+retired in 1840, when, in the expressive language of Captain R. H.
+Gronow, he had &ldquo;won the whole of the ready money of the
+then existing generation.&rdquo; He took, indeed, about £1,200,000
+out of the club, but subsequently lost most of it in unlucky
+speculations. Crockford died on the 24th of May 1844.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John Timbs, <i>Club Life of London</i> (London, 1866); Gronow,
+<i>Celebrities of London and Paris</i>, 3rd series (London, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CROCODILE,<a name="ar294" id="ar294"></a></span> a name for certain reptiles, taken from ancient
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="kordylos">&#954;&#959;&#961;&#948;&#973;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, signifying lizard and newt; with reduplication
+<span class="grk" title="korkordylos">&#954;&#959;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#961;&#948;&#973;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, and by metathesis ultimately <span class="grk" title="krokodeilos">&#954;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#972;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>. Herodotus
+makes mention of them, and tells us that the Egyptian
+name was <i>champsa</i>. The Arabic term is <i>ledschun</i>. The same
+root <i>kar</i> leads through something like <i>kar-kar-ta</i>, <i>glakarta</i>
+(<i>glazard</i> in Breton), to <i>lacerta</i> and to &ldquo;lizard.&rdquo; Lacerta in turn
+has become, in Spanish, <i>lagarto</i>, which, with the article, <i>el lagarto</i>,
+is the origin of the term &ldquo;alligator.&rdquo; This word is, however,
+artificial, although now widely used; Spanish and Portuguese-speaking
+people in America universally call the crocodile and the
+alligator simply <i>lagarto</i>, which is never intended for lizard.</p>
+
+<p>The Crocodilia form a separate order of reptiles with many
+peculiarities. The premaxillae are short and always enclose the
+nostrils. The posterior nares or choanae open far behind in the
+roof of the mouth, in recent forms within the pterygoids. The
+under jaws are hinged on to the quadrate bones, which extend
+obliquely backwards, and are immovably wedged in between the
+squamosal and the lateral occipital wings. The teeth form a
+complete series in the under jaw, and in the upper jaw on the
+premaxillary and maxillary bones. They are conical and deeply
+implanted in separate sockets. They are often shed throughout
+life, the successors lying on the inner side, and with their caps
+partly fitting into the wide open roots of the older teeth. Especially
+in alligators the upper teeth overlap laterally those of the
+lower jaw, whilst in most crocodiles the overlapping is less
+marked and the teeth mostly interlock, a feature which increases
+with the slenderness of the snout. In old specimens some
+of the longer, lower teeth work their tips into deep pits, and
+ultimately even perforate the corresponding parts of the upper
+jaw. The first and second vertebrae each have a pair of long,
+movable ribs. There is a compound abdominal sternum. The
+so-called pubic bones are large and movable. There are five
+fingers and four toes, provided with claws, excepting the outer
+digits.</p>
+
+<p>The tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under
+surface; its hinder margin is raised into a transverse fold,
+which, by meeting a similar fold from the palate, can shut off the
+mouth completely from the wide cavity of the throat. Dorsally
+the posterior nares open into this cavity. Consequently the
+beast can lie submerged in the water, with only the nostrils
+exposed, and with the mouth open, and breathe without water
+entering the windpipe. Within the glottis is a pair of membranous
+folds which serve as vocal cords; all the Crocodilia are possessed
+of a loud, bellowing voice.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach is globular, rather muscular, with a pair of
+tendinous centres like those of birds; its size is comparatively
+small, but the digestion is so rapid and powerful that every
+bone of the creature&rsquo;s prey is dissolved whilst still being stowed
+away in the wide and long gullet. The anal opening forms a
+longitudinal slit; within it, arising from its anterior corner,
+is the unpaired copulatory organ. The vascular system has
+attained the highest state of development of all reptiles. The
+heart is practically quadrilocular, the right and left halves being
+completely partitioned, except for a small communication, the
+<i>foramen Panizzae</i>, between the right and left aortae where these
+cross each other on leaving their respective ventricles. The outer
+ear lies in a recess which can be closed tightly by a dorsal flap of
+skin. The power of hearing is acute, and so is the sight, the
+eyes being protected by upper and lower lids and by a nictitating
+membrane. The skin of the whole body is scaly, with a hard,
+horny, waterproof covering of the epidermis, but between these
+mostly flat scales the skin is soft. The scutes or dermal portions
+of the scales are more or less ossified, especially on the back,
+and form the characteristic dermal armour. The skins or
+&ldquo;hides&rdquo; of commerce consist entirely of the tanned cutis minus,
+the epidermis and the horny coverings of the scutes. All the
+Crocodilia possess two pairs of musk-glands in the skin; one is
+situated on the inner side of the lower jaw. The opening of the
+glands is slit-like and leads into a pocket, which is filled with a
+smeary, strongly scented matter. The other pair lies just within
+the lips of the cloacal opening.</p>
+
+<p>Propagation takes place by eggs, which are oval, quite white,
+with a very hard and strong shell. Their size varies from 2 to
+4 in. in length, according to the size of the species and the age
+of the female. She lays several dozen eggs in a carefully prepared
+nest. The Nile crocodile makes a hole in white sand, which is then
+filled up and smoothed over; the mother sleeps upon the nest,
+and keeps watch over her eggs, and when these are near hatching&mdash;after
+about twelve weeks&mdash;she removes the 18 in. or 2 ft. of
+sand. Other species, especially the alligators, make a very large
+nest of leaves, twigs and humus, scraping together a mound
+about a yard high and two or more yards in diameter. The
+eggs, in several layers, are laid near the top. The adults frequently
+dig long subterranean passages into the banks of streams,
+and, during dry seasons, they have been found deep in the
+hardened mud, whence they emerge with the beginning of the
+rains. They spend most of their time in the water, but are also
+very fond of basking in the hot sun on the banks of rivers or in
+marshes, usually with the head turned towards the water, to
+which they take on the slightest alarm. They can walk perfectly
+well, and they do so deliberately with the whole body raised a
+little above the ground. When their pools dry up, or when in
+search of new hunting-grounds, they sometimes undertake long
+wanderings over land. But the water is their true element.
+They swim rapidly, propelled by the powerful tail and by the
+mostly webbed limbs, or they submerge themselves, with only the
+tip of the nose and the eyes showing, or sometimes also the back.
+They then look like floating logs; and thus they float or gently
+approach their prey, which consists of anything they can overpower.
+Many a large mammal coming to drink at its accustomed
+place is dragged into the water by the lurking monster. Certainly
+there are occasional man-eaters amongst them, and in some
+countries they are much feared. As a rule, however, they are
+so wary and suspicious that they are very difficult to approach,
+and their haunts are so well stocked with fish and other game that
+they make off and hide rather than attack a man swimming
+in their waters. But if a dog is sent in there will be a sudden yelp,
+the splash from a big tail, and a widening eddy.</p>
+
+<p>Crocodile stories, not all fabulous, are plentiful, and begin
+with one of the oldest writings in the world, the book of Job.
+&ldquo;Canst thou draw leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with
+a cord which thou lettest down?... Lay thine hand upon him,
+remember the battle, do no more.&rdquo; This is a very interesting
+passage, since it can apply only to a large-sized crocodile. Now
+nothing is known of the occurrence of such in Arabia, but a few
+specimens of rather small size seem still to exist in Syria, in the
+Wadi Zerka, an eastern tributary of the Jordan.</p>
+
+<p>Crocodiles are caught in various ways,&mdash;for instance, with
+two pointed sticks, which are fastened crosswise within the bait,
+an animal&rsquo;s entrails, to which is attached a rope. When the
+creature has swallowed the spiked bait it keeps its jaws so firmly
+closed that it can be dragged out of the water. A kind of plover,
+<i>Pluvianus aegyptius</i>, often sits upon basking crocodiles, and,
+since the latter often rest with gaping mouth, it is possible that
+these agile birds do pick the reptiles&rsquo; teeth in search of parasites.
+Being a very watchful bird, its cry of warning, when it flies off
+on the approach of danger, is probably appreciated by the
+crocodile. But the story of the ichneumon or mongoose is a
+fable. Although an inveterate destroyer of eggs, this little
+creature prefers those of birds and the soft-shelled eggs of lizards
+to the very hard and strong-shelled eggs which are deeply buried
+in the crocodile&rsquo;s nest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Considering the interest which is taken in crocodiles and their
+allies, on account of their size, their dangerous nature and the
+sporting trophies which they yield, the following &ldquo;key,&rdquo; based upon
+easily ascertained characters of the skull, is given.</p>
+
+<p>I. Snout very long and slender. The mandibular symphysis extends
+backwards at least to the fifteenth tooth.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(a) Nasal bones very small, and widely separated from the
+premaxilla (which encloses the nostrils) by the maxillaries which
+join each other for a long distance along the dorsal mid-line....
+<i>Gavialis gangeticus</i> of India, the &ldquo;gharial&rdquo; or fish-eater.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(b) Nasal bones long, so as to be in contact with the premaxilla at
+the hinder corner of the nostril groove.... <i>Tomistoma schlegeli</i> of
+Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra.</p>
+
+<p>II. Snout mostly triangular or rounded off. The mandibular symphysis
+does not reach beyond the eighth tooth.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(a), The fourth mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw.
+Crocodiles.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">1. Without a bon nasal septum between the nostrils....
+Crocodiles.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">2. The nasal bones project through the nasal groove, forming a
+bony septum. <i>Osteolaemus frontatus s. tetraspis</i> of West rica.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -2em;">(b) Fourth mandibular tooth fitting into a pit in the upper jaw.
+Alligators.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">1. Without a bony nasal septum.... <i>Caiman</i>, Central and South
+America.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 7em; text-indent: -2em;">2. Nasal bones dividing the nasal groove.... <i>Alligator</i>, America
+and China.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Cracodilus</i> contains seven species. <i>C. vulgaris</i> or
+<i>niloticus</i> of most of Africa, is found from the Senegal to Egypt and to
+Madagascar, reaching a length of 15 ft. It has eighteen or nineteen
+upper and fifteen lower teeth on each side. <i>C. palustris</i>, the &ldquo;mugger&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;marsh crocodile&rdquo; of India and Ceylon, extends westwards into
+Baluchistan, eastwards into the Malay islands. It has nineteen upper and
+lower teeth on either side. The scutes on the neck, six in number, are
+packed closely together, the four biggest forming a square. The length
+of 12 ft. is a fair size for a large specimen. <i>C. porosus</i> or
+<i>biporcatus</i> is easily recognised by the prominent longitudinal ridge
+which extends in front of each eye. Specimens of more than 20 ft. in
+length are not uncommon, and a monster of 33 ft. is on record. It is
+essentially an inhabitant of tidal waters and estuaries, and often goes
+out to sea; hence its wide distribution, from the whole coast of Bengal
+to southern China, to the northern coasts of Australia and even to the
+Fiji islands. Australians are in the habit of calling their crocodiles
+alligators. <i>C. cataphractus</i> is the common crocodile of West Africa,
+easily recognised by the slender snout which resembles that of the
+gavial, but the mandibular symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth
+tooth. <i>C. johnstoni</i> of northern Australia and Queensland is allied to
+the last species mentioned, with which it agrees by the slender snout.
+Lastly there are two species of true crocodiles in America, <i>C.
+intermedius</i> of the Orinoco, allied to the former, and <i>C. americanus</i>
+or <i>acutus</i> of the West Indies, Mexico, Central America to Venezuela and
+Ecuador; its characteristic feature is a median ridge or swelling on the
+snout, which is rather slender.</p>
+
+<p>The above list shows that the usual statement that crocodiles inhabit
+the Old World and alligators the New World is not strictly true. In the
+Tertiary epoch alligators, crocodiles and long-snouted gavials existed
+in Europe.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,25937 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6
+       "Coucy-le-Château" to "Crocodile"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 19, 2010 [EBook #32423]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Marius Masi, Juliet
+Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are
+      preceded by an underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in
+      superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article COUNCIL: "Although the Frankish monarchs were not absolute
+      rulers, nevertheless they exercised the right of changing or
+      rejecting synodal decrees which ran counter to the interests of the
+      state." 'absolute' amended from 'abolute'.
+
+    Article COUNCIL: "The last of the Reform councils, that of Basel,
+      approved these principles, and at length passed a sentence of
+      deposition against Pope Eugenius IV." 'approved' amended from
+      'appoved'.
+
+    Article COUNT: "It is difficult to give briefly a clear idea of the
+      functions of the three important officials comes sacrarum
+      largitionum, comes rei privatae and comes sacri patrimonii."
+      'patrimonii' amended from 'partrimonii'.
+
+    Article COVENANT: "The covenant not to sue belongs to the law of
+      contract and needs no explanation." 'explanation' amended from
+      'explantion'.
+
+    Article COWLEY, WELLESLEY: "and also during the excitement and
+      unrest produced by the attempt made in 1858 by Felice Orsini to
+      assassinate the emperor of the French." 'emperor' amended from
+      'emporor'.
+
+    Article CRAIG, JOHN: "James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this
+      compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal
+      chaplains and some others." 'like' amended from 'Like'.
+
+    Article CREEDS: "The confession of the Four Cities, Strassburg,
+      Constance, Memmingen and London, was drawn up by M. Bucer and was
+      presented to Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530." 'Augsburg' amended
+      from 'Ausburg'.
+
+    Article CREEDS: "It was prepared by Dr George Redford of Worcester,
+      and was presented, not as a scholastic or critical confession of
+      faith, but merely such a statement as any intelligent member of the
+      body might offer as containing its leading principles." 'of'
+      amended from 'or'.
+
+    Article CREEK: "a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in a river
+      formed by the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow harbour for
+      small vessels." 'vessels' amended from 'vessles'.
+
+    Article CREIGHTON, MANDELL: "His irrepressible and often daring
+      humour, together with his frank distaste for much conventional
+      religious phraseology, was a stumbling-block to some pious people."
+      'irrepressible' amended from 'irrespressible'.
+
+    Article CRICKET: "The distance that constitutes "good length" is
+      not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; it depends on
+      the condition of the ground, and on the reach of the batsman."
+      'constitutes' amended from 'consistutes'.
+
+    Article CRITICISM: The Poetics of Aristotle (1898); H. L. Havell
+      and Andrew Lang, Longinus on the Sublime (1890). 'Aristotle'
+      amended from 'Artistotle'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VII, SLICE VI
+
+       Coucy-le-Chateau to Crocodile
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COUCY-LE-CHATEAU                   CRANK
+  COUES, ELLIOTT                     CRANMER, THOMAS
+  COULISSE                           CRANNOG
+  COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN          CRANSAC
+  COULOMMIERS                        CRANSTON
+  COUMARIN                           CRANTOR
+  COUMARONES                         CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE
+  COUNCIL                            CRAPE
+  COUNCIL BLUFFS                     CRASH
+  COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR             CRASHAW, RICHARD
+  COUNT                              CRASSULACEAE
+  COUNTER                            CRASSUS
+  COUNTERFEITING                     CRATER
+  COUNTERFORT                        CRATES (Athenian actor)
+  COUNTERPOINT                       CRATES (Greek philosophers)
+  COUNTERSCARP                       CRATES (of Mallus)
+  COUNTERSIGN                        CRATINUS
+  COUNTRY                            CRATIPPUS (Greek historian)
+  COUNTY                             CRATIPPUS (of Mitylene)
+  COUNTY COURT                       CRAU
+  COUPE                              CRAUCK, GUSTAVE
+  COUPLET                            CRAUFURD, QUINTIN
+  COUPON                             CRAUFURD, ROBERT
+  COURANTE                           CRAVAT
+  COURAYER, PIERRE FRANCOIS LE       CRAVEN, PAULINE AGLAE
+  COURBET, GUSTAVE                   CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN
+  COURBEVOIE                         CRAWFORD, EARLS OF
+  COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE    CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION
+  COURCI, JOHN DE                    CRAWFORD, THOMAS
+  COURIER, PAUL LOUIS                CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS
+  COURIER                            CRAWFORDSVILLE
+  COURLAND                           CRAWFURD, JOHN
+  COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN          CRAYER, GASPARD DE
+  COURSING                           CRAYFISH
+  COURT, ANTOINE                     CRAYON
+  COURT                              CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD
+  COURT BARON                        CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM
+  COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE          CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE
+  COURTENAY                          CRECHE
+  COURTENAY, RICHARD                 CRECY
+  COURTENAY, WILLIAM                 CREDENCE
+  COURTESY                           CREDENTIALS
+  COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN            CREDI, LORENZO DI
+  COURT LEET                         CREDIT
+  COURT-MARTIAL                      CREDIT FONCIER
+  COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY   CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA
+  COURTOIS, JACQUES and GUILLAUME    CREDITON
+  COURTRAI                           CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH
+  COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE   CREE
+  COUSCOUS                           CREECH, THOMAS
+  COUSIN, JEAN                       CREEDS
+  COUSIN, VICTOR                     CREEK
+  COUSIN                             CREEK or MUSKOGEE INDIANS
+  COUSINS, SAMUEL                    CREETOWN
+  COUSTOU                            CREEVEY, THOMAS
+  COUTANCES, WALTER OF               CREFELD
+  COUTANCES                          CREIGHTON, MANDEL
+  COUTHON, GEORGES                   CREIL
+  COUTTS, THOMAS                     CRELL NICHOLAS
+  COUTURE, THOMAS                    CREMA
+  COUVADE                            CREMATION
+  COVE                               CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN
+  COVELLITE                          CREMERA
+  COVENANT (mutual agreement)        CREMIEUX, ISAAC MOISE
+  COVENANT (law term)                CREMONA, LUIGI
+  COVENANTERS                        CREMONA
+  COVENT GARDEN                      CREMORNE GARDENS
+  COVENTRY, SIR JOHN                 CRENELLE
+  COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY          CREODONTA
+  COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM              CREOLE
+  COVENTRY                           CREON (king of Corinth)
+  COVER                              CREON (king of Thebes)
+  COVERDALE, MILES                   CREOPHYLUS
+  COVERTURE                          CREOSOTE
+  COVILHA                            CREPUSCULAR
+  COVILHAM PERO                      CREQUY
+  COVIN                              CREQUY, RENEE DE FROULLAY
+  COVINGTON                          CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM
+  COWARD                             CRESCENT
+  COWBRIDGE                          CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO
+  COWDENBEATH                        CRESILAS
+  COWELL, JOHN                       CRESOLS
+  COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN              CRESPI, DANIELE
+  COWEN, JOSEPH                      CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
+  COWES                              CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA
+  COWL                               CRESS
+  COWLEY, ABRAHAM                    CRESSENT, CHARLES
+  COWLEY, HANNAH                     CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL
+  COWLEY, CHARLES WELLESLEY          CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE
+  COWLEY FATHERS                     CREST (town of France)
+  COWPENS                            CREST (plume or tuft)
+  COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER             CRESTON
+  COWPER, WILLIAM                    CRESWICK, THOMAS
+  COWRY                              CRESWICK
+  COW-TREE                           CRETACEOUS SYSTEM
+  COX, DAVID                         CRETE
+  COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM            CRETINISM
+  COX, JACOB DOLSON                  CRETONNE
+  COX, KENYON                        CREUSE
+  COX, RICHARD                       CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP
+  COX, SAMUEL                        CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH
+  COX, SAMUEL HANSON                 CREVASSE
+  COXCIE, MICHAEL                    CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS
+  COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS               CREVILLENTE
+  COXE, WILLIAM                      CREW, NATHANIEL CREW
+  COXSWAIN                           CREW
+  COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY              CREWE, ROBERT CREWE-MILNES
+  COYOTE                             CREWE
+  COYPEL                             CREWKERNE
+  COYPU                              CRIB
+  COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE          CRIBBAGE
+  CRAB                               CRICCIETH
+  CRABBE, GEORGE                     CRICHTON, JAMES
+  CRACKER                            CRICKET (insect)
+  CRACOW                             CRICKET (game)
+  CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT           CRICKHOWELL
+  CRADLE                             CRICKLADE
+  CRADOCK                            CRIEFF
+  CRAFT                              CRIME
+  CRAG                               CRIMEA
+  CRAGGS, JAMES                      CRIMEAN WAR
+  CRAIG, JOHN                        CRIMINAL LAW
+  CRAIG, SIR THOMAS                  CRIMINOLOGY
+  CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA         CRIMMITZSCHAU
+  CRAIK, DINAH MARIA                 CRIMP
+  CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE               CRIMSON
+  CRAIL                              CRINAGORAS
+  CRAILSHEIM                         CRINOLINE
+  CRAIOVA                            CRINUM
+  CRAMBO                             CRIOBOLIUM
+  CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST             CRIPPLE CREEK
+  CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY                CRISA
+  CRAMER, KARL VON                   CRISPI, FRANCESCO
+  CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY               CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN
+  CRAMP                              CRITIAS
+  CRAMP-RINGS                        CRITICISM
+  CRANACH, LUCAS                     CRITIUS and NESIOTES
+  CRANBERRY                          CRITOLAUS
+  CRANBROOK, GATHORNE-HARDY          CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN
+  CRANBROOK                          CRIVELLI, CARLO
+  CRANDALL, PRUDENCE                 CROATIA-SLAVONIA
+  CRANE, STEPHEN                     CROCIDOLITE
+  CRANE, WALTER                      CROCKET
+  CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY               CROCKETT, DAVID
+  CRANE                              CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD
+  CRANES                             CROCKFORD, WILLIAM
+  CRANIOMETRY                        CROCODILE
+
+
+
+
+COUCY-LE-CHATEAU, a village of northern France, in the department of
+Aisne, 18 m. W.S.W. of Laon on a branch of the Northern railway. Pop.
+(1906) 663. It has extensive remains of fortifications of the 13th
+century, the most remarkable feature of which is the Porte de Laon, a
+gateway flanked by massive towers and surmounted by a fine apartment.
+Coucy also has a church of the 15th century, preserving a facade in the
+Romanesque style. The importance of the place is due, however, to the
+magnificent ruins of a feudal fortress (see CASTLE) crowning the
+eminence on the slope of which the village is built. The remains, which
+embrace an area of more than 10,000 sq. yds., form an irregular
+quadrilateral built round a court-yard and flanked by four huge towers.
+The nucleus of the stronghold is a donjon over 200 ft. high and over 100
+ft. in diameter, standing on the south side of the court. Three large
+vaulted apartments, one above the other, occupy its interior. The
+court-yard was surrounded on the ground-floor by storehouses, kitchens,
+&c., above which on the west and north sides were the great halls known
+as the _Salle des preux_ and the _Salle des preuses_. A chapel projected
+from the west wing. The bailey or base-court containing other buildings
+and covering three times the area of the chateau extended between it and
+the village. The architectural unity of the fortress is due to the
+rapidity of its construction, which took place between 1230 and 1242,
+under Enguerrand III., lord of Coucy. A large part of the buildings was
+restored or enlarged at the end of the 14th century by Louis d'Orleans,
+brother of Charles VI., by whom it had been purchased. The place was
+dismantled in 1652 by order of Cardinal Mazarin. It is now state
+property. In 1856 researches were carried on upon the spot by
+Viollet-le-Duc, and measures for the preservation of the ruins were
+subsequently undertaken.
+
+_Sires de Coucy._--Coucy gave its name to the sires de Coucy, a feudal
+house famous in the history of France. The founder of the family was
+Enguerrand de Boves, a warlike lord, who, at the end of the 11th century
+seized the castle of Coucy by force. Towards the close of his life, he
+had to fight against his own son, Thomas de Marle, who in 1115 succeeded
+him, subsequently becoming notorious for his deeds of violence in the
+struggles between the communes of Laon and Amiens. He was subdued by
+King Louis VI. in 1117, but his son Enguerrand II. continued the
+struggle against the king. Enguerrand III., the Great, fought at
+Bouvines under Philip Augustus (1214), but later he was accused of
+aiming at the crown of France, and he took part in the disturbances
+which arose during the regency of Blanche of Castile. These early lords
+of Coucy remained till the 14th century in possession of the land from
+which they took their name. Enguerrand IV., sire de Coucy, died in 1320
+without issue and was succeeded by his nephew Enguerrand, son of Arnold,
+count of Guines, and Alix de Coucy, from whom is descended the second
+line of the house of Coucy. Enguerrand VI. had his lands ravaged by the
+English in 1339 and died at Crecy in 1346. Enguerrand VII., sire de
+Coucy, count of Soissons and Marle, and chief butler of France, was sent
+as a hostage to England, where he married Isabel, the eldest daughter of
+King Edward III. Wishing to remain neutral in the struggle between
+England and France, he went to fight in Italy. Having made claims upon
+the domains of the house of Austria, from which he was descended through
+his mother, he was defeated in battle (1375-1376). He was entrusted with
+various diplomatic negotiations, and took part in the crusade of Hungary
+against the Sultan Bayezid, during which he was taken prisoner, and died
+shortly after the battle of Nicopolis (1397). His daughter Marie sold
+the fief of Coucy to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1400. The Chatelain de
+Coucy (see above) did not belong to the house of the lords of Coucy, but
+was castellan of the castle of that name.
+
+
+
+
+COUES, ELLIOTT (1842-1899), American naturalist, was born at Portsmouth,
+New Hampshire, on the 9th of September 1842. He graduated at Columbian
+(now George Washington) University, Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at
+the Medical school of that institution in 1863. He served as a medical
+cadet at Washington in 1862-1863, and in 1864 was appointed
+assistant-surgeon in the regular army. In 1872 he published his _Key to
+North American Birds_, which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901,
+has done much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America.
+In 1873-1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the United
+States Northern Boundary Commission, and in 1876-1880 was secretary and
+naturalist to the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of
+the Territories, the publications of which he edited. He was lecturer on
+anatomy in the medical school of the Columbian University in 1877-1882,
+and professor of anatomy there in 1882-1887. He resigned from the army
+in 1881 to devote himself entirely to scientific research. He was a
+founder of the American Ornithologists' Union, and edited its organ,
+_The Auk_, and several other ornithological periodicals. He died at
+Baltimore, Maryland, on the 25th of December 1899. In addition to
+ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy; his book _Fur-Bearing
+Animals_ (1877) being distinguished by the accuracy and completeness of
+its description of species, several of which are already becoming rare.
+In 1887 he became president of the Esoteric Theosophical Society of
+America. Among the most important of his publications, in several of
+which he had collaboration, are _A Field Ornithology_ (1874); _Birds of
+the North-west_ (1874); _Monographs on North American Rodentia_, with J.
+A. Allen (1877); _Birds of the Colorado Valley_ (1878); _A Bibliography
+of Ornithology_ (1878-1880, incomplete); _New England Bird Life_ (1881);
+_A Dictionary and Check List of North American Birds_ (1882); _Biogen, A
+Speculation on the Origin and Motive of Life_ (1884); _The Daemon of
+Darwin_ (1884); _Can Matter Think?_ (1886); and _Neuro-Myology_ (1887).
+He also contributed numerous articles to the Century Dictionary, wrote
+for various encyclopaedias, and edited the _Journals of Lewis and Clark_
+(1893), and _The Travels of Zebulon M. Pike_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+COULISSE (French for "groove," from _couler_, to slide), a term for a
+groove in which a gate of a sluice, or the side-scenes in a theatre,
+slide up and down, hence applied to the space on the stage between the
+wings, and generally to that part of the theatre "behind the scenes" and
+out of view of the public. It is also a term of the Paris Bourse,
+derived from a _coulisse_, or passage in which transactions were carried
+on without the authorized _agents de change_. The name _coulissier_ was
+thus given to unauthorized _agents de change_, or "outside brokers" who,
+after many attempts at suppression, were finally given a recognized
+status in 1901. They bring business to the _agents de change_, and act
+as intermediaries between them and other parties. (See STOCK EXCHANGE:
+Paris.)
+
+
+
+
+COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1736-1806), French natural philosopher, was
+born at Angouleme on the 14th of June 1736. He chose the profession of
+military engineer, spent three years, to the decided injury of his
+health, at Fort Bourbon, Martinique, and was employed on his return at
+Rochelle, the Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. In 1781 he was stationed
+permanently at Paris, but on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he
+resigned his appointment as _intendant des eaux et fontaines_, and
+retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was recalled
+to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new determination of
+weights and measures, which had been decreed by the Revolutionary
+government. Of the National Institute he was one of the first members;
+and he was appointed inspector of public instruction in 1802. But his
+health was already very feeble, and four years later he died at Paris on
+the 23rd of August 1806. Coulomb is distinguished in the history alike
+of mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he published an
+important investigation of the laws of friction (_Theorie des machines
+simples, en ayant regard au frottement de leurs parties et a la roideur
+des cordages_), which was followed twenty years later by a memoir on
+fluid resistance. In 1785 appeared his _Recherches theoriques et
+experimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'elasticite des fils de
+metal_, &c. This memoir contained a description of different forms of
+his torsion balance, an instrument used by him with great success for
+the experimental investigation of the distribution of electricity on
+surfaces and of the laws of electrical and magnetic action, of the
+mathematical theory of which he may also be regarded as the founder. The
+practical unit of quantity of electricity, the _coulomb_, is named after
+him.
+
+
+
+
+COULOMMIERS, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Seine-et-Marne, 45 m. E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906)
+5217. It is situated in the fertile district of Brie, in a valley
+watered by the Grand-Morin. The church of St Denis (13th and 16th
+centuries), and the ruins of a castle built by Catherine of Gonzaga,
+duchess of Longueville, in the early 17th century, are of little
+importance. There is a statue to Commandant Beaurepaire, who, in 1792,
+killed himself rather than surrender Verdun to the Prussians.
+Coulommiers is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college. Printing is the chief industry,
+tanning, flour-milling and sugar-making being also carried on. Trade is
+in agricultural products, and especially in cheeses named after the
+town.
+
+
+
+
+COUMARIN, C9H6O2, a substance which occurs naturally in sweet woodruff
+(_Asperula odorata_), in the tonka bean and in yellow melilot
+(_Melilotus officinalis_). It can be obtained from the tonka bean by
+extraction with alcohol. It is prepared artificially by heating
+aceto-ortho-coumaric acid (which is formed from sodium salicyl aldehyde)
+or from the action of acetic anhydride and sodium acetate on salicyl
+aldehyde (Sir W. H. Perkin, _Berichte_, 1875, 8, p. 1599). It can also
+be prepared by heating a mixture of phenol and malic acid with sulphuric
+acid, or by passing bromine vapour at 107 deg. C. over the anhydride of
+melilotic acid. It forms rhombic crystals (from ether) melting at 67
+deg. C. and boiling at 290 deg. C., which are readily soluble in
+alcohol, and moderately soluble in hot water. It is applied in perfumery
+for the preparation of the _Asperula_ essence. On boiling with
+concentrated caustic potash it yields the potassium salt of coumaric
+acid, whilst when fused with potash it is completely decomposed into
+salicylic and acetic acids. Sodium amalgam reduces it, in aqueous
+solution, to melilotic acid. It forms addition products with bromine and
+hydrobromic acid. By the action of phosphorus pentasulphide it is
+converted into thiocoumarin, which melts at 101 deg. C.; and in
+alcoholic solution, on the addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and
+soda, it yields coumarin oxime.
+
+Ortho-coumaric acid (o-oxycinnamic acid) is obtained from coumarin as
+shown above, or by boiling coumarin for some time with sodium ethylate.
+It melts at 208 deg. C. and is easily soluble in hot water and in
+alcohol. It cannot be converted into coumarin by heating alone, but it
+is readily transformed on heating with acetic anhydride or acetyl
+chloride. By the action of sodium amalgam it is readily converted into
+_melilotic acid_, which melts at 81 deg. C., and on distillation
+furnishes its lactone, _hydrocoumarin_, melting at 25 deg. C. For the
+relations of coumaric and coumarinic acid see _Annalen_, 254, p. 181.
+The homologues of coumarin may be obtained by the action of sulphuric
+acid on phenol and the higher fatty acids (propionic, butyric and
+isovaleric anhydrides), substitution taking place at the carbon atom in
+the [alpha] position to the -CO-group, whilst by the condensation of
+acetoacetic ester and phenols with sulphuric acid the [beta] substituted
+coumarins are obtained.
+
+_Umbelliferone_ or 4-oxycoumarin, occurs in the bark of _Daphne
+mezereum_ and may be obtained by distilling such resins as galbanum or
+asafoetida. It may be synthesized from resorcin and malic anhydride or
+from [beta] resorcyl aldehyde, acetic anhydride and sodium acetate.
+_Daphnetin_ and _Aesculetin_ are dioxycoumarins.
+
+The structural formulae of coumarin and the related substances are:
+
+                            CH
+     / \_CH:CH.CO2H    / \ / \\CH    / \ /CH2.CH2.CO2H
+    |   |             |   |   |     |   |
+    |   |_            |   |   |     |   |
+     \ /  OH           \ / \ / CO    \ / \OH
+                            O
+  Orthocoumaric      Coumarin.    Melilotic
+      acid.                         acid.
+
+         CH2                CH
+    / \ / \ CH2        / \ / \\CH
+   |   |   |          |   |   |
+   |   |   |          |   |   |
+    \ / \ / CO      HO \ / \ / CO
+         O                  O
+ Hydrocoumarin.    Umbelliferone.
+
+
+
+
+COUMARONES or BENZOFURFURANES, organic compounds containing the ring
+system
+
+       CH
+      /\\
+  C6H4   CH.
+      \ /
+       O
+
+This ring system may be synthesized in many different ways, the chief
+methods employed being as follows: by the action of hot alcoholic potash
+on [alpha]-bromcoumarin (R. Fittig, _Ann._, 1883, 216, p. 162),
+
+      CH:C.Br           CH                CH
+      /                 /\\               /\\
+  C6H4        ---> C6H4   C.COOH ---> C6H4   CH;
+      \  .              \ /               \ /
+       O.CO              O                 O
+
+from sodium salts of phenols and [alpha]-chloracetoacetic ester (A.
+Hantzsch, _Ber._, 1886, 19, p. 1292),
+
+       H                           C.CH3
+      /         COCH3             /\\
+  C6H4   --->   .        ---> C6H4  C.COOR;
+      \      Cl.CH.COOR           \ /
+       ONa                         O
+
+or from ortho-oxyaldehydes by condensation with ketones (S. Kostanecki
+and J. Tambor, _Ber._, 1896, 29, p. 237), or with chloracetic acid (A.
+Rossing, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 3000),
+
+      /OH CH3CO.C6H5      /OH
+  C6H4    ----------> C6H4              2 Br
+      \CHO                \CH:CH.COC6H5 ----->
+
+      /OH                KHO      / O \
+  C6H4                  ----> C6H4     C.COC6H5,
+      \CHBr.CHBr.COC6H5           \CH//
+
+      /OH  Cl.CH2.COOH      /CHO       CH3COONa
+  C6H4    ------------> C6H4           -------->
+      \CHO                  \O.CH2.COOH
+
+                                    /CH\\
+                                C6H4     C.COOH.
+                                    \ O /
+
+The parent substance coumarone, C8H6O, is also obtained by heating
+[omega]-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol with concentrated potash solution (G.
+Komppa, _Ber._, 1893, 26. p. 2971),
+
+      /CH:CHCl  KOH      /CH\\
+  C6H4         ----> C6H4     CH.
+      \OH                \ O /
+
+It is a colourless liquid which boils at 171-172 deg. C. and is readily
+volatile in steam, but is insoluble in water and in potash solution.
+Concentrated acids convert it into a resin. When heated with sodium and
+absolute alcohol, it is converted into _hydrocoumarone_, C8H8O, and
+ethyl phenol.
+
+
+
+
+COUNCIL (Lat. _concilium_, from _cum_, together, and the root cal, to
+call), the general word for a convocation, meeting, assembly. The Latin
+word was frequently confused with _consilium_ (from _consulere_, to
+deliberate, cf. _consul_), advice, i.e. counsel, and thus specifically
+an advisory assembly. Du Cange (_Gloss. Med. Infim. Latin._) quotes the
+Greek words [Greek: synodos, synedrion, symboulion] as the equivalent of
+_concilium_. In French the distinction between _conseil_ (from
+_consilium_), advice, and _concile_, council (i.e. ecclesiastical--its
+only meaning) has survived, but the two English derivatives are much
+confused. In the New Testament, "council" is the rendering of the Hebrew
+Sanhedrin, Gr. [Greek: synedrion]. The word is generally used in English
+for all kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for
+administrative and deliberative purposes.[1]
+
+The present article is confined to a history of the development of the
+ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in dispute with the
+civil authority or for the settlement of doctrinal and other internal
+disputes. For details see under separate headings, NICAEA, &c.
+
+From a very early period in the history of the Church, councils or
+synods have been held to decide on matters of doctrine and discipline.
+They may be traced back to the second half of the 2nd century A.D., when
+sundry churches in Asia Minor held consultations about the rise of
+Montanism. Their precise origin is disputed. The common Roman Catholic
+view is that they are apostolic though not prescribed by divine law, and
+the apostolic precedent usually cited is the "council" of Jerusalem
+(Acts xv.; Galatians ii.). Waiving the consideration of vital critical
+questions and accepting Acts xv. at its face value, the assembly at
+Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the technical
+sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the Jerusalem church
+at which delegates from Antioch were heard but apparently had no vote,
+the decision resting solely with the mother church. R. Sohm argues that
+synods grew from the custom of certain local churches which, when
+confronted with a serious problem of their own, augmented their numbers
+by receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood. Hauck,
+however, holds that these augmented church meetings, which dealt with
+the affairs of but a single church, are to be distinguished from the
+synods, which took cognizance of matters of general interest. Older
+Protestant writers have contented themselves with saying either that
+synods were of apostolic origin, or that they were the inevitable
+outcome of the need of the leaders of churches to take counsel together,
+and that they were perhaps modelled on the secular provincial assemblies
+(_concilia provincialia_).
+
+Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church has
+affected the composition and function of synods; but the changes were
+neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout the Roman empire.
+The synods of the 2nd century were extraordinary assemblies which met to
+deliberate upon pressing problems. They had no fixed geographical limits
+for membership, no _ex-officio_ members, nor did they possess an
+authority which did away with the independence of the local church. In
+the course of the 3rd century came the decisive change, which increased
+the prestige of the councils: the right to vote was limited to bishops.
+This was the logical outgrowth of the belief that each local church
+ought to have but one bishop (monarchical episcopate), and that these
+bishops were the sole legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic
+succession), and therefore official organs of the Holy Spirit. Although
+as late as 250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the people
+was still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision
+at Rome and in certain parts of the East, the development had already
+run its course in northern Africa. It was a further step in advance when
+synods began to meet at regular intervals. They were held annually in
+Cappadocia by the middle of the 3rd century, and the council of Nicaea
+commanded in 325 that semiannual synods be held in every province, an
+arrangement which was not systematically enforced, and was altered in
+692, when the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a year.
+
+With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentiation of
+type. In text-books we find clear lines drawn between diocesan,
+provincial, national, patriarchal and oecumenical synods; but the first
+thousand years of church history do not justify the sharpness of the
+traditional distinction. The _provincial_ synods, presided over by the
+metropolitan (archbishop), were usually held at the capital of the
+province, and attempted to legislate on all sorts of questions. The
+state had nothing to do with calling them, nor did their decrees require
+governmental sanction. Various abortive attempts were made to set up
+synods of _patriarchal_ or at least of more than provincial rank. In
+North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and 424; during
+part of the 5th and 6th centuries _primatial_ councils assembled at
+Arles; and the patriarchs of Constantinople were accustomed to invite to
+their "_endemic_ synods" ([Greek: synodoi endemousai]) all bishops who
+happened to be sojourning at the capital. _Papal_ synods from the 5th
+and especially from the 9th century onward included members such as the
+archbishops of Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia and Grado, who resided outside
+the Roman archdiocese; but the territorial limits from which the
+membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely defined.
+
+Before the form of the provincial synod had become absolutely fixed,
+there arose in the 4th century the _oecumenical_ council. The Greek term
+[Greek: synodos oikoumenike][2] (1) (used by Eusebius, _Vita
+Constantini_, iii. 6) is preferable to the Latin _concilium universale_
+or _generale_, which has been applied loosely to national and even to
+provincial synods. The oecumenical synods were not the logical outgrowth
+of the network of provincial synods; they were creations of the imperial
+power. Constantine, who had not even been baptized, laid the foundations
+when, in response to a petition of the Donatists, he referred their case
+to a committee of bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius
+calls a synod. After that the emperor summoned the council of Arles to
+settle the matter. For both of these assemblies it was the emperor that
+decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling expenses of the
+bishops, determined where the council should be held and what topics
+should be discussed. He regarded them as temporary advisory bodies, to
+whose recommendations the imperial authority might give the force of
+law. In the same manner he appointed the time and place for the council
+of Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out of the
+public purse, nominated the committee in charge of the order of
+business, used his influence to bring about the adoption of the creed,
+and punished those who refused to subscribe. To be sure, the council of
+Nicaea commanded great veneration, for it was the first attempt to
+assemble the entire episcopate; but no more than the synods of Rome and
+of Arles was it an organ of ecclesiastical self-government--it was
+rather a means whereby the Church was ruled by the secular power. The
+subsequent oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on
+that of Nicaea. Most Protestant scholars maintain that the secular
+authorities decided whether or not they should be convened, and issued
+the summons; that imperial commissioners were always present, even if
+they did not always preside; that on occasion emperors have confirmed or
+refused to confirm synodal decrees; and that the papal confirmation was
+neither customary nor requisite. Roman Catholic scholars to-day tend to
+recede from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago,
+and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical synods was
+vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the pope, and that it
+cannot be proved that the Roman see ever actually had a share in calling
+the oecumenical councils of antiquity. Others, however, while
+acknowledging the futility of seeking historical proofs that the popes
+_formally_ called, directed and confirmed these synods, yet assert that
+the emperor performed these functions not of his own right but in his
+quality as protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the
+request or at least with the permission and approval of the Church, and
+in particular of the pope, and that a special though not a stereotyped
+papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was necessary to their validity.
+
+In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western Empire we
+find _national_ and _diocesan_ synods; provincial synods were unusual.
+National synods were summoned by the king or with his consent to meet
+special needs; and they were frequently _concilia mixta_, at which lay
+dignitaries appeared. Although the Frankish monarchs were not absolute
+rulers, nevertheless they exercised the right of changing or rejecting
+synodal decrees which ran counter to the interests of the state. Clovis
+held the first French national synod at Orleans in 511; Reccared, the
+first in Spain in 589 at Toledo. Under Charlemagne they were
+occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked as
+general synods of the West (Regensburg, 792, Frankfort, 794).
+Contemporaneous with the evolution of the national synod was the
+development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included the priests
+of separate and mutually independent parishes and also the leaders of
+the monastic clergy.
+
+The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of the
+Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran synod of 1059
+on. They grew in importance until at length Calixtus II. summoned to the
+Lateran the synod of 1123 as "_generale concilium_." The powers which
+the pope as bishop of the church in Rome had exercised over its synods
+he now extended to the oecumenical councils. They were more completely
+under his control than the ancient ones had been under the sway of the
+emperor. The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all major synods need papal
+authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were formulated as papal
+edicts.
+
+The absolutist principles cherished by the papal court in the 12th and
+13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the protests of Marsilius
+of Padua and the less radical William of Occam remained barren until the
+Great Schism of 1378. As neither the pope in Rome nor his rival in
+Avignon would give way, recourse was had to the idea that the supreme
+power was vested not in the pope but in the oecumenical council. This
+"conciliar theory," propounded by Conrad of Gelnhausen and championed by
+the great Parisian teachers Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson, proceeded from
+the nominalistic axiom that the whole is greater than its part. The
+decisive revolutionary step was taken when the cardinals independently
+of both popes ventured to hold the council of Pisa (1409). The council
+of Constance asserted the supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered
+that these be convened at regular intervals. The last of the Reform
+councils, that of Basel, approved these principles, and at length passed
+a sentence of deposition against Pope Eugenius IV. Eugenius, however,
+succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council of Florence
+(1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar theory; and this was
+reiterated still more emphatically, on the eve of the Reformation, by
+the fifth Lateran council (1516). Thenceforward the absolutist theories
+of the 13th and 14th centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church.
+The popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 1517 and 1869
+they called but one; at this (Trent, 1545-1563), however, all treatment
+of the question of papal versus conciliar authority was purposely
+avoided. Although the Declaration of the French clergy of 1682
+reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance, since the French
+Revolution this "Gallicanism" has shown itself to be but a passing phase
+of constitutional theory; and in the 19th century the ascendancy of
+Ultramontanism became so secure that Pius IX. could confidently summon
+to the Vatican a synod which set its seal on the doctrine of papal
+infallibility. Yet it would be a misconception to suppose that the
+Vatican decrees mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the
+infallibility of oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be
+regarded as more solemn and more impressive than those of the pope
+alone; their authority is fuller, though not higher. At present it is
+agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical
+councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining the
+order of business and the topics which shall come up. The papal
+confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the stamp without
+which the expression of conciliar opinion lacks legal validity. In other
+words, the oecumenical council is now practically in the position of the
+senate of an absolute monarch. It is in fact an open question whether a
+council is to be ranked as really oecumenical until after its decrees
+have been approved by the pope. (See VATICAN COUNCIL, ULTRAMONTANISM,
+INFALLIBILITY.)
+
+The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called "the pitched
+battles of church history." Summoned to combat heresy and schism, in
+spite of degrading pressure from without and tumultuous disorder within,
+they ultimately brought about a modicum of doctrinal agreement. On the
+one side as time went on they bound scholarship hand and foot in the
+winding-sheet of tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance;
+yet on the other side they fostered the sense of the Church's corporate
+oneness. The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a valuable
+system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of ecclesiastical
+business. They have been held most frequently, however, in times of
+stress and of reform, for instance in the 11th, 16th and 19th centuries;
+at other periods they have lapsed into disuse: it is significant that
+to-day the prelate who neglects to convene them suffers no penalty. At
+present the main function of both provincial and oecumenical synods
+seems to be to facilitate obedience to the wishes of the central
+government of the Church.
+
+The _right to vote_ (_votum definitivum_) has been distinguished from
+early times from the right to be heard (_votum consultativum_). The
+Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to doctors and
+licentiates of theology and of laws, some of them sitting as
+individuals, some as representatives of universities. Roman Catholic
+canonists now confine the right to vote at oecumenical councils to
+bishops, cardinal deacons, generals or vicars general of monastic orders
+and the _praelati nullius_ (exempt abbots, &c.); all other persons, lay
+or clerical, who are admitted or invited, have merely the _votum
+consultativum_--they are chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very
+learned priests. It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed
+to offset the preponderance of Italian bishops dependent on the pope
+when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several groups or
+"nations," each of which had a single vote. In voting, the simple
+majority decides; yet such is the importance attached to a unanimous
+verdict that an irreconcilable minority may absent itself from the final
+vote, as was the case at the Vatican Council.
+
+The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the list most used in
+the Roman Church to-day is that of Hefele (_Conciliengeschichte_, 2nd
+ed., I. 59 f.):
+
+                                                        A.D.
+   1.  Nicaea I.                                        325
+   2.  Constantinople I.                                381
+   3.  Ephesus                                          431
+   4.  Chalcedon                                        451
+   5.  Constantinople II.                               553
+   6.  Constantinople III.                              680
+   7.  Nicaea II.                                       787
+   8.  Constantinople IV.                               869
+   9.  Lateran I.                                      1123
+  10.  Lateran II.                                     1139
+  11.  Lateran III.                                    1179
+  12.  Lateran IV.                                     1215
+  13.  Lyons I.                                        1245
+  14.  Lyons II.                                       1274
+  15.  Vienne                                          1311
+  16.  Constance (in part)                        1414-1418
+  17a. Basel (in part)                                 1431 ff.
+  17b. Ferrara-Florence (a continuation of Basel) 1438-1442
+  18.  Lateran V.                                 1512-1517
+  19.  Trent                                      1545-1563
+  20.  Vatican                                    1869-1870
+
+(Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in
+separate articles.)
+
+By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate synod,
+certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical councils up to
+twenty-two. These standard lists are of the type which became
+established through the authority of Cardinal R. F. Bellarmine
+(1542-1621), who criticized Constance and Basel, while defending
+Florence and the fifth Lateran council against the Gallicans. As late as
+the 16th century, however, "the majority did not regard those councils
+in which the Greek Church did not take part as oecumenical at all"
+(Harnack, _History of Dogma_, vi. 17). The Greek Church accepts only the
+first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan synod of
+692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the sixth oecumenical synod
+of 680. But concerning the first seven councils it should be remarked
+that Constantinople I. was but a general synod of the East; its claim to
+oecumenicity rests upon its reception by the West about two centuries
+later. Similarly the only representatives of the West present at
+Constantinople II. were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the
+decrees till afterwards and they made their way in the West but
+gradually. Just as there have been synods which have come to be
+considered oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been
+synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of recognition: for
+instance Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Constantinople (754). The last
+two received the imperial confirmation and from the legal point of view
+were no whit inferior to the others; their decrees, however, were
+overthrown by subsequent synods. As the Protestant leaders of the 16th
+century held fast the traditional christology, they regarded with
+veneration the dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I.,
+Ephesus and Chalcedon. These four councils had enjoyed a more or less
+fortuitous pre-eminence both in Roman and in canon law, and by many
+Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded, along with the
+three great creeds (Apostles', Nicene, Athanasian), as a sort of
+irreducible minimum of orthodoxy. In the 17th century the liberal
+Lutheran George Calixtus based his attempts at reuniting Christendom on
+this _consensus quinquesaecularis_. Many other Protestants have accepted
+Constantinople II. and III. as supporting the first four councils; and
+still others, notably many Anglican high churchmen, have felt bound by
+all the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church. The common
+Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may err and
+have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliar decisions are the
+sole infallible standard of faith, morals and worship.
+
+_Protestant Councils._--The churches of the Reformation have all had a
+certain measure of synodal life. The Church of England has maintained
+its ancient provincial synods or convocations, though for the greater
+part of the 18th and the first part of the 19th centuries they
+transacted no business. In the Lutheran churches of Germany there was no
+strong agitation in favour of introducing synods until the 19th century,
+when a movement, designed to render the churches less dependent on the
+governmental consistories, won its way, until at length Prussia itself
+fell into line (1873 and 1876). As the powers granted to the German
+synods are very limited, many of their advocates have been
+disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of America, being independent
+of the state, have developed synods both numerous and potent. In the
+Reformed churches outside Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms
+were developed by the Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed
+thence to Scotland and other presbyterian countries. Even many of the
+churches of congregational polity have organized national councils (see
+CONGREGATIONALISM); but here the principle of the independence of the
+local church prevents the decisions from binding those congregations
+which do not approve of the decrees. Moreover, in the last decade of the
+19th century a growing desire for a rapprochement between the Free
+Churches in the United Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of
+the Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting
+the dissenting bodies. This body has no executive or doctrinal authority
+and is rather a conference than a council. In general it may be said
+that synods are becoming more and more powerful in Protestant lands, and
+that they are destined to still greater prominence because of the
+growing sentiment for Christian unity.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--GENERAL COLLECTIONS: _Collectio regia_ (Paris, 1644, 37
+  vols.) (the first very extensive work); P. Labbe (not Labbe) and G.
+  Cossart, _Sacrosancta concilia_ (Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with
+  supplement by Etienne Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above); J.
+  Hardouin (Harduinus), _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ (Paris,
+  1715), 11 tomi in 12 vols, (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious
+  omissions); enlarged edition by N. Coletus (Venice, 1728-1732),
+  supplemented by J. D. Mansi, _Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum nova
+  collectio_ (Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi). Convenient but fallible is Mansi's
+  _Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima collectio_
+  (Florence, 1759-1767; completed Venice, 1769-1798, 31 vols.);
+  facsimile reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding (tom. O)
+  _Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia_, and (tom. 17B and
+  18B) Baluze, _Capitularia regum Francorum_, and continuing to date by
+  reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi's supplement to Coletus, and
+  furnishing (tom. 37 ff.) a new edition of the councils from 1720 on by
+  J. B. Martin and L. Petit. A careful text of Roman Catholic synods
+  from 1682 to 1870 is _Collectio Lacensis_ (_Acta et decreta sacrorum
+  conciliorum recentiorum_, Friburgi, 1870 ff.), 7 vols.
+
+  SPECIAL COLLECTIONS: GREAT BRITAIN: _Concilia Magnae Britanniae et
+  Hiberniae_, ed. D. Wilkins (London, 1737, 4 vols.); _Councils and
+  Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland_, ed.
+  by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (Oxford, 1869 ff., 4 vols.); J. W.
+  Joyce, _Handbook of the Convocations or Provincial Synods of the
+  Church of England_ (London, 1887); _Concilia Scotiae_ (1225-1559), ed.
+  Joseph Robertson (Edinburgh, Bannatyne Club, 1866, 2 tom.).
+
+  UNITED STATES: _Collectio Lacensis_ (Roman Catholic synods); _The
+  American Church History Series_ (New York, 1893 ff. 13 vols.) gives
+  information on the various Protestant synods.
+
+  FRANCE.--_Concilia aevi Merovingici_, rec. F. Maassen (Hanover, 1893)
+  (_Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum sectio_ iii., _Concilia_, tom.
+  i.); _Concilia antiqua Galliae_, cur. J. Sirmond (Paris, 1629, 3
+  vols.); supplement by P. de la Lande (Paris, 1666); L. Odespun,
+  _Concilia novissima Galliae_ (Paris, 1646); _Conciliorum Galliae tam
+  editorum quam ineditorum, stud. congreg. S. Mauri_, tom. i. (Paris,
+  1789). Synods of the Reformed Churches of France are contained in J.
+  Quick, _Synodicon in Gallia reformata_ (London, 1692, 2 vols.); J.
+  Aymon, _Tous les synodes nationaux des eglises reformees de France_
+  (La Haye, 1710, 2 vols.); E. Hugues, _Les Synodes du desert_ (Paris,
+  1885 f., 3 vols.). For the synods of other countries see Herzog-Hauck,
+  3rd ed., 19,262 f., and Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed., 3809 f.
+
+  LESS ELABORATE TEXTS: _Canones apostolorum et conciliorum saeculorum_,
+  iv.-vii., rec. H. T. Bruns (Berlin, 1839, 2 vols.) (still useful); J.
+  Fulton, _Index Canonum_ (3rd ed., New York, 1892) (3rd and 4th
+  centuries); W. Bright, _Notes on the Canons of the First Four General
+  Councils_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1892); _Die Kanones der wichtigsten
+  altkirchlichen Conzilien nebst den apostolischen Kanones_, ed. F.
+  Lauchert (Freiburg i. B., 1896); _Enchiridion symbolorum et
+  definitionum, quae de rebus fidei et morum a conciliis oecumenicis et
+  summis pontificibus emanarunt_, ed. H. Denzinger (7th ed., Wurzburg,
+  1895); _Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche_,
+  ed. by A. Hahn (3rd edition, revised and enlarged, Breslau, 1897),
+  with variant readings; C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums
+  und des romischen Katholizismus_ (2nd much enlarged ed., Tubingen,
+  1901); E. F. Karl Muller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten
+  Kirche (Leipzig, 1903) (for all countries). These last five are
+  elaborately indexed.
+
+  TRANSLATIONS: John Johnson, _A Collection of the Laws and Canons of
+  the Church of England_ [601-1519], 2 parts (London, 1720; reprinted
+  Oxford, 1850 f., in the _Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology_); P.
+  Schaff, _The Creeds of Christendom_ (New York, 1877, 3 vols.) (texts
+  and translations parallel); _Canons and Creeds of the First Four
+  Councils_, ed. by E. K. Mitchell, in _Translations and Reprints from
+  the Original Sources of European History, published by the Department
+  of History of the University of Pennsylvania_, vol. iv. 2 (1897); H.
+  R. Percival, _The Ecumenical Councils_ (New York, 1900) (_Nicene and
+  Post-Nicene Fathers_, second series, vol. xiv.; translates canons and
+  compiles notes; bibliography in Introduction).
+
+  GENERAL HISTORIES OF COUNCILS: C. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_
+  (Freiburg i. B., 1855); English translation of the earlier volumes to
+  A.D. 787, from A.D. 326 on, based on the second German edition
+  (Edinburgh, 1871 ff.); French, by Delarc (Paris, 1869-1874, 10 vols.).
+  This first edition not entirely superseded by the second, made after
+  the Vatican council, and continued by Knopfler and by Hergenrother
+  (Freiburg, 1873-1890, 9 vols.); a French translation, with
+  continuation and critical and bibliographical notes, _par un religieux
+  benedictin de Farnborough_, tome i. 1^re partie (Paris, Letouzey,
+  1907); Paul Viollet, _Examen de l'histoire des conciles de Mgr Hefele_
+  (Paris, 1876) (_Extrait de la Revue historique_); W. P. du Bose, _The
+  Ecumenical Councils_ (New York, 1896) (popular); P. Guerin, _Les
+  Conciles generaux et particuliers_ (Paris, 1868, 3rd impression, 1897,
+  3 tom.); see also A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (Boston, 1895-1900, 7
+  vols.); F. Loofs, _Leitfaden der Dogmengeschichte_ (4th ed., enlarged,
+  Halle, 1906).
+
+  LITERATURE: _Dictionnaire universel et complet des conciles_, redige
+  par A. C. Peltier, publie par Migne (Paris, 1847, 2 vols.) (Migne,
+  _Encyclopedie theologique_, vol. 13 f.); Z. Zitelli-Natali, _Epitome
+  historico-canonica conciliorum generalium_ (Rome, 1881); F. X. Kraus,
+  _Realencyklopadie der christlichen Altertumer_, vol. i.
+  (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882) (art. "Concilien" by Funk); William Smith and
+  S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London, 1876-1880,
+  2 vols.) (erudite detail); Wetzer und Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd
+  ed. by Hergenrother and Kaulen (Freiburg i. B., 1882-1903, 13 vols.)
+  (art. "Concil" by Scheeben); _La Grande Encyclopedie_ (Paris, s.d., 31
+  vols.) (numerous articles); P. Hinschius, _Das Kirchenrecht der
+  Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland_, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1883)
+  (fundamental and masterly); R. von Scherer, _Handbuch des
+  Kirchenrechtes_, vol. i. (Graz, 1886) (excellent notes and
+  references); E. H. Landon, _A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic
+  Church_, (revised ed., London, [1893], 2 vols.) (paraphrases chief
+  canons; needs revision); Martigny, _Dictionnaire des antiquites
+  chretiennes_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1889) (for ceremonial); R. Sohm,
+  _Kirchenrecht_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1892) (brilliant); A. Kneer, _Die
+  Entstehung der konziliaren Theorie_ (Rome, 1893); _Realencyklopadie
+  fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche_, begrundet von J. J. Herzog,
+  3rd revised ed. by A. Hauck (Leipzig, 1896 ff.) (in vol. 19 Hauck's
+  excellent _Synoden_, 1907); F. X. Funk, _Kirchengeschichtliche
+  Abhandlungen und Untersuchungen_ (Paderborn, 1897); A. V. G. Allen,
+  _Christian Institutions_ (New York, 1897), chap. xi.; C. A. Kneller,
+  "Papst und Konzil im ersten Jahrtausend" (_Zeitschrift fur katholische
+  Theologie_, vols. 27 and 28, Innsbruck, 1893 f.); F. Bliemetzrieder,
+  _Das Generalkonzil im grossen abendlandischen Schisma_ (Paderborn,
+  1904); Wilhelm and Scannell, _Manual of Catholic Theology_ (3rd ed.,
+  London, 1906, sect. 32); J. Forget, "Conciles," in A. Vacant and E.
+  Mangeot, _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_, tome 3, 636-676
+  (Paris, 1906 ff.), with elaborate bibliography; _The Catholic
+  Encyclopedia_ (New York, 1907 ff.).     (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the Greek Council see BOULE; for the Hebdomadal Council see
+    OXFORD; see also ENGLAND: Local Government.
+
+  [2] From [Greek: he oikoumene (ge)]. the inhabited world; Latin
+    _oecumenicus_ or _universalis_. The English forms "oecumenical" and
+    "ecumenical" are both used.
+
+
+
+
+COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city and the county-seat of Pottawattamie county,
+Iowa, U.S.A., about 2-1/2 m. E. of the Missouri river opposite Omaha,
+Nebraska, with which it is connected by a road bridge and two railway
+bridges. Pop. (1890) 21,474; (1900) 25,802, of whom 3723 were
+foreign-born; (1910) 29,292. It is pre-eminently a railway centre, being
+served by the Union Pacific, of which it is the principal eastern
+terminus, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
+Saint Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific, the Chicago Great-Western, the Illinois Central, and the
+Wabash, which together have given it considerable commercial importance.
+It is built for the most part on level ground at the foot of high
+bluffs; and has several parks, the most attractive of which, commanding
+fine views, is Fairmount Park. With the exception of bricks and tiles,
+carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, and the products of its
+railway shops, its manufactures are relatively unimportant, the factory
+product in 1905 being valued at only $1,924,109. Council Bluffs is the
+seat of the Western Iowa Business College, and of the Iowa school for
+the deaf. On or near the site of Council Bluffs, in 1804, Lewis and
+Clark held a council with the Indians, whence the city's name. In 1838
+the Federal government made this the headquarters of the Pottawattamie
+Indians, removed from Missouri. They remained until 1846-1847, when the
+Mormons came, built many cabins, and named the place Kanesville. The
+Mormons remained only about five years, but on their departure for Utah
+their places were speedily taken by new immigrants. During 1849-1850
+Council Bluffs became an important outfitting point for California gold
+seekers--the goods being brought by boat from Saint Louis--and in 1853
+it was incorporated as a city.
+
+
+
+
+COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR, one who gives advice, more particularly in legal
+matters. The term "counsel" is employed in England as a synonym for a
+barrister-at-law, and may refer either to a single person who pleads a
+cause, or collectively, to the body of barristers engaged in a case.
+Counsellor or, more fully, counsellor-at-law, is practically an obsolete
+term in England, but is still in use locally in Ireland as an equivalent
+to barrister. In the United States, a counsellor-at-law is,
+specifically, an attorney admitted to practice in all the courts; but as
+there is no formal distinction of the legal profession into two classes,
+as in England, the term is more often used loosely in the same sense as
+"lawyer," i.e. one who is versed in, or practises law.
+
+
+
+
+COUNT (Lat. _comes_, gen. _comitis_, Fr. _comte_, Ital. _conte_, Span.
+_conde_), the English translation of foreign titles equivalent generally
+to the English "earl."[1] In Anglo-French documents the word _counte_
+was at all times used as the equivalent of earl, but, unlike the
+feminine form "countess," it did not find its way into the English
+language until the 16th century, and then only in the sense defined
+above. The title of earl, applied by the English to the foreign counts
+established in England by William the Conqueror, is dealt with elsewhere
+(see EARL). The present article deals with (1) the office of count in
+the Roman empire and the Frankish kingdom, (2) the development of the
+feudal count in France and under the Holy Roman Empire, (3) modern
+counts.
+
+1. The Latin _comes_ meant literally a companion or follower. In the
+early Roman empire the word was used to designate the companions of the
+emperor (_comites principis_) and so became a title of honour. The
+emperor Hadrian chose senators as companions on his travels and to help
+him in public business. They formed a permanent council, and Hadrian's
+successors entrusted these _comites_ with the administration of justice
+and finance, or placed them in military commands. The designation
+_comes_ thus developed into a formal official title of high officers of
+state, some qualification being added to indicate the special duties
+attached to the office in each case. Thus in the 5th century, among the
+_comites_ attached to the emperor's establishment, we find, e.g., the
+_comes sacrarum largitionum_ and the _comes rei privatae_; while others,
+forming the council, were styled _comites consistorii_. Others were sent
+into the provinces as governors, _comites per provincias constituti_;
+thus in the _Notitia dignitatum_ we find a _comes Aegypti_, a _comes
+Africae_, a _comes Belgicae_, a _comes Lugdunensis_ and others. Two of
+the generals of the Roman province of Britain were styled the _comes
+Britanniae_ and the _comes littoris Saxonici_ (count of the Saxon
+shore).
+
+At Constantinople in the latter Roman empire the Latin word _comes_
+assumed a Greek garb as [Greek: komes] and was declined as a Greek noun
+(gen. [Greek: kometos]); the _comes sacrarum largitionum_ (count of the
+sacred bounties) was called at Constantinople [Greek: ho komes ton
+sakron largitionon] and the _comes rerum privatarum_ (count of the
+private estates) was called [Greek: komes ton pribaton]. The count of
+the sacred bounties was the lord treasurer or chancellor of the
+exchequer, for the public treasury and the imperial fisc had come to be
+identical; while the count of the private estates managed the imperial
+demesnes and the privy purse. In the 5th century the "sacred bounties"
+corresponded to the _aerarium_ of the early Empire, while the _res
+privatae_ represented the fisc. The officers connected with the palace
+and the emperor's person included the count of the wardrobe (_comes
+sacrae vestis_), the count of the residence (_comes domorum_), and, most
+important of all, the _comes domesticorum et sacri stabuli_ (graecized
+as [Greek: komes tou stablou]). The count of the stable, originally the
+imperial master of the horse, developed into the "illustrious"
+commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Stilicho, e.g., bore the full
+title as given above), and became the prototype of the medieval
+constable (q.v.).
+
+An important official of the second rank (_spectabilis_, "respectable"
+as contrasted with those of highest rank who were "illustrious") was the
+count of the East, who appears to have had the control of a department
+in which 600 officials were engaged. His power was reduced in the 6th
+century, when he was deprived of his authority over the Orient diocese,
+and became civil governor of Syria Prima, retaining his "respectable"
+rank. Another important officer of the later Roman court was the _comes
+sacri patrimonii_, who was instituted by the emperor Anastasius. In this
+connexion it should be observed that the word _patrimonium_ gradually
+changed in meaning. In the beginning of the 3rd century _patrimonium_
+meant crown property, and _res privata_ meant personal property: at the
+beginning of the 6th century _patrimonium_ meant personal property, and
+_res privata_ meant crown property. It is difficult to give briefly a
+clear idea of the functions of the three important officials _comes
+sacrarum largitionum_, _comes rei privatae_ and _comes sacri
+patrimonii_; but the terms have been well translated by a German author
+as _Finanzminister des Reichsschatzes_ (finance minister of the treasury
+of the Empire), _F. des Kronschatzes_ (of the crown treasury), and _F.
+des kaiserlichen Privatvermogens_ (of the emperor's private property).
+
+The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained the Roman system
+of administration, and under them the word _comes_ preserved its
+original meaning; the _comes_ was a companion of the king, a royal
+servant of high rank. Under the early Frankish kings some _comites_ did
+not exercise any definite functions; they were merely attached to the
+king's person and executed his orders. Others filled the highest
+offices, e.g. the _comes palatii_ and _comes stabuli_ (see CONSTABLE).
+The kingdom was divided for administrative purposes into small areas
+called _pagi_ (_pays_, Ger. _Gau_), corresponding generally to the Roman
+_civitates_ (see CITY).[2] At the head of the _pagus_ was the _comes_,
+corresponding to the German _Graf_ (_Gaugraf_, cf. Anglo-Saxon
+_scire-gerefa_,[3] sheriff). The _comes_ was appointed by the king and
+removable at his pleasure, and was chosen originally from all classes,
+sometimes from enfranchised slaves. His essential functions were
+judicial and executive, and in documents he is often described as the
+king's agent (_agens publicus_) or royal judge (_judex publicus_ or
+_fiscalis_). As the delegate of the executive power he had the right to
+military command in the king's name, and to take all the measures
+necessary for the preservation of the peace, i.e. to exercise the royal
+"ban" (_bannus regis_). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, was
+responsible for the execution of the sentences of the courts, and as the
+king's representative exercised the royal right of protection (_mundium
+regis_) over churches, widows, orphans and the like. He enjoyed a triple
+wergeld, but had no definite salary, being remunerated by the receipt of
+certain revenues, a system which contained the germs of discord, on
+account of the confusion of his public and private estates. He also
+retained a third of the fines which he imposed in his judicial capacity.
+
+Under the early Carolings the title count did not indicate noble birth.
+A _comes_ was generally raised from childhood in the king's palace, and
+rose to be a count through successive stages. The count's office was not
+yet a dignity, nor hereditary; he was not independent nor appointed for
+life, but exercised the royal power by delegation, as under the
+Merovingians. While, however, he was theoretically paid by the king, he
+seems to have been himself one of the sources of the royal revenue. The
+counties were, it appears, farmed out; but in the 7th century the royal
+choice became restricted to the larger landed proprietors, who gradually
+emancipated themselves from royal control, and in the 8th century the
+term _comitatus_ begins to denote a geographical area, though there was
+little difference in its extent under the Merovingian kings and the
+early Carolings. The count was about to pass into the feudatory stage.
+Throughout the middle ages, however, the original official and personal
+connotation of the title was never wholly lost; or perhaps it would be
+truer to say, with Selden, that it was early revived with the study of
+the Roman civil law in the 12th century. The unique dignity of count of
+the Lateran palace,[4] bestowed in 1328 by the emperor Louis IV. the
+Bavarian on Castrucio de' Antelminelli, duke of Lucca, and his heirs
+male, was official as well as honorary, being charged with the
+attendance and service to be performed at the palace at the emperor's
+coronation at Rome (Du Cange, s.v. _Comites Palatii Lateranensis_;
+Selden, op. cit. p. 321). This instance, indeed, remained isolated; but
+the personal title of "count palatine," though honorary rather than
+official, was conferred on officials--especially by the popes on those
+of the Curia--had no territorial significance, and was to the last
+reminiscent of those early comites palatii whose relations to the
+sovereign had been purely personal and official (see PALATINE). A relic
+of the old official meaning of "count" still survives in Transylvania,
+where the head of the political administration of the Saxon districts is
+styled count (_comes_, _Graf_) of the Saxon Nation.
+
+2. _Feudal Counts._--The process by which the official counts were
+transformed into feudal vassals almost independent is described in the
+article FEUDALISM. In the confusion of the period of transition, when
+the title to possession was usually the power to hold, designations
+which had once possessed a definite meaning were preserved with no
+defined association. In France, by the 10th century, the process of
+decomposition of the old organization had gone far, and in the 11th
+century titles of nobility were still very loosely applied. That of
+"count" was, as Luchaire points out, "equivocal" even as late as the
+12th century; any castellan of moderate rank could style himself _comte_
+who in the next century would have been called _seigneur_ (_dominus_).
+Even when, in the 13th century, the ranks of the feudal hierarchy in
+France came to be more definitely fixed, the style of "count" might
+imply much, or comparatively little. In the oldest register of Philip
+Augustus counts are reckoned with dukes in the first of the five orders
+into which the nobles are divided, but the list includes, besides such
+almost sovereign rulers as the counts of Flanders and Champagne,
+immediate vassals of much less importance--such as the counts of
+Soissons and Dammartin--and even one mediate vassal, the count of
+Bar-sur-Seine. The title was still in fact "equivocal," and so it
+remained throughout French history. In the official lists it was early
+placed second to that of duke (Luchaire, _Manuel_, p. 181, note 1), but
+in practice at least the great _comtes-pairs_ (e.g. of Champagne) were
+the equals of any duke and the superiors of many. Thus, too, in modern
+times royal princes have been given the title of count (Paris, Flanders,
+Caserta), the heir of Charles X. actually changing his style, without
+sense of loss, from that of duc de Bordeaux to that of comte de
+Chambord. From the 16th century onwards the equivocal nature of the
+title in France was increased by the royal practice of selling it,
+either to viscounts or barons in respect of their fiefs, or to rich
+_roturiers_.
+
+In Germany the change from the official to the territorial and
+hereditary counts followed at the outset much the same course as in
+France, though the later development of the title and its meaning was
+different. In the 10th century the counts were permitted by the kings to
+divide their benefices and rights among their sons, the rule being
+established that countships (_Grafschaften_) were hereditary, that they
+might be held by boys, that they were heritable by females and might
+even be administered by females. The _Grafschaft_ became thus merely a
+bundle of rights inherent in the soil; and, the count's office having
+become his property, the old counties or _Gauen_ rapidly disappeared as
+administrative units, being either amalgamated or subdivided. By the
+second half of the 12th century the official character of the count had
+quite disappeared; he had become a territorial noble, and the foundation
+had been laid of territorial sovereignty (_Landeshoheit_). The first
+step towards this was the concession to the counts of the military
+prerogatives of dukes, a right enjoyed from the first by the counts of
+the marches (see MARGRAVE), then given to counts palatine (see PALATINE)
+and, finally, to other counts, who assumed by reason of it the style of
+landgrave (_Landgraf_, i.e. count of a province). At first all counts
+were reckoned as princes of the Empire (_Reichsfursten_); but since the
+end of the 12th century this rank was restricted to those who were
+immediate tenants of the crown,[5] the other counts of the Empire
+(_Reichsgrafen_) being placed among the free lords (_barones_, _liberi
+domini_). Counts of princely rank (_gefurstete Grafen_) voted among the
+princes in the imperial diet; the others (_Reichsgrafen_) were grouped
+in the _Grafenbanke_--originally two, to which two more were added in
+the 17th century--each of which had one vote. In 1806, on the formation
+of the Confederation of the Rhine, the sovereign counts were all
+mediatized (see MEDIATIZATION). Even before the end of the Empire (1806)
+the right of bestowing the title of count was freely exercised by the
+various German territorial sovereigns.
+
+3. _Modern Counts._--Any political significance which the feudal title
+of count retained in the 18th century vanished with the changes produced
+by the Revolution. It is now simply a title of honour and one, moreover,
+the social value of which differs enormously, not only in the different
+European countries, but within the limits of the same country. In
+Germany, for instance, there are several categories of counts: (1) the
+mediatized princely counts (_gefurstete Grafen_), who are reckoned the
+equals in blood of the European sovereign houses, an equality symbolized
+by the "closed crown" surmounting their armorial bearings. The heads of
+these countly families of the "high nobility" are entitled (by a decree
+of the federal diet, 1829) to the style of _Erlaucht_ (illustrious, most
+honourable); (2) Counts of the Empire[6] (_Reichsgrafen_), descendants
+of those counts who, before the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806),
+were _Reichsstandisch_ i.e. sat in one of the _Grafenbanke_ in the
+imperial diet, and entitled to a ducal coronet; (3) Counts (a) descended
+from the lower nobility of the old Empire, titular since the 15th
+century, (b) created since; their coronet is nine-pointed (cf. the nine
+points and strawberry leaves of the English earl). The difficulty of
+determining in any case the exact significance of the title of a German
+count, illustrated by the above, is increased by the fact that the title
+is generally heritable by all male descendants, the only exception being
+in Prussia, where, since 1840, the rule of primogeniture has prevailed
+and the bestowal of the title is dependent on a rent-roll of L3000 a
+year. The result is that the title is very widespread and in itself
+little significant. A German or Austrian count may be a wealthy noble of
+princely rank, a member of the Prussian or Austrian Upper House, or he
+may be the penniless cadet of a family of no great rank or antiquity.
+Nevertheless the title, which has long been very sparingly bestowed,
+always implies a good social position. The style _Altgraf_ (old count),
+occasionally found, is of some antiquity, and means that the title of
+count has been borne by the family from time immemorial.
+
+In medieval France the significance of the title of count varied with
+the power of those who bore it; in modern France it varies with its
+historical associations. It is not so common as in Germany or Italy;
+because it does not by custom pass to all male descendants. The title
+was, however, cheapened by its revival under Napoleon. By the decree of
+the 1st of March 1808, reviving titles of nobility, that of count was
+assigned _ex officio_ to ministers, senators and life councillors of
+state, to the president of the Corps Legislatif and to archbishops. The
+title was made heritable in order of primogeniture, and in the case of
+archbishops through their nephews. These Napoleonic countships,
+increased under subsequent reigns, have produced a plentiful crop of
+titles of little social significance, and have tended to lower the
+status of the counts deriving from the _ancien regime_. The title of
+marquis, which Napoleon did not revive, has risen proportionately in the
+estimation of the Faubourg St Germain. As for that of count, it is safe
+to say that in France its social value is solely dependent on its
+historical associations.
+
+Of all European countries Italy has been most prolific of counts. Every
+petty Italian prince, from the pope downwards, created them for love or
+money; and, in the absence of any regulating authority, the title was
+also widely and loosely assumed, while often the feudal title passed
+with the sale of the estate to which it was attached. Casanova remarked
+that in some Italian cities all the nobles were _baroni_, in others all
+were _conti_. An Italian _conte_ may or may not be a gentleman; he has
+long ceased, _qua_ count, to have any social prestige, and his rank is
+not recognized by the Italian government. As in France, however, there
+are some Italian _conti_ whose titles are respectable, and even
+illustrious, from their historic associations. The prestige belongs,
+however, not to the title but to the name. As for the papal countships,
+which are still freely bestowed on those of all nations whom the Holy
+See wishes to reward, their prestige naturally varies with the religious
+complexion of the country in which the titles are borne. They are
+esteemed by the faithful, but have small significance for those outside.
+In Spain, on the other hand, the title of _conde_, the earlier history
+of which follows much the same development as in France, is still of
+much social value, mainly owing to the fact that the rule of
+primogeniture exists, and that, a large fee being payable to the state
+on succession to a title, it is necessarily associated with some degree
+of wealth. The Spanish counts of old creation, some of whom are grandees
+and members of the Upper House, naturally take the highest rank; but the
+title, still bestowed for eminent public services or other reasons, is
+of value. The title, like others in Spain, can pass through an heiress
+to her husband. In Russia the title of count (_graf_, fem. _grafinya_),
+a foreign importation, has little social prestige attached to it, being
+given to officials of a certain rank. In the British empire the only
+recognized counts are those of Malta, who are given precedence with
+baronets of the United Kingdom.
+
+  See Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (London, 1672); Du Cange, _Glossarium
+  Med. Lat._ (ed. Niort, 1883) s.v. "Comes"; _La Grande Encyclopedie_,
+  s.v. "Comte"; A. Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions francaises_
+  (Paris, 1892); P. Guilhiermoz, _Essai sur l'origine de la noblesse en
+  France au moyen age_ (Paris, 1902); Brunner, _Deutsche
+  Rechtsgeschichte_, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The exact significance of a title is difficult to reproduce in a
+    foreign language. Actually, only some foreign counts could be said to
+    be equivalent to English earls; but "earl" is always translated by
+    foreigners by words (_comte_, _Graf_) which in English are
+    represented by "count," itself never used as the synonym of "earl."
+    Conversely old English writers had no hesitation in translating as
+    "earl" foreign titles which we now render "count."
+
+  [2] The changing language of this epoch speaks of _civitates_,
+    subsequently of _pagi_, and later of _comitatus_ (counties).
+
+  [3] The A.S. _gerefa_, however, meaning "illustrious," "chief," has
+    apparently, according to philologists, no connexion with the German
+    _Graf_, which originally meant "servant" (cf. "knight," "valet,"
+    &c.). It is the more curious that the _gerefa_ should end as a
+    servant ("reeve"), the _Graf_ as a noble (count).
+
+  [4] "Count of the Lateran Palace" (_Comes Sacri Lateranensis
+    Palatii_) was later the title usually bestowed by the popes in
+    creating counts palatine. The emperors, too, continued to make counts
+    palatine under this title long after the Lateran had ceased to be an
+    imperial palace.
+
+  [5] Of these there were four who, as counts of the Empire _par
+    excellence_, were sometimes styled "simple counts" (_Schlechtgrafen_),
+    i.e. the counts of Cleves, Schwarzburg, Cilli and Savoy; they were
+    entitled to the ducal coronet. Three of these had become dukes by the
+    17th century, but the count (now prince) of Schwarzburg still styled
+    himself "Of the four counts of the Holy Roman Empire, count of
+    Schwarzburg" (see Selden, ed. 1672, p. 312).
+
+  [6] This title is borne by certain English families, e.g. by Lord
+    Arundell of Wardour. In other cases it has been assumed without due
+    warrant. See J. H. Round, "English Counts of the Empire," in _The
+    Ancestor_, vii. 15 (Westminster, October 1903).
+
+
+
+
+COUNTER. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _conteoir_, modern _comptoir_, from
+Lat. _computare_, to reckon), a round piece of metal, wood or other
+material used anciently in making calculations, and now for reckoning
+points in games of cards, &c., or as tokens representing actual coins or
+sums of money in gambling games such as roulette. The word is thus used,
+figuratively, of something of no real value, a sham. In the original
+sense of "a means of counting money, or keeping accounts," "counter" is
+used of the table or flat-topped barrier in a bank, merchant's office or
+shop, on which money is counted and goods handed to a customer. The term
+was also applied, usually in the form "compter," to the debtors' prisons
+attached to the mayor's or sheriff's courts in London and some other
+boroughs in England. The "compters" of the sheriff's courts of the city
+of London were, at various times, in the Poultry, Bread St., Wood St.
+and Giltspur St.; the Giltspur St. compter was the last to be closed, in
+1854. (2) (From Lat. _contra_, opposite, against), a circular parry in
+fencing, and in boxing, a blow given as a parry to a lead of an
+opponent. The word is also used of the stiff piece of leather at the
+back of a boot or shoe, of the rounded angle at the stern of a ship,
+and, in a horse, of the part lying between the shoulder and the under
+part of the neck. In composition, counter is used to express contrary
+action, as in "countermand," "counterfeit," &c.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERFEITING (from Lat. _contra-facere_, to make in opposition or
+contrast), making an imitation without authority and for the purpose of
+defrauding. The word is more particularly used in connexion with the
+making of imitations of money, whether paper or coin. (See COINAGE
+OFFENCES; FORGERY.)
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERFORT (Fr. _contrefort_), in architecture, a buttress or pier
+built up against the wall of a building or terrace to strengthen it, or
+to resist the thrust of an arch or other constructional feature inside.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERPOINT (Lat. _contrapunctus_, "point counter point," "note against
+note"), in music, the art happily defined by Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley
+as that "of combining" melodies: this should imply that good
+counterpoint is the production of beautiful harmony by a combination of
+well-characterized melodies. The individual audibility of the melodies
+is a matter of which current criticism enormously overrates the
+importance. What is always important is the peculiar life breathed into
+harmony by contrapuntal organization. Both historically and
+aesthetically "counterpoint" and "harmony" are inextricably blended; for
+nearly every harmonic fact is in its origin a phenomenon of
+counterpoint. And if in later musical developments it becomes possible
+to treat chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps with a meaning
+independent of counterpoint, this does not mean that they have really
+changed their nature; but it shows a difference between modern and
+earlier music precisely similar to that between modern English, in which
+metaphorical and abstract expressions are so constantly used that they
+have become a mere shorthand for the literal and concrete expression,
+and classical Greek, where metaphors and abstractions can appear only as
+elaborate similes or explicit philosophical ideas. The laws of
+counterpoint are, then, laws of harmony with the addition of such laws
+of melody as are not already produced by the interaction of harmonic and
+melodic principles. In so far as the laws of counterpoint are derived
+from purely harmonic principles, that is to say, derived from the
+properties of concord and discord, their origin and development are
+discussed in the article HARMONY. In so far as they depend entirely on
+melody they are too minute and changeable to admit of general
+discussion; and in so far as they show the interaction of melodic and
+harmonic principles it is more convenient to discuss them under the head
+of harmony, because they appear in such momentary phenomena as are more
+easily regarded as successions of chords than as principles of design.
+All that remains, then, for the present article is the explanation of
+certain technical terms.
+
+1. _Canto Fermo_ (i.e. plain chant) is a melody in long notes given to
+one voice while others accompany it with quicker counterpoints (the term
+"counterpoint" in this connexion meaning accompanying melodies). In the
+simplest cases the _Canto Fermo_ has notes of equal length and is
+unbroken in flow. When it is broken up and its rhythm diversified, the
+gradations between counterpoint on a _Canto Fermo_ and ordinary forms of
+polyphony, or indeed any kind of melody with an elaborate accompaniment,
+are infinite and insensible.
+
+2. _Double Counterpoint_ is a combination of melodies so designed that
+either can be taken above or below the other. When this change of
+position is effected by merely altering the octave of either or both
+melodies (with or without transposition of the whole combination to
+another key), the artistic value of the device is simply that of the
+raising of the lower melody to the surface. The harmonic scheme remains
+the same, except in so far as some of the chords are not in their
+fundamental position, while others, not originally fundamental, have
+become so. But double counterpoint may be in other intervals than the
+octave; that is to say, while one of the parts remains stationary, the
+other may be transposed above or below it by some interval other than an
+octave, thus producing an entirely different set of harmonies.
+
+_Double Counterpoint in the 12th_ has thus been made a powerful means of
+expression and variety. The artistic value of this device depends not
+only on the beauty and novelty of the second scheme of harmony obtained,
+but also on the change of melodic expression produced by transferring
+one of the melodies to another position in the scale. Two of the most
+striking illustrations of this effect are to be found in the last chorus
+of Brahms's _Triumphlied_ and in the fourth of his variations on a theme
+by Haydn.
+
+_Double Counterpoint in the 10th_ has, in addition to this, the property
+that the inverted melody can be given in the new and in the original
+positions simultaneously.
+
+Double counterpoint in other intervals than the octave, 10th and 12th,
+is rare, but the general principle and motives for it remain the same
+under all conditions. The two subjects of the _Confiteor_ in Bach's B
+minor Mass are in double counterpoint in the octave, 11th and 13th. And
+Beethoven's Mass in D is full of pieces of double counterpoint in the
+inversions of which a few notes are displaced so as to produce momentary
+double counterpoint in unusual intervals, obviously with the intention
+of varying the harmony. Technical treatises are silent as to this
+purpose, and leave the student in the belief that the classical
+composers used these devices, if at all, in a manner as meaningless as
+the examples in the treatises.
+
+3. _Triple, Quadruple and Multiple Counterpoint._--When more than two
+melodies are designed so as to combine in interchangeable positions, it
+becomes increasingly difficult to avoid chords and progressions of which
+some inversions are incorrect. In triple counterpoint this difficulty is
+not so great; although a complete triad is dangerous, as it is apt to
+invert as a "6/4" which requires careful handling. On the other hand, in
+triple counterpoint the necessity for strictness is at its greatest,
+because there are only six possible inversions, and in a long polyphonic
+work most of these will be required. Moreover, the artistic value of the
+device is at its highest in three-part polyphonic harmony, which,
+whether invertible or not, is always a fine test of artistic economy,
+while the inversions are as evident to the ear, especially where the top
+part is concerned, as those in double counterpoint. Triple counterpoint
+(and a fortiori multiple counterpoint) is normally possible only at the
+octave; for it will be found that if three parts are designed to invert
+in some other interval this will involve two of them inverting in a
+third interval which will give rise to incalculable difficulty. This
+makes the fourth of Brahms's variations on a theme of Haydn almost
+miraculous. The plaintive expression of the whole variation is largely
+due to the fact that the flowing semiquaver counterpoint below the main
+theme is on each repeat inverted in the 12th, with the result that its
+chief emphasis falls upon the most plaintive parts of the scale. But in
+the first eight bars of the second part of the variation a third
+contrapuntal voice appears, and this too is afterwards inverted in the
+12th, with perfectly natural and smooth effect. But this involves the
+inversion of two of the counterpoints with each other in the 9th, a kind
+of double counterpoint which is almost impossible. The case is unique,
+but it admirably illustrates the difference between artistic and merely
+academic mastery of technical resource.
+
+_Quadruple Counterpoint_ is not rare with Bach. It would be more
+difficult than triple, but for the fact that of its twenty-four possible
+inversions not more than four or five need be correct. _Quintuple
+counterpoint_ is admirably illustrated in the finale of Mozart's
+_Jupiter Symphony_, in which everything in the successive statement and
+gradual development of the five themes conspires to give the utmost
+effect to their combination in the coda. Of course Mozart has not room
+for more than five of the 120 possible combinations, and from these he
+selects such as bring fresh themes into the outside parts, which are the
+most clearly audible. _Sextuple Counterpoint_ may be found in Bach's
+great double chorus, _Nun ist das Heil_, and in the finale of his
+concerto for three claviers in C, and probably in other places.
+
+4. _Added Thirds and Sixths._--An easy and effective imitation of triple
+and quadruple counterpoint, embodying much of the artistic value of
+inversion, is found in the numerous combinations of themes in thirds and
+sixths which arise from an extension of the principle which we mentioned
+in connexion with double counterpoint in the 10th, namely, the
+possibility of performing it in its original and inverted positions
+simultaneously. The _Pleni sunt coeli_ of Bach's B minor Mass is written
+in this kind of transformation of double into quadruple counterpoint;
+and the artistic value of the device is perhaps never so magnificently
+realized as in the place, at bar 84, where the trumpet doubles the bass
+three octaves and a third above while the alto and second tenor have the
+counter subjects in close thirds in the middle.
+
+Almost all other contrapuntal devices are derived from the principle of
+the _canon_ and are discussed in the article CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS.
+
+As a training in musical grammar and style, the rhythms of 16th-century
+polyphony were early codified into "the five species of counterpoint"
+(with various other species now forgotten) and practised by students of
+composition. The classical treatise on which Haydn and Beethoven were
+trained was Fux's _Gradus ad Parnassum_ (1725). This was superseded in
+the 19th century by Cherubini's, the first of a long series of attempts
+to bring up to date as a dead language what should be studied in its
+original and living form.     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERSCARP ( = "opposite scarp," Fr. _contrescarpe_), a term used in
+fortification for the outer slope of a ditch; see FORTIFICATION and
+SIEGECRAFT.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTERSIGN, a military term for a sign, word or signal previously
+arranged and required to be given by persons approaching a sentry, guard
+or other post. In some armies the "countersign" is strictly the reply of
+the sentry to the pass-word given by the person approaching.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. _contre_ or _contrie_, and O. Fr. _cuntree_;
+Late Lat. _contrata_, showing the derivation from _contra_, opposite,
+over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger.
+_Gegend_, neighbourhood), an extent of land without definite limits, or
+such a region with some peculiar character, as the "black country," the
+"fen country" and the like. The extension from such descriptive
+limitation to the limitation of occupation by particular owners or races
+is easy; this gives the common use of the word for the land inhabited by
+a particular nation or race. Another meaning is that part of the land
+not occupied by towns, "rural" as opposed to "urban" districts; this
+appears too in "country-house" and "country town"; so too "countryman"
+is used both for a rustic and for the native of a particular land. The
+word appears in many phrases, in the sense of the whole population of a
+country, and especially of the general body of electors, as in the
+expression "go to the country," for the dissolution of parliament
+preparatory to a general election.
+
+
+
+
+COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. _counte_, cf. O. Fr. _cunte_, _conte_, Mod.
+Fr. _comte_, from Lat. _comitatus_, cf. Ital. _comitato_, Prov.
+_comtat_; see COUNT), in its most usual sense the name given to certain
+important administrative divisions in the United Kingdom, the British
+dominions beyond the seas, and the United States of America. The word
+was first introduced after the Norman Conquest as the equivalent of the
+old English "shire," which has survived as its synonym, though
+occasionally also applied to divisions smaller than counties, e.g.
+Norhamshire, Hexhamshire and Hallamshire. The word "county" is also
+sometimes used, alternatively with "countship," to translate foreign
+words, e.g. the French _comte_ and the German _Grafschaft_, which
+connote the territorial jurisdiction of a count (q.v.). The present
+article is confined to a sketch of the origin and development of English
+counties, which have served in a greater or less degree as the model
+for the county organizations in the various countries of the
+English-speaking world which are described under their proper headings.
+
+About one-third of the English counties represent ancient kingdoms,
+sub-kingdoms or tribal divisions, such as Kent, Sussex, Norfolk, Devon;
+but most of the remaining counties take their names from some important
+town within their respective boundaries. The counties to the south of
+the Thames (except Cornwall) already existed in the time of Alfred, but
+those of the midlands seem to have been created during the reign of
+Edward the Elder (901-925) and to have been artificially bounded areas
+lying around some stronghold which became a centre of civil and military
+administration. There is reason, however, for thinking that the counties
+of Bedford, Cambridge, Huntingdon and Northampton are of Danish origin.
+Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were not recognized as
+English counties until some time after the Norman Conquest, the last two
+definitely appearing as fiscal areas in 1177. The origin of Rutland as a
+county is obscure, but it had its own sheriff in 1154.
+
+In the period preceding the Norman Conquest two officers appear at the
+head of the county organization. These are the ealdorman or earl, and
+the _scirgerefa_ or sheriff. The shires of Wessex appear each to have
+had an ealdorman, whose duties were to command its military forces, to
+preside over the county assembly (_scirgemot_), to carry out the laws
+and to execute justice. The name ealdorman gave way to that of earl,
+probably under Danish influence, in the first half of the 11th century,
+and it is probable that the office of sheriff came into existence in the
+reign of Canute (1017-1035), when the great earldoms were formed and it
+was no longer possible for the earl to perform his various
+administrative duties in person in a group of counties. After the Norman
+Conquest the earl was occasionally appointed sheriff of his county, but
+in general his only official connexion with it was to receive the third
+penny of its pleas, and the earldom ceased to be an office and became
+merely a title. In the 12th century the office of coroner was created,
+two or more of them being chosen in the county court as vacancies
+occurred. In the same century verderers were first chosen in the same
+manner for the purpose of holding inquisitions on vert and venison in
+those counties which contained royal forests. It was the business of the
+sheriff (_vicecomes_) as the king's representative to serve and return
+all writs, to levy distresses on the king's behalf, to execute all royal
+precepts and to collect the king's revenue. In this work he was assisted
+by a large staff of clerks and bailiffs who were directly responsible to
+him and not to the king. The sheriff also commanded the armed forces of
+the crown within his county, and either in person or by deputy presided
+over the county court which was now held monthly in most counties. In
+1300 it was enacted that the sheriffs might be chosen by the county,
+except in Worcestershire, Cornwall, Rutland, Westmorland and Lancashire,
+where there were then sheriffs in fee, that is, sheriffs who held their
+offices hereditarily by royal grant. The elective arrangement was of no
+long duration, and it was finally decided in 1340 that the sheriffs
+should be appointed by the chancellor, the treasurer and the chief baron
+of the exchequer, but should hold office for one year only. The county
+was from an early period regarded as a community, and approached the
+king as a corporate body, while in later times petitions were presented
+through the knights of the shire. It was also an organic whole for the
+purpose of the conservation of the peace. The assessment of taxation by
+commissioners appointed by the county court developed in the 13th
+century into the representation of the county by two knights of the
+shire elected by the county court to serve in parliament, and this
+representation continued unaltered save for a short period during the
+Protectorate, until 1832, when many of the counties received a much
+larger representation, which was still further increased by later acts.
+
+The royal control over the county was strengthened from the 14th century
+onward by the appointment of justices of the peace. This system was
+further developed under the Tudors, while in the middle of the 16th
+century the military functions of the sheriff were handed over to a new
+officer, the lord-lieutenant, who is now more prominently associated
+with the headship of the county than is the sheriff. The lord-lieutenant
+now usually holds the older office of _custos rotulorum_, or keeper of
+the records of the county. The justices of the peace are appointed upon
+his nomination, and until lately he appointed the clerk of the peace.
+The latter appointment is now made by the joint committee of quarter
+sessions and county council.
+
+The Tudor system of local government received little alteration until
+the establishment of county councils by the Local Government Act of 1888
+handed over to an elected body many of the functions previously
+exercised by the nominated justices of the peace. For the purposes of
+this act the ridings of Yorkshire, the divisions of Lincolnshire, east
+and west Sussex, east and west Suffolk, the soke of Peterborough and the
+Isle of Ely are regarded as counties, so that there are now sixty
+administrative counties of England and Wales. Between 1373 and 1692 the
+crown granted to certain cities and boroughs the privilege of being
+counties of themselves. There were in 1835 eighteen of these counties
+corporate, Bristol, Chester, Coventry, Gloucester, Lincoln, Norwich,
+Nottingham, York and Carmarthen, each of which had two sheriffs, and
+Canterbury, Exeter, Hull, Lichfield, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Poole,
+Southampton, Worcester and Haverfordwest, each of which had one sheriff.
+All these boroughs, with the exception of Carmarthen, Lichfield, Poole
+and Haverfordwest, which remain counties of themselves, and forty-seven
+others, were created county boroughs by the Local Government Act 1888,
+and are entirely dissociated from the control of a county council. The
+City of London is also a county of itself, whose two sheriffs are also
+sheriffs of Middlesex, while for the purposes of the act of 1888 the
+house-covered district which extends for many miles round the City
+constitutes a county.
+
+The county has always been the unit for the organization of the militia,
+and from about 1782 certain regiments of the regular army were
+associated with particular counties by territorial titles. The army
+scheme of 1907-1908 provided for the formation of county associations
+under the presidency of the lords-lieutenant for the organization of the
+new territorial army.
+
+  See _Statutes of the Realm_; W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of
+  England_ (1874-1878); F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
+  (1897); Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _History of English Law_
+  (1895); H. M. Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (1905),
+  and _The Victoria History of the Counties of England_.     (G. J. T.)
+
+
+
+
+COUNTY COURT, in England, a local court of civil jurisdiction. The
+county court, it has been said, is at once the most ancient and the most
+modern of English civil tribunals. The Saxon Curia Comitatus, maintained
+after the Norman Conquest, was a local court and a small debts court. It
+was instituted by Alfred the Great, its jurisdiction embracing civil,
+and, until the reign of William I., ecclesiastical matters. The officers
+of the court consisted of the earldorman, the bishop and the sheriff.
+The court was held once in every four weeks, being presided over by the
+earl, or, in his absence, the sheriff. The suitors of the court, i.e.
+the freeholders, were the judges, the sheriff being simply a presiding
+officer, pronouncing and afterwards executing the judgment of the court.
+The court was not one of record. The appointment of judges of assize in
+the reign of Henry II., as well as the expensive and dilatory procedure
+of the court, brought about its gradual disuse, and other local courts,
+termed courts of request or of conscience, were established. These, in
+turn, proved unsatisfactory, owing both to the limited nature of their
+jurisdiction (restricted to causes of debt not exceeding 40s. in value,
+and to the fact that they were confined to particular places).
+Accordingly, with the view of making justice cheaper and more accessible
+the County Courts Act 1846 was passed. This act had the modest title of
+"An Act for the Recovery of Small Debts and Demands in England." The
+original limit of the jurisdiction of the new courts was L20, extended
+in 1850 to L50 in actions of debt, and in 1903 (by an act which came
+into force in 1905) to L100. Thirteen amending acts were passed, by
+which new jurisdiction was from time to time conferred on the county
+courts, and in the year 1888 an act was passed repealing the previous
+acts and consolidating their provisions, with some amendment. This is
+now the code or charter of the county courts.
+
+The grain of mustard-seed sown in 1846 has grown into a goodly tree,
+with branches extending over the whole of England and Wales; and they
+embrace within their ambit a more multifarious jurisdiction than is
+possessed by any other courts in the kingdom. England and Wales were
+mapped out into 59 circuits (not including the city of London), with
+power for the crown, by order in council, to abolish any circuit and
+rearrange the areas comprised in the circuits (sec. 4). There is one
+judge to each circuit, but the lord chancellor is empowered to appoint
+two judges in a circuit, provided that the total number of judges does
+not exceed 60. The salary of a county court judge was originally fixed
+at L1200, but he now receives L1500. He must at the time of his
+appointment be a barrister-at-law of at least seven years' standing, and
+not more than sixty years of age; after appointment he cannot sit as a
+member of parliament or practise at the bar.
+
+Every circuit (except in Birmingham, Clerkenwell, and Westminster) is
+divided into districts, in each of which there is a court, with a
+registrar and bailiffs. The judges are directed to attend and hold a
+court in each district at least once in every month, unless the lord
+chancellor shall otherwise direct (secs. 10, 11). But in practice the
+judge sits several times a month in the large centres of population, and
+less frequently than once a month in the court town of sparsely
+inhabited districts. By sec. 185 of the act of 1888 the judges and
+officers of the city of London court have the like jurisdiction, powers,
+and authority as those of a county court, and the county court rules
+apply to that court.
+
+The ordinary jurisdiction of the county courts may be thus tabulated:--
+
+                                                         Pecuniary limit
+                  Subject matter.                        of jurisdiction.
+
+  Common-law actions, with written consent of both
+    parties                                               Unlimited.
+  Actions founded on contract (except for breach of
+    promise of marriage, in which the county courts have
+    no jurisdiction)                                         L100.
+
+  Actions founded on tort (except libel, slander, and
+    seduction, in which the county courts have no
+    jurisdiction)                                            L100.
+
+  Counter claims (unless plaintiff gives written notice
+    of objection)                                         Unlimited.
+
+  Ejectment or questions of title to reality          L100 annual value.
+
+  Equity jurisdiction                                        L500.
+
+  Probate jurisdiction                                 L200 personalty
+                                                       and L300 realty.
+
+  Admiralty jurisdiction                                     L300.
+
+  Bankruptcy jurisdiction                                 Unlimited.
+
+  Replevin                                                Unlimited.
+
+  Interpleader transferred from High Court                   L500.
+
+  Actions in contract transferred from High Court            L100.
+
+  Actions in tort transferred from High Court             Unlimited.
+
+  Companies (winding up), when the paid-up capital
+    does not exceed                                        L10,000.
+
+There is no discoverable principle upon which these limits of the
+jurisdiction of the county courts have been determined. But the above
+table is not by any means an exhaustive statement of the jurisdiction of
+the county courts. For many years it has been the practice of parliament
+to throw on the county court judges the duty of acting as judges or
+arbitrators for the purpose of new legislation relating to social
+subjects. It is impossible to classify the many statutes which have been
+passed since 1846 and which confer some jurisdiction, apart from that
+under the County Courts Act, on county courts or their judges. Some of
+these acts impose exceptional duties on the judges of the county courts,
+others confer unlimited jurisdiction concurrently with the High Court or
+some other court, others, again, confer limited or, sometimes, exclusive
+jurisdiction. A list of all the acts will be found in the _Annual County
+Courts Practice_. A county court judge may determine all matters of fact
+as well as law, but a jury may be summoned at the option of either
+plaintiff or defendant when the amount in dispute exceeds L5, and in
+actions under L5 the judge may in his discretion, on application of
+either of the parties, order that the action be tried by jury. The
+number of jurymen impanelled and sworn at the trial was, by the County
+Courts Act 1903, increased from five to eight.
+
+There is an appeal from the county courts on matters of law to a
+divisional court of the High Court, i.e. to the admiralty division in
+admiralty cases and to the king's bench division in other cases (sec.
+120 of act of 1888). The determination of the divisional court is final,
+unless leave be given by that court or the court of appeal (Judicature
+Acts 1894). (See further APPEAL.) In proceedings under the Workmen's
+Compensation Act the appeal from a county court judge is to the court of
+appeal, with a subsequent appeal to the House of Lords. In 1908 a
+Committee was appointed by the lord chancellor "to inquire into certain
+matters of county court procedure." The committee presented a report in
+1909 (H.C. 71), recommending the extension of existing county court
+jurisdiction, but a bill introduced to give effect to the
+recommendations was not proceeded with.
+
+  See _Annual County Courts Practice_, also "Fifty Years of the English
+  County Courts," by County Court Judge Sir T. W. Snagge, in _Nineteenth
+  Century_, October 1897.
+
+
+
+
+COUPE (French for "cut off"), a small closed carriage of the brougham
+type, with four wheels and seats for two persons; the term is also used
+of the front compartment on a _diligence_ or mail-coach on the continent
+of Europe, and of a compartment in a railway carriage with seats on one
+side only.
+
+
+
+
+COUPLET, a pair of lines of verse, which are welded together by an
+identity of rhyme. The _New English Dict._ derives the use of the word
+from the French _couplet_, signifying two pieces of iron riveted or
+hinged together. In rhymed verse two lines which complete a meaning in
+themselves are particularly known as a couplet. Thus, in Pope's _Eloisa
+to Abelard_:--
+
+  "Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,
+   And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole."
+
+In much of old English dramatic literature, when the mass of the
+composition is in blank verse or even in prose, particular emphasis is
+given by closing the scene in a couplet. Thus, in the last act of
+Beaumont and Fletcher's _Thierry and Theodoret_ the action culminates in
+an unexpected rhyme:--
+
+  "And now lead on; they that shall read this story
+   Shall find that virtue lives in good, not glory."
+
+In French literature, the term couplet is not confined to a pair of
+lines, but is commonly used for a stanza. A "square" couplet, in French,
+for instance, is a strophe of eight lines, each composed of eight
+syllables. In this sense it is employed to distinguish the more emphatic
+parts of a species of verse which is essentially gay, graceful and
+frivolous, such as the songs in a vaudeville or a comic opera. In the
+18th century, Le Sage, Piron and even Voltaire did not hesitate to
+engage their talents on the production of couplets, which were often
+witty, if they had no other merit, and were well fitted to catch the
+popular ear. This signification of the word _couplet_ is not unknown in
+England, but it is not customary; it is probably used in a stricter and
+a more technical sense to describe a pair of rhymed lines, whether
+serious or merry. The normal type, as it may almost be called, of
+English versification is the metre of ten-syllabled rhymed lines
+designated as _heroic couplet_. This form of iambic verse, with five
+beats to each line, is believed to have been invented by Chaucer, who
+employs it first in the Prologue _The Legend of Good Women_ the
+composition of which is attributed to the year 1385. That poem opens
+with the couplet:--
+
+  "A thousand times have I heard man tell
+   That there is joy in heaven and pain in hell."
+
+This is an absolutely correct example of the heroic couplet, which
+ultimately reached such majesty in the hands of Dryden and such
+brilliancy in those of Pope. It has been considered proper for didactic,
+descriptive and satirical poetry, although in the course of the 19th
+century blank verse largely took its place. Epigram often selects the
+couplet as the vehicle of its sharpened arrows, as in Sir John
+Harington's
+
+  "Treason doth never prosper: what's the reason?
+   Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason."
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COUPON (from Fr. _couper_, to cut), a certificate entitling its owner to
+some payment, share or other benefit; more specifically, one of a
+series of interest certificates or dividend warrants attached to a bond
+running for a number of years. The word coupon (a piece cut off)
+possesses an etymological meaning so comprehensive that, while on the
+Stock Exchange it is only used to denote such an interest certificate or
+a certificate of stock of a joint-stock company, it may be as suitably,
+and elsewhere is perhaps more frequently, applied to tickets sold by
+tourist agencies and others. The coupons by means of which the interest
+on a bond or debenture is collected are generally printed at the side or
+foot of that document, to be cut off and presented for payment at the
+bank or agency named on them as they become due. The last portion,
+called a "talon," is a form of certificate, and entitles the holder,
+when all the coupons have been presented, to obtain a fresh coupon
+sheet. They pass by delivery, and are as a rule exempt from stamp duty.
+Coupons for the payment of dividends are also attached to the share
+warrants to bearer issued by some joint-stock companies. The coupons on
+the bonds of most of the principal foreign loans are payable in London
+in sterling as well as abroad.
+
+
+
+
+COURANTE (a French word derived from _courir_, to run), a dance in 3-2
+time march in vogue in France in the 17th century (see DANCE). It is
+also a musical term for a movement or independent piece based on the
+dance. In a _suite_ it followed the Allemande (q.v.), with which it is
+contrasted in rhythm.
+
+
+
+
+COURAYER, PIERRE FRANCOIS LE (1681-1776), French Roman Catholic
+theological writer, was born at Rouen on the 17th of November 1681.
+While canon regular and librarian of the abbey of St Genevieve at Paris,
+he conducted a correspondence with Archbishop Wake on the subject of
+episcopal succession in England, which supplied him with material for
+his work, _Dissertation sur la validite des ordinations des Anglais et
+sur la succession des eveques de l'Eglise anglicane, avec les preuves
+justificatives des faits avances_ (Brussels, 1723; Eng. trans. by D.
+Williams, London, 1725; reprinted Oxford, 1844, with memoir of the
+author), an attempt to prove that there has been no break in the line of
+ordination from the apostles to the English clergy. His opinions exposed
+him to a prosecution, and with the help of Bishop Atterbury, then in
+exile in Paris, he took refuge in England, where he was presented by the
+university of Oxford with a doctor's degree. In 1736 he published a
+French translation of Paolo Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_,
+and dedicated it to Queen Caroline, from whom he received a pension of
+L200 a year. Besides this he translated Sleidan's _History of the
+Reformation_, and wrote several theological works. He died in London on
+the 17th of October 1776, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster
+Abbey. In his will, dated two years before his death, he declared
+himself still a member of the Roman Catholic Church, although dissenting
+from many of its opinions.
+
+
+
+
+COURBET, GUSTAVE (1819-1877), French painter, was born at Ornans (Doubs)
+on the 10th of June 1819. He went to Paris in 1839, and worked at the
+studio of Steuben and Hesse; but his independent spirit did not allow
+him to remain there long, as he preferred to work out his own way by the
+study of Spanish, Flemish and French painters. His first works, an
+"Odalisque," suggested by Victor Hugo, and a "Lelia," illustrating
+George Sand, were literary subjects; but these he soon abandoned for the
+study of real life. Among other works he painted his own portrait with
+his dog, and "The Man with a Pipe," both of which were rejected by the
+jury of the Salon; but the younger school of critics, the neo-romantics
+and realists, loudly sang the praises of Courbet, who by 1849 began to
+be famous, producing such pictures as "After Dinner at Ornans" and "The
+Valley of the Loire." The Salon of 1850 found him triumphant with the
+"Burial at Ornans," the "Stone-Breakers" and the "Peasants of Flazey."
+His style still gained in individuality, as in "Village Damsels" (1852),
+the "Wrestlers," "Bathers," and "A Girl Spinning" (1852). Though
+Courbet's realistic work is not devoid of importance, it is as a
+landscape and sea painter that he will be most honoured by posterity.
+Sometimes, it must be owned, his realism is rather coarse and brutal,
+but when he paints the forests of Franche-Comte, the "Stag-Fight," "The
+Wave," or the "Haunt of the Does," he is inimitable. When Courbet had
+made a name as an artist he grew ambitious of other glory; he tried to
+promote democratic and social science, and under the Empire he wrote
+essays and dissertations. His refusal of the cross of the Legion of
+Honour, offered to him by Napoleon III., made him immensely popular, and
+in 1871 he was elected, under the Commune, to the chamber. Thus it
+happened that he was responsible for the destruction of the Vendome
+column. A council of war, before which he was tried, condemned him to
+pay the cost of restoring the column, 300,000 francs (L12,000). To
+escape the necessity of working to the end of his days at the orders of
+the State in order to pay this sum, Courbet went to Switzerland in 1873,
+and died at La Tour du Peilz, on the 31st of December 1877, of a disease
+of the liver aggravated by intemperance. An exhibition of his works was
+held in 1882 at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
+
+  See Champfleury, _Les Grandes Figures d'hier et d'aujourd' hui_
+  (Paris, 1861); Mantz, "G. Courbet," _Gaz. des beaux-arts_ (Paris,
+  1878); Zola, _Mes Haines_ (Paris, 1879); C. Lemonnier, _Les Peintres
+  de la Vie_ (Paris, 1888).     (H. FR.)
+
+
+
+
+COURBEVOIE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine, 5 m.
+W.N.W. of Paris on the railway to Versailles. Pop. (1906) 29,339. It is
+a residential suburb of Paris, and has a fine avenue opening on the
+Neuilly bridge, and forming with it a continuation of the Champs
+Elysees. It carries on bleaching and the manufacture of carriage bodies,
+awnings, drugs, biscuits, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COURCELLE-SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE (1813-1892), French economist, was born
+at Seneuil (Dordogne) on the 22nd of December 1813. Seneuil was an
+additional name adopted from his native place. Devoting himself at first
+to the study of the law, he was called to the French bar in 1835. Soon
+after, however, he returned to Dordogne and settled down as a manager of
+ironworks. He found leisure to study economic and political questions,
+and was a frequent contributor to the republican papers. On the
+establishment of the second republic in 1848 he became director of the
+public domains. After the _coup d'etat_ of Napoleon III. in 1851 he went
+to South America, and held the professorship of political economy at the
+National Institute of Santiago, in Chile, from 1853 to 1863, when he
+returned to France. In 1879 he was made a councillor of state, and in
+1882 was elected a member of the _Academie des sciences morales et
+politiques_. He died at Paris on the 29th of June 1892.
+Courcelle-Seneuil, as an economist, was strongly inclined towards the
+liberal school, and was equally partial to the historical and
+experimental methods; but his best energies were directed to applied
+economy and social questions. His principal work is _Traite theorique et
+pratique d'economie politique_ (2 vols., 1858); among his others may be
+mentioned _Traite theorique et pratique des operations de banque_
+(1853); _Etudes sur la science sociale_ (1862); _La Banque libre_
+(1867); _Liberte et socialisme_ (1868); _Protection et libre echange_
+(1879); he also translated into French John Stuart Mill's _Principles_.
+
+
+
+
+COURCI, JOHN DE (d. 1219?), Anglo-Norman conqueror of Ulster, was a
+member of a celebrated Norman family of Oxfordshire and Somersetshire,
+whose parentage is unknown, and around whose career a mass of legend has
+grown up. It would appear that he accompanied William Fitz-Aldelm to
+Ireland when the latter, after the death of Strongbow, was sent thither
+by Henry II., and that he immediately headed an expedition from Dublin
+to Ulster, where he took Downpatrick, the capital of the northern
+kingdom. After some years of desultory fighting de Courci established
+his power over that part of Ulster comprised in the modern counties of
+Antrim and Down, throughout which he built a number of castles, where
+his vassals, known as "the barons of Ulster," held sway over the native
+tribes. After the accession of Richard I., de Courci in conjunction with
+William de Lacy appears in some way to have offended the king by his
+proceedings in Ireland. De Lacy quickly made his peace with Richard,
+while de Courci defied him; and the subsequent history of the latter
+consisted mainly in the vicissitudes of a lasting feud with the de
+Lacys. In 1204 Hugh de Lacy utterly defeated de Courci in battle, and
+took him prisoner. De Courci, however, soon obtained his liberty,
+probably by giving hostages as security for a promise of submission
+which he failed to carry out, seeking an asylum instead with the
+O'Neills of Tyrone. He again appeared in arms on hearing that Hugh de
+Lacy had obtained a grant of Ulster with the title of earl; and in
+alliance with the king of Man he ravaged the territory of Down; but was
+completely routed by Walter de Lacy, and disappeared from the scene till
+1207, when he obtained permission to return to England. In 1210 he was
+in favour with King John, from whom he received a pension, and whom he
+accompanied to Ireland. There is some indication of his having sided
+with John in his struggle with the barons; but of the later history of
+de Courci little is known. He probably died in the summer of 1219. Both
+de Courci and his wife Affreca were benefactors of the church, and
+founded several abbeys and priories in Ulster.
+
+A story is told that de Courci when imprisoned in the Tower volunteered
+to act as champion for King John in single combat against a knight
+representing Philip Augustus of France; that when he appeared in the
+lists his French opponent fled in panic; whereupon de Courci, to gratify
+the French king's desire to witness his prowess, "cleft a massive helmet
+in twain at a single blow," a feat for which he was rewarded by a grant
+of the privilege for himself and his heirs to remain covered in the
+presence of the king and all future sovereigns of England. This tale,
+which still finds a place in Burke's _Peerage_ in the account of the
+baron Kingsale, a descendant of the de Courci family, is a legend
+without historic foundation which did not obtain currency till centuries
+after John de Courci's death. The statement that he was created earl of
+Ulster, and that he was thus "the first Englishman dignified with an
+Irish title of honour," is equally devoid of foundation. John de Courci
+left no legitimate children.
+
+  See J. H. Round's art. "Courci, John de," in _Dictionary of National
+  Biography_, vol. xii. (London, 1887), to which is added a bibliography
+  of the original and later authorities for the life of de Courci.
+
+
+
+
+COURIER, PAUL LOUIS (1773-1825), French Hellenist and political writer,
+was born in Paris on the 4th of January 1773. Brought up on his father's
+estate of Mere in Touraine, he conceived a bitter aversion for the
+nobility, which seemed to strengthen with time. He would never take the
+name "de Mere," to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a
+nobleman. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his
+education; his father's teaching had already inspired him with a
+passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed
+considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his
+leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at Chalons,
+however, and immediately on receiving his appointment as sub-lieutenant
+in September 1793 he joined the army of the Rhine. He served in various
+campaigns of the Revolutionary wars, especially in those of Italy in
+1798-99 and 1806-7, and in the German campaign of 1809. He became _chef
+d'escadron_ in 1803.
+
+He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he contributed
+to the _Magasin encyclopedique_ a critique on Johannes Schweighauser's
+edition of Athenaeus. In the following year appeared his _Eloge
+d'Helene_, a free imitation rather than a translation from Isocrates,
+which he had sketched in 1798. Courier had given up his commission in
+the autumn of 1808, but the general enthusiasm in Paris over the
+preparations for the new campaign affected him, and he attached himself
+to the staff of a general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the
+carnage at Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there
+was any art in war. He hastily quitted Vienna, escaping the formal
+charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been confirmed.
+The savage independence of his nature rendered subordination intolerable
+to him; he had been three times disgraced for absenting himself without
+leave, and his superiors resented his satirical humour. After leaving
+the army he went to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in
+the Laurentian Library a complete manuscript of Longus's _Daphnis and
+Chloe_, an edition of which he published in 1810. In consequence of a
+misadventure--blotting the manuscript--he was involved in a quarrel
+with the librarian, and was compelled by the government to leave
+Tuscany. He retired to his estate at Veretz (Indre-et-Loire), but
+frequently visited Paris, and divided his attention between literature
+and his farm.
+
+After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of Courier as
+political pamphleteer began. He had before this time waged war against
+local wrongs in his own district, and had been the adviser and helpful
+friend of his neighbours. He now made himself by his letters and
+pamphlets one of the most dreaded opponents of the government of the
+Restoration. The first of these was his _Petition aux deux chambres_
+(1816), exposing the sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist
+reaction. In 1817 he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute;
+and failing, he took his revenge by publishing a bitter _Lettre a
+Messieurs de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_ (1819). This
+was followed (1819-1820) by a series of political letters of
+extraordinary power published in _Le Censeur Europeen_. He advocated a
+liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to see Louis
+Philippe. The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the estate of Chambord for
+the duke of Bordeaux called forth from Courier the _Simple Discours de
+Paul Louis, vigneron de la Chavonniere_, one of his best pieces. For
+this he was tried and condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to
+pay a fine. Before he went to prison he published a _compte rendu_ of
+his trial, which had a still larger circulation than the Discours
+itself. In 1823 appeared the _Livret de Paul Louis_, the _Gazette de
+village_, followed in 1824 by his famous _Pamphlet des pamphlets_,
+called by his biographer, Armand Carrel, his swan-song. Courier
+published in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, _Du commandement de la
+cavalerie et de l'equitation_, and had a share in editing the
+_Collections des romans grecs_. He also projected a translation of
+Herodotus, and published a specimen, in which he attempted to imitate
+archaic French; but he did not live to carry out this plan. In the
+autumn of 1825, on a Sunday afternoon (August 18th), Courier was found
+shot in a wood near his house. The murderers, who were servants of his
+own, remained undiscovered for five years.
+
+The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of his own
+time, are valuable sources of information as to the condition of France
+before, during, and after the Revolution. Sainte-Beuve finds in
+Courier's own words, "peu de matiere et beaucoup d'art," the secret and
+device of his talent, which gives his writings a value independent of
+the somewhat ephemeral subject-matter.
+
+  A _Collection complete des pamphlets politiques et opuscules
+  litteraires de P. L. Courier_ appeared in 1826. See editions of his
+  _OEuvres_ (1848), with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel,
+  which is reproduced in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism
+  by F. Sarcey (1876-1877); also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the
+  _Causeries du lundi_ and the _Nouveaux Lundis_.
+
+
+
+
+COURIER (from the O. Fr. _courier_, modern _courrier_, from Lat.
+_currere_, to run), properly a running messenger, who carried despatches
+and letters; a system of couriers, mounted or on foot, formed the
+beginnings of the modern post-office (see POST, and POSTAL SERVICE). The
+despatches which pass between the foreign office and its representatives
+abroad, and which cannot be entrusted to the postal service or the
+telegraph, are carried by special couriers, styled, in the British
+service, King's Messengers. "Courier," more particularly, is applied to
+a travelling attendant, whose duties are to arrange for the carrying of
+the luggage, obtaining of passports, settling of hotel accommodation,
+and generally to look to the comfort and facility of travel. The name
+"courier" and the similar word "_courant_" (Ital. _coranto_) have often
+been used as the title of a newspaper or periodical (see NEWSPAPERS);
+the _Courier_, founded in 1792, was for some time the leading London
+journal.
+
+
+
+
+COURLAND, or KURLAND, one of the Baltic provinces of Russia, lying
+between 55 deg. 45' and 57 deg. 45' N. and 21 deg. and 27 deg. E. It is
+bounded on the N.E. by the river Dvina, separating it from the
+governments of Vitebsk and Livonia, N. by the Gulf of Riga, W. by the
+Baltic, and S. by the province of East Prussia and the Russian
+government of Kovno. The area is 10,535 sq. m., of which 101 sq. m. are
+occupied by lakes. The surface is generally low and undulating, and the
+coast-lands flat and marshy. The interior is characterized by wooded
+dunes, covered with pine, fir, birch and oak, with swamps and lakes, and
+fertile patches between. The surface nowhere rises more than 700 ft.
+above sea-level. The Mitau plain divides it into two parts, of which the
+western is fertile and thickly inhabited, except in the north, while the
+eastern is less fertile and thinly inhabited. One-third of the area is
+still forest.
+
+Courland is drained by nearly one hundred rivers, of which only three,
+the Dvina, the Aa and the Windau, are navigable. They all flow
+north-westwards and discharge into the Baltic Sea. Owing to the numerous
+lakes and marshes, the climate is damp and often foggy, as well as
+changeable, and the winter is severe. Agriculture is the chief
+occupation, the principal crops being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax and
+potatoes. The land is mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863
+laws were issued to enable the Letts, who form the bulk of the
+population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were
+founded to help them. By this means some 12,000 farms were bought by
+their occupants; but the great mass of the population are still
+landless, and live as hired labourers, occupying a low position in the
+social scale. On the large estates agriculture is conducted with skill
+and scientific knowledge. Fruit grows well. Excellent breeds of cattle,
+sheep and pigs are kept. Libau and Mitau are the principal industrial
+centres, with iron-works, agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass
+and soap works. Flax spinning is mostly a domestic industry. Iron and
+limestone are the chief minerals; a little amber is found on the coast.
+The only seaports are Libau, Windau and Polangen, there being none on
+the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. The population was 619,154 in
+1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were women; 714,200 (estimate) in
+1906. Of the whole, 79% are Letts, 8-1/4% Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1%
+each Poles and Lithuanians. In addition there are about 8% Jews and some
+Lives. The chief towns of the ten districts are Mitau (Doblenskiy
+district), capital of the government (pop. 35,011 in 1897), Bauske
+(6543), Friedrichstadt (5223), Goldingen (9733), Grobin (1489),
+Hasenpoth (3338), Illuxt (2340), Talsen (6215), Tuckum (7542) and Windau
+(7132). The prevailing religion is the Lutheran, to which 76% of the
+population belong; the rest belong to the Orthodox Eastern and the Roman
+Catholic churches.
+
+Anciently Courland was inhabited by the Cours or Kurs, a Lettish tribe,
+who were subdued and converted to Christianity by the Brethren of the
+Sword, a German military order, in the first quarter of the 13th
+century. In 1237 it passed under the rule of the Teutonic Knights owing
+to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the
+Sword. At that time it comprised the two duchies of Courland and
+Semgallen. Under the increasing pressure of Russia (Muscovy) the
+Teutonic Knights in 1561 found it expedient to put themselves under the
+suzerainty of Poland, the grandmaster Gotthard Kettler (d. 1587)
+becoming the first duke of Courland. The duchy suffered severely in the
+Russo-Swedish wars of 1700-9. But by the marriage in 1710 of Kettler's
+descendant, Duke Frederick William (d. 1711), to the princess Anne,
+niece of Peter the Great and afterwards empress of Russia, Courland came
+into close relation with the latter state Anne being duchess of Courland
+from 1711 to 1730. The celebrated Marshal Saxe was elected duke in 1726,
+but only managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next
+year. The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737,
+and the empress Anne now bestowed the dignity on her favourite Biren,
+who held it from 1737 to 1740 and again from 1763 till his death in
+1772. During nearly the whole of the 18th century Courland, devastated
+by continual wars, was a shuttlecock between Russia and Poland; until
+eventually in 1795 the assembly of the nobles placed it under the
+Russian sceptre. The Baltic provinces--Esthonia, Livonia and
+Courland--ceased to form collectively one general government in 1876.
+
+  See H. Hollmann, _Kurlands Agrarverhaltnisse_ (Riga, 1893), and E.
+  Seraphim, _Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands_ (2 vols., Reval,
+  1895-1896).
+
+
+
+
+COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1801-1877), French economist and
+mathematician, was born at Gray (Haute-Saone) on the 28th of August
+1801. Trained for the scholastic profession, he was appointed assistant
+professor at the Academy of Paris in 1831, professor of mathematics at
+Lyons in 1834, rector of the Academy of Grenoble in 1835,
+inspector-general of studies in 1838, rector of the Academy of Dijon and
+honorary inspector-general in 1854, retiring in 1862. He died in Paris
+on the 31st of March 1877. Cournot was the first who, with a competent
+knowledge of both subjects, endeavoured to apply mathematics to the
+treatment of economic questions. His _Recherches sur les principes
+mathematiques de la theorie des richesses_ (English trans. by N. T.
+Bacon, with bibliography of mathematics of economics by Irving Fisher,
+1897) was published in 1838. He mentions in it only one previous
+enterprise of the same kind (though there had in fact been
+others)--that, namely, of Nicholas Francois Canard (c. 1750-1833), whose
+book, _Principes d'economie politique_ (Paris, 1802), was crowned by the
+French Academy, though "its principles were radically false as well as
+erroneously applied." Notwithstanding Cournot's just reputation as a
+writer on mathematics, the _Recherches_ made little impression. The
+truth seems to be that his results are in some cases of little
+importance, in others of questionable correctness, and that, in the
+abstractions to which he has recourse in order to facilitate his
+calculations, an essential part of the real conditions of the problem is
+sometimes omitted. His pages abound in symbols representing unknown
+functions, the form of the function being left to be ascertained by
+observation of facts, which he does not regard as a part of his task, or
+only some known properties of the undetermined function being used as
+bases for deduction. In his _Principes de la theorie des richesses_
+(1863) he abandoned the mathematical method, though advocating the use
+of mathematical symbols in economic discussions, as being of service in
+facilitating exposition. Other works of Cournot's were _Traite
+elementaire de la theorie des fonctions et du calcul infinitesimal_
+(1841); _Exposition de la theorie des chances et des probabilites_
+(1843); _De l'origine et des limites de la correspondance entre
+l'algebre et la geometrie_ (1847); _Traite de l'enchainement des idees
+fondamentales dans les sciences et dans l'histoire_ (1861); and _Revue
+sommaire des doctrines economiques_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+COURSING (from Lat. _cursus_, _currere_, to run), the hunting of game by
+dogs solely by sight and not by scent. From time to time the sport has
+been pursued by various nations against various animals, but the
+recognized method has generally been the coursing of the hare by
+greyhounds. Such sport is of great antiquity, and is fully described by
+Arrian in his _Cynegeticus_ about A.D. 150, when the leading features
+appear to have been much the same as in the present day. Other Greek and
+Latin authors refer to the sport; but during the middle ages it was but
+little heard of. Apart from private coursing for the sake of filling the
+pot with game, public coursing has become an exhilarating sport. The
+private sportsman seldom possesses good strains of blood to breed his
+greyhounds from or has such opportunities of trying them as the public
+courser.
+
+The first known set of rules in England for determining the merits of a
+course were drawn up by Thomas, duke of Norfolk, in Queen Elizabeth's
+reign; but no open trials were heard of until half a century later, in
+the time of Charles I. The oldest regular coursing club of which any
+record exists is that of Swaffham, in Norfolk, which was founded by Lord
+Orford in 1766; and in 1780 the Ashdown Park (Berkshire) meeting was
+established. During the next seventy years many other large and
+influential societies sprang up throughout England and Scotland, the
+Altcar Club (on the Sefton estates, near Liverpool) being founded in
+1825. The season lasts about six months, beginning in the middle of
+September. It was not until 1858 that a coursing parliament, so to
+speak, was formed, and a universally accepted code of rules drawn up. In
+that year the National Coursing Club was founded. It is composed of
+representatives from all clubs in the United Kingdom of more than a
+year's standing, and possessing more than twenty-four members. Their
+rules govern meetings, and their committee adjudicate on matters of
+dispute. A comparative trial of two dogs, and not the capture of the
+game pursued, is the great distinctive trait of modern coursing. A
+greyhound stud-book was started in 1882.
+
+The breeding and training of a successful kennel is a precarious matter;
+and the most unaccountable ups and downs of fortune often occur in a
+courser's career. At a meeting an agreed-on even number of entries are
+made for each stake, and the ties drawn by lot. After the first round
+the winner of the first tie is opposed to the winner of the second, and
+so on until the last two dogs left in compete for victory; but the same
+owner's greyhounds are "guarded" as far as it is possible to do so. A
+staff of beaters drive the hares out of their coverts or other
+hiding-places, whilst the slipper has the pair of dogs in hand, and
+slips them simultaneously by an arrangement of nooses, when they have
+both sighted a hare promising a good course. The judge accompanies on
+horseback, and the six points whereby he decides a course are--(1)
+speed; (2) the go-by, or when a greyhound starts a clear length behind
+his opponent, passes him in the straight run, and gets a clear length in
+front; (3) the turn, where the hare turns at not less than a right
+angle; (4) the wrench, where the hare turns at less than a right angle;
+(5) the kill; (6) the trip, or unsuccessful effort to kill. He may
+return a "no course" as his verdict if the dogs have not been fairly
+tried together, or an "undecided course" if he considers their merits
+equal. The open Waterloo meeting, held at Altcar every spring,--the name
+being taken from its being originated by the proprietor of the Waterloo
+Hotel, Liverpool,--is now the recognized fixture for the decision of the
+coursing championship, and the Waterloo Cup (1836) is the "Blue Riband"
+of the leash. In the United States, several British colonies, and other
+countries, the name has been adopted, and Waterloo Coursing Cups are
+found there as in England. In America an American Coursing Board
+controls the sport, the chief meetings being in North and South Dakota,
+Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota.
+
+  The chief works on coursing are:--Arrian's _Cynegeticus_, translated
+  by the Rev. W. Dansey (1831); T. Thacker, _Courser's Companion and
+  Breeder's Guide_ (1835); Thacker's _Courser's Annual Remembrancer_
+  (1849-1851); D. P. Blaine, _Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports_ (3rd ed.,
+  1870); and J. H. Walsh, _The Greyhound_ (3rd ed., 1875). See also the
+  _Coursing Calendar_ (since 1857); _Coursing and Falconry_ (Badminton
+  Library, 1892); _The Hare_ ("Fur and Feather" series, 1896); and _The
+  Greyhound Stud Book_ (since 1882).
+
+
+
+
+COURT, ANTOINE (1696-1760), French Protestant divine, was born in the
+village of Villeneuve-de-Berg, in the province of the Vivarais. He has
+been designated the "Restorer of Protestantism in France," and was the
+organizer of the "Church of the Desert." He was eight years old when the
+Camisard revolt was finally suppressed, and nineteen when on the 8th of
+March 1715 the edict of Louis XIV. was published, declaring that "he had
+abolished entirely the exercise of the so-called reformed religion"
+("qu'il avait aboli tout exercice de la religion pretendue reformee").
+Antoine, taken to the secret meetings of the persecuted Calvinists,
+began, when only seventeen, to speak and exhort in these congregations
+of "the desert." He came to suspect after a time that many of the
+so-called "inspired" persons were "dupes of their own zeal and
+credulity," and decided that it was necessary to organize at once the
+small communities of believers into properly constituted churches. To
+the execution of this vast undertaking he devoted his life. On the 21st
+of August 1715 he summoned all the preachers in the Cevennes and Lower
+Languedoc to a conference or synod near the village of Monoblet. Here
+elders were appointed, and the preaching of women, as well as pretended
+revelations, was condemned. The village of Monoblet "thus seems entitled
+to the honour of having had the first organized Protestant church after
+the revocation of the edict of Nantes" (H. M. Baird). But there were as
+yet no ordained pastors. Pierre Corteiz was therefore sent to seek
+ordination. He was ordained at Zurich, and from him Court himself
+received ordination. The scene of his labours for fifteen years was
+Languedoc, the Vivarais, and Dauphine. His beginnings were very small
+prayer-meetings in "the desert." But the work progressed under his wise
+direction, and he was able "to be present, in 1744, at meetings of ten
+thousand souls." In 1724 Louis XV., again assuming that there were no
+Protestants in France, prohibited the most secret exercise of the
+Reformed religion, and imposed severe penalties. It was impossible fully
+to carry out this menace. But persecution raged, especially against the
+pastors. A price was set on the life of Court; and in 1730 he escaped to
+Lausanne. He had already, with the aid of some of the Protestant
+princes, established a theological college ("Seminaire de Lausanne")
+there, and during the remaining thirty years of his life he filled the
+post of director. He had the title of deputy-general of the churches,
+and was really the pillar of their hope. The Seminary of Lausanne sent
+forth all the pastors of the Reformed Church of France till the days of
+the first French Empire. Court formed the design of writing a history of
+Protestantism, and made large collections for the purpose, which have
+been preserved in the Public Library of Geneva; but this he did not live
+to carry out. He died at Lausanne in 1760. He wrote, amongst other
+works, a _Histoire des troubles des Cevennes ou de la guerre des
+Camisards_ (1760). He was the father of the more generally known Antoine
+Court de Gebelin (q.v.).
+
+  For details of his life see Napoleon Peyrat's _Histoire des pasteurs
+  du desert_ (1842; English translation, 1852); Edmond Hugues, _Antoine
+  Court, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en France au
+  XVIII^e siecle_ (2nd ed., 1872), _Les Synodes du desert_ (3 vols.,
+  1885-1886), _Memoires d'Antoine Court_ (1885); E. and E. Haag, _La
+  France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition); H. M. Baird, _The
+  Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes_ (1895), vol. ii.;
+  cf. _Bulletin de la societe de l'histoire du protestantisme francais_
+  (1893-1906).
+
+
+
+
+COURT (from the O. Fr. _court_, Late Lat. _cortis_, _curtis_, a popular
+form of class. Lat. _cohors_, gen. _cohortis_; the mod. Fr. form _cour_
+is due to the influence of the Lat. _curia_, the word used in medieval
+documents to translate "court" in the feudal sense), a word originally
+denoting an enclosed place, and so surviving in its architectural sense
+(courtyard, &c.), but chiefly used as a general term for judicial
+tribunals and in the special sense of the household of the king, called
+"the court."[1] All law courts were not, however, purely judicial in
+character; the old county court, for instance, was the assembly of the
+freeholders of the county in which representatives and certain officers
+were elected. Such assemblies in early times exercised political and
+legislative as well as judicial functions. But these have now been
+almost entirely separated everywhere, and only judicial bodies are now
+usually called courts. In every court, says Blackstone, there must be
+three parts,--an _actor_ or plaintiff, _reus_ or defendant, and _judex_,
+or judge.
+
+The language of legal fictions, which English lawyers invariably use in
+all constitutional subjects, makes the king the ultimate source of all
+judicial authority, and assumes his personal presence in all the courts.
+
+  "As by our excellent constitution," says Blackstone, "the sole
+  executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it
+  will follow that all courts of justice, which are the medium by which
+  he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the crown. For
+  whether created by act of parliament or letters patent, or subsisting
+  by prescription (the only methods by which any court of judicature can
+  exist), the king's consent in the two former is expressly, in the
+  latter impliedly given. In all these courts the king is supposed in
+  contemplation of law to be always present; but as that is in fact
+  impossible, he is then represented by his judges, whose power is only
+  an emanation of the royal prerogative."
+
+These words might give a false impression of the historical and legal
+relations of the courts and the crown, if it is not remembered that they
+are nothing more than the expression of a venerable fiction. The
+administration of justice was, indeed, one of the functions of the king
+in early times; the king himself sat on circuit so late as the reign of
+Edward IV.; and even after regular tribunals were established, a reserve
+of judicial power still remained in the king and his council, in the
+exercise of which it was possible for the king to participate
+personally. The last judicial act of an English king, if such it can be
+called, was that by which James I. settled the dispute between the court
+of chancery and courts of common law. Since the establishment of
+parliamentary government the courts take their law directly from the
+legislature, and the king is only connected with them indirectly as a
+member of the legislative body. The king's name, however, is still used
+in this as in other departments of state action. The courts exercising
+jurisdiction in England are divided by certain features which may here
+be briefly indicated.
+
+We may distinguish between (1) superior and inferior courts. The former
+are the courts of common law and the court of chancery, now High Court
+of Justice. The latter are the local or district courts, county courts,
+&c. (2) Courts of record and courts not of record. "A court of record is
+one whereof the acts and judicial proceedings are enrolled for a
+perpetual memory and testimony, which rolls are called the records of
+the court, and are of such high and supereminent authority that their
+truth is not to be called in question. For it is a settled rule and
+maxim that nothing shall be averred against a record, nor shall any plea
+or even proof be admitted to the contrary. And if the existence of the
+record shall be denied it shall be tried by nothing but itself; that is,
+upon bare inspection whether there be any such record or no; else there
+would be no end of disputes. All courts of record are the courts of the
+sovereign in right of the crown and royal dignity, and therefore any
+court of record has authority to fine and imprison for contempt of its
+authority" (Stephen's _Blackstone_). (3) Courts may also be
+distinguished as civil or criminal. (4) A further distinction is to be
+made between courts of first instance and courts of appeal. In the
+former the first hearing in any judicial proceeding takes place; in the
+latter the judgment of the first court is brought under review. Of the
+superior courts, the High Court of Justice in its various divisions is a
+court of first instance. Over it is the court of appeal, and over that
+again the House of Lords. The High Court of Justice is (through
+divisional courts) a court of appeal for inferior courts. (5) There is a
+special class of local courts, which do not appear to fall within the
+description of either superior or inferior courts. Some, while
+administering the ordinary municipal law, have or had jurisdiction
+exclusive of their superior courts; such were the common pleas of Durham
+and Lancaster. Others have concurrent jurisdiction with the superior
+courts; such are the lord mayor's court of London, the passage court of
+Liverpool, &c.
+
+The distribution of judicial business among the various courts of law in
+England may be exhibited as follows.
+
+_Criminal Courts._--(1) The lowest is that of the justice of the peace,
+sitting in petty sessions of two or more, to determine in a summary way
+certain specified minor offences. In populous districts, such as London,
+Manchester, &c., stipendiary magistrates are appointed, generally with
+enlarged powers. Besides punishing by summary conviction, justices may
+commit prisoners for trial at the assizes. (2) The justices in quarter
+sessions are commissioned to determine felonies and other offences. An
+act of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 38) contains a list of offences _not_
+triable at quarter sessions--treason, murder, forgery, bigamy, &c. (see
+QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF). The corresponding court in a borough is
+presided over by a recorder. (3) The more serious offences are reserved
+for the judges of the superior courts sitting under a commission of oyer
+and terminer or gaol delivery for each county. The assize courts, as
+they are called, sit in general in each county twice a year, following
+the division of circuits; but additional assizes are also held under
+acts of 1876 and 1877, which permit several counties to be united
+together for that purpose (see CIRCUIT). London, which occupies an
+exceptional position in all matters of judicature, has a high criminal
+court of its own, established by the Central Criminal Court Act 1834,
+under the name of the central criminal court. Its judges usually present
+are a rota selected from the superior judges of common law, the
+recorder, common serjeant, and the judge of the City of London court.[2]
+The criminal appeal court, to which all persons convicted on indictment
+may appeal, superseded in 1908 (by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907) the
+court for crown cases reserved, to which any question of law arising on
+the trial of a prisoner could after conviction be remitted by the judge
+in his discretion. To the criminal appeal court there is an appeal both
+on questions of fact and of law (see APPEAL).
+
+_Civil Courts._--In certain special cases, civil claims of small
+importance may be brought before justices or stipendiaries. Otherwise,
+and excepting the special and peculiar jurisdictions above mentioned,
+the civil business of England and Wales may be said to be divided
+between the county courts (taking small cases) and the High Court of
+Justice (taking all others).
+
+The effect of the Judicature Acts on the constitution of the superior
+courts may be briefly stated. There is now one Supreme Court of
+Judicature, consisting of two permanent divisions called the High Court
+of Justice and the court of appeal. The former takes the jurisdiction of
+the court of chancery, the three common law courts, the courts of
+admiralty, probate, and divorce, the courts of pleas at Lancaster and
+Durham, and the courts created by commissions of assize, oyer and
+terminer, and gaol delivery. The latter takes the jurisdiction of the
+court of appeal in chancery (including chancery of Lancaster), the court
+of the lord warden of the stannaries, and of the exchequer chamber, and
+the appellate jurisdiction in admiralty and heresy matters of the
+judicial committee; and power is given to the sovereign to transfer the
+remaining jurisdiction of that court to the court of appeal. By the
+Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1876 the House of Lords is enabled to sit
+for the hearing of appeals from the English court of appeal and the
+Scottish and Irish courts during the prorogation and dissolution of
+parliament. The lords of appeal, of whom three must be present, are the
+lord chancellor, the lords of appeal in ordinary, and peers who have
+held "high judicial office" in Great Britain or Ireland. The lords in
+ordinary are an innovation in the constitution of the House. They hold
+the rank of baron for life only, have a right to sit and vote in the
+House during tenure of office only, and a salary of L6000 per annum.
+
+There are also many obsolete or decayed courts, of which the most
+noticeable are dealt with under their individual headings, as COURT
+BARON, COURT LEET, &c.
+
+The history of English courts affords a remarkable illustration of the
+continuity that characterizes English institutions. It might perhaps be
+too much to say that all the courts now sitting in England may be traced
+back to a common origin, but at any rate the higher courts are all
+offshoots from the same original judicature. Leaving out of account the
+local courts, we find the higher jurisdiction after the Norman Conquest
+concentrated along with all other public functions in the king and
+council. The first sign of a separation of the judicial from the other
+powers of this body is found in the recognition of a Curia Regis, which
+may be described as the king's council, or a portion of it, charged
+specially with the management of judicial and revenue business. In
+relation to the revenue it became the exchequer, under which name a
+separate court grew up whose special field was the judicial business
+arising out of revenue cases. By Magna Carta the inconvenience caused by
+the curia following the king's person was remedied, in so far as private
+litigation was concerned, by the order that common pleas (Communia
+Placita) should be held at some fixed place; and hence arose the court
+of common pleas. The Curia Regis, after having thrown off these
+branches, is represented by the king's bench, so that from the same
+stock we have now three courts, differing at first in functions, but
+through competition for business, and the ingenious use of fictions,
+becoming finally the co-ordinate courts of common law of later history.
+But an inner circle of counsellors still surrounded the king, and in his
+name claimed to exercise judicial as well as other power; hence the
+chancellor's jurisdiction, which became, partly in harmony with the
+supra-legal power claimed from which it sprang, and partly through the
+influence of the ecclesiastical chancellors by whom it was first
+administered, the equity of English law. Similar developments of the
+same authority were the court of requests (which was destroyed by a
+decision of the common pleas) and the court of star chamber--a court of
+criminal equity, as it has been called,--which, having been made the
+instrument of tyranny, was abolished in 1641. Even then the productive
+power of the council was not exhausted; the judicial committee of the
+privy council, established in 1832, superseding the previous court of
+delegates, exercises the jurisdiction in appeal belonging to the king in
+council. The appellate jurisdiction of the Lords rests on their claim to
+be the representatives of the ancient great council of the realm.
+
+  See further ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF; APPEAL; CHANCERY; COMMON LAW;
+  COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF; DIVORCE; EQUITY; &c.
+
+_United States._--The Federal judicial system of the United States is
+made by the Constitution independent both of the Legislature and of the
+Executive. It consists of the Supreme Court, the circuit courts, and the
+district courts.
+
+The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, and consisted in 1909
+of nine judges, who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the
+Senate. They hold office during good behaviour, i.e. are removable only
+by impeachment, thus having a tenure even more secure than that of
+English judges. The court sits at Washington from October to July in
+every year. The sessions of the court are held in the Capitol. A rule
+requiring the presence of six judges to pronounce a decision prevents
+the division of the court into two or more benches; and while this
+secures a thorough consideration of every case, it also retards the
+despatch of business. Every case is discussed twice by the whole body,
+once to ascertain the view of the majority, which is then directed to be
+set forth in a written opinion; then again, when the written opinion,
+prepared by one of the judges, is submitted for criticism and adoption
+by the court as its judgment.
+
+The other Federal courts have been created by Congress under a power in
+the Constitution to establish "inferior courts." The circuit courts
+consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting in nine judicial circuits,
+while to each circuit there is also allotted one of the justices of the
+Supreme Court. Circuit courts of appeals, established to relieve the
+Supreme Court, consist of three judges (two forming a quorum), and are
+made up of the circuit and district judges of each circuit and the
+Supreme Court justice assigned to the circuit. Some cases may, however,
+be appealed to the Supreme Court from the circuit court of appeals, and
+others directly from the lower courts. The district courts number (1909)
+ninety, in most cases having a single justice. There is also a special
+tribunal called the court of claims, which deals with the claims of
+private persons against the Federal government. It is not strictly a
+part of the general judicial system, but is a creation of Congress
+designed to relieve that body of a part of its own labours.
+
+The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those cases in
+which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable. All other cases are
+left to the state courts, from which there is no appeal to the Federal
+courts, unless where some specific point arises which is affected by the
+Federal Constitution or a Federal law. The classes of cases dealt with
+by the Federal courts are as follows:--
+
+1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws of
+the United States, and treaties made under their authority;
+
+2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;
+
+3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;
+
+4. Controversies to which the United States shall be a party;
+
+5. Controversies between two or more states, between a state and
+citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, between
+citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different
+states, and between a state or the citizens thereof and foreign states,
+citizens or subjects (_Const._, Art. III., S 2). Part of this
+jurisdiction has, however, been withdrawn by the eleventh Amendment to
+the Constitution, which declares that "the judicial power of the United
+States shall not be construed to extend to any suit commenced or
+prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another
+state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state."
+
+The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases affecting
+ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in other cases it is
+appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the Federal courts is
+exclusive; in others it is concurrent with that of the state courts.
+
+As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts in which
+questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been made whereby due
+respect for the latter is secured by giving the party to a suit who
+relies upon Federal law, and whose contention is overruled by a state
+court, the right of having the suit removed to a Federal court. The
+Judiciary Act of 1789 (as amended by subsequent legislation) provides
+for the removal to the Supreme Court of the United States of "a final
+judgment or decree in any suit rendered in the highest court of a state
+in which a decision could be had, where is drawn in question the
+validity of a treaty or statute of, or an authority exercised under the
+United States, and the decision is against their validity; or where is
+drawn in question the validity of a statute of, or an authority
+exercised under, any state, on the ground of their being repugnant to
+the Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the
+decision is in favour of their validity; or where any title, right,
+privilege or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, or any treaty
+or statute of, or commission held, or authority exercised under the
+United States, and the decision is against the title, right, privilege
+or immunity specially set up or claimed by either party under such
+Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or authority." If the decision
+of the state court is in favour of the right claimed under Federal law
+or against the validity or applicability of the state law set up, there
+is no ground for removal, because the applicability or authority of
+Federal law in the particular case could receive no further protection
+from a Federal court than has in fact been given by the state court.
+
+The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring statutes of
+Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the Executive) to be
+invalid because inconsistent with the Federal Constitution, has been
+deemed by many Europeans a peculiar and striking feature of the American
+system. There is, however, nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the
+Federal Constitution, which emanates directly from the people, is the
+supreme law of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any lower
+authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legislature), which
+contravenes the Constitution, must necessarily be invalid in point of
+law, just as in the United Kingdom a railway by-law which contravened an
+act of parliament would be invalid. Now, the functions of judicial
+tribunals--of all courts alike, whether Federal or state, whether
+superior or inferior--is to interpret the law, and if any tribunal finds
+a Congressional statute or state statute inconsistent with the
+Constitution, the tribunal is obliged to hold such statute invalid. A
+tribunal does this not because it has any right or power of its own in
+the matter, but because the people have, in enacting the Constitution as
+a supreme law, declared that all other laws inconsistent with it are
+_ipso jure_ void. When a tribunal has ascertained that an inferior law
+is thus inconsistent, that inferior law is therewith, so far as
+inconsistent, to be deemed void. The tribunal does not enter any
+conflict with the Legislature or Executive. All it does is to declare
+that a conflict exists between two laws of different degrees of
+authority, whence it necessarily follows that the weaker law is extinct.
+This duty of interpretation belongs to all tribunals, but as
+constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower court, usually
+carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have grown accustomed to
+talk of the Supreme Court as in a special sense the guardian of the
+Constitution.
+
+The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any constitutional
+question unless or until that question is brought before them in the
+form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the Supreme Court is only a judgment on
+the particular case before it, and does not prevent a similar question
+being raised again in another lawsuit, though of course this seldom
+happens, because it may be assumed that the court will adhere to its
+former opinion. There have, however, been instances in which the court
+has virtually changed its view on a constitutional question, and it is
+understood to be entitled so to do.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. the German _Hof_ for court-yard, court of law, and royal
+    court.
+
+  [2] The sittings are held in the court-house in the Old Bailey. The
+    old sessions house was destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780. The
+    building erected in its place, although enlarged from time to time,
+    was very incommodious, and a new structure, occupying the site of
+    Newgate Prison, which was pulled down for the purpose, was completed
+    in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+COURT BARON, an English manorial court dating from the middle ages and
+still in existence. It was laid down by Coke that a manor had two
+courts, "the first by the common law, and is called a court baron," the
+freeholders ("barons") being its suitors; the other a customary court
+for the copyholders. Stubbs adopted this explanation, but the latest
+learning, expounded by Professor Maitland, holds that court baron means
+_curia baronis_, "_la court de seigneur_," and that there is no evidence
+for there being more than one court. The old view that at least two
+freeholders were required for its composition is also now discarded.
+Prof. Maitland's conclusion is that the "court baron" was not even
+differentiated from the "court-leet" at the close of the 13th century,
+but that there was a distinction of jurisdictional rights, some courts
+having only feudal rights, while others had regalities as well. When the
+court-leet was differentiated, the court baron remained with feudal
+rights alone. These rights he was disposed to trace to a lord's
+jurisdiction over his men rather than to his possession of the manor,
+although in practice, from an early date, the court was associated with
+the manor. Its chief business was to administer the "custom of the
+manor" and to admit fresh tenants who had acquired copyholds by
+inheritance or purchase, and had to pay, on so doing, a "fine" to the
+lord of the manor. It is mainly for the latter purpose that the court is
+now kept. It is normally presided over by the steward of the lord of the
+manor, who is a lawyer, and its proceedings are recorded on "the court
+rolls," of which the older ones are now valuable for genealogical as
+well as for legal purposes.
+
+  See _Select Pleas in Manorial and other Seignorial Courts_, vol. i.,
+  and _The Court Baron_ (Selden Society).     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE (1728-1784), French scholar, son of Antoine
+Court (q.v.), was born at Nimes in 1728. He received a good education,
+and became, like his father, a pastor of the Reformed Church. This
+office, however, he soon relinquished, to devote himself entirely to
+literary work. He had conceived the project of a work which should set
+in a new light the phenomena, especially the languages and mythologies,
+of the ancient world; and, after his father's death, he went to Paris in
+order to be near the necessary books. After long years of research, he
+published in 1775 the first volume of his vast undertaking under the
+title of _Le Monde primitif, analyse et compare avec le monde moderne_.
+The ninth volume appeared in 1784, leaving the work still unfinished.
+The literary world marvelled at the encyclopaedic learning displayed by
+the author, and supposed that the French Academy, or some other society
+of scholars, must have combined their powers in its production. Now,
+however, the world has well-nigh forgotten the huge quartos. These
+learned labours did not prevent Gebelin from pleading earnestly the
+cause of religious tolerance. In 1760 he published a work entitled _Les
+Toulousaines_, advocating the rights of the Protestants; and he
+afterwards established at Paris an agency for collecting information as
+to their sufferings, and for exciting general interest in their cause.
+He co-operated with Franklin and others in the periodical work entitled
+_Affaires de l'Angleterre et de l'Amerique_ (1776, sqq.), which was
+devoted to the support of American independence. He was also a supporter
+of the principles of the economists, and Quesnay called him his
+well-beloved disciple. In the last year of his life he became acquainted
+with Mesmer, and published a _Lettre sur le magnetisme animal_. He was
+imposed upon by speculators in whom he placed confidence, and was
+reduced to destitution by the failure of a scheme in which they engaged
+him. He died at Paris on the 10th of May 1784.
+
+  See _La France protestante_, by the brothers Haag, tome iv.; Charles
+  Dardier, _Court de Gebelin_ (Nimes, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+COURTENAY, the name of a famous English family. French genealogists head
+the pedigree of this family with one Athon or Athos, who is said to have
+fortified Courtenay in Gatinois about the year 1010. His son Josselin
+had, with other issue, Miles, lord of Courtenay, founder of the
+Cistercian abbey of Fontaine-Jean. By his wife Ermengarde, daughter of
+Renaud, count of Nevers, Miles left a son Renaud, one of the magnates
+who followed Louis le Jeune to the Holy Land. This was the last lord of
+Courtenay of the line of Athon. Elizabeth, his elder daughter--a younger
+daughter died without issue,--carried Courtenay and other lordships to
+her husband Pierre, seventh and youngest son of the French king Louis
+VI. the Fat, the marriage taking place about 1150, and the many
+descendants of this royal match bore the surname of Courtenay.
+
+Pierre, the eldest son, was founder of a short-lived dynasty of emperors
+of Constantinople, which ended in 1261 when Baldwin (Baudouin), last of
+the Frankish emperors, fled before Michael Palaeologus from a capital in
+flames. Baldwin's son Philip, however, bore the empty title, and his
+granddaughter Catherine, wife of Charles, count of Valois, was titular
+empress. Other lines of the royal Courtenays, sprung from Pierre of
+France, were lords of Champignolles, Tanlai, Yerre, Bleneau, La Ferte
+Loupiere and Chevillon. On the death of Gaspard, sieur de Bleneau, in
+1655, his cousin Louis de Courtenay, comte de Cesi (_jure uxoris_) and
+sieur de Chevillon, had Bleneau, and reckoned himself the surviving
+chief of his house. He styled himself Prince de Courtenay and his family
+made attempts to obtain recognition for their royal blood. But their
+laboriously constructed genealogies availed nothing to this impoverished
+race. The last "Prince de Courtenay," an ex-captain of dragoons, died in
+1730; his uncle Roger de Courtenay, abbe des Eschalis, who died in 1733,
+was the last recognized member of the line of Pierre of France.
+
+A younger branch of the first house of Courtenay came from Josselin,
+second son of Josselin, son of Athon. This Josselin, a notable crusader,
+went to the Holy Land with the count of Blois, and held by the sword for
+eleven years the county of Edessa, given him by his cousin King Baldwin
+II. Edessa was won back by the infidel from his son Josselin, who died a
+prisoner in Aleppo in 1147. A grandson, also a Josselin, was seneschal
+of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
+
+In England a house of Courtenay has flourished with varying fortunes
+since the reign of the first Angevin king. The monks of Ford, to whom
+they were benefactors, complacently set down their patrons as the
+offspring of the royal Courtenays, of whose origin they had some dim
+knowledge, deriving them from "Florus," son of Louis the Fat. A
+comparison of dates destroys the story. But they were, doubtless,
+Courtenays of the stock of Athon. Josselin, the first count of Edessa,
+has been suggested by modern writers as their founder, but the name
+Reinaud, borne by the first known ancestor of the English house,
+suggests that they may have sprung from a younger son of Josselin I. of
+Courtenay by his marriage about 1095 with Ermengarde, daughter of
+Reinaud, count of Nevers. It is also notable that the English Courtenays
+have, from the first introduction of armorial bearings, borne with
+various differences the three red roundels in a golden field, the arms
+of the Courtenays in France, the shield of the earls of Devonshire being
+identical with that of the lords of La Ferte Loupiere.
+
+Several Courtenays whose kinship cannot be exactly ascertained, appear
+in English records of the 12th century. One of them, Robert de
+Courtenay, married the daughter and heir of Reynold fitz Urse, the
+leader of the murderers of Archbishop Thomas Becket. His son, William, a
+Shropshire baron, held the castle of Montgomery, as heir by his mother
+of Baldwin de Buslers, or Bollers, to whom Henry I. had given it with
+his "niece" Sibil de Falaise. This William married Ada of Dunbar,
+daughter of Patrick, earl of Dunbar, but died in the reign of King John,
+without issue.
+
+Reinaud de Courtenay, ancestor of the main English line, may well have
+been a brother of the Robert above named. The English pedigrees confuse
+him with his son of the same name. He was a favourite with Henry II.,
+his attestations of charters showing him as a constant companion at home
+and abroad of the king, whom he followed to Wexford in the Irish
+expedition of 1172. Henry gave him Berkshire lands at Sutton, still
+known as Sutton Courtenay, by a charter to which the date of 1161 can be
+assigned. In England he had to wife Maude, daughter of Robert fitz Roy
+by Maude of Avranches, the elder Maude being the heir of the house of
+Brionne. By her, who survived him, dying before January 1224, he had no
+issue, but by a wife who may have died before his coming to England he
+had, with other issue, Robert and Reinaud. Robert, who succeeded to
+Sutton about 1192, was husband of Alice de Rumeli, widow of Gilbert
+Pipard, and one of the three sisters and co-heirs of William, the boy of
+Egremond, of whose drowning in the Strid Wordsworth has made a ballad.
+Robert died childless in 1209. Of his brother Reinaud or Reynold de
+Courtenay little is known, save that he was a married man in 1178 when
+he and his wife Hawise were given by the pope a licence to have a free
+chapel at Okehampton. This wife, Hawise de Ayencourt, was, with Maude
+his father's second wife, a daughter and co-heir of Maude of Avranches,
+her father being the lord of Ayencourt, first husband of the last named
+Maude. Her great inheritance included the honour of Okehampton in
+Devonshire of which, as a widow, she had livery about 1205. Her son,
+Robert de Courtenay, succeeded to her land in 1219, having been his
+uncle Robert's heir in Sutton ten years before. Like his father he
+advanced his house by a great marriage, his wife being Mary, the younger
+daughter of William de Vernon, earl of Devon and of the Isle of Wight.
+He was succeeded in 1242 by his son John, who by Isabel, a daughter of
+Hugh de Vere, earl of Oxford, has issue Hugh, whose wife was Eleanor,
+daughter of the earl of Winchester, elder of the two favourites of
+Edward II. The son of this marriage, another Hugh, followed his father
+at Okehampton in 1291. Two years later died Isabel, surviving sister and
+heir of Baldwin de Reviers, earl of Devon, and widow of William de Forz,
+last earl of Aumerle (Albemarle). On her death-bed she had granted her
+lordship of the Wight to the king, but her cousin Hugh de Courtenay
+succeeded her in the unalienated estates of the house of Reviers. He was
+summoned as a baron on the 6th of February 1298/9, and in 1300 he
+displayed his banner before the castle of Caerlaverock. Claiming the
+"third penny" of the county of Devon, he was refused by the exchequer as
+he did not claim in the name of an earl. Following, however, a writ of
+inquiry, a patent of the 22nd of February 1334/5 declared him earl of
+Devon and qualified to take such style as his ancestors, earls of Devon,
+were wont to take. Hugh, his son, the second earl, a warrior who drove
+the French back from their descent on Cornwall in 1339, made another of
+the brilliant marriages of this family, his wife being Eleanor, daughter
+of Humfrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford and Essex, by Elizabeth daughter
+of Edward I. Their eldest son, Sir Hugh de Courtenay, shared in the
+honours of Crecy and Calais, and was one of the knights founders of the
+order of the Garter, the stall-plate of his arms being yet in St
+George's chapel at Windsor. This knight died in the lifetime of the
+earl, as did his only son Hugh, summoned as a baron on the 3rd of
+January 1370/1, a companion at Najara of the Black Prince, whose
+step-daughter Maude of Holland he had married. The earl was therefore
+succeeded by his grandson Edward (son of Edward his third son), earl
+marshal of England in 1385, who died blind in 1419, the year after the
+death of Sir Edward his heir apparent, one of the conquerors at
+Agincourt. Hugh, a second son of Earl Edward, succeeded as fourth earl
+of the Courtenay line. By his wife, a sister of the renowned Talbot,
+earl of Shrewsbury, he had issue Thomas the fifth earl, a partisan of
+Henry VI., whose wife was Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John, earl of
+Somerset. The effigy of this grandaughter of John of Gaunt, with the
+shields of Courtenay and Beaufort above it, is in Colyton church. It is
+less than life size, a fact which has given rise to a village legend
+that it represents "Little choke-a-bone," an infant daughter of the
+tenth earl, who died "choked by a fish bone." In spite of the evidence
+of the shields and the 15th century dress of the effigy, the legend has
+now been strengthened by an inscription upon a brass plate, and in the
+year 1907 ignorance engaged a monumental sculptor to deface the effigy
+by giving its broken features the newly carved face of a young child.
+Both sons of this marriage fell in the Wars of the Roses, Thomas the
+sixth earl being taken at Towton by the Yorkists and beheaded at York in
+1462, his younger brother Henry having the same fate at Salisbury in
+1466.
+
+The earldom being extinguished by attainder, Sir Humphrey Stafford was
+created earl of Devon in 1469, but in the same year, having retired with
+his men from the expedition against Robin of Redesdale, another earl of
+Devon suffered at the headsman's hands, his patent being afterwards
+annulled by a statute of Henry VII. On the restoration of Henry VI. John
+Courtenay, only surviving brother of Thomas and Henry, was restored to
+the earldom by the reversal of attainder. He, too, died in the
+Lancastrian cause, being killed on the 4th of May 1471 at Tewkesbury,
+where he led the rear of the host. The representation of the Reviers
+earls and of the Courtenay barony fell then to his sisters and their
+descendants. Beside him at Tewkesbury died his cousin Sir Hugh Courtenay
+of Boconnoc, son of Hugh, a younger brother of the blind earl, leaving a
+son Edward, who thus became the heir male of the house though not its
+heir general. Joining in the cause which had cost so many of his kinsmen
+their lives, he and his brother Walter shared the duke of Buckingham's
+rising. On its failure they fled into France to the earl of Richmond,
+beside whom Sir Edward fought at Bosworth. By a patent of the 26th of
+October 1485 he was created earl of Devon with remainder to the heirs
+male of his body, and by an act of 1485 he was restored to all honours
+lost in his attainder by the Yorkist parliament. He defended Exeter
+against Warbeck's rebels and was a knight of the Garter in 1489, dying
+twenty years later, when the earldom became again forfeit by his son's
+attainder. That son, William Courtenay, had drawn the jealousy of Henry
+VII. by a marriage with Catherine, sister of the queen and daughter of
+King Edward IV., the Yorkist sovereign whose hand had been so heavy on
+the Courtenays. After the queen's death, Henry sent his wife's
+brother-in-law to the Tower on a charge of corresponding with Edmund
+Pole, an attainder following. But on the accession of Henry VIII., the
+young king released his uncle, who although styled an earl was not fully
+restored in blood at his death in 1511. His son Henry Courtenay obtained
+from parliament in December 1512 a reversal of his father's attainder,
+thus succeeding to the earldom of his grandfather. At the Field of Cloth
+of Gold he ran a course with the king of France. He was knight of the
+Garter and on the 15th of June 1525 had a patent as marquess of Exeter.
+Profiting by the suppression of the monasteries he increased his estate,
+his power being all but supreme in the west country. But Cromwell was
+his enemy and the royal strain in his blood was a dangerous thing.
+Involved in correspondence with Cardinal Pole, he was sent to the Tower
+with his wife and his young son, and on the 9th of December 1538 he was
+beheaded as a traitor. The misfortunes of the house were heavy upon the
+son, who at twelve years old was a prisoner for the sake of his high
+descent. His honours had been forfeited, and release did not come until
+the accession of Queen Mary, who took him into favour. Noailles the
+ambassador found him _le plus beau et le plus agreable gentilhomme
+d'Angleterre_, and he had some hopes of becoming king consort. The queen
+created him earl of Devonshire by a patent of the 3rd of September 1553
+and in the next month he was restored in blood. But, disappointed in his
+hopes, he formed some wild plans for marrying the Lady Elizabeth and
+making her queen. He could raise Devon and Cornwall. Wyat did raise
+Kent, but the plot was soon crushed. The earl was sent back to the Tower
+and thence to Fotheringhay. At Easter of 1555 he was released on parole
+and exiled, dying suddenly at Padua in 1556. His co-heirs were the
+descendants of the four sisters of Earl Edward (d. 1519), the wives of
+four Cornish squires, and with him was extinguished, to the belief of
+all men, the Courtenays' earldom of Devon. His heir male was Sir William
+Courtenay, his sixth cousin once removed, head of a knightly line of
+Courtenays whose seat was Powderham Castle, a line which, during the
+civil wars, stood for the White Rose. Sir William, who is said to have
+been killed at St Quintin in 1557, was succeeded by his son, another Sir
+William, one of the undertakers for the settling of Ireland, where the
+family obtained great estates. William Courtenay of Powderham, of whose
+marriage with the daughter of Sir William Waller (the parliament's
+general) it is remarked that the years of bride and bridegroom added
+together were less than thirty when their first child was born, was
+created a baronet by writ of privy seal in February 1644, the patent
+being never enrolled. His great grandson, Sir William Courtenay, many
+years a member of parliament, was on the 6th of May 1762, ten days
+before his death, created Viscount Courtenay of Powderham Castle.
+
+Since the death at Padua in 1556 of Edward, earl of Devon, that ancient
+title had been twice revived. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, who was
+created earl of Devon in 1603, died without lawful issue in 1606. In
+1618 Sir William Cavendish, son of the famous Bess of Hardwick, was
+given the same title, which is still among the peerage honours of the
+ducal house descending from him. For the Courtenays, who had without
+protest accepted a baronetcy and a viscounty, their earldom was dead. In
+the reign of William IV., the third and last Viscount Courtenay was
+living unmarried in Paris, an exile who for sufficient reasons was
+keeping out of the reach of the English criminal law. In the name of
+this man, his presumptive heir male, William Courtenay, clerk assistant
+of the parliament, succeeded in persuading the House of Lords that the
+Courtenay earldom under the patent of 1553 was still in existence, the
+plea being that the terms of the remainder--to him and his heirs male
+for ever--did not limit the succession to heirs male of the body of the
+grantee. Five other cases wherein the words _de corpore suo_ had been
+omitted from the patent are known to peerage lawyers. In no case had a
+peerage before been claimed by collateral heirs male. "I have often
+rallied Brougham," writes Lord Campbell, "upon his creating William
+Courtenay earl of Devon. He says he consulted Chief Justice Tenterden.
+But Tenterden knew nothing of peerage law." After the death of the exile
+in 1835 the clerk of the parliament succeeded him as an earl by force of
+the House of Lords decision of the 15th of March 1831. His second son,
+the Rev. Henry Hugh Courtenay (1811-1904), succeeded, as 13th earl, a
+nephew whose extravagance had impoverished the estates. He in turn was
+followed, as 14th earl, by his grandson Charles Pepys Courtenay (b.
+1870).
+
+No other recognized branch of this house, once so widely spread in the
+western counties, is now among the landed houses of England. Among its
+cadets were many famous warriors, but three prelates must be reckoned as
+the most eminent of the Courtenays. William, a younger son of the match
+of Courtenay and Bohun, was bishop of Hereford in 1370, bishop of London
+in 1375 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. Proceeding against
+Wycliffe he opposed John of Gaunt, who, taunting him with his trust in
+his great kinsfolk, threatened to drag him out of St Paul's by his hair,
+a threat which roused the angry Londoners in his defence. He died in
+1396 and lies buried at the feet of the Black Prince in his cathedral of
+Canterbury. By his will he left his best mitre to his nephew Richard
+Courtenay--son and pupil, as he styles him--against the time he should
+be a bishop. This Richard, a friend of Henry V. when prince, and
+treasurer of his household, was bishop of Norwich in 1413. Twice
+chancellor of Oxford, he repelled Archbishop Arundel and all his train
+when that primate would have had a visitation of the university,
+although the claim of the university to independence was at last broken
+down. Tall of stature, eloquent and learned, he kept the favour of the
+king, who was with him when he died of dysentery in the host before
+Harfleur. Heir of this bishop was his nephew Sir Philip of Powderham,
+whose younger son Peter Courtenay was the third of the Courtenay
+prelates, being bishop of Exeter from 1478 to 1487, when he was
+translated to Winchester. Although of the Yorkist Courtenays, he was of
+Buckingham's party and, being attainted by Richard III. for joining with
+certain of his kinsfolk in an attempt to raise the west, he escaped to
+Brittany, whence he returned with the first Tudor sovereign, who had him
+in high favour. A fourth prelate of this family was Henry Reginald
+Courtenay, who was bishop of Bristol 1794-1797 and bishop of Exeter from
+1797 to his death in 1803.
+
+  See charter, patent, close, fine and plea rolls, inquests _post
+  mortem_ and other records. G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_; _Dictionary
+  of National Biography_; _Notes and Queries_, series viii. vol. 7; J.
+  H. Round's _Peerage Studies_; _Calendars of State Papers_; Machyn's
+  _Diary_ (Camden Society); Chronicles of Capgrave, Wavrin, Adam of Usk,
+  &c.     (O. BA.)
+
+
+
+
+COURTENAY, RICHARD (d. 1415), English prelate, was a son of Sir Philip
+Courtenay of Powderham Castle, near Exeter, and a grandson of Hugh
+Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377). He was a nephew of William
+Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, and a descendant of Edward I.
+Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, he entered the church, where his
+advance was rapid. He held several prebends, was dean of St Asaph and
+then dean of Wells, and became bishop of Norwich in 1413. As chancellor
+of the university of Oxford, an office to which he was elected in 1407
+and again in 1410, Courtenay asserted the independence of the university
+against Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1411; but the
+archbishop, supported by Henry IV. and Pope John XXIII, eventually
+triumphed. Courtenay was a personal friend of Henry V. both before and
+after he came to the throne; and in 1413, immediately after Henry's
+accession, he was made treasurer of the royal household. On two
+occasions he went on diplomatic errands to France, and he was also
+employed by Henry on public business at home. Having accompanied the
+king to Harfleur in August 1415, Courtenay was attacked by dysentery and
+died on the 15th of September 1415, his body being buried in Westminster
+Abbey.
+
+Another member of this family, PETER COURTENAY (d. 1492), a grandnephew
+of Richard, also attained high position in the English Church. Educated
+at Exeter College, Oxford, Peter became dean of Windsor, then dean of
+Exeter; in 1478 bishop of Exeter; and in 1487 bishop of Winchester in
+succession to William of Waynflete. With Henry Stafford, duke of
+Buckingham, and others he attempted to raise a rebellion against Richard
+III. in 1483, and fled to Brittany when this enterprise failed.
+Courtenay was restored to his dignities and estates in 1485 by Henry
+VII., whom he had accompanied to England, and he died on the 23rd of
+September 1492.
+
+  See J. H. Wylie, _History of England under Henry IV_. (London,
+  1884-1898).
+
+
+
+
+COURTENAY, WILLIAM (c. 1342-1396), English prelate, was a younger son of
+Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377), and through his mother
+Margaret, daughter of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, was a
+great-grandson of Edward I. Being a native of the west of England he was
+educated at Stapledon Hall, Oxford, and after graduating in law was
+chosen chancellor of the university in 1367. Courtenay's ecclesiastical
+and political career began about the same time. Having been made
+prebendary of Exeter, of Wells and of York, he was consecrated bishop of
+Hereford in 1370, was translated to the see of London in 1375, and
+became archbishop of Canterbury in 1381, succeeding Simon of Sudbury in
+both these latter positions. As a politician the period of his activity
+coincides with the years of Edward III.'s dotage, and with practically
+the whole of Richard II.'s reign. From the first he ranged himself among
+the opponents of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; he was a firm
+upholder of the rights of the English Church, and was always eager to
+root out Lollardry. In 1373 he declared in convocation that he would not
+contribute to a subsidy until the evils from which the church suffered
+were removed; in 1375 he incurred the displeasure of the king by
+publishing a papal bull against the Florentines; and in 1377 his decided
+action during the quarrel between John of Gaunt and William of Wykeham
+ended in a temporary triumph for the bishop. Wycliffe was another cause
+of difference between Lancaster and Courtenay. In 1377 the reformer
+appeared before Archbishop Sudbury and Courtenay, when an altercation
+between the duke and the bishop led to the dispersal of the court, and
+during the ensuing riot Lancaster probably owed his safety to the good
+offices of his foe. Having meanwhile become archbishop of Canterbury
+Courtenay summoned a council, or synod, in London, which condemned the
+opinions of Wycliffe; he then attacked the Lollards at Oxford, and urged
+the bishops to imprison heretics. He was for a short time chancellor of
+England during 1381, and in January 1382 he officiated at the marriage
+of Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia, afterwards crowning the queen. In
+1382 the archbishop's visitation led to disputes with the bishops of
+Exeter and Salisbury, and Courtenay was only partially able to enforce
+the payment of a special tax to meet his expenses on this occasion.
+During his concluding years the archbishop appears to have upheld the
+papal authority in England, although not to the injury of the English
+Church. He protested against the confirmation of the statute of
+provisors in 1390, and he was successful in slightly modifying the
+statute of praemunire in 1393. Disliking the extravagance of Richard II.
+he publicly reproved the king, and after an angry scene the royal
+threats drove him for a time into Devonshire. In 1386 he was one of the
+commissioners appointed to reform the kingdom and the royal household,
+and in 1387 he arranged a peace between Richard and his enemies under
+Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester. Courtenay died at Maidstone on
+the 31st of July 1396, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.
+
+  See W. F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv.
+  (London, 1860-1876); and W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vols.
+  ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895-1896).
+
+
+
+
+COURTESY (O. Fr. _curtesie_, later _courtoisie_), manners or behaviour
+that suit a court, politeness, due consideration for others. A special
+application of the word is in the expression "by courtesy," where
+something is granted out of favour and not of right, hence "courtesy"
+titles, i.e. those titles of rank which are given by custom to the
+eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls, usually the second title
+held by the father; to the younger sons and to the daughters of dukes
+and marquesses, viz. the prefix "lord" and "lady" with the Christian and
+surname. For "tenure by the courtesy" see CURTESY. Another form of the
+word, "curtsey" or "curtsy," was early confined to the expression of
+courtesy or respect by a gesture or bow, now only of the reverence made
+by a woman, consisting in a bending of the knees accompanied by a
+lowering of the body.
+
+
+
+
+COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN (1842-   ), English writer and historian of
+poetry, whose father was rector of South Malling, Essex, was born on the
+17th of July 1842. From Harrow school he went to New College, Oxford;
+took first-classes in classical "moderations" and "greats"; and won the
+Newdigate prize for poetry (1864) and the Chancellor's English essay
+(1868). He seemed destined for distinction as a poet, his volume of
+_Ludibria Lunae_ (1869) being followed in 1870 by the remarkably fine
+_Paradise of Birds_. But a certain academic quality of mind seemed to
+check his output in verse and divert it into the field of criticism.
+Apart from many contributions to the higher journalism, his literary
+career is associated mainly with his continuation of the edition of
+Pope's works, begun by Whitwell Elwin (1816-1900), which appeared in ten
+volumes from 1871-1889; his life of Addison (Men of Letters series,
+1882); his _Liberal Movement in English Literature_ (1885); and his
+tenure of the professorship of Poetry at Oxford (1895-1901), which
+resulted in his elaborate _History of English Poetry_ (the first volume
+appearing in 1895), and his _Life in Poetry_ (1901). He deals with the
+history of English poetry as a whole, and in its unity as a result of
+the national spirit and thought in succeeding ages, and attempts to
+bring the great poets into relation with this. In 1887 he was appointed
+a civil service commissioner, being first commissioner in 1892, and
+being made a C.B. He was made an honorary fellow of his old college at
+Oxford in 1896, and was given the honorary degrees of D.Litt. by Durham
+in 1895 and of LL.D. by Edinburgh University in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+COURT LEET, an English petty criminal court for the punishment of small
+offences. It has been usual to make a distinction between court baron
+and court leet[1] as being separate courts, but in the early history of
+the court leet no such distinction can be drawn. At a very early time
+the lords of manors exercised or claimed certain jurisdictional
+franchises. Of these the most important was the "view of frankpledge"
+and its attendant police jurisdiction. Some time in the later middle
+ages the court baron when exercising these powers gained the name of
+_leet_, and, later, of "court leet." The _quo warranto_ proceedings of
+Edward I. established a sharp distinction between the court baron,
+exercising strictly manorial rights, and the court leet, depending for
+its jurisdiction upon royal franchise. The court leet was a court of
+record, and its duty was not only to view the pledges but to present by
+jury all crimes that might happen within the jurisdiction, and punish
+the same. The steward of the court acted as judge, presiding wholly in a
+judicial character, the ministerial acts being executed by the bailiff.
+The court leet began to decline in the 14th century, being superseded by
+the more modern courts of the justices, but in many cases courts leet
+were kept up until nearly the middle of the 19th century. Indeed, it
+cannot be said that they are now actually extinct, as many still survive
+for formal purposes, and by s. 40 of the Sheriffs Act 1887 they are
+expressly kept up.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The history of the word "leet" is very obscure. It appears in
+    Anglo-French documents as _lete_ and in Anglo-Latin as _leta_.
+    Professor W. W. Skeat has connected it with Old English _laetan_, to
+    let, which is very doubtful, though this is the origin of the use of
+    the word in such expressions as "two-" "three-way leet," a place
+    where cross-roads meet. The _New English Dictionary_ suggests a
+    connexion with "lathe," a term which survives as a division of the
+    county of Kent, containing several "hundreds." This is of Old
+    Norwegian origin, and seems to have meant "landed possessions." There
+    is also another Old Norwegian _leith_, a court or judicial assembly,
+    and modern Danish has _laegd_, a division of the country for military
+    purposes. J. H. Round (_Feudal England_, p. 101) points out that the
+    Suffolk hundred was divided for assessment into equal blocks called
+    "leets" (see further F. W. Maitland, _Select Pleas in Manorial
+    Courts_, Selden Soc. Publications I. lxxiii-lxxvi). "Leet" is also
+    used, chiefly in Scotland, for a list of persons nominated for
+    election to an office. This is, apparently, a shortened form of the
+    French _elite_, elected.
+
+
+
+
+COURT-MARTIAL, a court for the trial of offences against military or
+naval discipline, or for the administration of martial law. In England
+courts-martial have inherited part of the jurisdiction of the old _Curia
+militaris_, or court of the chivalry, in which a single marshal and at
+one time the high constable proceeded "according to the customs and
+usages of that court, and, in cases omitted according to the civil law,
+_secundum legem armorum_" (Coke, 4 _Ins._ 17). The modern form of the
+courts was adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., when English
+soldiers were studying the "articles and military laws" of Gustavus
+Adolphus and the Dutch military code of Arnheim; it is first recognized
+by statute in the first Mutiny Act of 1689. The Mutiny Act (with various
+extensions and amendments) and the statutory articles of war continued
+to be the sources of military law which courts-martial administered
+until 1879, when they were codified in the Army Discipline and
+Regulation Act 1879, which was, in turn, superseded by the Army Act
+1881. This act is re-enacted annually by the Army (Annual) Act. The
+constitution of courts-martial, their procedure, &c., are dealt with
+under MILITARY LAW.
+
+_Naval Courts-Martial._--The administration of the barbarous naval law
+of England was long entrusted to the discretion of commanders acting
+under instructions from the lord high admiral, who was supreme over both
+the royal and merchant navy. It was the leaders of the Long Parliament
+who first secured something like a regular tribunal by passing in 1645
+an ordinance and articles concerning martial law for the government of
+the navy. Under this ordinance Blake, Monk and Penn issued instructions
+for the holding general and ship courts-martial with written records,
+the one for captains and commanders, the other for subordinate officers
+and men. Of the latter the mate, gunner and boatswain were members, but
+the admirals reserved a control over the more serious sentences. Under
+an act of 1661 the high admiral again received power to issue
+commissions for holding courts-martial--a power which continues to be
+exercised by the board of admiralty. During the 18th century, under the
+auspices of Anson, the jurisdiction was greatly extended, and the
+Consolidation Act of 1749 was passed in which the penalty of death
+occurs as frequently as the curses in the commination service. The Naval
+Articles of War have always been statutory, and the whole system may now
+be said to rest on the Naval Discipline Act 1866, as amended by the act
+of 1884. The navy has its courts of inquiry for the confidential
+investigation of charges "derogatory to the character of an officer and
+a gentleman." Under the act of 1866 a court-martial must consist of from
+five to nine officers of a certain rank, and must be held publicly on
+board of one of H.M. ships of war, and where at least two such ships are
+together. The rank of the president depends on that of the prisoner. A
+judge-advocate attends, and the procedure resembles that in military
+courts, except that the prisoner is not asked to plead, and the
+sentence, if not one of death, does not require the confirmation of the
+commander-in-chief abroad or of the admiralty at home. The court has a
+large and useful power of finding the prisoner guilty of a less serious
+offence than that charged, which might well be imitated in the ordinary
+criminal courts. The death sentence is always carried out by hanging at
+the yard-arm; Admiral Byng, however, was shot in 1757. The board of
+admiralty have, under the Naval Discipline Acts, a general power of
+suspending, annulling, and modifying sentences which are not capital.
+The jurisdiction extends to all persons belonging to the navy, to land
+forces and other passengers on board, shipwrecked crews, spies, persons
+borne on the books of H.M. ships in commission, and civilians on board
+who endeavour to seduce others from allegiance. The definition of the
+jurisdiction by locality includes harbours, havens or creeks, lakes or
+rivers, in or out of the United Kingdom; all places within the
+jurisdiction of the admiralty; all places on shore out of the United
+Kingdom; the dockyards, barracks, hospitals, &c., of the service
+wherever situated; all places on shore in or out of the United Kingdom
+for all offences punishable under the Articles of War except those
+specified in section 38 of the Naval Discipline Act 1860, which are
+punishable by ordinary law. The Royal Marines, while borne on the books
+of H.M. ships, are subject to the Naval Discipline Acts, and, by an
+order in council, 1882, when they are embarked on board ship for service
+on shore; otherwise they are under the Army Acts. By s. 179, sub.-sec.
+7, of the Army Act, in the application of the act to the Royal Marines
+the admiralty is substituted for military authorities.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Simmons, _On the Constitution and Practice of
+  Courts-Martial_; Clode, _Military and Martial Law_; Stephens, Gifford
+  and Smith, _Manual of Naval Law and Court-Martial Procedure_. The
+  earlier writers on courts-martial are Adye (1796), M'Arthur (1813),
+  Maltby (1813, Boston), James (1820), D'Aguilar (1843), and Hough,
+  _Precedents in Military Law_ (1855).
+
+
+
+
+COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY, BARON (1832-   ), English politician
+and man of letters, eldest son of J. S. Courtney, a banker, was born at
+Penzance on the 6th of July 1832. At Cambridge, Leonard Courtney was
+second wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, and was elected a fellow of
+his college, St John's. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in
+1858, was professor of political economy at University College from 1872
+to 1875, and in December 1876, after a previous unsuccessful attempt,
+was elected to parliament for Liskeard in the Liberal interest. He
+continued to represent the borough, and the district into which it was
+merged by the Reform Act of 1885, until 1900, when his attitude towards
+the South African War--he was one of the foremost of the so-called
+"Pro-Boer" party--compelled his retirement. Until 1885 he was a devoted
+adherent of Mr Gladstone, particularly in finance and foreign affairs.
+In 1880 he was under-secretary of state for the home department, in 1881
+for the colonies, and in 1882 secretary to the treasury; but he was
+always a stubborn fighter for principle, and upon finding that the
+government's Reform Bill in 1884 contained no recognition of the scheme
+for proportional representation, to which he was deeply committed, he
+resigned office. He refused to support Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill in
+1885, and was one of those who chiefly contributed to its rejection, and
+whose reputation for unbending integrity and intellectual eminence gave
+solidity to the Liberal Unionist party. In 1886 he was elected chairman
+of committees in the House of Commons, and his efficiency in this office
+seemed to mark him out for the speakership in 1895. A Liberal Unionist,
+however, could only be elected by Conservative votes, and he had made
+himself objectionable to a large section of the party by his independent
+attitude on various questions, on which his Liberalism outweighed his
+party loyalty. He would in any case have been incapacitated by an
+affection of the eyesight, which for a while threatened to withdraw him
+from public life altogether. After 1895 Mr Courtney's divergences from
+the Unionist party on questions other than Irish politics became
+gradually more marked. He became known in the House of Commons
+principally for his candid criticism of the measures introduced by his
+nominal leaders, and he was rather to be ranked among the Opposition
+than as a Ministerialist; and when the crisis with the Transvaal came
+in 1899, Mr Courtney's views, which remained substantially what they
+were when he supported the settlement after Majuba in 1881, had plainly
+become incompatible with his position even as a nominal follower of Lord
+Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain. He gradually reverted to formal membership
+of the Liberal party, and in January 1906 unsuccessfully contested a
+division of Edinburgh as a supporter of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman at
+the general election. Among the birthday honours of 1906 he was elevated
+to the peerage as Baron Courtney of Penwith (Cornwall). Lord Courtney,
+who in 1883 married Miss Catherine Potter (an elder sister of Mrs Sidney
+Webb), was a prominent supporter of the women's movement. In earlier
+years he was a regular contributor to _The Times_, and he wrote numerous
+essays in the principal reviews on political and economic subjects. In
+1901 he published a book on _The Working Constitution of the United
+Kingdom_.
+
+Two of his brothers, John Mortimer Courtney (b. 1838), and William
+Prideaux Courtney (b. 1845), also attained public distinction, the
+former in the government service in Canada (from 1869, retiring in
+1906), rising to be deputy-minister of finance, and the latter in the
+British civil service (1865-1892), and as a prominent man of letters and
+bibliographer.
+
+
+
+
+COURTOIS, JACQUES (1621-1676) and GUILLAUME (1628-1679). The two French
+painters who bore these names are also called by the Italian equivalents
+Giacomo (or Jacopo) Cortese and Guglielmo Cortese. Each of the brothers
+is likewise named, from his native province, Le Bourguignon, or Il
+Borgognone.
+
+Jacques Courtois was born at St Hippolyte, near Besancon, in 1621. His
+father was a painter, and with him Jacques remained studying up to the
+age of fifteen. Towards 1637 he came to Italy, was hospitably received
+at Milan by a Burgundian gentleman, and entered, and for three years
+remained in, the French military service. The sight of some
+battle-pictures revived his taste for fine art. He went to Bologna, and
+studied under the friendly tutelage of Guido; thence he proceeded to
+Rome, where he painted, in the Cistercian monastery, the "Miracle of the
+Loaves." Here he took a house and after a while entered upon his own
+characteristic style of art, that of battle-painting, in which he has
+been accounted to excel all other old masters; his merits were cordially
+recognized by the celebrated Cerquozzi, named Michelangelo delle
+Battaglie. He soon rose from penury to ease, and married a painter's
+beautiful daughter, Maria Vagini; she died after seven years of wedded
+life. Prince Matthias of Tuscany employed Courtois on some striking
+works in his villa, Lappeggio, representing with much historical
+accuracy the prince's military exploits. In Venice also the artist
+executed for the senator Sagredo some remarkable battle-pieces. In
+Florence he entered the Society of Jesus, taking the habit in Rome in
+1655; it was calumniously rumoured that he adopted this course in order
+to escape punishment for having poisoned his wife. As a Jesuit father,
+Courtois painted many works in churches and monasteries of the society.
+He lived piously in Rome, and died there of apoplexy on the 20th of May
+1676 (some accounts say 1670 or 1671). His battle-pieces have movement
+and fire, warm colouring (now too often blackened), and great command of
+the brush,--those of moderate dimensions are the more esteemed. They are
+slight in execution, and tell out best from a distance. Courtois etched
+with skill twelve battle-subjects of his own composition. The Dantzig
+painter named in Italy Pandolfo Reschi was his pupil.
+
+Guillaume Courtois, born likewise at St Hippolyte, came to Italy with
+his brother. He went at once to Rome, and entered the school of Pietro
+da Cortona. He studied also the Bolognese painters and Giovanni
+Barbieri, and formed for himself a style with very little express
+mannerism, partly resembling that of Maratta. He painted the "Battle of
+Joshua" in the Quirinal Gallery, the "Crucifixion of St Andrew" in the
+church of that saint on Monte Cavallo, various works for the Jesuits,
+some also in co-operation with his brother. His last production was
+Christ admonishing Martha. His draughtsmanship is better than that of
+Jacques, whom he did not, however, rival in spirit, colour or
+composition. He also executed some etchings. Guillaume Courtois died of
+gout on the 15th of June 1679.
+
+
+
+
+COURTRAI (Flemish, _Kortryk_), an important and once famous town of West
+Flanders, Belgium, situated on the Lys. Pop. (1904) 34,564. It is now
+best known for its fine linen, which ranks with that of Larne. The lace
+factories are also important and employ 5000 hands. But considerable as
+is the prosperity of modern Courtrai it is but a shadow of what it was
+in the middle ages during the halcyon period of the Flemish communes.
+Then Courtrai had a population of 200,000, now it is little over a sixth
+of that number. On the 11th of July 1302 the great battle of Courtrai
+(see INFANTRY) was fought outside its walls, when the French army, under
+the count of Artois, was vanquished by the allied burghers of Bruges,
+Ypres and Courtrai with tremendous loss. As many as 700 pairs of golden
+spurs were collected on the field from the bodies of French knights and
+hung up as an offering in an abbey church of the town, which has long
+disappeared. There are still, however, some interesting remains of
+Courtrai's former grandeur. Perhaps the Pont de Broel, with its towers
+at either end of the bridge, is as characteristic and complete as any
+monument of ancient Flanders that has come down to modern times. The
+hotel de ville, which dated from the earlier half of the 16th century,
+was restored in 1846, and since then statues have also been added to
+represent those that formerly ornamented the facade. Two richly and
+elaborately carved chimney-pieces in the hotel de ville merit special
+notice. The one in the council chamber upstairs dates from 1527 and
+gives an allegorical representation of the Virtues and the Vices. The
+other, three-quarters of a century later, contains an heraldic
+representation of the noble families of the town. The church of St
+Martin dates from the 15th century, but was practically destroyed in
+1862 by a fire caused by lightning. It has been restored. The most
+important building at Courtrai is the church of Notre Dame, which was
+begun by Count Baldwin IX. in 1191 and finished in 1211. The portal and
+the choir were reconstructed in the 18th century. In the chapel behind
+the choir is hung one of Van Dyck's masterpieces, "The Erection of the
+Cross." The chapel of the counts attached to the church dates from 1373,
+and contained mural paintings of the counts and countesses of Flanders
+down to the merging of the title in the house of Burgundy. Most if not
+all of these had become obliterated, but they have now been carefully
+restored. With questionable judgment portraits have been added of the
+subsequent holders of the title down to the emperor Francis II. (I. of
+Austria), the last representative of the houses of Flanders and Burgundy
+to rule in the Netherlands. Courtrai celebrated the 600th anniversary of
+the battle mentioned above by erecting a monument on the field in 1902,
+and also by fetes and historical processions that continued for a
+fortnight.
+
+Courtrai, the _Cortracum_ of the Romans, ranked as a town from the 7th
+century onwards. It was destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in the
+10th century by Baldwin III. of Flanders, who endowed it with market
+rights and laid the foundation of its industrial importance by inviting
+the settlement of foreign weavers. The town was once more burnt, in
+1382, by the French after the battle of Roosebeke, but was rebuilt in
+1385 by Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy.
+
+
+
+
+COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE (1775-1835), French magistrate and
+politician, was born at Besancon on the 30th of November 1775. During
+the revolutionary period he left the country and served in the army of
+the _emigres_ and later in that of Austria. In 1801, under the
+Consulate, he returned to France and established himself as an advocate
+at Besancon, being appointed _conseiller-auditeur_ to the court of
+appeal there in 1808. At the Restoration he was made advocate-general by
+Louis XVIII., resigned and left France during the Hundred Days, and was
+reappointed after the second Restoration in 1815. In 1817, after the
+modification of the constitution by the _ordonnance_ of the 5th of
+September, he was returned to the chamber of deputies, where he attached
+himself to the left centre and supported the moderate policy of
+Richelieu and Decazes. He was an eloquent speaker, and master of many
+subjects; and his proved royalism made it impossible for the
+ultra-Royalists to discredit him, much as they resented his consistent
+opposition to their short-sighted violence. After the revolt at Lyons
+in 1817 he was nominated _procureur-general_ of the city, and by his
+sense and moderation did much to restore order and confidence. He was
+again a member of the chamber from 1819 to 1824, and vigorously opposed
+the exceptional legislation which the second administration of Richelieu
+passed under the influence of the ultra-Royalists. In 1824 he failed to
+secure re-election, and occupied himself with his judicial duties until
+his nomination as councillor of state in 1827. On the 8th of August 1829
+he accepted the offer of the portfolio of justice in the Polignac
+ministry, but resigned on the 19th of May 1830, when he realized that
+the government intended to abrogate the Charter and the inevitable
+revolution that would follow. During the trial of the ex-ministers, in
+December, he was summoned as a witness, and paid a tribute to the
+character of his former colleagues which, under the circumstances,
+argued no little courage. He refused to take office under Louis
+Philippe, and retired into private life, dying on the 18th of September
+1835.
+
+
+
+
+COUSCOUS, or KOUS-KOUS (an Arabic word derived from _kaskasa_, to
+pound), a dish common among the inhabitants of North Africa, made of
+flour rubbed together and steamed over a stew of mutton, fowl, &c., with
+which it is eaten.
+
+
+
+
+COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590), French painter, was born at Soucy, near Sens,
+and began as a glass-painter, his windows in the Sainte Chapelle at
+Vincennes being considered the finest in France. As a painter of subject
+pictures he is ranked as the founder of the French school, as having
+first departed from the practice of portraits. His "Last Judgment,"
+influenced by Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a "Descent from the
+Cross" (1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was known
+also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and on wood, his
+wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc's Bible (1596) and other books being his
+best-known work. He also wrote a _Livre de perspective_ (1560), and a
+_Livre de portraiture_ (1571).
+
+  See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, _Etude sur J. Cousin_ (1872), and _Recueil
+  des oeuvres choisies de J. Cousin_ (1873).
+
+
+
+
+COUSIN, VICTOR (1792-1867), French philosopher, the son of a watchmaker,
+was born in Paris, in the Quartier St Antoine, on the 28th of November
+1792. At the age of ten he was sent to the grammar school of the
+Quartier St Antoine, the Lycee Charlemagne. Here he studied until he was
+eighteen. The lycee had a connexion with the university, and when Cousin
+left the secondary school he was "crowned" in the ancient hall of the
+Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there, in the general
+concourse of his school competitors. The classical training of the lycee
+strongly disposed him to literature. He was already known among his
+compeers for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycee he passed to the
+Normal School of Paris, where Laromiguiere was then lecturing on
+philosophy. In the second preface to the _Fragmens philosophiques_, in
+which he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his
+life, Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory of the
+day in 1811, when he heard Laromiguiere for the first time. "That day
+decided my whole life. Laromiguiere taught the philosophy of Locke and
+Condillac, happily modified on some points, with a clearness and grace
+which in appearance at least removed difficulties, and with a charm of
+spiritual _bonhomie_ which penetrated and subdued." Cousin was set
+forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained the
+position of master of conferences (_maitre de conferences_) in the
+school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life was the
+teaching of Royer-Collard. This teacher, as he tells us, "by the
+severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his words, turned me by
+degrees, and not without resistance, from the beaten path of Condillac
+into the way which has since become so easy, but which was then painful
+and unfrequented, that of the Scottish philosophy." In 1815-1816 Cousin
+attained the position of _suppleant_ (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the
+history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. There was
+still another thinker who influenced him at this early period,--Maine de
+Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the unequalled psychological observer of
+his time in France.
+
+These men strongly influenced both the method and the matter of Cousin's
+philosophical thought. To Laromiguiere he attributes the lesson of
+decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was
+inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to
+certain internal laws and principles which it does not itself explain,
+which are superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind. De
+Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him
+to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts
+of consciousness, the fact of voluntary activity, that activity in which
+our personality is truly revealed. It was through this "triple
+discipline," as he calls it, that Cousin's philosophical thought was
+first developed, and that in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of
+philosophy in the Normal School and in the faculty of letters.[1] He
+then took up the study of German, worked at Kant and Jacobi, and sought
+to master the _Philosophy of Nature_ of Schelling, by which he was at
+first greatly attracted. The influence of Schelling may be observed very
+markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. He sympathized with the
+principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so long as it
+was not recognized as grounded in reason. In 1817 he went to Germany,
+and met Hegel at Heidelberg. In this year appeared Hegel's _Encyclopadie
+der philosophischen Wissenschaften_, of which Cousin had one of the
+earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two
+became friends. The following year Cousin went to Munich, where he met
+Schelling for the first time, and spent a month with him and Jacobi,
+obtaining a deeper insight into the _Philosophy of Nature_.
+
+
+  Political troubles.
+
+  Fragmens philosophiques.
+
+The political troubles of France interfered for a time with his career.
+In the events of 1814-1815 he took the royalist side. He at first
+adopted the views of the party known as _doctrinaire_, of which
+Royer-Collard was the philosophical chief. He seems then to have gone
+farther than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left.
+Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821-1822 Cousin was
+deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters and in the
+Normal School. The Normal School itself was swept away, and Cousin
+shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal government the fate of
+Guizot, who was ejected from the chair of history. This enforced
+abandonment of public teaching was not wholly an evil. He set out for
+Germany with a view to further philosophical study. While at Berlin in
+1824-1825 he was thrown into prison, either on some ill-defined
+political charge at the instance of the French police, or on account of
+certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversation.
+Liberated after six months, he continued under the suspicion of the
+French government for three years. It was during this period, however,
+that he thought out and developed what is distinctive in his
+philosophical doctrine. His eclecticism, his ontology and his philosophy
+of history were declared in principle and in most of their salient
+details in the _Fragmens philosophiques_ (Paris, 1826). The preface to
+the second edition (1833) and the _Avertissement_ to the third (1838)
+aimed at a vindication of his principles against contemporary criticism.
+Even the best of his later books, the _Philosophie ecossaise_ (4th ed.,
+1863), the _Du vrai, du beau, et du bien_ (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans.,
+3rd ed., Edinburgh, 1854), and the _Philosophie de Locke_ (4th ed.,
+1861) were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period
+from 1815 to 1820. The lectures on Locke were first sketched in 1819,
+and fully developed in the course of 1829.
+
+During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching he produced,
+besides the _Fragmens_, the edition of the works of Proclus (6 vols.,
+1820-1827), and the works of Descartes (11 vols., 1826). He also
+commenced his _Translation of Plato_ (13 vols.), which occupied his
+leisure time from 1825 to 1840.
+
+We see in the _Fragmens_ very distinctly the fusion of the different
+philosophical influences by which his opinions were finally matured. For
+Cousin was as eclectic in thought and habit of mind as he was in
+philosophical principle and system. It is with the publication of the
+_Fragmens_ of 1826 that the first great widening of his reputation is
+associated. In 1827 followed the _Cours de l'histoire de la
+philosophie_.
+
+
+  Career as a lecturer.
+
+In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, minister of public instruction in Martignac's
+ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their professorial positions in
+the university. The three years which followed were the period of
+Cousin's greatest triumph as a lecturer. His return to the chair was the
+symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and was greeted with
+enthusiasm. The hall of the Sorbonne was crowded as the hall of no
+philosophical teacher in Paris had been since the days of Abelard. The
+lecturer had a singular power of identifying himself for the time with
+the system which he expounded and the historical character he portrayed.
+Clear and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his
+subject, he was methodical and vivid in the representation of details.
+In exposition he had the rare art of unfolding and aggrandizing. There
+was a rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence mingled with the speculative
+exposition; his style of expression was clear, elegant and forcible,
+abounding in happy turns and striking antitheses. To this was joined a
+singular power of rhetorical climax. His philosophy exhibited in a
+striking manner the generalizing tendency of the French intellect, and
+its logical need of grouping details round central principles.
+
+There was withal a moral elevation in his spiritual philosophy which
+came home to the hearts of his hearers, and seemed to afford a ground
+for higher development in national literature and art, and even in
+politics, than the traditional philosophy of France had appeared capable
+of yielding. His lectures produced more ardent disciples, imbued at
+least with his spirit, than those of any other professor of philosophy
+in France during the 18th century. Tested by the power and effect of his
+teaching influence, Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of
+professors of philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart
+have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative power.
+Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his writings have in
+some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less remarkable. The
+taste for philosophy--especially its history--was revived in France to
+an extent unknown since the 17th century.
+
+
+  Disciples and followers.
+
+Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may note T. S. Jouffroy,
+J. P. Damiron, Garnier, J. Barthelemy St Hilaire, F. Ravaisson-Mollien,
+Remusat, Jules Simon and A. Franck. Jouffroy and Damiron were first
+fellow-students and then disciples. Jouffroy, however, always kept firm
+to the early--the French and Scottish--impulses of Cousin's teaching.
+Cousin continued to lecture regularly for two years and a half after his
+return to the chair. Sympathizing with the revolution of July, he was at
+once recognized by the new government as a friend of national liberty.
+Writing in June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his
+political position:--
+
+  "I had the advantage of holding united against me for many years both
+  the sensational and the theological school. In 1830 both schools
+  descended into the arena of politics. The sensational school quite
+  naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theological school
+  became quite as naturally absolutism, safe to borrow from time to time
+  the mask of the demagogue in order the better to reach its ends, as in
+  philosophy it is by scepticism that it undertakes to restore
+  theocracy. On the other hand, he who combated any exclusive principle
+  in science was bound to reject also any exclusive principle in the
+  state, and to defend representative government."
+
+The government was not slow to do him honour. He was induced by the
+ministry of which his friend Guizot was the head to become a member of
+the council of public instruction and counsellor of state, and in 1832
+he was made a peer of France. He ceased to lecture, but retained the
+title of professor of philosophy. Finally, he accepted the position of
+minister of public instruction in 1840 under Thiers. He was besides
+director of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and
+from 1840 a member of the Institute (Academy of the Moral and Political
+Sciences). His character and his official position at this period gave
+him great power in the university and in the educational arrangements
+of the country. In fact, during the seventeen and a half years of the
+reign of Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly moulded the philosophical and
+even the literary tendencies of the cultivated class in France.
+
+
+  Relation to primary education in France.
+
+But the most important work he accomplished during this period was the
+organization of primary instruction. It was to the efforts of Cousin
+that France owed her advance, in primary education, between 1830 and
+1848. Prussia and Saxony had set the national example, and France was
+guided into it by Cousin. Forgetful of national calamity and of personal
+wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording the best example of an
+organized system of national education; and he was persuaded that "to
+carry back the education of Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a
+bloodless) triumph than the trophies of Austerlitz and Jena." In the
+summer of 1831, commissioned by the government, he visited Frankfort and
+Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin. The result was a series of
+reports to the minister, afterwards published as _Rapport sur l'etat de
+l'instruction publique dans quelques pays de l'Allemagne et
+particulierement en Prusse_. (Compare also _De l'instruction publique en
+Hollande_, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on his return to
+France, and soon afterwards through his influence there was passed the
+law of primary instruction. (See his _Expose des motifs et projet de loi
+sur l'instruction primaire, presentes a la chambre des deputes, seance
+du 2 janvier 1833_.)
+
+In the words of the _Edinburgh Review_ (July 1833), these documents
+"mark an epoch in the progress of national education, and are directly
+conducive to results important not only to France but to Europe." The
+_Report_ was translated into English by Mrs Sarah Austin in 1834. The
+translation was frequently reprinted in the United States of America.
+The legislatures of New Jersey and Massachusetts distributed it in the
+schools at the expense of the states. Cousin remarks that, among all the
+literary distinctions which he had received, "None has touched me more
+than the title of foreign member of the American Institute for
+Education." To the enlightened views of the ministries of Guizot and
+Thiers under the citizen-king, and to the zeal and ability of Cousin in
+the work of organization, France owes what is best in her system of
+primary education,--a national interest which had been neglected under
+the Revolution, the Empire and the Restoration (see _Expose_, p. 17). In
+the first two years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the
+education of the people than had been either sought or accomplished in
+all the history of France. In defence of university studies he stood
+manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844, against the clerical
+party on the one hand and the levelling or Philistine party on the
+other. His speeches on this occasion were published in a tractate
+_Defense de l'universite et de la philosophie_ (1844 and 1845).
+
+
+  Philosophical writings.
+
+This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as
+philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures and
+writings, in maturing them for publication or reissue, and in research
+into certain periods of the history of philosophy. In 1835 appeared _De
+la Metaphysique d'Aristote, suivi d'un essai de traduction des deux
+premiers livres_; in 1836, _Cours de philosophie professe a la faculte
+des lettres pendant l'annee 1818_, and _Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard_.
+This _Cours de philosophie_ appeared later in 1854 as _Du vrai, du beau,
+et du bien_. From 1825 to 1840 appeared _Cours de l'histoire de la
+philosophie_, in 1829 _Manuel de l'histoire de la philosophie de
+Tennemann_, translated from the German. In 1840-1841 we have _Cours
+d'histoire de la philosophie morale au XVIII^e siecle_ (5 vols.). In
+1841 appeared his edition of the _OEuvres philosophiques de
+Maine-de-Biran_; in 1842, _Lecons de philosophie sur Kant_ (Eng. trans.
+A. G. Henderson, 1854), and in the same year _Des Pensees de Pascal_.
+The _Nouveaux fragments_ were gathered together and republished in 1847.
+Later, in 1859, appeared _Petri Abaelardi Opera_.
+
+
+  Literary studies.
+
+During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh interest to
+those literary studies which he had abandoned for speculation under the
+influence of Laromiguiere and Royer-Collard. To this renewed interest we
+owe his studies of men and women of note in France in the 17th century.
+As the results of his work in this line, we have, besides the _Des
+Pensees de Pascal_, 1842, _Etudes sur les femmes et la societe du XVII^e
+siecle_, 1853. He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal (1844), Madame de
+Longueville (1853), the marquise de Sable (1854), the duchesse de
+Chevreuse (1856), Madame de Hautefort (1856).
+
+When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a close through the opposition
+of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand for electoral
+reform and through the policy of the Spanish marriages, Cousin, who was
+opposed to the government on these points, lent his sympathy to
+Cavaignac and the Provisional government. He published a pamphlet
+entitled _Justice et charite_, the purport of which showed the
+moderation of his political views. It was markedly anti-socialistic. But
+from this period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased
+to wield the personal influence which he had done during the preceding
+years. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December, he was deprived
+of his position as permanent member of the superior council of public
+instruction. From Napoleon and the Empire he stood aloof. A decree of
+1852 placed him along with Guizot and Villemain in the rank of honorary
+professors. His sympathies were apparently with the monarchy, under
+certain constitutional safeguards. Speaking in 1853 of the political
+issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his
+lifetime, he says,--"It conducts human societies to the true republic,
+that dream of all generous souls, which in our time can be realized in
+Europe only by constitutional monarchy."[2]
+
+During the last years of his life he occupied a suite of rooms in the
+Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously. The chief feature
+of the rooms was his noble library, the cherished collection of a
+lifetime. He died at Cannes on the 13th of January 1867, in his
+sixty-fifth year. In the front of the Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms
+of the faculty of letters, a tablet records an extract from his will, in
+which he bequeaths his noble and cherished library to the halls of his
+professorial work and triumphs.
+
+_Philosophy._--There are three distinctive points in Cousin's
+philosophy. These are his method, the results of his method, and the
+application of the method and its results to history,--especially to the
+history of philosophy. It is usual to speak of his philosophy as
+eclecticism. It is eclectic only in a secondary and subordinate sense.
+All eclecticism that is not self-condemned and inoperative implies a
+system of doctrine as its basis,--in fact, a criterion of truth.
+Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it is simply a blind and useless
+syncretism. And Cousin saw and proclaimed from an early period in his
+philosophical teaching the necessity of a system on which to base his
+eclecticism. This is indeed advanced as an illustration or confirmation
+of the truth of his system,--as a proof that the facts of history
+correspond to his analysis of consciousness. These three points--the
+method, the results, and the philosophy of history--are with him
+intimately connected; they are developments in a natural order of
+sequence. They become in practice Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism
+in history.
+
+
+  Method.
+
+First, as to method. On no point has Cousin more strongly insisted than
+the importance of method in philosophy. That which he adopts, and the
+necessity of which he so strongly proclaims, is the ordinary one of
+observation, analysis and induction. This observational method Cousin
+regards as that of the 18th century,--the method which Descartes began
+and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied, though
+imperfectly, and which Reid and Kant used with more success, yet not
+completely. He insists that this is the true method of philosophy as
+applied to consciousness, in which alone the facts of experience appear.
+But the proper condition of the application of the method is that it
+shall not through prejudice of system omit a single fact of
+consciousness. If the authority of consciousness is good in one
+instance, it is good in all. If not to be trusted in one, it is not to
+be trusted in any. Previous systems have erred in not presenting the
+facts of consciousness, i.e. consciousness itself, in their totality.
+The observational method applied to consciousness gives us the science
+of psychology. This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology
+or metaphysics--the science of being--and of the philosophy of history.
+To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds induction as the
+complement of his method, by which he means inference as to reality
+necessitated by the data of consciousness, and regulated by certain laws
+found in consciousness, viz. those of reason. By his method of
+observation and induction as thus explained, his philosophy will be
+found to be marked off very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive
+construction of notions of an absolute system, as represented either by
+Schelling or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on hypothesis
+and abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other, from that of
+Kant, and in a sense, of Sir W. Hamilton, both of which in the view of
+Cousin are limited to psychology, and merely relative or phenomenal
+knowledge, and issue in scepticism so far as the great realities of
+ontology are concerned. What Cousin finds psychologically in the
+individual consciousness, he finds also spontaneously expressed in the
+common sense or universal experience of humanity. In fact, it is with
+him the function of philosophy to classify and explain universal
+convictions and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him philosophy,
+nor is it the instrument of philosophy; it is simply the material on
+which the philosophical method works, and in harmony with which its
+results must ultimately be found.
+
+
+  Results.
+
+The three great results of psychological observation are Sensibility,
+Activity or Liberty, and Reason.
+
+These three facts are different in character, but are not found apart in
+consciousness. Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility, are
+necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves. The facts of reason are
+also necessary, and reason is not less independent of the will than the
+sensibility. Voluntary facts alone are marked in the eyes of
+consciousness with the characters of imputability and personality. The
+will alone is the person or _Me_. The me is the centre of the
+intellectual sphere without which consciousness is impossible. We find
+ourselves in a strange world, between two orders of phenomena which do
+not belong to us, which we apprehend only on the condition of our
+distinguishing ourselves from them. Further, we apprehend by means of a
+light which does not come from ourselves. All light comes from the
+reason, and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the
+sensibility which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does
+not constrain. Consciousness, then, is composed of these three integrant
+and inseparable elements. But Reason is the immediate ground of
+knowledge and of consciousness itself.
+
+
+  Spontaneity in will.
+
+But there is a peculiarity in Cousin's doctrine of activity or freedom,
+and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into his system. This
+is the element of spontaneity in volition and in reason. This is the
+heart of what is new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being.
+Liberty or freedom is a generic term which means a cause or being
+endowed with self-activity. This is to itself and its own development
+its own ultimate cause. Free-will is so, although it is preceded by
+deliberation and determination, i.e. reflection, for we are always
+conscious that even after determination we are free to will or not to
+will. But there is a primary kind of volition which has not reflection
+for its condition, which is yet free and spontaneous. We must have
+willed thus spontaneously first, otherwise we could not know, before our
+reflective volition, that we could will and act. Spontaneous volition is
+free as reflective, but it is the prior act of the two. This view of
+liberty of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of
+humanity; it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm
+of the poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the
+ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a rule spontaneously and
+not after reflective deliberation.
+
+
+  Impersonality of reason.
+
+But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive principle
+of the philosophy of Cousin lies. The reason given to us by
+psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness, is
+impersonal in its nature. We do not make it; its character is precisely
+the opposite of individuality; it is universal and necessary. The
+recognition of universal and necessary principles in knowledge is the
+essential point in psychology; it ought to be put first and emphasized
+to the last that these exist, and that they are wholly impersonal or
+absolute. The number of these principles, their enumeration and
+classification, is an important point, but it is secondary to that of
+the recognition of their true nature. This was the point which Kant
+missed in his analysis, and this is the fundamental truth which Cousin
+thinks he has restored to the integrity of philosophy by the method of
+the observation of consciousness. And how is this impersonality or
+absoluteness of the conditions of knowledge to be established? The
+answer is in substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first
+as the criterion of those laws. This brought them within the sphere of
+reflection, and gave as their guarantee the impossibility of thinking
+them reversed; and led to their being regarded as wholly relative to
+human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of the phenomenal,
+incapable of revealing to us substantial reality--necessary, yet
+subjective. But this test of necessity is a wholly secondary one; these
+laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they are each and all given to us,
+given to our consciousness, in an act of spontaneous apperception or
+apprehension, immediately, instantaneously, in a sphere above the
+reflective consciousness, yet within the reach of knowledge. And "all
+subjectivity with all reflection expires in the spontaneity of
+apperception. The reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary
+and free self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or
+to that self in humanity; it belongs not even to humanity. We may say
+with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without its laws
+both would perish."
+
+
+  Laws of reason.
+
+But what is the number of those laws? Kant reviewing the enterprise of
+Aristotle in modern times has given a complete list of the laws of
+thought, but it is arbitrary in classification and may be legitimately
+reduced. According to Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought,
+that of causality and that of substance. From these flow naturally all
+the others. In the order of nature, that of substance is the first and
+causality second. In the order of acquisition of our knowledge,
+causality precedes substance, or rather both are given us in each other,
+and are contemporaneous in consciousness.
+
+These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus
+psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the relative and
+subjective to objective and absolute reality,--enable us, in a word, to
+pass from psychology, or the science of knowledge, to ontology or the
+science of being. These laws are inextricably mixed in consciousness
+with the data of volition and sensation, with free activity and fatal
+action or impression, and they guide us in rising to a personal being, a
+self or free cause, and to an impersonal reality, a not-me--nature, the
+world of force--lying out of us, and modifying us. As I refer to myself
+the act of attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the sensation
+to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is, to an external
+cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my own existence, since
+the phenomenon which suggests it to me is as certain as the phenomenon
+which had suggested my reality, and both are given in each other. I thus
+reach an objective impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the
+variety of my sensations. The relation of these forces or causes to each
+other is the order of the universe.
+
+
+  The infinite or absolute.
+
+But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally
+limitative. As reason has apprehended these two simultaneous phenomena,
+attention and sensation, and led us immediately to conceive the two
+sorts of distinct causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which
+they are related, so, from the notion of this limitation, we find it
+impossible under the same guide not to conceive a supreme cause,
+absolute and infinite, itself the first and last cause of all. This is
+relatively to self and not-self what these are to their proper effects.
+This cause is self-sufficient, and is sufficient for the reason. This is
+God; he must be conceived under the notion of cause, related to humanity
+and the world. He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute
+cause, and his essence lies precisely in his creative power. He thus
+creates, and he creates necessarily.
+
+
+  Charge of Pantheism.
+
+This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to the charge of
+pantheism. This he repels, and his answer may be summed up as follows.
+Pantheism is properly the deification of the law of phenomena, the
+universe God. But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self
+from each other and from the infinite cause. They are not mere
+modifications of this cause or properties, as with Spinoza,--they are
+free forces having their power or spring of action in themselves, and
+this is sufficient for our idea of independent finite reality. I hold
+this, and I hold the relation of these as effects to the one supreme
+cause. The God I plead for is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the
+absolute unity of the Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of
+creation or plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction. The deity I
+maintain is creative, and necessarily creative. The deity of Spinoza and
+the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense. As to the
+necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating, this is the
+highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity, activity
+without deliberation. His action is not the result of a struggle between
+passion and virtue. He is free in an unlimited manner; the purest
+spontaneity in man is but the shadow of the freedom of God. He acts
+freely but not arbitrarily, and with the consciousness of being able to
+choose the opposite part. He cannot deliberate or will as we do. His
+spontaneous action excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will
+and the mechanical operation of necessity.
+
+
+  History of philosophy.
+
+The elements found in consciousness are also to be found in the history
+of humanity and in the history of philosophy. In external nature there
+are expansion and contraction which correspond to spontaneity and
+reflection. External nature again in contrast with humanity expresses
+spontaneity; humanity expresses reflection. In human history the East
+represents the spontaneous stage; the Pagan and Christian world
+represent stages of reflection.
+
+This was afterwards modified, expanded and more fully expressed by
+saying that humanity in its universal development has three principal
+moments. First, in the spontaneous stage, where reflection is not yet
+developed, and art is imperfect, humanity has thought only of the
+immensity around it. It is preoccupied by the infinite. Secondly, in the
+reflective stage, mind has become an object to itself. It thus knows
+itself explicitly or reflectively. Its own individuality is now the only
+or at least the supreme thing. This is the moment of the finite.
+Thirdly, there comes an epoch in which the self or me is subordinated.
+Mind realizes another power in the universe. The finite and the infinite
+become two real correlatives in the relation of cause and product. This
+is the third and highest stage of development, the relation of the
+finite and the infinite. As philosophy is but the highest expression of
+humanity, these three moments will be represented in its history. The
+East typifies the infinite, Greece the finite or reflective epoch, the
+modern era the stage of relation or correlation of infinite and finite.
+In theology, the dominant philosophical idea of each of these epochs
+results in pantheism, polytheism, theism. In politics we have in
+correspondence also with the idea, monarchy, democracy,
+constitutionalism.
+
+
+  Eclecticism.
+
+Eclecticism thus means the application of the psychological method to
+the history of philosophy. Confronting the various systems co-ordinated
+as sensualism, idealism, scepticism, mysticism, with the facts of
+consciousness, the result was reached "that each system expresses an
+order of phenomena and ideas, which is in truth very real, but which is
+not alone in consciousness, and which at the same time holds an almost
+exclusive place in the system; whence it follows that each system is not
+false but incomplete, and that in re-uniting all incomplete systems, we
+should have a complete philosophy, adequate to the totality of
+consciousness." Philosophy, as thus perfected, would not be a mere
+aggregation of systems, as is ignorantly supposed, but an integration of
+the truth in each system after the false or incomplete is discarded.
+
+
+  Relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel.
+
+Such is the system in outline. The historical position of the system
+lies in its relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Cousin was opposed
+to Kant in asserting that the unconditioned in the form of infinite or
+absolute cause is but a mere unrealizable tentative or effort on the
+part of the mind, something different from a mere negation, yet not
+equivalent to a positive thought. With Cousin the absolute as the ground
+of being is grasped positively by the intelligence, and it renders all
+else intelligible; it is not as with Kant a certain hypothetical or
+regulative need.
+
+With Schelling again Cousin agrees in regarding this supreme ground of
+all as positively apprehended, and as a source of development, but he
+utterly repudiates Schelling's method. The intellectual intuition either
+falls under the eye of consciousness, or it does not. If not, how do you
+know it and its object which are identical? If it does, it comes within
+the sphere of psychology; and the objections to it as thus a relative,
+made by Schelling himself, are to be dealt with. Schelling's
+intellectual intuition is the mere negation of knowledge.
+
+Again the pure being of Hegel is a mere abstraction,--a hypothesis
+illegitimately assumed, which he has nowhere sought to vindicate. The
+very point to be established is the possibility of reaching being per se
+or pure being; yet in the Hegelian system this is the very thing assumed
+as a starting-point. Besides this, of course, objections might be made
+to the method of development, as not only subverting the principle of
+contradiction, but as galvanizing negation into a means of advancing or
+developing the whole body of human knowledge and reality. The
+intellectual intuition of Schelling, as above consciousness, the pure
+being of Hegel, as an empty abstraction, unvindicated, illegitimately
+assumed, and arbitrarily developed, are equally useless as bases of
+metaphysics. This led Cousin, still holding by essential knowledge of
+being, to ground it in an analysis of consciousness,--in psychology.
+
+The absolute or infinite--the unconditioned ground and source of all
+reality--is yet apprehended by us as an immediate datum or reality; and
+it is apprehended in consciousness--under its condition, that, to wit,
+of distinguishing subject and object, knower and known. The doctrine of
+Cousin was criticized by Sir W. Hamilton in the _Edinburgh Review_ of
+1829, and it was animadverted upon about the same time by Schelling.
+Hamilton's objections are as follows. The correlation of the ideas of
+infinite and finite does not necessarily imply their correality, as
+Cousin supposes; on the contrary, it is a presumption that finite is
+simply positive and infinite negative of the same--that the finite and
+infinite are simply contradictory relatives. Of these "the positive
+alone is real, the negative is only an abstraction of the other, and in
+the highest generality even an abstraction of thought itself." A study
+of the few sentences under this head might have obviated the trifling
+criticism of Hamilton's objection which has been set afloat recently,
+that the denial of a knowledge of the absolute or infinite implies a
+foregone knowledge of it. How can you deny the reality of that which you
+do not know? The answer to this is that in the case of contradictory
+statements--A and not A--the latter is a mere negation of the former,
+and posits nothing; and the negation of a notion with positive
+attributes, as the finite, does not extend beyond abolishing the given
+attributes as an object of thought. The infinite or non-finite is not
+necessarily known, ere the finite is negated, or in order to negate it;
+all that needs be known is the finite itself; and the contradictory
+negation of it implies no positive. Non-organized may or may not
+correspond to a positive--i.e. an object or notion with qualities
+contradictory of the organized; but the mere sublation of the organized
+does not posit it, or suppose that it is known beforehand, or that
+anything exists corresponding to it. This is one among many flaws in the
+Hegelian dialectic, and it paralyzes the whole of the _Logic_. Secondly,
+the conditions of intelligence, which Cousin allows, necessarily exclude
+the possibility of knowledge of the absolute--they are held to be
+incompatible with its unity. Here Schelling and Hamilton argue that
+Cousin's absolute is a mere relative. Thirdly, it is objected that in
+order to deduce the conditioned, Cousin makes his absolute a relative;
+for he makes it an absolute cause, i.e. a cause existing absolutely
+under relation. As such it is necessarily inferior to the sum total of
+its effects, and dependent for reality on these--in a word, a mere
+potence or becoming. Further, as a theory of creation, it makes creation
+a necessity, and destroys the notion of the divine. Cousin made no reply
+to Hamilton's criticism beyond alleging that Hamilton's doctrine
+necessarily restricted human knowledge and certainty to psychology and
+logic, and destroyed metaphysics by introducing nescience and
+uncertainty into its highest sphere--theodicy.
+
+
+  Criticism of his philosophy. Impersonality of reason.
+
+The attempt to render the laws of reason or thought impersonal by
+professing to find them in the sphere of spontaneous apperception, and
+above reflective necessity, can hardly be regarded as successful. It may
+be that we first of all primitively or spontaneously affirm cause,
+substance, time, space, &c., in this way. But these are still in each
+instance given us as realized in a particular form. In no single act of
+affirmation of cause or substance, much less in such a primitive act, do
+we affirm the universality of their application. We might thus get
+particular instances or cases of these laws, but we could never get the
+laws themselves in their universality, far less absolute impersonality.
+And as they are not supposed to be mere generalizations from experience,
+no amount of individual instances of the application of any one of them
+by us would give it a true universality. The only sure test we have of
+their universality in our experience is the test of their reflective
+necessity. We thus after all fall back on reflection as our ground for
+their universal application; mere spontaneity of apprehension is futile;
+their universality is grounded in their necessity, not their necessity
+in their universality. How far and in what sense this ground of
+necessity renders them personal are of course questions still to be
+solved.
+
+But if these three correlative facts are immediately given, it seems to
+be thought possible by Cousin to vindicate them in reflective
+consciousness. He seeks to trace the steps which the reason has
+spontaneously and consciously, but irreflectively, followed. And here
+the question arises--Can we vindicate in a reflective or mediate process
+this spontaneous apprehension of reality?
+
+The self is found to be a cause of force, free in its action, on the
+ground that we are obliged to relate the volition of consciousness to
+the self as its cause, and its ultimate cause. It is not clear from the
+analysis whether the self is immediately observed as an acting or
+originating cause, or whether reflection working on the principle of
+causality is compelled to infer its existence and character. If self is
+actually so given, we do not need the principle of causality to infer
+it; if it is not so given, causality could never give us either the
+notion or the fact of self as a cause or force, far less as an ultimate
+one. All that it could do would be to warrant a cause of some sort, but
+not this or that reality as the cause. And further, the principle of
+causality, if fairly carried out, as universal and necessary, would not
+allow us to stop at personality or will as the ultimate cause of its
+effect--volition. Once applied to the facts at all, it would drive us
+beyond the first antecedent or term of antecedents of volition to a
+still further cause or ground--in fact, land us in an infinite regress
+of causes.
+
+The same criticism is even more emphatically applicable to the influence
+of a not-self, or world of forces, corresponding to our sensations, and
+the cause of them. Starting from sensation as our basis, causality could
+never give us this, even though it be allowed that sensation is
+impersonal to the extent of being independent of our volition. Causality
+might tell us that a cause there is of sensation somewhere and of some
+sort; but that this cause is a force or sum of forces, existing in
+space, independently of us, and corresponding to our sensations, it
+could never tell us, for the simple reason that such a notion is not
+supposed to exist in our consciousness. Causality cannot add to the
+number of our notions,--cannot add to the number of realities we know.
+All it can do is to necessitate us to think that a cause there is of a
+given change, but _what_ that cause is it cannot of itself inform us, or
+even suggest to us, beyond implying that it must be adequate to the
+effect. Sensation might arise, for aught we know, so far as causality
+leads us, not from a world of forces at all, but from a will like our
+own, though infinitely more powerful, acting upon us, partly furthering
+and partly thwarting us. And indeed such a supposition is, with the
+principle of causality at work, within the limits of probability, as we
+are already supposed to know such a reality--a will--in our own
+consciousness. When Cousin thus set himself to vindicate those points by
+reflection, he gave up the obvious advantage of his other position that
+the realities in question are given us in immediate and spontaneous
+apprehension. The same criticism applies equally to the inference of an
+absolute cause from the two limited forces which he names self and
+not-self. Immediate spontaneous apperception may seize this supreme
+reality; but to vindicate it by reflection as an inference on the
+principle of causality is impossible. This is a mere paralogism; we can
+never infer either absolute or infinite from relative or finite.
+
+The truth is that Cousin's doctrine of the spontaneous apperception of
+impersonal truth amounts to little more than a presentment in
+philosophical language of the ordinary convictions and beliefs of
+mankind. This is important as a preliminary stage, but philosophy
+properly begins when it attempts to co-ordinate or systematize those
+convictions in harmony, to conciliate apparent contradiction and
+opposition, as between the correlative notions of finite and infinite,
+the apparently conflicting notions of personality and infinitude, self
+and not-self; in a word, to reconcile the various sides of consciousness
+with each other. And whether the laws of our reason are the laws of all
+intelligence and being--whether and how we are to relate our
+fundamental, intellectual and moral conceptions to what is beyond our
+experience, or to an infinite being--are problems which Cousin cannot be
+regarded as having solved. These are in truth the outstanding problems
+of modern philosophy.
+
+
+  Volition.
+
+Cousin's doctrine of spontaneity in volition can hardly be said to be
+more successful than his impersonality of the reason through spontaneous
+apperception. Sudden, unpremeditated volition may be the earliest and
+the most artistic, but it is not the best. Volition is essentially a
+free choice between alternatives, and that is best which is most
+deliberate, because it is most rational. Aristotle touched this point in
+his distinction between [Greek: boulesis] and [Greek: proairesis]. The
+sudden and unpremeditated wish represented by the former is wholly
+inferior in character to the free choice of the latter, guided and
+illumined by intelligence. In this we can deliberately resolve upon what
+is in our power; in that we are subject to the vain impulse of wishing
+the impossible. Spontaneity is pleasing, sometimes beautiful, but it is
+not in this instance the highest quality of the thing to be obtained.
+That is to be found in a guiding and illumining reflective activity.
+
+
+  General estimate.
+
+Eclecticism is not open to the superficial objection of proceeding
+without a system or test in determining the complete or incomplete. But
+it is open to the objection of assuming that a particular analysis of
+consciousness has reached all the possible elements in humanity and in
+history, and all their combinations. It may be asked, Can history have
+that which is not in the individual consciousness? In a sense not; but
+our analysis may not give all that is there, and we ought not at once to
+impose that analysis or any formula on history. History is as likely to
+reveal to us in the first place true and original elements, and
+combinations of elements in man, as a study of consciousness. Besides,
+the tendency of applying a formula of this sort to history is to assume
+that the elements are developed in a certain regular or necessary order,
+whereas this may not at all be the case; but we may find at any epoch
+the whole mixed, either crossing or co-operative, as in the
+consciousness of the individual himself. Further, the question as to how
+these elements may possibly have grown up in the general consciousness
+of mankind is assumed to be non-existent or impossible.
+
+It was the tendency of the philosophy of Cousin to outline things and to
+fill up the details in an artistic and imaginative interest. This is
+necessarily the case, especially in the application to history of all
+formulas supposed to be derived either from an analysis of
+consciousness, or from an abstraction called pure thought. Cousin was
+observational and generalizing rather than analytic and discriminating.
+His search into principles was not profound, and his power of rigorous
+consecutive development was not remarkable. He left no distinctive
+permanent principle of philosophy. But he left very interesting
+psychological analyses, and several new, just, and true expositions of
+philosophical systems, especially that of Locke and the philosophers of
+Scotland. He was at the same time a man of impressive power, of rare and
+wide culture, and of lofty aim,--far above priestly conception and
+Philistine narrowness. He was familiar with the broad lines of nearly
+every system of philosophy ancient and modern. His eclecticism was the
+proof of a reverential sympathy with the struggles of human thought to
+attain to certainty in the highest problems of speculation. It was
+eminently a doctrine of comprehension and of toleration. In these
+respects it formed a marked and valuable contrast to the arrogance of
+absolutism, to the dogmatism of sensationalism, and to the doctrine of
+church authority, preached by the theological school of his day. His
+spirit, while it influenced the youth of France, saved them from these
+influences. As an educational reformer, as a man of letters and
+learning, who trod "the large and impartial ways of knowledge," and who
+swayed others to the same paths, as a thinker influential alike in the
+action and the reaction to which he led, Cousin stands out conspicuously
+among the memorable Frenchmen of the 19th century.
+
+Sir W. Hamilton (_Discussions_, p. 541), one of his most resolute
+opponents, described Cousin as "A profound and original thinker, a lucid
+and eloquent writer, a scholar equally at home in ancient and in modern
+learning, a philosopher superior to all prejudices of age or country,
+party or profession, and whose lofty eclecticism, seeking truth under
+every form of opinion, traces its unity even through the most hostile
+systems."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Barthelemy St Hilaire, _V. Cousin, sa vie et sa
+  correspondence_ (3 vols., Paris, 1895); H. Hoffding, _Hist. of Mod.
+  Phil._ ii. 311 (Eng. trans., 1900); C. E. Fuchs, _Die Philosophie
+  Victor Cousins_ (Berlin, 1847); J. Alaux, _La Philos. de M. Cousin_
+  (Paris, 1864); P. Janet, _Victor Cousin et son oeuvre_ (Paris,
+  1885); Jules Simon, _V. Cousin_ (1887); Adolphe Franck, _Moralistes et
+  philosophes_ (1872); J. P. Damiron, _Souvenirs de vingt ans
+  d'enseignement_ (Paris, 1859); H. Taine in _Les Philosophes_ (Paris,
+  1868), pp. 79-202.     (J. V.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Fragmens philosophiques--preface deuxieme._
+
+  [2] _Du vrai, du beau, et du bien_ (preface).
+
+
+
+
+COUSIN (Fr. _cousin_, Ital. _cugino_, Late Lat. _cosinus_, perhaps a
+popular and familiar abbreviation of _consobrinus_, which has the same
+sense in classical Latin), a term of relationship. Children of brothers
+and sisters are to each other first cousins, or cousins-german; the
+children of first cousins are to each other second cousins, and so on;
+the child of a first cousin is to the first cousin of his father or
+mother a first cousin once removed.
+
+The word cousin has also, since the 16th century, been used by
+sovereigns as an honorific style in addressing persons of exalted, but
+not equal sovereign, rank, the term "brother" being reserved as the
+style used by one sovereign in addressing another. Thus, in Great
+Britain, dukes, marquesses and earls are addressed by the sovereign in
+royal writs, &c., as "cousin." In France the kings thus addressed
+princes of the blood royal, cardinals and archbishops, dukes and peers,
+the marshals of France, the grand officers of the crown and certain
+foreign princes. In Spain the right to be thus addressed is a privilege
+of the grandees.
+
+
+
+
+COUSINS, SAMUEL (1801-1887), English mezzotint engraver, was born at
+Exeter on the 9th of May 1801. He was preeminently the interpreter of
+Sir Thomas Lawrence, his contemporary. During his apprenticeship to S.
+W. Reynolds he engraved many of the best amongst the three hundred and
+sixty little mezzotints illustrating the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds
+which his master issued in his own name. In the finest of his numerous
+transcripts of Lawrence, such as "Lady Acland and her Sons," "Pope Pius
+VII." and "Master Lambton," the distinguishing characteristics of the
+engraver's work, brilliancy and force of effect in a high key,
+corresponded exactly with similar qualities in the painter. After the
+introduction of steel for engraving purposes about the year 1823,
+Cousins and his contemporaries were compelled to work on it, because the
+soft copper previously used for mezzotint plates did not yield a
+sufficient number of fine impressions to enable the method to compete
+commercially against line engraving, from which much larger editions
+were obtainable. The painter-like quality which distinguished the
+18th-century mezzotints on copper was wanting in his later works,
+because the hardness of the steel on which they were engraved impaired
+freedom of execution and richness of tone, and so enhanced the labour of
+scraping that he accelerated the work by stipple, etching the details
+instead of scraping them out of the "ground" in the manner of his
+predecessors. To this "mixed style," previously used by Richard Earlom
+on copper, Cousins added heavy roulette and rocking-tool textures,
+tending to fortify the darks, when he found that the "burr" even on
+steel failed to yield enough fine impressions to meet the demand. The
+effect of his prints in this method after Reynolds and Millais was
+mechanical and out of harmony with the picturesque technique of these
+painters, but the phenomenal popularity which Cousins gained for his
+works at least kept alive and in favour a form of mezzotint engraving
+during a critical phase of its history. Abraham Raimbach, the line
+engraver, dated the decline of his own art in England from the
+appearance in 1837 of Cousins's print (in the "mixed style") after
+Landseer's "Bolton Abbey." Such plates as "Miss Peel," after Lawrence
+(published in 1833); "A Midsummer Night's Dream," after Landseer (1857);
+"The Order of Release" and "The First Minuet," after Millais (1856 and
+1868); "The Strawberry Girl" and "Lavinia, Countess Spencer," after
+Reynolds; and "Miss Rich," after Hogarth (1873-1877), represent various
+stages of Cousins's mixed method. It reached its final development in
+the plates after Millais's "Cherry Ripe" and "Pomona," published in 1881
+and 1882, when the invention of coating copper-plates with a film of
+steel to make them yield larger editions led to the revival of pure
+mezzotint on copper, which has since rendered obsolete the steel plate
+and the mixed style which it fostered. The fine draughtsmanship of
+Cousins was as apparent in his prints as in his original lead-pencil
+portraits exhibited in London in 1882. In 1885 he was elected a full
+member of the Royal Academy, to which institution he later gave in trust
+L15,000 to provide annuities for superannuated artists who had not been
+so successful as himself. One of the most important figures in the
+history of British engraving, he died in London, unmarried, on the 7th
+of May 1887.
+
+  See George Pycroft, M.R.C.S.E., _Memoir of Samuel Cousins, R.A.,
+  Member of the Legion of Honour_ (published for private circulation by
+  E. E. Leggatt, London, 1899); Algernon Graves, _Catalogue of the Works
+  of Samuel Cousins, R.A._ (published by H. Graves and Co., London,
+  1888); and Alfred Whitman, _Samuel Cousins_ (published by George Bell
+  & Sons, London, 1904), which contains a catalogue, good illustrations,
+  and much detail useful to the collector and dealer.     (G. P. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COUSTOU, the name of a famous family of French sculptors.
+
+NICOLAS COUSTOU (1658-1733) was the son of a wood-carver at Lyons, where
+he was born. At eighteen he removed to Paris, to study under C. A.
+Coysevox, his mother's brother, who presided over the recently-established
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture; and at three-and-twenty he gained the
+Colbert prize, which entitled him to four years' education at the French
+Academy at Rome. He afterwards became rector and chancellor of the Academy
+of Painting and Sculpture. From the year 1700 he was a most active
+collaborator with Coysevox at the palaces of Marly and Versailles. He was
+remarkable for his facility; and though he was specially influenced by
+Michelangelo and Algardi, his numerous works are among the most typical
+specimens of his age now extant. The most famous are "La Seine et la
+Marne," "La Saone," the "Berger Chasseur" in the gardens of the Tuileries,
+the bas-relief "Le Passage du Rhin" in the Louvre, and the "Descent from
+the Cross" placed behind the choir altar of Notre Dame at Paris.
+
+His younger brother, GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1677-1746), was a sculptor of
+still greater merit. He also gained the Colbert prize; but refusing to
+submit to the rules of the Academy, he soon left it, and for some time
+wandered houseless through the streets of Rome. At length he was
+befriended by the sculptor Legros, under whom he studied for some time.
+Returning to Paris, he was in 1704 admitted into the Academy of Painting
+and Sculpture, of which he afterwards became director; and, like his
+brother, he was employed by Louis XIV. His finest works are the famous
+group of the "Horse Tamers," originally at Marly, now in the Champs
+Elysees at Paris, the colossal group "The Ocean and the Mediterranean"
+at Marly, the bronze "Rhone" which formed part of the statue of Louis
+XIV. at Lyons, and the sculptures at the entrance of the Hotel des
+Invalides. Of these latter, the bas-relief representing Louis XIV.
+mounted and accompanied by Justice and Prudence was destroyed during the
+Revolution, but was restored in 1815 by Pierre Cartellier from Coustou's
+model; the bronze figures of Mars and Minerva, on either side of the
+doorway, were not interfered with.
+
+Another GUILLAUME COUSTOU (1716-1777), the son of Nicolas, also studied
+at Rome, as winner of the Colbert prize. While to a great extent a
+copyist of his predecessors, he was much affected by the bad taste of
+his time, and produced little or nothing of permanent value.
+
+  See Louis Gougenot, _Eloge de M. Coustou le jeune_ (1903); Arsene
+  Houssaye, _Histoire de l'art francais au XVIII^e siecle_ (1860); Lady
+  Dilke, _Gazette des beaux-arts_, vol. xxv. (1901) (2 articles).
+
+
+
+
+COUTANCES, WALTER OF (d. 1207), bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of
+Rouen, commenced his career in the chancery of Henry II., was elected
+bishop of Lincoln in 1182, and in 1184 obtained, with the king's help,
+the see of Rouen. Throughout his career he was much employed in
+diplomatic and administrative duties. He started with Richard I. for the
+Third Crusade, but was sent back from Messina to investigate the charges
+which the barons and the official class had brought against the
+chancellor, William Longchamp. There was no love lost between the two;
+and they were popularly supposed to be rivals for the see of Canterbury.
+The archbishop of Rouen sided with the barons and John, and sanctioned
+Longchamp's deposition--a step which was technically warranted by the
+powers which Richard had given, but by no means calculated to protect
+the interests of the crown. The Great Council now recognized the
+archbishop as chief justiciar, and he remained at the head of the
+government till 1193, when he was replaced by Hubert Walter. The
+archbishop did good service in the negotiations for Richard's release,
+but subsequently quarrelled with his master and laid Normandy under an
+interdict, because the border stronghold of Chateau Gaillard in the
+Vexin had been built on his land without his consent. After Richard's
+death the archbishop accepted John as the lawful heir of Normandy and
+consecrated him as duke. But his personal inclinations leaned to Arthur
+of Brittany, whom he was with difficulty dissuaded from supporting. The
+archbishop accepted the French conquest of Normandy with equanimity
+(1204), although he kept to his old allegiance while the issue of the
+struggle was in doubt. He did not long survive the conquest, and his
+later history is a blank.
+
+  See W. Stubbs's editions of _Benedictus Abbas_, _Hoveden_ and _Diceto_
+  (Rolls series); R. Howlett's edition of "William of Newburgh" and
+  "Richard of Devizes" in _Chronicles, &c., of the Reigns of Stephen,
+  Henry II. and Richard I._ (Rolls series). See also the preface to the
+  third volume of Stubbs's _Hoveden_, pp. lix.-xcviii.; J. H. Round's
+  _Commune of London_, and the French poem on _Guillaume le Marechal_
+  (ed. P. Meyer, _Soc. de l'Histoire de France_).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+COUTANCES, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement
+of the department of Manche, 7 m. E. of the English Channel and 58 m. S.
+of Cherbourg on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 6089. Coutances is
+beautifully situated on the right bank of the Soulle on a granitic
+eminence crowned by the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame. The date of
+this church has been much disputed, but while traces of Romanesque
+architecture survive, the building is, in the main, Gothic in style and
+dates from the first half of the 13th century. The slender turrets
+massed round the western towers and the octagonal central tower, which
+forms a lantern within, are conspicuous features of the church. In the
+interior, which comprises the nave with aisles, transept and choir with
+ambulatory and side chapels, there are fine rose-windows with stained
+glass of the 14th century, and other works of art. Of the other
+buildings of Coutances the church of St Pierre, in which Renaissance
+architecture is mingled with Gothic, and that of St Nicolas, of the 16th
+and 17th centuries, demand mention. There is an aqueduct of the 14th
+century to the west of the town. Coutances is a quiet town with winding
+streets and pleasant boulevards bordering it on the east; on the western
+slope of the hill there is a public garden. The town is the seat of a
+bishop, a court of assizes and a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce, a lycee for boys, a communal college and a
+training college for girls, and an ecclesiastical seminary.
+Leather-dressing and wool-spinning are carried on and there is trade in
+live-stock, in agricultural produce, especially eggs, and in marble.
+
+Coutances is the ancient _Cosedia_, which before the Roman conquest was
+one of the chief towns in the country of the Unelli. Towards the end of
+the 3rd century its name was changed to _Constantia_, in honour of the
+emperor Constantius Chlorus, who fortified it. It became the capital of
+the _pagus Constantinus_ (Cotentin), and in the middle ages was the seat
+of a viscount. It has been an episcopal see since the 5th century. In
+the 17th century it was the centre of the revolt of the _Nu-pieds_,
+caused by the imposition of the salt-tax (_gabelle_).
+
+  A good bibliography of general works and monographs on the archaeology
+  and the history of the town and diocese of Coutances is given in U.
+  Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources, &c., Topo-Bibliographie_
+  (Montbeliard, 1894-1899), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+COUTHON, GEORGES (1755-1794), French revolutionist, was born at Orcet, a
+village in the district of Clermont in Auvergne. He studied law, and was
+admitted advocate at Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for
+his integrity, gentle-heartedness and charitable disposition. His health
+was feeble and both legs were paralysed. In 1787 he was a member of the
+provincial assembly of Auvergne. On the outbreak of the Revolution
+Couthon, who was now a member of the municipality of Clermont-Ferrand,
+published his _L'Aristocrate converti_, in which he revealed himself as
+a liberal and a champion of constitutional monarchy. He became very
+popular, was appointed president of the tribunal of the town of Clermont
+in 1791, and in September of the same year was elected deputy to the
+Legislative Assembly. His views had meanwhile been embittered by the
+attempted flight of Louis XVI., and he distinguished himself now by his
+hostility to the king. A visit to Flanders for the sake of his health
+brought him into close intercourse and sympathy with Dumouriez. In
+September 1792 Couthon was elected member of the National Convention,
+and at the trial of the king voted for the sentence of death without
+appeal. He hesitated for a time as to which party he should join, but
+finally decided for that of Robespierre, with whom he had many opinions
+in common, especially in matters of religion. He was the first to demand
+the arrest of the proscribed Girondists. On the 30th of May 1793 he
+became a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and in August was
+sent as one of the commissioners of the Convention attached to the army
+before Lyons. Impatient at the slow progress made by the besieging
+force, he decreed a _levee en masse_ in the department of Puy-de-Dome,
+collected an army of 60,000 men, and himself led them to Lyons. When the
+city was taken, on the 9th of October 1793, although the Convention
+ordered its destruction, Couthon did not carry out the decree, and
+showed moderation in the punishment of the rebels. The Republican
+atrocities began only after Couthon was replaced, on the 3rd of November
+1793, by Collot d'Herbois. Couthon returned to Paris, and on the 21st of
+December was elected president of the Convention. He contributed to the
+prosecution of the Hebertists, and was responsible for the law of the
+22nd Prairial, which in the case of trials before the Revolutionary
+Tribunal deprived the accused of the aid of counsel or of witnesses or
+their defence, on the pretext of shortening the proceedings. During the
+crisis preceding the 9th Thermidor, Couthon showed considerable courage,
+giving up a journey to Auvergne in order, as he wrote, that he might
+either die or triumph with Robespierre and liberty. Arrested with
+Robespierre and Saint-Just, his colleagues in the triumvirate of the
+Terror, and subjected to indescribable sufferings and insults, he was
+taken to the scaffold on the same cart with Robespierre on the 28th of
+July 1794 (10th Thermidor).
+
+  See Fr. Mege, _Correspondance de Couthon ... suivie de "l'Aristocrate
+  converti," comedie en deux actes de Couthon_ (Paris, 1872); and
+  _Nouveaux Documents sur Georges Couthon_ (Clermont-Ferrand, 1890);
+  also F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la
+  Convention_ (Paris, 1885-1886), ii. 425-443.
+
+
+
+
+COUTTS, THOMAS (1735-1822), English banker and founder of the banking
+house of Coutts & Co., was born on the 7th of September 1735. He was the
+fourth son of John Coutts (1699-1751), who carried on business in
+Edinburgh as a corn factor and negotiator of bills of exchange, and who
+in 1742 was elected lord provost of the city. The family was originally
+of Montrose, but one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about 1696.
+Soon after the death of John Coutts the business was divided into two
+branches, one carried on in Edinburgh, the other in London. The banking
+business in London was in the hands of James and Thomas Coutts, sons of
+John Coutts. From the death of his brother in 1778, Thomas, as surviving
+partner, became sole head of the firm; and under his direction the
+banking house rose to the highest distinction. His ambition was to
+establish his character as a man of business and to make a fortune; and
+he lived to succeed in this aim and long to enjoy his reputation and
+wealth. A gentleman in manners, hospitable and benevolent, he counted
+amongst his friends some of the literary men and the best actors of his
+day. Of the enormous wealth which came into his hands he made munificent
+use. His private life was not without its romantic elements. Soon after
+his settlement in London he married Elizabeth Starkey, a young woman of
+humble origin, who was in attendance on the daughter of his brother
+James. They lived happily together, and had three daughters--Susan,
+married in 1796 to the 3rd earl of Guilford; Frances, married in 1800 to
+John, 1st marquess of Bute; and Sophia, married in 1793 to Sir Francis
+Burdett. Mrs Coutts dying in 1815, her husband soon after married the
+popular actress, Harriet Mellon; and to her he left the whole of his
+immense fortune. He died in London on the 24th of February 1822. His
+widow married in 1827 the 9th duke of St Albans, and died ten years
+later, having bequeathed her property to Angela, youngest daughter of
+Sir Francis Burdett, who then assumed the additional name and arms of
+Coutts. In 1871 this lady was created Baroness Burdett-Coutts (q.v.).
+
+  See C. Rogers, _Genealogical Memoirs of the Families of Colt and
+  Coutts_ (1879); and R. Richardson, _Coutts & Co._ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+COUTURE, THOMAS (1815-1879), French painter, was born at Senlis (Oise),
+and studied under Baron A. J. Gros and Paul Delaroche, winning a Prix de
+Rome in 1837. He began exhibiting historical and _genre_ pictures at the
+Salon in 1840, and obtained several medals. His masterpiece was his
+"Romans in the Decadence of the Empire" (1847), now in the Luxembourg;
+and his "Love of Money" (1844; at Toulouse), "Falconer" (1855), and
+"Damocles" (1872), are also good examples.
+
+
+
+
+COUVADE (literally a "brooding," from Fr. _couver_, to hatch, Lat.
+_cubare_, to lie down), a custom so called in Bearn, prevalent among
+several peoples in different parts of the world, requiring that the
+father, at and sometimes before the birth of his child, shall retire to
+bed and fast or abstain from certain kinds of food, receiving the
+attentions generally shown to women at their confinements. The existence
+of the custom in ancient classical times is testified to by Apollonius
+Rhodius, Diodorus (who refers to its existence among the Corsicans), and
+Strabo (who noticed it among the Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as by
+the Gascons, it has been said to be still observed, though the most
+recent researches entirely discredit this). Travellers, from the time of
+Marco Polo, who relates its observance in Chinese Turkestan, have found
+the custom to prevail in China, India, Borneo, Siam, Africa and the
+Americas. Even in Europe it cannot be said to have entirely disappeared.
+In certain of the Baltic provinces of Russia the husband, on the
+lying-in of the wife, takes to his bed and groans in mock pain. One
+writer believes he found traces of it in the little island of Marken in
+the Zuyder Zee. Even in rural England, notably in East Anglia, a
+curiously obstinate belief survives (the prevalence of which in earlier
+times is proved by references to it in Elizabethan drama) that the
+pregnancy of the woman affects the man, and the young husband who
+complains of a toothache is assailed by pleasantries as to his wife's
+condition. In Guiana the custom is observed in its most typical form.
+The woman works to within a few hours of the birth, but some days before
+her delivery the father leaves his occupations and abstains from certain
+kinds of animal food lest the child should suffer. Thus the flesh of the
+agouti is forbidden, lest the child should be lean, and that of the
+capibara or water-cavy, for fear he should inherit through his father's
+gluttony that creature's projecting teeth. A few hours before delivery
+the woman goes alone, or with one or two women-friends, into the forest,
+where the baby is born. She returns as soon as she can stand, to her
+work, and the man then takes to his hammock and becomes the invalid. He
+must do no work, must touch no weapons, is forbidden all meat and food,
+except at first a fermented liquor and after the twelfth day a weak
+gruel of _cassava_ meal. He must not even smoke, or wash himself, but is
+waited on hand and foot by the women. So far is the comedy carried that
+he whines and groans as if in actual pain. Six weeks after the birth of
+the child he is taken in hand by his relatives, who lacerate his skin
+and rub him with a decoction of the pepper-plant. A banquet is then held
+from which the patient is excluded, for he must not leave his bed till
+several days later; and for six months he must eat the flesh of neither
+fish nor bird. Almost identical ceremonies have been noticed among the
+natives of California and New Mexico; while in Greenland and Kamchatka
+the husband may not work for some time before and after his wife's
+confinement. Among the Larkas of Bengal a period of isolation and
+uncleanness, synchronous with that compulsory on the woman, is
+imperative for the man, on the conclusion of which the child's parentage
+is publicly proclaimed.
+
+No certain explanation can be offered for the custom. The most
+reasonable view is that adopted by E. B. Tylor, who traces in it the
+transition from the earlier matriarchal to the later patriarchal system
+of tribe-organization. Among primitive tribes, and probably in all ages,
+the former order of society, in which descent and inheritance are
+reckoned through the mother alone, as being the earliest form of family
+life, is and was very common, if not universal. The acknowledgment of a
+relationship between father and son is characteristic of the progress of
+society towards a true family life. It may well be that the Couvade
+arose in the father's desire to emphasize the bond of blood between
+himself and his child. It is a fact that in some countries the father
+has to purchase the child from its mother; and in the Roman ceremony of
+the husband raising the baby from the floor we may trace the savage idea
+that the male parent must formally proclaim his adoption of and
+responsibility for the offspring. Max Muller, in his _Chips from a
+German Workshop_, endeavoured to find an explanation in primitive
+"henpecking," asserting that the unfortunate husband was tyrannized over
+by "his female relatives and afterwards frightened into
+superstition,"--that, in fact, the whole fabric of ceremony is reared on
+nothing but masculine hysteria; but this theory can scarcely be taken
+seriously. The missionary, Joseph Francois Lafitau, suspected a
+psychological reason, assuming the custom to be a dim recollection of
+original sin, the isolation and fast types of repentance. The
+explanation of the American Indians is that if the father engaged in any
+hard or hazardous work, e.g. hunting, or was careless in his diet, the
+child would suffer and inherit the physical faults and peculiarities of
+the animals eaten. This belief that a person becomes possessed of the
+nature and form of the animal he eats is widespread, being as prevalent
+in the Old World as in the New, but it is insufficient to account for
+the minute ceremonial details of La Couvade as practised in many lands.
+It is far more likely that so universal a practice has no trivial
+beginnings, but is to be considered as a mile-stone marking a great
+transitional epoch in human progress.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--E. B. Tylor's _Early History of Man_ (1865; 2nd ed. p.
+  301); F. Max Muller, _Chips from a German Workshop_ (1868-1875), ii.
+  281; Lord Avebury, _Origin of Civilisation_ (1900); Brett's _Indian
+  Tribes of Guiana_; Johann Baptist von Spix and Karl F. P. von Martius,
+  _Travels in Brazil_ (1823-1831), ii. 281; J. F. Lafitau, _Moeurs des
+  sauvages americains_ (1st ed., 1724); W. Z. Ripley, _Races of Europe_
+  (1900); A. H. Keane's _Ethnology_ (1896), p. 368 and footnote; A.
+  Giraud-Teulon, _Les Origines du mariage et de la famille_ (Paris,
+  1884).
+
+
+
+
+COVE, a word mostly used in the sense of a small inlet or sheltered bay
+in a coast-line. In English dialect usage it is also applied to a cave
+or to a recess in a mountain-side. The word in O. Eng. is _cofa_, and
+cognate forms are found in the Ger. _Koben_, Norwegian _kove_, and in
+various forms in other Teutonic languages. It has no connexion with
+"alcove," recess in a room or building, which is derived through the
+Span. _alcoba_ from Arab. _al_, the, and _qubbah_, vault, arch, nor with
+"cup" or "coop," nor with "cave" (Lat. _cava_). The use of the word was
+first confined to a small chamber or cell or inner recess in a room or
+building. From this has come the particular application in architecture
+to any kind of concave moulding, the term being usually applied to the
+quadrantal curve rising from the cornice of a lofty room to the moulded
+borders of the horizontal ceiling. The term "coving" is given in
+half-timbered work to the curved soffit under a projecting window, or in
+the 18th century to that occasionally found carrying the gutter of a
+house. In the Musee Plantin at Antwerp the hearth of the fireplace of
+the upper floor is carved on coving, which forms part of the design of
+the chimney-piece in the room below. The slang use of "cove" for any
+male person, like a "fellow," "chap," &c., is found in the form "cofe"
+in T. Harman's _Caveat for Cursetors_ (1587) and other early quotations.
+This seems to be identical with the Scots word "cofe," a pedlar, hawker,
+which is formed from "coff," to sell, purchase, cognate with the Ger.
+_kaufen_, to buy, and the native English "cheap." The word "cove,"
+therefore, is in ultimate origin the same as "chap," short for
+"chapman," a pedlar.
+
+
+
+
+COVELLITE, a mineral species consisting of cupric sulphide, CuS,
+crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It is of less frequent occurrence
+in nature than copper-glance, the orthorhombic cuprous sulphide.
+Crystals are very rare, the mineral being usually found as compact and
+earthy masses or as a blue coating on other copper sulphides. Hardness
+1-1/2-2; specific gravity 4.6. The dark indigo-blue colour is a
+characteristic feature, and the mineral was early known as indigo-copper
+(Ger. _Kupferindig_). The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, who
+in 1839 observed crystals of cupric sulphide encrusting Vesuvian lava,
+the mineral having been formed here by the interaction of hydrogen
+sulphide and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic
+products. Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing
+veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of other copper
+sulphides, namely chalcopyrite, copper-glance and erubescite. It is
+found in many copper mines; localities which may be specially mentioned
+are Sangerhausen in Prussian Saxony, Butte in Montana, and Chile; in the
+Medicine Bow Mountains of Wyoming a platiniferous covellite is mined,
+the platinum being present as sperrylite (platinum arsenide).
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later _convenant_, from _convenir_, to agree,
+Lat. _convenire_), a mutual agreement of two or more parties, or an
+undertaking made by one of the parties. In the Bible the Hebrew word
+[Hebrew: briia], _b[)e]r[=i]th_, is used widely for many kinds of
+agreements; it is then applied to a contract between two persons or to a
+treaty between two nations, such as the covenant made between Abimelech
+and Isaac, representing a treaty between the Israelites and the
+Philistines (Gen. xxvi. 26, seq.); more particularly to an engagement
+made between God and men, or such agreements as, by the observance of a
+religious rite, regarded God as a party to the engagement. Two
+suggestions have been made for the derivation of _b[)e]r[=i]th_: (1)
+tracing the word from a root "to cut," and the reference is to the
+primitive rite of cutting victims into parts, between which the parties
+to an agreement passed, cf. the Greek [Greek: horkia temnein], and the
+account (Gen. xv. 17) of the covenant between God and Abraham, where "a
+smoking furnace and burning lamp passed between the pieces" of the
+victims Abraham had sacrificed; (2) connecting it with an
+Assyrio-Babylonian _biritu_, fetter, alliance. _B[)e]r[=i]th_ was
+translated in the Septuagint by [Greek: diatheke], which in classical
+Greek had the meaning of "will"; hence the Vulgate, in the Psalms and
+the New Testament, translates the word by _testamentum_, but elsewhere
+in the Old Testament by _foedus_ or _pactum_; similarly Wycliffe's
+version gives "testament" and "covenant" respectively. The books of
+Scripture dealing with the old or Mosaic, and new or Christian
+dispensation are sometimes known as the Books of the Old and the New
+Covenant. The word appears in the system of theology developed by
+Johannes Cocceius (q.v.), and known as the "Covenant" or "Federal"
+Theology, based on the two Covenants of Works or Life made by God with
+Adam, on condition of obedience, and of grace or redemption, made with
+Christ. In Scottish ecclesiastical history, covenant appears in the two
+agreements signed by the members of the Scottish Church in defence of
+their religious and ecclesiastical systems (see COVENANTERS).
+
+
+
+
+COVENANT, in law, is the English equivalent of the Lat. _conventio_,
+which, although not technical, was the most general word in Roman law
+for "agreement." It was frequently used along with _pactum_, also a
+general term, but applied especially to agreements to settle a question
+without carrying it before the courts of law.
+
+The word "covenant" has been used in a variety of senses in English law.
+
+1. In its strict sense, covenant means an agreement _under seal_, that
+something has or has not already been done, or shall or shall not be
+done hereafter (Shep. _Touchstone_, 160, 162). It is most commonly used
+with reference to sales or leases of land, but is sometimes applied to
+any promise or stipulation, whether under seal or not. The person who
+makes, and is bound to perform, the promise or stipulation is the
+covenantor: the person in whose favour it is made is the covenantee.
+
+2. Covenants have been subdivided into numerous classes, only a few of
+which need to be described. It is unnecessary to do more than mention
+affirmative and negative covenants, joint or several, alternative or
+disjunctive covenants, dependent or independent covenants. As to
+collateral covenants, covenants "running with the land," and covenants
+in leases (including "usual," "proper" and "restrictive" covenants), see
+LANDLORD and TENANT. But there are other classes as to which something
+must be said.
+
+A covenant is said to be _express_ when it is created by the express
+words of the parties to the deed declaratory of their intention. It is
+not indispensable that the word "covenant" should be used. Any word
+which clearly indicates the intention of the parties to covenant will
+suffice. An _implied_ covenant, or _covenant in law_, "depends for its
+existence on the intendment and construction of law. There are some
+words which of themselves do not import an express covenant, yet, being
+made use of in certain contracts, have a similar operation and are
+called covenants in law; and they are as effectually binding on the
+parties as if expressed in the most unequivocal terms" (Platt on
+_Covenants_, p. 40). Thus, the word "demise," used in a lease of deed,
+raises the implication of a covenant both for "quiet enjoyment" and for
+title to let; and it has been judicially suggested that a covenant for
+quiet enjoyment may be implied from any word or words of like import
+(_Budd-Scott_ v. _Daniell_, 1902, 2 K.B. p. 359). The Conveyancing Act
+1881 provides (S 7) that in a conveyance for valuable consideration,
+other than a mortgage, there shall be implied, as against the person who
+conveys and is expressed to convey as "beneficial owner," certain
+_qualified_ covenants--i.e. covenants extending only to the acts or
+omissions of the vendor, persons through whom he derives title otherwise
+than by purchase for value, and persons claiming under them--for "right
+to convey," "quiet enjoyment," "freedom from incumbrances" and "further
+assurance." Of these statutory covenants for title the only one which
+requires explanation is the covenant for further assurance. It imports
+an agreement on the part of the covenantor to do such reasonable acts,
+in addition to those already performed, as may be necessary for the
+completion of the transfer made (or intended to be made) at the
+requirements of the covenantee (Platt on _Covenants_, p. 341). All these
+statutory implied covenants "run with the land" (see LANDLORD and
+TENANT). Where a mortgagor conveys, and is expressed to convey, as
+"beneficial owner," there are implied _absolute_ covenants--i.e.
+covenants amounting to a warranty against and for the acts and omissions
+of the whole world--that he has a right to convey, that the mortgagee
+shall have quiet enjoyment of the property after default, free from
+incumbrances and for further assurance. Special provisions as to implied
+covenants by the lessor in leases are made in England by S 7 (B) of the
+Conveyancing Act 1881 and in Ireland by the Land Act (Ireland) 1860, S
+41. The distinction between _real_ and _personal_ covenants is that the
+former do, while the latter do not, run with the land. An _inherent_
+covenant is another name for a _real_ covenant (Shep. _Touchstone_, 176;
+Platt, 60). When a covenant relates to an act already done, it is
+usually termed a covenant _executed_; where the performance is future,
+the covenant is termed _executory_. The _covenant for seisin_ was an
+assurance to the grantee that the grantor had the estate which he
+purported to convey. In England it is now included in the covenant for
+right to convey; but is still in separate use in several states in
+America. The _covenant to stand seised to uses_ was an assurance by
+means of which, under the Statute of Uses [1536] (see USES), a
+conveyance of an estate might be effected. When such a covenant is made,
+the legal estate in the land passes at once to the covenantee under the
+statute. The consideration for the covenant must be relationship by
+blood or marriage. It is still occasionally though very rarely employed.
+The _covenant not_ to _sue_ belongs to the law of contract and needs no
+explanation.
+
+  Most of the classes of covenants above mentioned are in use in the
+  United States. In New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Wisconsin and
+  Wyoming the implication of covenants for title has been, with certain
+  exceptions, prohibited by statute. In Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware,
+  Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico,
+  Pennsylvania and Texas the words _grant_, _bargain_ and _sell_, in
+  conveyances in fee, unless specially restricted, amount to qualified
+  covenants that the grantor was seised in fee, free from incumbrances,
+  and for quiet enjoyment (4 Kent, _Commentaries_, S 473; Bouvier, _Law
+  Dictionary_, s.v. Covenant). In some of the states a _covenant of
+  non-claim_, or of _warranty_, an assurance by the grantor that neither
+  he nor his heirs, nor any other person shall claim any title in the
+  premises conveyed, is in general use.
+
+3. An _action of covenant_ lay for breaking covenant. As to the history
+of this action see Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, ii.
+106; and Holmes, _The Common Law_, p. 272. There was also a _writ of
+covenant_. But this remedy had fallen into disuse before 1830 (see Platt
+on _Covenants_, p. 543), and was abolished by the Common Law Procedure
+Acts. Since the Judicature Acts, an action on a covenant follows the
+same course as, and is indistinguishable from, any ordinary action for
+breach of contract. The remedy is by damages, decree of specific
+performance or injunction to prevent the breach.
+
+  The term "covenant" is unknown to Scots law. But its place is filled
+  to some extent by the doctrine of "warrandice." Many of the British
+  colonies have legislated, as to the implication of covenants for
+  title, on the lines of the English Conveyancing Act 1881; e.g.
+  Tasmania, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act 1884 (47 Vict. No. 10).
+
+  As to covenants in restraint of trade see RESTRAINT.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the authorities cited in the text see:
+  _English Law_; Goodeve, _Law of Real Property_ (5th ed., London,
+  1906); C. Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, 1901);
+  Hamilton, _Law of Covenants_ (London); Fawcett, _Law of Landlord and
+  Tenant_ (3rd ed., London, 1905). _American Law: Rawle, Law of
+  Covenants for Title_ (Boston, 1887); _Encyclopaedia of American Law_
+  (3rd ed., 1890), vol. viii., tit. "Covenants."     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COVENANTERS, the name given to a party which, originating in the
+Reformation movement, played an important part in the history of
+Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England, during the 17th
+century. The Covenanters were thus named because in a series of _bands_
+or _covenants_ they bound themselves to maintain the Presbyterian
+doctrine and polity as the sole religion of their country. The first
+"godly band" is dated December 1557; but more important is the covenant
+of 1581, drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts
+which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold upon
+Scotland, and called the King's Confession or National Covenant. Based
+upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the pope
+and the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church in no measured terms. It
+was adopted by the General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his
+household, and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was
+again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. In 1637 Scotland was in a state of
+turmoil. Charles I. and Archbishop Laud had just met with a reverse in
+their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the Scots; and fearing
+further measures on the part of the king, it occurred to Archibald
+Johnston, Lord Warriston, to revive the National Covenant of 1581.
+Additional matter intended to suit the document to the special
+circumstances of the time was added, and the covenant was adopted and
+signed by a large gathering in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinburgh, on the
+28th of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the
+country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by oath to
+maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580, and to
+reject all innovations introduced since that time, while professed
+expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The General Assembly of
+1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the covenant was
+adopted by the parliament, and its subscription was required from all
+citizens. Before this date the Covenanters were usually referred to as
+_Supplicants_, but from about this time the former designation began to
+prevail.
+
+A further development took place in 1643. The leaders of the English
+parliament, worsted in the Civil War, implored the aid of the Scots,
+which was promised on condition that the Scottish system of church
+government was adopted in England. After some haggling a document called
+the Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up. This was practically a
+treaty between England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed
+religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and Ireland
+"according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed
+churches," and the extirpation of popery and prelacy. It was subscribed
+by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the
+English parliament, and with some slight modifications by the
+Westminster Assembly of Divines. Charles I. refused to accept it when he
+surrendered himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important
+concessions in this direction in the "Engagement" made with the Scots in
+December 1647. Charles II. before landing in Scotland in June 1650
+declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants, and this
+was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone in the following
+January.
+
+From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters were the dominant party in Scotland,
+directing her policy both at home and abroad. Their power, however,
+which had been seriously weakened by Cromwell's victory at Dunbar in
+September 1651, was practically destroyed when Charles II. was restored
+nine years later. Firmly seated upon the throne Charles renounced the
+covenants, which in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be
+abjured by all persons holding public offices. Episcopacy was restored,
+the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who refused to
+recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled from their livings.
+Gathering around them many of the Covenanters who clung tenaciously to
+their standards of faith, these ministers began to preach in the fields,
+and a period of persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality
+began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the
+Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle soon assumed
+the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the crown under John
+Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent against them, and although
+the insurgents gained isolated successes, in general they were worsted
+and were treated with great barbarity. They maintained, however, their
+cherished covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in
+1680 the more extreme members of the party signed a document known as
+the "Sanquhar Declaration," and were afterwards called Cameronians from
+the name of their leader, Richard Cameron (q.v.). They renounced their
+allegiance to King James and were greatly disappointed when their
+standards found no place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing
+to hold the belief that the covenants should be made obligatory upon the
+entire nation. The Covenanters had a martyrology of their own, and the
+halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and their
+sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the time of their
+political predominance, is part of the general history of Scotland
+(q.v.).
+
+  The texts of the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant
+  are printed in S. R. Gardiner's _Constitutional Documents of the
+  Puritan Revolution_ (Oxford, 1899). See also J. H. Burton, _History of
+  Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1905); A. Lang, _History of Scotland_
+  (Edinburgh, 1900); S. R. Gardiner, _History of England_ (London,
+  1883-1884); G. Grub, _Ecclesiastical History of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
+  1861); J. Macpherson, _History of the Church in Scotland_ (Paisley,
+  1901); and J. K. Hewison, _The Covenanters_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+COVENT GARDEN, formerly an open space north of the Strand, London,
+England, now occupied by the principal flower, fruit and vegetable
+market in the metropolis. This was originally the so-called "convent
+garden" belonging to the abbey of St Peter, Westminster. In the first
+half of the 17th century the site of the garden was laid out as a square
+by Inigo Jones, with a piazza on two sides; and as early as 1656 it was
+becoming a market place for the same commodities as are now sold in it.
+Covent Garden Theatre (1858) is the chief seat of grand opera in London.
+The site has carried a theatre since 1733, but earlier buildings were
+burnt in 1809 and 1856.
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, SIR JOHN (d. 1682), son of John Coventry, the second son of
+Thomas, Lord Keeper Coventry, was returned to the Long Parliament in
+1640 as member for Evesham. During the Civil War he served for the king,
+and at the Restoration was created a knight. In 1667, and in the
+following parliaments of 1678, 1679 and 1681, he was elected for
+Weymouth, and opposed the government. On the 21st of December 1670,
+owing to a jest made by Coventry in the House of Commons on the subject
+of the king's amours, Sir Thomas Sandys, an officer of the guards, with
+other accomplices, by the order of Monmouth, and (it was said) with the
+approval of the king himself, waylaid him as he was returning home to
+Suffolk Street and slit his nose to the bone. The outrage created an
+extraordinary sensation, and in consequence a measure known as the
+"Coventry Act" was passed, declaring assaults accompanied by personal
+mutilation a felony without benefit of clergy. Sir John died in 1682.
+Sir William Coventry, his uncle, speaks slightingly of him, ridicules
+his vanity and wishes him out of the House of Commons to be "out of
+harm's way."
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY, 1ST BARON (1578-1640), lord keeper of
+England, eldest son of Sir Thomas Coventry, judge of the common pleas (a
+descendant of John Coventry, lord mayor of London in the reign of Henry
+VI.), and of Margaret Jeffreys of Earls Croome, or Croome D'Abitot, in
+Worcestershire, was born in 1578. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in
+1592, and the Inner Temple in 1594, becoming bencher of the society in
+1614, reader in 1616, and holding the office of treasurer from 1617 till
+1621. His exceptional legal abilities were rewarded early with official
+promotion. On the 16th of November 1616 he was made recorder of London
+in spite of Bacon's opposition, who, although allowing him to be "a well
+trained and an honest man," objected that he was "bred by my Lord Coke
+and seasoned in his ways."[1] On the 14th of March 1617 he was appointed
+solicitor-general and was knighted; was returned for Droitwich to the
+parliament of 1621; and on the 11th of January in that year was made
+attorney-general. He took part in the proceedings against Bacon for
+corruption, and was manager for the Commons in the impeachment of Edward
+Floyd for insulting the elector and electress palatine.
+
+On the 1st of November 1625 he was made lord keeper of the great seal;
+in this capacity he delivered the king's reprimand to the Commons on the
+29th of March 1626, when he declared that "liberty of counsel" alone
+belonged to them and not "liberty of control." On the 10th of April 1628
+he received the title of Baron Coventry of Aylesborough in
+Worcestershire. At the opening of parliament in 1628 he threatened that
+the king would use his prerogative if further thwarted in the matter of
+supplies. In the subsequent debates, however, while strongly supporting
+the king's prerogative against the claims of the parliament to executive
+power, he favoured a policy of moderation and compromise. He defended
+the right of the council to commit to prison without showing cause, and
+to issue "general" warrants; though he allowed it should only be
+employed in special circumstances, disapproved of the king's sudden
+dissolution of parliament, and agreed to the liberation on bail of the
+seven imprisoned members on condition of their giving security for their
+good behaviour. He showed less subservience than Bacon to Buckingham,
+and his resistance to the latter's pretensions to the office of lord
+high constable greatly incensed the duke. Buckingham taunted Coventry
+with having gained his place by his favour; to which the lord keeper
+replied, "Did I conceive I had my place by your favour, I would
+presently unmake myself by returning the seal to his Majesty."[2] After
+this defiance Buckingham's sudden death alone probably prevented
+Coventry's displacement. He passed sentence of death on Lord Audley in
+1631, drafted and enforced the proclamation of the 20th of June 1632
+ordering the country gentlemen to leave London, and in 1634 joined in
+Laud's attack on the earl of Portland for peculation. The same year, in
+an address to the judges, he supported the proposed levy of ship-money
+on the inland as well as the maritime counties on the plea of the
+necessity of effectually arming, "so that they might not be enforced to
+fight," "the wooden walls" being in his opinion "the best walls of this
+kingdom."[3] In the Star Chamber Coventry was one of Lilburne's judges
+in 1637, but he generally showed conspicuous moderation, inclining to
+leniency in the cases of Richard Chambers in 1629 for seditious
+speeches, and of Henry Sherfield in 1632 for breaking painted glass in a
+church. He prevented also the hanging of men for resistance to
+impressment, and pointed out its illegality, since the men were not
+subject to martial law. While contributing thirty horse to the Scottish
+expedition in 1638, and lending the king L10,000 in 1639, he gave no
+support to the forced loan levied upon the city in the latter year. He
+died on the 14th of January 1640.
+
+Lord Coventry held the great seal for nearly fifteen years, and was
+enabled to collect a large fortune. He was an able judge, and he issued
+some important orders in chancery, probably alluded to by Wood, who
+ascribes to him a tract on "The Fees of all law Officers."[4] Whitelocke
+accuses him of mediocrity,[4] but his contemporaries in general have
+united in extolling his judicial ability, his quick despatch of business
+and his sound and sterling character. Clarendon in particular praises
+his statesmanship, and compares his capacity with Lord Strafford's,
+adding, however, that he seldom spoke in the council except on legal
+business and had little influence in political affairs; to the latter
+circumstance he owed his exceptional popularity. He describes him as
+having "in the plain way of speaking and delivery a strange power of
+making himself believed," as a man of "not only firm gravity but a
+severity and even some morosity," as "rather exceedingly liked than
+passionately loved."
+
+Lord Coventry married (1) Sarah, daughter of Sir Edward Sebright of
+Besford in Worcestershire, by whom besides a daughter he had one son,
+Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of
+John Aldersley of Spurstow, Cheshire, and widow of William Pitchford, by
+whom he had four sons, John, Francis, Henry and Sir William Coventry,
+the statesman.
+
+Thomas Coventry, 5th baron (d. 1699), was created an earl in 1697 with a
+special limitation, on failure of his own male issue, to that of Walter,
+youngest brother of the lord keeper, from whom the present earl of
+Coventry is descended.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Spedding's _Bacon_. vi. 97.
+
+  [2] Hacket's _Life of Bishop Williams_, ii. 19.
+
+  [3] Rushworth (1680), part ii. vol. i. 294.
+
+  [4] _Ath. Oxon._ ii. 650.
+
+  [5] There is an adverse opinion also expressed in Pepys's _Diary_,
+    August 26, 1666, probably based on little real knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1628-1686), English statesman, son of the lord
+keeper, Thomas, Lord Coventry, by his second wife Elizabeth Aldersley,
+was born about 1628. He matriculated at Queen's College, Oxford, at the
+age of fourteen. Owing to the outbreak of the Civil War he was obliged
+to quit his studies, but according to Sir John Bramston "he had a good
+tutor who made him a scholar, and he travelled and got the French
+language in good perfection." "He was young whilst the war continued,"
+wrote Clarendon, "yet he had put himself before the end of it into the
+army and had the command of a foot company and shortly after travelled
+into France." Here he remained till all hopes of obtaining foreign
+assistance and of raising a new army had to be laid aside, when he
+returned to England and kept aloof from the various royalist intrigues.
+When, however, a new prospect of a restoration appeared in 1660,
+Coventry hastened to Breda, was appointed secretary to James, duke of
+York, lord high admiral of England, and headed the royal procession when
+Charles entered London in triumph.
+
+He was returned to the Restoration parliament of 1661 for Great
+Yarmouth, became commissioner for the navy in May 1662 and in 1663 was
+made D.C.L. at Oxford. His great talents were very soon recognized in
+parliament, and his influence as an official was considerable. His
+appointment was rather that of secretary to the admiralty than of
+personal assistant to the duke of York,[1] and was one of large gains.
+Wood states that he collected a fortune of L60,000. Accusations of
+corruption in his naval administration, and especially during the Dutch
+war, were brought against him, but there is nothing to show that he ever
+transgressed the limits sanctioned by usage and custom in obtaining his
+emoluments. Pepys in his diary invariably testifies to the excellence of
+his administration and to his zeal for reform and economy. His ability
+and energy, however, did little to avert the naval collapse, owing
+chiefly to financial mismanagement and to the ill-advised appointments
+to command. Coventry denied all responsibility for the Dutch War in
+1665, which Clarendon sought to place upon his shoulders, and his
+repudiation is supported by Pepys; it was, moreover, contrary to his
+well-known political opinion. The war greatly increased his influence,
+and shortly after the victory off Lowestoft, on the 3rd of June 1665, he
+was knighted and made a privy councillor (26th of June) and was
+subsequently admitted to the committee on foreign affairs. In 1667 he
+was appointed to the board of treasury to effect financial reforms. "I
+perceive," writes Pepys on the 23rd of August 1667, "Sir William
+Coventry is the man and nothing done till he comes," and on his removal
+in 1669 the duke of Albemarle, no friendly or partial critic, declares
+that "nothing now would be well done." His appointment, however, came
+too late to ward off the naval disaster at Chatham the same year and the
+national bankruptcy in 1672.
+
+Meanwhile Coventry's rising influence had been from the first the cause
+of increasing jealousy to the old chancellor Clarendon, who especially
+disliked and discouraged the younger generation. Coventry resented this
+repression and thought ill of the conduct of the administration. He
+became the chief mover in the successful attack made upon Clarendon, but
+refused to take any part in his impeachment. Two days after Clarendon's
+resignation (on the 31st of August), Coventry announced his intention of
+leaving the duke's service and of terminating his connexion with the
+navy.[2] As the principal agent in effecting Clarendon's fall he
+naturally acquired new power and influence, and the general opinion
+pointed to him as his successor as first minister of the crown. Personal
+merit, patriotism and conspicuous ability, however, were poor passports
+to place and power in Charles II.'s reign. Coventry retained merely his
+appointment at the treasury, and the brilliant but unscrupulous and
+incapable duke of Buckingham, a favourite of the king, succeeded to Lord
+Clarendon. The relations between the two men soon became unfriendly.
+Buckingham ridiculed Sir William's steady attention to business, and was
+annoyed at his opposition to Clarendon's impeachment. Coventry rapidly
+lost influence, was excluded from the cabinet council, and six months
+after Clarendon's fall complains he has scarcely a friend at court.
+Finally, in March 1669, Buckingham having written a play in which Sir
+William was ridiculed, the latter sent him a challenge. Notice of the
+challenge reached the authorities through the duke's second, and Sir
+William was imprisoned in the Tower on the 3rd of March and subsequently
+expelled from the privy council. He was superseded in the treasury on
+the 11th of March by Buckingham's favourite, Sir Thomas Osborne,
+afterwards earl of Danby and duke of Leeds, and was at last released
+from the Tower on the 21st in disgrace. The real cause of his dismissal
+was clearly the final adoption by Charles of the policy of subservience
+to France and desertion of Holland and Protestant interests. Six weeks
+before Coventry's fall, the conference between Charles, James,
+Arlington, Clifford and Arundel had taken place, which resulted a year
+and a half later in the disgraceful treaty of Dover. To such schemes Sir
+William, with his steady hostility to France and active devotion to
+Protestantism, was doubtless a formidable opponent. He now withdrew
+definitely from official life, still retaining, however, his ascendancy
+in the House of Commons, and leading the party which condemned and
+criticized the reactionary and fatal policy of the government, his
+credit and reputation being rather enhanced than diminished by his
+dismissal.[3]
+
+In 1673 was published a pamphlet which went through five editions the
+same year, entitled _England's appeal from the Private Cabal at
+Whitehall to the Great Council of the Nation ... by a true Lover of his
+Country_, an anonymous work universally ascribed to Sir William, which
+forcibly reflects his opinions on the French entanglement. In the great
+matter of the Indulgence, while refusing to discuss the limits of
+prerogative and liberty, he argued that the dispensing power of the
+crown could not be valid during the session of parliament, and
+criticized the manner of the declaration while approving its ostensible
+object. He supported the Test Act, but maintained a statesmanlike
+moderation amidst the tide of indignation rising against the government,
+and refused to take part in the personal attacks upon ministers, drawing
+upon himself the same unpopularity as his nephew Halifax incurred later.
+In the same year he warmly denounced the alliance with France. During
+the summer of 1674 he was again received at court. In 1675 he supported
+the bill to exclude Roman Catholics from both Houses, and also the
+measure to close the House of Commons to placemen; and he showed great
+activity in his opposition to the French connexion, especially
+stigmatizing the encouragement given by the government to the levying of
+troops for the French service. In May 1677 he voted for the Dutch
+alliance. Like most of his contemporaries he accepted the story of the
+popish plot in 1678. Coventry several times refused the highest court
+appointments, and he was not included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled
+council in April 1679. In the exclusion question he favoured at first a
+policy of limitations, and on his nephew Halifax, who on his retirement
+became the leader of the moderate party, he enjoined prudence and
+patience, and greatly regretted the violence of the opposition which
+eventually excited a reaction and ruined everything. He refused to stand
+for the new parliament, and retired to his country residence at Minster
+Lovell near Witney, in Oxfordshire. He died unmarried on the 23rd of
+June 1686, at Somerhill near Tunbridge Wells, where he had gone to take
+the waters, and was buried at Penshurst, where a monument was erected to
+his memory. In his will he ordered his funeral to be at small expense,
+and left L2000 to the French Protestant refugees in England, besides
+L3000 for the liberation of captives in Algiers. He had shortly before
+his death already paid for the liberation of sixty slaves. He was much
+beloved and respected in his family circle, his nephew, Henry Savile,
+alluding to him in affectionate terms as "our dearest uncle" and
+"incomparable friend."
+
+Though Sir William Coventry never filled that place in the national
+administration to which his merit and exceptional ability clearly
+entitled him, his public life together with his correspondence are
+sufficient to distinguish him from amongst his contemporaries as a
+statesman of the first rank. Lord Halifax obviously derived from his
+honoured mentor those principles of government which, by means of his
+own brilliant intellectual gifts, originality and imaginative insight,
+gained further force and influence. Halifax owed to him his interest in
+the navy and his grasp of the necessity to a country of a powerful
+maritime force. He drew his antagonism to France, his religious
+tolerance, wide religious views but firm Protestantism doubtless from
+the same source. Sir William was the original "Trimmer." Writing to his
+nephew Viscount Weymouth, while denying the authorship of _The Character
+of a Trimmer_, he says:--"I have not been ashamed to own myself to be a
+trimmer ... one who would sit upright and not overturn the boat by
+swaying too much to either side." He shared the Trimmer's dislike of
+party, urging Halifax in the exclusion contest "not to be thrust by the
+opposition of his enemies into another party, but that he keep upon a
+national bottom which at length will prevail." His prudence is expressed
+in his "perpetual unwillingness to do things which I cannot undo." "A
+singular independence of spirit, a breadth of mind which refused to be
+contracted by party formulas, a sanity which was proof against the
+contagion of national delirium, were equally characteristic of uncle and
+nephew."[4] Sir William Coventry's conceptions of statesmanship, under
+the guiding hand of his nephew, largely inspired the future revolution
+settlement, and continued to be an essential condition of English
+political growth and progress.
+
+Besides the tract already mentioned Coventry was the author of _A Letter
+to Dr Burnet giving an Account of Cardinal Pool's Secret Powers ..._
+(1685). _The Character of a Trimmer_, often ascribed to him, is now
+known to have been written by Lord Halifax. "Notes concerning the Poor,"
+and an essay "concerning the decay of rents and the remedy," are among
+the Malet Papers (_Hist. MSS. Comm._ Ser. 5th Rep. app. 320 (a)) and
+_Add. MSS._ Brit. Mus. (cal. 1882-1887); an "Essay concerning France"
+(4th Rep. app. 229 (b)) and a "Discourse on the Management of the Navy"
+(230b) are among the MSS. of the marquess of Bath, also a catalogue of
+his library (233(a)).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--No adequate life of Sir William Coventry has been
+  written; the most satisfactory appreciation of his character and
+  abilities is to be found in the several passages relating to him in
+  the _Life of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax_, by Miss A. C.
+  Foxcroft (1898); see also _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 3 and 4 Rep. (Longleat
+  Collection), 5 Rep. (_Malet Collection_ and see Index) now in the
+  Brit. Mus. add. Cal. (1882-1887), Some of his papers being also at
+  Devonshire House; _MSS. of Marquis of Ormond_, iii. of _J. M.
+  Heathcote and Miscellaneous Collections_; Clarendon's _Life and
+  Continuation_ (Oxford, 1857); _Calendar of Clarendon Papers; Burnet's
+  Hist, of His Own Times_ (Oxford, 1823); _Hallam's Constitutional
+  Hist_. (1854), chap. xi.; John Evelyn's _Memoirs_; Pepys's _Diary_ and
+  _Pepysiana_ (ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1903); _Calendar of State Papers,
+  Domestic; Savile Correspondence_ (Camden Society, 1858, vol. lxxi.);
+  A. Grey's _Debates_; Sir John Bramston's _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc.,
+  1845); Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv. 190; _Saturday Review_ (Oct.
+  11, 1873).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Pepysiana_, by H. B. Wheatley (1903), 154.
+
+  [2] Foxcroft, _Life of Sir G. Savile_, i. 54.
+
+  [3] _Savile Correspondence_ (Camden Soc.), 295.
+
+  [4] Foxcroft's _Life of Sir G. Savile_, i. 36.
+
+
+
+
+COVENTRY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Warwickshire,
+England; 94 m. N.W. from London by the London & North Western railway.
+Pop. (1901) 69,978. The Coventry canal communicates with the Trent and
+Mersey and Birmingham canals, and the midland system generally. Coventry
+stands on a gentle eminence, with higher ground lying to the west, and
+is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford Brook, feeders of the Avon,
+which unite within the town. Of its ancient fortifications two gates and
+some portions of the wall are still extant, and several of the older
+streets are picturesque from the number of half-timbered houses
+projecting over the footways.
+
+The most remarkable buildings are the churches; of these the oldest are
+St Michael's, one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular architecture
+in England, with a beautiful steeple rising to a height of 303 ft.; Holy
+Trinity church, a cruciform structure with a lofty steeple at the
+intersection; and St John's, or Bablake church, which is nearly a
+parallelogram on the ground plan, but cruciform in the clerestory with a
+central tower. Christ church dates only from 1832, but it is attached to
+the ancient spire of the Grey Friars' church. Of secular buildings the
+most interesting is St Mary's hall, erected by the united gilds in the
+early part of the 15th century. The principal chamber, situated above a
+fine crypt, is 76 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 34 ft. high; its roof is of
+carved oak, and in the north end there is a large window of old stained
+glass, with a curious piece of tapestry beneath nearly as old as the
+building. In the treasury is preserved a valuable collection of ancient
+muniments. A statue of Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of London
+(1532-1533), founder of St John's College, Oxford, was erected in 1883.
+The cemetery, laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect and landscape
+gardener, and enlarged in 1887, is particularly beautiful. The
+educational institutions include a well-endowed free grammar school,
+founded in the reign of Elizabeth, in modern buildings (1885), a
+technical school, school of art, endowed charity schools, and a county
+reformatory for girls; and among the charitable foundations, which are
+numerous and valuable, Bond's hospital for old men and Ford's hospital
+for old women are remarkable as fine specimens of ancient timber work.
+Swanswell and Spenser Parks were opened in 1883, and a recreation ground
+in 1880.
+
+Coventry was formerly noted for its woollens, and subsequently acquired
+such a reputation for its dyeing that the expression "as true as
+Coventry blue" became proverbial. Existing industries are the making of
+motor cars, cycles and their accessories, for which Coventry is one of
+the chief centres in Great Britain; sewing machines are also produced;
+and carpet-weaving and dyeing, art metal working and watch making are
+carried on. An ancient fair is held in Whit-week. A county of itself
+till 1843, the town became a county borough in 1888. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The parliamentary
+borough returns one member. In 1894 a suffragan bishopric of Coventry
+was established under the see of Worcester, but no longer exists. Area,
+4149 acres.
+
+The village which afterwards became important as Coventry (_Coventreu_,
+_Coventre_) owed its existence to the foundation of a Benedictine
+monastery by Earl Leofric and his wife Godgyfu, the famous Lady Godiva
+(q.v.), in 1043. The manor, which in 1066 belonged to the latter,
+descended to the earls of Chester and to Robert de Montalt, and from him
+passed to Isabella queen of Edward II. and the crown. Ranulf, earl of
+Chester, granted the earliest extant charter to the town in 1153, by
+which his burgesses were to hold of him in free burgage as they held of
+his father, and to have their portmote. This, with further privileges,
+was confirmed by Henry II. in 1177, and by nearly every succeeding
+sovereign until the 17th century. In 1345 Edward III. gave Coventry a
+corporation, mayor and bailiffs empowered to hold pleas and keep the
+town prison. Edward the Black Prince granted the mayor and bailiffs the
+right to hold the town in fee farm of L50 and to build a wall. In 1452
+Henry VI. formed the city and surrounding hamlets into a county, and
+James I. incorporated Coventry in 1622. It first sent two
+representatives to parliament in 1295, but the returns were irregular.
+The prior's market on Fridays was probably of Saxon origin; a second
+market was granted in 1348, while fairs, still held, were obtained in
+1217 for the octave of Holy Trinity, and in 1348 and in 1442 for eight
+days from the Friday after Corpus Christi. As early as 1216 Coventry was
+important for its trade in wool, cloth and caps, its gilds later being
+particularly numerous and wealthy. In 1568 Flemish weavers introduced
+new methods, but the trade was destroyed in the wars of the 17th
+century. During the middle of the 16th century there was a flourishing
+manufacture of blue thread, but this decayed before 1581; in the 18th
+century the manufacture of ribbon was introduced.
+
+The popular phrase "to send to Coventry" (i.e. to refuse to associate
+with a person) is of uncertain derivation. The _New English Dictionary_
+selects the period of the Civil War of the 17th century as that in which
+the origin of the phrase is probably to be found. Clarendon (_History of
+the Great Rebellion_, 1647) states that the citizens of Birmingham rose
+against certain small parties of the king's supporters, and sent the
+prisoners they captured to Coventry, which was then strongly
+parliamentarian.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Warwick_; William Dugdale, _The
+  Antiquities of Coventre, illustrated from records_ (Coventry, 1765).
+
+
+
+
+COVER (from the Fr. _couvert_, from _couvrir_, to cover, Lat.
+_cooperire_), that which hides, shuts in or conceals, a lid to a box or
+vessel, &c., the binding of a book or wrapper of a parcel; as a hunting
+term, the wood or undergrowth which shelters game. As a commercial term,
+the word means in its widest sense a security against loss, but is
+employed more particularly in connexion with stock exchange transactions
+to signify a "deposit made with a broker to secure him from being out of
+pocket in the event of the stocks falling against his client and the
+client not paying the difference" (_In re Cronmire_, 1898, 2 Q.B. 383).
+It is a mode of speculation engaged in almost entirely by persons who
+wish to limit their risk to a small amount, and, as a rule, the
+transactions are largely carried out in England with "outside" brokers,
+i.e. those dealers in securities who are not members of the Stock
+Exchange. The deposit is so much per cent or per share, usually 1% on
+the market value of the securities up to about twice the amount of the
+turn of the market; the client being able to close the transaction at
+any time during the currency of the cover, but the broker only when the
+cover is exhausted or has "run off." Cover is not money deposited to
+abide the event of a wager, but as security against a debt which may
+arise from a gaming contract, and it may be recovered back, if
+unappropriated.
+
+
+
+
+COVERDALE, MILES (1488?-1569), English translator of the Bible and
+bishop of Exeter, was born of Yorkshire parents about 1488, studied
+philosophy and theology at Cambridge, was ordained priest at Norwich in
+1514, and then entered the convent of Austin friars at Cambridge. Here
+he came under the influence of the prior, Robert Barnes, made the
+acquaintance of Sir Thomas More and of Thomas Cromwell, and began a
+thorough study of the Scriptures. He was one of those who met at the
+White Horse tavern to discuss theological questions, and when Barnes was
+arrested on a charge of heresy, Coverdale went up to London to assist
+him in drawing up his defence. Soon afterwards he left the convent,
+assumed the habit of a secular priest, and began to preach against
+confession and the worship of images. In 1531 he graduated bachelor of
+canon law at Cambridge, but from 1528 to 1534 he prudently spent most of
+his time abroad. No corroboration has, however, been found for Foxe's
+statement that in 1529 he was at Hamburg assisting Tyndale in his
+translation of the Pentateuch. In 1534 he published two translations of
+his own, the first Dulichius's _Vom alten und newen Gott_, and the
+second a _Paraphrase upon the Psalms_, and in 1535 he completed his
+translation of the Bible. The venture seems to have been projected by
+Jacob van Meteren, who apparently employed Coverdale to do the
+translation, and Froschover of Zurich to do the printing. No perfect
+copy is known to exist, and the five or six which alone have title-pages
+give no name of publisher or place of publication. The volume is
+dedicated to the king of England, where Convocation at Cranmer's
+instance had, in December 1534, petitioned for an authorized English
+version of the Scriptures. As a work of scholarship it does not rank
+particularly high. Some of the title-pages state that it had been
+translated out of "Douche" (i.e. German) "and Latyn": and Coverdale
+mentions that he used five interpreters, which are supposed to have been
+the Vulgate, the Latin version of Pagninus, Luther's translation, the
+Zurich version, and Tyndale's Pentateuch and New Testament. There is no
+definite mention of the original Greek and Hebrew texts; but it has
+considerable literary merit, many of Coverdale's phrases are retained in
+the authorized version, and it was the first complete Bible to be
+printed in English. Two fresh editions were issued in 1537, but none of
+them received official sanction. Coverdale was, however, employed by
+Cromwell to assist in the production of the Great Bible of 1539, which
+was ordered to be placed in all English churches. The work was done at
+Paris until the French government stopped it, when Coverdale and his
+colleagues returned to England early in 1539 to complete it. He was also
+employed in the same year in assisting at the suppression of
+superstitious usages, but the reaction of 1540 drove him once more
+abroad. His Bible was prohibited by proclamation in 1542, while
+Coverdale himself defied the Six Articles by marrying Elizabeth
+Macheson, sister-in-law to Dr John MacAlpine.
+
+For a time Coverdale lived at Tubingen, where he was created D.D. In
+1545 he was pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabern in the duchy of
+Pfalz-Zweibrucken. In March 1548 he was at Frankfort, when the new
+English Order of Communion reached him; he at once translated it into
+German and Latin and sent a copy to Calvin, whose wife had befriended
+Coverdale at Strassburg. Calvin, however, does not seem to have approved
+of it so highly as Coverdale.
+
+Coverdale was already on his way back to England, and in October 1548 he
+was staying at Windsor Castle, where Cranmer and some other divines,
+inaccurately called the Windsor Commission, were preparing the First
+Book of Common Prayer. His first appointment had been as almoner to
+Queen Catherine Parr, then wife of Lord Seymour; and he preached her
+funeral sermon in September 1548. He was also chaplain to the young king
+and took an active part in the reforming measures of his reign. He was
+one of the most effective preachers of the time. A sermon by him at St
+Paul's on the second Sunday in Lent, 1549, was immediately followed by
+the pulling down of "the sacrament at the high altar." A few weeks later
+he preached at the penance of some Anabaptists, and in January 1550 he
+was put on a commission to prosecute Anabaptists and all who infringed
+the Book of Common Prayer. In 1549 he wrote a dedication to Edward for a
+translation of the second volume of Erasmus's _Paraphrases_; and in 1550
+he translated Otto Wermueller's _Precious Pearl_, for which Protector
+Somerset, who had derived spiritual comfort from the book while in the
+Tower, wrote a preface. He was much in request at funerals: he preached
+at Sir James Wilford's in November 1550, and at Lord Wentworth's before
+a great concourse in Westminster Abbey in March 1551.
+
+Perhaps it was his gift of oratory which suggested his appointment as
+bishop of the refractory men of Devon and Cornwall. He had already, in
+August 1549, at some risk, gone down with Lord Russell to turn the
+hearts of the rebels by preaching and persuasion, and two years later he
+was appointed bishop of Exeter by letters patent, on the compulsory
+retirement of his predecessor, Veysey, who had reached an almost
+mythical age. He was an active prelate, and perhaps the vigorous
+Protestantism of the West in Elizabeth's reign was partly due to his
+persuasive powers. He sat on the commission for the reform of the canon
+law, and was in constant attendance during the parliaments of 1552 and
+1553. On Mary's accession he was at once deprived on the score of his
+marriage, and Veysey in spite of his age was restored. Coverdale was
+called before the privy council on the 1st of September, and required to
+find sureties; but he was not further molested, and when Christian III.
+of Denmark at the instance of Coverdale's brother-in-law, MacAlpine,
+interceded in his favour, he was in February 1555 permitted to leave for
+Denmark with two servants, and his baggage unsearched; one of these
+"servants" is said to have been his wife. He declined Christian's offer
+of a living in Denmark, and preferred to preach at Wesel to the numerous
+English refugees there, until he was invited by Duke Wolfgang to resume
+his labours at Bergzabern. He was at Geneva in December 1558, and is
+said to have participated in the preparation of the Geneva version of
+the Bible.
+
+In 1559 Coverdale returned to England and resumed his preaching at St
+Paul's and elsewhere. Clothed in a plain black gown, he assisted at
+Parker's consecration, in spite of the facts that he had himself been
+deprived, and did not resume his bishopric, and that his original
+appointment had been by the uncanonical method of letters patent.
+Conscientious objections were probably responsible for his
+non-restoration to the see of Exeter, and his refusal of that of
+Llandaff in 1563. He objected to vestments, and in his living of St
+Magnus close to London Bridge, which he received in 1563, he took other
+liberties with the Act of Uniformity. His bishop, Grindal, was his
+friend, and his vagaries were overlooked until 1566, when he resigned
+his living rather than conform. He still preached occasionally, and
+always drew large audiences. He died in February 1568, and was buried on
+the 19th in St Bartholomew's behind the Exchange. When this church was
+pulled down in 1840 to make room for the new Exchange, his remains were
+removed to St Magnus.
+
+  Coverdale's works, most of them translations, number twenty-six in
+  all; nearly all, with his letters, were published in a collected
+  edition by the Parker Soc., 2 vols., 1846. An excellent account is
+  given in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ of his life, with authorities, to
+  which may be added R. W. Dixon's _Church History_, Bishop and
+  Gasquet's _Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer_; Acts of the
+  Privy Council; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; _Lit. Rem. of Edward
+  VI._ (Roxburghe Club); Whittingham's _Brief Discourse of Troubles at
+  Frankfort_; Pocock's _Troubles connected with the Prayer-Book_ (Camden
+  Soc.).     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+COVERTURE (a covering, an old French form of the modern _couverture_), a
+term in English law applied to the condition of a woman during marriage,
+when she is supposed to be under the cover, influence and protection of
+her husband, and so immune in certain cases from punishment for crime
+committed in the presence and on the presumed coercion of her husband.
+(See further HUSBAND AND WIFE.)
+
+
+
+
+COVILHA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Castello Branco,
+formerly included in the province of Beira; on the eastern slope of the
+Serra da Estrella, and on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1900)
+15,469. Covilha, which has been often compared with a collection of
+swallows' nests clinging to the rugged granitic mountain side, is shaped
+like an amphitheatre of closely crowded houses, overlooking the river
+Zezere and its wild valley from a height of 2180 ft. Over 4000
+operatives are employed in the manufacture of _saragoca_, a coarse brown
+cloth worn by the peasantry throughout Portugal. The village of Unhaes
+da Serra (1507), 6 m. W.S.W., is noted for its sulphurous springs and
+baths.
+
+
+
+
+COVILHAM (COVILHAO, COVILHA), PERO or PEDRO DE Portuguese explorer and
+diplomatist (fl. 1487-1525), was a native of Covilha in Beira. In early
+life he had gone to Castile and entered the service of Alphonso, duke of
+Seville; later, when war broke out between Castile and Portugal, he
+returned to his own country, and attached himself, first as a "groom,"
+then as a "squire," to King Alphonso V. and his successor John II. On
+the 7th of May 1487, he was despatched, in company with Alphonso de
+Payva, on a mission of exploration in the Levant and adjoining regions
+of Asia and Africa, with the special object of learning where "cinnamon
+and other spices could be found," as well as of discovering the land of
+Prester John, by "overland" routes. Bartholomeu Diaz, at this very time,
+went out to find the Prester's country, as well as the termination of
+the African continent and the ocean route to India, by sea. Covilham and
+Payva were provided with a "letter of credence for all the countries of
+the world" and with a "map for navigating, taken from the map of the
+world" and compiled by Bishop Calcadilha, and doctors Rodrigo and
+Moyses. The first two of these were prominent members of the commission
+which advised the Portuguese government to reject the proposals of
+Columbus. The explorers started from Santarem and travelled by Barcelona
+to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of Cosimo
+de' Medici; thence they passed to Rhodes, where they lodged with two
+other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and Cairo, where they posed as
+merchants. In company with certain Moors from Fez and Tlemcen they now
+went by way of Tor to Suakin and Aden, where (as it was now monsoon
+time) they parted, Covilham proceeding to India and Payva to
+Ethiopia--the two companions agreeing to meet again in Cairo. Covilham
+thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, whence he retraced his course to
+Goa and Ormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an excursion on his way
+down the East African coast to Sofala, which he was probably the first
+European to visit. At Cairo he heard of Payva's death, and met with two
+Portuguese Jews--Rabbi Abraham of Beja, and Joseph, a shoe-maker of
+Lamego--who had been sent by King John with letters for Covilham and
+Payva. By Joseph of Lamego Covilham replied with an account of his
+Indian and African journeys, and of his observations on the cinnamon,
+pepper and clove trade at Calicut, together with advice as to the ocean
+way to India. This he truly represented as quite practicable: "to this
+they (of Portugal) could navigate by their coast and the seas of
+Guinea." The first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Sofala
+or the Island of the Moon, our Madagascar--"from each of these lands
+one can fetch the coast of Calicut." With this information Joseph
+returned to Portugal, while Covilham, with Abraham of Beja, again
+visited Aden and Ormuz. At the latter he left the rabbi; and himself
+came back to Jidda, the port of the Arabian holy land, and penetrated
+(as he told Alvarez many years later) even to Mecca and Medina. Finally,
+by Mount Sinai, Tor and the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck
+inland to the court of Prester John (i.e. Abyssinia). Here he was
+honourably received; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him; but he
+was not permitted to leave. When the Portuguese embassy under Rodrigo de
+Lima, including Father Francisco Alvarez, entered Abyssinia in 1520,
+Covilham wept with joy at the sight of his fellow-countrymen. It was
+then forty years since he had left Portugal, and over thirty since he
+had been a prisoner of state in "Ethiopia." Alvarez, who professed to
+know him well, and to have heard the story of his life, both "in
+confession and out of it," praises his power of vivid description "as if
+things were present before him," and his extraordinary knowledge of "all
+spoken languages of Christians, Moors and Gentiles." His services as an
+interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima's embassy; but he never
+succeeded in escaping from Abyssinia.
+
+  See Francisco Alvarez, _Verdadera Informacam das terras do Preste
+  Joam_, esp. chs. 73, 89, 98, 102-103, 105 (pp. 177, 224, 254, 264,
+  265-270, 275, of the Hakluyt Society's English edition, _The
+  Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia ... 1520-1727_, London, 1881); an
+  abstract of this, with some inaccuracies, is given in Major's _Prince
+  Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1868), pp. 339-340.
+
+
+
+
+COVIN (from the Fr. _covine_, or _couvine_, from Lat. _convenire_, to
+come together), an association of persons, so used in the Statute of
+Labourers of 1360, which, _inter alia_, declared void "all alliances and
+covins of masons and carpenters." The more common use of the term in
+English law was for a secret agreement between persons to cheat and
+defraud, but the word is now obsolete, and has been superseded by
+"collusion" or "conspiracy to cheat and defraud."
+
+
+
+
+COVINGTON, a city and one of the two county-seats of Kenton county,
+Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river opposite Cincinnati, with which it
+is connected by bridges; and at the mouth of the Licking river (also
+spanned by bridges), opposite Newport, Ky. Pop. (1890) 37,371; (1900)
+42,938, of whom 5223 were foreign-born and 2478 were negroes; (1910)
+53,270. In 1900 it ranked second in population among the cities of
+Kentucky. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the
+Louisville & Nashville railways, by interurban electric railways, and by
+steamboat lines to the Ohio river ports. It is built on a plain
+commanding good views and partly shut in by neighbouring hills. Its
+streets, mostly named from eminent Kentuckians, are paved chiefly with
+asphalt, macadam and brick. There are numerous fine residences and
+several attractive public buildings, including that of the United States
+government--modern Gothic in style--the court-house and city hall
+combined, and the public library. Covington is the seat of a Roman
+Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, in the flamboyant Gothic style,
+is one of the finest church buildings in the state. In the city are the
+Academy of Notre Dame and St Joseph's high school for boys, both Roman
+Catholic. The principal charitable institutions are the hospital of
+Saint Elizabeth, a German orphan asylum, a Protestant children's home, a
+home for aged women and a Wayfarers' Rest. Covington is the trade centre
+of an extensive district engaged in agriculture and stock raising, and
+as a manufacturing centre it ranked second in the state in 1905 (value
+of factory products $6,099,715), its products including tobacco, cotton
+goods, structural iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products,
+liquors and cordage. A settlement was established here in 1812, and
+three years later a town was laid out and named in honour of Gen.
+Leonard Covington (1768-1813), who was mortally wounded at Chrystler's
+Field during the War of 1812. In 1834 Covington was chartered as a city;
+and in 1908 it annexed Central Covington (pop. in 1900, 2155).
+
+
+
+
+COWARD, a term of contempt for one who, before danger, pain or trouble,
+shows fear, whether physical or moral. The derivation of the word has
+been obscured by a connexion in sense with the verb "cow," to instil
+fear into, which is derived from old Norse _kuga_, a word of similar
+meaning, and with the verb "cower," to crouch, which is also
+Scandinavian in origin.[1] The true derivation is from the French _coe_,
+an old form of _queue_, a tail, from Lat. _cauda_, hence _couart_ or
+_couard_. The reference to "tail" is either to the expression "turn
+tail" in flight, or to the habit of animals dropping the tail between
+the legs when frightened; in heraldry, a lion in this position is a
+"lion coward." In the fable of _Reynard the Fox_ the name of the hare is
+Coart, Kywart, Cuwaert or other variants.
+
+
+
+
+COWBRIDGE, a market town and a municipal and contributory parliamentary
+borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, with a station on the Taff Vale
+railway branch from Llantrisant to Aberthaw on the coast, distant by
+rail 162-1/2 m. from London, 12 m. W. of Cardiff, 7 m. S.E. of Bridgend,
+and 6 m. S. of Llantrisant station. The population in 1901 was 1202, a
+decrease of over 12% since 1891. Less than one-third of the number was
+Welsh-speaking. The town mainly consists of one long street running east
+and west, and is in a wide valley through which runs the river Thaw
+(Welsh, _Ddawan_), here crossed by a stone bridge.
+
+Cowbridge is probably situated on the Roman road from Cardiff westwards,
+which seems to have kept nearly the course of the present main road.
+Roman coins have been discovered here. It has in fact been suggested,
+mainly on etymological grounds, that the town occupies the site of the
+Roman _Bovium_: the modern Welsh name, y Bontfaen ("stone bridge") is
+probably a corruption of the medieval, Pont y fon, the precise
+equivalent of "Cowbridge," which is first found in documents of the
+second half of the 13th century as Covbruge and Cubrigg. Others place
+Bovium on a vicinal road, at Boverton near Llantwit Major, about 6 m. to
+the south near the coast, though the most likely site is near Ewenny, 5
+m. to the west of Cowbridge. After the Norman conquest of Glamorgan, the
+town grew up as an appanage of the castle of St Quentin, which occupies
+a commanding position half a mile south-west of the town. It was walled
+round before the 13th century. A tower is mentioned in 1487 when it was
+granted away by the burgesses. Leland in his itinerary (c. 1535)
+describes the town wall as three-quarters of a mile round and as having
+three gates. There was even then a considerable suburb on the west bank
+of the river and outside the walls. The south wall and gateway are still
+standing.
+
+The town was a borough by prescription until 1682, when it received a
+charter of incorporation from Charles II. confirming its previous
+privileges. Under the Unreformed Corporations Act of 1883 the
+corporation was dissolved, but on the petition of the inhabitants a new
+charter was granted in March 1887. During the Tudor and Stuart periods
+Cowbridge was almost if not quite the chief town of Glamorgan, its
+importance being largely due to its central and accessible position in a
+rich agricultural district where a large number of the county gentry
+lived. The great sessions were held here alternately with Cardiff and
+Swansea from 1542 till their abolition in 1830, and the quarter sessions
+were held here once a year down to 1850. From 1536 to 1832 it was one of
+the eight contributory boroughs within the county which returned a
+member to parliament, but since 1832 it has been contributory with
+Cardiff and Llantrisant in returning a member. It has a separate
+commission of the peace. Sir Edward Stradling (1529-1609) established a
+grammar school here, but died before endowing it; it was refounded in
+1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, who provided that it should be administered
+by Jesus College, Oxford, which body erected the present buildings in
+1847. It has throughout its existence been one of the leading schools in
+Wales. An intermediate school for girls was established here by the
+county in 1896. The church of St Mary (formerly chapelry to
+Llanblethian) is of early English style and has a fine embattled tower,
+of the same military type as the towers of Llamblethian and Ewenny.
+There are three Nonconformist chapels. There are a town hall and market
+place. The town is now wholly dependent on agriculture, and has good
+markets and cattle fairs, that on the 4th of May being a charter fair.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A connexion has also been imagined with cow (O. Eng. _cu_; common
+    in Scandinavian languages, and of similar root to Skr. _go_, whence
+    also Gr. [Greek: bous], Lat. _bos_), the female bovine animal, on
+    account of its timidity.
+
+
+
+
+COWDENBEATH, a police burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 5-3/4 m. N.E. of
+Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 4249; (1901) 7908.
+The principal industry is coal-mining, and the public buildings include
+churches, schools and a hall. Meetings in connexion with the adoption
+and promulgation of the Covenant were held in the old parish church of
+Beath.
+
+
+
+
+COWELL, JOHN (1554-1611), English jurist, was born at Ernsborough,
+Devonshire. He was educated at Eton, and King's College, Cambridge,
+ultimately becoming professor of civil law in that university, and
+master of Trinity Hall. In 1607 he compiled a law dictionary, _The
+Interpreter_, in which he exalted the king's prerogative so much that he
+was prosecuted before the House of Commons by Sir Edward Coke, and saved
+from imprisonment only by the interposition of James I. His book was
+burnt by order of the House of Commons. Dr Cowell also wrote a work
+entitled _Institutiones Juris Anglicani_. He died at Oxford on the 11th
+of October 1611.
+
+
+
+
+COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN (1852-   ), English musical composer, was born at
+Kingston, Jamaica, on the 29th of January 1852. At four years old he was
+brought to England, where his father became treasurer to the opera at
+Her Majesty's theatre, and private secretary to the earl of Dudley. His
+first teacher was Henry Russell, and his first published composition
+appeared when he was but six years old. He studied the piano with
+Benedict, and composition with Goss; in 1865 he was at Leipzig under
+Hauptmann, Moscheles, Reinecke and Plaidy. Returning home on the
+outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, he appeared as a composer for the
+orchestra in an overture played at the Promenade Concerts at Covent
+Garden in September 1866. In the following autumn he went to Berlin,
+where he was under Kiel, at Stern's conservatorium. A symphony and a
+piano concerto were given in St James's Hall in 1869, and from that time
+Cowen has been recognized as primarily a composer, his talents as a
+pianist being subordinate, although his public appearances were numerous
+for some time afterwards. His cantata, _The Rose Maiden_, was given in
+London in 1870, his second symphony by the Liverpool Philharmonic
+Society in 1872, and his first festival work, _The Corsair_, in 1876 at
+Birmingham. In that year his opera, _Pauline_, was given by the Carl
+Rosa Company with moderate success. In 1884 he conducted five concerts
+of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1888, on the resignation of Arthur
+Sullivan, became the regular conductor of the society, resigning the
+post in 1892. In the year of his appointment, 1888, he went to Melbourne
+as the conductor of the daily concerts given in connexion with the
+Exhibition there. In 1896 Cowen was appointed conductor of the Liverpool
+Philharmonic Society and of the Manchester orchestra, in succession to
+Sir Charles Halle. In 1899 he was reappointed conductor of the
+Philharmonic Society. His works include:--Operettas: _Garibaldi_ (1860)
+and _One Too Many_ (1874); operas: _Pauline_ (1876), _Thorgrim_ (1890),
+_Signa_ (Milan, 1893), and _Harold_ (1895); oratorios: _The Deluge_
+(1878), _St Ursula_ (1881), _Ruth_ (1887), _Song of Thanksgiving_
+(1888), _The Transfiguration_ (1895); cantatas: _The Rose Maiden_
+(1870), _The Corsair_ (1876), _The Sleeping Beauty_ (1885), _St John's
+Eve_ (1889), _The Water Lily_ (1893), _Ode to the Passions_ (1898),
+besides short cantatas for female voices; a large number of songs,
+ranging from the popular "ballad" to more artistic lyrics, anthems,
+part-songs, duets, &c.; six symphonies, among which No 3, the
+"Scandinavian," has had the greatest success; four overtures; suites,
+_The Language of Flowers_ (1880), _In the Olden Times_ (1883), _In
+Fairyland_ (1896); four English dances (1896); a concerto for piano and
+orchestra, and a fantasia for the same played by M. Paderewski (1900); a
+quartet in C minor, and a trio in A minor, both early works; pianoforte
+pieces, &c. Cowen is never so happy as when treating of fantastic or
+fairy subjects; and whether in his cantatas for female voices, his
+charming _Sleeping Beauty_, his _Water Lily_ or his pretty overture,
+_The Butterfly's Ball_ (1901), he succeeds wonderfully in finding
+graceful expression for the poetical idea. His dance music, such as is
+to be found in various orchestral suites, is refined, original and
+admirably instrumented; and if he is seldom as successful in portraying
+the graver aspects of emotion, the vogue of his semi-sacred songs has
+been widespread.
+
+
+
+
+COWEN, JOSEPH (1831-1900), English politician and journalist, son of Sir
+Joseph Cowen, a prominent citizen and mine-owner of Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+was born in 1831, and was educated at Edinburgh University. In 1874 he
+was elected member of parliament for the borough on the death of his
+father, who had held the seat as a Liberal since 1865. Joseph Cowen was
+at that time a strong Radical on domestic questions, an advocate of
+co-operation, an admirer of Garibaldi, Mazzini and Kossuth, a
+sympathizer with Irish Nationalism, and one who in speech, dress and
+manner identified himself with the North-country mining class. Short in
+stature and uncouth in appearance, his individuality first shocked and
+then by its earnestness impressed the House of Commons; and his sturdy
+independence of party ties, combined with a gift of rough but genuine
+eloquence (of which his speech on the Royal Title Bill of 1876 was an
+example), rapidly made him one of the best-known public men in the
+country. He was, moreover, an Imperialist and a Colonial Federationist
+at a time when Liberalism was tied and bound to the Manchester
+traditions; and, to the consternation of the official wire-pullers, he
+vigorously supported Disraeli's foreign policy, and in 1881 opposed the
+Gladstonian settlement with the Boers. His independence (which his
+detractors attributed in some degree to his alleged susceptibility to
+Tory compliments) brought him into collision both with the Liberal
+caucus and with the party organization in Newcastle itself, but Cowen's
+personal popularity and his remarkable powers as an orator triumphed in
+his own birthplace, and he was again elected in 1885 in spite of Liberal
+opposition. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired both from parliament
+and from public life, professing his disgust at the party intrigues of
+politics, and devoted himself to conducting his newspaper, the
+_Newcastle Daily Chronicle_, and to his private business as a
+mine-owner. In this capacity he exercised a wide influence on local
+opinion, and the revolt of the Newcastle electorate in later years
+against doctrinaire Radicalism was largely due to his constant preaching
+of a broader outlook on national affairs. He continued behind the scenes
+to play a powerful part in forming North-country opinion until his death
+on the 18th of February 1900.
+
+  His letters were published by his daughter in 1909.
+
+
+
+
+COWES, a seaport and watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England, 12 m.
+S.S.E. of Southampton. West Cowes is separated from East Cowes by the
+picturesque estuary of the river Medina, the two towns (each of which is
+an urban district) lying on opposite sides of its mouth at the apex of
+the northern coast of the island. Pop. (1901) West Cowes, 8652; East
+Cowes, 3196. The port between them is the chief on the island, and is
+the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 1812); it is in
+regular steamship communication with Southampton and Portsmouth. West
+Cowes is served by the Isle of Wight Central railway. A steam ferry and
+a floating bridge across the Medina, here 600 yds. broad, unite the
+towns. Behind the harbour the houses rise picturesquely on gentle wooded
+slopes, and numerous villas adorn the vicinity. The towns owe their
+origin to two forts or castles, built on each side of the mouth of the
+Medina by Henry VIII. in 1540, for the defence of the coast; the eastern
+one has disappeared, but the west castle remains and is used as the
+club-house of the Yacht Squadron. The marine parade of West Cowes, and
+the public promenade called the Green, are close to the castle. The
+industrial population is chiefly employed in the shipbuilding yards, in
+the manufacture of ships' fittings, and in engineering works. The
+harbour is under an elective body of commissioners. On the opposite side
+of the Medina a broad carriageway leads to East Cowes Castle, a handsome
+edifice built by John Nash, the favourite architect of George IV., in
+1798, and immediately beyond it are the grounds surrounding Osborne
+House (see OSBORNE), built in 1845 after the property had been purchased
+by Queen Victoria, the church of St Mildred, Whippingham, lying a mile
+to the south.
+
+
+
+
+COWL (through Fr. _coule_, from Lat. _cucullus_ or _cuculla_, a
+covering; the word is found in various forms in most European languages,
+cf. Ger. _Kugel_ or _Kigel_, Dutch _kovel_, Irish _cochal_ or _cochull_;
+the ultimate origin may be the root _kal_, found in Lat. _clam_,
+secretly, and Gr. [Greek: kalyptein], to hide, cover up), an outer
+garment worn by both sexes in the middle ages; a part of the monastic
+dress, hence the phrase "to take the cowl," signifying entry upon the
+religious life. The _cucullus_ worn by the early Egyptian anchorites was
+a hood covering the head and neck. Later generations lengthened the
+garment until it reached to the heels, and St Benedict issued a rule
+restricting its length to two cubits. Chapter 55 of his _Institute_
+prescribes the following dress in temperate climates: a cowl and tunic,
+thick in winter and thin in summer, with a scapular for working hours
+and shoes and stockings, all of simple material and make. In the 14th
+century the cowl and the frock were frequently confounded, but the
+council of Vienne defined the former as "a habit long and full without
+sleeves," and the latter as "a long habit with long and wide sleeves."
+While the term thus seems strictly to imply a hooded gown it is often
+applied to the hood alone. It is also used to describe a loose vestment
+worn over the frock in the winter season and during the night office.
+
+The word "cowl" is also applied to a hood-shaped covering to a chimney
+or ventilating shaft, to help down-draught, and to clear the up-current
+of foul air (see VENTILATION).
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667), English poet, was born in the city of
+London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen, who died shortly
+before his birth, was a stationer. His mother was wholly given to works
+of devotion, but it happened that there lay in her parlour a copy of
+_The Faery Queen_. This became the favourite reading of her son, and he
+had twice devoured it all before he was sent to school. As early as
+1628, that is, in his tenth year, he composed his _Tragicall History of
+Piramus and Thisbe_, an epical romance written in a six-line stanza, of
+his own invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most
+astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is marked by no
+great faults of immaturity, and possesses constructive merits of a very
+high order. Two years later the child wrote another and still more
+ambitious poem, _Constantia and Philetus_, being sent about the same
+time to Westminster school. Here he displayed the most extraordinary
+mental precocity and versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year yet
+another poem, the _Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton_. These
+three poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected
+in 1633, and published in a volume entitled _Poetical Blossoms_,
+dedicated to the head master of the school, and prefaced by many
+laudatory verses by schoolfellows. The author at once became famous,
+although he had not, even yet, completed his fifteenth year. His next
+composition was a pastoral comedy, entitled _Love's Riddle_, a
+marvellous production for a boy of sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious
+in language, and rapid in movement. The style is not without resemblance
+to that of Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time
+only just printed. In 1637 Cowley was elected into Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he betook himself with enthusiasm to the study of all
+kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a ripe scholar. It
+was about this time that he composed his scriptural epic on the history
+of King David, one book of which still exists in the Latin original, the
+rest being superseded in favour of an English version in four books,
+called the _Davideis_, which he published a long time after. This his
+most grave and important work is remarkable as having suggested to
+Milton several points which he afterwards made use of. The epic, written
+in a very dreary and turgid manner, but in good rhymed heroic verse,
+deals with the adventures of King David from his boyhood to the smiting
+of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly closes. In 1638 _Love's Riddle_ and
+a Latin comedy, the _Naufragium Joculare_, were printed, and in 1641 the
+passage of Prince Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the
+production of another dramatic work, _The Guardian_, which was acted
+before the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this
+play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed till
+1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the "sons" of Ben
+Jonson, the university wits who wrote more for the closet than the
+public stage.
+
+The learned quiet of the young poet's life was broken up by the Civil
+War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became a fellow of Trinity
+College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the Parliamentarians in 1643. He
+made his way to Oxford, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lord
+Falkland, and was tossed, in the tumult of affairs, into the personal
+confidence of the royal family itself. After the battle of Marston Moor
+he followed the queen to Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve
+years. This period was spent almost entirely in the royal service,
+"bearing a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in
+their affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys
+into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, Holland, or wherever else the king's
+troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony of his
+fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintaining the
+constant correspondence between the late king and the queen his wife. In
+that weighty trust he behaved himself with indefatigable integrity and
+unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered and deciphered with his own hand
+the greatest part of all the letters that passed between their
+majesties, and managed a vast intelligence in many other parts, which
+for some years together took up all his days, and two or three nights
+every week." In spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary
+industry. During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and
+determined to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English. At the
+same time he occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War,
+which he completed as far as the battle of Newbury, but unfortunately
+afterwards destroyed. In 1647 a collection of his love verses, entitled
+_The Mistress_, was published, and in the next year a volume of wretched
+satires, _The Four Ages of England_, was brought out under his name,
+with the composition of which he had nothing to do. In spite of the
+troubles of the times, so fatal to poetic fame, his reputation steadily
+increased, and when, on his return to England in 1656, he published a
+volume of his collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival
+in public esteem. This volume included the later works already
+mentioned, the _Pindarique Odes_, the _Davideis_, the _Mistress_ and
+some _Miscellanies_. Among the latter are to be found Cowley's most
+vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the famous
+aspiration--
+
+  "What shall I do to be for ever known,
+   And make the coming age my own?"
+
+It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William Hervey and
+Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley's finest poems, brilliant,
+sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of _The Chronicle_, giving a
+fictitious catalogue of his supposed amours; various gnomic pieces; and
+some charming paraphrases from Anacreon. The _Pindarique Odes_ contain
+weighty lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses
+of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good throughout, but a
+full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them. The long cadences
+of the Alexandrines with which most of the strophes close, continued to
+echo in English poetry from Dryden down to Gray, but the _Odes_
+themselves, which were found to be obscure by the poet's contemporaries,
+immediately fell into disesteem. _The Mistress_ was the most popular
+poetic reading of the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley's
+works. It was the last and most violent expression of the amatory
+affectation of the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable
+in Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of
+sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it
+represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition of
+literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at least of
+a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately erotic volumes,
+we are told that to the end of his days he never summoned up courage to
+speak of love to a single woman in real life. The "Leonora" of _The
+Chronicle_ is said to have been the only woman he ever loved, and she
+married the brother of his biographer, Sprat.
+
+Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for another
+person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of L1000. In 1658 he
+revised and altered his play of _The Guardian_, and prepared it for the
+press under the title of _The Cutter of Coleman Street_, but it did not
+appear until 1663. Late in 1658 Oliver Cromwell died, and Cowley took
+advantage of the confusion of affairs to escape to Paris, where he
+remained until the Restoration brought him back in Charles's train. He
+published in 1663 _Verses upon several occasions_, in which _The
+Complaint_ is included.
+
+Wearied with the broils and fatigues of a political life, Cowley
+obtained permission to retire into the country; through his friend, Lord
+St Albans, he obtained a property near Chertsey, and here, devoting
+himself to the study of botany, and buried in his books, he lived in
+comparative solitude until his death. He took a great and practical
+interest in experimental science, and he was one of those who were most
+prominent in advocating the foundation of an academy for the protection
+of scientific enterprise. Cowley's pamphlet on _The Advancement of
+Experimental Philosophy_, 1661, led directly to the foundation of the
+Royal Society, to which body Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion of
+Evelyn, addressed an ode which is the latest and one of the strongest of
+his poems. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey, on the 28th of July
+1667, in consequence of having caught a cold while superintending his
+farm-labourers in the meadows late on a summer evening. On the 3rd of
+August Cowley was buried in Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of
+Chaucer and Spenser, where in 1675 the duke of Buckingham erected a
+monument to his memory. His _Poemata Latina_, including six books
+"Plantarum," were printed in 1668.
+
+Throughout their parallel lives the fame of Cowley completely eclipsed
+that of Milton, but posterity instantly and finally reversed the
+judgment of their contemporaries. The poetry of Cowley rapidly fell into
+a neglect as unjust as the earlier popularity had been. As a prose
+writer, especially as an essayist, he holds, and will not lose, a high
+position in literature; as a poet it is hardly possible that he can
+enjoy more than a very partial revival. The want of nature, the obvious
+and awkward art, the defective melody of his poems, destroy the interest
+that their ingenuity and occasional majesty would otherwise excite. He
+had lofty views of the mission of a poet and an insatiable ambition, but
+his chief claim to poetic life is the dowry of sonorous lyric style
+which he passed down to Dryden and his successors of the 18th century.
+
+  The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat,
+  afterwards bishop of Rochester, brought out a splendid edition in
+  folio, to which he prefixed a graceful and elegant life of the poet.
+  There were many reprints of this collection, which formed the standard
+  edition till 1881, when it was superseded by A. B. Grosart's privately
+  printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey Worthies library. The
+  Essays have frequently been revived with approval.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY, HANNAH (1743-1809), English dramatist and poet, daughter of
+Philip Parkhouse, a bookseller at Tiverton, Devonshire, was born in
+1743. When about twenty-five years old she married Mr Cowley, of the
+East India Company's service, who died in 1797. Some years after her
+marriage, being at the theatre with her husband, she expressed the
+opinion that she could write as good a piece as the one being performed,
+and within a fortnight she had written her first play, _The Runaway_.
+She sent it to Garrick, who produced it at Drury Lane in 1776. Between
+then and 1795 she wrote twelve more plays, all of which (with one
+exception) were produced at Drury Lane or Covent Garden; and _The
+Belle's Stratagem_ (1782), with one or two others, still survives in the
+list of acting plays. Among other, pieces were _Albina_, _Countess
+Raimond_, _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, _More Ways than One_, and _A
+School for Greybeards, or The Mourning Bride_. Mrs Cowley was the author
+of a number of indifferent poems, mainly historical, and under the name
+of "Anna Matilda," which has since become proverbial, she carried on a
+sentimental correspondence in the _World_ with Robert Merry. She died at
+Tiverton on the 11th of March 1809.
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY, 1ST EARL (1804-1884), British
+diplomatist, was the eldest son of Henry Wellesley, 1st Baron Cowley
+(1773-1847), and Charlotte, daughter of Charles, 1st Earl Cadogan, and
+was consequently a nephew of the duke of Wellington and of the marquess
+Wellesley. Born on the 17th of June 1804, he entered the diplomatic
+service in 1824, receiving his first important appointment in 1848, when
+he became minister plenipotentiary to the Swiss cantons; and in the same
+year he was sent to Frankfort to watch the proceedings of the German
+parliament. This was followed by his appointment as envoy extraordinary
+to the new Germanic confederation, a position which he only held for a
+short time, as he was chosen in 1852 to succeed the 1st marquess of
+Normanby as the British ambassador in Paris. Baron Cowley, as Wellesley
+had been since his father's death in 1847, held this important post for
+fifteen years, and the story of his diplomatic life in Paris cannot be
+separated from the general history of England and France. As minister
+during the greater part of the reign of Napoleon III., he conducted the
+delicate negotiations between the two countries during the time of those
+eastern complications which preceded and followed the Crimean War, and
+also during the excitement and unrest produced by the attempt made in
+1858 by Felice Orsini to assassinate the emperor of the French; while
+his diplomatic skill was no less in evidence during the war between
+France and Austria and the subsequent course of events in Italy. In 1857
+he had been created Earl Cowley and Viscount Dangan; in 1866 he was made
+a knight of the Garter; and having assisted Richard Cobden to conclude
+the commercial treaty between Great Britain and France in 1860, he
+retired in 1867 from a position which he had filled with distinction to
+himself and with benefit to his country. In 1863 Cowley had inherited
+the estate of Draycot in Wiltshire from his kinsman the 5th earl of
+Mornington, and he lived in retirement until his death on the 15th of
+July 1884. He had married in 1833 Olivia Cecilia (d. 1885), daughter of
+Charlotte, baroness de Ros and Lord Henry Fitzgerald, by whom he had
+three sons and two daughters, and was succeeded in his titles by his
+eldest son, William Henry, 2nd Earl Cowley (1834-1895), father of Henry
+Arthur Mornington, 3rd earl (b. 1866).
+
+
+
+
+COWLEY FATHERS, the name commonly given to the members of the Society of
+Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist, an Anglican religious
+community, the headquarters of which are in England, at Cowley St John,
+close to Oxford. The society was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M.
+Benson "for the cultivation of a life dedicated to God according to the
+principles of poverty, chastity and obedience." The society, which is
+occupied both with educational and missionary work, has a house in
+London and branch houses at Bombay and Poona in India, at Cape Town and
+at St Cuthbert's, Kaffraria, in South Africa; and at Boston in the
+United States of America. The costume of the Cowley Fathers consists of
+a black frock or cassock confined by a black cord and a long black
+cloak.
+
+
+
+
+COWPENS, a town of Spartanburg county, South Carolina, U.S.A., in the N.
+part of the state. Pop. (1900) 692; (1910) 1101. It is served by the
+Southern railway. In colonial days cattle were rounded up and branded
+here--whence the name. Seven miles N. of the town is the field of the
+battle of Cowpens, fought on the 17th of January 1781, during the War of
+American Independence, between the Americans under Gen. Daniel Morgan
+and the British under Gen. Banastre Tarleton, the British being
+defeated. A monument was erected on the battlefield in 1859, but was
+much defaced during the Civil War. The town of Cowpens was founded in
+1876, and was incorporated in 1880.
+
+
+
+
+COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER, 1ST EARL (c. 1665-1723), lord chancellor of
+England, was the son of Sir William Cowper, Bart., of Ratling Court,
+Kent, a Whig member of parliament of some mark in the two last Stuart
+reigns. Educated at St Albans school, Cowper was called to the bar in
+1688; having promptly given his allegiance to the prince of Orange on
+his landing in England, he was made recorder of Colchester in 1694, and
+in 1695 entered parliament as member for Hertford. He enjoyed a large
+practice at the bar, and had the reputation of being one of the most
+effective parliamentary orators of his generation. He lost his seat in
+parliament in 1702 owing to the unpopularity caused by the trial of his
+brother Spencer on a charge of murder. In 1705 he was appointed lord
+keeper of the great seal, and took his seat on the woolsack without a
+peerage. In the following year he conducted the negotiations between the
+English and Scottish commissioners for arranging the union with
+Scotland. In November of the same year (1706) he succeeded to his
+father's baronetcy; and on the 14th of December he was raised to the
+peerage as Baron Cowper of Wingham, Kent.
+
+When the union with Scotland came into operation in May 1707 the queen
+in council named Cowper lord high chancellor of Great Britain, he being
+the first to hold this office. He presided at the trial of Dr
+Sacheverell in 1710, but resigned the seal when Harley and Bolingbroke
+took office in the same year. On the death of Queen Anne, George I.
+appointed Cowper one of the lords justices for governing the country
+during the king's absence, and a few weeks later he again became lord
+chancellor. A paper which he drew up for the guidance of the new king on
+constitutional matters, entitled _An Impartial History of Parties_,
+marks the advance of English opinion towards party government in the
+modern sense. It was published by Lord Campbell in his _Lives of the
+Lord Chancellors_. Cowper supported the impeachment of Lord Oxford for
+high treason in 1715, and in 1716 presided as lord high steward at the
+trials of the peers charged with complicity in the Jacobite rising, his
+sentences on whom have been censured as unnecessarily severe. He warmly
+supported the septennial bill in the same year. On the 18th of March
+1718 he was created Viscount Fordwich and Earl Cowper, and a month later
+he resigned office on the plea of ill-health, but probably in reality
+because George I. accused him of espousing the prince of Wales's side in
+his quarrel with the king. Taking the lead against his former
+colleagues, Cowper opposed the proposal brought forward in 1719 to limit
+the number of peers, and also the bill of pains and penalties against
+Atterbury in 1723. In his last years he was accused, but probably
+without reason, of active sympathy with the Jacobites. He died at his
+residence, Colne Green, built by himself on the site of the present
+mansion of Panshanger on the 10th of October 1723.
+
+Cowper was not a great lawyer, but Burnet says that "he managed the
+court of chancery with impartial justice and great despatch"; the most
+eminent of his contemporaries agreed in extolling his oratory and his
+virtues. He was twice married--first, about 1686, to Judith, daughter
+and heiress of Sir Robert Booth, a London merchant; and secondly, in
+1706, to Mary, daughter of John Clavering, of Chopwell, Durham. Swift
+(_Examiner_, xvii., xxii.) alludes to an allegation that Cowper had been
+guilty of bigamy, a slander for which there appears to have been no
+solid foundation. His younger brother, Spencer Cowper (1669-1728), was
+tried for the murder of Sarah Stout in 1699, but was acquitted; the
+lady, who had fallen in love with Cowper, having in fact committed
+suicide on account of his inattention. He was one of the managers of the
+impeachment of Sacheverell; was attorney-general to the prince of Wales
+(1714), chief justice of Chester (1717), and judge of the common pleas
+(1727). He was grandfather of William Cowper, the poet.
+
+The 1st earl left two sons and two daughters by his second wife. The
+eldest son, William (1709-1764), who succeeded to the title, assumed the
+name of Clavering in addition to that of Cowper on the death of his
+maternal uncle. His wife was a daughter of the earl of Grantham, and
+grand-daughter of the earl of Ossory. The son of this marriage, George
+Nassau, 3rd Earl Cowper (1738-1789), inherited the estates of the earl
+of Grantham; and in 1778 he was created by the emperor Joseph II. a
+prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The 5th earl (1778-1837) married a
+daughter of Lord Melbourne, the prime minister, by whom he had two sons;
+and his widow married as her second husband Lord Palmerston, who devised
+his property of Broadlands to her second son, William Francis
+Cowper-Temple (1811-1888), who was created Baron Mount Temple in 1880.
+The elder son, George Augustus Frederick (1806-1856), 6th Earl Cowper,
+married Anne Florence, daughter of Thomas Philip, earl de Grey; and this
+lady at her father's death became _suo jure_ baroness Lucas of Cradwell.
+Francis Thomas de Grey, 7th Earl Cowper (1834-1905), in addition to the
+other family titles, became in 1871 10th Baron Dingwall in the peerage
+of Scotland, and 8th Baron Butler of Moore Park in the peerage of
+Ireland as heir-general of Thomas, earl of Ossory, son of the 1st duke
+of Ormonde; the attainder of 1715 affecting those titles having been
+reversed in July 1871. On the death of his mother he also inherited the
+barony of Lucas of Cradwell. On the death without issue in 1905 of the
+7th earl, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland 1880-1882, the earldom and
+barony of Cowper, together with the viscountcy of Fordwich, became
+extinct; the barony of Butler fell into abeyance among his sisters and
+their heirs, and the baronies of Lucas and Dingwall devolved on his
+nephew, Auberon Thomas Herbert (b. 1876).
+
+  See _Private Diary of Earl Cowper_, edited by E. C. Hawtrey for the
+  Roxburghe Club (Eton, 1833); _The Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper_,
+  edited by the Hon. Spencer Cowper (London, 1864); Lord Campbell,
+  _Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal_ (8
+  vols., London, 1845-1869); Edward Foss, _The Judges of England_ (9
+  vols., London, 1848-1864); Gilbert Burnet, _History of his Own Time_
+  (6 vols., Oxford, 1833); T. B. Howell, _State Trials_, vol. xii.-xv.
+  (33 vols., London, 1809-1828); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ (London,
+  1889).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800), English poet, was born in the rectory (now
+rebuilt) of Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire, on the 26th of November
+(O.S. 15th) 1731, his father the Rev. John Cowper being rector of the
+parish as well as a chaplain to George II. On both the father's and the
+mother's side he was of ancient lineage. The father could trace his
+family back to the time of Edward IV. when the Cowpers were Sussex
+landowners, while his mother, Ann, daughter of Roger Donne of Ludham
+Hall, Norfolk, was of the same race as the poet Donne, and the family
+claimed to have Plantagenet blood in its veins. Of more human interest
+were Cowper's immediate predecessors. His grandfather was that Spencer
+Cowper who, after being tried for his life on a charge of murder, lived
+to be a judge of the court of common pleas, while his elder brother
+became lord chancellor and Earl Cowper, a title which became extinct in
+1905. Here is the poet's genealogical tree.
+
+            John Cooper,[1] Alderman of London (d. 1609).
+                                |
+                Sir William Cowper, Bart. (d. 1642).
+                                |
+                John Cowper (died in prison 1643).
+                                |
+              Sir William Cowper, 2nd Bart. (d. 1706).
+                   _____________|__________
+                  |                        |
+  William, Earl Cowper,            Spencer Cowper,
+  Lord Chancellor (d. 1723).       Judge (1669-1728).
+          _________________________________|___________
+         |                       |                     |
+  William Cowper         Rev. John Cowper        Ashley Cowper
+  (d. 1740).               (d. 1756).             (d. 1788).
+                                 |                     |
+                                 |             ________|________
+                         William Cowper,      |                 |
+                            the poet     Lady Hesketh.      Theodora.
+                          (1731-1800).
+
+The Rev. John Cowper was twice married. Cowper's mother, to whom the
+memorable lines were written beginning "Oh that these lips had
+language," was his first wife. She died in 1737 at the age of
+thirty-four, when the poet was but six years old, and she is buried in
+Berkhampstead church. Cowper's stepmother is buried in Bath, and a
+tablet on the walls of the cathedral commemorates her memory. The
+father, who appears to have been a conscientious clergyman with no
+special interest in his sons, died in 1756 and was buried in the Cowper
+tomb at Panshanger. Only one other of his seven children grew to
+manhood--John, who was born in 1737.
+
+The poet appears to have attended a dame's school in earliest infancy,
+but on his mother's death, when he was six years old, he was sent to
+boarding-school, to a Dr Pitman at Markyate, a village 6 m. from
+Berkhampstead. From 1738 to 1741 he was placed in the care of an
+oculist, as he suffered from inflammation of the eyes. In the latter
+year he was sent to Westminster school, where he had Warren Hastings,
+Impey, Lloyd, Churchill and Colman for schoolfellows. It was at the
+Markyate school that he suffered the tyranny that he commemorated in
+_Tirocinium_. His days at Westminster, Southey thinks, were "probably
+the happiest in his life," but a boy of nervous temperament is always
+unhappy at school. At the age of eighteen Cowper entered a solicitor's
+office in Ely Place, Holborn. Here he had Thurlow, the future lord
+chancellor, as a fellow-clerk, and it is stated that Thurlow promised to
+help his less pushful comrade in the days of realized ambition. Three
+years in Ely Place were rendered happy by frequent visits to his uncle
+Ashley's house in Southampton Row, where he fell deeply in love with his
+cousin Theodora Cowper. At twenty-one years of age he took chambers in
+the Middle Temple, where we first hear of the dejection of spirits that
+accompanied him periodically through manhood. He was called to the bar
+in 1754. In 1759 he removed to the Inner Temple and was made a
+commissioner of bankrupts. His devotion to his cousin, however, was a
+source of unhappiness. Her father, possibly influenced by Cowper's
+melancholy tendencies, perhaps possessed by prejudices against the
+marriage of cousins, interposed, and the lovers were separated--as it
+turned out for ever. During three years he was a member of the Nonsense
+Club with his two schoolfellows from Westminster, Churchill and Lloyd,
+and he wrote sundry verses in magazines and translated two books of
+Voltaire's _Henriade_. A crisis occurred in Cowper's life when his
+cousin Major Cowper nominated him to a clerkship in the House of Lords.
+It involved a preliminary appearance at the bar of the house. The
+prospect drove him insane, and he attempted suicide; he purchased
+poison, he placed a penknife at his heart, but hesitated to apply either
+measure of self-destruction. He has told, in dramatic manner, of his
+more desperate endeavour to hang himself with a garter. Here he all but
+succeeded. His friends were informed, and he was sent to a private
+lunatic asylum at St Albans, where he remained for eighteen months under
+the charge of Dr Nathaniel Cotton, the author of _Visions_. Upon his
+recovery he removed to Huntingdon in order to be near his brother John,
+who was a fellow of St Benet's College, Cambridge. John had visited his
+brother at St Albans and arranged this. An attempt to secure suitable
+lodgings nearer to Cambridge had been ineffectual. In June 1765 he
+reached Huntingdon, and his life here was essentially happy. His illness
+had broken him off from all his old friends save only his cousin Lady
+Hesketh, Theodora's sister, but new acquaintances were made, the Unwins
+being the most valued. This family consisted of Morley Unwin (a
+clergyman), his wife Mary, and his son (William) and daughter
+(Susannah). The son struck up a warm friendship which his family shared.
+Cowper entered the circle as a boarder in November (1765). All went
+serenely until in July 1767 Morley Unwin was thrown from his horse and
+killed. A very short time before this event the Unwins had received a
+visit from the Rev. John Newton (q.v.), the curate of Olney in
+Buckinghamshire, with whom they became friends. Newton suggested that
+the widow and her children with Cowper should take up their abode in
+Olney. This was achieved in the closing months of 1767. Here Cowper was
+to reside for nineteen years, and he was to render the town and its
+neighbourhood memorable by his presence and by his poetry. His residence
+in the Market Place was converted into a Cowper Museum a hundred years
+after his death, in 1900. Here his life went on its placid course,
+interrupted only by the death of his brother in 1770, until 1773, when
+he became again deranged. It can scarcely be doubted that this second
+attack interrupted the contemplated marriage of Cowper with Mary Unwin,
+although Southey could find no evidence of the circumstance and Newton
+was not informed of it. J. C. Bailey brings final evidence of this (_The
+Poems of Cowper_, page 15). The fact was kept secret in later years in
+order to spare the feelings of Theodora Cowper, who thought that her
+cousin had remained as faithful as she had done to their early love.
+
+It was not until 1776 that the poet's mind cleared again. In 1779 he
+made his first appearance as an author by the _Olney Hymns_, written in
+conjunction with Newton, Cowper's verses being indicated by a "C." Mrs
+Unwin suggested secular verse, and Cowper wrote much, and in 1782 when
+he was fifty-one years old there appeared _Poems of William Cowper of
+the Inner Temple, Esq.: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's
+Churchyard_. The volume contained "Table Talk," "The Progress of Error,"
+"Truth," "Expostulation" and much else that survives to be read in our
+day by virtue of the poet's finer work. This finer work was the outcome
+of his friendship with Lady Austen, a widow who, on a visit to her
+sister, the wife of the vicar of the neighbouring village of Clifton,
+made the acquaintance of Cowper and Mrs Unwin. The three became great
+friends. Lady Austen determined to give up her house in London and to
+settle in Olney. She suggested _The Task_ and inspired _John Gilpin_ and
+_The Royal George_. But in 1784 the friendship was at an end, doubtless
+through Mrs Unwin's jealousy of Lady Austen. Cowper's second volume
+appeared in 1785;--_The Task: A Poem in Six Books. By William Cowper of
+the Inner Temple, Esq.; To which are added by the same author An Epistle
+to Joseph Hill, Esq., Tirocinium or a Review of Schools, and the History
+of John Gilpin: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's Church
+Yard; 1785._ His first book had been a failure, one critic even
+declaring that "Mr Cowper was certainly a good, pious man, but without
+one spark of poetic fire." This second book was an instantaneous
+success, and indeed marks an epoch in literary history. But before its
+publication--in 1784--the poet had commenced the translation of Homer.
+In 1786 his life at Olney was cheered by Lady Hesketh taking up a
+temporary residence there. The cousins met after an interval of
+twenty-three years, and Lady Hesketh was to be Cowper's good angel to
+the end, even though her letters disclose a considerable impatience with
+Mrs Unwin. At the end of 1786 a removal was made to Weston Underwood,
+the neighbouring village which Cowper had frequently visited as the
+guest of his Roman Catholic friends the Throckmortons. This was to be
+his home for yet another ten years. Here he completed his translation of
+Homer, materially assisted by Mr Throckmorton's chaplain Dr Gregson.
+There are six more months of insanity to record in 1787. In 1790, a year
+before the _Homer_ was published, commenced his friendship with his
+cousin John Johnson, known to all biographers of the poet as "Johnny of
+Norfolk." Johnson also aspired to be a poet, and visited his cousin
+armed with a manuscript. Cowper discouraged the poetry, but loved the
+writer, and the two became great friends. New friends were wanted, for
+in 1792 Mrs Unwin had a paralytic stroke, and henceforth she was a
+hopeless invalid. A new and valued friend of this period was Hayley,
+famous in his own day as a poet and in history for his association with
+Romney and Cowper. He was drawn to Cowper by the fact that both were
+contemplating an edition of "Milton," Cowper having received a
+commission to edit, writing notes and translating the Latin and Italian
+poems. The work was never completed. In 1794 Cowper was again insane and
+his lifework was over. In the following year a removal took place into
+Norfolk under the loving care of John Johnson. Johnson took Cowper and
+Mary Unwin to North Tuddenham, thence to Mundesley, then to Dunham
+Lodge, near Swaffham, and finally in October 1796 they moved to East
+Dereham. In December of that year Mrs Unwin died. Cowper lingered on,
+dying on the 25th of April 1800. The poet is buried near Mrs Unwin in
+East Dereham church.
+
+Cowper is among the poets who are epoch-makers. He brought a new spirit
+into English verse, and redeemed it from the artificiality and the
+rhetoric of many of his predecessors. With him began the "enthusiasm of
+humanity" that was afterwards to become so marked in the poetry of Burns
+and Shelley, Wordsworth and Byron. With him began the deep sympathy with
+nature, and love of animal life, which was to characterize so much of
+later poetry.
+
+Although Cowper cannot rank among the world's greatest poets or even
+among the most distinguished of poets of his own country, his place is a
+very high one. He had what is a rare quality among English poets, the
+gift of humour, which was very singularly absent from others who
+possessed many other of the higher qualities of the intellect. Certain
+of his poems, moreover,--for example, "To Mary," "The Receipt of my
+Mother's Portrait," and the ballad "On the Loss of the Royal
+George,"--will, it may safely be affirmed, continue to be familiar to
+each successive generation in a way that pertains to few things in
+literature. Added to this, one may note Cowper's distinction as a
+letter-writer. He ranks among the half-dozen greatest letter-writers in
+the English language, and he was perhaps the only great letter-writer
+with whom the felicity was due to the power of what he has seen rather
+than what he has read.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first important life of Cowper was by Hayley in
+  1803. In its complete form it appeared in 4 volumes in 1806 and was
+  reprinted in 1809 and 1812. It was reprinted again by the Rev. T. S.
+  Grimshawe with the Correspondence in 8 volumes in 1835. Robert
+  Southey's much more valuable _Life and Letters_ appeared also in 15
+  volumes in 1834-1837. The _Private Correspondence_, edited by John
+  Johnson, appeared in 2 volumes in 1824 and again in 1835. The
+  _Complete Correspondence_, edited by Thomas Wright, was published in
+  1904, but more correspondence appeared in _Notes and Queries_, July,
+  August and September 1904, and in _The Poems of William Cowper_,
+  edited by J. C. Bailey (1905). Edward Dowden unearthed new
+  correspondence with William Hayley in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (1907).
+  Short lives of Cowper have appeared in many quarters, from Thomas
+  Taylor's (1833) to Goldwin Smith's in the "English Men of Letters"
+  series (1880). Another brief biography of great merit is attached to
+  the Globe edition of Cowper's _Works_. Essays by Leslie Stephen,
+  Stopford Brooke, Whitwell Elwin, George Eliot and Walter Bagehot
+  deserve attention. See also St Beuve's _Causeries du Lundi_ (1868),
+  vol. xi.; _Letters of Lady Hesketh to John Johnson_ (1901); _John
+  Newton_, by the Rev. Josiah Bull (1868); _Cowper and Mary Unwin_, by
+  Caroline Gearey (1900); and _A Concordance to the Poetic Works of
+  William Cowper_, by John Neave (1887).     (C. K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+   [1] Alderman Cooper thus spelt his name and all the family from that
+   day to this, including the poet, have so pronounced it.
+
+
+
+
+COWRY, the popular name of the shells of the _Cypraeida_, a family of
+mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized, and they are widely
+distributed over the world--their habitat being the shallow water along
+the sea-shore. The best known is the money cowry or _Cypraea moneta_, a
+small shell about half an inch in length, white and straw-coloured
+without and blue within, which derives its distinctive name from the
+fact that in various countries it has been employed as a kind of
+currency. (See SHELL-MONEY.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the
+Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the shells are in
+demand as fashionable decorations, just as in Germany they were in use
+as an ornament for horses' harness, and were popular enough to acquire
+several native names, such as _Brustharnisch_ or breastplates, and
+_Otterkopfchen_ or little adders' heads. Besides the _Cypraea moneta_
+various species are employed in this decorative use. The _Cypraea
+aurora_ is a mark of chieftainship among the natives of the Friendly
+Islands; the _Cypraea annulus_ is a favourite with the Asiatic
+islanders; and several of the larger kinds have been used in Europe for
+the carving of cameos. The tiger cowry, _Cypraea tigris_, so well known
+as a mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly used by
+the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets; and they have
+also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of several shells into a
+smooth oval ball which they then employ as a bait to catch the
+cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned occur in myriads in
+their respective habitats, the _Cypraea princeps_ and the _Cypraea
+umbilicata_ are extremely rare.
+
+
+
+
+COW-TREE, or MILK-TREE, _Brosimum Galactodendron_ (natural order
+Moraceae), a native of Venezuela. As in other members of the order, the
+stem contains a milky latex, which flows out in considerable quantities
+when a notch is cut in it. The "milk" is sweet and pleasant tasting.
+Another species, _B. Alicastrum_, the bread-nut tree, a native of
+central America and Jamaica, bears a fruit which is cooked and eaten.
+The bread-fruit (_Artocarpus_) is an allied genus of the same natural
+order.
+
+
+
+
+COX, DAVID (1783-1859), English painter, was born on the 29th of April
+1783, in a small house attached to the forge of his father, a
+hardworking master smith, in a mean suburb of Birmingham. Turning his
+hand to what he could get to do, Joseph Cox, the father, was both
+blacksmith and whitesmith, and when the war with France began took to
+the making of bayonets and horse shoes, on wholesale commission, and
+immediately the boy David was thought able to assist he was taken from
+the poor elementary school in the neighbourhood, and set to the anvil.
+The attempt to turn the boy to this kind of labour had, however, been
+made too early; it was too heavy for his strength, and he was sent to
+what was called by the cyclops of Birmingham a "toy trade," making
+lacquered buckles, painted lockets, tin snuff-boxes and other "fancy"
+articles. Here David very soon acquired some power of painting
+miniatures, and his talents might have been misdirected had his master,
+Fieldler by name, not released him from his apprenticeship by dying by
+his own hand; and David found an opening as colour-grinder and
+scene-painter's fag in the theatre then leased, with several others, by
+the father of Macready, the tragedian.
+
+This obscure step, not one of promotion at the time, was really the most
+important incident in the uneventful career of Cox. The boy, who had
+inherited a rather weakly body, and had been trained with care by a
+pious mother, while intellectually negative and unable to cope with any
+kind of learning whatever, had endless perseverance, great strength of
+application, and all through life remained genial, gentle, simple-minded
+and modest, his penetration and self-reliance being wholly professional,
+inspired by his love of nature and his knowledge of his subject. Not
+very quick, and with little versatility, he went step by step in one
+line of study from the time he began to get the smallest remuneration
+for his pictures to the age of seventy-five, when he painted large in
+oil very much the same class of subjects he had of old produced small in
+water-colours, with the same impressive and unaffectedly noble
+sentiment, only increased by the mastery of almost infinite practice. He
+was never led astray by fictitious splendour of any kind, except once
+indeed in 1825, when he imitated Turner, and produced a classic subject
+he called "Carthage, Aeneas, and Achates." He never visited Venice or
+Egypt, or crossed the Channel except for a week or two in Belgium and
+Paris, and never even went to Scotland for painting purposes.
+Bettws-y-Coed and its neighbourhood was everything to him, and
+characteristics most truly English were beloved by him with a sort of
+filial instinct. So completely did he love the country, that even
+London, where it was his interest to live, had few attractions, and did
+not retain him long.
+
+This residence in the metropolis which began in 1804 was, however, of
+the most essential educational advantage to him. The Water-Colour
+Society was established the year after he arrived, and was mainly
+supported by landscape-painters. He was not, of course, admitted at
+first into membership, not till 1813, before which time an attempt to
+establish a rival exhibition had been made. In this Cox joined, the
+result being very serious to him, an entire failure entailing the
+seizure and forced sale of all the pictures. At that time the tightest
+economy was the rule with him, and to save the trifling cost of new
+strainers or stretching boards, he covered up one picture by another.
+When these works were prepared for re-sale, fifty years afterwards, some
+of them yielded picture after picture, peeled off the boards like the
+waistcoats from the body of the gravedigger in Hamlet!
+
+While lodging near Astley's Circus he married his landlady's daughter,
+and then took a modest cottage at Dulwich, where he gradually left off
+scene-painting and became teacher, giving lessons at ten shillings a
+lesson. This entailed walking to the pupils' homes, and the gift of the
+paintings done before the pupils. These have since been frequently sold
+for large sums, but his own price, when lucky enough to sell his best
+works, was never over a few pounds, and more frequently about fifteen
+shillings. Sometimes, indeed, he sold them in quantities at two pounds a
+dozen to be resold to country teachers. By and by he resisted the
+leaving of the work done to the pupil, but with little advantage to
+himself, as he saw no end to the accumulation of his own productions,
+and actually tore them up, and threw them into areas, or pushed them
+into drains during his trudge homeward. A number of years after he
+pointed out a particular drain to a friend, and said, "Many a work of
+mine has gone down that way to the Thames!"
+
+Shortly after he had turned thirty, his stay in London suddenly ended.
+He was offered the enormous sum of L100 per annum, by a ladies' college
+in Hereford, and thither he went. This sum he supplemented by teaching
+in the Hereford grammar school for many years, at six guineas a year,
+and in other schools at better pay, but still, and up to his fortieth
+year, we find his prices for pictures from eight to twenty-five
+shillings. Cox has no history apart from his productions, and these
+particulars as to his remuneration possess an interest almost dramatic
+when we contrast them with the enormous sums realized by his later
+works, and with the "honours and observance, troops of friends," that
+accompanied old age with him, when settled down in his own home at
+Harborne, near his native town, where he died on the 7th of June 1859.
+
+Cox's second short residence in London, dating from 1835 to 1840, marks
+the period of his highest powers. During those years, and for twelve
+years after, his productiveness kept pace with his mastery, and it would
+be difficult to overrate the impressiveness of effect, and high feeling,
+within the narrow range of subject displayed by many of these works. He
+was now surrounded by dealers, and wealth flowed in upon him. Still he
+remained the same, a man with few wants and scarcely any enjoyments
+except those furnished by his brush and his colours. The home at
+Harborne was a pleasant one, but the approach to the front was useless
+as the door was kept fastened up, the only entrance being through the
+garden at the back, and the principal room appropriated as his studio he
+was content to reach by a narrow stair from the kitchen. Neither in it
+nor elsewhere was there any luxury or even taste visible:--no
+_bric-a-brac_, no objects of interest, few or no books, no pictures
+except landscapes by his friends. When in winter, after his wife's
+death, the fire went out, and the cold at last surprised him, he lifted
+his easel into the little dining-room and began again. A union of his
+friends was formed in 1855 to procure a portrait of him, which was
+painted by Sir J. Watson Gordon; and an exhibition of his works was
+opened in London in 1858 and again another in 1859. This was actually
+open when the news of his death arrived.
+
+The number of David Cox's works, great and small, is enormous. He
+produced hundreds annually for perhaps forty-five years. Before his
+death and for ten years thereafter, their prices were remarkable, as
+witness the following obtained at auction--"Going to the Mill," L1575;
+"Old Mill at Bettws-y-Coed," L1575; "Outskirts of a Wood, with Gipsies,"
+L2305; "Peace and War," L3430.
+
+  See Hall, _Biography of David Cox_ (1881).     (W. B. Sc.)
+
+
+
+
+COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902), English divine and scholar, was
+born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares, India, and was educated at
+Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford. In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860
+took a mastership at Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year.
+He had already contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_, and had published
+in 1850 _Poems, Legendary and Historical_ (with E. A. Freeman), and in
+1853 a _Life of St Boniface_. From 1861 he devoted himself entirely to
+literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and comparative
+mythology. Many of his works were avowedly popular in character, and the
+most important, the _History of Greece_, has been superseded and is now
+of little value. His studies in mythology were inspired by Max Muller,
+but his treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme
+supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of myths.
+He also edited (with W. T. Brande) _A Dictionary of Science, Literature
+and Art_ (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded to the baronetcy in 1877)
+was a Broad Churchman, and a prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in
+1863-1865; and five years after Colenso's death he published (1888) his
+_Life_ of the bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but
+was refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham,
+York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a civil list
+pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February 1902.
+
+  WORKS.--_Tales from Greek Mythology_ (1861); _A Manual of Mythology_
+  (1867); _Latin and Teutonic Christendom_ (1870); _The Mythology of the
+  Aryan Nations_ (1870, new ed., 1882); _History of Greece_ (1874);
+  _General History of Greece_ (1876); _History of the Establishment of
+  British Rule in India_, and _An Introduction to the Science of
+  Comparative Mythology_ (1881); _Lives of Greek Statesmen_ (1885);
+  _Concise History of England_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900), American general, political leader and
+educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828 in Montreal,
+Canada. His father, a shipbuilder of German descent (Koch), and his
+mother, a descendant of William Brewster, were natives of New York City,
+where the boy grew up, studying law in an office in 1842-1844, and
+working in a broker's office in 1844-1846, and where, under the
+influence of Charles G. Finney (1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards
+married, he prepared himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin
+College in 1851, having in the meantime given up his theological studies
+in rebellion at Finney's dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was superintendent
+of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted to the Ohio bar, being
+at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in 1859 was elected to the state
+senate, in which with Garfield and James Monroe (1821-1898) he formed
+the "Radical Triumvirate," Cox himself presenting a petition for a
+personal liberty law and urging woman's rights, especially larger
+property rights to married women. Appointed by Governor Dennison one of
+three brigadiers-general of militia in 1860, he eagerly undertook the
+study of tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great
+assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted
+himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children, and
+in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He took part in
+the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the Kanawha region, in
+supreme command after Rosecrans's relief in the spring, until August
+1862, when his troops were ordered to join Burnside's 9th Corps in
+Virginia. After the death at his side of General Reno in the battle of
+South Mountain, and during Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the
+close of the campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general,
+U.S.V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-December 1863 he
+was head of the department of Ohio. In 1864 he took part in the Atlanta
+campaign under Sherman, as a divisional and subsequently
+corps-commander: at the battle of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps,
+and he served at Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman
+into the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at
+Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as such
+advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted area, and
+sympathized with President Johnson's programme of Reconstruction and
+worked for a compromise between Johnson and his opponents, although he
+finally deserted Johnson. In 1868 he was chairman of the Republican
+national convention which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the
+interior in 1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock and urged by
+President Grant; introduced the merit system in his department, and
+resigned in October 1870 because of pressure put on him by politicians
+piqued at his prohibition of campaign levies on his clerks, and because
+of the interference of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan's attempt
+by legal proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California
+mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became president
+in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo & Wabash & Western.
+In 1877-1879 he was a representative in Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he
+was dean of the Cincinnati law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president
+of the University of Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on
+the 4th of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a
+prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for
+microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is best known as
+one of the greatest "civilian" generals of the Civil War, and, with the
+possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the highest American authority of his
+time on military history, particularly the history of the American Civil
+War. He wrote _Atlanta_ (New York, 1882) and _The March to the Sea,
+Franklin and Nashville_ (New York, 1882), both in the series _Campaigns
+of the Civil War_; _The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected with
+the Fitz-John Porter Case_ (Cincinnati, 1882); and the valuable
+_Military Reminiscences of the Civil War_ (2 vols., New York, 1900)
+published posthumously.
+
+  See J. R. Ewing, _Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox_ (Washington,
+  1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran,
+  "Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox," in
+  _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+COX, KENYON (1856-   ), American painter, was born at Warren, Ohio, on
+the 27th of October 1856, being the son of Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was
+a pupil of Carolus-Duran and of J. L. Gerome in Paris from 1877 to 1882,
+when he opened a studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much
+success in the Art Students' League. His earlier work was mainly of the
+nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat conventional
+colour. Receiving little encouragement for such pictures, he turned to
+mural decorative work, in which he achieved prominence. Among his
+better-known examples are the frieze for the court room of the Appellate
+Court, New York, and decorations for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin
+College; for the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public
+and private buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and
+is the author of the critical reviews, _Old Masters and New_ (1905) and
+_Painters and Sculptors_ (1907), besides some poems. He became a
+National Academician in 1903. His wife, _nee_ Louise H. King (b. 1865),
+whom he married in 1892, also became a figure and portrait-painter of
+note.
+
+
+
+
+COX, RICHARD (1500?-1581), dean of Westminster and bishop of Ely, was
+born of obscure parentage at Whaddon, Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500.
+He was educated at the Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near
+Whaddon, at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated
+B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey's invitation he became a member of the
+cardinal's new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A. in 1525, and
+created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in persuading the more
+unruly members of the university to approve of the king's divorce. A
+premature expression of Lutheran views is said to have caused his
+departure from Oxford and even his imprisonment, but the records are
+silent on these sufferings which do not harmonize with his appointment
+as master of the royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author
+of an ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D. at
+Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year subscribing the
+Institution of a Christian Man. In 1540 he was one of the fifteen
+divines to whom were referred crucial questions on the sacraments and
+the seat of authority in the Church; his answers (printed in Pocock's
+_Burnet_, iii. 443-496) indicate a mind tending away from Catholicism,
+but susceptible to "the king's doctrine"; and, indeed, Cox was one of
+the divines by whom Henry said the "King's Book" had been drawn up when
+he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not exclusively
+his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the examination of Barnes,
+subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves, and in that year of reaction
+became archdeacon and prebendary of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was
+employed on other royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected
+bishopric of Southwell, and was made king's chaplain in 1542. In 1543 he
+was employed to ferret out the "Prebendaries' Plot" against Cranmer, and
+became the archbishop's chancellor. In December he was appointed dean of
+Oseney (afterwards Christ Church) Oxford, and in July was made almoner
+to Prince Edward, in whose education he took an active part. He was
+present at Dr Crome's recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and
+insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council.
+
+After Edward's accession, Cox's opinions took a more Protestant turn,
+and he became one of the most active agents of the Reformation. He was
+consulted on the compilation of the Communion office in 1548, and the
+first and second books of Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for
+the reform of the canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford
+(1547-1552) he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was a
+moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some success to
+eradicate everything savouring of popery from the books, MSS.,
+ornaments and endowments of the university, and earned Cox the sobriquet
+of its cancellor rather than its chancellor. He received other rewards,
+a canonry of Windsor (1548), the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the
+deanery of Westminster (1549). He lost these preferments on Mary's
+accession, and was for a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the
+Marshalsea. He was not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he
+remained in obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt's rebellion, and
+then in May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop
+Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1555 he made his way to Frankfort,
+where he played an important part in the first struggle between
+Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the influence of Knox
+and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine and a form of service far
+more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book of 1552. Cox stood up for that
+service, and the exiles were divided into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox
+attacked Cox as a pluralist, Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor
+Charles V. This proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers
+were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored.
+
+In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of Norwich, but
+the queen changed her mind and Cox's destination to Ely, where he
+remained twenty-one years. He was an honest, but narrow-minded
+ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold intolerantly, and was
+always wanting more power to constrain those who differed from him (see
+his letter in _Hatfield MSS._ i. 308). While he refused to minister in
+the queen's chapel because of the crucifix and lights there, and was a
+bitter enemy to the Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with
+the Puritans. He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in
+money matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who
+coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he refused
+to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher Hatton; but the
+well-known letter beginning "Proud Prelate" and threatening to unfrock
+him seems to be an impudent forgery which first saw the light in the
+_Annual Register_ for 1761. It hardly, however, misrepresents the
+queen's meaning, and Cox was forced to give way. These and other trials
+led him to resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it
+remained vacant for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a
+monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely cathedral was
+defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute. Strype (Whitgift, i. 2)
+gives Cox's hot temper and marriage as reasons why he was not made
+archbishop in 1583 in preference to Whitgift, who had been his chaplain;
+but Cox had been dead two years in 1583. His first wife's name is
+unknown; she was the mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married
+the eldest son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of
+William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells.
+
+  Voluminous details about Cox's life are given in Strype's Works,
+  Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper's _Athenae Cantab._ i. 437-445. See also
+  Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal.
+  Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.;
+  Whittingham's _Troubles at Frankfort_; Machyn's _Diary_; Pocock's
+  _Burnet_; Bentham's _Ely_; Willis's _Cathedrals_; Le Neve's _Fasti_;
+  R. W. Dixon's _Church History_.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+COX, SAMUEL (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine, was born in
+London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years he worked as an
+apprentice in the London docks, and then entered the Baptist College at
+Stepney. In 1851 he became pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea,
+removing in 1855 to Ryde, and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of
+the Baptist Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St
+Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor and was
+the founder and first editor of a monthly journal _The Expositor_
+(1875-1884). Among the best known of his numerous theological
+publications are _Salvator Mundi_ (1877), _A Commentary on the Book of
+Job_ (1880), _The Larger Hope_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793-1880), American Presbyterian divine, was born
+at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793, of Quaker stock. He was
+pastor of the Presbyterian church at Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of
+two churches in New York from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the
+University of the City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor
+of pastoral theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in
+active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat
+affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville, N.Y., on the
+2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a speech made in Exeter
+Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility for slavery in America
+on the British government, made a great impression. It was he who
+described the appellation D.D. as a couple of "semi-lunar fardels."
+
+His son, ARTHUR CLEVELAND COXE (1818-1896), who changed the spelling of
+the family name, graduated at the University of the City of New York in
+1838 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1841. He was rector of
+St John's Church, Hartford, in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in
+1854-1863, and of Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he
+became assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He was
+strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe wrote spirited
+defences of Anglican orders and published several volumes of verse,
+notably _Christian Ballads_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+COXCIE, MICHAEL (1499-1592), Flemish painter, was born at Malines, and
+studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably induced him to visit
+Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in
+the church of Santa Maria dell' Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says
+with truth "that he fairly acquired the manner of an Italian." But
+Coxcie's principal occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable
+of Psyche in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of
+the Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent
+residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice in
+this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed under
+an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie returned in 1539 to
+Malines, where he matriculated, and painted for the chapel of the gild
+of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The
+centre of this altarpiece, by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the
+Virgin; the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision
+of St John in Patmos. At van Orley's death in 1541 Coxcie succeeded to
+the office of court painter to the regent Mary of Hungary, for whom he
+decorated the castle of Binche. He was subsequently patronized by
+Charles V., who often coupled his works with those of Titian; by Philip
+II., who paid him royally for a copy of van Eyck's "Agnus Dei"; and by
+the duke of Alva, who once protected him from the insults of Spanish
+soldiery at Malines. There are large and capital works of his
+(1587-1588) in St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in
+the museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque grafted
+on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it distantly
+recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation and stiffness. He
+died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.
+
+
+
+
+COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS (1811-1881), English librarian and scholar, was
+born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of September 1811. He was
+educated at Westminster school and Worcester College, Oxford.
+Immediately on taking his degree in 1833, he began work in the
+manuscript department of the British Museum, became in 1838
+sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford, and in 1860 succeeded Dr
+Bandinel as head librarian, an office he held until his death in 1881.
+Having proved himself an able palaeographer, he was sent out by the
+British government in 1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries
+of the Levant. He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks
+were too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his
+travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine
+Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under his
+direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was completed.
+He published _Rogeri de Wendover Chronica_, 5 vols. (1841-1844); the
+_Black Prince, an historical poem written in French by Chandos Herald_
+(1842); and _Report on the Greek Manuscripts yet remaining in the
+Libraries of the Levant_ (1858). He was not only an accurate librarian
+but an active and hardworking clergyman, and was for the last
+twenty-five years of his life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near
+Oxford. He was likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi
+Colleges. He died on the 8th of July 1881.
+
+
+
+
+COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr William Coxe,
+physician to the royal household, was born in London on the 7th of March
+1747. Educated at Marylebone grammar school and at Eton College, he
+proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this
+society in 1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited
+many parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various
+noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of
+Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire. He also
+held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 1811 and that of Fovant from
+1811 until his death. In 1791 he was made prebendary of Salisbury, and
+in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire. He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter
+of William Shairp, consul-general for Russia, and widow of Thomas
+Yeldham of St Petersburg. He died on the 8th of June 1828.
+
+During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied in literary
+work. His _Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole_ (London, 1798), _Memoirs of
+Horatio, Lord Walpole_ (London, 1802), _Memoirs of John, duke of
+Marlborough_ (London, 1818-1819), _Private and Original Correspondence
+of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury_ (London, 1821), _Memoirs of the
+Administrations of Henry Pelham_ (London, 1829), are very valuable for
+the history of the 18th century. His _History of the House of Austria_
+(London, 1807, new ed. 1853 and 1873), and _Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings
+of Spain_ (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking work
+on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his works, is
+remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts of his travels:
+_Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State of Switzerland_
+(London, 1779), _Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and
+America_ (London, 1780), _Account of Prisons and Hospitals in Russia,
+Sweden and Denmark_ (London, 1781), _Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden
+and Denmark_ (London, 1784), _Travels in Switzerland_ (London, 1789),
+_Letter on Secret Tribunals of Westphalia_ (London, 1796), _Historical
+Tour in Monmouthshire_ (London, 1801). He also edited Gay's _Fables_,
+and wrote a _Life of John Gay_ (Salisbury, 1797), _Anecdotes of G. F.
+Handel and J. C. Smith_ (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor
+importance. Some of his books have been translated into French, and
+several have gone through two or more editions.
+
+
+
+
+COXSWAIN (properly "cockswain," and pronounced _cox'n_, usually
+shortened to "cox"; from "cock," a small boat, and _swain_, a servant),
+in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship's boat and its crew,
+who steers; the coxswain of the captain's gig takes a special rank among
+petty officers. In the National Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain
+the "coxswain" is a paid permanent official on each station, who has
+charge of the lifeboat and house, is responsible for its care, and
+steers and takes command when afloat. The word is also used, generally,
+of any one who steers a boat.
+
+
+
+
+COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY (1819-1900), English aeronaut, was born at
+Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 1819, the son of a naval officer. He
+was educated for the army, but became a dentist. From a boy he had been
+greatly interested in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first
+ascent was not made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional
+aeronaut, making numerous public ascents in the chief continental
+cities. Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Cremorne and
+subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had made over 400
+ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James Glaisher, he attained the
+greatest height on record, about 7 m. His companion became insensible,
+and he himself, unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the
+gas-valve with his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent.
+The result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher was
+the making of some important contributions to the science of
+meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the practical
+utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says: "I had hammered
+away in _The Times_ for little less than a decade before there was a
+real military trial of ballooning for military purposes at Aldershot."
+His last ascent was made in 1885, and he died on the 5th of January
+1900.
+
+  See his _My Life and Balloon Experiences_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+COYOTE, the Indian name for a North American member of the dog family,
+also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically as _Canis latrans_.
+Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala in the south, and chiefly
+frequenting the open plains on both sides of the chain of the Rocky
+Mountains, the coyote, under all its various local phases, is a smaller
+animal than the true wolf, and may apparently be regarded as the New
+World representative of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf
+(_C. pallipes_), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals. In
+addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the leg
+than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair. The average
+length is about 40 in., and the general tone of colour tawny mingled
+with black and white above and whitish below, the tail having a black
+tip and likewise a dark gland-patch near the root of the upper surface.
+There is, however, considerable local variation both in the matter of
+size and of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures about
+50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The coyote of the
+deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah is, for instance, a
+smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose length is usually about 42 in.
+On this and other local variations a number of nominal species have been
+founded; but it is preferable to regard them in the light of
+geographical phases or races, such as the above-mentioned _C. latrans
+estor_ of Nevada and Utah, _C. l. mearnsi_ of Arizona and Sonora, and
+_C. l. frustor_ of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district.
+
+It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that coyotes
+have received the name of "prairie-wolves"; the two titles indicating
+the nature of the respective habitats of the two species. Coyotes are
+creatures of slinking and stealthy habits, living in burrows in the
+plains, and hunting in packs at night, when they utter yapping cries and
+blood-curdling yells as they gallop. Hares ("jack-rabbits"), chipmunks
+or ground-squirrels, and mice form a large portion of their food; but
+coyotes also kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens
+and other kinds of game-birds. "In the flat lands," write Messrs Witmer
+Stone and W. E. Cram, in their _American Animals_ (1902), "they dig
+burrows for themselves or else take possession of those already made by
+badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the spring the half-dozen or more
+coyote pups are brought forth; and it is said that at this season the
+old ones systematically drive any large game they may be chasing as near
+to their burrow, where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as
+possible before killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it
+any great distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually work
+together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one of the coyotes
+bounds away in pursuit while the other squats on his haunches and waits
+his turn, knowing full well that the hare prefers to run in a circle,
+and will soon come round again, when the second wolf takes up the chase
+and the other rests in his turn.... When hunting antelope (prongbuck)
+and deer the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle,
+endeavouring to surround their game and keep it running inside their
+ring until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote hunts
+successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained pointer
+until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops flat in the grass
+and creeps forward like a cat until close enough for the final spring."
+
+When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat hips,
+juniper-berries and other wild fruits.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+COYPEL, the name of a French family of painters. Noel Coypel
+(1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much influenced by
+Poussin, COYPEL LE POUSSIN, was the son of an unsuccessful artist.
+Having been employed by Charles Errard to paint some of the pictures
+required for the Louvre, and having afterwards gained considerable fame
+by other pictures produced at the command of the king, in 1672 he was
+appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he
+returned to France; and not long after he became director of the Academy
+of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is perhaps his
+finest work.
+
+His son, ANTOINE COYPEL (1661-1772), was still more celebrated than his
+father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom he spent four years
+at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was admitted into the Academy of
+Painting, of which he became professor and rector in 1707, and director
+in 1714. In 1716 he was appointed king's painter, and he was ennobled in
+the following year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary
+education, the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful
+imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that he was
+not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a clever etcher,
+and engraved several of his own works. His _Discours prononces dans les
+conferences de l' Academie royale de Peinture, &c._; appeared in 1741.
+
+Antoine's half-brother, NOEL NICHOLAS COYPEL (1692-1734), was also an
+exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles Antoine (1694-1752),
+was painter to the king and director of the Academy of Painting. The
+latter published interesting academical lectures in _Le Mercure_ and
+wrote several plays which were acted at court, but were never published.
+
+
+
+
+COYPU, the native name of a large South American aquatic rodent mammal,
+known very generally among European residents in the country as nutria
+(the Spanish word for otter) and scientifically as _Myocastor_ (or
+_Myopotamus_) _coypu_. Its large size, aquatic habits, partially webbed
+hind-toes, and the smooth, broad, orange-coloured incisors, are
+sufficient to distinguish this rodent from the other members of the
+family _Capromyidae_. Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South
+America, even small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs.
+Should the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although subsisting
+to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these rodents frequently
+come ashore to feed, especially in the evening. Several young are
+produced at a birth, which are carried on their mother's back when
+swimming. The fur is of some commercial value, although rather stiff and
+harsh; its colour being reddish-brown. (See RODENTIA.)
+
+
+
+
+COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE (1640-1720), French sculptor, was born at
+Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and belonged to a family which had
+emigrated from Spain. The name should be pronounced Coezevo. He was only
+seventeen when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable
+merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself by taking
+copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among others from the
+Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he was engaged by the bishop
+of Strassburg, Cardinal Furstenberg, to adorn with statuary his chateau
+at Saverne (Zabern). In 1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier,
+Lerambert's niece, who died a year after the marriage. In 1671, after
+four years spent on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in
+1780, he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun
+obtained admission for him to the Academie Royale. A year later he
+married Claude Bourdict.
+
+In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between the years
+1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV. in producing much of the
+decoration and a large number of statues for Versailles; and he
+afterwards worked, between 1701 and 1709, with no less facility and
+success, for the palace at Marly, subsequently destroyed in the
+Revolution.
+
+Among his works are the "Mercury and Fame," first at Marly and
+afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; "Neptune and Amphitrite," in
+the gardens at Marly; "Justice and Force," at Versailles; and statues,
+in which the likenesses are said to have been remarkably successful, of
+most of the celebrated men of his age, including Louis XIV. and Louis
+XV. at Versailles, Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church
+des Quatre-Nations), Conde the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of
+Austria, Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac,
+Fenelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d'Harcourt, Cardinal
+Furstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre). Coysevox died in Paris
+on the 10th of October 1720.
+
+Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen memorials,
+including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to Cardinal Mazarin (in
+the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in the church of Saint
+Nicholas-du-Chardon).
+
+
+Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou.
+
+  See Henry Jouin, _A. Coysevox, sa vie, son oeuvre_ (1883); Jean du
+  Seigneur, _Revue universelle des arts_, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+CRAB (Ger. _Krabbe_, _Krebs_), a name applied to the Crustacea of the
+order _Brachyura_, and to other forms, especially of the order
+_Anomura_, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance and
+habits.
+
+The _Brachyura_, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-tailed
+lobsters and shrimps which form the order _Macrura_, by the fact that
+the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried folded up under the
+body. In most of them the body is transversely oval or triangular in
+outline and more or less flattened, and is covered by a hard shell, the
+carapace. There are five pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or
+chelae and are usually much more massive than the others which are used
+in walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and can be
+withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace. There are six
+pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxillipeds) enclosed within a "buccal
+cavern," the opening of which is covered by the broad and flattened
+third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is usually narrow and triangular in
+the males, but in the females it is broad and rounded and bears
+appendages to which the eggs are attached after spawning (fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended
+and carrying a mass of eggs beneath it; e, eggs.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in its second stage.
+r, Rostral spine; s, Dorsal spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic
+feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.)]
+
+As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when newly hatched,
+are very different from their parents. The first larval stage is known
+as a Zoea, this name having been given to it when it was believed by
+naturalists to be a distinct and independent species of animal. The Zoea
+is a minute transparent organism, swimming at the surface of the sea. It
+has a rounded body, armed with long spines, and a long segmented tail.
+The eyes are large but not set on stalks, the legs are not yet
+developed, and the foot-jaws form swimming paddles. After casting its
+skin several times as it grows in size, the young crab passes into a
+stage known as the _Megalopa_ (fig. 2), also formerly regarded as an
+independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more crab-like, but
+the abdomen is large and not filled up. After a further moult the
+animal assumes a form very similar to that of the adult. There are a few
+crabs, living on land or in fresh water, which do not pass through a
+metamorphosis but leave the egg as miniature adults.
+
+Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are abundant
+in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally and pass
+through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs living between
+tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the river-crab of southern
+Europe or Lenten crab (_Potamon edule_, better known as _Thelphusa
+fluviatilis_) is an example of the freshwater crabs which are abundant
+in most of the warmer regions of the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by
+gills, which are lodged in a pair of cavities at the sides of the
+carapace, but in the true land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and
+modified so as to act as lungs for breathing air.
+
+Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the peculiar
+sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common shore-crab, is
+characteristic of most members of the group. The crabs of the family
+_Portunidae_, and some others, swim with great dexterity by means of
+their flattened paddle-shaped feet.
+
+Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and act as the
+scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their habits and some
+are content with a vegetable diet.
+
+Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in relations of
+"commensalism" with other animals. The best known examples of this are
+the little "mussel-crabs" (_Pinnotheridae_) which live within the shells
+of mussels and other bivalve mollusca and probably share the food of
+their hosts. Some crabs live among corals, and one species at least
+gives rise to hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the
+"galls" which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another crab
+(_Melia tesselata_) carries in each of its claws a living sea-anemone
+which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and an implement for the
+capture of prey. Many of the sluggish spider-crabs (_Maiidae_) have
+their shells covered by a forest of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and
+sponges, which are "planted" there by the crab itself, and which afford
+it a very effective disguise.
+
+Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The most
+important and valuable are the edible crab of British and European
+coasts (_Cancer pagurus_) and the blue crab of the Atlantic coast of the
+United States (_Callinectes sapidus_).
+
+Among the _Anomura_, the best known are the hermit-crabs, which live in
+the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which they carry about with
+them as portable dwellings. In these, the abdomen is soft-skinned and
+spirally twisted so as to fit into the shells which they inhabit. The
+common hermit-crab of the British coasts (_Pagurus_ or _Eupagurus
+Bernhardus_) is sometimes called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity.
+Small specimens are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of
+periwinkles and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live
+in deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk
+(_Buccinum_). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from time to
+time, often having to fight with its fellows for the possession of an
+empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives inside the shell along with
+the hermit and often the outside is covered with zoophytes. In some
+species, as in the British _Eupagurus prideauxi_, a sea-anemone is
+constantly found attached to the shell, profiting by the active
+locomotion of the crab and probably sharing the crumbs of its food,
+while it affords its host protection by its stinging powers.
+
+In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family _Coenobitidae_ live
+on land, often at considerable distances from the sea, to which,
+however, they return for the purpose of hatching out their spawn. The
+large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of the Indo-Pacific islands (_Birgus
+latro_), which belongs to this family, has given up the habit of
+carrying a portable dwelling, and the upper surface of its abdomen has
+become covered by shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees
+to get the fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even
+photographed in the act.     (W. T. CA.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Gecarcinus ruricola_ (Violet Land Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Portunus puber_ (Velvet Swimming Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. _Podophthalmus vigil_ (Sentinel Spinous Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Eupagurus Bernhardus_ (Soldier Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Pinnotheres pisum_ (Pea Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Corystes Cassivelaunus_ (Masked Crab).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Eupagurus angulatus_ (a Hermit Crab).]
+
+
+
+
+CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832), English poet, was born at Aldeburgh in
+Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family was partly of Norfolk,
+partly of Suffolk origin, and the name was doubtless originally derived
+from "crab." His grandfather, Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family
+to settle at Aldeburgh, where he held the appointment of collector of
+customs. He died in 1734, leaving one son, George, who practised many
+occupations, including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village
+of Orford. Finally the poet's father obtained a small post in the
+customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a publican, and
+had six children, of whom George was the eldest.
+
+The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George Crabbe's
+birthplace, but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden, some
+half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the son was at a
+later date to work with him. At first attending a dame's school in
+Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he was sent to a
+boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school at Stowmarket,
+where he remained two years. His father dreamt of the medical profession
+for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he went to Wickham Brook near
+Newmarket as an apothecary's assistant. In 1771 we find him assisting a
+surgeon at Woodbridge, and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy.
+Crabbe was now only eighteen years of age, but he became "engaged" to
+this lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married. The
+intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which, however,
+not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed assisted him.
+About the time of Crabbe's return from Woodbridge to Aldeburgh he
+published at Ipswich his first work, a poem entitled _Inebriety_ (1775).
+He found his father fallen on evil days. There was no money to assist
+him to a partnership, and surgery for the moment seemed out of the
+question. For a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling
+butter casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however, the
+young man bought on credit "the shattered furniture of an apothecary's
+shop and the drugs that stocked it." This was at Aldeburgh. A year later
+Crabbe installed a deputy in the surgery and paid his first visit to
+London. He lodged in Whitechapel, took lessons in midwifery and walked
+the hospitals. Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months--in 1777--he
+found his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter
+failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his mind. At
+times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he to earn a livelihood.
+After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe paid his second visit to
+London, enabled thereto by the loan of five pounds from Dudley Lang, a
+local magnate. This visit to London, which was undertaken by sea on
+board the "Unity" smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem
+_The Candidate_, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For a
+time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts of
+money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned the great, and the
+publishers also. Everywhere he was refused, but at length a letter which
+reached Edmund Burke in March 1781 led to the careful consideration on
+the part of that great man of Crabbe's many manuscripts. Burke advised
+the publication of _The Library_, which appeared in 1781. He invited him
+to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure
+Crabbe's entry into the church. He was ordained in December 1781 and was
+appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh.
+
+Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk could not
+reverence as priest a man they had known as a day labourer. Crabbe again
+appealed to Burke, who persuaded the duke of Rutland to make him his
+chaplain (1782), and Crabbe took up his residence in Belvoir Castle,
+accompanying his new patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who
+told him he was "as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen") gave him
+the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in Dorsetshire, worth
+together about L200 a year. In May 1783 Crabbe's poem _The Village_ was
+published by Dodsley, and in December of this year he married Sarah
+Elmy. Crabbe continued his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a
+non-resident priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned.
+In 1785 he published _The Newspaper_. Shortly after this he moved with
+his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern, where he took
+the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke, archdeacon of
+Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years. In 1789, through the
+persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now a widow, the duke having died
+in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe
+the two livings of Muston in Leicestershire and West Allington in
+Lincolnshire. At Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years,
+divided by a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his
+wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle's that
+placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall, Parham,
+Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to 1796, leaving
+curates in charge of his two livings. In 1796 the loss of their son
+Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham to Great Glemham Hall,
+Suffolk, where they lived until 1801. In that year Crabbe went to live
+at Rendham, a village in the same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to
+Muston. In 1807 he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the
+publication of _The Parish Register_, in 1810 of _The Borough_, and in
+1812 of _Tales in Verse_. In 1813 Crabbe's wife died, and in 1814 he was
+given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland, a son
+of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted the living
+of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 1814 to his death in 1832
+Crabbe resided at Trowbridge.
+
+These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was a constant
+visitor to London, and in friendship with all the literary celebrities
+of the time. "Crabbe seemed to grow young again," remarks his
+biographer, M. Rene Huchon. He certainly carried on a succession of mild
+flirtations, and one of his parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have
+married him. The elderly widower had proposed to her and had been
+accepted in 1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed
+to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In his visits
+to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in St James's Place,
+and was a frequent visitor to Holland House, where he met his brother
+poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817 his _Tales of the Hall_ were
+completed, and John Murray offered L3000 for the copyright, Crabbe's
+previous works being included. The offer after much negotiation was
+accepted, but Crabbe's popularity was now on the wane.
+
+In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter Scott. The
+adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of George IV. about the
+same time, is most amusingly described in Lockhart's biography of Scott,
+although one episode--that of the broken wine-glass--is discredited by
+Crabbe's biographer, M. Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of
+February 1832, and was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate
+monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833.
+
+Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous a favourite
+with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to fall into oblivion
+by the public. All the poets of his earlier and his later years, Cowper,
+Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have been reprinted again and
+again. With Crabbe it was long quite otherwise. His works were collected
+into eight volumes, the first containing his life by his son, in 1832.
+The edition was intended to continue with some of his prose writings,
+but the reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging.
+A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has been
+reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of the
+copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe's reputation, and it was not
+until the end of the century that sundry volumes of "selections" from
+his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of Omar Khayyam fame, always a
+loyal admirer, made a "Selection," privately printed by Quaritch, in
+1879. A "Selection" by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C.
+H. Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The _Complete Works_
+were published by the Cambridge University Press in three volumes,
+edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906.
+
+Crabbe's poems have been praised by many competent pens, by Edward
+FitzGerald in his _Letters_, by Cardinal Newman in his _Apologia_, and
+by Sir Leslie Stephen in his _Hours in a Library_, most notably. His
+verses comforted the last hours of Charles James Fox and of Sir Walter
+Scott, while Thomas Hardy has acknowledged their influence on the
+realism of his novels. But his works have ceased to command a wide
+public interest. He just failed of being the artist in words who is able
+to make the same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well
+repay perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once read
+are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of English fiction,
+for even considered as a novelist he makes fascinating reading. He is
+more than this: for there is true poetry in Crabbe, although his most
+distinctively lyric note was attained when he wrote under the influence
+of opium, to which he became much addicted in his later years.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Works of Crabbe_ (8 vols., Murray, 1834; 1 vol.,
+  Murray, 1901), and the _Works_ in the Cambridge Press Classics, edited
+  by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The life by
+  Crabbe's son in one volume, _The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe,
+  LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M._ (1834), has not been
+  separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is
+  _George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Biographical
+  Study_, by Rene Huchon, translated from the French by Frederick Clarke
+  (1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel ("Great Writers" series) and
+  by Canon Ainger ("English Men of Letters" series) also deserve
+  attention.     (C. K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CRACKER (from "crack," a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _krachen_, Dutch
+_kraken_, meaning to break with a sharp sound), that which "cracks"; it
+is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework so constructed that it explodes
+with several reports and jumps at each explosion, when placed on the
+ground (see FIREWORKS); (2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper
+containing sweets, small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other
+trifles, together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes
+with a "crack" on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit (q.v.); in
+America the general name for a biscuit. In the southern states of
+America, "cracker" is a term of contempt for the "poor" or "mean
+whites," particularly of Georgia and Florida; the term is an old one and
+dates back to the Revolution, and is supposed to be derived from the
+"cracked corn" which formed the staple food of the class to whom the
+term refers.
+
+
+
+
+CRACOW (Pol. _Krakov_; Ger. _Krakau_), a town and episcopal see of
+Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900)
+91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans and the remainder Poles.
+Although in regard to its population it is only the second place in
+Galicia, Cracow is the most interesting town in the whole of Poland. No
+other Polish town possesses so many old and historic buildings, none of
+them contains so many national relics, or has been so closely associated
+with the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the ancient
+capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation.
+
+Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the Vistula
+(which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of great
+strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town and seven
+suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the old town, whose
+place is now occupied by shady promenades, is the Florian's Gate and the
+Rondell, a circular structure, built in 1498. Cracow has 39
+churches--about half the number it formerly had--and 25 convents for
+monks and nuns. Of these the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral,
+in Gothic style, consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky
+eminence to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were
+crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish nation, the
+burial place of its kings and its great men. Here lie the remains of
+John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of Joseph Poniatowski and of
+Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are conserved the remains of St Stanislaus,
+the patron saint of the Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain
+before the altar by King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned
+with many valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such
+artists as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &c. Part
+of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic church of St
+Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century with several chapels
+added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was restored in 1889-1893, and
+decorated with paintings from the designs by Matejko. It contains a huge
+high altar, the masterpiece of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow,
+executed in 1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end
+of the 15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families from
+the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a Gothic building of
+the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a fire in 1850; the
+Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also much modernized; the
+church of St Florian of the 12th century, rebuilt in 1768, which
+contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit Stoss, executed in 1518, during
+his last sojourn in Cracow; the church of St Peter, with a colossal
+dome, built in 1597, after the model of that of St Peter at Rome, and
+the beautiful Augustinian church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all
+worth mentioning. Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle
+(_Zamek Krolowsk_), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and
+successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I. Jagiello
+(1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until 1610 the residence
+of the Polish kings. It suffered much from fires and other disasters,
+and from 1846 onward was used as a barracks and a military hospital; it
+has now, however, been cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian
+university, now housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in
+1881-1887, was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors
+and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the second
+oldest university in Europe--the oldest being that of Prague--and was
+famous during the 15th and 16th centuries. It was founded by Casimir the
+Great in 1364, and completed by Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich
+library is now housed in the old university buildings, erected in the
+15th century, in the beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of
+Copernicus was placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in
+1872, is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz, or
+the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the _Tuchhaus_
+(cloth-hall, Pol. _Sukiennice_), a building erected in 1257, several
+times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879, which contains the
+Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a Gothic tower, the only
+relic of the old town hall, demolished in 1820. The Czartoryski museum
+contains a large collection of objects of art, a rich library and a
+precious collection of manuscripts, relating to the history of Poland.
+
+Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agricultural
+implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &c. But Cracow is more important
+as a trading than as an industrial centre. Its position on the Vistula
+and at the junction of several railways makes it the natural mart for
+the exchange of the products of Silesia, Hungary and Russian and
+Austrian Poland. Its trade in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and
+agricultural produce of all kinds is very considerable. In the
+neighbourhood of Cracow there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far
+away lies the village of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2-1/2 m.
+N.W. lies the Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up
+in 1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus
+Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the Vistula,
+united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze (pop. 18,142);
+near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the Kosciuszko Hill, and a
+thousand years older than it, erected in honour of Krakus, the founder
+of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of Cracow is situated Wieliczka (q.v.), with
+its famous salt mines.
+
+_History._--Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the mythical
+Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a stronghold here about
+A.D. 700. Its early history is, however, entirely obscure. In the latter
+part of the 10th century it was annexed to the Bohemian principality,
+but was recaptured by Boleslaus Chrobry, who made it the seat of a
+bishopric, and it became the capital of one of the most important of the
+principalities into which Poland was divided from the 12th century
+onwards. The city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion
+in 1241, but the introduction of German colonists restored its
+prosperity, and in 1257 it received "Magdeburg rights," i.e. a civic
+constitution modelled on that of Magdeburg. In this year the _Tuchhalle_
+was built. The town, however, had yet to pass through many vicissitudes.
+It suffered again from Tatar invasions; in 1290 it was captured by
+Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305,
+the Polish king Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III.
+Ladislaus made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained
+the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after the
+royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-1632) to Warsaw.
+On the third partition of Poland in 1795 Austria took possession of
+Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon wrested it from that power, and
+incorporated it with the duchy of Warsaw, which was placed under the
+rule of the king of Saxony. In the campaign of 1812 the emperor
+Alexander made himself master of this and the other territory which
+formed the duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of
+Europe by the great powers in 1815, it was agreed that Cracow and the
+adjoining territory should be formed into a free state; and, by the
+Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 1815, "the town of Cracow,
+with its territory, is declared to be for ever a free, independent and
+strictly neutral city, under the protection of Russia, Austria and
+Prussia." In February 1846, however, an insurrection broke out in
+Cracow, apparently a ramification of a widely spread conspiracy
+throughout Poland. The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were
+unable to subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request,
+the city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection
+of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, made
+this a pretext for extinguishing this independent state; and as the
+outcome of a conference at Vienna (November 1846) the three courts,
+contrary to the assurance previously given, and in opposition to the
+expressed views of the British and French governments, decided to
+extinguish the state of Cracow and to incorporate it with the dominions
+of Austria.
+
+
+
+
+CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT (1850-   ), the pen-name of MARY NOAILLES
+MURFREE, American author, who was born near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on
+the 24th of January 1850, the great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree.
+She was crippled in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in
+Nashville and Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of
+eastern Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with
+whose life her writings deal. She contributed to _Appleton's Journal_,
+and, first in 1878, to _The Atlantic Monthly_. No one, apparently,
+suspected that the author of these stories was a woman, and her identity
+was not disclosed until 1885, a year after the publication of her first
+volume of short stories, _In the Tennessee Mountains_. She deals mainly
+with the narrow, stern life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left
+behind in the advance of civilization, live amid traditions and customs,
+and speak a dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in
+exquisite descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: _Where the
+Battle was Fought_ (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristocratic
+southern life; _Down the Ravine_ (1885) and _The Story of Keedon Bluffs_
+(1887) for young people; _The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains_
+(1885), a novel; _In the Clouds_ (1886), a novel; _The Despot of
+Broomsedge Cove_ (1888), a novel; _In the "Stranger-People's" Country_
+(1891); _His Vanished Star_ (1894), a novel; _The Mystery of Witch-Face
+Mountain and Other Stories_ (1895); _The Phantoms of the Footbridge and
+Other Stories_ (1895); _The Young Mountaineers_ (1897), short stories;
+_The Juggler_ (1897); _The Story of Old Fort Loudon_ (1899); _The
+Bushwhackers and Other Stories_ (1899); _The Champion_ (1902); _A
+Spectre of Power_ (1903); _The Frontiersman_ (1904); _The Storm Centre_
+(1905); _The Amulet_ (1906); _The Windfall_ (1907); and _Fair
+Mississippian_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with "crate" and
+"creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of
+rocking, is scouted by the _New English Dictionary_), a child's bed of
+wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed sides, slung upon pivots or mounted
+on rockers. It is a very ancient piece of furniture, but the date when
+it first assumed its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no
+means clear. A miniature in an illuminated _Histoire de la belle
+Helaine_ in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or
+beginning of the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny
+four-post bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an
+oblong oak box without a lid--originally the rockers appear to have
+been detachable--but, like all other household appliances, it has been
+subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and adornment. It has been
+panelled and carved, supported on Renaissance pillars, inlaid with
+marqueterie or mounted in gilded bronze. The original simple shape
+persisted for two or three centuries--even the hood made its appearance
+very early. In the 18th century, however, cradles were often very
+elaborate--indeed in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but
+the richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for
+purposes of state, being in fact miniature _lits de parade_. In modern
+times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood being very
+often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a carved or shaped
+upright. About the middle of the 19th century iron cradles were
+introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A number of undoubted historic
+cradles have been preserved, together with many others with doubtful
+attributions. Two alleged cradles of Henry V. exist; one which claims to
+have been used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle. That of
+Henry IV. of France, now in the Chateau de Pau, is mounted upon a large
+tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome ("Napoleon II.") was designed by
+Prud'hon, and along with that of the comte de Chambord is preserved in
+the Garde Meuble. In England a cradle is now often called a "bassinet"
+(i.e. little basket), and the "cot" has to some extent taken its place.
+By analogy, the word "cradle" is also applied to various sorts of
+framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool used in engraving.
+
+
+
+
+CRADOCK, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the Cape
+province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m. by rail N.
+by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one of the chief
+centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also a large trade in
+ostrich feathers, mohair, &c. The town enjoys a reputation as one of the
+best health resorts in the province. It stands at an altitude of 2856
+ft.; the climate is very dry, the average annual rainfall being 14.50
+in. The mean maximum temperature is 77.6 deg. F. Three miles N. of the
+town are sulphur baths (temp. 100 deg. F.) used for the treatment of
+rheumatism. In the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras,
+now protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning of the
+19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock, governor of the Cape
+1811-1813. The division has an area of 3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
+18,803, of whom 41% are white.
+
+
+
+
+CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf.
+Ger. _Kraft_), a word confined in English only, of the Teutonic
+languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power, and used as a
+synonym of "art." It then means skill or ingenuity, especially in the
+manual arts, hence its use in the expression "Arts and Crafts" (q.v.),
+and it is thus applied to the trade or profession in which such skill is
+displayed, to an association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade
+gild, and in particular to Freemasons, "the craft"; the word appears
+also in words such as "handicraft" or "craftsman." Skill applied to
+outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning or trickery, and it
+is this meaning which is implied in such combined words as
+"priestcraft," "witchcraft" and the like. A more particular use of the
+word is in the nautical sense of vessels of transport by water; this is
+probably a colloquially shortened form either of "vessels of a
+fisherman's, lighterman's &c., craft," i.e. "art," or of "vessels of a
+heavier or lighter craft," i.e. burden or capacity; in both cases the
+qualifying words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in
+general.
+
+
+
+
+CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. _creag_, Manx _creg_, and Welsh and
+modern Scots _craig_), a steep rock. The word appears in many
+place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also
+connected with "carrick," a word of similar meaning, also found in
+place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the strata in which a
+shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expression "crag and tail," to
+a formation of hills, in which one side is precipitous and lofty and the
+other slopes or "tails" gradually away, as in the Castle Rock in
+Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+CRAGGS, JAMES (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of Anthony
+Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the 10th of June 1657.
+After following various callings in London, Craggs, who was a person of
+considerable financial ability, entered the service of the duchess of
+Marlborough, and through her influence became in 1702 member of
+parliament for Grampound, retaining his seat until 1713. He was in
+business as an army clothier and held several official positions,
+becoming joint postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his
+opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of money.
+Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the affairs of the South
+Sea Company, but after his death an act of parliament confiscated all
+the property which he had acquired since December 1719. He left an
+enormous fortune when he died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible
+that Craggs committed suicide.
+
+His son, JAMES CRAGGS the younger (1686-1721), was born at Westminster
+on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was spent abroad, where
+he made the acquaintance of George Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards
+King George I. In 1713 he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in
+1717 secretary-at-war, and in the following year one of the principal
+secretaries of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but
+not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the 16th of
+February 1721. Among Craggs's friends were Pope, who wrote the epitaph
+on his monument in Westminster Abbey, Addison and Gay.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIG, JOHN (1512?-1600), Scottish reformer, born about 1512, was the
+son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was killed at Flodden in
+1513. After an education at St Andrews, and acting as tutor to the
+children of Lord Darcy, the English warden of the North, he became a
+Dominican, but was soon in trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way
+to England, but failing to obtain the preferment he desired at
+Cambridge, he went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole,
+who was himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the
+novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he was busy
+travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but a perusal of
+Calvin's _Institutes_ revived his heretical tendencies, and he was
+condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and statesman, Thomas
+Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which broke out on the death of
+Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559, when the mob burst open the prison
+of the Inquisition. After various adventures he reached Vienna, where he
+preached, and was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards
+the emperor) Maximilian II.
+
+In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained minister
+of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox's colleague in the High Church. His
+defence of church property and privilege against the predatory instincts
+of the nobles and the pretensions of the state brought him into conflict
+with Lethington and others; but he seems to have condoned, if he was not
+privy to, Riccio's murder. At first he refused to publish the banns of
+marriage between Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a
+protest that he "abhorred and detested the marriage." He had been
+associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization of the
+church, but he wished to compromise between the two extreme parties.
+From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north, whither he had been sent to
+"illuminate those dark places in Mar, Buchan and Aberdeen." In 1579 he
+was appointed chaplain to the young James VI., and returned to
+Edinburgh. In 1581 episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of
+a commission on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition
+of the _Second Book of Discipline_ and the National Covenant of 1580,
+and in 1581 compiled "Ane Shorte and Generale Confession" called the
+"King's Confession," which was imposed on all parish ministers and
+graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of 1638. He approved of
+the Ruthven raid, and admonished James in terms which made him weep, but
+produced no alteration in his conduct, and before long Craig was
+denouncing the supremacy of Arran. But he was averse from the violence
+of Melville, and was willing to admit the royal supremacy "as far as the
+word of God allows." James VI., like Henry VIII., accepted this
+compromise, and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal
+chaplains and some others. In 1592 was published Craig's _Catechism_. He
+died on the 12th of December 1600.
+
+  See T. G. Law's Pref. to Craig's _Catechism_ (1885); Bain's _Cal.
+  Scottish State Papers_; Reg. P. C. Scotl.; Hew Scott's _Fasti Eccles._
+  Scot.; Knox's, Calderwood's and Grub's _Eccles. Histories_; McCrie's
+  _Life of Melville_; Hay Fleming's _Mary, Queen of Scots_; Bannatyne's
+  _Memorials_.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CRAIG, SIR THOMAS (c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet, was born
+about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of William Craig
+of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but beyond the fact
+that he was in some way related to the Craigfintray family nothing
+regarding his birth is known with certainty. He was educated at St
+Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in 1555. From St Andrews he went
+to France, to study the canon and the civil law. He returned to Scotland
+about 1561, and was admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was
+appointed justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of
+Argyll; and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials
+of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff-depute of Edinburgh, and
+in 1606 procurator for the church. He never became a lord of session, a
+circumstance that was unquestionably due to his own choice. It is said
+that he refused the honour of knighthood which the king wished to confer
+on him in 1604, when he came to London as one of the Scottish
+commissioners regarding the union between the kingdoms--the only
+political object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with
+James's commands he has always been styled and reputed a knight. Craig
+was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of Lumphoy in Midlothian, by
+whom he had four sons and three daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis
+Craig (1569-1622), was raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other
+descendants are several well-known names in the list of Scottish
+lawyers. He died on the 26th of February 1608.
+
+Except his poems, the only one of Craig's works which appeared during
+his lifetime was his _Jus feudale_ (1603; ed. R. Burnet, 1655; Leipzig,
+1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this treatise was to
+assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but, instead of this, it
+was an important factor in building up and solidifying the law of
+Scotland into a separate system. Other works were _De unione regnorum
+Britanniae tractatus, De jure successionis regni Angliae_ and _De
+hominio disputatio_. Translations of the last two have been published,
+and in 1910 an edition of the _De Unione_ appeared, with translation and
+notes by C. S. Terry. Craig's first poem, an _Epithalamium_ in honour of
+the marriage of Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1565. Most
+of his poems have been reprinted in the _Delitiae poetarum Scotorum_.
+
+  See P. F. Tytler, _Life of Craig_ (1823); Life prefixed to Baillie's
+  edition of the _Jus feudale_.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA (1867-1906), Anglo-American novelist and
+dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name of "JOHN OLIVER HOBBES," was
+born at Boston, U.S.A., on the 3rd of November 1867. She was the elder
+daughter of John Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris.
+When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie, by whom she
+had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the marriage proved an unhappy
+one, and was dissolved on her petition in July 1895. She was brought up
+as a Nonconformist, but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic
+Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member. Her first
+little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic _Some Emotions and a Moral_,
+was published in 1891 in Mr Fisher Unwin's "Pseudonym Library," and was
+followed by _The Sinner's Comedy_ (1892), _A Study in Temptations_
+(1893), _A Bundle of Life_ (1894), _The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord
+Wickenham_. _The Herb Moon_ (1896), a country love story, was followed
+by _The School for Saints_ (1897), with a sequel, _Robert Orange_
+(1900). Mrs Craigie had already written a one-act "proverb," _Journeys
+end in Lovers Meeting_, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act
+tragedy, "Osbern and Ursyne," printed in the _Anglo-Saxon Review_
+(1899), when her successful piece, _The Ambassador_, was produced at the
+St James's Theatre in 1898. _A Repentance_ (one act, 1899) and _The
+Wisdom of the Wise_ (1900) were produced at the same theatre, and _The
+Flute of Pan_ (1904) first at Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury
+theatre; she was also part author of _The Bishop's Move_ (Garrick
+Theatre, 1902). Later books are _The Serious Wooing_ (1901), _Love and
+the Soul Hunters_ (1902), _Tales about Temperament_ (1902), _The
+Vineyard_ (1904). Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London
+on the 13th of August 1906.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIK, DINAH MARIA (1826-1887), English novelist, better known by her
+maiden name of Mulock, and still better as "the author of _John Halifax,
+Gentleman_," was the daughter of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious
+enthusiast of Irish extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826
+at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister
+of a small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, determined to
+obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with fiction for
+children, advanced steadily until _John Halifax, Gentleman_ (1857),
+placed her in the front rank of the women novelists of her day. _A Life
+for a Life_ (1859), though inferior, maintained a high position, but she
+afterwards wrote little of importance except some very charming tales
+for children. Her most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above,
+were _The Ogilvies_ (1849), _Olive_ (1850), _The Head of the Family_
+(1851), _Agatha's Husband_ (1853). There is much passion and power in
+these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized by
+high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in _Avillion
+and other Tales_ also exhibit a fine imagination. She published some
+poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit, narratives of tours in
+Ireland and Cornwall, and _A Woman's Thoughts about Women_. She married
+Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in the house of Macmillan & Company, in 1864,
+and died at Shortlands, near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866), English man of letters, the son of a
+schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in 1798. He studied at
+the university of St Andrews with the intention of entering the church,
+but, altering his plans, became the editor of a local newspaper, and
+went to London in 1824 to devote himself to literature. He became
+connected with a short-lived literary paper called the _Verulam_; in
+1831 he published his _Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties_ among
+the works of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; he
+contributed a considerable number of biographical and historical
+articles to the _Penny Cyclopaedia_; and he edited the _Pictorial
+History of England_, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he
+published his _History of Literature and Learning in England from the
+Norman Conquest to the Present Time_, illustrated by extracts. Craik is
+best known for his abridged version of this work, _The History of
+English Literature and the English Language_ (1861), which passed
+through several editions. In the next year appeared his _Spenser and his
+Poetry_, an abstract of Spenser's poems, with historical and
+biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his _Bacon, his
+Writings and his Philosophy_, a work of a similar kind. The two
+last-mentioned works appeared among _Knight's Weekly Volumes_. Two years
+later Craik obtained the chair of history and English literature at
+Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he held till his death, which
+took place on the 25th of June 1866. He had married Miss Jeannette
+Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik
+(Mrs A. W. May), wrote over thirty novels, of which _Lost and Won_
+(1859) was the best. Besides the works already noticed, Craik published
+the _History of British Commerce from the Earliest Times_ (1844),
+_Romance of the Peerage_ (1848-1850) and _The English of Shakespeare_
+(1856).
+
+
+
+
+CRAIL (formerly KAREL), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland,
+2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the county, and 11 m.
+S.E. of St Andrews by the North British railway, but 2 m. nearer by
+road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said to have been a town of some note as
+early as the 9th century; and its castle, of which there are hardly any
+remains, was the residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was
+constituted a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and had
+its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in 1553, and by
+Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to St Rufus, a few ruins
+still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the patron saint of Crail, is an
+edifice of great antiquity. Many of the ordinary houses are massive and
+quaint. The public buildings include a library and reading-room and town
+hall. The chief industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs,
+shipping and brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It
+unites with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem and
+Cupar in returning one member to parliament.
+
+Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th century.
+Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before her marriage to
+James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th century it passed through
+the hands of various proprietors and was ultimately shorn of much of its
+original size and grandeur. The East Neuk is a term applied more
+particularly to the country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all
+of the peninsula east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to
+Elie. For fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with
+the haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea.
+
+
+
+
+CRAILSHEIM, or KRAILSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Wurttemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the Neckar, at the junction of
+railways to Heilbronn and Furth. Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two
+Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town
+hall, with a tower 225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include
+extensive tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in
+cattle and agricultural produce.
+
+Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully withstood a
+siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities (1379-1380), a
+feat which is annually celebrated, passed later into the possession of
+the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to
+Bavaria and 1810 to Wurttemberg.
+
+
+
+
+CRAIOVA, or KRAJOVA, the capital of the department of Doljiu, Rumania,
+situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and on the main Walachian
+railway from Verciorova to Bucharest. Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch
+railway to Calafat facilitates the export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova
+is the chief commercial town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands
+are very rich in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain
+extensive forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close
+by is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the army.
+The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen, pottery, glue
+and leather. In the town, which is the headquarters of the First Army
+Corps, there are military and commercial academies, an appeal court and
+a chamber of commerce, besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman
+Catholic, and Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews.
+
+Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova, was formerly
+the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient _bans_ or military governors
+were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries of Walachia, and the
+district is still styled the banat of Craiova. Among the holders of this
+office were Michael the Brave (1593-1601), and several members of the
+celebrated BASSARAB family (q.v.). The bans had the right of coining
+money stamped with their own effigies, and hence arose the name of
+_bani_ (centimes). The Rumanian franc, or _leu_ ("lion"), so called from
+the image it bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the
+scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan of the
+Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between Turks and Russians.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMBO, an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt (_Sports and
+Pastimes_), was played as early as the 14th century under the name of
+the _ABC of Aristotle_. In the days of the Stuarts it was very popular,
+and is frequently mentioned in the writings of the time. Thus Congreve's
+_Love for Love_, i. 1, contains the passage, "Get the Maids to Crambo in
+an Evening, and learn the knack of Rhiming." Crambo, or capping the
+rhyme, is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the
+others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual word they
+guess but its meaning. Thus one says "I know a word that rhymes with
+_bird_." A second asks "Is it ridiculous?" "No, it is not absurd." "Is
+it a part of speech?" "No, it is not a word." This proceeds until the
+right word is guessed.
+
+
+In _Dumb Crambo_ the guessers, instead of naming the word, express its
+meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as a clue.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1771-1858), English musician, of German
+extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of February 1771. He was
+the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1743-1799). a famous London violinist and
+musical conductor, one of a numerous family who were identified with the
+progress of music during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was
+brought to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part
+of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he studied the
+pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became known as a professional
+pianist both in London and on the continent; he enjoyed a world-wide
+reputation, and was particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in
+London on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing
+Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder in 1824 of
+the London music-publishing house of Cramer & Co. He wrote a number of
+sonatas, &c., for pianoforte, and other compositions; but his _Etudes_
+is the work by which he lives as a composer. These "studies" have
+appeared in numerous editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple
+pieces in the training of pianists.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY (1793-1848), English classical scholar and
+geographer, was born at Mitlodi in Switzerland. He was educated at
+Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford. He resided in Oxford till 1844,
+during which time he held many important offices, being public orator,
+principal of New Inn Hall (which he rebuilt at his own expense), and
+professor of modern history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of
+Carlisle, which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of
+August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: _A Dissertation
+on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps_, published anonymously with H.
+L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), "a scholar-like work of first-rate ability";
+geographical and historical descriptions of _Ancient Italy_ (1826),
+_Ancient Greece_ (1828), _Asia Minor_ (1832); _Travels of Nicander
+Nucius of Corcyra_ [Greek traveller of the 16th century] _in England_
+(1841); _Catenae Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum_ (1838-1844);
+_Anecdota Graeca_ (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris,
+1839-1841).
+
+
+
+
+CRAMER, KARL VON (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had a very remarkable
+career, rising gradually from a mere workman in a factory at Doos near
+Nuremberg to the post of manager, and finally becoming part proprietor
+of the establishment. Leaving business in 1870 he devoted his time
+entirely to politics. From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian
+second chamber, at first representing the district of Erlangen-Furth,
+and afterwards Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of 1866
+as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from 1871 to 1874 to
+the first German _Reichstag_. He sat in these bodies as a member of the
+Progressive party (_Fortschrittspartei_), and in Bavaria was one of the
+leaders of the Liberal (_Freisinnige_) party. His eloquence had a great
+hold upon the masses. As a parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and
+thoroughly understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the
+reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on account of
+his great services in connexion with the Bavarian National Exhibition of
+Nuremberg, the order of the crown of Bavaria was conferred upon him,
+carrying with it the honour of nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the
+31st of December 1902.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828-   ), American shipbuilder, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th of May 1828, of German descent,
+his family name having been Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children
+of William Cramp (1807-1869), a pioneer American shipbuilder, who in
+1830 established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia. The
+son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school, after which he
+was employed in his father's shipyards and made himself master of every
+detail of ship construction. He showed especial aptitude as a naval
+architect and designer, and after becoming his father's partner in 1849
+it was to that branch of the work that he devoted himself. His
+inventive capacity and resourcefulness, together with the complete
+success of his innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high
+rank as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that
+industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf boats for the
+landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil War he designed and
+built several ironclads for the United States navy, notably the "New
+Ironsides" in 1862, and the light-draught monitors used in the Carolina
+sounds; and after 1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own
+designs many of the most powerful ships in the "new" navy, including the
+cruisers "Columbia," "Minneapolis" and "Brooklyn," and the battleships
+"Indiana," "Iowa," "Massachusetts," "Alabama" and "Maine." In every
+progressive step in ocean shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail
+to steam, and from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part.
+His fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built warships for
+several foreign navies, among others the "Retvizan" and the "Variag" for
+the Russian government. He also constructed a number of freight and
+passenger steamships for several trans-Atlantic lines.
+
+  See A. C. Buel, _Memoirs of C. H. Cramp_ (Philadelphia, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CRAMP, a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most frequently
+occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain internal organs.
+This disorder belongs to the class of diseases known as local spasms, of
+which other varieties exist in such affections as spasmodic asthma and
+colic. The cause of these painful seizures resides in the nervous
+system, and operates either directly from the great nerve centres, or,
+as is generally the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example,
+when attacks are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs.
+
+In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this disorder comes
+on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient being aroused by an
+agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the leg or back of the thigh,
+accompanied in many instances with a sensation of sickness or faintness
+from the intensity of the suffering. During the paroxysm the muscular
+fibres affected can often be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The
+attack in general lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs,
+the spasmodic contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the
+other hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes or
+even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a rheumatic or
+gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common enough apart from
+this, and are often induced by some peculiar posture which a limb has
+assumed during sleep. Exposure of the limbs to cold will also bring on
+cramp, and to this is probably to be ascribed its frequent occurrence in
+swimmers. Cramp of the extremities is also well known as one of the most
+distressing accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent
+occurrence in the process of parturition, just before delivery.
+
+This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely removed
+by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part with the hand,
+or by anything which makes an impression on the nerves, such as warm
+applications. Even a sudden and vigorous movement of the limb will often
+succeed in terminating the attack.
+
+What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually occurs as a
+symptom in connexion with some form of gastric disorder, such as
+aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease of the mucous membrane
+of the stomach.
+
+The disease known as _Writer's Cramp_, or _Scrivener's Palsy_, is a
+spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the performance of
+acts, the result of education and long usage, and which does not occur
+when the same muscles are employed in acts of a different kind. This
+disorder owes its name to the relative frequency with which it is met in
+persons who write much, although it is by no means confined to them, but
+is liable to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was
+termed by Dr Duchenne _Functional Spasm_.
+
+The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing difficulty
+experienced in conducting the movements required for executing the work
+in hand. Taking, for example, the case of writers, there is a feeling
+that the pen cannot be moved with the same freedom as before, and the
+handwriting is more or less altered in consequence. At an early stage of
+the disease the difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by
+persevering efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in,
+the muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm,
+are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is rendered
+impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being cramped, move in a
+disorderly manner and the pen cannot be grasped, while in other rare
+instances a kind of paralysis affects the muscles of the fingers, and
+they are powerless to make the movements necessary for holding the pen.
+It is to be noted that it is only in the act of writing that these
+phenomena present themselves, and that for all other movements the
+fingers and arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are
+observed and the same remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ in the case of
+musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and many
+mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed, although actually a
+rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles in the body which is
+specially called into action in any particular occupation is exempt from
+liability to this functional spasm.
+
+The exact pathology of writer's cramp has not been worked out, but it is
+now generally accepted that the disease is not a local one of muscles or
+nerves, but that it is an affection of the central nervous system. The
+complaint never occurs under thirty years of age, and is more frequent
+in males than females. Occasionally there is an inherited tendency to
+the disease, but more usually there is a history of alcoholism in the
+parents, or some neuropathic heredity. In its treatment the first
+requisite is absolute cessation from the employment which caused it.
+Usually, however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery
+takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are
+regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity, then
+Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in performing
+the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the wrist.
+
+
+
+
+CRAMP-RINGS, rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and
+"falling-sickness" or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one was
+presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his return from
+Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained to the king. At his
+death it passed into the keeping of the abbot of Westminster, by whom it
+was used medically and was known as St Edward's Ring. From that time the
+belief grew that the successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that
+the rings blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the
+successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday formally to
+bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held; prayers and psalms
+were said; and water "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost" was
+poured over the rings, which were always of gold or silver, and made
+from the metal that the king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The
+ceremony survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the
+curative powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even
+to the present day.
+
+  For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, _The Literary
+  Museum_ (London, 1792); see also _Notes and Queries_, vol. vii., 1853;
+  vol. ix., 1878.
+
+
+
+
+CRANACH, LUCAS (1472-1553), German painter, was born at Cronach in upper
+Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from his father. It has not
+been possible to trace his descent or the name of his parents. We are
+not informed as to the school in which he was taught, and it is a mere
+guess that he took lessons from the south German masters to whom Mathew
+Grunewald owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and
+Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in which
+Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of Cranach's children,
+Cranach signalized his talents as a painter before the close of the 15th
+century. He then drew upon himself the attention of the elector of
+Saxony, who attached him to his person in 1504. The records of
+Wittenberg confirm Gunderam's statement to this extent that Cranach's
+name appears for the first time in the public accounts on the 24th of
+June 1504, when he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as
+_pictor ducalis_. The only clue to Cranach's settlement previous to his
+Wittenberg appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a
+house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the daughter
+of a burgher of that city.
+
+Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture dated
+1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to that date we are
+altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this obscurity is the light
+thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find him active in several branches
+of his profession,--sometimes a mere house-painter, more frequently
+producing portraits and altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of
+copper-plates, and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early
+in the days of his official employment he startled his master's
+courtiers by the realism with which he painted still life, game and
+antlers on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau; his
+pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the duke
+fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to the
+hunting field, where he sketched "his grace" running the stag, or Duke
+John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted several altar-pieces
+for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in competition with Durer, Burgkmair
+and others; the duke and his brother John were portrayed in various
+attitudes and a number of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were
+published. Great honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the
+Netherlands, and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy
+who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1508 Cranach signed his works with
+the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave him the winged
+snake as a motto, and this motto or _Kleinod_, as it was called,
+superseded the initials on all his pictures after that date. Somewhat
+later the duke conferred on him the monopoly of the sale of medicines at
+Wittenberg, and a printer's patent with exclusive privileges as to
+copyright in Bibles. The presses of Cranach were used by Luther. His
+chemist's shop was open for centuries, and only perished by fire in
+1871. Relations of friendship united the painter with the Reformers at a
+very early period; yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first
+acquaintance with Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer's
+correspondence dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in 1521,
+Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his "Gevatterin," the
+artist's wife. His first engraved portrait by Cranach represents an
+Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520. Five years later the friar dropped
+the cowl, and Cranach was present as "one of the council" at the
+betrothal festival of Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short
+intervals of the electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no
+change in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a
+favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he twice
+(1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Wittenberg. But 1547
+witnessed a remarkable change in these relations. John Frederick was
+taken prisoner at the battle of Muhlberg, and Wittenberg was subjected
+to stress of siege. As Cranach wrote from his house at the corner of the
+market-place to the grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Konigsberg to
+tell him of John Frederick's capture, he showed his attachment by
+saying, "I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been robbed of
+our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a true prince to
+us, but God will help him out of prison, for the Kaiser is bold enough
+to revive the Papacy, which God will certainly not allow." During the
+siege Charles bethought him of Cranach, whom he remembered from his
+childhood and summoned him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came,
+reminded his majesty of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his
+knees for kind treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when
+all the dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands
+from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles's bidding came to take the
+likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked Cranach to visit the
+Swabian capital; and here for a few months he was numbered amongst the
+household of the captive elector, whom he afterwards accompanied home in
+1552. He died on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in
+which he lived still stands in the market-place.
+
+The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the "Rest of the Virgin 365
+during the Flight into Egypt," marked with the initials L.C., and the
+date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil. The
+scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses the
+habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of Thuringia.
+There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time; and this would
+point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose stag hunts are
+otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach's art in its prime was doubtless
+influenced by causes which but slightly affected the art of the
+Italians, but weighed with potent consequence on that of the Netherlands
+and Germany. The business of booksellers who sold woodcuts and
+engravings at fairs and markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving
+which arose out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular
+edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates became the
+occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted in Italy to
+productions of the brush were here monopolized for designs on wood or on
+copper. We have thus to account for the comparative unproductiveness as
+painters of Durer and Holbein, and at the same time to explain the
+shallowness apparent in many of the later works of Cranach; but we
+attribute to the same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect
+effective colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint.
+Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white appears to
+have affected his sight, and caused those curious transitions of pallid
+light into inky grey which often characterize his studies of flesh;
+whilst the mere outlining of form in black became a natural substitute
+for modelling and chiaroscuro. There are, no doubt, some few pictures by
+Cranach in which the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled
+surface, but they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not
+greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he showed some
+freshness in the delineation of incident, though he not unfrequently
+bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates and woodcuts are certainly the
+best outcome of his art; and the earlier they are in date the more
+conspicuous is their power. Striking evidence of this is the "St
+Christopher" of 1506, or the plate of "Elector Frederick praying before
+the Madonna" (1509). It is curious to watch the changes which mark the
+development of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the
+Reformation. At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut
+(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before a
+crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine, a series of
+martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517 he illustrates
+occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also gives expression to some
+of the thoughts of the Reformers. In a picture of 1518 at Leipzig, where
+a dying man offers "his soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly
+goods to his relations," the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven,
+and salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good works.
+Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial delineation.
+Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist and a prophet at the
+foot of a tree. To the left God produces the tables of the law, Adam and
+Eve partake of the forbidden fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft,
+and punishment supervenes in the shape of death and the realm of Satan.
+To the right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize
+redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the Baptist, who
+points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour. There are two examples
+of this composition in the galleries of Gotha and Prague, both of them
+dated 1529. One of the latest pictures with which the name of Cranach is
+connected is the altarpiece which Cranach's son completed in 1555, and
+which is now in the _Stadtkirche_ (city church) at Weimar. It represents
+Christ in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the
+right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John the
+Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream falls on
+the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book the words, "The
+blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin." Cranach sometimes composed
+gospel subjects with feeling and dignity. "The Woman taken in Adultery"
+at Munich is a favourable specimen of his skill, and various repetitions
+of Christ receiving little children show the kindliness of his
+disposition. But he was not exclusively a religious painter. He was
+equally successful, and often comically naave, in mythological scenes,
+as where Cupid, who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he
+has been stung by a bee (Weimar, 1530; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules
+sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids. Humour and
+pathos are combined at times with strong effect in pictures such as the
+"Jealousy" (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530), where women and children are
+huddled into telling groups as they watch the strife of men wildly
+fighting around them. Very realistic must have been a lost canvas of
+1545, in which hares were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1546,
+possibly under Italian influence, Cranach composed the "Fons Juventutis"
+of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which hags are
+seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received as they issue
+from it with all the charms of youth by knights and pages.
+
+Cranach's chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and we are
+indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features of all the
+German Reformers and their princely adherents. But he sometimes
+condescended to depict such noted followers of the papacy as Albert of
+Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz, Anthony Granvelle and the duke
+of Alva. A dozen likenesses of Frederick III. and his brother John are
+found to bear the date of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach's
+readiness, and a proof that he possessed ample material for mechanical
+reproduction, that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for "sixty
+pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother" in one day. Amongst
+existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of Albert, elector
+of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John, elector of Saxony, at
+Dresden.
+
+Cranach had three sons, all artists:--John Lucas, who died at Bologna in
+1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and Lucas, born in 1515, who
+died in 1586.
+
+  See Heller, _Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs_ (2nd ed., Bamberg, 1844);
+  Chr. Schuchard, _Lukas Cranachs des alteren Leben und Werke_ (3 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1851-1871); Warnecke, _Cranach der altere_ (Gorlitz, 1879);
+  M. B. Lindau, _Lucas Cranach_ (1883); Lippmann, _Lukas Cranach,
+  Sammlung, &c._ (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most notable
+  woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, _Verzeichnis der Dresdener
+  Cranach-Ausstellung von 1899_ (Dresden, 1899); Flechsig, _Tafelbilder
+  Cranach's des altern und seiner Werkstatt_ (Leipzig, 1900); Muther,
+  _Lukas Cranach_ (Berlin, 1902); Michaelson, _L. Cranach der altere_
+  (Leipzig, 1902).     (J. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANBERRY, the fruit of plants of the genus _Oxycoccus_, (natural order
+Vacciniaceae), often considered part of the genus _Vaccinium. O.
+palustris_ (or _Vaccinium Oxycoccus_), the common cranberry plant, is
+found in marshy land in northern and central Europe and North America.
+Its stems are wiry, creeping and of varying length; the leaves are
+evergreen, dark and shining above, glaucous below, revolute at the
+margin, ovate, lanceolate or elliptical in shape, and not more than half
+an inch long; the flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and
+stalked, and have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments,
+and anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August and
+September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of currants, are
+crimson in colour and often spotted, and have an acid and astringent
+taste. The American species, _O. macrocarpus_, is found wild from Maine
+to the Carolinas. It attains a greater size than _O. palustris_, and
+bears bigger and finer berries, which are of three principal sorts, the
+_cherry_ or round, the _bugle_ or oblong, and the _pear_ or bell-shaped,
+and vary in hue from light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red
+and white. _O. erythrocarpus_ is a species indigenous in the mountains
+from Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour of
+its berry.
+
+Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the
+cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or
+vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf, and
+having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs renewal
+every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous existence of the
+plants, and serves both to keep the underlying soil cool and damp, and
+to check the growth of grass and weeds. The ground must be thoroughly
+drained, and should be provided with a supply of water and a dam for
+flooding the plants during winter to protect them from frost, and
+occasionally at other seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of
+spring water should be avoided. The flavour of the fruit is found to be
+improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-rotted dung,
+and by supplying them with less moisture than they obtain in their
+natural habitats. Propagation is effected by means of cuttings, of which
+the wood should be wiry in texture, and the leaves of a greenish-brown
+colour. In America, where, in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts,
+the cultivation of the cranberry commenced early in the last century,
+wide tracts of waste land have been utilized for that purpose--low,
+easily flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from $10
+to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or $300 worth of
+the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50 and 400 bushels an acre,
+but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels, is estimated to be the average
+production when the plants have begun to bear well. The approximate
+cranberry crop of the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from
+410,000 to 1,000,000 bushels.
+
+Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise they do not
+keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those which are most
+esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New Jersey in October, at
+the close of the blackberry and whortleberry season, and often lasts
+until the coming in of cold weather. From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be
+collected by good workers. New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore
+are the leading American markets for cranberries, whence they are
+exported to the West Indies, England and France in great quantities.
+England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk with abundance
+of the common cranberry, which it now largely imports from Sweden and
+Russia. The fruit is much used for pies and tarts, and also for making
+an acid summer beverage. The cowberry, or red whortleberry, _Vaccinium
+Vitis-Idaea_, is sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the
+Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of _Astroloma
+humifusum_ and _Lissanthe sapida_, plants of the order _Epacridaceae_.
+
+  For literature of the subject see the _Proceedings of the American
+  Cranberry Growers' Association_ (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good
+  article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopaedia of
+  American Horticulture_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY, 1ST EARL OF (1814-1906), British
+statesman, was born at Bradford on the 1st of October 1814, the son of
+John Hardy, and belonged to a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active
+political life in 1847, eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and
+nine years after his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate
+for Bradford, but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for
+Leominster, and in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he
+became president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby's new
+administration. When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction
+with Mr Disraeli's Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at the home
+office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in 1878 Lord
+Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation of Lord Derby,
+Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became within a month afterwards)
+succeeded him at the India office. At the same time he had assumed the
+additional family surname of Gathorne, which had been that of his
+mother. In Lord Salisbury's administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord
+Cranbrook was president of the council, and upon his retirement from
+public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in 1892 he
+was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of October 1906, being
+succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously
+known as Lord Medway (b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament
+as a conservative for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent.
+
+  See _Gathorne Hardy, 1st earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts
+  from his correspondence_, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy
+  (1910).
+
+
+
+
+CRANBROOK, a market-town in the southern parliamentary division of Kent,
+England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham
+railway from Paddock Wood. Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook,
+a feeder of the river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well
+wooded. It has a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St
+Dunstan, which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part
+of the 18th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of
+the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an
+extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present
+condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from the
+14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal seats of the
+broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the old factories still
+exist. The town has a grammar school of Elizabethan foundation, which
+now ranks as one of the smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are
+the ruins of the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built
+in the time of Edward VI.
+
+
+
+
+CRANDALL, PRUDENCE (1803-1889), American school-teacher, was born, of
+Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode Island, on the 3rd of September
+1803. She was educated in the Friends' school at Providence, R. I.,
+taught school at Plainfield, Conn., and in 1831 established a private
+academy for girls at Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By
+admitting a negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on
+the advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-1871), she
+opened a school for "young ladies and little misses of colour." For this
+she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canterbury but throughout
+Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted and socially ostracized;
+measures were taken in the Canterbury town-meeting to break up the
+school, and finally in May 1833 the state legislature passed the
+notorious Connecticut "Black Law," prohibiting the establishment of
+schools for non-resident negroes in any city or township of Connecticut,
+without the consent of the local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to
+submit, was arrested, tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose
+verdict, however, was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals
+in July 1834. Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she
+was finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon afterward
+she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk Falls, Kansas, on
+the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut Black Law was repealed in
+1838. Miss Crandall's attempt to educate negro girls at Canterbury
+attracted the attention of the whole country; and the episode is of
+considerable significance as showing the attitude of a New England
+community toward the negro at that time.
+
+  See J. C. Kimball's _Connecticut Canterbury Tale_ (Hartford, Conn.,
+  1889), and Samuel J. May's _Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery
+  Conflict_ (Boston, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900), American writer, was born at Newark, New
+Jersey, on the 1st of November 1870, and was educated at Lafayette
+College and Syracuse University. His first story, _Maggie, a Girl of the
+Streets_, was published in 1891, but his greatest success was made with
+_The Red Badge of Courage_ (1896), a brilliant and highly realistic,
+though of course imaginary, description of the experiences of a private
+in the Civil War. He was also the author of various other stories, and
+acted as a war correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the
+Spanish American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in
+Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died at
+Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5th of June 1900.
+
+
+
+
+CRANE, WALTER (1845-   ), English artist, second son of Thomas Crane,
+portrait painter and miniaturist, was born in Liverpool on the 15th of
+August 1845. The family soon removed to Torquay, where the boy gained
+his early artistic impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to
+London. He early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and
+was a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs to
+illustrate Tennyson's "Lady of Shalott" gained the approval of William
+James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter Crane was apprenticed
+for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-engraver he had abundant
+opportunity for the minute study of the contemporary artists whose work
+passed through his hands, of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys,
+and of the masters of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more
+influenced by the Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and
+important element in the development of his talent, was the study of
+Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a series of
+toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a picture of his, "The
+Lady of Shalott," was exhibited at the Royal Academy, but the Academy
+steadily refused his maturer work; and after the opening of the
+Grosvenor Gallery in 1877 he ceased to send pictures to Burlington
+House. In 1864 he began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour
+printer, a series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying
+admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited to the use
+of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a delightful series
+begun in 1873, _The Frog Prince, &c._, which showed markedly the
+influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to Italy following on his
+marriage in 1871. _The Baby's Opera_ was a book of English nursery songs
+planned in 1877 with Mr Evans, and a third series of children's books
+with the collective title, _A Romance of the Three R's_, provided a
+regular course of instruction in art for the nursery. In his early "Lady
+of Shalott" the artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design
+in book illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in
+the view that this union of the calligrapher's and the decorator's art
+was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He followed
+the same course in _The First of May: A Fairy Masque_ by his friend John
+R. Wise, text and decoration being in this case reproduced by
+photogravure. The "Goose Girl" illustration taken from his beautiful
+_Household Stories from Grimm_ (1882) was reproduced in tapestry by
+William Morris, and is now in the South Kensington Museum. _Flora's
+Feast, A Masque of Flowers_ had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane's
+line drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in colour
+_The Wonder Book_ of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret Deland's _Old
+Garden_; in 1894 he collaborated with William Morris in the page
+decoration of _The Story of the Glittering Plain_, published at the
+Kelmscott press, which was executed in the style of 16th-century Italian
+and German woodcuts; but in purely decorative interest the finest of his
+works in book illustration is Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ (12 pts.,
+1894-1896) and the _Shepheard's Calendar_. The poems which form the text
+of _Queen Summer_ (1891), _Renascence_ (1891), and _The Sirens Three_
+(1886) are by the artist himself.
+
+In the early 'eighties under Morris's influence he was closely
+associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as Morris himself
+to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With this object in
+view he devoted much attention to designs for textile stuffs, for
+wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he also used his art for the
+direct advancement of the Socialist cause. For a long time he provided
+the weekly cartoons for the Socialist organs, _Justice_ and _The
+Commonweal_. Many of these were collected as _Cartoons for the Cause_.
+He devoted much time and energy to the work of the Art Workers' Guild,
+and to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888.
+His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them "The
+Bridge of Life" (1884) and "The Mower" (1891), were exhibited regularly
+at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the New Gallery. "Neptune's
+Horses," which, with many other of Mr Crane's pictures, came into the
+possession of Herr Ernst Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New
+Gallery in 1893, and with it may be classed his "The Rainbow and the
+Wave."
+
+His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles, stained
+glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of which he
+applied the principle that in purely decorative design "the artist works
+freest and best without direct reference to nature, and should have
+learned the forms he makes use of by heart." An exhibition of his work
+of different kinds was held at the Fine Art Society's galleries in Bond
+Street in 1891, and taken over to the United States in the same year by
+the artist himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German,
+Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest throughout the
+continent.
+
+Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society in 1888; he was
+an examiner of the science and art department at South Kensington;
+director of design at the Manchester Municipal school (1894); art
+director of Reading College (1896); and in 1898 for a short time
+principal of the Royal College of Art. His lectures at Manchester were
+published with illustrated drawings as _The Bases of Design_ (1898) and
+_Line and Form_ (1900). _The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and
+New_ (2nd ed., London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to
+theory.
+
+  A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was exhibited
+  at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive and sumptuously
+  illustrated book on _The Art of Walter Crane_, by P. G. Konody; a
+  monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the _Kunstler Monographien_
+  series (Bielefeld and Leipzig); and an account of himself by the
+  artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the _Art Journal_.
+
+
+
+
+CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845-   ), American actor, was born on the 30th of
+April 1845, in Leicester, Massachusetts, and made his first appearance
+at Utica, New York, in Donizetti's _Daughter of the Regiment_ in 1863.
+Later he had a great success as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque
+_Evangeline_ (1873). He made his first hit in the legitimate drama with
+Stuart Robson (1836-1903), in _The Comedy of Errors_ and other
+Shakespearian plays, and in _The Henrietta_ (1881) by Bronson Howard
+(1842-1908). This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subsequently
+Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in such plays as
+_The Senator_ and _David Harum_. In 1904 he turned to more serious work
+and played Isidore Izard in _Business is Business_, an adaptation from
+Octave Mirbeau's _Les Affaires sont les affaires_.
+
+
+
+
+CRANE (in Dutch, _Kraan_; O. Ger. _Kraen_; cognate, as also the Lat.
+_grus_, and consequently the Fr. _grue_ and Span. _grulla_, with the Gr.
+[Greek: geranos]), the _Grus communis_ or _G. cinerea_ of
+ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a native
+of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he had very often
+seen its young ("_earum pipiones saepissime vidi_"). Notwithstanding the
+protection afforded it by sundry acts of parliament, it has long since
+ceased from breeding in England. Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it
+as being found in the open parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray's time it
+was only known as occurring at the same season in large flocks in the
+fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of
+cranes' eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby
+in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an older
+edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest inquiry he
+found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly unacquainted with
+the bird. The crane, however, no doubt then appeared in Britain, as it
+does now, at uncertain intervals and in unwonted places, having strayed
+from the migrating bands whose movements have been remarked from almost
+the earliest ages. Indeed, the crane's aerial journeys are of a very
+extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the Tropic of
+Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return voyage, its flocks
+may be descried passing overhead at a marvellous height, or halting for
+rest and refreshment on the wide meadows that border some great river,
+while the seeming order with which its ranks are marshalled during
+flight has long attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter
+quarters under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in
+spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill polar soils
+of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south of Europe and breed
+in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey. The greater number, however,
+occupy the intermediate zone and pass the summer in Russia, north
+Germany, and Scandinavia. Soon after their arrival in these countries
+the flocks break up into pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied
+by loud and frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of
+each are chosen.
+
+The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open marshes,
+where the herbage is not very high--a tolerably dry spot being selected
+and used apparently year after year. Here the eggs, which are of a rich
+brown colour with dark spots, and always two in number, are laid. The
+young are able to run soon after they are hatched, and are at first
+clothed with tawny down. In the course of the summer they assume nearly
+the same grey plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated
+plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder
+parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear black,
+white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose skin of that
+colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct. During this time
+they keep in the marshes, but as autumn approaches the different
+families unite by the rivers and lakes, and ultimately form the enormous
+bands which after much more trumpeting set out on their southward
+journey.
+
+The crane's power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar trumpet-like
+notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its trachea, which on
+quitting the lower end of the neck passes backward between the branches
+of the furcula and is received into a hollow space formed by the bony
+walls of the carina or keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns,
+and then runs upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the
+whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (_Cygnus musicus_,
+_C. buccinator_ and others), though differing in some not unimportant
+details; but at the same time somewhat similar convolutions of the
+trachea occur in other birds which do not possess, so far as is known,
+the faculty of trumpeting. The crane emits its notes both during flight
+and while on the ground. In the latter case the neck and bill are
+uplifted and the mouth kept open during the utterance of the blast,
+which may be often heard from birds in confinement, especially at the
+beginning of the year.
+
+As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once familiar
+British species is now used in a general sense, and applied to all
+others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists placed near
+or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the cranes have only a
+superficial resemblance and no real affinity to the _Ardeidae_. In fact
+the _Gruidae_ form a somewhat isolated group. Huxley included them
+together with the _Rallidae_ in his _Geranomorphae_; but a more extended
+view of their various characters would probably assign them rather as
+relatives of the Bustards--not that it must be thought that the two
+families have not been for a very long time distinct. _Grus_, indeed, is
+a very ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and
+Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North America.
+In France, too, during the "Reindeer Period" there existed a huge
+species--the _G. primigenia_ of Alphonse Milne-Edwards--which has
+doubtless been long extinct. At the present time cranes inhabit all the
+great zoogeographical regions of the earth, except the Neotropical, and
+some sixteen or seventeen species are discriminated. In Europe, besides
+the _G. communis_ already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane
+(_G. virgo_) is distinguished from every other by its long white
+ear-tufts. This bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and
+Africa, and is said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The
+eastern part of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other
+species that do not frequent Europe (_G. antigone_, _G. japonensis_, _G.
+monachus_, and _G. leucogeranus_), of which the last is perhaps the
+finest of the family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white.
+The Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the
+species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (_G. torquata_
+and _G. indica_, both commonly confounded under the name of _G.
+antigone_). The Australian Region possesses a large species known to the
+colonists as the "native companion" (_G. australis_), while the Nearctic
+is tenanted by three species (_G. americana_, _G. canadensis_ and _G.
+fraterculus_), to say nothing of the possibility of a fourth (_G.
+schlegeli_), a little-known and somewhat obscure bird, finding its
+habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two species (_G. paradisea_
+and _G. carunculata_), which do not occur out of Africa, as well as
+three others forming the group known as "crowned cranes"--differing much
+from other members of the family, and justifiably placed in a separate
+genus, _Balearica_. One of these (_B. pavonina_) inhabits northern and
+western Africa, while another (_B. regulorum_) is confined to the
+eastern and southern parts of that continent. The third (_B. ceciliae_),
+from the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell
+(_P.Z.S._, 1904).
+
+  With regard to the literature of this species, a paper "On the
+  Breeding of the Crane in Lapland" (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 191), by John
+  Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history
+  ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different
+  species was communicated by Blyth to _The Field_ in 1873 (vol. xl. p.
+  631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful
+  picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during one
+  of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf's _Zoological
+  Sketches_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf.
+Gr. [Greek: geranos], Fr. _grue_), machines by means of which heavy
+bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within certain
+defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the arm or jib
+from which the load to be moved is suspended, but it is now used in a
+wider sense to include the whole mechanism by which a load is raised
+vertically and moved horizontally. Machines used for lifting only are
+not called cranes, but winches, lifts or hoists, while the term elevator
+or conveyor is commonly given to appliances which continuously, not in
+separate loads, move materials like grain or coal in a vertical,
+horizontal or diagonal direction (see CONVEYORS). The use of cranes is
+of great antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial
+development of the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive
+powers than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important and
+indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where finished
+goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made, cranes of various
+forms are in universal use.
+
+
+  Classification.
+
+Cranes may be divided into two main classes--revolving and
+non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and then
+moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited at any convenient
+point within the range. The type of this class is the ordinary jib
+crane. In the second class there are, in addition to the lifting motion,
+two horizontal movements at right angles to one another. The type of
+this class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously
+represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular coordinates. Jib
+cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and portable cranes; in the
+former the central-post or pivot is firmly fixed in a permanent
+position, while in the latter the whole crane is mounted on wheels, so
+that it may be transported from place to place.
+
+
+  Motive powers.
+
+The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes--manual,
+steam, hydraulic, electric--give a further classification. Hand cranes
+are extremely useful where the load is not excessive, and the quantities
+to be dealt with are not great; also where speed is not important, and
+first cost is an essential consideration. The net effective work of
+lifting that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken,
+for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb per
+minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2-1/4 ft. per minute, so
+that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a minute or 9 tons 1
+ft. per minute. It is at once evident that hand power is only suitable
+for cranes of moderate power, or in cases where heavy loads have to be
+lifted only very occasionally. This point is dwelt upon, because the
+speed limitations of the hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers.
+Steam is an extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not
+worked off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense
+advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved (by its
+own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without requiring any
+complicated means of conveying power to it; and it is rapid in work,
+fairly economical, and can be adapted to the most varying circumstances.
+Where, however, there are a number of cranes all belonging to the same
+installation, and these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from
+a central power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and
+continuous, as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other
+warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the power in
+a generating station and distribute it to the cranes. Down to the
+closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic power was practically the
+only system available for working cranes from a power station. The
+hydraulic crane is rapid in action, very smooth and silent in working,
+easy to handle, and not excessive in cost or upkeep,--advantages which
+have secured its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a
+motive power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric
+transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not reached
+by any other method, and the electric motor readily adapts itself to
+cranes. When they are worked from a power station the great advantage is
+gained that the same plant which drives them can be used for many other
+purposes, such as working machine tools and supplying current for
+lighting. For dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making
+rapid strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of the
+cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a motive power
+has already displaced nearly every other method. Cranes driven by
+shafting, or by mechanical power, have been largely superseded by
+electric cranes, principally on account of the much greater economy of
+transmission. For many years the best workshop travellers were those
+driven by quick running ropes; these performed admirable service, but
+they have given place to the more modern electric traveller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+
+    Lifting mechanisms.
+
+  The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or lifting
+  motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or hook, and
+  elevating the hook vertically. There are three typical methods: (1) A
+  direct pull may be applied to the hook, either by screws, or by a
+  cylinder fitted with piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic
+  or other pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. These methods
+  are used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of
+  giving a very short range of lift. (2) The hook may be attached to a
+  rope or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of
+  pulleys around which the rope is led; by these means the lift can be
+  very largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one
+  indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the
+  cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in
+  all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley
+  to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated
+  by the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of
+  overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a
+  special pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the
+  barrel is reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or "sprockets,"
+  which engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but
+  simply passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All
+  the methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or
+  barrel shaft, and this is the important difference between them and
+  the hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating
+  hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third
+  category.
+
+  When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supplemented by
+  systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the traveller
+  crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are interposed
+  between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel (fig. 3).
+
+
+    Brakes.
+
+  When a load is lifted, work has to be done in overcoming the action of
+  gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is lowered, energy
+  is given out. To control the speed and absorb this energy, brakes have
+  to be provided. The hydraulic crane has a great advantage in
+  possessing an almost ideal brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust
+  from the lifting cylinder the speed of descent can be regulated within
+  very wide limits and with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually
+  fitted with band brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction
+  band placed round it, the band being tightened as required. In
+  ordinary cases conduction and convection suffice to dissipate the heat
+  generated by the brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be
+  rapidly performed, or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth,
+  special arrangements have to be provided. An excellent brake for very
+  large cranes is Matthew's hydraulic brake, in which water is passed
+  from end to end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons,
+  cooling jackets being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is
+  to arrange the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo,
+  and, driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current
+  which is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That
+  the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable is
+  seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons
+  descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat
+  sufficient to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60 deg. F. to
+  boiling point. Crane brakes are usually under the direct control of
+  the driver, and they are generally arranged in one of two ways. In the
+  first, the pressure is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed
+  by a spring or weight; this is called "braking on." In the second, or
+  "braking off" method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring
+  or weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of
+  electric cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is
+  energized by the current passing through the motor. When the motor
+  starts the brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases,
+  the brake goes on. The first method is in general use for steam
+  cranes; it allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but
+  is not automatic, as is the second.
+
+  In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving
+  shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with the
+  brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid in
+  working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed at a
+  very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come to rest
+  in order to be reversed. This method of working is very suitable for
+  electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or 7 tons, and
+  for overhead travellers where the height of lift is moderate. Where
+  high speed lowering is not required it is usual to employ a reversing
+  motor and keep it always in gear.
+
+  In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double
+  cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be worked
+  together, or independently as required, reversing friction cones are
+  used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing motion. With
+  the exception of a few special cranes in which friction wheels are
+  employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes, to connect
+  the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed gearing, the
+  gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions. In electric
+  cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a similar
+  manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels give a
+  slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat smoother in
+  its action and entirely silent; the noise of gearing can, however, be
+  considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth, as is now
+  always done, and also by the use of pinions made of rawhide leather or
+  other non-resonant material. When quick-running metal pinions are used
+  they are arranged to run in closed oil-baths. Leather pinions must be
+  protected from rats, which eat them freely. Worm wheel gearing is of
+  very high efficiency if made very quick in pitch, with properly formed
+  teeth perfectly lubricated, and with the end thrust of the worm taken
+  on ball bearings. Much attention has been paid to the improvement of
+  the mechanical details of the lifting and other motions of cranes, and
+  in important installations the gearing is now usually made of cast
+  steel. In revolving cranes ease of slewing can be greatly increased by
+  the use of a live ring of conical rollers.
+
+
+    Power required.
+
+  Electric motors for barrel cranes are not essentially different from
+  those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes the
+  intermittent output has to be taken into consideration. This fact has
+  led to the introduction of the "crane rated" motor, with a given "load
+  factor." This latter gives the ratio of the length of the working
+  periods to the whole time; e.g. a motor rated for a quarter load
+  factor means that the motor is capable of exerting its full normal
+  horse-power for three minutes out of every twelve, the pause being
+  nine minutes, or one minute out of every four, the pause being three
+  minutes. The actual load factor to be chosen depends on the nature of
+  the work and the kind of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with
+  high lifts following one another in rapid succession will require a
+  higher load factor than a workshop traveller with a very short lift
+  and only a very occasional maximum load; and a traveller with a very
+  long longitudinal travel will require a higher load factor for the
+  travelling motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load
+  factor for electric crane motors varies from 1/3 to 1/6. In steam
+  cranes much the same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler;
+  e.g. the engines of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of
+  indicating about 60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is
+  found that, in consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient
+  steam can be supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only 1/3
+  to 1/4 of that necessary for the above power, when developed
+  continuously by a stationary engine.
+
+  In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency of
+  the lifting gear may be taken as about 85%; a good electric jib crane
+  will give an efficiency of 72%, i.e. when actually lifting at full
+  speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72% of the
+  electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient rule is
+  to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-tons of work
+  done at the hook: this is equivalent to an efficiency of 66-2/3%, and
+  is well on the safe side.
+
+  The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series wound,
+  continuous current motor, which has many advantages. It has a very
+  large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the inertia of
+  getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a slower
+  speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the action
+  of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in which the
+  cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of the stop-valve.
+  Three-phase motors are also much used for crane-driving, and it is
+  probable that improvements in single and two-phase motors will
+  eventually largely increase their use for this class of work.
+
+  Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric cranes
+  tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very considerable
+  extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic crane falls
+  away very much more rapidly than that of the electric crane when
+  working on smaller loads. This drawback can be corrected to a slight
+  extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with more than one cylinder,
+  and thus compounding it, but the arrangement does not give the same
+  economical range of load as in an electric crane. In first cost the
+  hydraulic crane has the advantage, but the power mains are much less
+  expensive and more convenient to arrange in the electric crane.
+
+
+    Speed.
+
+  The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been mentioned;
+  for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the formula V
+  = 30 + 200/T, where V is the speed of lift in feet per minute, and T
+  the load in tons. Where electric or hydraulic cranes are worked from a
+  central station the speed is greater, and may be roughly represented
+  by V = 5 + 300/T; e.g. a 30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of
+  about 200 ft. per minute, and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8
+  ft. per minute, but these speeds vary with local circumstances. The
+  lifting speed of electric travellers is generally less, because the
+  lift is generally much shorter, and may in ordinary cases be taken as
+  V = 3 + 85/T. The cross-traversing speed of travellers varies from 60
+  to 120 ft. per minute, and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per
+  minute. The speed of these two motions depends much on the length of
+  the span and of the longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to
+  be done; in certain cases, e.g. foundries, it is desirable to be able
+  to lift, on occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the
+  brakes on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially
+  in quick-running electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary
+  motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift or
+  travel, so as to prevent over-running.
+
+  There are many other important points of crane construction too
+  numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the advent
+  of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in consequence great
+  attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and wear, such
+  as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of lubrication; and,
+  as in all other quick-running machinery, great stress has to be laid
+  on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery, thus being of a higher
+  class, requires more protection, and cranes that work in the open are
+  now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or cabins, furnished with
+  weather-tight doors and windows, and more care is taken to provide
+  proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders of access, and also guards
+  for the revolving parts of gearing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+
+    Fixed Cranes.
+
+  _Typical Forms of Cranes._--Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand
+  revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards
+  and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is securely
+  bolted to the foundation, and which carries the strong crane-post, or
+  pillar, around which the crane revolves. The revolving part is made
+  with two side frames of cast iron or steel plates, and to these the
+  lifting gear is attached. The load is suspended from the crane jib;
+  this jib is attached at the lower end to the side frames, and the
+  upper end is supported by tie-rods, connected to the framework, the
+  whole revolving together. This simple form of crane thus embodies the
+  essential elements of foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and
+  gearing.
+
+  Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane.
+  Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished with
+  pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two "back
+  ties," and these are connected to the socket of the bottom pivot by
+  the "sleepers." This is a very good and comparatively cheap form of
+  crane, where a long and variable radius is required, but it cannot
+  slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are made of all powers,
+  from the timber 1-ton hand derrick to the steel 150-ton derrick used
+  in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane introduces a problem for
+  which many solutions have been sought, that of preventing the load
+  from being lifted or lowered when the jib is pivoted up or down to
+  alter the radius. To keep the load level, there are various devices
+  for automatically coupling the jib-raising and the load-lowering
+  motions.
+
+  Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here the
+  place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together at the
+  top and pivoted at the bottom; a third back-leg is connected at the
+  top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut which runs
+  on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement of the lower end
+  of the back leg allows the whole arrangement to assume the position
+  shown in fig. 7, so that a load can be taken out of a vessel and
+  deposited on a quay wall. The same effect can be produced by
+  shortening the back leg by a screw placed in the direction of its
+  length. Sheer legs are generally built in very large sizes, and their
+  use is practically confined to marine work.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  Another type of fixed crane is the "Fairbairn" crane, shown in fig. 8.
+  Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united in one piece,
+  which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at the bottom by
+  a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal rollers. This type
+  of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence of the great
+  clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and requires
+  very heavy foundations.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  The so-called "hammer-headed" crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel
+  braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double cantilever;
+  the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting crab,
+  and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the
+  machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of lifting and
+  revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which
+  the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out
+  along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal
+  movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design; it
+  first became prominent in the so-called "Titan" cranes, mentioned
+  below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are generally constructed in
+  large sizes, up to 200 tons.
+
+  Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy crane
+  (fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned above, and
+  revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by the structure
+  of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy foundation.
+  The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy hammers in a
+  smithy, whence the name.
+
+
+    Portable cranes.
+
+  Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every kind of
+  crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage, fitted with
+  wheels; it is even not unusual to make the Scottish derrick portable
+  by using three trucks, one under the mast, and the others under the
+  two back legs.
+
+  Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the same
+  elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed is
+  mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels. With
+  portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite
+  stability against overturning; this is done by weighting the tail of
+  the revolving part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the boiler
+  is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where the
+  rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking girders
+  are provided across the under side of the truck; these are arranged so
+  that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made to increase the
+  base. In connexion with the stability of portable cranes, it may be
+  mentioned that accidents more often arise from overturning backwards
+  than forwards. In the latter case the overturning tendency begins as
+  soon as the load leaves the ground, but ceases as soon as the load
+  again touches the ground and thus relieves the crane of the extra
+  weight, whereas overturning backwards is caused either by the reaction
+  of a chain breaking or by excessive counterweight. When portable
+  cranes are fitted with springs and axle-boxes, drawgear and buffers,
+  so that they can be coupled to an ordinary railway train, they are
+  called "breakdown" or "wrecking" cranes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+  Dock-side jib cranes for working general cargo are almost always made
+  portable, in order to enable them to be placed in correct position in
+  regard to the hatchways of the vessels which they serve. Fig. 12 shows
+  an ordinary hydraulic dock-side jib crane. This type is usually fitted
+  with a very high jib, so as to lift goods in and out of high-sided
+  vessels. The hydraulic lifting cylinders are placed inside the
+  revolving steel mast or post, and the cabin for the driver is arranged
+  high up in the front of the post, so as to give a good view of the
+  work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of jointed
+  "walking" pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants placed at
+  regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable to have
+  the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible, so as
+  not to interfere with railway traffic; this has led to the
+  introduction of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes
+  also called "portal" cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings run
+  parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so as to
+  span the whole quay; on one side the "long leg" runs on a rail at the
+  quay edge, and on the other the "short leg" runs on a runway placed on
+  the building. Cranes of this type are called "half-portal" cranes.
+  Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class. They give the minimum
+  of interference with quay space and have rapidly come into favour.
+  Where the face of the warehouse is sufficiently close to the water to
+  permit of the crane rope plumbing the hatches without requiring a jib
+  of excessive radius, it is a very convenient plan to place the whole
+  crane on the warehouse roof.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+  A special form of jib crane, designed to meet a particular purpose, is
+  the "Titan" (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of piers and
+  breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the
+  hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent;
+  in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable
+  and the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large
+  portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal
+  movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is designed,
+  viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost a
+  necessity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+
+    Non-revolving cranes.
+
+  As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead traveller
+  worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine worked by
+  electric power. The principal component parts of a traveller are the
+  main cross girders forming the _bridge_, the two _end carriages_ on
+  which the bridge rests, the _running wheels_ which enable the end
+  carriages to travel on the longitudinal gantry girders or _runway_,
+  and the _crab_ or _jenny_, which carries the hoisting mechanism, and
+  moves across the span on rails placed on the bridge girders. There are
+  numerous and important variations of these two types, but the above
+  contain the elements out of which most cranes of the class are built.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+  One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a "Goliath" or
+  "Wellington." It is practically a traveller mounted on high legs, so
+  as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the ground
+  level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations and
+  combinations of types, fig. 18 shows a modern design of crane intended
+  to command the maximum of yard space, and having some of the
+  characteristics both of the Goliath and of the revolving jib crane,
+  and fig. 19 depicts a combination of a traveller and a hanging jib
+  crane.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+
+    Transporters.
+
+  When the cross traverse motion of a traveller crab is suppressed, and
+  the longitudinal travelling motion is increased in importance we come
+  to a type of crane, the use of which is rapidly increasing; it goes by
+  the name of "transporter." Transporters can only move the load to any
+  point on a vertical surface (generally a plane surface); they have a
+  lifting motion and a movement of translation. They are of two kinds:
+  (1) those in which the motive power and lifting gear are
+  self-contained on the crab; and (2) those in which the motive power is
+  placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is shown
+  in fig. 20. From the lower flange of a suspended runway, made of a
+  single I section, run wheels, from the axles of which the transporter
+  is suspended. The latter consists of a framework carrying the hoisting
+  barrel, with its driving motor and gearing, and a travelling motor,
+  which is geared to the running wheels in such a manner as to be able
+  to propel the whole machine; a seat is provided for the driver who
+  manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind, when fitted
+  with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal from barges
+  and depositing it in a coal store.
+
+  In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved
+  through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made of
+  single I-sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be
+  lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs on
+  the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient fixed
+  position. In order that only one motor may be used, and also that the
+  load may be lifted by a single part of rope, various devices have been
+  invented. The jib is usually inclined, so as to enable the travel to
+  be performed by gravity in one direction, and the object of the
+  transporter mechanism is to ensure that pulling in or slacking out the
+  lifting rope shall perform the cycle of operations in the following
+  order:--Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of a vessel on to
+  a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the travelling
+  jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving at a certain
+  height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by the continued
+  pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an adjustable
+  stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be lowered out; the
+  hook can then be raised, when the jenny is automatically unlocked, and
+  on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates to its first position,
+  when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated. The jibs of
+  transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up, so as to be
+  out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely used for
+  dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses, and also
+  for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not interfering
+  with the rigging of vessels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+  Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the
+  introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply motive
+  power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically, so that
+  the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding the various
+  motions required by the special circumstances of each case.
+
+  The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one,
+  but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst
+  which may be mentioned _Die Hebezeuge_ by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin,
+  1903), and _Cranes_, by Anton Bottcher, translated with additions by
+  A. Tolhausen (London, 1908).     (W. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+CRANIOMETRY. The application of precise methods of measurement marks a
+definite phase in the development of most branches of modern science,
+and thus craniometry, a comprehensive expression for all methods of
+measuring the skull (cranium), provides a striking landmark in the
+progress of anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears
+to be twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls
+with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation of
+those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and A. Durer may be
+mentioned as pioneers in such researches. Again, it is clearly shown in
+the literature of this subject, that anatomists were led to employ
+methods of measurement in their study of the human skull. The
+determining cause of this improvement in method is curious, for it
+appeared at the end of a famous anatomical controversy of the later
+middle ages, namely the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was
+based on the study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the
+description of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains
+that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were devised
+with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and the human
+skull.
+
+The artists did not carry their researches very far. The anatomists on
+the contrary continued to make measurements, and in 1764 Daubenton
+published a noteworthy contribution to craniometry. Six years later,
+Pieter Camper, distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist,
+published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical
+methods, and these may be fairly claimed as having laid the foundation
+of all subsequent work. That work has been described above as
+anthropological, but as the studies thus defined are very varied in
+extent, it is necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they
+naturally fall.
+
+In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contributions
+of artists), it has been explained that the measurements were first made
+with a view to elucidating the comparison of the skulls of men with
+those of other animals. This wide comparison constitutes the first
+subdivision of craniometric studies. And craniometric methods have
+rendered the results of comparison much more clear and comprehensible
+than was formerly the case. It is further remarkable that among the
+first measurements employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the
+name of Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by
+the "facial angle" invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It
+appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which Camper
+describes the general results of the employment of this angle for
+comparative purposes, as will appear from the following brief extract
+from the translation of the original work: "The two extremities of the
+facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from the negro to the Grecian
+antique: make it under 70, and you describe an ourang or an ape: lessen
+it still more, and you have the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and
+you form a fowl, a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly
+parallel with the horizon." (Camper's Works, p. 42, translated by Cogan,
+1821.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of
+a negro, showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by
+Pieter Camper.]
+
+In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature
+of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it is impossible to
+analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names
+of the authors, it must be added that for the purposes of far-reaching
+comparisons of the lower animals with mankind, craniometric methods were
+used by P. P. Broca in France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in
+England, with such genius and success as have not yet been surpassed.
+
+The second division of craniometric studies includes those in which the
+skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are compared. And in
+this domain, the advent of accurate numerical methods of recording
+observations brought about great advances. In describing the facial
+angle, it will be seen that the modern European, the Greek of classical
+antiquity and the Negro are compared. Thus it is that Camper's name
+appears as that of a pioneer in this second main division of the
+subject. Broca and Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields
+of research, but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must
+be added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the
+merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the skull, and
+of a classification based on such comparisons. These indices will be
+further defined below. It is convenient to mention here that the first
+aim of all these investigators was to obtain from the skull reliable
+data having reference to the conformation or size of the brain once
+contained within it. Only in later days did the tendency to overlook
+this, the fundamental aim and end of craniometry, make its appearance;
+such nevertheless was the case, much to the detriment of craniometric
+science, which for a time seems to have become purely empirical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and
+foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain
+native (male); B, a gorilla (male) C, a dog. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal
+angle; _P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramino-basal
+angle. The spheno-ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first
+employed by Huxley.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and
+foramino-basal angles are shown in the crania of:--A, a New Guinea
+native (male); B, a European woman. _N.Pr.B_, Spheno-ethmoidal angle;
+_P.Pr.B_, Spheno-maxillary angle; _Pr.B.Op_, Foramina-basal angle.]
+
+The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which the
+field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the various
+sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are brought
+together for the purposes of comparison or contrast. But although the
+range of research is thus narrowed and restricted, the guiding
+principles and the methods remain unchanged. In this department of
+craniometry, Anders Retzius has gained the foremost place among the
+pioneers of research. Retzius's name is, as already mentioned,
+associated not with any particular angle or angular measurement, but
+rather with a method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions
+which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus for instance
+one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest width measures 75% of
+its greatest length (i.e. its width is to its length as three to four).
+
+[Illustration: From Tylor's _Anthropology_, by permission of Macmillan &
+Co., Ltd.
+
+FIG. 4.--Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic; (B)
+European, index 80, mesaticephalic; (C) Samoyed, index 85,
+brachycephalic.]
+
+This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index, which in
+such an instance would be described as equal to 75. A skull providing a
+breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess very different proportions
+from another which provides a corresponding index equal to 85. And in
+fact this particular index in human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in
+undistorted examples (fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius's
+system of classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his
+earliest applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden.
+One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in respect of
+the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and their Scandinavian
+neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference was added to the list of
+characters (such as stature, hair-colour and complexion) whereby these
+two types were already distinguished. Since the publication of Retzius's
+studies, the cephalic or breadth-index of the skull has retained a
+premier position among its almost innumerable successors, though it is
+of historical interest to note that, while Retzius had undoubtedly
+devised the method of comparing "breadth-indices," he always qualified
+the results of its use by reference to other data. These qualifications
+were overlooked by the immediate successors of Retzius, much to the
+disadvantage of craniometry. In addition to the researches on the skull
+forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison of Finns
+and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of the form of
+skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess historic interest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Callipers used in Craniometry, Professor
+Martin's (P. Hermann, Zurich) model.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Flower's Craniometer as modified by Dr W. L. H.
+Duckworth.]
+
+Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instruments.
+Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-wires, through which
+skulls were viewed and by means of which accurate drawings could be
+projected on to paper. The methods of Retzius as here described require
+the aid of callipers of various sorts, and such instruments were quickly
+devised and applied to the special needs of the case. Such instruments
+are still in use, and two forms of simple craniometer are shown in the
+accompanying illustrations (figs. 5 and 6). For the more accurate
+comparison required in the study of various European types, delicate
+instruments for measuring angles were invented by Anthelme in Paris
+(1836) and John Grattan in Belfast (1853). These instruments enabled the
+observer to transmit to the plane surface of a sheet of drawing paper a
+correct tracing of the contour of the specimen under investigation. A
+further modification was devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year
+1861, and since that date the number and forms of these instruments have
+been greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance
+of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry, there should
+be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley, Sir W. H. Flower and
+Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de Quatrefages in France, J. C. G.
+Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany. Moreover, the methods have also been
+multiplied, so that in addition to angular and linear measurements,
+those of the capacity or cubical contents of the cranium and those of
+the curvature of its surface demand reference. The masterly work of
+Cleland claims special mention in this connexion. And finally while two
+dimensions are combined in the cephalic index of Retzius, the
+combination of three dimensions (in a formula called a modulus)
+distinguishes some recent work, although the employment of the modulus
+is actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E. von Baer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is
+shown in the crania of:--A, a New Britain native (male) 62 deg.; B, a
+gorilla (male) 50 deg.; C, a dog 42 deg.. This angle has now replaced
+the facial angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).]
+
+The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that which
+has just been described, and it deals with the comparison of the
+prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods are exactly
+similar to those employed in the comparison of living races; but in some
+particular instances where the prehistoric individual is represented
+only by a comparatively minute portion of the skull, some special
+modifications of the usual procedures have been necessitated. In this
+field the works of W. His and L. Rutimeyer on the prehistoric races of
+Switzerland, those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of
+Thurnam and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger, W.
+J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to this
+department of craniometry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is
+shown in the crania of:--A, a Guinea native (male) 75 deg.; B, a European
+(woman) 93 deg.; C, a new-born infant (93 deg.).]
+
+Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably increased. In
+the hands of von Torok of Budapest, as in those of M. Benedikt of Vienna
+at an earlier date, the number of measurements regarded as necessary for
+the complete "diagnosis" of a skull has reached a colossal total. Of the
+trend and progress of craniometry at the present day, three particular
+developments are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various
+times to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure
+uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that of the
+German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and 8), and that of
+the Anthropometric Committee of the British Association (1906) seem to
+require at least a record. In the second place, the application of the
+methods of statistical science in dealing with large numbers of
+craniometric data has been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson's
+hands. Thirdly, and in connexion with such methods, there may be
+mentioned the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the
+methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the study of
+large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral animals, such as white
+rats or the varieties of the horse. And lastly no account of craniometry
+would be complete without mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian
+anthropologist Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot,
+however, be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of
+Sergi's principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox
+numerical methods.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Tyson, _The Anatomy of a Pygmie_ (London, 1699);
+  Daubenton, "Sur la difference de la situation du tron occipital dans
+  l'homme et dans les animaux," _Comptes rendus de l'academie des
+  sciences_ (Paris, 1764); Camper, _Works_ (1770, translated by Cogan,
+  1821); Broca, _Memoires_ (1862 and following years); Huxley, _Journal
+  of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, _Uber die
+  Schadelformen der Nordbewohner_ (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme,
+  _Physiologie de la pensee_ (Paris, 1836); Grattan, _Ulster Journal of
+  Archaeology_, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, "A System of Craniometry,"
+  _Transactions of the Ethnological Society_ (1861); Flower, Catalogue
+  of the Hunterian Museum, _Osteology_, part 1 (London, 1879); Turner,
+  "'Challenger' Reports," _Zoology_, vol. x. pt. 29, "Human Crania"
+  (1884); de Quatrefages, _Crania ethnica_ (Paris, 1873); Lucae,
+  _Architectur des menschlichen Schadels_ (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker,
+  _Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schadels_ (1862); Cleland, "An
+  Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull," _Phil. Trans. Roy.
+  Society_ (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq.; von Baer, "Crania
+  selecta," Academie imperiale des sciences de S. Petersbourg (1859);
+  His and Rutimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_ (Basel, 1866); Ecker, _Crania
+  Germaniae meridionalis_ (1865); Thurnam and Davis, _Crania
+  Britannica_; von Torok, _Craniometrie_ (Stuttgart, 1890); Benedikt,
+  _Manuel technique et pratique d'anthropometrie cranio-cephalique_
+  (Paris, 1889); Pearson, _Biometrika_, from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards;
+  Sergi, "The Varieties of the Human Species," English translation,
+  Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1894); Schwalbe, "Der
+  Neanderthalschadel," _Bonner Jahrbucher_, Heft 106; also _Sonderheft
+  der Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie_; Kramberger, _Der
+  palaolithische Mensch von Krapina_ (Nagele, Stuttgart, 1901); Sollas,
+  "The Cranial Characters of the Neanderthal Race," _Phil. Transactions
+  of the Royal Society_, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908; Klaatsch,
+  "Bericht uber einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach London,"
+  _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875.
+
+  _Handbooks._--Topinard, _Elements d'anthropologie generale_ (Paris,
+  1885); Schmidt, _Anthropologische Methoden_ (Leipzig, 1888);
+  Duckworth, _Morphology and Anthropology_ (Cambridge, 1904).
+
+  _Journals._--_Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris_,
+  _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
+  Ireland_, _Archiv fur Anthropologie_, _Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und
+  Anthropologie_.     (W. L. H. D.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANK, a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably connected with a
+root meaning "crooked," and appearing in the Ger. _krank_, ill, a
+figurative use of the original word; among other words in English
+containing the same original meaning are "cringe" and "crinkle." In
+mechanics, a crank is a device by which reciprocating motion is
+converted into circular motion or vice versa, consisting of a
+_crank-arm_, one end of which is fastened rigidly at right angles to the
+rotating shaft or axis, while the other end bears a _crank-pin_,
+projecting from it at right angles and parallel to the shaft. When the
+reciprocating part of a machine, as the piston and piston-rod of a steam
+engine, is linked to this crank by a _crank-rod_ or _connecting rod_,
+one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other on a pin in the
+end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro motion of the latter
+imparts a circular motion to the shaft and vice versa. The crank,
+instead of being made up as described above, may be formed by bending
+the shaft to the required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch.
+A _bell-crank_, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change
+the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical or vice
+versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle, say of 90
+deg., to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point of
+junction.
+
+Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in prisons as a
+means of punishment (see TREAD-MILL). Other uses of the word, connected
+with the primary meaning, are for a crooked path, a crevice or chink;
+and a freakish turn of thought or speech, as in Milton's phrase "quips
+and cranks." It is also used as a slang expression, American in origin,
+for a harmless lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one
+idea or hobby becomes a monomania. "Crank" or "crank-sided" is a
+nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from want
+of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical sense is often
+confused with "crank" or "cranky," that is, rickety or shaky, probably
+derived direct from the German _krank_, weak or ill.
+
+
+
+
+CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556), archbishop of Canterbury, born at Aslacton
+or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of July 1489, was the second
+son of Thomas Cranmer and of his wife Anne Hatfield. He received his
+early education, according to Morice his secretary, from "a marvellous
+severe and cruel schoolmaster," whose discipline must have been severe
+indeed to deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster
+bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was initiated
+by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and hawking, which
+formed one of his recreations in after life. To early training he also
+owed the skilful horsemanship for which he was conspicuous. At the age
+of fourteen he was sent by his mother, who had in 1501 become a widow,
+to Cambridge. Little is known with certainty of his university career
+beyond the facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or
+1511, that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his
+marriage to "Black Joan," a relative of the landlady of the Dolphin Inn,
+and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his wife, which
+occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of grace allowed by
+the statutes. During the brief period of his married life he held the
+appointment of lecturer at Buckingham Hall, now Magdalene College. The
+fact of his marrying would seem to show that he did not at the time
+intend to enter the church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to
+qualify for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took
+his doctor's degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was invited
+about this time to become a fellow of the college founded by Cardinal
+Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that there is some reason to doubt
+this. If the offer was made, it was declined, and Cranmer continued at
+Cambridge filling the offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college
+and of public examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting,
+in view of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among
+the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted on a
+thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and rejected several
+candidates who were deficient in this qualification.
+
+It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that transferred
+Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion of the university
+to the din and bustle of the court. In August 1529 the plague known as
+the sweating sickness, which prevailed throughout the country, was
+specially severe at Cambridge, and all who had it in their power forsook
+the town for the country. Cranmer went with two of his pupils named
+Cressy, related to him through their mother, to their father's house at
+Waltham in Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be
+visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief
+counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of
+Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards bishop of
+Hereford, were lodged at Cressy's house. Meeting with Cranmer, they were
+naturally led to discuss the king's meditated divorce from Catherine of
+Aragon. Cranmer suggested that if the canonists and the universities
+should decide that marriage with a deceased brother's widow was illegal,
+and if it were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur,
+her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the ordinary
+ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to Rome was thus
+dispensed with, and this point was at once seen by the king, who, when
+Cranmer's opinion was reported to him, is said to have ordered him to be
+summoned in these terms: "I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out
+of hand. This man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear."
+
+At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king to lay aside
+all other pursuits and to devote himself to the question of the divorce.
+He was to draw up a written treatise, stating the course he proposed,
+and defending it by arguments from scripture, the fathers and the
+decrees of general councils. His material interests certainly did not
+suffer by compliance. He was commended to the hospitality of Anne
+Boleyn's father, the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place
+he resided for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton
+and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice, the
+name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished Cranmer was
+called upon to defend its argument before the universities of Oxford and
+Cambridge, which he visited, accompanied by Fox and Gardiner.
+Immediately afterwards he was sent to plead the cause before a more
+powerful if not a higher tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of
+Wiltshire at its head, was despatched to Rome in 1530, that "the matter
+of the divorce should be disputed and ventilated," and Cranmer was an
+important member of it. He was received by the Pope with marked
+courtesy, and was appointed "Grand Penitentiary of England," but his
+argument, if he ever had the opportunity of stating it, did not lead to
+any practical decision of the question.
+
+Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he received a
+second commission from the king appointing him "Conciliarius Regius et
+ad Caesarem Orator." In the summer of 1531 he accordingly proceeded to
+Germany as sole ambassador to the emperor. He was also to sound the
+Lutheran princes with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal
+of some restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became acquainted
+with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological position he probably
+found to be in many points analogous to his own. Both were convinced
+that the old order must change; neither saw clearly what the new order
+should be to which it was to give place. They had frequent interviews,
+which had doubtless an important influence on Cranmer's opinions. But
+Osiander's house had another attraction of a different kind from
+theological sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and
+in 1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage
+corroboration of Cranmer's statement that he never expected or desired
+the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he had foreseen how
+soon the primacy was to be forced upon him, he would have avoided a
+disqualification which it was difficult to conceal and dangerous to
+disclose.
+
+Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a very few
+months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop Warham died, and the
+king almost immediately afterwards intimated to Cranmer, who had
+accompanied the emperor in his campaign against the Turks, his
+nomination to the vacant see. Cranmer's conduct was certainly consistent
+with his profession that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the
+dangerous promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own
+return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made. The
+papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March 1533, and the
+consecration took place on the 30th March. One peculiarity of the
+ceremony had occasioned considerable discussion. It was the custom for
+the archbishop elect to take two oaths, the first of episcopal
+allegiance to the pope, and the second in recognition of the royal
+supremacy. The latter was so wide in its scope that it might fairly be
+held to supersede the former in so far as the two were inconsistent.
+Cranmer, however, was not satisfied with this. He had a special protest
+recorded, in which he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the
+pope only in so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the
+king. The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it
+seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration of what
+the two oaths implied. It was the course that would readily suggest
+itself to a man of timid nature who wished to secure himself against
+such a fate as Wolsey's. It showed weakness, but it added nothing to
+whatever immorality there might be in successively taking two
+incompatible oaths.
+
+In the last as in the first step of Cranmer's promotion Henry had been
+actuated by one and the same motive. The business of the divorce--or
+rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn's expected issue--had now
+become very urgent, and in the new archbishop he had an agent who might
+be expected to forward it with the needful haste. The celerity and skill
+with which Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully
+satisfied his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat
+almost from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in
+relation to Catherine's marriage with Henry as affected by her previous
+marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the object of
+the king were given on these questions, though even the despotism of the
+most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure absolute unanimity. The
+next step was taken by Cranmer, who wrote a letter to the king, praying
+to be allowed to remove the anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible
+case of disputed succession, by finally determining the validity of the
+marriage in his archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request
+was prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of
+course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and to
+suit her convenience the court was held at the priory of Dunstable in
+the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to appear, she was declared
+contumacious, and on the 23rd of May the archbishop gave judgment
+declaring the marriage null and void from the first, and so leaving the
+king free to marry whom he pleased. The Act of Appeals had already
+prohibited any appeal from the archbishop's court. Five days later he
+pronounced the marriage between Henry and Anne--which had been secretly
+celebrated about the 25th of January 1533--to be valid. On the 1st of
+June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of September stood
+godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth.
+
+The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in England to the
+royal supremacy had been practically achieved before Cranmer's
+appointment as archbishop: and he had little to do with the other
+constitutional changes of Henry's reign. But his position as chief
+minister of Henry's ecclesiastical jurisdiction forced him into
+unpleasant prominence in connexion with the king's matrimonial
+experiences. In 1536 he was required to revise his own sentence in
+favour of the validity of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the
+17th of May the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this
+sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne's sister, Mary Boleyn, had
+been Henry VIII.'s mistress; this by canon law was a bar to his marriage
+with Anne--a bar which had been removed by papal dispensation in 1527,
+but now the papal power to dispense in such cases had been repudiated,
+and the original objection revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal
+and unjust. With Anne's condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer had
+nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the king, as he had
+done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks of Christchurch. His
+share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was less prominent than that of
+Gardiner, though he did preside over the Convocation in which nearly all
+the dignitaries of the church signified their approval of that measure.
+To his next and last interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the
+king no discredit attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the
+charges against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the
+king was obvious, though painful.
+
+Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy which has
+associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that of any other
+ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its most important feature
+on the theological as distinct from the political side was the endeavour
+to promote the circulation of the Bible in the vernacular, by
+encouraging translation and procuring an order in 1538 that a copy of
+the Bible in English should be set up in every church in a convenient
+place for reading. Only second in importance to this was the
+re-adjustment of the creed and liturgy of the church, which formed
+Cranmer's principal work during the latter half of his life. The
+progress of the archbishop's opinion towards that middle Protestantism,
+if it may be so called, which he did so much to impress on the
+formularies of the Church of England, was gradual, as a brief
+enumeration of the successive steps in that progress will show. In 1538
+an embassy of German divines visited England with the design, among
+other things, of forming a common confession for the two countries. This
+proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer had with the
+theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a great influence in
+modifying his views. Both in parliament and in Convocation he opposed
+the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood almost alone. During the period
+between 1540 and 1543 the archbishop was engaged at the head of a
+commission in the revision of the "Bishop's Book" (1537) or
+_Institutions of a Christian Man_, and the preparation of the _Necessary
+Erudition_ (1543) known as the "King's Book," which was a modification
+of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine. In June
+1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the same as that now
+in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical English style.
+
+The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation exposed him to
+the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or "men of the old
+learning," of whom Gardiner and Bonner were leaders, and on various
+occasions--notably in 1543 and 1545--conspiracies were formed in the
+council or elsewhere to effect his overthrow. The king, however,
+remained true to him, and all the conspiracies signally failed. It
+illustrates a favourable trait in the archbishop's character that he
+forgave all the conspirators. He was, as his secretary Morice testifies,
+"a man that delighted not in revenging."
+
+Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547). By the will of
+the king he was nominated one of a council of regency composed of
+sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the arrangement by which Somerset
+became lord protector. He officiated at the coronation of the boy king
+Edward VI., and is supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the
+order of the ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was
+made to appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent
+consent of the people. But Edward's title had been expressly sanctioned
+by act of parliament, so that there was no more room for election in his
+case than in that of George I., and the real motive of the changes was
+to shorten the weary ceremony for the frail child.
+
+During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid progress, the
+sympathies both of the Protector and of the young king being decidedly
+Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled without let or hindrance to
+complete the preparation of the church formularies, on which he had been
+for some time engaged. In 1547 appeared the _Homilies_ prepared under
+his direction. Four of them are attributed to the archbishop
+himself--those on Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of
+Scripture. His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas,
+known as Cranmer's Catechism, appeared in the following year. Important,
+as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the _Defence of the
+True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament_, which he published in
+1550. It was immediately answered from the side of the "old learning" by
+Gardiner. The first prayer-book of Edward VI. was finished in November
+1548, and received legal sanction in March 1549; the second was
+completed and sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the
+work of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward VI.
+published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely to the hand
+of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he was employed was the
+revision of his codification of the canon law, which had been all but
+completed before the death of Henry. The task was one eminently well
+suited to his powers, and the execution of it was marked by great skill
+in definition and arrangement. It never received any authoritative
+sanction, Edward VI. dying before the proclamation establishing it could
+be made, and it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin
+translation by Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the
+title _Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum_. It laid down the lawfulness
+and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most
+absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher to the flames.
+But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as tolerant as any in that
+age.
+
+Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by that of his
+father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to take a step
+against his own convictions. He had pledged himself to respect the
+testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which the succession devolved
+upon Mary, and now he violated his oath by signing Edward's "device" of
+the crown to Lady Jane Grey. On grounds of policy and morality alike
+the act was quite indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his
+perjury that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying
+man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days' queen when the
+others who had with him signed Edward's device deserted her. On the
+accession of Mary he was summoned to the council--most of whom had
+signed the same device--reprimanded for his conduct, and ordered to
+confine himself to his palace at Lambeth until the queen's pleasure was
+known. He refused to follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate
+that was clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any
+chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in the
+council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity of the
+queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother's divorce and her
+own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1553 he was sent to the Tower,
+where Ridley and Latimer were also confined. The immediate occasion of
+his imprisonment was a strongly worded declaration he had written a few
+days previously against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard,
+had been re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to publish
+this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the council, and it
+could not be ignored. In November, with Lady Jane Grey, her husband, and
+two other Dudleys, Cranmer was condemned for treason. Renard thought he
+would be executed, but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an
+ecclesiastic put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular
+court, and Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the
+highest of clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had
+restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he and his
+two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were removed to
+Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or common prison. Ridley
+and Latimer were unflinching, and suffered bravely at the stake on the
+16th of October 1555. Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over
+which Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555. Brooks
+had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome, where Cranmer was
+summoned, but not permitted, to attend. On the 25th of November he was
+pronounced contumacious by the pope and excommunicated, and a commission
+was sent to England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This
+was done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church, Oxford,
+on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed over to the secular
+power. About the same time Cranmer subscribed the first two of his
+"recantations." His difficulty consisted in the fact that, like all
+Anglicans of the 16th century, he recognized no right of private
+judgment, but believed that the state, as represented by monarchy,
+parliament and Convocation, had an absolute right to determine the
+national faith and to impose it on every Englishman. All these
+authorities had now legally established Roman Catholicism as the
+national faith, and Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist.
+His early "recantations" are merely recognitions of his lifelong
+conviction of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led
+him into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his
+whole career and the Reformation. This is what the government wanted.
+Northumberland's recantation had done much to discredit the Reformation,
+Cranmer's, it was hoped, would complete the work. Hence the enormous
+effect of Cranmer's recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he
+was taken to St Mary's church, and asked to repeat his recantation in
+the hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all he
+declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently done
+troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his whole life;
+that he renounced and refused all his recantations as things written
+with his hand, contrary to the truth which he thought in his heart; and
+that as his hand had offended, his hand should be first burned when he
+came to the fire. As he had said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed
+to the flames. The calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met
+his fate show that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that
+his recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not to
+be repented of.
+
+It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of infirmity
+of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his character is
+well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to Bullinger, that he
+was "too fearful about what might happen to him." This weakness was the
+worst blot on Cranmer's character, but it was due in some measure to his
+painful capacity for seeing both sides of a question at the same time, a
+temperament fatal to martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class
+him. As early as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of
+Transubstantiation; by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence
+(Pref. to his _Answer to Dr Richard Smith_). But here he used the term
+"real" somewhat unguardedly, for in his _Defence_ he asserts a real
+presence, but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he
+repudiates the idea that the bread and wine were "bare tokens." His
+views on church polity were dominated by his implicit belief in the
+divine right of kings (not of course the divine _hereditary_ right of
+kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to set up against the
+divine right of popes. He set practically no limits to the
+ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully the
+representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly
+distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were one.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vols. iv.-xx.: _Acts
+  of the Privy Council, 1542-1556_; _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. and
+  Foreign_; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_; Strype's _Memorials of Cranmer_
+  (1694); _Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer_, by Ralph
+  Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden Society's
+  publications); _Remains of Thomas Cranmer_, by Jenkyns (1833); _Lives
+  of Cranmer_, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in Hook's _Lives
+  of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vols. vi. and vii. (1868), by Canon
+  Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904); Froude's
+  _History_; R. W. Dixon's _History_; J. Gairdner's _History of the
+  Church, 1485-1558_; Bishop Cranmer's _Recantacyons_, ed. Gairdner
+  (1885). R. E. Chester Waters's _Chesters of Chicheley_ (1877) contains
+  a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer which has only
+  been used by one of his biographers.     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANNOG (Celt. _crann_, a tree), the term applied in Scotland and
+Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient times in the
+lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings in
+Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a fellow of the Society
+of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to George Chalmers, the
+author of _Caledonia_, in 1813, describing two crannogs, or fortified
+islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the first discovered in Ireland,
+was examined and described by Sir William Wilde in 1840. But it was not
+until after the discovery of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in
+1853, had drawn public attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that
+the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated.
+
+The results of these investigations show that they have little in common
+with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are placed in lakes. Few
+examples are known in England, although over a hundred and fifty have
+been examined in Ireland, and more than half that number in Scotland. As
+a rule they have been constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs,
+which have been adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or
+double lines of stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge
+the area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary, layers of
+logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on the shallow, and
+consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all there was laid a layer of
+earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of flagstones. In rare instances
+the body of the work is entirely of stones, the stockaded defence and
+the huts within its enclosure being the only parts constructed of
+timber. Occasionally a bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a
+communication with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and
+from the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains of
+huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the enclosure.
+Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, examined by Lord Lovaine
+in 1863, were found to be constructed of layers of fern and birch and
+hazel branches, mixed with boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while
+above all there was a surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of
+the stockade round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into
+horizontal bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog
+of Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in 1878,
+was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound by
+horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an area 60
+ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square, bounded by the
+remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with split logs. A partition
+divided it into two equal parts, one of which had a doorway opening to
+the south, and close by it an extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of
+the other part was a stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former
+hearths underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of the
+loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of trees with
+the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed transversely or
+obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in Loch-an-Dhugael,
+Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same explorer in 1893,
+revealed a substructure similar to that at Lochlee, with a double row of
+piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft. in diameter, within which was a
+circular construction 32 ft. in diameter, which had been supported by a
+large central post and about twenty uprights ranged round the
+circumference.
+
+From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and logs built
+up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as fascine-dwellings,
+to distinguish them from the typical pile-dwellings of the earlier
+periods in Switzerland, whose platforms are supported by piles driven
+into the bed of the lake. The crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had
+a triple stockade of oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and
+enclosing an area 130 ft. in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In
+the crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 150 cartloads of
+bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the food of
+the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county Antrim, iron
+swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with scrolls
+characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron
+spear-head 16-1/2 in. in length, and pieces of what are called large
+caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of lacustrine
+settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive of the typical
+crannog structure. The most important of these is the Glastonbury lake
+village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and Mr St George Gray. It consists
+of more than sixty separate dwellings, grouped within a triangular
+palisaded defence, formed in the midst of a marsh now partially
+reclaimed. The dwellings were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter,
+the substructure formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and
+clay, and outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake.
+The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work, supported
+by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart. The floors are of
+clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often showing several
+renewals over the original. The relics recovered show unmistakably that
+the occupation must be dated within the Iron Age, but probably
+pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact with Roman civilization has been
+discovered. The stage of civilization indicated is nevertheless not a
+low one. Besides the implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae
+and brooches of bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze
+mirror and tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented
+with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with bosses,
+the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve spokes, and a dug-out
+canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire, examined by Mr Boynton in
+1881, yielded evidence of fascine construction, with suggestions of
+occupation in the latter part of the Bronze Age. Similar indications are
+adduced by Professor Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the
+other hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and Irish
+crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and stone are
+found, they are commonly such as were in use in the Iron Age. Crannogs
+are frequently referred to in the Irish annals. Under the year 848 the
+_Annals of the Four Masters_ record the burning of the island of Lough
+Gabhor (the crannog of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as
+again destroyed by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded
+that Turlough O'Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough Leisi,
+and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the succeeding
+centuries. In the register of the privy council of Scotland, April 14,
+1608, it is ordered that "the haill houssis of defence, strongholds, and
+_crannokis_ in the Yllis (the western isles) pertaining to Angus
+M'Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector M'Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit
+to His Majestie." Judging from the historical evidence of their late
+continuance, and from the character of the relics found in them, the
+crannogs may be included among the latest prehistoric strongholds,
+reaching their greatest development in early historic times, and
+surviving through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has
+assigned their range approximately to the period between the 9th and
+16th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast majority of them,
+both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only inhabited, but
+constructed during the Iron Age, and that their period of greatest
+development was as far posterior to Roman civilization as that of the
+Swiss _Pfahlbauten_ was anterior to it. (See LAKE DWELLINGS.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Dr R. Munro, _The Lake Dwellings of Europe: being the
+  Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888_ (with a bibliography of the
+  subject) (London, 1890); _Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings or Crannogs_
+  (Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, _The Lake-Dwellings of
+  Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin, commonly called
+  Crannogs_ (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, _Descriptive Catalogue of the
+  Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy_, article
+  "Crannogs," pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart, "Scottish
+  Artificial Islands or Crannogs," in the _Proceedings of the Society of
+  Antiquaries of Scotland_, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A. Bulleid, "The
+  Lake Village near Glastonbury," in _Proceedings of the Somersetshire
+  Archaeological Society_, vol. xl. (1894).     (J. AN.)
+
+
+
+
+CRANSAC, a town of southern France, in the department of Aveyron, 28m.
+N.W. of Rodez by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988; commune, 6953. The town
+is a coal-mining centre and has cold mineral springs, known in the
+middle ages. There are iron-mines in the neighbourhood. Hills to the
+north of the town contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for
+centuries. About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance chateau of
+Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of
+Bournazel, about 1545. The barony of Bournazel became a marquisate in
+1624.
+
+
+
+
+CRANSTON, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., adjoining
+the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890) 8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910)
+21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
+Hartford railway. The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W.
+part is somewhat rolling. Within the city are several villages,
+including Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The
+inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the growing
+of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden produce; in the several
+villages cotton and print goods, fuses for electrical machinery, and
+automatic fire-protection sprinklers are manufactured. The value of
+Cranston's factory product increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to
+$2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%. The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S.
+part of the city; on this are the state prison, the Providence county
+jail, the state workhouse and the house of correction, the state
+almshouse, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for
+boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls--the last two being departments
+of the state reform school. The post-office address of all these state
+institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled as a part of Providence
+about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams, and in 1754 was incorporated
+as a separate township, but in 1868, in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it
+were reannexed to Providence. The township is said to have been named in
+honour of Samuel Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from
+1698 until his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910.
+
+
+
+
+CRANTOR, a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born, probably
+about the middle of the 4th century B.C., at Soli in Cilicia. He was a
+fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xenocrates at Athens, and was
+the first commentator on Plato. He is said to have written some poems
+which he sealed up and deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog.
+Laertius iv. 5. 25). Of his celebrated work _On Grief_ ([Greek: Peri
+penthous]), a letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death
+of his children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch's
+_Consolatio ad Apollonium_ and in the _De consolatione_ of Cicero, who
+speaks of it (_Acad._ ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (_aureolus et ad
+verbum ediscendus_). Crantor paid especial attention to ethics, and
+arranged "good" things in the following order--virtue, health, pleasure,
+riches.
+
+  See F. Kayser, _De Crantore Academico_ (1841); M. H. E. Meier,
+  _Opuscula academica_, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, _Geschichte der
+  griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_, i. (1891), p. 118.
+
+
+
+
+CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE, BARON (1790-1868), lord chancellor of
+England, elder son of the Rev. E. Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk,
+on the 18th of December 1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester,
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's
+Inn in 1816, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He represented
+Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his promotion to the
+bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he was appointed a
+vice-chancellor and created Baron Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord
+chancellor in Aberdeen's ministry. He continued to hold the
+chancellorship in the administration of Palmerston until the latter's
+resignation in 1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to
+office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he
+accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall of
+the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London on the 26th
+of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer, Cranworth's name is
+associated in the statute book with only one small measure on
+conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue to hold first rank. His
+judgments were marked by sound common sense, while he himself was
+remarkably free from the prejudices of his profession. Few men of his
+day enjoyed greater personal popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue
+and the title became extinct on his death.
+
+  See _The Times_, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, _The Builders of our
+  Law_ (1904); E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); J. B.
+  Atlay, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRAPE (an anglicized version of the Fr. _crepe_), a silk fabric of a
+gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. It is woven
+of hard spun silk yarn "in the gum" or natural condition. There are two
+distinct varieties of the textile--soft, Canton or Oriental crape, and
+hard or crisped crape. The wavy appearance of Canton crape results from
+the peculiar manner in which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two
+bobbins being twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven
+is smooth and even, having no _crepe_ appearance, but when the gum is
+subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and the weft,
+losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure which constitutes
+its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are used, either white or
+coloured, for ladies' scarves and shawls, bonnet trimmings, &c. The
+Chinese and Japanese excel in the manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp
+and elastic structure of hard crape is not produced either in the
+spinning or in the weaving, but is due to processes through which the
+gauze passes after it is woven. What the details of these processes are
+is known to only a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their
+secret that, in some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are
+conducted in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are
+distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes,
+according to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture. They are
+almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning dress, and among
+Roman Catholic communities for nuns' veils, &c. In Great Britain hard
+crapes are made at Braintree in Essex, Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and
+Glasgow. The crape formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp
+and worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into
+bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in
+Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria crape.
+
+
+
+
+CRASH, a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow towels,
+from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian origin, the
+simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as "Russia crash."
+The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns, and sometimes from
+boiled yarns. The simple term "crash" is given to all these narrow
+cloths, but the above distinction is very convenient, as also are the
+following: grey, boiled, bleached, plain, twilled and fancy crash. A
+large variety obtains with and without fancy borders, while of late
+years cotton has been introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute
+yarns for weft. After the cloth has passed through all the finishing
+operations, it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn
+together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller; for
+this reason it is often termed "roller towelling."
+
+
+
+
+CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613-1650), English poet, styled "the divine," was
+born in London about 1613. He was the son of a strongly anti-papistical
+divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-1626), who distinguished himself, even
+in those times, by the excessive acerbity of his writings against the
+Catholics. In spite of these opinions, however, he was attracted by
+Catholic devotion, for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits.
+Richard Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in
+July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took
+the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of Herbert's _Temple_ in
+1633 seems to have finally determined the bias of his genius in favour
+of religious poetry, and next year he published his first book,
+_Epigrammatum sacrorum liber_, a volume of Latin verses. In March 1636
+he removed to Peterhouse, was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and
+proceeded M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the
+acquaintance and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley. He
+was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk Nicholas Ferrar,
+and frequently visited him at his religious house at Little Gidding. In
+1641 he is said to have gone to Oxford, but only for a short time; for
+when in 1643 Cowley left Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw
+remained behind, and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644.
+In the confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he
+finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had long been
+tending.
+
+During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected by an
+anonymous friend, and published under the title of _Steps to the Temple_
+and _The Delights of the Muses_, in one volume, in 1646. The first part
+includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of Marini's _Sospetto d'
+Herode_. This same year Cowley found him in great destitution at Paris,
+and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to extend towards him what influence
+she still possessed. At her introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he
+became attendant to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two
+Latin hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the
+cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his retinue
+contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour was a source of
+ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English mystic. At last his
+denunciation of their excesses became so public that the animosity of
+those persons was excited against him, and in order to shield him from
+their revenge he was sent by the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he
+was made a canon of the Holy House. In less than three weeks, however,
+he sickened of fever, and died on the 25th of August, not without grave
+suspicion of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at
+Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled _Carmen Deo
+nostro_, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at the dead poet's
+desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings, the countess of
+Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen engravings after Crashaw's
+own designs.
+
+Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments; besides
+being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an intimate knowledge
+of Italian and Spanish; and his skill in music, painting and engraving
+was no less admired in his lifetime than his skill in poetry. Cowley
+embalmed his memory in an elegy that ranks among the very finest in our
+language, in which he, a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on
+the minds of contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic
+poet:--
+
+  "His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might
+   Be wrong; his life, I'm sure, was in the right:
+   And I, myself, a Catholic will be,
+   So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee!"
+
+The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can with
+most success free themselves from the bondage of a traditional sense of
+the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted the use of
+images and phrases which we now justly condemn as incongruous and
+unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw carried this licence to
+excess. At the same time his verse is studded with fiery beauties and
+sudden felicities of language, unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own
+time and Shelley's. There is no religious poetry in English so full at
+once of gross and awkward images and imaginative touches of the most
+ethereal beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate
+and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost hysterical,
+passion about him, even when his ardour is most exquisitely expressed,
+and his adoring addresses to the saints have an effeminate falsetto that
+makes their ecstasy almost repulsive. The faults and beauties of his
+very peculiar style can be studied nowhere to more advantage than in the
+_Hymn to Saint Teresa_. Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are
+_Music's Duel_, which deals with that strife between the musician and
+the nightingale which has inspired so many poets, and _Wishes to his
+supposed Mistress_. In his latest sacred poems, included in the _Carmen
+Deo nostro_, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting, but the
+mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesiastical mannerism
+more harsh and repellent. The themes of Crashaw's verses are as distinct
+as possible from those of Shelley's, but it may, on the whole, be said
+that at his best moments he reminds the reader more closely of the
+author of _Epipsychidion_ than of any earlier or later poet.
+
+  Crashaw's works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by W. B.
+  Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for private
+  subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition was edited
+  (1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R. Waller.
+     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CRASSULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons, containing 13
+genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan distribution, but most
+strongly developed in South Africa. The plants are herbs or small
+shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems and leaves, adapted for life
+in dry, especially rocky places. The fleshy leaves are often reduced to
+a more or less cylindrical structure, as in the stonecrops (_Sedum_), or
+form closely crowded rosettes as in the house-leek (_Sempervivum_).
+Correlated with their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is
+succulent, forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by
+evaporation by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy
+secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The flowers
+are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and are
+markedly regular with the same number of parts in each series. This
+number is, however, very variable, and often not constant in one and the
+same species. The sepals and petals are free or more or less united, the
+stamens as many or twice as many as the petals; the carpels, usually
+free, are equal to the petals in number, and form in the fruit follicles
+with two or more seeds. Opposite each carpel is a small scale which
+functions as a nectary. Means of vegetative propagation are general.
+Many species spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or
+as in house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal
+leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves give
+rise to new plants by budding, as in _Bryophyllum_, where buds develop
+at the edges of the leaf and form new plants.
+
+[Illustration: Stonecrop (_Sedum acre_) slightly reduced. 1, Horizontal
+plan of arrangement of flower of stonecrop; 2, flower of _Sedum
+rubens_.]
+
+The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and has but few
+representatives in South America; it is otherwise very generally
+distributed. The largest genus, _Sedum_, contains about 140 species in
+the temperate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere; eight occur
+wild in Britain, including _S. Telephium_ (orpine) and _S. acre_ (common
+stonecrop) (see fig.). The species are easily cultivated and will thrive
+in almost any soil. They are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or
+divisions. _Crassula_ has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape.
+_Cotyledon_, a widely distributed genus with about 90 species, is
+represented in the British Isles by _C. Umbilicus_, pennywort, or
+navelwort, which takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It
+grows profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western
+coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers. The
+_Echeveria_ of gardens is now included in this genus. _Sempervivum_ has
+about 50 species in the mountains of central and southern Europe, in the
+Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries and Madeira; _S. tectorum_,
+common house-leek, is seen often growing on tops of walls and
+house-roofs. The hardy species will grow well in dry sandy soil, and are
+suitable for rockeries, old walls or edgings. They are readily
+propagated by offsets or by seed.
+
+The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is
+distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels.
+
+
+
+
+CRASSUS (literally "dense," "thick," "fat"), a family name in the Roman
+gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of the name are the
+following:
+
+1. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, surnamed _Dives Mucianus_, Roman statesman,
+orator and jurist, consul, 131 B.C. He was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola
+(consul 175) and was adopted by a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate
+friend of Tiberius Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his
+place on the agrarian commission (see GRACCHUS). In 131 when Crassus was
+consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son of
+Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which had been
+bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls were anxious to obtain
+the command against him; Crassus was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a
+flamen of Mars. Crassus declared that Flaccus could not neglect his
+sacred office, and imposed a conditional fine on him in the event of his
+leaving Rome. The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was
+ordered to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded to
+Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade the
+pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his military
+operations. But in the following year, when he was making preparations
+to return, he was surprised near Leucae. He was himself taken prisoner
+by a Thracian band, and provoked his captors, who were ignorant of his
+identity, to put him to death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed
+much military ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his
+knowledge of law and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a
+mastery of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in
+Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any of the
+dialects in use.
+
+  Cicero, _De oratore_, i. 50; _Philippics_, xi. 8; Plutarch, _Tib.
+  Gracchus_, 21; Livy, _Epit._ 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6;
+  Vell. Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10.
+
+2. LUCIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (140-91 B.C.), the orator, of unknown
+parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he made his reputation
+by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the friend of the Gracchi. The
+law passed by him and his colleague Q. Mucius Scaevola during their
+consulship (95), to prevent those passing as Roman citizens who had no
+right to the title, was one of the prime causes of the Social War
+(Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, xxi., _De officiis_, iii. 11). During his
+censorship Crassus suppressed the newly founded schools of Latin
+rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by
+his passionate speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had
+insulted the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the _De
+oratore_ of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his
+speeches.
+
+3. PUBLIUS LICINIUS CRASSUS, called _Dives_, father of the triumvir.
+Little is known of him before he became consul in 97, except that he
+proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table, which met with
+general approval. During his consulship the practice of magic arts was
+condemned by a decree of the senate, and human sacrifice was abolished.
+He was subsequently governor of Spain for some years, during which he
+gained several successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93
+was honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with L.
+Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain of the
+Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the Romans, but the
+proceedings seem to have been interrupted by certain irregularities.
+They also forbade the introduction of foreign wines and unguents.
+Crassus committed suicide in 87, to avoid falling into the hands of the
+Marian party.
+
+  Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_,
+  ii. 13; Livy, _Epit._ 80; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 3; Appian, _Bell.
+  Civ._ i. 72; Festus, under _Referri_.
+
+4. MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS (c. 115-53 B.C.), the Triumvir, surnamed
+_Dives_ (rich) on account of his great wealth. His wealth was acquired
+by traffic in slaves, the working of silver mines, and judicious
+purchases of lands and houses, especially those of proscribed citizens.
+The proscription of Cinna obliged him to flee to Spain; but after
+Cinna's death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where he
+ingratiated himself with Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he
+gained a decisive victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon
+afterwards he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his
+wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and distributing
+sufficient corn to last each family three months. In 65 he was censor,
+and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the coalition known as the
+first triumvirate. In 55 he was again consul with Pompey, and a law was
+passed, assigning the provinces of the two Spains and Syria to the two
+consuls for five years. Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised
+to be an inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates he
+hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was defeated at
+Carrhae (53 B.C.) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the Parthian general,
+who put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. His head
+was cut off and sent to Orodes, the Parthian king. Crassus was a man of
+only moderate abilities, and owed his importance to his great wealth.
+
+  See Plutarch's _Life_; also CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS; POMPEY; ROME:
+  _History_, II. "The Republic."
+
+
+
+
+CRATER, the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually
+funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name, from
+the Gr. [Greek: krater], a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single
+crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters on
+its flanks: the latter are sometimes called "adventitious craters" or
+"craterlets." Much of the loose ejected material, falling in the
+neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner wall of the crater, and
+thus produces a stratification with an inward dip. The crater in an
+active volcano is kept open by intermittent explosions, but in a volcano
+which has become dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the
+bowl-shaped cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a
+crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a _Maar_. In some basaltic
+cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may be a broad
+shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with horizontal
+stratification. Such hollows are consequently called pit-craters. The
+name _caldera_ (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested for such pits by Capt.
+C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as having been formed by subsidence of
+the walls. The term caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in
+Spanish-speaking countries. (See VOLCANO.)
+
+
+
+
+CRATES, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished about 470 B.C.
+He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy proper, since he
+abandoned political lampoons on individuals, and introduced more general
+subjects and a well-developed plot (Aristotle, _Poetica_, 5). He is
+stated to have been the first to represent the drunkard on the stage
+(Aristophanes, _Knights_, 37 ff.).
+
+  Fragments in Meineke, _Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta_, i.
+
+
+
+
+CRATES, the name of two Greek philosophers.
+
+1. CRATES, of Athens, successor of Polemo as leader of the Old Academy.
+
+2. CRATES, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of the 4th
+century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the last great
+representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his ample fortune
+owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more probable story is that he
+sacrificed it in accordance with his principles, directing the banker,
+to whom he entrusted it, to give it to his sons if they should prove
+fools, but to the poor if his sons should prove philosophers. He gave up
+his life to the attainment of virtue and the propagation of ascetic
+self-control. His habit of entering houses for this purpose, uninvited,
+earned him the nickname [Greek: Thyrepanoiktes] ("Door-opener"). His
+marriage with Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in
+curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by the
+nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and ugliness,
+she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her father's commands.
+The date of his death is unknown, though he seems to have lived into the
+3rd century. His writings were few. According to Diogenes Laertius, he
+was the author of a number of letters on philosophical subjects; but
+those extant under the name of Crates (R. Hercher, _Epistolographi
+Graeci_, 1873) are, spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes
+Laertius credits him with a short poem, [Greek: Paignia], and several
+philosophic tragedies. Plutarch's life of Crates is lost. The great
+importance of Crates' work is that he formed the link between Cynicism
+and the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil.
+
+  See N. Postumus, _De Cratete Cynico_ (1823); F. Mullach, _Frag.
+  Philosophorum Graecorum_, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and
+  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_; Diog. Laert. vi. 85-93, 96-98.
+
+
+
+
+CRATES, of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher
+of the 2nd century B.C., leader of the literary school and head of the
+library of Pergamum. His principles were opposed to those of
+Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian school. He was the chief
+representative of the allegorical theory of exegesis, and maintained
+that Homer intended to express scientific or philosophical truths in the
+form of poetry. About 170 B.C. he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus
+II., king of Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to
+stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the first
+impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the Romans
+(Suetonius, _De grammaticis_, 2). His chief work was a critical and
+exegetical commentary on Homer.
+
+  See C. Wachsmuth, _De Cratete Mallota_ (1860), containing an account
+  of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of
+  Class. Schol._ i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CRATINUS (c. 520-423 B.C.), Athenian comic poet, chief representative of
+the old, and founder of political, comedy. Hardly anything is known of
+his life, and only fragments of his works have been preserved. But a
+good idea of their character can be gained from the opinions of his
+contemporaries, especially Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly
+distinguished by their direct and vigorous political satire, a marked
+exception being the burlesque [Greek: Odysseis], dealing with the story
+of Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was
+in force forbidding all political references on the stage. They were
+also remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius
+calls the author "the bold," and even Pericles at the height of his
+power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the _Nemesis_ and
+_Archilochi_, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently
+deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus was in
+sympathy. The _Panoptae_ was a satire on the sophists and omniscient
+speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last comedy the plot has
+come down to us. It was occasioned by the sneers of Aristophanes and
+others, who declared that he was no better than a doting drunkard.
+Roused by the taunt, Cratinus put forth all his strength, and in 423
+B.C. produced the [Greek: Pytine], or _Bottle_, which gained the first
+prize over the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes. In this comedy, good-humouredly
+making fun of his own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as
+the faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival--the
+bottle--has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from the archon;
+but her husband's love is not dead and he returns penitent to her side.
+In Grenfell and Hunt's _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, iv. (1904), containing a
+further instalment of their edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by
+them in 1896-1897, one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper
+bearing the argument of a play by Cratinus,--the _Dionysalexandros_
+(i.e. Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the
+epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of Cratinus
+has been likened to that of Aeschylus; and Aristophanes, in the
+_Knights_, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to have been
+fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most successful in the
+lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the popular festal songs
+of his day. According to the statement of a doubtful authority, which is
+not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus increased the number of actors in
+comedy to three. He wrote 21 comedies and gained the prize nine times.
+
+  Fragments in Meineke, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, or Kock,
+  _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_. A younger Cratinus flourished in the
+  time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that some of the
+  comedies ascribed to the elder Cratinus were really the work of the
+  younger.
+
+
+
+
+CRATIPPUS (fl. c. 375 B.C.), Greek historian. There are only three or
+four references to him in ancient literature, and his importance is due
+to the fact that he has been identified by several scholars (e.g. Blass)
+with the author of the historical fragment discovered by Grenfell and
+Hunt, and published by them in _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. It may be
+regarded as a fairly certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (_De
+Gloria Atheniensium_, p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was
+an Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and
+Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides, from
+the point at which the latter historian stopped (410 B.C.) down to the
+battle of Cnidus (394 B.C.).
+
+  The fragments are published in C. Muller's _Fragmenta Historicorum
+  Graecorum_. For authorities see under THEOPOMPUS.
+
+
+
+
+CRATIPPUS, of Mitylene (1st century B.C.), Peripatetic philosopher,
+contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at Athens, and by whom he
+is praised in the _De officiis_ as the greatest of his school. He was
+the friend of Pompey also and shared his flight after the battle of
+Pharsalia, for the purpose, it is said, of convincing him of the justice
+of providence. Brutus, while at Athens after the assassination of
+Caesar, attended his lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon
+him by Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to him
+is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be gauged by the
+fact that in 44 B.C. the Areopagus invited him to succeed Andronicus of
+Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have held that, while motion, sense and
+appetite cannot exist apart from the body, thought reaches its greatest
+power when most free from bodily influence, and that divination is due
+to the direct action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human
+soul which is not dependent on the body.
+
+  Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52; _De officiis_, i.
+  1, iii. 2; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 24.
+
+
+
+
+CRAU (from a Celtic root meaning "stone"), a region of southern France,
+comprised in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and bounded W. by the
+canal from Arles to Port du Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the
+Alpines separating it from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by
+the hills around Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of
+the Mediterranean Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is
+a low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden
+inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the Durance,
+according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface is formed chiefly
+of stones varying in size from an egg to a man's head; these, mixed with
+a proportion of fine soil, overlie a subsoil formed of stones cemented
+into a hard mass by deposits of calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed
+of loose stones, once the sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime,
+the Crau is adapted for agriculture by the process of warping, carried
+out by means of the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of
+the 16th century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east
+has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the Durance.
+The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation and the application
+of artificial manures. By these aids, uncultivated land, which before
+supplied only rough and scanty pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted
+for the growth of the vine, olive and other fruits; where irrigation is
+practicable, water-meadows have been formed. The dryness of the climate
+is unfavourable to the production of cereals.
+
+
+
+
+CRAUCK, GUSTAVE (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born and died at
+Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works was erected in his
+honour. Though little known to the world at large during his long life,
+he ranks among the best modern sculptors of France. At Paris his
+"Coligny" monument is in the rue de Rivoli; his "Victory" in the Place
+des Arts et Metiers; and "Twilight" in the Avenue de l'Observatoire.
+Among his finest works is his "Combat du Centaure," on which he was
+engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been modelled
+after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibition of his works was
+held in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
+
+
+
+
+CRAUFURD, QUINTIN (1743-1819), British author, was born at Kilwinnock on
+the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he went to India, where he
+entered the service of the East India Company. Returning to Europe
+before the age of forty with a handsome fortune, he settled in Paris,
+where he gave himself to the cultivation of literature and art, and
+formed a good library and collection of paintings, coins and other
+objects of antiquarian interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the
+French court, especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who
+arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in 1792 he
+returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal prisoners. He lived
+among the French _emigres_ until the peace of Amiens made it possible to
+return to Paris. Through Talleyrand's influence he was able to remain in
+Paris after the war was renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of
+November 1819.
+
+  He wrote, among other works, _The History, Religion, Learning and
+  Manners of the Hindus_ (1790), _Secret History of the King of France
+  and his Escape from Paris_ (first published in 1885), _Researches
+  concerning the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and
+  Modern India_ (1817), _History of the Bastille_ (1798), _On Pericles
+  and the Arts in Greece_ (1815), _Essay on Swift and his Influence on
+  the British Government_ (1808), _Notice sur Marie Antoinette_ (1809),
+  _Memoires de Mme du Hausset_ (1808).
+
+
+
+
+CRAUFURD, ROBERT (1764-1812), British major-general, was born at Newark,
+Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As
+captain in the 75th regiment he first saw active service against Tippoo
+Sahib in 1790-92. The next year he was employed, under his brother
+Charles, with the Austrian armies operating against the French.
+Returning to England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a
+lieutenant-colonel, on Lake's staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later
+he was British commissioner on Suvarov's staff when the Russians invaded
+Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition. From
+1801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament for East
+Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with Whitelock in the
+unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was almost the only one of the
+senior officers who added to his reputation in this affair, and in 1808
+he received a brigade command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were
+heavily engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not
+present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they returned
+to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula, Brigadier-General
+Craufurd was three marches or more in rear of Wellesley's army when a
+report came in that a great battle was in progress. The march which
+followed is one almost unparalleled in military annals. The three
+battalions of the "Light Brigade" (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full
+marching order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of
+Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning their
+career with this famous march, these regiments and their chief, under
+whom served such men as Charles and William Napier, Shaw and Colborne,
+soon became celebrated as one of the best corps of troops in Europe, and
+every engagement added to their laurels. Craufurd's operations on the
+Coa and Agueda in 1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew
+the quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though
+Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time increased
+his force to a division by the addition of two picked regiments of
+Portuguese _Cacadores_. The conduct of the renowned "Light Division" at
+Busaco is described by Napier in one of his most vivid passages. The
+winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in England, and his division was
+commanded in the interim by another officer, who did not display much
+ability. He reappeared on the field of the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro
+amidst the cheers of his men, and nothing could show his genius for war
+better than his conduct on this day, in covering the strange
+readjustment of his line which Wellington was compelled to make in the
+face of the enemy. A little later he obtained major-general's rank; and
+on the 19th of January 1812, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad
+Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell mortally
+wounded. His body was carried out of action by his staff officer,
+Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see SHAW KENNEDY), and, after lingering
+four days, he died. He was buried in the breach of the fortress where he
+had met his death, and a monument in St Paul's cathedral commemorates
+Craufurd and Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of
+Ciudad Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are
+amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and Portuguese
+armies. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not the very first,
+of Wellington's generals, he had a fiery temper, which rendered him a
+difficult man to deal with, but to the day of his death he possessed the
+confidence and affection of his men in an extraordinary degree.
+
+His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir CHARLES CRAUFURD (1761-1821),
+entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made captain in the Queen's Bays
+in 1785, he became the equerry and intimate friend of the duke of York.
+He studied in Germany for some time, and, with his brother Robert's
+assistance, translated Tielcke's book on the Seven Years' War (_The
+Remarkable Events of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from
+1756 to 1763_). As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the
+French War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the Austrian
+headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden, Caesar's Camp,
+Famars, Landrecies, &c. Major in 1793, and lieutenant-colonel in 1794,
+he returned to the English army in the latter year, and on one occasion
+distinguished himself at the head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and
+1000 prisoners. When the British army left the continent Craufurd was
+again attached to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on
+the Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At the last
+battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further service, and cut
+short a promising career. He succeeded his brother Robert as member of
+parliament for East Retford (1806-1812). He died in 1821, having become
+a lieutenant-general and a G.C.B.
+
+
+
+
+CRAVAT (from the Fr. _cravate_, a corruption of "Croat"), the name given
+by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the scarf worn by the
+Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian regiment. Made of linen
+or muslin with broad edges of lace, it became fashionable, and the name
+was applied both in England and France to various forms of neckerchief
+worn at different times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long
+flowing ends, called a "Steinkirk" from the battle of 1692 of that name,
+to the elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric
+neckcloth worn during the period of Beau Brummell.
+
+
+
+
+CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAE (1808-1891), French author, the
+daughter of an _emigre_ Breton nobleman, was born in London on the 12th
+of April 1808. Her father, the comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a
+close friend of the duc de Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to
+France in 1814. He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X.
+at the Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the duc de Berri made
+retirement imperative to the count's sense of honour. He was appointed
+ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became foreign minister in
+Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in brilliant surroundings, but her
+strongest impressions were those which she derived from the group of
+Catholic thinkers gathered round Lamennais, and her ardent piety
+furnishes the key of her life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and
+Pauline, at the suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first
+literary essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a
+visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la Ferronays
+resigned his position, and retired with his family to Naples. Here
+Pauline met her future husband, Augustus Craven, who was then attache to
+the British embassy. His father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known
+supporter of Queen Caroline, objected to his son's marriage with a
+Catholic; but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the
+marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman Catholic
+Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in the _Recit d'une
+soeur_ was especially tender and intimate, suffered several severe
+bereavements in the years following on her marriage. The Cravens lived
+abroad until 1851, when the death of Keppel Craven made his son
+practically independent of his diplomatic career, in which he had not
+been conspicuously successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to
+parliament for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private
+life. They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to write
+the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between 1830 and
+1836, its incidents being grouped round the love story of her brother
+Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the _Recit d'une soeur_
+(1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically received and was awarded
+a prize by the French Academy. Straitened circumstances made it
+desirable for Mrs Craven to earn money by her pen. _Anne Severin_
+appeared in 1868, _Fleurange_ in 1871, _Le Mot d'enigme_ in 1874, _Le
+Valbriant_ (Eng. trans., _Lucia_) in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works
+may be mentioned _La Soeur Natalie Narischkin_ (1876), _Deux Incidents
+de la question catholique en Angleterre_ (1875), _Lady Georgiana
+Fullerton, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1888). Mrs Craven's charming
+personality won her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord
+Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in Paris on the
+1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884, translated the
+correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the Prince Consort into French.
+
+
+  See _Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven_ (1894), by her friend Mrs Mary
+  Catherine Bishop; also _Paolina Craven_, by T. F. Ravaschieri Fieschi
+  (1892). There is a biography of Mrs Craven's father, "En Emigration,"
+  in Etienne Lamy's _Temoins des jours passes_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN, EARL OF (1608-1697), eldest son of Sir William
+Craven, lord mayor of London, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman
+William Whitmore, was born in June 1608, matriculated at Trinity
+College, Oxford, in 1623, and joined the society of the Middle Temple in
+1624. He had already inherited his father's vast fortune by the latter's
+death in 1618, and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in
+the military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was
+knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire in
+1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of the unfortunate king
+and queen of Bohemia, driven from their dominions, and in 1632 joined
+Frederick in a military expedition to recover the Palatinate, meeting
+Gustavus Adolphus at Hochst, whose praise he gained by being the first,
+though wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on the
+22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to allow the
+elector an independent command for the defence of the Palatinate, and
+Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he was placed on the council of
+Wales. In 1637 he took part in a second expedition in aid of the
+palatine family on the Lower Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis
+and his brother Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of
+L30,000, but their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded
+and taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom in
+1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen Elizabeth at
+the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously with funds on the
+cessation of her English pension owing to the outbreak of the Civil War.
+He contributed also large sums in aid of Charles I., and, after his
+execution, of Charles II., the amount bestowed upon the latter being
+alone computed at L50,000,[1] notwithstanding that since 1651 the
+greater part of his estates had been confiscated by the parliament and
+his house at Caversham reduced to ruins.[2] At the Restoration he
+accompanied Charles to England, regained his estates, and was rewarded
+with offices and honours. He was made colonel of several regiments
+including the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high
+steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy councillor,
+but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William Temple's remodelled
+council.[3] In 1668 he became a governor of the Charterhouse, was
+appointed lord-lieutenant of Middlesex, and master of the Trinity House
+in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner for Tangier. He was one of the lords
+proprietors of Carolina and a member of the Fishery Committee.
+
+In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven. Meanwhile his
+devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia was unceasing, and on
+her return to England he offered her hospitality at his house in Drury
+Lane, where she remained till February 1662. At her death, within a
+fortnight afterwards, she bequeathed to Craven her papers and her
+valuable collection of portraits, but there is no foundation for the
+belief entertained later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the
+guardian of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms,
+Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and
+lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at the
+age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall on the 17th
+of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived. He refused to withdraw
+them at the bidding of Count Solms, the Dutch commander, but obeyed
+later James's own orders to retire. His public career now closed and he
+filled no office after the revolution. Although his claims upon the
+gratitude of the Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been
+considered a possible candidate for high political place. His ability
+was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect in the
+_Verney Papers_ and by the electress Sophia in her _Memoirs_. The latter
+retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and Pepys was
+disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery Board, where his
+"very confused and very ridiculous proceedings" are also censured.[4]
+His military prowess, however, his generosity and his public spirit are
+undoubted. He showed great activity during the plague and fire of
+London. He was a patron of letters and a member of the Royal Society. He
+inherited Combe Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased
+Hampstead Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of
+Heidelberg Castle.
+
+He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom became
+extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his cousin William,
+2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven (the earldom being revived
+in 1801) is descended from John, a younger brother of the latter. The
+first Lord Craven's brother John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton
+in Shropshire and who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven
+scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first
+was awarded in 1649.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (and
+  Errata); _Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest
+  daughter of James I.)_, vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); _Memoirs
+  of Elizabeth Stuart_, by Miss Benger (1825); _Memoiren der Herzogin
+  Sophie_, ed. by A. Kocher in _Publ. aus den k. preussischen
+  Staatsarchiven_, Bd. iv. (1879); "Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart" in
+  _Bibliothek des litterarischen Vereins_ (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157;
+  G. E. C.'s _Complete Peerage_ (1889), ii. 404; _Lives and Characters
+  of the Most Illustrious Persons_ (1713), p. 546; Macaulay's _Hist. of
+  England_, ii. 584 (1858); _Verney Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1853); _Cal.
+  of St. Pap. Dom._; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate
+  in Cat. of the British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists
+  in the Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Verney Papers_, 189 note.
+
+  [2] Evelyn's _Diary_, June 8th, 1654.
+
+  [3] _Hist. MSS. Com.; Various Collections_, ii. 394.
+
+  [4] _Diary_, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. The house of Lindsay, of which the earl of Crawford
+is the head, traces its descent back to the barons of Crawford who
+flourished in the 12th century, and has included a number of men who
+have played leading parts in the history of Scotland. It is said that
+"though other families in Scotland may have been of more historic, none
+can in genealogical importance equal that of Lindsay," and the Lindsays
+claim that "the predecessors of the 1st earl of Crawford were barons at
+the period of the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact,
+they were never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among
+the _pares_, of which kings are _primi_, from the commencement of
+recorded history." Again we are told, "the earldom of Crawford,
+therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others of
+the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an
+_imperium in imperio_." Moreover, the earls "had also a _concilium_, or
+petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom, with
+whose advice they acted on great and important occasions."
+
+Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanarkshire, was
+the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c. 1357), and was
+related to King Robert II.; he was descended from Sir Alexander Lindsay
+of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained Crawford and other estates in 1297
+and who was high chamberlain of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at
+Otterburn, and Froissart tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was
+succeeded by his cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir
+Alexander Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who
+married a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford.
+
+The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th and the
+5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the 4th earl (d. 1454), called the "tiger
+earl," was, like his father David the 3rd earl, who was killed in 1446,
+one of the most powerful of the Scottish nobles; for some time he was in
+arms against King James II., but he submitted in 1452. His son David,
+the 5th earl (c. 1440-1495), was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain;
+he went frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of
+Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son. Montrose
+fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and his son John,
+the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden.
+
+David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of Alexander, the 7th
+earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of Crawford (d. 1542),
+called the "wicked master," who quarrelled with his father and tried to
+kill him. Consequently he was sentenced to death, and the 8th earl
+conveyed the earldom to his kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558),
+a descendant of the 3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and
+his descendants, and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the
+9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked master's
+son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the earldom came back to
+the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl being called the
+"interpolated earl."
+
+David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574), was a supporter of Mary
+Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David (c. 1547-1607) as 11th
+earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal Beaton, was concerned in some
+of the risings under James VI.; he was converted to Roman Catholicism
+and was in communication with the Spaniards about an invasion of
+England. After his death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621),
+a lawless ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or
+Charteris (d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry's three
+sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic, succeeding
+in 1639.
+
+Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part in the
+strange plot of 1641 called the "incident." Having joined Charles I. at
+Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at Newbury and elsewhere
+during the Civil War; in 1644, just after Marston Moor, the Scottish
+parliament declared he had forfeited his earldom, and, following the
+lines laid down when this was regranted in 1642, it was given to John
+Lindsay, 1st earl of Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in
+1644 and was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out,
+and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served until the
+surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in Ireland and in Spain
+and he died probably in France in 1652. He left no issue.
+
+The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman, belonged to the
+family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the Lindsays descended from
+Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c. 1355), the grandfather of the 1st
+earl of Crawford. Sir David's descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres
+(d. 1482), was created a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres
+in 1445, and his son David, the 2nd lord (d. 1490), fought for James
+III. at the battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this
+line was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of John
+the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the reforming
+party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish nobles to join the
+reformers, and he was also one of the most violent. He fought against
+the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the French; then during a temporary
+reconciliation he assisted Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern
+rebels at Corrichie in 1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he
+took part in the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against
+Bothwell, whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at
+Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and ally of the
+regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and obtained her
+signature to the deed of abdication; he fought against her at Langside,
+and after Murray's murder he was one of the chiefs of the party which
+supported the throne of James VI. In 1578, however, he was among those
+who tried to drive Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the
+person of the king in the plot called the "raid of Ruthven," afterwards
+escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when he died on
+the 11th of December 1589. His successor was his son, James the 7th lord
+(d. 1601).
+
+Patrick's great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford and 1st
+earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert Lindsay, 9th Lord
+Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as 10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he
+was created earl of Lindsay, and having become a leader of the
+Covenanters he marched with the Scottish army into England in 1644 and
+was present at Marston Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of
+Crawford in the manner already mentioned. In the same year he became
+lord high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the
+parliament. Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of
+Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647 he signed
+the "engagement" for the release of Charles I., losing all his offices
+by the act of classes when his enemy, the marquess of Argyll, obtained
+the upper hand. After the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar, however,
+Crawford regained his influence in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to
+1660 he was a prisoner in England. In 1661 he was restored to his former
+dignities, but his refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to
+resign them two years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and
+2nd earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent
+covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parliament. Mr
+Andrew Lang says this earl was "very poor, very presbyterian, and his
+letters, almost alone among those of the statesmen of the period, are
+rich in the texts and unctuous style of an older generation."
+
+William's grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and 4th earl of
+Lindsay (1702-1749), won a high reputation as a soldier. He held a
+command in the Russian army, seeing service against the Turk, and he
+also served against the same foe under Prince Eugene. Having returned to
+the English army he led the life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished
+himself at Fontenoy; later he served against France in the Netherlands.
+He left no sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George
+Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a descendant of
+the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and 5th earl of Lindsay.
+When George's son, George, the 22nd earl (1758-1808), died unmarried in
+January 1808, the earldoms of Crawford and Lindsay were separated,
+George's kinsman, David Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord
+Lindsay of the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his
+successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the House of
+Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune, Bart. (1827-1894), also a
+descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, was entitled to the
+earldom. In 1894 John's cousin, David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became
+11th earl of Lindsay.
+
+The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when this separation
+took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords adjudged it to James
+Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres.
+
+The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord Menmuir
+(1552-1598), a younger son of David Lindsay, 9th earl of Crawford. John,
+who bought the estate of Balcarres in Fifeshire, became a lord of
+session as Lord Menmuir in 1581; he was a member of the Scottish privy
+council and one of the commissioners of the treasury called the
+Octavians. He had great influence with James VI., helping the king to
+restore episcopacy after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy
+seal and a secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual
+attainments, left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the family
+estates on his brother's death in 1601. David (c. 1586-1641), a notable
+alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres in 1633, and in 1651
+his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres.
+
+Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the "Rupert of the
+Covenant," fought against Charles I. at Marston Moor, at Alford and at
+Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists, signing the "engagement" for
+the release of the king in 1647, and having been created earl of
+Balcarres took part in Glencairn's rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks
+very highly of the earl, who died at Breda in August 1659. His son
+Charles (d. 1662) became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin
+(c. 1654-1722), became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most trusted
+of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable _Memoirs touching the
+Revolution in Scotland, 1688-1690_; these were first published in 1714,
+and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the 25th earl of Crawford in
+1841. Having been allowed to return to Scotland after an exile in
+France, the earl joined the Jacobite rising in 1715. His successor was
+his son Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another
+son, James, the 5th earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at
+Sheriffmuir. Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army,
+serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some _Memoirs of
+the Lindsays_, which were completed by his son Alexander, the 6th earl
+(1752-1825). Alexander was with the English troops in America during the
+struggle for independence, and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to
+1801, filling a difficult position with great credit to himself. He
+became a general in 1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he
+had received through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the
+27th of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford,
+although he became earl _de jure_ in 1808, but in 1843 his son James
+Lindsay (1783-1869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by the
+House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl of Crawford and 7th earl of
+Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the United Kingdom as
+Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall.
+
+His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of Crawford
+(1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland, on the 16th of
+October 1812, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. He travelled much in
+Europe and the East, and was most learned in genealogy and history. His
+more important works include _Lives of the Lindsays_ (3 vols., 1849),
+_Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land_ (1838), _Sketches of the
+History of Christian Art_ (1847 and 1882), _Etruscan Inscriptions
+Analysed_ (1872), and _The Earldom of Mar during 500 years_ (1882). He
+succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence on the
+13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered that the family
+vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the body stolen. It was not
+until the 18th of July 1882 that the police, acting on the confession of
+an eye-witness of the desecration, found the remains, which were then
+reinterred at Haigh Hall, Wigan.
+
+His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford (1847-   ),
+British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye,
+France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated at Eton and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, he devoted himself to astronomy, in which he early achieved
+distinction. In 1870 he went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun,
+and, in 1874, to Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. In the
+interval, with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory
+at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented, together with his
+unique library of astronomical and mathematical works, to the New Royal
+Observatory on Blackford Hill, Edinburgh, where they were installed in
+1895. His services to science were recognized by his election to the
+presidentship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in
+succession to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal
+Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh
+University in 1882, and in the following year was nominated honorary
+associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. An enthusiastic
+bibliophile, he became a trustee of the British Museum, and acted for a
+term as president of the Library Association. To the free library of
+Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a series of oriental and English MSS. of the
+9th to the 19th centuries in illustration of the progress of
+handwriting, while for the use of specialists and students he issued the
+invaluable _Bibliotheca Lindesiana_. He represented Wigan in the House
+of Commons from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880.
+
+Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir Alexander
+Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in 1590, being a younger
+son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd Lord Spynie was Alexander's
+son, Alexander (d. 1646), who served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus
+and assisted Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd
+lord was the latter's son, George. When George, a royalist who was taken
+prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 1671 this title became
+extinct.
+
+The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of the 5th earl
+of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in the Graham family,
+was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of Crawford, but in 1853 the House
+of Lords gave judgment against the earl.
+
+The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several prelates.
+John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow; Alexander Lindsay (d.
+1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay
+(d. c. 1641) was bishop of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too,
+was deposed in 1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay
+(1566-1644), bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow
+from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay prelates was
+David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the 9th earl of Crawford.
+David, who married James VI. to Anne of Denmark at Upsala, was one of
+the leaders of the Kirk party; he became bishop of Ross under the new
+scheme for establishing episcopacy in 1600.
+
+  See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), _Lives of the Lindsays_
+  (1849); A. Jervise, _History and Traditions of the Land of the
+  Lindsays_ (1882); G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); H.
+  T. Folkard, _A Lindsay Record_ (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul's edition of
+  the _Scots Peerage_ of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909), American author, was born at Bagni
+di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August 1854, being the son of the
+American sculptor Thomas Crawford (q.v.), and the nephew of Julia Ward
+Howe, the American poet. He studied successively at St Paul's school,
+Concord, New Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome. In
+1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited the
+Allahabad _Indian Herald_. Returning to America he continued to study
+Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year, contributed to various
+periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first novel, _Mr Isaacs_, a
+brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life mingled with a touch of
+Oriental mystery. This book had an immediate success, and its author's
+promise was confirmed by the publication of _Dr Claudius_ (1883). After
+a brief residence in New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy,
+where he made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact
+that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford's books stand apart
+from any distinctively American current in literature. Year by year he
+published a number of successful novels: _A Roman Singer_ (1884), _An
+American Politician_ (1884), _To Leeward_ (1884), _Zoroaster_ (1885), _A
+Tale of a Lonely Parish_ (1886), _Marzio's Crucifix_ (1887),
+_Saracinesca_ (1887), _Paul Patoff_ (1887), _With the Immortals_ (1888),
+_Greifenstein_ (1889), _Sant' Ilario_ (1889), _A Cigarette-maker's
+Romance_ (1890), _Khaled_ (1891), _The Witch of Prague_ (1891), _The
+Three Fates_ (1892), _The Children of the King_ (1892), _Don Orsino_
+(1892), _Marion Darche_ (1893), _Pietro Ghisleri_ (1893), _Katharine
+Lauderdale_ (1894), _Love in Idleness_ (1894), _The Ralstons_, (1894),
+_Casa Braccio_ (1895), _Adam Johnston's Son_ (1895), _Taquisara_ (1896),
+_A Rose of Yesterday_ (1897), _Corleone_ (1897), _Via Crucis_ (1899),
+_In the Palace of the King_ (1900), _Marietta_ (1901), _Cecilia_ (1902),
+_Whosoever Shall Offend_ (1904), _Soprano_ (1905), _A Lady of Rome_
+(1906). He also published the historical works, _Ave Roma Immortalis_
+(1898), _Rulers of the South_ (1900)--renamed _Sicily, Calabria and
+Malta_ in 1904,--and _Gleanings from Venetian History_ (1905). In these
+his intimate knowledge of local Italian history combines with the
+romancist's imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in
+contemporary literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted narrator,
+and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and dramatic
+characterization, became widely popular among readers to whom the
+realism of "problems" or the eccentricities of subjective analysis were
+repellent, for he could unfold a romantic story in an attractive way,
+setting his plot amid picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the
+reader's intelligence by a style at once straightforward and
+accomplished. The _Saracinesca_ series shows him perhaps at his best. _A
+Cigarette-maker's Romance_ was dramatized, and had considerable
+popularity on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an
+original play from his pen, _Francesco da Rimini_, was produced in Paris
+by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of April 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814-1857), American sculptor, was born of Irish
+parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814. He showed at an early age
+great taste for art, and learnt to draw and to carve in wood. In his
+nineteenth year he entered the studio of a firm of monumental sculptors
+in his native city; and in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became
+a pupil of Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known as
+a man of genius was his group of "Orpheus entering Hades in Search of
+Eurydice," executed in 1839. This was followed by other poetical
+sculptures, among which were the "Babes in the Wood," "Flora," "Hebe and
+Ganymede," "Sappho," "Vesta," the "Dancers," and the "Hunter." Among his
+statues and busts are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy,
+executed for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the
+equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the statue of
+Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing and Henry Clay,
+and the colossal figure of "Armed Liberty" for the Capitol at
+Washington. For this building he executed also the figures for the
+pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the bronze doors, which were
+afterwards completed by W. H. Rinehart. The groups of the pediment
+symbolize the progress of civilization in America. Crawford's works
+include a large number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from
+both the Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he
+visited several times his native land--first in 1844 (in which year he
+married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He died in
+London on the 10th of October 1857.
+
+  See _Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner_, to
+  which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, including
+  that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868); Thomas Hicks, _Eulogy
+  on Thomas Crawford_ (New York, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772-1834), American statesman, was born in
+Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of February 1772. When he was
+seven his parents moved into Edgefield district, South Carolina, and
+four years later into Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father
+in 1788 left the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what
+he could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at Carmel
+Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one of the largest
+schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the bar. From 1800 to
+1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a digest of the laws of Georgia
+from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to 1807 he was a member of the State House
+of Representatives, becoming during this period the leader of one of two
+personal-political factions in the state that long continued in bitter
+strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he killed
+his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist. From 1807 to
+1813 he was a member of the United States Senate, of which he was
+president _pro tempore_ from March 1812 to March 1813. In 1813 he
+declined the offer of the post of secretary of war, but from that year
+until 1815 was minister to the court of France. He was then secretary of
+war in 1815-1816, and secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In
+1816 in the congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the
+presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a majority being at
+first in his favour, but when the vote was finally cast 65 were for
+Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824, when the congressional caucus was
+fast becoming extinct, Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted
+that it should be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of
+these, 64 voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew
+Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise put in the
+field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken with paralysis, and
+when the electoral vote was cast Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford
+41, and Clay 37. It remained for the house of representatives to choose
+from Jackson, Adams and Crawford, and through Clay's influence Adams
+became president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as secretary
+of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health sufficiently to
+become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state, but died while on
+circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of September 1834. In his day
+he was undoubtedly one of the foremost political leaders of the country,
+but his reputation has not stood the test of time. He was of imposing
+presence and had great conversational powers; but his inflexible
+integrity was not sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of
+his winning general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful
+political organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of
+his time--Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of Albert
+Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the movement in 1811 to
+recharter the Bank of the United States; he earned the condemnation of
+posterity by his authorship in 1820 of the four-years-term law, which
+limited the term of service of thousands of public officials to four
+years, and did much to develop the "spoils system." He was a Liberal
+Democrat, and advised the calling of a constitutional convention as
+preferable to nullification or secession.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFORDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county,
+Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890)
+6089; (1900) 6649, including 230 negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910)
+9371. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the
+Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Vandalia railways,
+and by interurban electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832
+by Presbyterian missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27
+instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes. Among
+manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages, acetylene lights,
+wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and electrical machinery.
+North-east of the city there are valuable mineral springs, from which
+the city obtains its water-supply. Crawfordsville, named in honour of W.
+H. Crawford, was first settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in
+1823, and was chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the
+home of Gen. Lew Wallace.
+
+
+
+
+CRAWFURD, JOHN (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was born in the island
+of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783. After studying at
+Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India Company's service. He
+afterwards resided for some time at Penang, and during the British
+occupation of Java from 1811 to 1817 his local knowledge made him
+invaluable to the government. In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and
+Cochin-China, and in 1823 became governor of Singapore. His last
+political service in the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827.
+In 1861 he was elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at
+South Kensington on the 11th of May 1868.
+
+  Crawfurd wrote a _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (1820),
+  _Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_
+  (1856), _Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827_ (1829),
+  _Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China,
+  exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms_ (1830),
+  _Inquiry into the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior
+  of India_, an attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper
+  entitled _Taxes on Knowledge_ (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and
+  dictionary (1852).
+
+
+
+
+CRAYER, GASPARD DE (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp,
+and learnt the art of painting from Raphael Coxcie. He matriculated in
+the guild of St Luke at Brussels in 1607, resided in the capital of
+Brabant till after 1660, and finally settled at Ghent. Amongst the
+numerous pictures which he painted in Ghent, one in the town museum
+represents the martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A deg.
+1668 aet. 86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most
+conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to Rubens in
+vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly equalling both in
+most of the essentials of painting. He was well known and always well
+treated by Albert and Isabella, governors of the Netherlands. The
+cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a court-painter. His pictures abound
+in the churches and museums of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely
+a country chapel in Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more
+of his canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native country;
+and some important pictures of his composition are to be found as far
+south as Aix in Provence and as far east as Amberg in the Upper
+Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist is shown in the panels
+executed for a triumphal arch at the entry of Cardinal Ferdinand into
+the Flemish capital, some of which are publicly exhibited in the museum
+of Ghent. Crayer died at Ghent. His best works are the "Miraculous
+Draught of Fishes" in the gallery of Brussels, the "Judgment of Solomon"
+in the gallery of Ghent, and "Madonnas with Saints" in the Louvre, the
+Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His portrait by Vandyck
+was engraved by P. Pontius.
+
+
+
+
+CRAYFISH (Fr. _ecrevisse_), the name of freshwater crustaceans closely
+allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them, belonging to the
+order Macrura. They are divided into two families, the _Astacidae_ and
+_Parastacidae_, inhabiting respectively the northern and the southern
+hemispheres.
+
+The crayfishes of England and Ireland (_Astacus_, or _Potamobius_,
+_pallipes_) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or
+brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They are
+abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a calcareous
+nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which they dig for
+themselves in the banks and coming out at night in search of food. They
+are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating insects, snails, frogs and
+other animals, and devouring any carrion that comes in their way. It is
+stated that they sometimes come on land in search of vegetable food.
+
+[Illustration: Crayfish (_Cambarus_ sp.) from the Mississippi River.
+(After Morse.)]
+
+On the continent of Europe, _Astacus pallipes_ occurs chiefly in the
+west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan
+Peninsula. It is known in France as _ecrevisse a pattes blanches_ and in
+Germany as _Steinkrebs_, and is little used as food. The larger _Astacus
+fluviatilis_ (_ecrevisse a pattes rouges_, _Edelkrebs_) is not found in
+Britain, but occurs in France and Germany, southern Sweden, Russia, &c.
+It is distinguished, among other characters, by the red colour of the
+under side of the large claws. It is the species most highly esteemed
+for the table. Other species of the genus are found in central and
+eastern Europe and as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs
+in the distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the
+Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending into
+northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky Mountains, the genus
+_Astacus_ again appears, but east of the watershed it is replaced by the
+genus _Cambarus_, which is represented by very numerous species, ranging
+from the Great Lakes to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the
+subterranean waters of caves. The best known is _Cambarus pellucidus_,
+found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
+
+The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or
+_Parastacidae_ is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of the
+northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come into contact
+or overlap in Central America. None is found in any part of Africa,
+though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are absent also from the
+oriental region of zoologists, but reappear in Australia and New
+Zealand. Some of the Australian species, such as the "Murray River
+lobster" (_Astacopsis spinifer_), are of large size and are used for
+food. In South America crayfishes are found in southern Brazil,
+Argentina and Chile.     (W. T. CA.)
+
+
+
+
+CRAYON (Fr. _craie_, chalk, from Lat. _creta_), a coloured material for
+drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but sometimes also
+as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and stony friable
+substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a base of pipe or
+china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion, umber and other
+pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and compounds of magnesium, bismuth and
+lead are occasionally used as bases. The required shades of tints are
+obtained by adding varying amounts of colouring matter to equal
+quantities of the base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings
+of colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and
+rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in
+crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger, with the
+assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is produced by
+cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in crayon or pastel is
+supposed to have originated in Germany in the 17th century. By Johann
+Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was carried to great perfection, and in
+France it was early practised with much success. Amongst the earlier
+pastellists may be mentioned Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), W. Hoare
+(1707-1792), F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in
+recent years the art has been successfully revived. (See PASTEL.)
+
+
+
+
+CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878), English historian, was born at
+Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He
+became a fellow of King's College in 1834, and having been called to the
+bar at Lincoln's Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the
+Westminster sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of modern
+and ancient history in the university of London, and in 1860 became
+chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down in health he returned
+to England in 1870, and after a further but short stay in Ceylon died in
+London on the 27th of January 1878. Creasy's most popular work is his
+_Fifteen decisive Battles of the World_, which, first published in 1851,
+has passed through many editions. He also wrote _The History of the
+Ottoman Turks_ (London, 1854-1856); _History of England_ (London,
+1869-1870); _Rise and Progress of the English Constitution_ (London,
+1853, and other editions); _Historical and Critical Account of the
+several Invasions of England_ (London, 1852); a novel entitled _Old Love
+and the New_ (London, 1870); and various other works.
+
+
+
+
+CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM. Traducianism is the doctrine about the
+origin of the soul which was taught by Tertullian in his _De
+anima_--that souls are generated from souls in the same way and at the
+same time as bodies from bodies: creatianism is the doctrine that God
+creates a soul for each body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted
+the upholders of original sin with holding Tertullian's opinion, and
+called them Traduciani (from _tradux_: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name
+which was perhaps suggested by a metaphor in _De an._ 19, where the soul
+is described "velut surculus quidam ex matrice Adam in propaginem
+deducta." Hence we have formed "traducianist," "traducianism," and by
+analogy "creatianist," "creatianism." Augustine denied that traducianism
+was necessarily connected with the doctrine of original sin, and to the
+end of his life was unable to decide for or against it. His letter to
+Jerome (_Epist. Clas._ iii. 166) is a most valuable statement of his
+difficulties. Jerome condemned it, and said that creatianism was the
+opinion of the Church, though he admitted that most of the Western
+Christians held traducianism. The question has never been
+authoritatively determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed
+in the East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians, and
+Peter Lombard's _creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo creat_ was
+an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was undecided, but
+Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists. Calvin favoured
+creatianism.
+
+  Peter Lombard's phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it was felt
+  that some union of the two opinions was needed, and Augustine's
+  toleration pointed in the same direction, for the traducianism he
+  thought possible was one in which God _operatur institutas
+  administrando non novas instituendo naturas_ (_Ep._ 166. 5. 11).
+  Modern psychologists teach that while "personality" can be discerned
+  in its "becoming," nothing is known of its origin. Lotze, however, who
+  may be taken as representing the believers in the immanence of the
+  divine Being, puts forth--but as a "dim conjecture"--something very
+  like creatianism (_Microcosmus_, bk. iii. chap. v. ad fin.). It is
+  still, as in the days of Augustine, a question whether a more exact
+  division of man into body, soul _and spirit_ may help to throw light
+  on this subject.
+
+  See indices to _Augustine_, vol. xi., and _Jerome_, vol. xi. in
+  Migne's _Patrologia_, s.v. "Anima"; Franz Delitzsch, _Biblical
+  Psychology_, ii. S 7; G. P. Fisher, _History of Chr. Doct._ pp. 187
+  ff.; A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_ (passim; see Index); Liddon,
+  _Elements of Religion_, Lect. iii.; Mason, _Faith of the Gospel_, iv.
+  SS 3, 4, 9, 10.     (A. N.*)
+
+
+
+
+CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE (1674-1762), French tragic poet, was born
+on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon, where his father, Melchior Jolyot,
+was notary-royal. Having been educated at the Jesuits' school of the
+town, and at the College Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed
+in the office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encouragement
+of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron's, he produced a _Mort
+des enfants de Brutus_, which, however, he failed to bring upon the
+stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with _Idomenee_; in 1707 his _Atree et
+Thyeste_ was repeatedly acted at court; _Electre_ appeared in 1709; and
+in 1711 he produced his finest play, the _Rhadamiste et Zenobie_, which
+is his masterpiece and held the stage for a long period, although the
+plot is so complicated as to be almost incomprehensible. But his
+_Xerxes_ (1714) was only once played, and his _Semiramis_ (1717) was an
+absolute failure. In 1707 Crebillon had married a girl without fortune,
+who had since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had
+died, insolvent. His three years' attendance at court had been
+fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him.
+Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he surrounded
+himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens, which he had befriended;
+he became utterly careless of cleanliness or food, and solaced himself
+with constant smoking. But in 1731, in spite of his long seclusion, he
+was elected member of the French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal
+censor; and in 1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of
+1000 francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage in
+1726 with a successful play, _Pyrrhus_; in 1748 his _Catilina_ was
+played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he was
+eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, _Le Triumvirat_. Crebillon
+died on the 17th of June 1754. The enemies of Voltaire maintained that
+Crebillon was his superior as a tragic poet. The spirit of rivalry thus
+provoked induced Voltaire to take the subjects of no less than five of
+Crebillon's tragedies--_Semiramis_, _Electre_, _Catilina_, _Le
+Triumvirat_, _Atree_--as subjects for tragedies of his own. The
+so-called _Eloge de Crebillon_ (1762), really a depreciation, which
+appeared in the year of the poet's death, is generally attributed to
+Voltaire, though he strenuously denied the authorship. Crebillon's drama
+is marked by a force too often gained at the expense of scenes of
+unnatural horror; his pieces show lack of culture and a want of care
+which displays itself even in the mechanism of his verse, though fine
+isolated passages are not infrequent.
+
+  There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be noticed:
+  _OEuvres_ (1772), with preface and "eloge," by Joseph de la Porte;
+  _OEuvres_ (1828), containing D'Alembert's _Eloge de Crebillon_ (1775);
+  and _Theatre complet_ (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu. A complete
+  bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his _Etude sur la vie et
+  le theatre de Crebillon_ (1895).
+
+His only son, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT CREBILLON (1707-1777), French
+novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February 1707. His life was
+spent almost entirely in Paris, but the publication of _L'Ecumoire, ou
+Tanzai et Neadarne, histoire japonaise_ (1734), which contained veiled
+attacks on the bull _Unigenitus_, the cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse
+du Maine, brought Crebillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and
+afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and elsewhere.
+With Alexis Piron and Charles Colle he founded in 1752 the gay society
+which met regularly to dine at the famous "Caveau," where many good
+stories were elaborated. From 1759 onwards he was to be found at the
+Wednesday dinners of the Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes
+were sometimes guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble
+family, Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from
+1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection and
+mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than that
+between Crebillon's private life and the tone of his novels, the
+immorality of which lent irony to the author's tenure of the office of
+censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of Mme de Pompadour.
+He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777. The most famous of his
+numerous novels are: _Les Amours de Zeokinizul, roi des Kofirans_
+(1740), in which "Zeokinizul" and "Kofirans" may be translated Louis
+XIV. and the French respectively; and _Le Sopha, conte moral_ (1740),
+where the moral is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given
+by some authorities as the reason for his imprisonment.
+
+  His _OEuvres_ were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of
+  Crebillon prefixed to O. Uzanne's edition of his _Contes dialogues_ in
+  the series of _Conteurs du XVIII^e siecle_. Crebillon's novels might
+  be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two
+  writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this
+  particular. Andre Robert de Nerciat (1739-1800) produced under a false
+  name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by Donatien,
+  marquis de Sade.
+
+
+
+
+CRECHE (Fr. for a "crib" or cradle), the name given to a day-nursery, a
+public institution for the feeding and care of infants while the mothers
+are engaged in work outside their homes, or are otherwise prevented from
+giving them proper attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a
+month old, and are kept till they are capable of looking after
+themselves. The advantages of such institutions are that the attention
+of skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is
+better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their homes,
+the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of discipline and
+cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases, react on the mothers.
+The nurseries are usually under medical supervision, and the small fees
+charged, which average in London from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the
+continent of Europe about 2d., are much less than the cost to the mother
+who places her young children under the care of neighbours when at work
+or away from home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in
+1844, and have been established in the majority of the large towns on
+the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and Germany
+they have helped to check infantile mortality. The state or municipality
+in nearly every case grants subsidies, but few are maintained entirely
+by public authorities; voluntary contributions are depended upon for the
+main support, and the organization and management are left in the hands
+of private societies and charitable institutions, although some outside
+official supervision with regard to the number of infants admitted to
+each institution, air-space, and ventilation and general hygienic
+conditions is considered useful. In Great Britain the establishment of
+such institutions has been left almost entirely to private initiative;
+and in comparison with the continent the provision is inadequate and
+unsatisfactory, Paris having nearly double the proportion of
+accommodation for infants to the population that is provided in London.
+The National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the
+purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of good
+methods of founding and managing a creche.
+
+  See the _Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School
+  Attendance of Children below the Age of Five_, issued by the Board of
+  Education (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRECY (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department of Somme,
+on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road. It is famous in
+history for the great victory gained here on the 26th of August 1346 by
+the English under Edward III. over the French of King Philip of Valois.
+After its campaign in northern France, the English army retired into
+Ponthieu, and encamped on the 25th of August at Crecy, the French king
+in the meantime marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th
+Edward's army took up its position for battle, and Philip's, hearing of
+this, moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much
+disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle. The
+English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their right in
+front of the village of Crecy, their left resting on Wadicourt. Two of
+the three divisions or "battles" were in first line, that of the young
+prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the right, that of the earls of
+Northampton and Arundel on the left; the third, under the king's own
+command, in reserve, and the baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle
+consisted of a centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two
+wings of archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English
+archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the
+second gives a different estimate). The French were far stronger, having
+at least 12,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen (Genoese),
+perhaps 20,000 of the _milice des communes_, besides a certain number of
+foot of the feudal levy. Along with these served a Luxemburg contingent
+of horse under John, king of Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy
+Roman Empire, and the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong.
+
+[Illustration: CRECY (Map of the Battle)]
+
+The day was far advanced when the French came upon the English position.
+Philip, near Estrees, decided to halt and bivouac, deferring the battle
+until the army was better closed up, but the indiscipline of his army
+committed him to an immediate action, and he ordered forward the Genoese
+crossbowmen, while a line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind
+them; the rest of the army was still marching in an irregular column of
+route along the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a
+short delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle.
+Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English long-bow
+proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbowmen, completely
+outmatched, were driven back with enormous loss. Thereupon the first
+line of French knights behind them charged down upon the "faint-hearted
+rabble" of their own fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the
+French were a mere mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The
+archers did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly
+into the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was made by
+another large body of knights which had arrived, and served but to
+increase the number of the casualties, though here and there a few
+charged up to the English line and fell near it, among them the blind
+king of Bohemia, who with a party of devoted knights penetrated, and was
+killed amongst, the ranks of the prince of Wales's men-at-arms. The
+battle was now one long series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a
+fresh onslaught being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the
+scene. The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles
+had been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held back, so
+that the whole line resembled a "herse" or harrow with three points
+formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive body of the French
+sought to come to close quarters with the men-at-arms, and exposed
+themselves therefore at short range to the arrows on either flank. Under
+these circumstances there could be but one issue of the battle. Though
+sixteen distinct attacks were made, and the fighting lasted until long
+after dark, no impression was made on the English line. At one moment
+the prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for
+aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere handful of
+knights to the prince's battle, saying, "Let the boy win his spurs." The
+left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat to the rear, moved up into
+line with the prince, and the French attack slackened. By midnight the
+army of France was practically annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood
+were left dead on the field and counted by Edward's heralds, the losses
+of the remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the
+battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen king of
+Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes of Wales lacks
+foundation (see JOHN, KING OF BOHEMIA). A memorial to the French and
+their allies was erected, by public subscription in France, Luxemburg
+and Bohemia, in 1905.
+
+  See H. B. George, _Battles of English History_ (London, 1895), and C.
+  W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages_ (London,
+  1898).
+
+
+
+
+CREDENCE, or CREDENCE TABLE, a small side-table, originally an article
+of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble houses, at
+which the ceremony of the _praegustatio_, Italian _credenziare_, the
+"assay" or tasting of food and drink for poisons was performed by an
+official of the household, the _praegustator_ or _credentiarius_ as he
+was called in Medieval Latin. Both the ceremony and the table were known
+as _credentia_ (Lat. _credere_, to believe, trust), Ital. _credenza_,
+Fr. _credence_. After the need for the ceremony had disappeared the name
+still survived, and the table developed a back and several shelves for
+the display of plate, and gradually merged into the buffet (q.v.). It
+is, however, as an article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence
+table is most familiar. It takes the form of a small table of wood or
+stone, sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the
+piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the altar,
+and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the cruets
+containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks to be
+carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the ceremony of
+the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier the name of
+_paratorium_ or _oblationarium_ was given, appears to have come into use
+when the personal presentation of the oblations at the Mass became
+obsolete. When the pope celebrates Mass a special credence table on the
+Gospel side of the altar is used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison
+in the unconsecrated elements is still observed. In some churches in
+England the old credence tables still exist, as at the church of St
+Cross near Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example;
+more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina. There
+are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being with a
+semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a lower shelf.
+The formal use of the credence table for the unconsecrated elements and
+the holy vessels before the celebration has been revived in the English
+Church.
+
+
+
+
+CREDENTIALS (_lettres de creance_), a document which ambassadors,
+ministers plenipotentiary, and charges d'affaires hand to the government
+to which they are accredited, for the purpose, chiefly, of communicating
+to the latter the envoy's diplomatic rank. It also contains a request
+that full credence be accorded to his official statements. Until his
+credentials have been presented and found in proper order, an envoy
+receives no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or
+minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those of
+a charge d'affaires by the foreign minister.
+
+
+
+
+CREDI, LORENZO DI (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose surname was
+Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least gifted of three artists
+who began life as journeymen with Andrea del Verrocchio. Though he was
+the companion and friend of Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely
+allied in style to both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the
+facility of the other. We admire in Da Vinci's heads a heavenly
+contentment and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and
+smoothness of finish. Credi's faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his
+pigments have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his
+creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities which
+hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-known form of
+tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of the old Umbrian school.
+Peculiarities of movement and attitude become stereotyped in his
+compositions; but when put on his mettle, he could still exhibit power,
+passion, pathos. Credi often repeated himself in Perugino's way; but
+being of a pious and resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his
+pictures a feeling which is yielding and gentle to the verge of
+coldness. Credi had a respectable local practice at Florence. He was
+consulted on most occasions when the opinion of his profession was
+required on public grounds, e.g. in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498
+as to the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1504 as to the place
+due to Michelangelo's "David." He never painted frescoes; at rare
+intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The greater
+part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he expended
+minute and patient labour. But he worked with such industry that numbers
+of his Madonnas exist in European galleries. The best of his
+altar-pieces is that which represents the Virgin and Child with Saints
+in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine example of his easel rounds is in
+the gallery of Mainz. Credi rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment
+to Savonarola; but he felt no inclination for the retirement of a
+monastery. Still, in his old age, and after he had outlived the perils
+of the siege of Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the
+hospital of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery,
+London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him.
+
+
+
+
+CREDIT (Lat. _credere_, to believe), in a general sense, belief or
+trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person has,
+or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense credit is
+the promise to pay at a future time for valuable consideration in the
+present: hence, a reputation of solvency and ability to make such
+payments is also termed credit. In bookkeeping credit is the side of the
+account on which payments are entered; hence, sometimes, the payments
+themselves.
+
+  The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of wealth
+  is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference may be
+  made to K. Knies, _Geld und Kredit_ (1873-1879), and H. D. Macleod,
+  _Theory of Credit_ (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers, _The Meaning
+  of Money_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+CREDIT FONCIER, in France, an institution for advancing money on
+mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to the initiative of
+the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by virtue of a governmental
+decree of the 28th of February 1852. This decree empowered the issue of
+loans at a low rate of interest, secured by mortgage bonds, extending
+over a long period, and repayable by annuities, including instalments of
+capital. On its inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took
+the title of Banque Fonciere de Paris. The parent institution in Paris
+was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles. These two
+were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the title of Credit
+Foncier de France. The capital was increased to 60,000,000 francs, the
+government giving a subvention of 10,000,000 francs, and exercising
+control over the bank by directly appointing the governor and two
+deputy-governors. The administration was vested in a council chosen by
+the shareholders, but its decisions have no validity without the
+approval of the governor. The Credit Foncier has the right to issue
+bonds, repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of
+interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The loans must not
+exceed half the estimated value of the property mortgaged, upon which
+the bank has the first mortgage. The bank also makes advances to local
+bodies, departmental and communal, for short or long periods, and with
+or without mortgage. Its capital amounts to L13,500,000. Its charter was
+renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years.
+
+In 1860 the Credit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of an
+organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural and
+allied industries. This Credit Agricole rendered but trifling services
+to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into speculation. Between
+1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to the Egyptian government,
+obtaining the money by opening credit with the Credit Foncier and
+depositing with it the securities of the Egyptian government. On the
+failure of the Egyptian government to meet its payments the Credit
+Agricole went into liquidation, and the Credit Foncier suffered severely
+in consequence. The impracticability of the credit system to aid
+agriculture as worked by the Credit Agricole was very marked, and, as a
+consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is now entirely
+in the hands of the Banque de France.
+
+The _Credit Mobilier_ is an institution for advancing loans on personal
+or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the liquidation of the
+Societe Generale de Credit Mobilier, founded in 1852, which it absorbed.
+
+
+
+
+CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, a construction company whose operations in
+connexion with the building of the Union Pacific Railroad gave rise to
+the most serious political scandal in the history of the United States
+Congress. The company was originally chartered as the Pennsylvania
+Fiscal Agency in 1859. In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock
+was secured by Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific
+Railroad Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the
+adoption of the name Credit Mobilier of America. Durant proposed to
+utilize it as a construction company, pay it an extravagant sum for the
+work, and thus secure for the stockholders of the Union Pacific, who now
+controlled the Credit Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States
+government. The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage
+bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05, slightly
+more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction. According to
+the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee, the Credit Mobilier
+received in addition, in the form of stock, income bonds, and land grant
+bonds, $23,000,000--a profit of about 48%. The defenders of the company
+assert that several items of expense were not included in this report,
+and that the real net profit was considerably smaller, although they
+admit that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the
+years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse
+legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames
+(q.v.), a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter of
+the Credit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among congressmen
+and senators to influence their attitude. Shares were sold at par when a
+few dividends repaid a purchaser at this price. Some in fact received
+dividends without any initial outlay at all. As the result of a lawsuit
+between Ames and H. S. McComb, some private letters were brought out in
+September 1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House
+appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the Wilson
+committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames and James Brooks
+of New York were formally censured by the House, the former for
+disposing of the stock and the latter for improperly using his official
+position to secure part of it. Charges were also made against Schuyler
+Colfax, then vice-president but Speaker of the House at the time of the
+transaction, James A. Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A.
+Logan, and several other members either of the House or of the Senate.
+The Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the
+charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of February
+1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of James W. Patterson,
+of New Hampshire; but as his term expired within five days no action was
+taken. The evidence was exaggerated by the Democrats for partisan
+purposes, but the investigation showed clearly that many of those
+accused were at least indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself
+was merely a type of the construction companies by which it was the
+custom to build railways between 1860 and about 1880.
+
+  See J. B. Crawford, _The Credit Mobilier of America_ (Boston, 1880),
+  and R. Hazard, _The Credit Mobilier of America_ (Providence, 1881),
+  both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific
+  Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White
+  (Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James Ford
+  Rhodes, _History of the United States_, vol. vii. (New York, 1906).
+  The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in _House of
+  Representatives Reports_, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78,
+  and the report of the Senate Committee in _Senate Reports_, 42nd
+  Congress, 3rd session, No. 519.
+
+
+
+
+CREDITON, a market town in the South Molton parliamentary division of
+Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter by the London & South-Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3974. It is situated in the
+narrow vale of the river Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between
+two steep hills, and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and
+the west or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is
+a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other early
+portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school, founded by
+Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has exhibitions to Oxford and
+Cambridge universities. Shoe-making, tanning, agricultural trade,
+tin-plating, and the manufacture of confectionery and cider have
+superseded the former large woollen and serge industries. In 1897
+Crediton was made the seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of
+Exeter.
+
+The first indication of settlement at Crediton (_Credington_,
+_Cryditon_, _Kirton_) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was
+born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent of the
+parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909 the seat of
+the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably only a village in
+1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested Leo IX. to transfer
+the see to Exeter, as Crediton was "an open town and much exposed to the
+incursions of pirates." At the Domesday Survey much of the land was
+still uncultivated, but its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of
+the twelve prebends of the collegiate church had a house and farmland
+within the parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the
+Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other rights;
+in 1351 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of judgments of
+1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam, view of frank pledge, the
+gallows and assize of bread and ale. Two years later there was a serious
+riot against the increase of copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that
+the prescriptive borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are
+mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to parliament in
+1306-1307, though never afterwards represented. A borough seal dated
+1469 is extant, but the corporation is not mentioned in the grant made
+by Edward VI. of the church to twelve principal inhabitants. The borough
+and manor were granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but
+there is no indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the
+18th century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the bishop
+obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow of St
+Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was established by 1249
+and certainly continued until 1630, when the market for kersies is
+mentioned in conjunction with a saying "as fine as Kirton spinning."
+
+
+  See Rev. Preb. Smith, "Early History of Credition," in _Devonshire
+  Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art,
+  Transactions_, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, "The
+  Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition," in _Exeter
+  Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions_, vol. iv. (Exeter,
+  1878).
+
+
+
+
+CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1809-1876), German geologist, was born
+at Waltershausen near Gotha, on the 13th of March 1809. He investigated
+the geology of the Thuringer Waldes, of which he published a map in
+1846. He was author of a work entitled _Uber die Gliederung der oberen
+Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen Deutschland_
+(Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover (1865). He died at
+Halle on the 28th of September 1876.
+
+His son, CARL HERMANN CREDNER (1841-   ), was born at Gotha on the 1st
+of October 1841, educated at Breslau and Gottingen, and took the degree
+of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In 1870 he was appointed professor of
+geology in the university of Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the
+Geological Survey of Saxony. He is author of numerous publications on
+the geology of Saxony, and of an important work, _Elemente der Geologie_
+(2 vols., 1872; 7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in
+Germany. He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts.
+
+
+
+
+CREE, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They are
+still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and living chiefly in
+Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan river.
+They gave trouble by their constant attacks upon the Sioux and
+Blackfeet, but are now peaceable and orderly.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700), English classical scholar, was born at
+Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his early education from
+Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne school. In 1675 he entered Wadham
+College, Oxford, and obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls'. He was
+headmaster of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he
+received a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The
+immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty, though
+according to some it was a love disappointment; both of these
+circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe primarily due to
+an already pronounced melancholia. Creech's fame rests on his
+translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed heroic couplets, in which,
+according to Otway, the pure ore of the original "somewhat seems
+refined." He also published a version of Horace (1684), and translated
+the _Idylls of Theocritus_ (1684), the _Thirteenth Satire_ of Juvenal
+(1693), the _Astronomicon_ of Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch,
+Virgil and Ovid.
+
+
+
+
+CREEDS (Lat. _credo_, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH. We are
+accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, i.e. reasoned
+statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected with the
+history of Christianity. But the new study of comparative religion has
+something to teach us even here. The saying _lex orandi lex credendi_ is
+true of all times and of all peoples. And since we must reckon praise as
+the highest form of prayer, such an early Christian hymn as is found in
+1 Tim. iii. 16 must be acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: "He
+who was manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of
+angels, preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received
+up in glory." It justifies the expansion of the second article of the
+developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest Christian
+tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our survey of
+creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and beliefs. The pendulum
+has swung back. Rather than despise the faulty presentation of truth
+which we find in heathen religions and their more or less degraded
+rites, we follow the apostle Paul in his endeavour to trace in them
+attempts "to feel after God" (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great
+teacher of the West, was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians,
+when he wrote (_Ep._ 166): "Let every good and true Christian understand
+that truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to _his_ Lord."
+
+We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest forms of
+recorded religious consciousness such as animism, or totemism, or
+fetishism, were themselves degradations of a primitive revelation or
+not.[1] We are only concerned with the fact of experience that the human
+soul yearns to express its belief. The hymn to the rising and setting
+sun in the _Book of the Dead_ (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists
+to be the oldest poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn
+of history.
+
+  "Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent.... Glorious is
+   thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are
+   illumined by thy rays.... Hail to thee, Ra, when thou
+   returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty."
+
+In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as "the good god beloved, maker of
+men, creator of beasts, maker of things below and above, lord of mercy
+most loving." A similar note is struck in the Indian Vedas. In the more
+ethical religion of the Avesta the creator is more clearly distinguished
+from the creature: "I desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my
+praise, the lofty eternal, and the holy two."[2] The Persian poet is not
+far from the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered.
+
+The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the gradual
+purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews did not
+outgrow their religion, but their interest was always ethical and not
+speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists and the most fervent
+appeals of the prophets were progressively directed to the great end of
+praising and preaching the One true God, everlasting, with sincere and
+pure devotion. The creed of the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the
+well-remembered words, which have been ever on his lips, living or
+dying: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord" (Deut. vi. 4).
+
+The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course is the
+strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to the fluid
+character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the chaos of
+conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks and Romans. As Dr
+J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely: "The physical speculations of
+the Ionians and Atomists rendered a God superfluous, and the
+metaphysical and logical reasoning of the Eleatics declared Him to be
+unknowable."[3] Plato regarding the world as an embodiment of eternal,
+archetypal ideas, which he groups under the central idea of Good,
+identified with the divine reason, at the same time uses the ordinary
+language of the day, and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way
+towards the conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth
+again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not "a
+clear conception of human personality." They were followed by an age of
+philosophizing which did little to advance speculation. The Stoics, for
+example, were more successful in criticizing the current creed than in
+explaining the underlying truth which they recognized in polytheism. The
+final goal of Greek philosophy was only reached when the great thinkers
+of the early Christian Church, who had been trained in the schools of
+Alexandria and Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of
+the Christian idea of God. "In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity
+was the synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew
+and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric touch
+of the Incarnation."[4]
+
+Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough has been
+said to introduce the direct study of the ancient creeds of Christendom.
+
+I. THE ANCIENT CREEDS OF CHRISTENDOM.--The three creeds which may be
+called oecumenical, although the measure of their acceptance by the
+universal church has not been uniform, represent three distinct types
+provided for the use of the catechumen, the communicant, and the church
+teacher respectively. The Apostles' Creed is the ancient baptismal
+creed, held in common both by East and West, in its final western form.
+The Nicene Creed is the baptismal creed of an eastern church enlarged in
+order to combine theological interpretation with the facts of the
+historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the undivided Church has
+been continued since the great schism, although the Eastern Church
+protests against the interpolation of the words "And the Son" in clause
+9. The Athanasian Creed is an instruction designed to confute heresies
+which were current in the 5th century.
+
+
+  Apostles' Creed.
+
+1. _The Apostles' Creed._--The increased interest which has been shown
+in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the 19th
+century is due in a great measure to the work of the veteran pioneer,
+Professor P. Caspari of Christiania, who began the herculean task of
+classifying the enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered
+from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England we owe much
+to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In Germany the monumental
+work of Professor Kattenbusch has overshadowed all other books on the
+subject, providing even his most ardent critics with an indispensable
+record of the literature of the subject.
+
+The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal creed in
+the New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as the Lord, _or_
+the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the apostles were
+agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17) which included the
+doctrine of God, the person and work of Christ, and the person and work
+of the Holy Spirit, it does not appear that they provided any summary,
+which would cover this ground, as an authoritative statement of their
+belief. The tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the
+germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 ff.), and no
+doubt included also teaching on conduct, "the way of a Christian life"
+(1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its forms lies behind
+worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and behind ethics, to which
+it supplies a motive power which the pre-Christian system so manifestly
+lacked. Whether the first creed of the primitive Church was of the
+simple Christological character which confession of Jesus as the Lord
+expresses, or of an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt.
+xxviii. 19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which
+overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which strove for
+utterance. "With the heart man believeth unto righteousness, and with
+the mouth confession is made unto salvation" (Rom. x. 10).
+
+When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession before
+many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than confession of Christ
+as king. He calls it "the beautiful confession" to which Christ Jesus
+had borne witness before Pontius Pilate, and charges Timothy before God,
+who quickeneth all things, to keep this commandment. Some writers,
+notably Professor Zahn,[5] piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13,
+ii. 8, iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles' Creed of Antioch,
+the city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But
+there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a reference
+to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which would prove the
+apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imaginable as the parent of
+the later Eastern and Western forms. The eunuch's creed interpolated in
+Acts viii. 57, "I believe that Jesus is the Son of God," since the
+reading was known to Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal
+confession used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the
+type of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence of
+the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14).
+
+From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of
+creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early hymns (1
+Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv. 1 ff.). The
+following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St Paul is an
+artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching, which naturally
+reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no attestation in the
+later creeds of particular churches which would prove its claim to be
+their parent form:
+
+  "The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ, born
+  of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the
+  scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according
+  to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the
+  right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power
+  being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven
+  with power and great glory."
+
+The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement (_Cor._
+lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula (Matt.
+xxviii. 19). Polycarp (_Ep._ 7) echoes St John. But Ignatius might seem
+to offer in the following passage some confirmation of Zahn's theory of
+a primitive creed of Antioch (_Trall._ 9): "Be ye deaf, therefore, when
+any man speaketh to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of
+David, who was the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank,
+was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and died
+in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those under the
+earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead, His Father having
+raised Him, who in the like fashion will so raise us also who believe on
+Him--His Father, I say, will raise us--in Christ Jesus, apart from whom
+we have not true life."
+
+The differences, however, which divide this from the later creed forms
+are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement, and the evidence of
+the Ignatian epistles generally (_Eph_. xviii.; _Smyrn._ i.), while it
+confirms the conclusion that instruction was given in Antioch on all
+points characteristic of the developed creed, e.g. the Miraculous Birth,
+Crucifixion, Resurrection, the Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the
+hope of resurrection, does not prove that this teaching was as yet
+combined in a Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under
+the work of the Holy Ghost.
+
+At this point a word must be said on the important question of
+interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on the history
+of the different types of creed forms, there can be no hope of agreement
+on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit between Unitarian and
+Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow Harnack explain "holy spirit" as
+the gift of impersonal influence, and between wide limits of difference
+agree in regarding Christ as Son of God by adoption and not by nature.
+Amid the chaos of conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of
+Jesus, the Gospel within the Gospel, the central question "What think ye
+of Christ?" emerges as the test of all theories. "No man can say that
+Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost" (1 Cor. xii. 3). Belief in the
+fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is stated in the
+words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the later creeds, stands or
+falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the guide alike of their
+convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal influence, but a living
+voice.
+
+If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare imitation of
+the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as Buddhists accept the
+religion of Buddha, still it cannot be denied that the early Christians
+put their trust in Christ rather than his religion. "I am the life," not
+"I teach the life," "I am the truth," not merely "I teach the truth,"
+are not additions of Johannine theology but the central aspect of the
+presentation of Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and
+bodies, which the most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as
+the residuum of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would
+be out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce
+the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the meaning of
+the theological teaching both of the New Testament and of the earliest
+creeds.
+
+To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom Harnack is in
+general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed, which comes to light in
+the 4th century, as the parent of all developed forms, whether Eastern
+or Western. Marcellus, the exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by
+Epiphanius as presenting it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. A.D. 340.
+Ussher's recognition of the fact that this profession of faith by
+Marcellus was the creed of Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of
+modern discussions of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later
+Rufinus, a priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his
+native city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is
+probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the Roman
+Church must always have been bilingual in its early days. It was as
+follows:
+
+    I. 1. I believe in God (the) Father almighty;
+   II. 2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord,
+       3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,
+       4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried
+       5. the third day He rose from the dead,
+       6. He ascended into heaven,
+       7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father,
+       8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead.
+  III. 9. And in the Holy Ghost,
+      10. (the) holy Church,
+      11. (the) remission of sins,
+      12. (the) resurrection of the flesh.
+
+This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of Bishops Felix
+and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of Tertullian in the 2nd
+century.
+
+Tertullian calls the creed the "token" which the African Church shares
+with the Roman (_de Praescr._ 36): "The Roman Church has made a common
+token with the African Churches, has recognized one God, creator of the
+universe, and Christ Jesus, of the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator,
+and the resurrection of the flesh." The reference is to the earthenware
+token which two friends broke in order that they might commend a
+stranger for hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their
+creed became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could
+obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals. The
+passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the Roman Creed,
+which reappears also in the following (_de Virg. vel._ i.):
+
+  "The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God
+  Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of
+  Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day raised
+  from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the right hand
+  of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead through the
+  resurrection also of the flesh."
+
+There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the Gnostic
+Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be dated A.D. 145. He
+seems to have still held to the Roman creed interpreted in his own way.
+An ingenious conjecture by Zahn enables us to add the words "holy
+Church" to our reconstruction of the creed from the writings of
+Tertullian. In his revised New Testament Marcion speaks of "the covenant
+which is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to
+which we have vowed allegiance." He uses a word used by Ignatius of the
+oath taken on confession of the Christian faith. It follows that the
+words "holy Church" were contained in the Roman Creed.[6]
+
+While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest years
+of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all similar
+Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its relation to
+Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the Roman Creed reached Gaul
+and Africa in the course of the 2nd century, and perhaps all districts
+of the West that possessed Christian congregations, also the western end
+of Asia Minor possibly in connexion with Polycarp's visit to Rome A.D.
+154. He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
+Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern creeds
+which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or may be traced
+back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-point. He concludes
+that the Roman Creed was accepted at Antioch after the fall of Paul of
+Samosata in A.D. 272, and was adapted to the dogmatic requirements of
+the time, all the later creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being
+dependent on it.
+
+On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find evidence of the
+existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal or greater antiquity and
+distinguished from the Roman by such phrases as "One" (God), "Maker of
+heaven and earth," "suffered," "shall come again in glory." Thus Kunze
+reconstructs a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it
+is independent of the Roman Creed.
+
+
+_Creed of Antioch._
+
+   I. 1. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty, maker
+           of all things, visible and invisible.
+
+  II. 2. And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten and
+           first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all the
+           ages, through whom also the ages were established, and all
+           things came into existence;
+      3. Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the Virgin.
+      4. And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried,
+      5. And the third day rose according to the scriptures,
+      6. and ascended into heaven.
+      7.
+      8. And is coming again to judge quick and dead.
+      9. [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.]
+     10.
+     11. Remission of sins.
+     12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting.
+
+Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds which go
+back to a date preceding the Nicene Council.
+
+A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene Council.
+
+B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem.
+
+C. Creed of Antioch quoted by Cassian.
+
+D. Creed of Antioch quoted in the Apostolic Constitutions.
+
+E. Creed of Lucian the Martyr (Antioch).
+
+F. Creed of Arius (Alexandria).
+
+   1. One (God), A, B, C, D, E, F.
+      Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible
+        (or a like phrase), A, B, C, D, E.
+   2. Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only begotten (or a like phrase),
+        A, B, C, D, E, F.
+   3. Crucified under Pontius Pilate, B, C, D (A, E, F omit because
+        they are theological creeds. Loofs thinks that the baptismal
+        creeds on which they are based may have contained the words).
+   5. Rose the third day, A, B, D, E (F omits "the third day" being
+        a theological creed; the translation of C is uncertain).
+   6. Went up, A, B, D, E, F.
+      + and ... and ... and, A, B, C, D, E, F.
+   8. And is coming, B, C, D, E, F; and is about to come, A;
+      + again, A, C, D, E, F(B?); + in glory, A, B; with glory, D, E.
+  10. + Catholic, B, D, F (A, C, E?)
+  12. + life eternal, B, C; + life of the age to come, D, F.
+
+Sanday (_Journal Theol. Studies_, iii. 1) does not attempt a
+reconstruction on this elaborate scale, but contents himself with
+pointing out evidence, which Kattenbusch seems to him to have missed,
+for the existence of creeds of Egypt, Cappadocia and Palestine before
+the time of Aurelian. He criticizes Harnack's theory that there existed
+in the East, that is, in Asia Minor, or in Asia Minor and Syria as far
+back as the beginning of the 2nd century, a Christological instruction
+([Greek: mathema]) organically related to the second article of the
+Roman Creed, and formulas which taught that the "One God" was "Creator
+of heaven and earth," and referred to the holy prophetic spirit, and
+lasted on till they influenced the course of creed-development in the
+4th century. He asks, is it not simpler to believe that there was a
+definite type in the background?
+
+Another English student, the Rev. T. Barns, engaged specially in work
+upon the history of the creed of Cappadocia, points out the importance
+of the extraordinary influence of Firmilian of Caesarea in the affairs
+of the church of Antioch in the early part of the 3rd century. He is led
+to argue that the creed of Antioch came rather from Cappadocia than
+Rome. Whether his conclusion is justified or not, it helps to show how
+strongly the trend of contemporary research is setting against the
+theory of Kattenbusch that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch
+became the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate
+against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from Rome to
+Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century. It is evidently
+impossible to arrive at a final decision until much more spade work has
+been done in the investigation of early Eastern creeds. Connolly's study
+of the early Syrian creed (_Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche
+Wissenschaft_, 1906, p. 202) deserves careful consideration. His
+reconstruction of the creed of Aphraates is interesting in relation to
+the other traces of a Syriac creed form existing prior to the 4th
+century.
+
+  [I believe] in God the Lord of all, that made the heavens and the
+  earth and the seas and all that in them is; [And in our Lord Jesus
+  Christ] [the Son of God,] God, Son of God, King, Son of the King,
+  Light from Light, (Son and Counsellor, and Guide, and Way, and
+  Saviour, and Shepherd, and Gatherer, and Door, and Pearl, and Lamb,)
+  and first-born of all creatures, who came and put on a body from Mary
+  the Virgin (of the seed of the house of David, from the Holy Spirit),
+  and put on our manhood, and suffered, _or_ and was crucified, went
+  down to the place of the dead, _or_ to Sheol, and lived again, and
+  rose the third day, and ascended to the height, _or_ to heaven, and
+  sat on the right hand of His Father, and He is the Judge of the dead
+  and of the living, who sitteth on the throne; [And in the Holy
+  Spirit;] [And I believe] in the coming to life of the dead; [and] in
+  the mystery of Baptism (of the remission of sins).
+
+The probable battle-ground of the future between the opposing theories
+lies in the writings of Irenaeus. He has most of the characteristic
+expressions of the Eastern creeds. He inserts "one" in clause 1 and 2.
+He has the phrases "Maker of heaven and earth," "suffered," and
+"crucified," with "under Pontius Pilate" after instead of before it.
+Probably also he had "in glory" in clause 8. But there is always the
+possibility to be faced that Irenaeus drew his creed from Rome rather
+than Asia Minor. Kattenbusch does not shrink from suggesting that he
+shows acquaintance with the Roman Creed, and that Justin Martyr also
+knew it, in which case all the so-called Eastern characteristics have
+been imprinted on the original Roman form, and are not derived from an
+Eastern archetype. But the ordinary reader need not feel concern about
+the future victory of either theory. The plain fact is that the same
+facts were taught in Palestine, Asia Minor and Gaul, whether gathered up
+in a parallel creed form or not. The contrast which Rufinus draws
+between the Roman Creed and others, both of the East and the West, is
+justified. In comparison with them it was guarded more carefully from
+change.[7] We have yet to inquire how it received the additions which
+distinguish the derived form now in use as the baptismal creed of all
+Western Christendom. Some had already found an entrance into Western
+creeds. We find "suffered" in the creed of Milan, "descended into hell"
+in the creed of Aquileia, the Danubian lands and Syria; the words "God"
+and "almighty" were shortly added to clause 7 in the Spanish creed;
+"life everlasting" had stood from an early date in the African creed.
+The creed of Caesarius of Arles (d. 543) proves that these variations
+had all been united in one Gallican creed together with "catholic" and
+"communion of saints," but this Gallican form still lacked "Maker of
+heaven and earth" and the additions in clause 7.
+
+Two newly-discovered creeds help us greatly to narrow down the limits of
+the problem. The creed of Niceta of Remesiana in Dacia proves that c.
+A.D. 400 the Dacian church had added to the Roman Creed "maker of heaven
+and earth," "suffered," "dead," "Catholic," "communion of saints" and
+"life everlasting." Parallel to it is the Faith of St Jerome discovered
+in 1903 by Dom. Morin.[8]
+
+  _The Faith of St Jerome_.
+
+  "I believe in one God the Father almighty, maker of things visible and
+  invisible. I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, born of
+  God, God of God, Light of Light, almighty of almighty, true God of
+  true God, born before the ages, not made, by whom all things were made
+  in heaven and in earth. Who for our salvation descended from heaven,
+  was conceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered by
+  suffering under Pontius Pilate, under Herod the King, crucified,
+  buried, descended into hell, trod down the sting of death, rose again
+  the third day, appeared to the apostles. After this He ascended into
+  heaven, sitteth at the right of God the Father, thence shall come to
+  judge the quick and the dead. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, God not
+  unbegotten nor begotten, not created nor made, but co-eternal with the
+  Father and the Son. I believe (that there is) remission of sins in the
+  holy catholic church, communion of saints, resurrection of the flesh
+  unto eternal life. Amen."
+
+This creed may be the form which Jerome mentions in one of his letters
+(_Ep._ 17, n. 4) as sent to Cyril of Jerusalem. It is important as
+connecting the creeds of East and West. Since Jerome was born in
+Pannonia we may conjecture that he is inserting Nicene phrases from the
+Jerusalem creed into his baptismal creed, and that this form added to
+Niceta's creed proves that the creed of the Danube lands possessed the
+clauses "maker of heaven and earth" and "communion of saints."
+
+The first occurrence of the completed form is in a treatise
+(_Scarapsus_) of the Benedictine missionary Pirminius, abbot of
+Reichenau (c. A.D. 730). The difficulty hitherto has been to trace the
+source from which the clause "maker of heaven and earth" has come into
+it. It has been known that the forms in use in the south of France
+approximated to it but without those words. In the 6th century we find
+creed forms in use in Gaul which include them, but include also other
+variations distinguishing them from the form which we seek. The missing
+link which has hitherto been lacking in the evidence has been found by
+Barns in the influence of Celtic missionaries who streamed across from
+Europe until they came in touch with the remnants of the Old Latin
+Christianity of the Danube. The chief documents of the date A.D. 700,
+which contain forms almost identical with the received text, are
+connected with monasteries founded by Columban and his friends: Bobbio,
+Luxeuil, S. Gallen, Reichenau. From one of these monasteries the
+received text seems to have been taken to Rome. Certainly it was from
+Rome that it was spread. We can trace the use of the received text along
+the line of the journeys both of Pirminius and Boniface, and there is
+little doubt that they received it from the Roman Church, with which
+Boniface was in frequent communication. Pope Gregory II. sent him
+instructions to use what seems to have been an official Roman order of
+Baptism, which would doubtless include a Roman form of creed. Pirminius,
+who was far from being an original writer, made great use of a treatise
+by Martin of Braga, but substituted a Roman form of Renunciation, and
+refers to the Roman rite of Unction in a way which leads us to suppose
+that the form of creed which he substituted for Martin's form was also
+Roman. It seems clear, therefore, that the received text was either made
+or accepted in Rome, c. A.D. 700, and disseminated through the
+Benedictine missionaries. At the end of the 8th century Charlemagne
+inquired of the bishops of his empire as to current forms. The reply of
+Amalarius of Trier is important because it shows that he not only used
+the received text, but also connected it with the Roman order of
+Baptism. The emperor's wish for uniformity doubtless led in a measure to
+its eventual triumph over all other forms.
+
+
+  Nicene Creed.
+
+2. _The Nicene Creed_ of the liturgies, often called the
+Constantinopolitan creed, is the old baptismal creed of Jerusalem
+revised by the insertion of Nicene terms. The idea that the council
+merely added to the last section has been disproved by Hort's famous
+dissertation in 1876.[9] The text of the creed of the Nicene Council was
+based on the creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a comparison of the four
+creeds side by side proves to demonstration their distinctness, in spite
+of the tendency of copyists to confuse and assimilate the forms.[10]
+
+  _Creed of Eusebius, A.D. 325      | _Revision by the Council of Nicaea,
+          (Caesarea)._              |          A.D. 325._
+                                    |
+           We believe               |          We believe
+               I.                   |              I.
+  1. In one God the Father          | 1. In one God the Father Almighty,
+      Almighty, the maker of all    |     visible the maker of all things
+      things visible and invisible. |     and invisible.
+                                    |
+               II.                  |              II.
+  2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,  | 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,
+      the Word of God.              |     the Son of God, begotten of the
+                                    |     Father, only begotten, that is
+     God of God, Light of Light,    |     of the substance of the Father,
+      (Life of Life,) only begotten |     God of God, Light of Light, very
+      Son (first-born of all        |     God of very God, begotten not
+      creation, before all worlds   |     made, of one substance with the
+      begotten of God the Father),  |     Father, by whom all things were
+      by whom all things were made; |     made, both those in heaven and
+      all things were made;         |     those on earth.
+  3. Who for our Salvation was      | 3. Who for us men and for our
+      incarnate (and lived as a     |     salvation came down and was
+      citizen amongst men),         |     incarnate, was made man,
+  4. And Suffered,                  | 4. And suffered,
+  5. And rose the third day,        | 5. And rose the third day,
+  6. And ascended (to the Father),  | 6. Ascended into Heaven,
+  7. And shall come again (in glory)| 7. Is coming to judge quick and
+      to judge quick and dead.      |     dead.
+                                    |
+               III.                 |              III.
+  8. And (we believe) in (one) Holy | 8. And in the Holy Ghost.
+      Ghost.                        |
+                                    |
+                                    | _Revision by Cyril, A.D. 362.
+                                    |   Council of Constantinople, A.D.
+  _Creed of Jerusalem, A.D. 348._   |   381. Council of Chalcedon, A.D.
+                                    |   451._
+                                    |
+        I (or We) believe           |         We believe
+               I.                   |              I.
+  1. In one God the Father,         | 1. In one God the Father Almighty,
+      Almighty, maker of heaven     |     maker of heaven and earth, and
+      and earth, and of all things  |     of all things visible and
+      visible and invisible.        |     invisible.
+                                    |
+               II.                  |              II.
+  2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,  | 2. And in one Lord Jesus Christ,
+      the only begotten Son of God, |     the only begotten Son of God,
+      begotten of His Father,       |     begotten of His Father before
+                                    |     all worlds, [God of God,]
+                                    |     Light of Light,
+      very God before all worlds,   |     very God of very God,
+                                    |     begotten, not made, being of
+                                    |     one substance with the Father,
+      by whom all things were made; |     by whom all things were made;
+  3.                                | 3. Who for us men and for our
+                                    |     salvation came down from
+      was incarnate,                |     heaven and incarnate of the
+                                    |     Holy Ghost and the Virgin
+      and was made Man,             |     Mary, and was made Man.
+  4. Crucified and buried.          | 4. And was crucified also for us
+                                    |     under Pontius Pilate, and
+                                    |     suffered and
+  5. Rose again the third day,      | 5. He rose again the third day,
+                                    |     according to the Scriptures,
+  6. And ascended into heaven and   | 6. And ascended into heaven and
+      _sat_ on the right hand of    |     sitteth on the right hand of
+      the Father,                   |     the Father,
+  7. And shall come _in glory_      | 7. And He shall come again to
+      to judge the quick and the    |     judge the quick and the
+      dead, whose kingdom shall     |     dead, whose kingdom shall
+      have no end.                  |     have no end.
+                                    |
+               III.                 |              III.
+  8. And in _One_ Holy Ghost,       |  8. And in the Holy Ghost, the
+      _the Paraclete_,              |      Lord and Giver of Life. who
+                                    |      proceedeth from the Father
+                                    |      [_and the Son_], who with the
+                                    |      Father and the Son together is
+                                    |      worshipped and glorified,
+      who spake _in_ the Prophets,  |      who spake by the Prophets,
+  9. And in one baptism of          |  9. In the Catholic and Apostolic
+      repentance for remission of   |    Church.
+      sins,                         |
+ 10. And in one holy Catholic       | 10. We acknowledge one baptism
+       Church,                      |      for remission of sins.
+ 11. And in resurrection _of the    | 11. We look for the resurrection
+      flesh_,                       |      of the dead,
+ 12. And in life eternal.           | 12. And in the life of the world
+                                    |      to come.
+
+The revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted by Epiphanius in his treatise
+_The Anchored One_, c. A.D. 374, some years before the council of
+Constantinople (A.D. 381). We gather that it had already been introduced
+into Cyprus as a baptismal creed. Hort's identification of it as the
+work of Cyril of Jerusalem is now generally accepted. On his return from
+exile in A.D. 362 Cyril would find "a natural occasion for the revision
+of the public creed by the skilful insertion of some of the conciliar
+language, including the term which proclaimed the restoration of full
+communion with the champions of Nicaea, and other phrases and clauses
+adapted for impressing on the people positive truth." Some of Cyril's
+personal preferences expressed in his catechetical lectures find
+expression, e.g. "resurrection of the _dead_" for "flesh."
+
+The weak point in Hort's theory was the suggestion that the creed was
+brought before the council by Cyril in self justification. The election
+of Meletius of Antioch as the first president of the council carried
+with it the vindication of his old ally Cyril. Kunze's suggestion is far
+more probable that it was used at the baptism of Nektarius, praetor of
+the city, who was elected third president of the council while yet
+unbaptized. Unfortunately the acts of the council have been lost, but
+they were quoted at the council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451, and the
+revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted as "the faith of the 150 Fathers,"
+that is, as confirmed in some way by the council of Constantinople,
+while at the time it was distinguished from "the faith of the 318
+Fathers" of Nicaea. One of the signatories of the Definition of Faith
+made at Chalcedon, in which both creeds were quoted in full, Kalemikus,
+bishop of Apamea in Bithynia, refers to the council of Constantinople as
+having been held at the ordination of the most pious Nektarius the
+bishop. Obviously there was some connexion in his mind between the creed
+and the ordination.
+
+The reasons which brought the revised creed into prominence at Chalcedon
+are still obscure. It is possible that Leo's letter to Flavian gave the
+impulse to put it forward because it contained a parallel to words which
+Leo quoted from the Old Roman Creed, "born of the Holy Ghost and the
+Virgin Mary," "crucified and buried," which do not occur in the first
+Nicene Creed. If, as is probable, it was from the election of Nektarius
+the baptismal creed of Constantinople, we may even ask whether the pope
+did not refer to it when he wrote emphatically of the "common and
+indistinguishable confession" of all the faithful. Kattenbusch supposes
+that Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, or his archdeacon Aetius, who
+read the creed at the 2nd session of the council, took up the idea that
+through its likeness to the Roman Creed it would be a useful weapon
+against Eutyches and others who were held to interpret the Nicene Creed
+in an Apollinarian sense. But Kunze thinks that it was not used as a
+base of operations against Eutyches because there is some evidence that
+Monophysites were willing to accept it. Certainly it won its way to
+general acceptance in the East as the creed of the church of the
+imperial city; regarded as an improved recension of the Nicene Faith.
+The history of the introduction of the creed into liturgies is still
+obscure. Peter Fullo, bishop of Antioch, was the first to use it in the
+East, and in the West a council held by King Reccared at Toledo in 589.
+The theory of Probst that it had been used in Rome before this time has
+not been confirmed. King Reccared's council is usually credited with the
+introduction of the words "And the Son" into clause 9 of the creed. But
+some MSS.[11] omit them in the creed-text while inserting them in a
+canon of the faith drawn up at the time. Probably they were interpolated
+in the creed by mistake of copyists. When attention was called to the
+interpolation in the 9th century it became one cause of the schism
+between East and West. Charlemagne was unable to persuade Pope Leo III.
+to alter the text used in Rome by including the words. But it was so
+altered by the pope's successor.
+
+The interpolation really witnessed to a deep-lying difference between
+Eastern and Western theology. Eastern theologians expressed the
+mysterious relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son in
+such phrases as "Who proceedeth from the Father and receiveth from the
+Son," rightly making the Godhead of the Father the foundation and
+primary source of the eternally derived Godhead of the Son and the
+Spirit. Western theologians approached the problem from another point of
+view. Hilary, starting from the thought of Divine self-consciousness as
+the explanation of the coinherence of the Father in the Son and the Son
+in the Father, says that the Spirit receives of both. Augustine teaches
+that the Father and the Son are the one principle of the Being of the
+Spirit. From this it is a short step to say with the _Quicumque vult_
+that the Spirit proceeds from the Son, while guarding the idea that the
+Father is the one fountain of Deity. Since Eastern theologians would be
+willing to say "proceeds from the Father through the Son," it is clear
+that the two views are not irreconcilable.
+
+
+  Athanasian Creed.
+
+3. _The Athanasian Creed_, so called because in many MSS. it bears the
+title "The Faith of S. Athanasius," is more accurately designated by its
+first words _Quicumque vult_.[12] Its history has been the subject of
+much controversy for years past, but no longer presents an insoluble
+problem. Critics indeed agree on the main outline. Until 1870 the
+standard work on the subject was Waterland's _Critical History of the
+Athanasian Creed_, first published in 1723. Having traced "the opinions
+of the learned moderns" from Gerard Vossius, A.D. 1642, "who led the way
+to a more strict and critical inquiry," Waterland passed in review all
+the known MSS. and commentaries, and after a searching investigation
+concluded that the creed was written in Gaul between 420 and 430,
+probably by Hilary of Arles.
+
+In 1870 the controversy on the use of the creed in the Book of Common
+Prayer led to fresh investigation of the MSS., and a theory known as the
+"Two-portion theory" was started by C. A. Swainson, developed by J. R.
+Lumby, and adopted by Harnack. Swainson thought that the _Quicumque_ was
+brought into its present shape in the 9th century. The so-called
+profession of Denebert, bishop-elect of Worcester, in A.D. 798 presented
+to the archbishop of Canterbury (which includes clauses 1, 3-6, 20-22,
+24, 25), and the Treves fragment (a portion of a sermon in _Paris bibl.
+nat. Lat._ 3836, _saec._ viii., which quoted clauses 27-34, 36-40),
+seemed to him to represent the component parts of the creed as they
+existed separately. He conjectured that they were brought together in
+the province of Rheims c. 860.
+
+This theory, however, depended upon unverified assumptions, such as the
+supposed silence of theologians about the creed at the beginning of the
+9th century; the suggestion that the completed creed would have been
+useful to them if they had known it as a weapon against the heresy of
+Adoptianism; the assertion that no MS. containing the complete text was
+of earlier date than c. 813. This was Lumby's revised date, but the
+progress of palaeographical studies has made it possible to demonstrate
+that MSS. of the 8th century do exist which contain the complete creed.
+
+The two-portion theory was vigorously attacked by G. D. W. Ommanney, who
+was successful in the discovery of new documents, notably early
+commentaries, which contained the text of the creed embedded in them,
+and thus supplied independent testimony to the fact that the creed was
+becoming fairly widely known at the end of the 8th century. Other new
+MSS. and commentaries were found and collated by the Rev. A. E. Burn and
+Dom Morin. In 1897 Loofs, summing up the researches of 25 years in his
+article _Athanasianum_ (_Realencyclopadie f. prot. Theol. u. Kirche_,
+3rd ed. ii. p. 177), declared that the two-portion theory was dead.
+
+This conclusion has never been seriously challenged. It has been greatly
+strengthened by the discovery of a MS. which was presented by Bishop
+Leidrad of Lyons with an autograph inscription to the altar of St
+Stephen in that town, some time before 814. As M. Delisle at once
+pointed out (_Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, 1898), this MS.
+supplies a fixed date from which palaeographers can work in dating MSS.
+The _Quicumque_ occurs in a collection of materials forming an
+introduction to the psalter. The suggestion has been made that Leidrad
+intended to use the _Quicumque_ in his campaign against the Adoptianists
+in 798. But the phrases of the creed seem to have needed sharpening
+against the Nestorian tendency of the Adoptianists. It is more probable
+that Leidrad was interested in the growing use of the creed as a
+canticle, and was consulted in the preparation of the famous Golden
+Psalter, now at Vienna, which contains the same collection of documents
+as an introduction. This MS. may now without hesitation be assigned to
+the date 772-788. The earliest known MS. is at Milan (_Cod. Ambros._ O,
+212, _sup._), and is dated by Traube as early as c. 700.
+
+There is a reference to the _Quicumque_ in the first canon of the fourth
+council of Toledo of the year 633, which quotes part or the whole of
+clauses 4, 20-22, 28 f., 31, 33, 35 f., 40. The council also quoted
+phrases from the so-called _Creed of Damasus_, a document of the 4th
+century, which in some cases they preferred to the phrases of the
+_Quicumque_. Their quotations form a connecting link in the chain of
+evidence by which the use of the creed may be traced back to the
+writings of Caesarius, bishop of Arles (503-543). Dom Morin has now
+demonstrated ("Le Symbole d'Athanase et son premier temoin S. Cesaire
+d'Arles," _Rev. Benedictine_, Oct. 1901) that Caesarius used the creed
+continually as a sort of elementary catechism. The fact that it exactly
+reproduces both the qualities and the literary defects of Caesarius is a
+strong argument in favour of Morin's suggestion that he may have been
+the author. Further, Caesarius was in the habit of putting some words of
+a distinguished writer at the head of his compositions, which would
+account for the fact that the name of Athanasius was subsequently
+attached to the creed.
+
+The use, however, of the _Quicumque_ by Caesarius as a catechism may be
+explained by the suggestion that it had been taught him in his youth, so
+that his style had been moulded by it. He was not an original thinker.
+Moreover, the creed is quoted by his rival Avitus, bishop of Vienne
+490-523, who quotes clause 22, as from the Rule of Catholic Faith, but
+was not likely to value a composition of Caesarius so highly. Morin does
+not deal fully with the arguments from internal evidence which point
+back to the beginning of the 5th century as the date of the creed. If
+the creed-phrases needed sharpening against the revived Nestorian error
+of the Adoptianists, it is scarcely likely to have been written during
+the generation following the condemnation of Nestorius in 431. Burn
+suggests that it was written to meet the Sabellian and Apollinarian
+errors of the Spanish heretic Priscillian, possibly by Honoratus, bishop
+of Arles (d. 429). He suggests further that the _Creed of Damasus_ was
+the reply of that pope to Priscillian's appeal. This would explain the
+quotation of the two documents together by the council of Toledo, since
+the heresy lasted on for a long time in Spain. But the theory has been
+carried to extravagant lengths by Kunstle, who thinks that the creed was
+written in Spain in the 5th century, and soon taken to the monastery of
+Lerins. There are phrases in the writings of Vincentius of Lerins and of
+Faustus, bishop of Riez, which are parallel to the teaching of the
+creed, though they cannot with any confidence be called quotations. They
+tend in any case to prove that the _Quicumque_ comes to us from the
+school of Lerins, of which Honoratus was the first abbot, and to which
+Caesarius also belonged.
+
+The earliest use of the _Quicumque_ was in sermons, in which the clauses
+were quoted, as by the council of Toledo without reference to the creed
+as a whole. From the 8th century, if not from earlier times,
+commentaries were written on it. The writer of the Oratorian Commentary
+(Theodulf of Orleans?) addressing a synod which instructed him to
+provide an exposition of this work on the faith, writes of it, as "here
+and there recited in our churches, and continually made the subject of
+meditation by our priests." It was soon used as a canticle. Angilbert,
+abbot of St Riquier (c. 814), records that it was sung by his school in
+procession on rogation days. It passed into the office of Prime,
+apparently first at Fleury. In the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. it
+was "sung or said" after the Benedictus on the greater feasts, and this
+use was extended in the second Prayer Book. In 1662 the rubric was
+altered and it was substituted for the Apostles' Creed. It has no place
+in the offices of the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is found, without the
+words "And the Son" of clause 22, in the appendix of many modern
+editions. In the Russian service books it appears at the beginning of
+the psalter.
+
+The controversy on its use in modern times has turned mainly on the
+interpretation of the warning clauses. No new translation can put an end
+to the difficulty. While it is true that the Church has never condemned
+individuals, and that the warnings refer only to those who have received
+the faith, and do not touch the question of the unbaptized, there is a
+growing feeling that they go beyond the teaching of Holy Scripture on
+the responsibility of intellect in matters of faith.[13]
+
+On the other hand the creed is a valuable statement of Catholic faith on
+the Trinity and the Incarnation, and its use for students and teachers
+at least is by no means obsolete. The special characteristic of its
+theology is in the first part where it owes most to the teaching of
+Augustine, who in his striving after self-knowledge analysed the mystery
+of his own triune personality and illustrated it with psychological
+images, "I exist and I am conscious that I exist, and I love the
+existence and the consciousness; and all this independently of any
+external influence." Such a riper analysis of the mystery of his own
+personality enabled him to arrive at a clearer conception of the idea of
+divine personality, "whose triunity has nothing potential or unrealized
+about it; whose triune elements are eternally actualized, by no outward
+influence, but from within; a Trinity in Unity."[14]
+
+II. MODERN CONFESSIONS OF FAITH.--The second great creed-making epoch of
+Church history opens in the 16th century with the Confession of
+Augsburg. The famous theses which Luther nailed to the door of the
+church at Wittenberg in 1517 cannot be called a confession, but they
+expressed a protest which could not rest there. Some reconstruction of
+popular beliefs was needed by many consciences. There is a striking
+contrast between the crudeness of much and widely accepted medieval
+theology and the decrees of the council of Trent. Even from the Roman
+Catholic standpoint such a need was felt. Luther himself had a gift of
+words which through his catechisms made the reformed theology popular in
+Germany. In 1530 it became necessary to define his position against both
+Romanists and Zwinglians.
+
+
+  Augsburg confession.
+
+1. _The Confession of Augsburg_ was drawn up by Melanchthon, revised by
+Luther, and presented to the emperor Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg.
+Some 21 of its articles dealt with doctrine, 7 with ecclesiastical
+abuses. It expounded in terse and significant teaching the doctrine (1)
+of God, (2) of original sin, (3) of the Son of God, (4) of
+justification..., (21) of the worship of saints. The abuses which it was
+maintained had been corrected by Lutheranism were discussed in articles
+(1) on Communion in both kinds, (2) on the marriage of clergy, (3) on
+the Mass, &c. (see AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF).
+
+The main difference between these, the first of a long series of
+articles of religion and the ancient creeds, lies in the fact that they
+are manifestoes embodying creeds and answering more than one purpose.
+This is the reason of their frequent failure to convey any sense of
+proportion in the expression of truth. The disciplinary question of
+clerical marriage is not of the same primary importance as the doctrinal
+questions involved in the restoration of the cup to the laity, or
+discussed in the subsequent article on the mass. As has been well said
+by a learned Baptist theologian, Dr Green: "It was by a true divine
+instinct that the early theologians made Christ Himself, in His
+divine-human personality, their centre of the creeds."[15] The
+fundamental questions of Christianity, exhibited in the Apostles' Creed,
+should be marked off as standing on a higher plane than others. In this
+respect catechisms of modern times, from Luther's down to the recent
+Evangelical catechism of the Free Churches, and including from their
+respective points of view both the catechism of the Church of England
+and the catechism of the council of Trent, are markedly superior to
+articles and synodical decrees. The failure of the latter was really
+inevitable. In the 16th century a spirit of universal questioning was
+rife, and it is this utter unsettlement of opinion which is reflected in
+the discussions of doubts on matters only remotely connected with "the
+faith once for all delivered unto the saints" (Jude 3). Moreover, fresh
+complications arose from the confusion in which the question of the
+duties and rights of the civil power was entangled. In an age when the
+foundations of the system on which society had rested for centuries were
+seriously shaken, such subjects as the right of the magistrate to
+interfere with the belief of the individual, and the limits of his
+authority over conscience, naturally assumed a prominence hitherto
+unknown.[16]
+
+2. _Other Lutheran Formularies._--For the purpose of classification it
+will be convenient to discuss Lutheran, Zwinglian and Calvinistic
+confessions separately.
+
+
+  Lutheran.
+
+An elaborate _Apology_ for the confession of Augsburg was drawn up by
+Melanchthon in reply to Roman Catholic criticisms. This, together with
+the confession, the articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther in
+1536, Luther's catechisms, and the Formula of Concord which was an
+attempt to settle doctrinal divisions promulgated in 1580, sum up what
+is called "the confessional theology of Lutheranism." Of less influence
+in the subsequent history of Lutheranism, but of interest as used by
+Archbishop Parker in the preparation of the Elizabethan articles of
+1563, is the confession of Wurttemberg. It was presented to the council
+of Trent by the ambassador of the state of Wurttemberg in 1552. Its
+thirty-five articles contain a moderate statement of Lutheran teaching.
+
+
+  Zwinglian and Calvinist.
+
+3. _Zwinglian and Calvinistic Confessions._--The confession of the Four
+Cities, Strassburg, Constance, Memmingen and London, was drawn up by M.
+Bucer and was presented to Charles V. at Augsburg in 1530. These cities
+were inclined to follow Zwingli in his sacramental teaching which was
+more fully expressed in the Confession of Basel (1534) and the First
+Helvetic Confession (1536). Calvin's views were expressed in the
+Gallican Confession, containing forty articles, which was drawn up in
+1559, and was presented both to Francis II. of France and to Charles IX.
+On the same lines the Belgian Confession of 1561, written by Guido de
+Bres in French, and translated into Dutch was widely accepted in the
+Netherlands and confirmed by the synod of Dort (1619). The second
+Helvetic Confession was the work of Bullinger, published at the request
+of the Elector Palatine Frederick III. in 1566, and was held in repute
+in Switzerland, Poland and France as well as the Palatinate. It was
+sanctioned in Scotland and was well received in England.
+
+These confessions teach the root idea of Calvin's theology, the
+immeasurable awfulness of God, His eternity, and the immutability of His
+decrees. Such strict Calvinism was the strength also of the Westminster
+Confession (see below), but was soon weakened in Germany. This same
+Elector Frederick invited two young divines, Zacharias Ursinus and
+Caspar Olevianus, to prepare the afterwards celebrated Heidelberg
+catechism, which in 1563 superseded Calvin's catechism in the
+Palatinate. While Calvin began sternly with the question: "What is the
+chief end of human life?" Ans.: "That men may know God by whom they were
+created,"--the Heidelberg catechism has: "What is thy only comfort in
+life and death?" Ans.: "That I with body and soul, both in life and
+death, am not my own, but belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ."
+This catechism has been called the charter of the German Reformed
+Church. It contains three divisions dealing with (1) man's sin, misery,
+redemption, (2) the Trinity, (3) thankfulness, under which is included
+all practical Christian life lived in gratitude for mercies received.
+
+
+  Articles of religion.
+
+4. _English Articles of Religion._--The ten articles of 1536 were drawn
+up by Convocation at the bidding of Henry VIII. "to stablysh Christian
+Quietnes and Unitie." They exhibit a traditional character, a compromise
+between the old and the new learning. Thus the doctrine of the Real
+Presence is asserted, but no mention is made of Transubstantiation.
+Medieval ceremonies are described as useful but without power to remit
+sins. Two years later, after negotiations with the Lutheran princes, a
+conference on theological matters was held at Lambeth with Lutheran
+envoys. Thirteen articles were drawn up, which, though never published
+(they were found among Cranmer's papers at the beginning of the 19th
+century), had some influence on the forty-two articles. Some of them
+were taken from the confession of Augsburg, but the sections on Baptism,
+the Eucharist and penance, show that the English theologians desired to
+lay more emphasis on the character of sacraments as channels of grace.
+The Statute of the Six Articles (1539), "the whip with six strings," was
+the outcome of the retrograde policy which distinguished the latter
+years of Henry VIII.
+
+With the accession of Edward VI. liturgical reforms were set on foot
+before an attempt was made to systematize doctrinal teaching. But as
+early as 1549 Cranmer had in hand "Articles of Religion" to which he
+required all preachers and lecturers to subscribe. In 1552 they were
+revised by other bishops and were laid before the council and the royal
+chaplains. They were then published as "Articles agreed on by the
+bishops and other learned men in the Synod of London." But there is
+considerable doubt whether they really received the sanction of
+Convocation (Gibson, p. 15). They were not devised as a complete scheme
+of doctrine, but only as a guide in dealing with current errors of (i.)
+the Medievalists and (ii.) the Anabaptists. Under (i.) they condemned
+the doctrine of the school authors on congruous merit (Art. xii.), the
+doctrine of grace _ex opere operato_ (xxvi.). Transubstantiation
+(xxix.). Under (ii.) they laid stress on the fundamental articles of the
+faith (Art. i.-iv.), affirmed the Three Creeds (vii.), since many
+Anabaptists held Arian and Socinian opinions which were rife in
+Switzerland, Italy and Poland, condemning also their views on original
+sin (viii.), community of goods (xxxvii.), and on other subjects in
+articles which do not mention them by name.
+
+The revision undertaken in 1563 by Archbishop Parker, aided by Edm.
+Guest, bishop of Rochester, shows "an attempt to give greater
+completeness to the formulary," and to make clearer the Catholic
+position of the Church of England. For the clause (Art. xxviii.) which
+denied the Real Presence was substituted one by Guest with the desire
+"not to deny the reality of the presence of the Body of Christ in the
+Supper, but only the grossness and sensibleness in the receiving
+thereof." At the same time the substitution of "Romish doctrine" for
+"doctrine of School authors" (Art. xxii.) marks an effort to define the
+line of the Church of England sharply against current Roman teaching.
+The revision was passed by Convocation and again revised in 1571, when
+the queen had been excommunicated by papal bull, and an act was passed
+ordering all clergy to subscribe to them. They have remained unchanged
+ever since, though the terms of subscription have been modified.
+
+An attempt was made to add nine articles of a strong Calvinistic tone,
+which were drawn up by Dr Whitaker, regius professor of divinity at
+Cambridge, and submitted to Archbishop Whitgift. They were rejected both
+by Queen Elizabeth, and, after the Hampton Court Conference petitioned
+about them, by King James I.
+
+The first Scottish confession dates from 1560. It is a memorial of the
+intellectual power and enthusiasm of John Knox. It exhibits the leading
+features of the Reformed theology, but "disclaims Divine authority for
+any fixed form of church government or worship." It also asks that "if
+anyone shall note in this our confession any articles or sentence
+repugnant of God's Holy Word, that it would please him of his gentleness
+and for Christian charity's sake, to admonish of the same in writing,"
+promising that if the teaching cannot be proved, to reform it. Between
+this and the Westminster Confession must be noted the first Baptist
+confession, published in Amsterdam in 1611. It shows the influence of
+Arminian theology against Calvinism, which was vigorously upheld in the
+_Quin-particular_ formula, put forward by the synod of Dort in 1619 to
+uphold the five points of Calvinism, after heated discussion, in which
+English delegates took part, of the problems of divine omniscience and
+human free-will.
+
+
+  Westminster Confession.
+
+5. _The Westminster Confession_ (1648), with its two catechisms, is
+perhaps the ablest of the reformed confessions from the standpoint of
+Calvinism. Its keynote is sovereignty. "The Decrees of God are His
+eternal Purpose according to the Counsel of His Will, whereby for His
+Own Glory He hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass." Man's part is
+to accept them with submission. As the Anglican divines soon ceased to
+attend the assembly, and the Independents were few in number, it was the
+work of Presbyterians only, the Scottish members carrying their proposal
+to make it an independent document and not a mere revision of the
+Thirty-nine Articles. After discussions lasting for two years it was
+debated in parliament, finished on the 22nd of March 1648, and was
+adopted by the Scottish parliament in the following year. It is the only
+confession which has been imposed by authority of parliament on the
+whole of the United Kingdom. This lasted in England for ten years. In
+Scotland its influence has continued to the present day, contributing
+not a little to mould the high qualities of religious insight and
+courage and perseverance which have honourably distinguished Scottish
+Presbyterians all the world over. This was the last great effort in
+constructive theology of the Reformation period. When Cromwell before
+his death in 1658 allowed a conference to prepare a new confession of
+faith for the whole commonwealth, the Westminster Confession was
+accepted as a whole with an added statement on church order and
+discipline. We must note, however, that the Baptist divines who were
+excluded from the Westminster Assembly issued a declaration of their
+principles under the title, "A Confession of Faith of seven
+Congregations or Churches in London which are commonly but unjustly
+called Anabaptists, for the Vindication of the Truth and Information of
+the Ignorant."
+
+Two other declarations may be quoted to show how necessary such
+confessions are even to religious societies which refuse to be bound by
+them. In 1675 Robert Barclay published an "Apology for the Society of
+Friends," in which he declared what they held concerning revelation,
+scripture, the fall, redemption, the inward light, freedom of
+conscience.
+
+In 1833 the Congregational Union published a Declaration or Confession
+of Faith, Church Order and Discipline. It was prepared by Dr George
+Redford of Worcester, and was presented, not as a scholastic or critical
+confession of faith, but merely such a statement as any intelligent
+member of the body might offer as containing its leading principles. It
+deals with the Bible as the final appeal in controversy, the doctrines
+of God, man, sin, the Incarnation, the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus
+Christ, "both the Son of man and the Son of God," the work of the Holy
+Spirit, justification by faith, the perpetual obligation of Baptism and
+the Lord's Supper, final judgment, the law of Christian fellowship. The
+same principles have been lucidly stated in the Evangelical Free Church
+catechism.
+
+
+  Greek church.
+
+6. _Confessions in the Eastern Orthodox Church._--The Eastern Church has
+no general doctrinal tests beyond the Nicene Creed, but from time to
+time synods have approved expositions of the faith such as the
+Athanasian Creed (without the words "And the Son"), and the Orthodox
+Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church. This was the
+work of Petrus Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev, and other theologians. It
+was written in 1640 in Russian, was translated into Greek, and approved
+by the council of Jassy and the patriarchs of Constantinople,
+Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. It was affirmed by the council of
+Jerusalem in 1672, which also affirmed the Confession of Dositheus,
+patriarch of Jerusalem. Both of these confessions were drawn up to
+confute the teaching of a remarkable man who had been patriarch of
+Constantinople, Cyril Lucar. He was a student of Western theology, a
+correspondent of Archbishop Laud, and had travelled in Germany and
+Switzerland. In 1629 he published a confession in which he attempted to
+incorporate ideas of the reformers while preserving the leading ideas of
+Eastern traditional theology. The controversy chiefly turned on the
+question of the necessity of episcopacy. Dositheus taught that the
+existence of bishops is as necessary to the Church as "breath to a man
+and the sun to the world." Christ is the universal and perpetual Head of
+the Church, but he exercises his rule by means of "the holy Fathers,"
+that is, the bishops whom the Holy Ghost has appointed to be in charge
+of local churches.
+
+Mention may also be made of the longer catechism of the Orthodox
+Catholic Church compiled by Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow, revised
+and adopted by the Russian Holy Synod in 1839. The Church is defined as
+"a divinely-instituted community of men, united by the orthodox faith,
+the law of God, the hierarchy and the sacraments."
+
+
+  Roman Catholic.
+
+7. _Roman Catholic Formularies._--For our present purpose the distinctive
+features of Roman Catholicism may be said to be summed up in the decrees
+of the council of Trent and the creed of Pope Pius IV. The council sat at
+intervals from 1545-1563, but there was a marked divergence between the
+opinions advocated by prominent members of the council and its final
+decrees. Cardinal Pole had to leave the council because he advocated the
+doctrine of justification by faith. Even at the later sessions the
+cardinal of Lorraine with the French prelates supported the German
+representatives in requests for the cup for the laity, the permission of
+the marriage of priests, and the revision of the breviary. Finally the
+decisions of the council were promulgated in a declaration of XII.
+articles, usually called the Creed of Pius IV., which reaffirmed the
+Nicene Creed, and dealt with the preservation of the apostolic and
+ecclesiastical traditions, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures
+"according to the sense which our Holy Mother Church has held," the seven
+sacraments, the offering of the mass, transubstantiation, purgatory, the
+veneration of saints, relics, images, the efficacy of indulgences, the
+supremacy of the Roman Church and of the bishop of Rome as vicar of
+Christ. To this summary of doctrine should be added the dogmas of the
+immaculate conception of the Blessed Virgin declared in 1854, and of
+papal infallibility decreed by the Vatican council of 1870.
+
+_Conclusion._--In this survey of Christian confessions it has been
+impossible to do more than barely name many which deserve discussion.
+This is a subject which has grown in importance and is likely to grow
+further. The very intensity of that phase of modern thought which
+declaims fervently against all creeds, and would maintain what George
+Eliot called "the right of the individual to general haziness," is
+likely to draw all Christian thinkers nearer to one another in sympathy
+through acceptance of the Apostles' Creed as the common basis of
+Christian thought. In the words of Hilary of Poitiers, "Faith gathers
+strength through opposition."
+
+The question at once arises. Can the simple historic faith be maintained
+without adding theological interpretations, those arid wastes of dogma
+in which the springs of faith and reverence run dry? The answer is No.
+We cannot ask to be as if through nineteen centuries no one had ever
+asked a question about the relation of the Lord Jesus Christ to the
+Father and the Holy Spirit. If we could come back to the Bible and use
+biblical terms only, as Cyril of Jerusalem wished in his early days, we
+know from experience that the old errors would reappear in the form of
+new questions, and that we should have to pass through the dreary
+wilderness of controversy from implicit to explicit dogma, from "I
+believe that Jesus is the Lord" to the confession that the Only Begotten
+Son is "of one substance with the Father." In the words of Hilary again:
+
+  "Faithful souls would be contented with the word of God which bids us:
+  'Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of
+  the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' But also we are drawn by the faults of
+  our heretical opponents to do things unlawful, to scale heights
+  inaccessible, to speak out what is unspeakable, to presume where we
+  ought not. And whereas it is by faith alone that we should worship the
+  Father and reverence the Son, and be filled with the Spirit, we are
+  now obliged to strain our weak human language in the utterance of
+  things beyond its scope; forced into this evil procedure by the evil
+  procedure of our foes. Hence what should be matter of silent religious
+  meditation must now needs be imperilled by exposition in words."
+
+The province of reverent theology is to aid accurate thinking by the use
+of metaphysical or psychological terms. Its definitions are no more an
+end in themselves than an analysis of good drinking water, which by
+itself leaves us thirsty but encourages us to drink. So the Nicene Creed
+is the analysis of the river of the water of life of which the Sermon on
+the Mount is a description, flowing on from age to age, freely offered
+to the thirsty souls of men.
+
+This justification of the ancient creeds carries with it the
+justification of later confessions so far as they answered questions
+which would be fatal to religion if they were not answered. As Principal
+Stewart puts it very clearly: "The answer given is based on the
+philosophy or science of the period. It does not necessarily form part
+of the religion itself, but is the best which with the materials at its
+command, in its own defence and in its love for truth, the religion (and
+its advocates) can give. But the answers may be superseded by better
+answers, or they may be rendered unnecessary because the questions are
+no longer asked. Thus the Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries
+elaborated answers to questions, which if no attempt had been made to
+answer them, would have perplexed earnest souls and condemned the
+system; but many parts of the system are now obsolete, because the
+conditions which suggested the questions which they sought to answer no
+longer exist or have no longer any interest or importance."
+
+  LITERATURE.--See J. Pearson, _Exposition of the Creed_ (new ed.,
+  1849); A. E. Burn, _Introduction to the Creeds_ (1899), and _The
+  Athanasian Creed_ in vol. iv. of _Texts and Studies_ (1896); H. B.
+  Swete, _The Apostles' Creed_ (1899); F. Kattenbusch, _Das apostolische
+  Symbol_ (1894-1900); C. A. Heurtley, _Harmonia Symbolica_ (1858): C.
+  P. Caspari, _Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und der
+  Glaubensregel_ (Christiania, 1866); and _Alte und neue Quellen_
+  (1879). T. Zahn, _Das apostolische Symbolum_ (1893); C. A. Swainson,
+  _The Nicene and Apostles' Creed_ (1875); G. D. W. Ommanney, _The
+  Athanasian Creed_ (1897); B. F. Westcott, _The Historic Faith_ (1882);
+  J. Jayne, _The Athanasian Creed_ (1905); J. A. Robinson, _The
+  Athanasian Creed_ (1905); E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_ (1908);
+  F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_ (1876); D. Waterland, _Crit. Hist._
+  edited by E. King (Oxford, 1870); F. Loofs and A. Harnack articles in
+  Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ ("Athanasianum" and
+  "Konstantino-politanisches Symbol") (1896), &c.; K. Kunstle,
+  _Antipriscilliana_ (Freiburg i. B., 1905); A. Stewart, _Croall
+  Lectures_ (in the press); S. G. Green, _The Christian Creed_ (1898);
+  P. Hall, _Harmony of Protestant Confessions_ (London, 1842); F.
+  Kattenbusch, _Confessionskunde_ (Freiburg i. B., 1890); Winex's
+  _Confessions of Christendom_ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1865); A.
+  Seeberg, _Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit_ (Leipzig, 1903); F.
+  Wiegand, _Die Stellung des apostolischen Symbols_ (Leipzig, 1899); H.
+  Goodwin, _The Foundations of the Creed_ (London, 1889); T. H. Bindley,
+  _The Oecumenical Documents of the Faith_ (London, 1906); J. Kunze,
+  _Das nicanisch-konstantinopolitanische Symbol_; S. Baeumer, _Das
+  apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis_ (Mainz, 1893); B. Doxholt, _Das
+  Taufsymbol. der alten Kirche_ (Paderborn, 1898); L. Hahn, _Bibliothek
+  der Symbole u. Glaubensregeln_ (Breslau, 1897); A. C. McGiffert, _The
+  Apostles' Creed_ (Edinburgh, 1902); and F. Loofs, _Symbolik_ (Leipzig,
+  1902).     (A. E. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Jevons, _Introd. to the History of Religion_, p. 394.
+
+  [2] _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxi.
+
+  [3] _Personality, Human and Divine_ (cheap edition), p. 36.
+
+  [4] Ib. p. 38.
+
+  [5] _Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit_, p. 85. Zahn's reasoned
+    argument stands in contrast to the blind reliance on tradition shown
+    by Macdonald, _The Symbol of the Apostles_, and the fanciful
+    reconstruction of the primitive creed by Baeumer, Harnack or Seeberg.
+
+  [6] McGiffert, on the other hand, argues that the Roman Creed was
+    composed to meet the errors of Marcion, p. 58 ff. He omits, however,
+    to mention this, which is Zahn's strongest argument.
+
+  [7] It is probable that "one" has dropped out of the first clause.
+    Zahn acutely suggests that it was omitted in the time of Zephyrinus
+    to counteract Monarchian teaching such as the formula: "believe in
+    one God, Jesus Christ."
+
+  [8] _Anecdota Maredsolana_, iii. iii. p. 199.
+
+  [9] Dorholt has shown that Petavius (d. 1652) was the first to remark
+    that the so-called Constantinopolitan form was quoted by Epiphanius
+    before the Council met, but was not able to explain the fact.
+
+  [10] Burn, "Note on the Old Latin text," _Journal of Theol. Studies._
+
+  [11] e.g. Cod. Escurial J.c. 12, _saec._ x. xi. In Cod. Matritensis,
+    p. 21 (1872), _saec._ x. xi., and Cod. Matritensis 10041 (begun in
+    the year A.D. 948), the words are omitted under the heading council of
+    Constantinople but inserted under the heading council of Toledo, in
+    the former MS., above the line and in a later hand, which shows
+    conclusively how the interpolation crept in.
+
+  [12] The first person who doubted the authorship seems to have been
+    Joachim Camerarius, 1551, who was so fiercely attacked in consequence
+    that he omitted the passage from his Latin edition. _Zeitschrift fur
+    K.G._ x. (1889), p. 497.
+
+  [13] In response to an invitation issued by the archbishop of
+    Canterbury, acting on a resolution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908,
+    a committee of eminent scholars met in April and May 1909 for the
+    purpose of preparing a new translation. Their report, issued on the
+    18th of October, stated that they had "endeavoured to represent the
+    Latin original more exactly in a large number of cases." The general
+    effect of the new version is to make the creed more comprehensible,
+    e.g. by the substitution of "infinite" and "reasoning" for such
+    archaisms as "incomprehensible" and "reasonable." The sense of the
+    damnatory clauses has, however, not been weakened. [Ed.]
+
+  [14] Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_, p. 40.
+
+  [15] _The Christian Creed and the Creeds of Christendom_, p. 181.
+
+  [16] Gibson, _The Thirty-nine Articles_, p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+CREEK (Mid. Eng. _crike_ or _creke_, common to many N. European
+languages), a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in a river formed by
+the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow harbour for small vessels.
+In America and Australia especially there are many long streams which
+can be everywhere forded and sometimes dry up, and are navigable only at
+their tidal estuaries, mere brooks in width which are of great economic
+importance. They form complete river-systems, and are the only supply of
+surface water over many thousand square miles. They are at some seasons
+a mere chain of "water-holes," but occasionally they are strongly
+flooded. Since exploration began at the coast and advanced inland, it is
+probable that the explorers, advancing up the narrow inlets or "creeks,"
+used the same word for the streams which flowed into these as they
+followed their courses upward into the country. The early settlers would
+use the same word for that portion of the stream which flowed through
+their own land, and in Australia particularly the word has the same
+local meaning as brook in England. On a map the whole system is called a
+river, e.g. the river Wakefield in South Australia gives its name to
+Port Wakefield, but the stream is always locally called "the creek."
+
+
+
+
+CREEK or MUSKOGEE (MUSCOGEE) INDIANS (Algonquin _maskoki_, "creeks," in
+reference to the many creeks and rivulets running through their
+country), a confederacy of North American Indians, who formerly occupied
+most of Alabama and Georgia. The confederacy seems to have been in
+existence in 1540, and then included the Muskogee, the ruling tribe,
+whose language was generally spoken, the Alabama, the Hichiti, Koasati
+and others of the Muskogean stock, with the Yuchi and the Natchez, a
+large number of Shawano and the Seminoles of Florida as a branch. The
+Creeks were agriculturists living in villages of log houses. They were
+brave fighters, but during the 18th century only had one struggle, of
+little importance, with the settlers. The Creek War of 1813-14 was,
+however, serious. The confederacy was completely defeated in three
+hard-fought battles, and the peace treaty which followed involved the
+cession to the United States government of most of the Creek country. In
+the Civil War the Creeks were divided in their allegiance and suffered
+heavily in the campaigns. The so-called Creek nation is now settled in
+Oklahoma, but independent government virtually ceased in 1906. In 1904
+they numbered some 16,000, some two-thirds being of pure or mixed Creek
+blood.
+
+
+
+
+CREETOWN, a seaport of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 991. It
+is situated near the head of Wigtown Bay, 18 m. W. of Castle Douglas,
+but 23-1/2 m. by the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Railway. The granite
+quarries in the vicinity constitute the leading industry, the stone for
+the Liverpool docks and other public works having been obtained from
+them. The village dates from 1785, and it became a burgh of barony in
+1792. Sir Walter Scott laid part of the scene of _Guy Mannering_ in this
+neighbourhood. Dr Thomas Brown, the metaphysician (1778-1820), was a
+native of the parish (Kirkmabreck) in which Creetown lies.
+
+
+
+
+CREEVEY, THOMAS (1768-1838), English politician, son of William Creevey,
+a Liverpool merchant, was born in that city in March 1768. He went to
+Queen's College, Cambridge, and graduated as seventh wrangler in 1789.
+The same year he became a student at the Inner Temple, and was called to
+the bar in 1794. In 1802 he entered parliament through the duke of
+Norfolk's nomination as member for Thetford, and married a widow with
+six children, Mrs Ord, who had a life interest in a comfortable income.
+Creevey was a Whig and a follower of Fox, and his active intellect and
+social qualities procured him a considerable intimacy with the leaders
+of this political circle. In 1806, when the brief "All the Talents"
+ministry was formed, he was given the office of secretary to the Board
+of Control; in 1830, when next his party came into power, Creevey, who
+had lost his seat in parliament, was appointed by Lord Grey treasurer of
+the ordnance; and subsequently Lord Melbourne made him treasurer of
+Greenwich hospital. After 1818, when his wife died, he had very slender
+means of his own, but he was popular with his friends and was well
+looked after by them; Greville, writing of him in 1829, remarks that
+"old Creevey is a living proof that a man may be perfectly happy and
+exceedingly poor. I think he is the only man I know in society who
+possesses nothing." He died in February 1838. He is remembered through
+the _Creevey Papers_, published in 1903 under the editorship of Sir
+Herbert Maxwell, which, consisting partly of Creevey's own journals and
+partly of correspondence, give a lively and valuable picture of the
+political and social life of the late Georgian era, and are
+characterized by an almost Pepysian outspokenness. They are a useful
+addition and correction to the _Croker Papers_, written from a Tory
+point of view. For thirty-six years Creevey had kept a "copious diary,"
+and had preserved a vast miscellaneous correspondence with such people
+as Lord Brougham, and his step-daughter, Elizabeth Ord, had assisted
+him, by keeping his letters to her, in compiling material avowedly for a
+collection of Creevey Papers in the future. At his death it was found
+that he had left his mistress, with whom he had lived for four years,
+his sole executrix and legatee, and Greville notes in his _Memoirs_ the
+anxiety of Brougham and others to get the papers into their hands and
+suppress them. The diary, mentioned above, did not survive, perhaps
+through Brougham's success, and the papers from which Sir Herbert
+Maxwell made his selection came into his hands from Mrs Blackett Ord,
+whose husband was the grandson of Creevey's eldest step-daughter.
+
+
+
+
+CREFELD, or KREFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
+on the left side of and 3 m. distant from the Rhine, 32 m. N.W. from
+Cologne, and 15 m. N.W. from Dusseldorf, with which it is connected by a
+light electric railway. Pop. (1875) 62,905; (1905) 110,410. The town is
+one of the finest in the Rhine provinces, being well and regularly
+built, and possessing several handsome squares and attractive public
+gardens. A striking point about the inner town is that it forms a large
+rectangle, enclosed by four wide boulevards or "walls." This feature,
+rare in German towns, is due to the fact that Crefeld was always an
+"open place," and that therefore the circular form of a fortress town
+could be dispensed with. It has six Roman Catholic and four Evangelical
+churches (of which the Gothic Friedenskirche with a lofty spire, and the
+modern church of St Joseph, in the Romanesque style, are alone worth
+special mention); there are also a Mennonite and an Old Catholic church.
+The town hall, decorated with frescoes by P. Janssen (b. 1844), and the
+Kaiser Wilhelm Museum are the most noteworthy secular buildings. In the
+promenades are monuments to Moltke, Bismarck and Karl Wilhelm, the
+composer of the _Wacht am Rhein_. Among the schools and scientific
+institutions of the town the most important is the higher grade
+technical school for the study of the textile industries, which is
+attended by students from all parts of the world. Connected with this
+are subsidiary schools, notably one for dyeing and finishing.
+
+Crefeld is the most important seat of the silk and velvet manufactures
+in Germany, and in this industry the larger part of the population of
+town and neighbourhood is employed. There are upwards of 12,000 silk
+power-looms in operation, and the value of the annual output in this
+branch alone is estimated at L3,000,000. A special feature is the
+manufacture of silk for covering umbrellas; while of its velvet
+manufacture that of velvet ribbon is the chief. The other industries of
+the town, notably dyeing, stuff-printing and stamping, are very
+considerable, and there are also engineering and machine shops,
+chemical, cellulose, soap, and other factories, breweries, distilleries
+and tanneries. The surrounding fertile district is almost entirely laid
+out in market gardens. Crefeld is an important railway centre, and has
+direct communication with Cologne, Rheydt, Munchen-Gladbach and Holland
+(via Zevenaar).
+
+Crefeld is first mentioned in records of the 12th century. From the
+emperor Charles IV. it received market rights in 1361 and the status of
+a town in 1373. It belonged to the counts of Mors, and was annexed to
+Prussia, with the countship, in 1702. It remained a place of little
+importance until the 17th century, when religious persecution drove to
+it a number of Calvinists and Separatists from Julich and Berg (followed
+later by Mennonites), who introduced the manufacture of linen. The
+number of such immigrants still further increased in the 18th century,
+when, the silk industry having been introduced from Holland, the town
+rapidly developed. The French occupation in 1795 and the resulting
+restriction of trade weighed for a while heavily upon the new industry;
+but with the termination of the war and the re-establishment of Prussian
+rule the old prosperity returned.
+
+
+
+
+CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843-1901), English historian and bishop of London,
+was born at Carlisle on the 5th of July 1843, being the eldest son of
+Robert Creighton, a well-to-do upholsterer of that city. He was educated
+at Durham grammar school and at Merton College, Oxford, where he was
+elected to a postmastership in 1862. He obtained a first-class in
+_literae humaniores_, and a second in law and modern history in 1866. In
+the same year he became tutor and fellow of Merton. He was ordained
+deacon, on his fellowship, in 1870, and priest in 1873; in 1872 he had
+married Louise, daughter of Robert von Glehn, a London merchant (herself
+a writer of several successful books of history). Meanwhile he had
+published several small historical works; but his college and university
+duties left little time for writing, and in 1875 he accepted the
+vicarage of Embleton, a parish on the coast of Northumberland, near
+Dunstanburgh, with an ancient and beautiful church and a fortified
+parsonage house, and within reach of the fine library in Bamburgh Keep.
+Here he remained for nearly ten years, acquiring that experience of
+parochial work which afterwards stood him in good stead, taking private
+pupils, studying and writing, as well as taking an active part in
+diocesan business. Here too he planned and wrote the first two volumes
+of his chief historical work, the _History of the Papacy_; and it was in
+part this which led to his being elected in 1884 to the newly-founded
+Dixie professorship of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge, where he
+went into residence early in 1885. At Cambridge his influence at once
+made itself felt, especially in the reorganization of the historical
+school. His lectures and conversation classes were extraordinarily good,
+possessing as he did the rare gift of kindling the enthusiasm without
+curbing the individuality of his pupils. In 1886 he combined with other
+leading historians to found the _English Historical Review_, of which he
+was editor for five years. Meanwhile the vacations were spent at
+Worcester, where he had been nominated a canon residentiary in 1885. In
+1891 he was made canon of Windsor; but he never went into residence,
+being appointed in the same year to the see of Peterborough. He threw
+himself with characteristic energy into his new work, visiting,
+preaching and lecturing in every part of his diocese. He also found time
+to preach and lecture elsewhere, and to deliver remarkable speeches at
+social functions; he worked hard with Archbishop Benson on the Parish
+Councils Bill (1894); he became the first president of the Church
+Historical Society (1894), and continued in that office till his death;
+he took part in the Laud Commemoration (1895); he represented the
+English Church at the coronation of the tsar (1896). He even found time
+for academical work, delivering the Hulsean lectures (1893-1894) and the
+Rede lecture (1894) at Cambridge, and the Romanes lecture at Oxford
+(1896).
+
+In 1897, on the translation of Dr Temple to Canterbury, Bishop Creighton
+was transferred to London. During Dr Temple's episcopate ritual
+irregularities of all kinds had grown up, which left a very difficult
+task to his successor, more especially in view of the growing public
+agitation on the subject, of which he had to bear the brunt. As was only
+natural, his studied fairness did not satisfy partisans on either side;
+and his efforts towards conciliation laid him open to much
+misunderstanding. His administration, none the less, did much to preserve
+peace. He strained every nerve to induce his clergy to accept his ruling
+on the questions of the reservation of the Sacrament and of the
+ceremonial use of incense in accordance with the archbishop's judgment in
+the Lincoln case; but when, during his last illness, a prosecutor brought
+proceedings against the clergy of five recalcitrant churches, the bishop,
+on the advice of his archdeacons, interposed his veto. One other effort
+on behalf of peace may be mentioned. In accordance with a vote of the
+diocesan conference, the bishop arranged the "Round Table Conference"
+between representative members of various parties, held at Fulham in
+October 1900, on "the doctrine of the Holy Eucharist and its expression
+in ritual," and a report of its proceedings was published with a preface
+by him. The true work of his episcopate was, however, positive, not
+negative. He was an excellent administrator; and his wide knowledge,
+broad sympathies, and sound common sense, though they placed him outside
+the point of view common to most of his clergy, made him an invaluable
+guide in correcting their too often indiscreet zeal. He fully realized
+the special position of the English Church in Christendom, and firmly
+maintained its essential teaching. Yet he was no narrow Anglican. His
+love for the English Church never blinded him to its faults, and no man
+was less insular than he. As he was a historian before he became a
+bishop, so it was his historical sense which determined his general
+attitude as a bishop. It was this, together with a certain native taste
+for ecclesiastical pomp, which made him--while condemning the
+unhistorical extravagances of the ultra-ritualists--himself a ritualist.
+He was the first bishop of London, since the Reformation, to
+"pontificate" in a mitre as well as the cope, and though no man could
+have been less essentially "sacerdotal" he was always careful of correct
+ceremonial usage. His interests and his sympathies, however, extended far
+beyond the limits of the church. He took a foremost part in almost every
+good work in his diocese, social or educational, political or religious;
+while he found time also to cultivate friendly relations with thinking
+men and women of all schools, and to help all and sundry who came to him
+for advice and assistance. It was this multiplicity of activities and
+interests that proved fatal to him. By degrees the work, and especially
+the routine work, began to tell on him. He fell seriously ill in the late
+summer of 1900, and died on the 14th of January 1901. He was buried in St
+Paul's cathedral, where a statue surmounts his tomb.
+
+He was a man of striking presence and distinguished by a fine courtesy
+of manner. His irrepressible and often daring humour, together with his
+frank distaste for much conventional religious phraseology, was a
+stumbling-block to some pious people. But beneath it all lay a deep
+seriousness of purpose and a firm faith in what to him were the
+fundamental truths of religion.
+
+Bishop Creighton's principal published works are: _History of the Papacy
+during the Period of the Reformation_ (5 vols., 1882-1897, new ed.);
+_History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome_ (6
+vols., 1897); _The Early Renaissance in England_ (1895); _Cardinal
+Wolsey_ (1895); _Life of Simon de Montfort_ (1876, new ed. 1895); _Queen
+Elizabeth_ (1896). He also edited the series of _Epochs of English
+History_, for which he wrote "The Age of Elizabeth" (13th ed., 1897);
+_Historical Lectures and Addresses by Mandell Creighton, &c._, edited by
+Mrs Creighton, were published in 1903.
+
+  See _Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, &c._, by his wife (2
+  vols., 1904); and the article "Creighton and Stubbs" in _Church
+  Quarterly Review_ for Oct. 1905.
+
+
+
+
+CREIL, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 32 m. N. of
+Paris on the Northern railway, on which it is an important junction.
+Pop. (1906) 9234. The town is situated on the Oise, on which it has a
+busy port. The manufacture of machinery, heavy iron goods and nails, and
+copper and iron founding, are important industries, and there are
+important metallurgical and engineering works at Montataire, about 2 m.
+distant; bricks and tiles and glass are also manufactured, and the
+Northern railway has workshops here. The church (12th to 15th centuries)
+is in the Gothic style. There are some traces of a castle in which
+Charles VI. resided during the period of his madness. Creil played a
+part of some importance in the wars of the 14th, 15th and 16th
+centuries.
+
+
+
+
+CRELL (or KRELL), NICHOLAS (c. 1551-1601), chancellor of the elector of
+Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the university of his native
+town. About 1580 he entered the service of Christian, the eldest son of
+Augustus I., elector of Saxony, and when Christian succeeded his father
+as elector in 1586, became his most influential counsellor. Crell's
+religious views were Calvinistic or Crypto-Calvinistic, and both before
+and after his appointment as chancellor in 1589 he sought to substitute
+his own form of faith for the Lutheranism which was the accepted religion
+of electoral Saxony. Calvinists were appointed to many important
+ecclesiastical and educational offices; a translation of the Bible with
+Calvinistic annotations was brought out; and other measures were taken by
+Crell to attain his end. In foreign politics, also, he sought to change
+the traditional policy of Saxony, acting in unison with John Casimir,
+administrator of the Rhenish Palatinate, and promising assistance to
+Henry IV. of France. These proceedings, coupled with the jealousy felt at
+Crell's high position and autocratic conduct, made the chancellor very
+unpopular, and when the elector died in October 1591 he was deprived of
+his offices and thrown into prison by order of Frederick William, duke of
+Saxe-Altenburg, the regent for the young elector Christian II. His trial
+was delayed until 1595, and then, owing partly to the interference of the
+imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_), dragged on for six
+years. At length it was referred by the emperor Rudolph II. to a court
+of appeal at Prague, and sentence of death was passed. This was carried
+out at Dresden on the 9th of October 1601.
+
+  See A. V. Richard, _Der kurfurstliche sachsische Kanzler Dr Nicolaus
+  Krell_ (Frankfort, 1860); B. Bohnenstadt, _Das Prozessverfahren gegen
+  den kursachsischen Kanzler Dr Nikolaus Krell_ (Halle, 1901); F.
+  Brandes, _Der Kanzler Krell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus_ (Leipzig,
+  1873); and E. L. T. Henke, _Caspar Peucer und Nicolaus Krell_
+  (Marburg, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+CREMA, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Cremona, 26 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Cremona. Pop. (1901) town,
+8027; commune, 9609. It is situated on the right bank of the Serio, 240
+ft. above sea-level, in the centre of a rich agricultural district. The
+cathedral has a fine Lombard Gothic facade of the second half of the
+14th century; the campanile belongs to the same period; the rest of the
+church has been restored in the baroque style. The clock tower opposite
+dates from the period of Venetian dominion in the 16th and 17th
+centuries. The castle, which was one of the strongest in Italy, was
+demolished in 1809. The church of S. Maria, 3/4 m. E. of the town, was
+begun in 1490 by Giov. Batt. Battaggio; it is in the form of a Greek
+cross, with a central dome, and the exterior is a fine specimen of
+polychrome Lombard work (E. Gussalli in _Rassegna d' arte_, 1905, p.
+17).
+
+The date of the foundation of Crema is uncertain. In the 10th century it
+appears to have been the principal place of the territory known as Isola
+Fulcheria. In the 12th century it was allied with Milan and attacked by
+Cremona, but was taken and sacked by Barbarossa in 1160. It was rebuilt
+in 1185. It fell under the Visconti in 1338, and joined the Lombard
+republic in 1447; but was taken by the Venetians in 1449, and, except
+from 1509 to 1529, remained under their dominion until 1797.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION (Lat. _cremare_, to burn), the burning of human corpses. This
+method of disposal of the dead may be said to have been the general
+practice of the ancient world, with the important exceptions of Egypt,
+where bodies were embalmed, Judaea, where they were buried in
+sepulchres, and China, where they were buried in the earth. In Greece,
+for instance, so well ascertained was the law that only suicides,
+unteethed children, and persons struck by lightning were denied the
+right to be burned. At Rome, one of the XII. Tables said, "Hominem
+mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito"; and in fact, from the close of
+the republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, burning on the
+pyre or rogus was the general rule.[1] Whether in any of these cases
+cremation was adopted or rejected for sanitary or for superstitious
+reasons, it is difficult to say. Embalming would probably not succeed in
+climates less warm and dry than the Egyptian. The scarcity of fuel might
+also be a consideration. The Chinese are influenced by the doctrine of
+Feng-Shui, or incomprehensible wind water; they must have a properly
+placed grave in their own land, and with this view their corpses are
+sent home from long distances abroad. Even the Jews used cremation in
+the vale of Tophet when a plague came; and the modern Jews of Berlin and
+the Spanish and Portuguese Jews at Mile End cemetery were among the
+first to welcome the lately revived process. Probably also, some nations
+had religious objections to the pollution of the sacred principle of
+fire, and therefore practised exposure, suspension, throwing into the
+sea, cave-burial, desiccation or envelopment.[2] Some at least of these
+methods must obviously have been suggested simply by the readiest means
+at hand. Cremation is still practised over a great part of Asia and
+America, but not always in the same form. Thus, the ashes may be stored
+in urns, or buried in the earth, or thrown to the wind, or (as among the
+Digger Indians) smeared with gum on the heads of the mourners. In one
+case the three processes of embalming, burning and burying are gone
+through; and in another, if a member of the tribe die at a great
+distance from home, some of his money and clothes are nevertheless
+burned by the family. As food, weapons, &c., are sometimes buried with
+the body, so they are sometimes burned with the body, the whole ashes
+being collected.[3] The Siamese have a singular institution, according
+to which, before burning, the embalmed body lies in a temple for a
+period determined by the rank of the dead man,--the king for six months,
+and so downwards. If the poor relatives cannot afford fuel and the other
+necessary preparations, they bury the body, but exhume it for burning
+when an opportunity occurs.
+
+There can be little doubt that the practice of cremation in modern
+Europe was at first stopped, and has since been prevented in great
+measure, by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body;
+partly also by the notion that the Christian's body was redeemed and
+purified.[4] Some clergymen, however, as the late Mr Haweis in his
+_Ashes to Ashes, a Cremation Prelude_ (London, 1874), have been
+prominent in favour of cremation. The objection of the clergy was
+disposed of by the philanthropist Lord Shaftesbury when he asked, "What
+would in such a case become of the blessed martyrs?" The very general
+practice of burying bodies in the precincts of a church in order that
+the dead might take benefit from the prayers of persons resorting to the
+church, and the religious ceremony which precedes both European burials
+and Asiatic cremations, have given the question a religious aspect. It
+is, however, in the ultimate resort, really a sanitary one. The
+disgusting results of pit-burial made cemeteries necessary. But
+cemeteries are equally liable to overcrowding, and are often nearer to
+inhabited houses than the old churchyards. It is possible, no doubt, to
+make a cemetery safe approximately by selecting a soil which is dry,
+close and porous, by careful drainage, and by rigid enforcement of the
+rules prescribing a certain depth (8 to 10 ft.) and a certain
+superficies (4 yds.) for graves. But a great mass of sanitary objections
+may be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries. A
+dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas, is the
+worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is strikingly
+illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs to absorb the
+carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins, even when sawdust
+charcoal is used, is still more dangerous than ordinary burial. It must
+also be remembered that the cemetery system can only be temporary. The
+soil is gradually filled with bones; houses crowd round; the law itself
+permits the reopening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. We
+shall not, indeed, as Browne says, "be knaved out of our graves to have
+our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned into pipes!" But on
+this ground of sentiment cremation would certainly prevent any
+interruption of that "sweet sleep and calm rest" which the old prayer
+that the earth might lie lightly has associated with the grave. And in
+the meantime we should escape the horror of putrefaction and of the
+"small cold worm that fretteth the enshrouded form."
+
+In Europe Christian burial was long associated entirely with the
+ordinary practice of committing the corpse to the grave. But in the
+middle of the 19th century many distinguished physicians and chemists,
+especially in Italy, began prominently to advocate cremation. In 1874, a
+congress called to consider the matter at Milan resolved to petition the
+Chamber of Deputies for a clause in the new sanitary code, permitting
+cremation under the supervision of the syndics of the commune. In
+Switzerland Dr Vegmann Ercolani was the champion of the cause (see his
+_Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead_, 4th ed.,
+Zurich, 1874). So long ago as 1797 cremation was seriously discussed by
+the French Assembly under the Directory, and the events of the
+Franco-Prussian War again brought the subject under the notice of the
+medical press and the sanitary authorities. The military experiments at
+Sedan, Chalons and Metz, of burying large numbers of bodies with
+quicklime, or pitch and straw, were not successful, but very dangerous.
+The matter was considered by the municipal council of Paris in connexion
+with the new cemetery at Mery-sur-Oise; and the prefect of the Seine in
+1874 sent a circular asking information to all the cremation societies
+in Europe. In Britain the subject had slumbered for two centuries, since
+in 1658 Sir Thomas Browne published his quaint _Hydriotaphia, or
+Urn-burial_, which was mainly founded on the _De funere Romanorum_ of
+the learned Kirchmannus. In 1817 Dr J. Jamieson gave a sketch of the
+"Origin of Cremation" (_Proc. Royal Soc. Edin._, 1817), and for many
+years prior to 1874 Dr Lord, medical officer of health for Hampstead,
+continued to urge the practical necessity for the introduction of the
+system.
+
+It was Sir Henry Thompson, however, who first brought the question
+prominently before the public. Thompson's problem was--"Given a dead
+body, to resolve it into carbonic acid, water and ammonia, rapidly,
+safely and not unpleasantly." To solve this problem, experiments were
+made by Dr Polli at the Milan gas works, fully described in Dr Pietra
+Santa's book, _La Cremation des morts en France et a l'etranger_, and by
+Professor Brunetti, who exhibited an apparatus at the Vienna Exhibition
+of 1873, and who stated his results in _La Cremazione dei cadaveri_
+(Padua, 1873). Polli obtained complete incineration or calcination of
+dogs by the use of coal-gas mixed with atmospheric air, applied to a
+cylindrical retort of refracting clay, so as to consume the gaseous
+products of combustion. The process was complete in two hours, and the
+ashes weighed about 5% of the weight before cremation. Brunetti used an
+oblong furnace of refracting brick with side-doors to regulate the
+draught, and above a cast-iron dome with movable shutters. The body was
+placed on a metallic plate suspended on iron wire. The gas generated
+escaped by the shutters, and in two hours carbonization was complete.
+The heat was then raised and concentrated, and at the end of four hours
+the operation was over; 180 lb. of wood costing 2s. 4d. sterling was
+burned. In a reverberating furnace used by Sir Henry Thompson a body,
+weighing 144 lb., was reduced in fifty minutes to about 4 lb. of lime
+dust. The noxious gases, which were undoubtedly produced during the
+first five minutes of combustion, passed through a flue into a second
+furnace and were entirely consumed. In the ordinary Siemens regenerative
+furnace (which was adapted by Reclam in Germany for cremation, and also
+by Sir Henry Thompson) only the hot-blast was used, the body supplying
+hydrogen and carbon; or a stream of heated hydrocarbon mixed with heated
+air was sent from a gasometer supplied with coal, charcoal, peat or
+wood,--the brick or iron-cased chamber being thus heated to a high
+degree before cremation begins.
+
+Steps were at once taken to form an English society to promote the
+practice of cremation. A declaration of its objects was drawn up and
+signed on the 13th January 1874 by the following persons--Shirley
+Brooks, William Eassie, Ernest Hart, the Rev. H. R. Haweis, G. H.
+Hawkins, John Cordy Jeaffreson, F. Lehmann, C. F. Lord, W. Shaen, A.
+Strahan, (Sir) Henry Thompson, Major Vaughan, Rev. C. Voysey and (Sir)
+T. Spencer Wells; and they frequently met to consider the necessary
+steps in order to attain their object. The laws and regulations having
+been thoroughly discussed, the membership of the society was constituted
+by an annual contribution for expenses, and a subscription to the
+following declaration:--
+
+  "We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and desire to
+  substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the body into its
+  component elements by a process which cannot offend the living, and
+  shall render the remains absolutely innocuous. Until some better
+  method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually known as
+  cremation."
+
+Finally, on 29th April a meeting was held, a council was formed, and Sir
+H. Thompson was elected president and chairman. Mr Eassie (who in 1875
+published a valuable work on _Cremation of the Dead_) was at the same
+time appointed honorary secretary.[5] In 1875 the following were
+added:--Mrs Rose Mary Crawshay, Mr Higford Burr, Rev. J. Long, Mr W.
+Robinson and the Rev. Brooke Lambert. Subsequently followed Lord
+Bramwell, Sir Chas. Cameron, Dr Farquharson, Sir Douglas Galton, Lord
+Playfair, Mr Martin Ridley Smith, Mr James A. Budgett, Mr Edmund Yates,
+Mr J. S. Fletcher, Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, the duke of Westminster
+(on Lord Bramwell's death), and Sir Arthur Arnold. These may be
+considered the pioneers of the movement for reform.
+
+On account of difficulties and prejudices[6] the council was unable to
+purchase a freehold until 1878, when an acre was obtained at Woking, not
+far distant from the cemetery. At this time the furnace employed by
+Professor Gorini of Lodi, Italy, appeared to be the best for working
+with on a small scale; and he was invited to visit England to
+superintend its erection. This was completed in 1879, and the body of a
+horse was cremated rapidly and completely without any smoke or effluvia
+from the chimney. No sooner was this successful step taken than the
+president received a communication from the Home Office, which resulted
+in a personal interview with the home secretary; the issue of which was
+that if the society desired to avoid direct hostile action, an assurance
+must be given that no cremation should be attempted without leave first
+obtained from the minister. This of course was given, no further
+building took place, and the society's labours were confined to
+employing means to diffuse information on the subject. Sir Spencer Wells
+brought it before the annual meeting of the British Medical Association
+in 1880, when a petition to the home secretary for permission to adopt
+cremation was largely signed by the leading men in town and country, but
+without any immediate result. The next important development was an
+application to the council in 1882, by Captain Hanham in Dorsetshire, to
+undertake the cremation of two deceased relatives who had left express
+instructions to that effect. The home secretary was applied to, and
+refused. The bodies were preserved, and Captain Hanham erected a
+crematorium on his estate, and the cremation took place there. He
+himself, dying a year later, was cremated also; in both cases the result
+was attained under the supervision of Mr J. C. Swinburne-Hanham, who
+succeeded Mr Eassie in 1888 as honorary secretary to the society. The
+government took no notice. But in 1883 a cremation was performed in
+Wales by a man on the body of his child, and legal proceedings were
+taken against him. Mr Justice Stephen, in February 1884, delivered his
+well-known judgment at the Assizes there, declaring cremation to be a
+legal procedure, provided no nuisance were caused thereby to others. The
+council of the society at once declared themselves absolved from their
+promise to the Home Office, and publicly offered to perform cremation,
+laying down strict rules for careful inquiry into the cause of death in
+every case. They stated that they were fully aware that the chief
+practical objection to cremation was that it removed traces of poison or
+violence which might have caused death. Declining to trust the very
+imperfect statement generally made respecting the cause of death in the
+ordinary death certificate (unless a coroner's inquest had been held),
+they adopted a system of very stringent inquiry, the result of which in
+each case was to be submitted to the president, to be investigated and
+approved by him before cremation could take place, with the right to
+decline or require an inquest if he thought proper; and this course has
+been followed ever since the first cremation.
+
+It was on 26th March 1885 that the first cremation at Woking took place,
+the subject being a lady.[7] In 1888 it became necessary, nearly 100
+bodies having been by this date cremated, to build a large hall for
+religious service, as well as waiting-rooms, in connexion with the
+crematorium there. The dukes of Bedford and Westminster headed the
+appeal for funds, each with L105. The former (the 9th duke of Bedford)
+especially took great interest in the progress of the society, and
+offered to furnish further donations to any extent necessary. During the
+next two years he generously defrayed costs to the amount of L3500, and
+built a smaller crematorium adjacent for himself and family. The latter
+building was first used on the 18th of January 1891, a few days after
+the duke's own death. The number of cremations slowly increased year by
+year, and the total at the end of 1900 was 1824. Many of these were
+persons of distinction--by rank, or by attainments in art, literature
+and science, or in public life.
+
+
+  Death certification.
+
+The council next turned their attention to the need for a national system
+of death certification, to be enforced by law as an essential and
+much-needed reform in connexion with cremation. On the 6th of January 1893
+the duke of Westminster introduced a deputation to the secretary of state
+for the home department, Mr Asquith, and the president of the Cremation
+Society opened the case, showing that no less than 7% of the burials in
+England took place without any certificate, while in some districts it was
+far greater. In consequence of this the home secretary appointed a select
+committee of the House of Commons, which was presided over by Sir Walter
+Foster, of the Local Government Board, to "inquire into the sufficiency of
+the existing law as to the disposal of the dead ... and especially for
+detecting the causes of death due to poison, violence, and criminal
+neglect." After a prolonged inquiry and careful consideration of the
+evidence, a full report and conclusions drawn therefrom were unanimously
+agreed to, and published as a blue-book in the autumn of 1893.[8]
+
+  The following conclusions are quoted from this volume:--Page iii. "So
+  far as affording a record of the true cause of death and the detection
+  of it in cases where death may have been due to violence, poison, or
+  where criminal neglect is concerned, the class of certified deaths
+  leaves much to be desired." Page iv. Certification is extremely
+  important as a deterrent of crime, and numerous proofs are given at
+  length in support of the statement.... "Contrast this class with that
+  of uncertified deaths, when the result is such as to force upon your
+  Committee the conviction that vastly more deaths occur annually from
+  foul play and criminal neglect than the law recognizes." Page vii.
+  Great uncertainty in resorting to the coroner's court, and want of
+  system in connexion with the practice of it, are affirmed to exist.
+  Page x. It is stated that the opportunity for perpetrating crime is
+  great in the considerable class of uncertified cases ... "in short,
+  the existing procedure plays into the hands of the criminal classes."
+  "Your Committee are much impressed with the serious possibilities
+  implied in a system which permits death and burial to take place
+  without the production of satisfactory medical evidence of the cause
+  of death." Page xii. "Your Committee have arrived at the conclusion
+  that the appointment of medical officials, who should investigate all
+  cases of death which are not certified by a medical practitioner in
+  attendance, is a proposal which deserves their support."
+
+  In considering cremation, the committee reported as follows:--Page
+  xxii. "Your Committee are of opinion that there is only one question
+  in connexion with this method of disposing of a dead body to which it
+  is necessary for them to refer. That question is the supposed danger
+  to the community arising from the fact that with the destruction of
+  the body the possibility of obtaining evidence of the cause of death
+  by _post-mortem_ examination also disappears." The mode of proceeding
+  adopted by the Cremation Society of England having been described,
+  "your Committee are of opinion that with the precautions adopted in
+  connexion with cremation, as carried out by the Cremation Society,
+  there is little probability that cases of crime would escape
+  detection, but inasmuch as these precautions are purely voluntary,
+  your Committee consider that in the interests of public safety such
+  regulations should be enforced by law."
+
+The Cremation Society felt that this report much strengthened the case
+for legislation amending the law of death certification. In August 1894
+the president of the society laid the results of the select committee
+before the British Medical Association at Bristol, and a unanimous vote
+was obtained in favour of the suggestions made by it. In November a
+second deputation waited on Mr Asquith, in which the president of the
+society begged him to carry out the system recommended. The home
+secretary replied that the business belonged to the department of the
+Local Government Board, and that it was already dealing with the
+question and bringing it to a satisfactory solution. Soon afterwards,
+however, the government changed, other questions became pressing and
+further consideration of the subject was postponed.
+
+  With reference to the recommendations of the select committee before
+  mentioned, the regulations necessary for registration of death and the
+  disposal of the dead may be outlined as follows:--(1) That no body
+  should be buried, cremated, or otherwise disposed of without a medical
+  certificate of death signed, after personal knowledge and observation,
+  or by information obtained after investigation made by a qualified
+  medical officer appointed for the purpose. (2) A qualified medical man
+  should be appointed as official certifier in every parish, or district
+  of neighbouring parishes, his duty being to inquire into all cases of
+  death and report the cause in writing, together with such other
+  details as may be deemed necessary. This would naturally fall within
+  the duties of the medical officer of health for the district, and
+  registration should be made at his office. (3) If the circumstances of
+  death obviously demand a coroner's inquest, the case should be
+  transferred to his court and the cause determined, with or without
+  autopsy. If there appears to be no ground for holding an inquest, and
+  autopsy be necessary to the furnishing of a certificate, the official
+  certifier should make it, and state the result in his report. (4) No
+  person or company should be henceforth permitted to construct or use
+  an apparatus for cremating human bodies without license from the Local
+  Government Board or other authority. (5) No crematory should be so
+  employed unless the site, construction, and system of management have
+  been approved after survey by an officer appointed by government for
+  the purpose. But the licence to construct or use a crematory should
+  not be withheld if guarantees are given that the conditions required
+  are or will be complied with. All such crematories to be subject at
+  all times to inspection by an officer appointed by the government. (6)
+  The burning of a human body, otherwise than in an officially
+  recognized crematory, should be illegal, and punishable by penalty.
+  (7) No human body should be cremated unless the official examiner
+  added the words "Cremation permitted." This he should be bound to do
+  if, after due inquiry, he can certify that the deceased has died from
+  natural causes, and not from ill-treatment, poison or violence.
+
+The Cremation Act 1902 (2 Ed. VII. ch. 8), and the regulations[9] made
+thereunder by the home secretary, have since given legislative effect to
+some of the foregoing recommendations and have laid down a code of laws
+applicable and binding where cremation is resorted to. But the
+amendments in the law of death certification generally, so long pressed
+for by the Cremation Society of England and recommended by the select
+committee, are none the less necessary.
+
+Undoubtedly in populous communities and in crowded districts the burial
+of dead bodies is liable to be a source of danger to the living. As
+early as 1840 a commission had been appointed, including some of the
+earliest authorities on sanitary science,--namely, Drs Southwood Smith,
+Chadwick, Milroy, Sutherland, Waller Lewis and others,--to conduct a
+searching inquiry into the state of the burial-grounds of London and
+large provincial towns. By the report[10] the existence of such a danger
+was strikingly demonstrated, and intramural interments were in
+consequence made illegal. The advocates of burial then declared that
+interment in certain light soils would safely and efficiently decompose
+the putrefying elements which begin to be developed the moment death
+takes place, and which rapidly become dangerous to the living, still
+more so in the case of deaths from contagious disease. But these light
+dry soils and elevated spots are precisely those best adapted for human
+habitation; to say nothing of their value for food-production. Granted
+the efficiency of such burial, it only effects in the course of a few
+years what exposure to a high temperature accomplishes with absolute
+safety in an hour. In a densely populated country the struggle between
+the claims of the dead and the living to occupy the choicest sites
+becomes a serious matter. All decaying animal remains give off
+effluvia--gases--which are transferred through the medium of the
+atmosphere to become converted into vegetable growth of some
+kind--trees, crops, garden produce, grass, &c. Every plant absorbs these
+gases by its leaves, each one of which is provided with hundreds of
+stomata--open mouths--by which they fix or utilize the carbon to form
+woody fibre, and give off free oxygen to the atmosphere. Thus it is that
+the air we breathe is kept pure by the constant interaction between the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may be taken as certain that the
+gaseous products arising from a cremated body--amounting, although
+invisible, to no less than 97% of its weight, 3% only remaining as
+solids, in the form of a pure white ash--become in the course of a few
+hours integral and active elements in some form of vegetable life. The
+result of this reasoning has been that, by slow degrees, crematoria have
+been constructed at many of the populous cities in Great Britain and
+abroad (see _Statistics_ below).
+
+The subject of employing cremation for the bodies of those who die of
+contagious disease is a most important one. Sir H. Thompson advocated
+this course in a paper read before the International Congress of Hygiene
+held in London in 1891; and a resolution strongly approving the practice
+was carried unanimously at a large meeting of experts and medical
+officers of health. Such diseases are small-pox, scarlet fever,
+diphtheria, consumption, malignant cholera, enteric, relapsing and
+puerperal fevers, the annual number of deaths from which in the United
+Kingdom is upwards of 80,000. Complete disinfection takes place by means
+of the high temperature to which the body is exposed. At the present day
+it is compulsory to report any case in the foregoing list, whenever it
+occurs, to the medical officer of health for the district; and it is
+customary to disinfect the rooms themselves, as well as the clothes and
+furniture used by the patient if the case be fatal; but the body, which
+is the source and origin of the evil, and is itself loaded with the
+germs of a specific poison, is left to the chances which attach to its
+preservation in that condition, when buried in a fit or unfit soil or
+situation.
+
+The process of preparing a body for cremation requires a brief notice.
+The plan generally adopted is to place it (in the usual shroud) in a
+light pine shell, discarding all heavy oak or other coffin, and to
+introduce it into the furnace in that manner. Thus there is no handling
+or exposure of the body after it reaches the crematorium. The type of
+furnace in general use is on the reverberatory principle, the body being
+consumed in a separate chamber heated to over 2000 deg. Fahr. by a coke
+fire. In a few instances a furnace burning ordinary illuminating gas
+instead of coke is in use.     (H. TH.)
+
+_Statistics._--The following statistics show the history of modern
+cremation and its progress at home and abroad:--
+
+  _Foreign Countries._--The first experiment in Italy was made by
+  Brunetti in 1869, his second and third in 1870. Gorini and Polli
+  published their first cases in 1872. Brunetti exhibited his at Vienna
+  in 1873. All were performed in the open air. The next in Europe was a
+  single case at Breslau in 1874. Soon after, an English lady was
+  cremated in a closed apparatus (Siemens) at Dresden. The next
+  cremation in a closed receptacle took place at Milan in 1876. In the
+  same year a Cremation Society was formed, a handsome building was
+  erected, and two Gorini furnaces were at work in 1880. In 1899 the
+  total number of cremations was 1355. In Italy 28 crematoria exist,
+  viz. at Alessandria, Asti, Bologna, Bra, Brescia, Como, Cremona,
+  Florence, Genoa, Leghorn, Lodi, Mantua, Milan, Modena, Novara, Padua,
+  Perugia, Pisa, Pistoia, Rome, San Remo, Siena, Spezia, Turin, Udine,
+  Verona and Venice. The total number of cremations in Italy in 1906 was
+  440.
+
+  In Germany the first crematorium was erected at Gotha; it was opened
+  in 1878, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907,
+  numbered 4584. At Ohlsdorf, Hamburg, the crematorium was opened in
+  November 1892, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907,
+  numbered 2521. At Heidelberg the crematorium was opened in 1891, and
+  the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907, numbered 1741.
+  Throughout the German empire there are, in addition to the above,
+  crematoria at Bremen, Eisenach, Jena, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Mainz,
+  Offenbach, Heilbronn, Ulm, Chemnitz and Stuttgart, besides over eighty
+  societies for promoting cremation. The total number of cremations
+  which took place in Germany in 1906 was 2057, making a total of 13,614
+  down to September 1st, 1907.
+
+  Other societies exist in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Norway and
+  Switzerland. At the crematorium at Copenhagen 77 bodies were cremated
+  in 1906, the total being 500. The Stockholm crematorium was opened in
+  October 1887, and the cremations in 1906 numbered 56. The Gothenburg
+  crematorium (also in Sweden) was opened in January 1890, and the
+  cremations there in 1906 were 14. Switzerland has four crematoria,
+  viz. at Basel, Geneva, Zurich and St Gallen--524 cremations took place
+  in that country in 1906.
+
+  In Paris a cremation society was founded in 1880, and in 1886-1887 a
+  large crematorium was constructed by the municipal council at Pere
+  Lachaise, containing three Gorini furnaces. It was first used in
+  October 1887 for two men who died of small-pox. The demand became
+  large; an improved furnace was soon devised, the unclaimed bodies at
+  the hospitals and the remains at the dissecting rooms being cremated
+  there, besides a large number of embryos. In 1906 the number,
+  including the last-named class, was 6906. The total number of
+  incinerations at Pere Lachaise down to December 31st, 1906 (including
+  both classes) was 86,962; but the employment of cremation for the
+  purposes named has deterred a resort to it by many. Had a separate
+  establishment been organized for the public, its success would have
+  been greater. A magnificent edifice has been constructed by the
+  municipality of Paris for the conservation of the ashes of persons who
+  have been cremated. Crematoria have been established also at Rouen,
+  Rheims and Marseilles, and the construction of crematoria in other of
+  the great provincial centres of France was in contemplation.
+
+  In Buenos Aires, since 1844, the bodies of all persons dying of
+  contagious disease are cremated, and there is also a separate
+  establishment for the use of the public.
+
+  At Tokio in Japan no fewer than 22 crematoria exist, and about an
+  equal number of cremations and burials in earth take place.
+
+  At Calcutta a crematorium was opened in 1906.
+
+  At Montreal, Canada, there is a crematorium which began operations in
+  1902, and completed 44 cremations up to the 31st of December 1905.
+
+  _United States._--There were 33 crematoria in the United States on
+  September 1st, 1907. At Fresh Pond, New York, erected in 1885, the
+  total number of cremations to December 31st, 1906, being 8514. At
+  Buffalo, N.Y., the first cremation taking place in 1885, and the total
+  number down to December 31st, 1905, being 787. At Troy (Earl
+  Crematorium), N. Y., the first cremation taking place in 1890, and the
+  total number down to December 31st, 1905, 249. At Swinburne Island,
+  N.Y., cremations beginning in 1890, total to December 31st, 1905, 123.
+  At Waterville, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1893, total to December
+  31st, 1906, 62. At St Louis, Missouri, cremations beginning in 1888,
+  total to September 1st, 1907, 2151. At Philadelphia, Penn., cremations
+  beginning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, 1685. At San
+  Francisco, Cal., "Odd Fellows," opened in 1895, total to December
+  31st, 1906, 6151. Also at San Francisco, Cal., "Cypress Lawn," opened
+  in 1893, total to December 31st, 1905, 1492. At Los Angeles, Cal., No.
+  1, Rosedale, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 866; No. 2,
+  Evergreen, opened in 1902, total to December 31st, 1905, 413; No. 3,
+  Gower Street, opened in 1907 with 54 down to September 1st. At Boston,
+  Mass., opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2493. At
+  Cincinnati, Ohio, opened in 1887, total to September 1st, 1907, 1245.
+  At Chicago, opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2188. At
+  Detroit, Michigan, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 689.
+  At Pittsburg, Penn., opened in 1886, total to September 1st, 1907,
+  377. At Baltimore, opened in 1889, total to December 31st, 1905, 263.
+  At Lancaster, Penn., opened in 1884, total to December 31st, 1906,
+  106. At Davenport, Iowa, opened in 1891, total to September 1st, 1907,
+  331. At Milwaukee, opened in 1896, total to October 1905, 442. At
+  Washington, opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, 275. The Le
+  Moyne (Washington, Pa.) crematory, the first in the United States, was
+  erected by Dr F. Julius le Moyne in 1876, for private use. The first
+  cremation was that of the baron de Palin, of New York, December 6th,
+  1876. Dr F. Julius le Moyne died October 1879, and his remains were
+  cremated in his own crematory. Total number of cremations (to 1907)
+  41. At Pasadena, Cal., opened in 1895, total to September 1st, 1907,
+  491. At St. Paul, Minn., opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905,
+  145. At Fort Wayne, Ind., opened in 1897, total to September 1st,
+  1907, 41. At Cambridge, Mass., opened in 1900, total to September 1st,
+  1907, 1090. At Cleveland, Ohio, opened in 1901, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 283. At Denver, Col., opened in 1904, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 109. At Indianapolis, opened in 1904, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 32. At Oakland, Cal., opened in 1902, total to September
+  1st, 1907, 2196. At Portland, Ore., opened in 1901, total to December
+  31st, 1905, 327. At Seattle, Washington, opened in 1905, with 21 to
+  the end of that year.
+
+  _United Kingdom._--There were 13 crematoria in operation in the United
+  Kingdom on September 1st, 1907. The oldest is that at Woking, Surrey,
+  which was first used for the cremation of human remains in 1885. In
+  that year three cremations took place there, the number gradually
+  increasing each year until in 1901 301 bodies were cremated. Up to
+  September 1st, 1907, the total number of cremations at Woking was
+  2939. Then followed the crematorium at Manchester, opened in 1892 with
+  90 in 1906 and a total of 1085; at Glasgow, opened in 1895 with 45 in
+  1906 and a total of 252; at Liverpool, opened in 1896, with 46 in 1906
+  and a total of 374; at Hull, opened in 1901 (the first municipal
+  crematorium), with 17 in 1906 and a total of 116; at Darlington, also
+  opened in 1901, with 13 in 1906 and a total of 33. The Leicester
+  Corporation crematorium was opened in 1902, with 12 in 1906 and a
+  total of 50. Next in order came the Golder's Green crematorium,
+  Hampstead, London, which was opened in December 1902. In 1906 298
+  cremations took place there, making a total of 1091. After this
+  followed the Birmingham crematorium, opened in 1903, with 21 in 1906
+  and a total of 84; the City of London crematorium at Little Ilford,
+  opened in 1905, with 23 for 1906 and a total of 46; the Leeds
+  crematorium, opened in 1905, with 15 in 1906 and a total of 42; the
+  Bradford Corporation crematorium, opened in 1905, with 13 in 1906, and
+  a total of 20; and the Sheffield Corporation crematorium, opened in
+  1905, with 6 in 1906 and a total of 26. Thus there were 739
+  cremations in the United Kingdom in 1906, making a total at the above
+  crematoria down to September 1st, 1907, of 6158. The Golder's Green
+  crematorium, situated on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath,
+  stands in its own grounds of 12 acres, and is but 35 minutes' drive
+  from Oxford Circus. London thus has two crematoria within driving
+  distance of its centre, and the Woking crematorium within easy reach
+  of the south-west suburbs.     (J. C. S.-H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger
+    Theodosius (Gibbon v. 411).
+
+  [2] The Colchians, says Sir Thos. Browne, made their graves in the
+    air, i.e. on trees.
+
+  [3] In the case of a great man there was often a burnt offering of
+    animals and even of slaves (see Caesar, _De bell. Gall._ iv.).
+
+  [4] A temple of the Holy Ghost (see Tertullian, _De anima_, c. 51,
+    cited in Muller, _Lex. des Kirchenrechts_, s.v. "Begrabniss").
+
+  [5] This was the first society formed in Europe for the promotion of
+    cremation.
+
+  [6] For a full account of these, see _Modern Cremation: Its History
+    and Practice to the Present Date_, by Sir H. Thompson, Bart.,
+    F.R.C.S., &c. (4th ed., Smith, Elder, Waterloo Place, 1901).
+
+  [7] _The Times_, 27th March 1885.
+
+  [8] _Reports on Death Certification_ (1893), Eyre & Spottiswoode,
+    London (373,472).
+
+  [9] _Statutory Rules and Orders_, 1903, No. 286, Eyre & Spottiswoode.
+
+  [10] _A Special Inquiry into the Practice of Interment in Towns_, by
+    Edwin Chadwick (London, 1843), is replete with evidence, and should
+    be read by those who desire to pursue the inquiry further.
+
+
+
+
+CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN (1837-1880), Dutch novelist, born at Arnhem in
+September 1837, started life as a painter, but soon exchanged the brush
+for the pen. The great success of his first novelettes (_Betuwsche
+Novellen_ and _Overbetuwsche Novellen_), published about 1855--reprinted
+many times since, and translated into German and French--showed Cremer
+the wisdom of his new departure. These short stories of Dutch provincial
+life are written in the quaint dialect of the Betuwe, the large flat
+Gelderland island, formed by the Rhine, the name recalling the presumed
+earliest inhabitants, the Batavi. Cremer is strongest in his delineation
+of character. His picturesque humour, coming out, perhaps, most forcibly
+in his numerous readings of the Betuwe novelettes, soon procured him the
+name of the "Dutch Fritz Reuter." In his later novels Cremer abandons
+both the language and the slight love-stories of the Betuwe, depicting
+the Dutch life of other centres in the national tongue. The principal
+are: _Anna Rooze_ (1867), _Dokter Helmond en zijn Vrouw_ (1870), _Hanna
+de Freule_ (1873), _Daniel Sils_, &c. Cremer was less successful as a
+playwright, and his two comedies, _Peasant and Nobleman_ and _Emma
+Bertholt_, did not enhance his fame; nor did a volume of poems,
+published in 1873. He died at the Hague in June 1880. His collected
+novels have appeared at Leiden. An English novel, founded by Albert
+Vandam upon _Anna Rooze_, considered by many his best work, was
+published in London (1877, 3 vols.) under the title of _An Everyday
+Heroine_.
+
+
+
+
+CREMERA (mod. _Fosso della Valchetta_), a small stream in Etruria which
+falls into the Tiber about 6 m. N. of Rome. The identification with the
+Fosso della Valchetta is fixed as correct by the account in Livy ii. 49,
+which shows that the Saxa Rubra were not far off, and this we know to be
+the Roman name of the post station of Prima Porta, about 7 m. from Rome
+on the Via Flaminia. It is famous for the defeat of the three hundred
+Fabii, who had established a fortified post on its banks.
+
+
+
+
+CREMIEUX, ISAAC MOISE [known as ADOLPHE] (1796-1880), French statesman,
+was born at Nimes, of a rich Jewish family. He began life as an advocate
+in his native town. After the revolution of 1830 he came to Paris,
+formed connexions with numerous political personages, even with King
+Louis Philippe, and became a brilliant defender of Liberal ideas in the
+law courts and in the press,--witness his _Eloge funebre_ of the bishop
+Gregoire (1830), his _Memoire_ for the political rehabilitation of
+Marshal Ney (1833), and his plea for the accused of April (1835).
+Elected deputy in 1842, he was one of the leaders in the campaign
+against the Guizot ministry, and his eloquence contributed greatly to
+the success of his party. On the 24th of February 1848 he was chosen by
+the Republicans as a member of the provisional government, and as
+minister of justice he secured the decrees abolishing the death penalty
+for political offences, and making the office of judge immovable. When
+the conflict between the Republicans and Socialists broke out he
+resigned office, but continued to sit in the constituent assembly. At
+first he supported Louis Napoleon, but when he discovered the prince's
+imperial ambitions he broke with him. Arrested and imprisoned on the 2nd
+of December 1851, he remained in private life until November 1869, when
+he was elected as a Republican deputy by Paris. On the 4th of September
+1870 he was again chosen member of the government of national defence,
+and resumed the ministry of justice. He then formed part of the
+Delegation of Tours, but took no part in the completion of the
+organization of defence. He resigned with his colleagues on the 14th of
+February 1871. Eight months later he was elected deputy, then life
+senator in 1875. He died on the 10th of February 1880. Cremieux did much
+to better the condition of the Jews. He was president of the Universal
+Israelite Alliance, and while in the government of the national defence
+he secured the franchise for the Jews in Algeria. This famous _Decret
+Cremieux_ was the origin of the anti-Semitic movement in Algiers.
+Cremieux published a _Recueil_ of his political cases (1869), and the
+_Actes de la delegation de Tours et de Bordeaux_ (2 vols., 1871).
+
+
+
+
+CREMONA, LUIGI (1830-1903), Italian mathematician, was born at Pavia on
+the 7th of December 1830. In 1848, when Milan and Venice rose against
+Austria, Cremona, then only a lad of seventeen, joined the ranks of the
+Italian volunteers, and remained with them, fighting on behalf of his
+country's freedom, till, in 1849, the capitulation of Venice put an end
+to the hopeless campaign. He then returned to Pavia, where he pursued
+his studies at the university under Francesco Brioschi, and determined
+to seek a career as teacher of mathematics. His first appointment was as
+elementary mathematical master at the gymnasium and lyceum of Cremona,
+and he afterwards obtained a similar post at Milan. In 1860 he was
+appointed to the professorship of higher geometry at the university of
+Bologna, and in 1866 to that of higher geometry and graphical statics at
+the higher technical college of Milan. In this same year he competed for
+the Steiner prize of the Berlin Academy, with a treatise entitled
+"Memoria sulle superficie de terzo ordine," and shared the award with J.
+C. F. Sturm. Two years later the same prize was conferred on him without
+competition. In 1873 he was called to Rome to organize the college of
+engineering, and was also appointed professor of higher mathematics at
+the university. Cremona's reputation had now become European, and in
+1879 he was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society. In the
+same year he was made a senator of the kingdom of Italy. He died on the
+10th of June 1903.
+
+As early as 1856 Cremona had begun to contribute to the _Annali di
+scienze matematiche e fisiche_, and to the _Annali di matematica_, of
+which he became afterwards joint editor. Papers by him have appeared in
+the mathematical journals of Italy, France, Germany and England, and he
+has published several important works, many of which have been
+translated into other languages. His manual on _Graphical Statics_ and
+his _Elements of Projective Geometry_ (translated by C. Leudesdorf),
+have been published in English by the Clarendon Press. His life was
+devoted to the study of higher geometry and reforming the more advanced
+mathematical teaching of Italy. His reputation mainly rests on his
+_Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle curve piane_, which
+proclaims him as a follower of the Steinerian or synthetical school of
+geometricians. He notably enriched our knowledge of curves and surfaces.
+
+
+
+
+CREMONA, a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the capital of the
+province of Cremona, situated on the N. bank of the Po, 155 ft. above
+sea-level, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Milan. Pop. (1901) town, 31,655;
+commune, 39,344. It is oval in shape, and retains its medieval
+fortifications. The line of the streets is as a rule irregular, but the
+town as a whole is not very picturesque.
+
+The finest building is the cathedral, in the Lombard Romanesque style,
+begun in 1107 and consecrated in 1190. The wheel window of the main
+facade dates from 1274. The transepts, added in the 13th and 14th
+centuries (before 1370), have picturesque brick facades, with fine
+terra-cotta ornamentation. The great Torrazzo, a tower 397 ft. high,
+which stands by the cathedral, and is connected with it by a series of
+galleries, dates from 1267-1291. It is square below, with an octagonal
+summit of a slightly later period. The main facade of the cathedral was
+largely altered in 1491, to which date the statues upon it belong; the
+portico in front was added in 1497. The building would be much improved
+by isolation, which it is hoped may be effected. The interior is fine,
+and is covered with frescoes by Cremonese masters of the 16th century
+(Boccaccio Boccaccino, Romanino, Pordenone, the Campi, &c.), which are
+not of first-rate importance. The choir has fine stalls of 1489-1490,
+upon one of which there is a view of the facade of the cathedral before
+its alteration in 1491. The treasury contains a richly worked silver
+crucifix 9 ft. high, of 1478, the base of which was added in 1774-1775.
+It contains 408 statues and busts altogether, the central three of which
+belong to an earlier cross of 1231. Adjacent to the cathedral is the
+octagonal baptistery of 1167, 92 ft. in height and 75 ft. in external
+diameter, also in the Lombard Romanesque style. The so-called Campo
+Santo, close to the baptistery, contains a mosaic pavement with
+emblematic figures belonging probably to the 8th and 9th centuries, and
+running under the cathedral. Of the other churches, S. Michele has a
+simple and good Lombard Romanesque 13th-century facade, and a plain
+interior of the 10th century; and S. Agata a good campanile in the
+former style. Many of them contain paintings by the later Cremonese
+masters, especially Galeazzo Campi (d. 1536) and his sons Giulio and
+Antonio. The latter are especially well represented in S. Sigismondo, 1-1/2
+m. outside the town to the E. On the side of the Piazza del Comune
+opposite to the cathedral are two 13th-century Gothic palaces in brick,
+the Palazzo Comunale and the former Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, now the
+seat of the commissioners for the water regulation of the district.
+Another palace of the same period is now occupied by the Archivio
+Notarile. The modern Palazzo Ponzoni contains a museum and a technical
+institute. In front of it is a statue of the composer Amilcare
+Ponchielli, who was a native of Cremona. The Palazzo Fodri, now the
+Monte di Pieta, has a beautiful 15th-century frieze of terra-cotta
+bas-reliefs, as have some other palaces in private hands.
+
+Cremona was founded by the Romans in 218 B.C. (the same year as
+Placentia) as an outpost against the Gallic tribes. It was strengthened
+in 190 B.C. by the sending of 6000 new settlers and soon became one of
+the most flourishing towns of upper Italy. It probably acquired
+municipal rights in 90 B.C., but Augustus, owing to the fact that it did
+not support him, assigned a part of its territory to his veterans in 41
+B.C., and henceforth it is once more called _colonia_. It remained
+prosperous (we may note that Virgil came here to school from Mantua)
+until it was taken and destroyed by the troops of Vespasian after the
+second battle of Betriacum (Bedriacum) in A.D. 69; the temple of Mefitis
+alone being left standing (see Tacitus, _Hist._ iii. 15 seq.). One of
+the bronze plates which decorated the exterior of the war-chest of the
+_legio III. Macedonica_, one of the legions which had been defeated at
+Betriacum, has been found near Cremona itself (F. Barnabei in _Notiz.
+scavi_, 1887, p. 210). Vespasian ordered its immediate reconstruction,
+but it never recovered its former prosperity, though its position on the
+N. bank of the Po, at the meeting-point of roads from Placentia, Mantua
+(the Via Postumia in both cases), Brixellum (where the roads from
+Cremona and Mantua to Parma met and crossed the river), Laus Pompeia and
+Brixia, still gave it considerable importance. It was destroyed once
+more by the Lombards under Agilulf in A.D. 605, and rebuilt in 615, and
+was ruled by dukes; but in the 9th century the bishops of Cremona began
+to acquire considerable temporal power. Landulf, a German to whom the
+see was granted by Henry II., was driven out in 1022, and his palace
+destroyed, but other Germans were invested with the see afterwards. The
+commune of Cremona is first mentioned in a document of 1098, recording
+its investiture by the countess Matilda with the territory known as
+Isola Fulcheria. It had to sustain many wars with its neighbours in
+order to maintain itself in its new possessions. In the war of the
+Lombard League against Barbarossa, Cremona, after having shared in the
+destruction of Crema in 1160 and Milan in 1162, finally joined the
+league, but took no part in the battle of Legnano, and thus procured
+itself the odium of both sides. In the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles
+Cremona took the latter side, and defeated Parma decisively in 1250. It
+was during this period that Cremona erected its finest buildings. There
+was, however, a Guelph reaction in 1264; the city was taken and sacked
+by Henry VII. in 1311, and was a prey to struggles between the two
+parties, until Galeazzo Visconti took possession of it in 1322. In 1406
+it fell under the sway of Cabrino Fondulo, who received with great
+festivities both the emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII., the latter
+on his way to the council at Constance; he, however, handed it over to
+Filippo Maria Visconti in 1419. In 1499 it was occupied by Venetians,
+but in 1512 it came under Massimiliano Sforza. In 1535, like the rest of
+Lombardy, it fell under Spanish domination, and was compelled to
+furnish large money contributions. The population fell to 10,000 in
+1668. The surprise of the French garrison on the 2nd of February 1702,
+by the Imperialists under Prince Eugene, was a celebrated incident of
+the War of the Spanish Succession. The Imperialists were driven from
+Cremona after a sharp struggle, but captured Marshal Villeroi, the
+French commander. Hence the celebrated verse:
+
+  "Francais, rendons grace a Bellone;
+   Notre bonheur est sans egal;
+   Nous avons conserve Cremonee,
+   Et perdu notre general."
+
+In the 18th century the prosperity of Cremona revived. In the Italian
+republic it was the capital of the department of the upper Po. Like the
+rest of Lombardy it fell under Austria in 1814, and became Italian in
+1859.
+
+  See _Guida di Cremona_ (Cremona, 1904).     (T. AS.)
+
+
+
+
+CREMORNE GARDENS, formerly a popular resort by the side of the Thames in
+Chelsea, London, England. Originally the property of the earl of
+Huntingdon (c. 1750), father of Steele's "Aspasia," who built a mansion
+here, the property passed through various hands into those of Thomas
+Dawson, Baron Dartrey and Viscount Cremorne (1725-1813), who greatly
+beautified it. It was subsequently sold and converted into a proprietary
+place of entertainment, being popular as such from 1845 to 1877. It
+never, however, acquired the fashionable fame of Vauxhall, and finally
+became so great an annoyance to residents in the neighbourhood that a
+renewal of its licence was refused; and the site of the gardens was soon
+built over. The name survives in Cremorne Road.
+
+
+
+
+CRENELLE (an O. Fr. word for "notch," mod. _creneau_; the origin is
+obscure; cf. "cranny"), a term generally considered to mean an embrasure
+of a battlement, but really applying to the whole system of defence by
+battlements. In medieval times no one could "crenellate" a building
+without special licence from his supreme lord.
+
+
+
+
+CREODONTA, a group of primitive early Tertiary Carnivora, characterized
+by their small brains, the non-union in most cases of the scaphoid and
+lunar bones of the carpus, and the general absence of a distinct pair of
+"sectorial" teeth (see CARNIVORA). In many respects the Lower Eocene
+creodonts come very close to the primitive ungulates, or Condylarthra
+(see PHENACODUS), from which, however, they are distinguished by the
+approximation in the form of the skull to the carnivorous type, the more
+trenchant teeth (at least in most cases) and the more claw-like
+character of the terminal joints of the toes. The general character of
+the dentition in the more typical forms, such as _Hyaenodon_ (see fig.),
+recalls that of the carnivorous marsupials, this being especially the
+case with the Patagonian species, which have been separated as a
+distinct group under the name of Sparassodonta (q.v.). The skull,
+however, is not of the marsupial type, and in the European forms at any
+rate there is a complete replacement of the milk-molars by pre-molars,
+while the minute structure of the enamel of the teeth is of the
+carnivorous as distinct from the marsupial type. The head is large in
+proportion to the body, the lumbar region is unusually rigid, owing to
+the complexity of the articulations, and the tail and hind-limbs are
+relatively long and powerful. In life the tail probably passed almost
+imperceptibly into the body, as in the Tasmanian thylacine.
+
+[Illustration: Dentition of _Hyaenodon leptorhynchus_, from the Lower
+Oligocene of France. The last upper molar is concealed by the
+penultimate tooth.]
+
+That the Creodonta are the ancestors of the modern Carnivora is now
+generally admitted. They are apparently the most generalized and
+primitive of all (placental?) mammals, and probably the direct
+descendants of the mammal-like anomodont or theromorphous reptiles of
+the Triassic epoch; the evolution from that group having perhaps taken
+place in Africa or in the lost area connecting that continent with
+India. The relationship of the creodonts to the carnivorous marsupials
+is not yet determined, but it seems scarcely probable that the
+remarkable resemblance existing between the teeth of the two groups can
+be solely due to parallelism; and it has been suggested by Dr L. Wortman
+that both creodonts and marsupials are descended from a common
+non-placental stock. In other words, the latter are a side-branch from
+the anomodont-creodont line of descent. Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out
+that certain of the Egyptian creodonts appear to have been aquatic or
+subaquatic in their habits; and it is possible that from such types are
+derived the true seals, or _Phocidae_.
+
+With the exception of Australasia, and perhaps South Africa, creodonts
+(on the supposition that the Patagonian forms are rightly included)
+appear to have had a nearly world-wide distribution. In Europe and North
+America they date from the Lowest Eocene and lived till the early
+Oligocene, while in India they apparently survived till a much later
+epoch. Some of the Oligocene forms, alike as regards dentition, the
+union of the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and the complexity of the
+brain, approximated to modern Carnivora.
+
+As regards classification Mr W. D. Matthew includes in the typical
+family _Hyaenodontidae_ not only the widely spread genera _Hyaenodon_
+and _Pterodon_, but likewise _Sinopa_ (_Stypolophus_), _Cynohyaenodon_
+and _Proviverra_; but _Viverravus_ (_Didymictis_) and _Vulpavus_
+(_Miacis_) are assigned to a separate family (_Viverravidae_). It is
+these latter forms which come nearest to modern Carnivora, most of them
+being of Oligocene age. The American and European _Oxyaena_ apparently
+represents a family by itself, as does the American _Oxyclaena_; and
+_Palaeonictis_ and _Patriofelis_ are assigned to yet another family;
+while the North American Lower Eocene and Eocene _Arctocyon_ typifies a
+family characterized by the somewhat bear-like type of dentition.
+_Mesonyx_ is also a very distinct type, from the North American Eocene
+and Oligocene. Some of the species of _Patriofelis_ and _Hyaenodon_
+attained the size of a tiger, although with long civet-like skulls. In
+the earlier forms the claws often retained somewhat of a hoof-like
+character.
+
+The South American _Borhyaenidae_ include _Borhyaena_, _Prothylacinus_,
+_Amphiproviverra_, and allied forms from the Santa Cruz beds of
+Patagonia, and have been referred to a distinct group, the
+Sparassodonta, mainly on account of the alleged replacement of some only
+of the milk-molars by premolars. By their first describer, Dr F.
+Ameghino, they were regarded as nearly related to the marsupials, to
+which group they were definitely referred in 1905 by Mr W. J. Sinclair,
+by whom they are considered near akin to _Thylacinus_, but this view
+seems to be disproved by the investigations of Mr C. S. Tomes into the
+structure of the dental enamel.
+
+It should be added that Dr J. L. Wortman transfers _Viverravus_ and its
+allies, together with _Palaeonictis_, to the true Carnivora, the latter
+genus being regarded as the ancestral type of the sabre-toothed cats
+(see MACHAERODUS).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J. L. Wortman, "Eocene Mammalia in the Peabody Museum,
+  pt. i. Carnivora," _Amer. J. Sci._ vols. xi.-xiv. (1901-1902); W. D.
+  Matthew, "Additional Observations on the Creodonta," _Bull. Amer.
+  Mus._ vol. xiv. p. i. (1901); C. W. Andrews, _Descriptive Catalogue of
+  the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum_, British Museum (1906); W. J.
+  Sinclair, "The Marsupial Fauna of the Santa Cruz Beds," _Proc. Amer.
+  Phil. Soc._ vol. xlix. p. 73 (1905).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CREOLE (the Fr. form of _criollo_, a West Indian, probably a negro
+corruption of the Span, _criadillo_, the dim. of _criado_, one bred or
+reared, from _criar_, to breed, a derivative of the Lat. _creare_, to
+create), a word used originally (16th century) to denote persons born in
+the West Indies of Spanish parents, as distinguished from immigrants
+direct from Spain, aboriginals, negroes or mulattos. It is now used of
+the descendants of non-aboriginal races born and settled in the West
+Indies, in various parts of the American mainland and in Mauritius,
+Reunion and some other places colonized by Spain, Portugal, France, or
+(in the case of the West Indies) by England. In a similar sense the name
+is used of animals and plants. The use of the word by some writers as
+necessarily implying a person of mixed blood is totally erroneous; in
+itself "creole" has no distinction of colour; a Creole may be a person
+of European, negro, or mixed extraction--or even a horse.
+
+Local variations occur in the use of the word as applied to people. In
+the West Indies it designates the descendants of any European race; in
+the United States the French-speaking native portion of the white race
+in Louisiana, whether of French or Spanish origin. The French Canadians
+are never termed creoles, nor is the word now used of the South
+Americans of Spanish or Portuguese descent, but in Mexico whites of pure
+Spanish extraction are still called creoles. In all the countries named,
+when a non-white creole is indicated the word negro is added. In
+Mauritius, Reunion, &c., on the other hand, creole is commonly used to
+designate the black population, but is also occasionally used of the
+inhabitants of European descent. The difference in type between the
+white creoles and the European races from whom they have sprung, a
+difference often considerable, is due principally to changed
+environment--especially to the tropical or semi-tropical climate of the
+lands they inhabit. The many patois founded on French and Spanish, and
+used chiefly by creole negroes, are spoken of as creole languages, a
+term extended by some writers to include similar dialects spoken in
+countries where the word creole is rarely used.
+
+  See G. W. Cable, _The Creoles of Louisiana_ (1884); A. Coelho, "Os
+  Dialetos romanicos on neo latinos na Africa, Asia e America," _Bol.
+  Soc. Geo. Lisboa_ (1884-1886), with bibliography. For the Creole
+  French of Haiti see an article by Sir H. H. Johnston in _The Times_,
+  April 10th, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CREON, in Greek legend, son of Lycaethus, king of Corinth and father of
+Glauce or Creusa, the second wife of Jason.
+
+
+
+
+CREON, in Greek legend, son of Menoeceus, king of Thebes after the death
+of Laius, the husband of his sister Jocasta. Thebes was then suffering
+from the visitation of the Sphinx, and Creon offered his crown and the
+hand of the widowed queen to whoever should solve the fatal riddle.
+Oedipus, the son of Laius, ignorant of his parentage, successfully
+accomplished the task and married Jocasta, his mother. By her he had two
+sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, who agreed after their father's death to
+reign in alternative years. Eteocles first ascended the throne, being
+the elder, but at the end of the year refused to resign, whereupon his
+brother attacked him at the head of an army of Argives. The war was to
+be decided by a single combat between the brothers, but both fell.
+Creon, who had resumed the government during the minority of Leodamas,
+the son of Eteocles, commanded that the Argives, and above all
+Polyneices, the cause of all the bloodshed, should not receive the rites
+of sepulture, and that any one who infringed this decree should be
+buried alive. Antigone, the sister of Polyneices, refused to obey, and
+sprinkled dust upon her brother's corpse. The threatened penalty was
+inflicted; but Creon's crime did not escape unpunished. His son, Haemon,
+the lover of Antigone, killed himself on her grave; and he himself was
+slain by Theseus. According to another account he was put to death by
+Lycus, the son or descendant of a former ruler of Thebes (Euripides,
+_Herc. Fur._ 31; Apollodorus iii. 5, 7; Pausanias ix. 5).
+
+
+
+
+CREOPHYLUS of Samos, one of the earliest Greek epic poets. According to
+an epigram of Callimachus (quoted in Strabo xiv. p. 638) he was the
+author of a poem called [Greek: Oichalias halosis], which told the story
+of the conquest of Oechalia by Heracles. Creophylus was said to have
+been a friend or relative of Homer, who, according to another
+tradition, was himself the author of the [Greek: Halosis], and presented
+it to Creophylus in return for the latter's hospitality.
+
+  See F. G. Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882).
+
+
+
+
+CREOSOTE, CREASOTE or KREASOTE (from Gr. [Greek: kreas], flesh, and
+[Greek: sozein], to preserve), a product of the distillation of coal,
+bone oil, shale oil, and wood-tar (more especially that made from
+beech-wood). The creosote is extracted from the distillate by means of
+alkali, separated from the filtered alkaline solution by sulphuric acid,
+and then distilled with dilute alkali; the distillate is again treated
+with alkali and acid, till its purification is effected; it is then
+redistilled at 200 deg. C., and dried by means of calcium chloride. It
+is a highly refractive, colourless, oily liquid, and was first obtained
+in 1832 by K. Reichenbach from beech-wood tar. It consists mainly of a
+mixture of phenol, cresol, guaiacol, creosol, xylenol, dimethyl
+guaiacol, ethyl guaiacol, and various methyl ethers of pyrogallol.
+Creosote has a strong odour and hot taste, and burns with a smoky flame.
+It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins, and many acids and colouring
+matters; and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and carbon disulphide, and in
+80 parts by volume of water. It is distinguished from carbolic acid by
+the following properties:--it rotates the plane of polarized light to
+the right, forms with collodion a transparent fluid, and is nearly
+insoluble in glycerin; whereas carbolic acid has no effect on polarized
+light, gives with about two-thirds of its volume of collodion a
+gelatinous mass, and is soluble in all proportions in glycerin; further,
+alcohol and ferric chloride produce with creosote a green solution,
+turned brown by water, with carbolic acid a brown, and on the addition
+of water a blue solution. Creosote, like carbolic acid, is a powerful
+antiseptic, and readily coagulates albuminous matter; wood-smoke and
+pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar owe to its presence their efficacy in
+preserving animal and vegetable substances from putrefaction.
+
+_Creosote oil_ is the name generally applied to the fraction of the coal
+tar distillate which boils between 200 deg. and 300 deg. C. (see COAL
+TAR). It is a greenish-yellow fluorescent liquid, usually containing
+phenol, cresol, naphthalene, anthracene, pyridine, quinoline, acridine
+and other substances. Its chief use is for the preservation of timber.
+
+_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--Creosote derived from wood-tar is
+given medicinally in doses of from one to five minims, either suspended
+in mucilage, or in capsules. It should always be administered after a
+meal, when the gastric contents dilute it and prevent irritation.
+Creosote and carbolic acid (q.v.) have a very similar pharmacology; but
+there is one conspicuous exception. Beech-wood creosote alone should be
+used in medicine, as its composition renders it much more valuable than
+other creosotes. Its constituents circulate unchanged in the blood and
+are excreted by the lungs. Although carbolic acid has no value in
+phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) or in any other bacterial condition of
+the lungs, creosote, having volatile constituents which are excreted in
+the expired air and which are powerfully antiseptic, may well be of much
+value in these conditions. In phthisis creosote is now superseded by
+both its carbonate (creosotal)--given in the same doses--which causes
+less gastric disturbance, and by guaiacol itself, which may be given in
+doses up to thirty minims in capsules. The phosphate (phosote or
+phosphote), phosphite (phosphotal), and valerianate (eosote) also find
+application. Similarly the carbonate of guaiacol may be given in doses
+even as large as a drachm. Creosote may also be used as an inhalation
+with a steam atomizer. It is applicable not only in phthisis but in
+bronchiectasis, bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, lobar pneumonia and all
+other bacterial lung diseases. Like carbolic acid, creosote may be used
+in toothache, and the local antiseptic and anaesthetic action which it
+shares with that substance is often of value in relieving gastric pain
+due to simple ulcer or cancer, and in those forms of vomiting which are
+due to gastric irritation.
+
+  For the determination and separation of the various constituents of
+  creosote see F. Tiemann, _Ber._ (1881), 14, p. 2005; A. Behal and C.
+  Choay, _Comptes rendus_ (1893), 116, p. 197; and L. F. Kebler, _Amer.
+  Jour. Pharm._ (1899), p. 409.
+
+
+
+
+CREPUSCULAR (from Lat. _crepusculum_, twilight), of or belonging to the
+twilight, hence indistinct or glimmering; in zoology the word is used of
+animals that appear before sunrise or nightfall.
+
+
+
+
+CREQUY, a French family which originated in Picardy, and took its name
+from a small lordship in the present Pas-de-Calais. Its genealogy goes
+back to the 10th century, and from it originated the noble houses of
+Blecourt, Canaples, Heilly and Royon. Henri de Crequy was killed at the
+siege of Damietta in 1240; Jacques de Crequy, marshal of Guienne, was
+killed at Agincourt with his brothers Jean and Raoul; Jean de Crequy,
+lord of Canaples, was in the Burgundian service, and took part in the
+defence of Paris against Joan of Arc in 1429, received the order of the
+Golden Fleece in 1431, and was ambassador to Aragon and France; Antoine
+de Crequy was one of the boldest captains of Francis I., and died in
+consequence of an accident at the siege of Hesdin in 1523. Jean VIII.,
+sire de Crequy, prince de Poix, seigneur de Canaples (d. 1555), left
+three sons, the eldest of whom, Antoine de Crequy (1535-1574), inherited
+the family estates on the death of his brothers at St Quentin in 1557.
+He was raised to the cardinalate, and his nephew and heir, Antoine de
+Blanchefort, assumed the name and arms of Crequy.
+
+Charles I. de Blanchefort, marquis de Crequy, prince de Poix, duc de
+Lesdiguieres (1578-1638), marshal of France, son of the last-named, saw
+his first fighting before Laon in 1594, and was wounded at the capture
+of Saint Jean d'Angely in 1621. In the next year he became a marshal of
+France. He served through the Piedmontese campaign in aid of Savoy in
+1624 as second in command to the constable, Francois de Bonne, duc de
+Lesdiguieres, whose daughter Madeleine he had married in 1595. He
+inherited in 1626 the estates and title of his father-in-law, who had
+induced him, after the death of his first wife, to marry her half-sister
+Francoise. He was also lieutenant-general of Dauphine. In 1633 he was
+ambassador to Rome, and in 1636 to Venice. He fought in the Italian
+campaigns of 1630, 1635, 1636 and 1637, when he helped to defeat the
+Spaniards at Monte Baldo. He was killed on the 17th of March 1638 in an
+attempt to raise the siege of Crema, a fortress in the Milanese. He had
+a quarrel extending over years with Philip, the bastard of Savoy, which
+ended in a duel fatal to Philip in 1599; and in 1620 he defended
+Saint-Aignan, who was his prisoner of war, against a prosecution
+threatened by Louis XIII. Some of his letters are preserved in the
+Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and his life was written by N. Chorier
+(Grenoble, 1683).
+
+His eldest son, Francois, comte de Sault, due de Lesdiguieres
+(1600-1677), governor and lieutenant-general of Dauphine, took the name
+and arms of Bonne. The younger, Charles II. de Crequy, seigneur de
+Canaples, was killed at the siege of Chambery in 1630, leaving three
+sons--Charles III., sieur de Blanchefort, prince de Poix, duc de Crequy
+(1623?-1687); Alphonse de Crequy, comte de Canaples (d. 1711), who
+became on the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1702 duc
+de Lesdiguieres, and eventually succeeded also to his younger brother's
+honours; and Francois, chevalier de Crequy and marquis de Marines,
+marshal of France (1625-1687).
+
+The last-named was born in 1625, and as a boy took part in the Thirty
+Years' War, distinguishing himself so greatly that at the age of
+twenty-six he was made a _marechal de camp_, and a lieutenant-general
+before he was thirty. He was regarded as the most brilliant of the
+younger officers, and won the favour of Louis XIV. by his fidelity to
+the court during the second Fronde. In 1667 he served on the Rhine, and
+in 1668 he commanded the covering army during Louis XIV.'s siege of
+Lille, after the surrender of which the king rewarded him with the
+marshalate. In 1670 he overran the duchy of Lorraine. Shortly after this
+Turenne, his old commander, was made marshal-general, and all the
+marshals were placed under his orders. Many resented this, and Crequy,
+in particular, whose career of uninterrupted success had made him
+over-confident, went into exile rather than serve under Turenne. After
+the death of Turenne and the retirement of Conde, he became the most
+important general officer in the army, but his over-confidence was
+punished by the severe defeat of Conzer Bruck (1675) and the surrender
+of Trier and his own captivity which followed. But in the later
+campaigns of this war (see DUTCH WARS) he showed himself again a cool,
+daring and successful commander, and, carrying on the tradition of
+Turenne and Conde, he was in his turn the pattern of the younger
+generals of the stamp of Luxembourg and Villars. He died in Paris on the
+3rd of February 1687.
+
+Alphonse de Crequy had not the talent of his brothers, and lost his
+various appointments in France. He went to London in 1672, where he
+became closely allied with Saint Evremond, and was one of the intimates
+of King Charles II.
+
+Charles III. de Crequy served in the campaigns of 1642 and 1645 in the
+Thirty Years' War, and in Catalonia in 1649. In 1646, after the siege of
+Orbitello, he was made lieutenant-general by Louis. By faithful service
+during the king's minority he had won the gratitude of Anne of Austria
+and of Mazarin, and in 1652 he became duc de Crequy and a peer of
+France. The latter half of his life was spent at court, where he held
+the office of first gentleman of the royal chamber, which had been
+bought for him by his grandfather. In 1659 he was sent to Spain with
+gifts for the infanta Maria Theresa, and on a similar errand to Bavaria
+in 1680 before the marriage of the dauphin. He was ambassador to Rome
+from 1662 to 1665, and to England in 1677; and became governor of Paris
+in 1675. He died in Paris on the 13th of February 1687. His only
+daughter, Madeleine, married Charles de la Tremoille (1655-1709).
+
+The marshal Francois de Crequy had two sons, whose brilliant military
+abilities bade fair to rival his own. The elder, Francois Joseph,
+marquis de Crequy (1662-1702), already held the grade of
+lieutenant-general when he was killed at Luzzara on the 13th of August
+1702; and Nicolas Charles, sire de Crequy, was killed before Tournai in
+1696 at the age of twenty-seven.
+
+A younger branch of the Crequy family, that of Hemont, was represented
+by Louis Marie, marquis de Crequy (1705-1741), author of the _Principes
+philosophiques des saints solitaires d'Egypte_ (1779), and husband of
+the marquise separately noticed below, and became extinct with the death
+in 1801 of his son, Charles Marie, who had some military reputation.
+
+  For a detailed genealogy of the family and its alliances see Moreri,
+  _Dictionnaire historique; Annuaire de la noblesse francaise_ (1856 and
+  1867). There is much information about the Crequys in the _Memoires_
+  of Saint-Simon.
+
+
+
+
+CREQUY, RENEE CAROLINE DE FROULLAY, MARQUISE DE (1714-1803), was born on
+the 19th of October 1714, at the chateau of Monfleaux (Mayenne), the
+daughter of Lieutenant-General Charles Francois de Froullay. She was
+educated by her maternal grandmother, and married in 1737 Louis Marie,
+marquis de Crequy (see above), who died four years after the marriage.
+Madame de Crequy devoted herself to the care of her only son, who
+rewarded her with an ingratitude which was the chief sorrow of her life.
+In 1755 she began to receive in Paris, among her intimates being
+D'Alembert and J. J. Rousseau. She had none of the frivolity generally
+associated with the women of her time and class, and presently became
+extremely religious with inclinations to Jansenism. D'Alembert's visits
+ceased when she adopted religion, and she was nearly seventy when she
+formed the great friendship of her life with Senac de Meilhan, whom she
+met in 1781, and with whom she carried on a correspondence (edited by
+Edouard Fournier, with a preface by Sainte-Beuve in 1856). She commented
+on and criticized Meilhan's works and helped his reputation. She was
+arrested in 1793 and imprisoned in the convent of Les Oiseaux until the
+fall of Robespierre (July 1794). The well-known _Souvenirs de la
+marquise de Crequy_ (1710-1803), printed in 7 volumes, 1834-1835, and
+purporting to be addressed to her grandson, Tancrede de Crequy, was the
+production of a Breton adventurer, Cousin de Courchamps. The first two
+volumes appeared in English in 1834 and were severely criticized in the
+_Quarterly Review_.
+
+  See the notice prefixed by Sainte-Beuve to the _Lettres_; P. L. Jacob,
+  _Enigmes et decouvertes bibliographiques_ (Paris, 1866); Querard,
+  _Supercheries litteraires_, s.v. "Crequy"; _L'Ombre de la marquise de
+  Crequy aux lecteurs des souvenirs_ (1836) exposes the forgery of the
+  _Memoires_.
+
+
+
+
+CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM (1340-1410), Spanish philosopher. His work,
+_The Light of the Lord_ (_'Or 'Adonai_), deeply affected Spinoza, and
+thus his philosophy became of wide importance. Maimonides (q.v.) had
+brought Jewish thought entirely under the domination of Aristotle. The
+work of Crescas, though it had no immediate success, ended in effecting
+its liberation. He refused to base Judaism on speculative philosophy
+alone; there was a deep emotional side to his thought. Thus he based
+Judaism on love, not on knowledge; love was the bond between God and
+man, and man's fundamental duty was love as expressed in obedience to
+God's will. Spinoza derived from Crescas his distinction between
+attributes and properties; he shared Crescas's views on creation and
+free will, and in the whole trend of his thought the influence of
+Crescas is strongly marked.
+
+  See E. G. Hirsch, _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, iv. 350.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+CRESCENT (Lat. _crescens_, growing), originally the waxing moon, hence a
+name applied to the shape of the moon in its first quarter. The crescent
+is employed as a charge in heraldry, with its horns vertical; when they
+are turned to the dexter side of the shield, it is called increscent,
+when to the sinister, decrescent. A crescent is used as a difference to
+denote the second son of a house; thus the earls of Harrington place a
+crescent upon a crescent, as descending from the second son of a second
+son. An order of the crescent was instituted by Charles I. of Naples and
+Sicily in 1268, and revived by Rene of Anjou in 1464. A Turkish order or
+decoration of the crescent was instituted by Sultan Selim III. in 1799,
+in memory of the diamond crescent which he had presented to Nelson after
+the battle of the Nile, and which Nelson wore on his coat as if it were
+an order.
+
+The crescent is the military and religious symbol of the Ottoman Turks.
+According to the story told by Hesychius of Miletus, during the siege of
+Byzantium by Philip of Macedon the moon suddenly appeared, the dogs
+began to bark and aroused the inhabitants, who were thus enabled to
+frustrate the enemy's scheme of undermining the walls. The grateful
+Byzantines erected a statue to "torch-bearing" Hecate, and adopted the
+lunar crescent as the badge of the city. It is generally supposed that
+it was in turn adopted by the Turks after the capture of Constantinople
+in 1453, either as a badge of triumph, or to commemorate a partial
+eclipse of the moon on the night of the final attack. In reality, it
+seems to have been used by them long before that event. Ala ud-din, the
+Seljuk sultan of Iconium (1245-1254), and Ertoghrul, his lieutenant and
+the founder of the Ottoman branch of the Turkish race, assumed it as a
+device, and it appeared on the standard of the janissaries of Sultan
+Orkhan (1326-1360). Since the new moon is associated with special acts
+of devotion in Turkey--where, as in England, there is a popular
+superstition that it is unlucky to see it through glass--it may
+originally have been adopted in consequence of its religious
+significance. According to Professor Ridgeway, however, the Turkish
+crescent, like that seen on modern horse-trappings, has nothing to do
+with the new moon, but is the result of the base-to-base conjunction of
+two claw or tusk amulets, an example of which has been brought to light
+during the excavations of the site of the temple of Artemis Orthia at
+Sparta (see _Athenaeum_, March 21, 1908). There is nothing distinctively
+Turkish in the combination of crescent and star which appears on the
+Turkish national standard; the latter is shown by coins and inscriptions
+to have been an ancient Illyrian symbol, and is of course common in
+knightly and decorative orders. It is doubtful whether any opposition
+between crescent and cross, as symbols of Islam and Christianity, was
+ever intended by the Turks; and it is an historical error to attribute
+the crescent to the Saracens of crusading times or the Moors in Spain.
+
+Crescent is also the name of a Turkish musical instrument. In
+architecture, a crescent is a street following the arc of a circle; the
+name in this sense was first used in the Royal Crescent at Bath.
+
+
+
+
+CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO (1663-1728), Italian critic and poet, was
+born at Macerata in 1663. Having been educated by a French priest at
+Rome, he entered the Jesuits' college of his native town, where he
+produced a tragedy on the story of Darius, and versified the
+_Pharsalia_. In 1679 he received the degree of doctor of laws, and in
+1680 he removed again to Rome. The study of Filicaja and Leonico having
+convinced him that he and all his contemporaries were working in a wrong
+direction, he resolved to attempt a general reform. In 1690, in
+conjunction with fourteen others, he founded the celebrated academy of
+the Arcadians, and began the contest against false taste and its
+adherents. The academy was most successful; branch societies were opened
+in all the principal cities of Italy; and the influence of Marini,
+opposed by the simplicity and elegance of such models as Costanzo, soon
+died away. Crescimbeni officiated as secretary to the Arcadians for
+thirty-eight years. In 1705 he was made canon of Santa Maria; in 1715 he
+obtained the chief curacy attached to the same church; and about two
+months before he died (1728) he was admitted a member of the order of
+Jesus.
+
+  His principal work is the _Istoria della volgar poesia_ (Rome, 1698),
+  an estimate of all the poets of Italy, past and contemporary, which
+  may yet be consulted with advantage. The most important of his
+  numerous other publications are the _Commentarij_ (5 vols., Rome,
+  1702-1711), and _La Bellezza della volgar poezia_ (Rome, 1700).
+
+
+
+
+CRESILAS, a Cretan sculptor of Cydonia. He was a contemporary of
+Pheidias, and one of the sculptors who vied in producing statues of
+amazons at Ephesus (see GREEK ART) about 450 B.C. As his amazon was
+wounded (_volnerata_; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 75), we may safely
+identify it with the figure, of which several copies are extant, who is
+carefully removing her blood-stained garment from a wound under the
+right breast. Another work of Cresilas of which copies survive is the
+portrait of Pericles, the earliest Greek portrait which has been with
+certainty identified, and which fully confirms the statement of ancient
+critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and added nobility to
+men of noble type. An extant portrait of Anacreon is also derived from
+Cresilas.
+
+
+
+
+CRESOLS or METHYL PHENOLS, C7H8O or C6H4.CH3.OH. The three isomeric
+cresols are found in the tar obtained in the destructive distillation of
+coal, beech-wood and pine. The crude cresol obtained from tar cannot be
+separated into its different constituents by fractional distillation,
+since the boiling points of the three isomers are very close together.
+The pure substances are best obtained by fusion of the corresponding
+toluene sulphonic acids with potash.
+
+Ortho-cresol, CH3(1).C6H4.OH(2), occurs as sulphate in the urine of the
+horse. It may be prepared by fusion of ortho-toluene sulphonic acid with
+potash; by the action of phosphorus pentoxide on carvacrol; or by the
+action of zinc chloride on camphor. It is a crystalline solid, which
+melts at 30 deg. C. and boils at 190.8 deg. C. Fusion with alkalis
+converts it into salicylic acid.
+
+Meta-cresol, CH3(1).C6H4.OH(3), is formed when thymol
+(para-isopropyl-meta-cresol) is heated with phosphorus pentoxide.
+Propylene is liberated during the reaction, and the phosphoric acid
+ester of meta-cresol which is formed is then fused with potash. It can
+also be prepared by distilling meta-oxyuvitic acid with lime, or by the
+action of air on boiling toluene in the presence of aluminium chloride
+(C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, _Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1888 [6], 14, p. 436).
+It solidifies in a freezing mixture, on the addition of a crystal of
+phenol, and then melts at 3 deg.-4 deg. C. It boils at 202 deg..8 C. Its
+aqueous solution is coloured bluish-violet by ferric chloride.
+
+Para-cresol, CH3(1).C6H4.OH(4), occurs as sulphate in the urine of the
+horse. It is also found in horse's liver, being one of the putrefaction
+products of tyrosine. It may be prepared by the fusion of para-toluene
+sulphonic acid with potash; by the action of nitrous acid on
+para-toluidine; or by heating para-oxyphenyl acetic acid with lime. It
+crystallizes in prisms which melt at 36 deg. C. and boil at 201 deg..8
+C. It is soluble in water, and the aqueous solution gives a blue
+coloration with ferric chloride. When treated with hydrochloric acid and
+potassium chlorate, no chlorinated quinones are obtained (M. S.
+Southworth, _Ann._ (1873), 168, p. 271), a behaviour which distinguishes
+it from ortho- and meta-cresol.
+
+  On the composition of commercial cresylic acid see A. H. Allen, _Jour.
+  Soc. Chem. Industry_ (1890), 9, p. 141. See also CREOSOTE.
+
+
+
+
+CRESPI, DANIELE (1590-1630), Italian historical painter, was born near
+Milan, and studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi and Giulio Procaccini.
+He was an excellent colourist; his drawing was correct and vigorous, and
+he grouped his compositions with much ability. His best work, a series
+of pictures from the life of Saint Bruno, is in the monastery of the
+Carthusians at Milan. Among the most famous of his paintings is a
+"Stoning of St Stephen" at Brera, and there are several excellent
+examples of his work in the city of his birth and at Pavia.
+
+
+
+
+CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1557-1663), called Il Cerano, Italian
+painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano in the Milanese. He
+was a scholar of considerable attainments, and held a position of
+dignity in his native city. He was head of the Milanese Academy founded
+by Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo, and he was the teacher of Guercino. He
+is most famous as a painter; and, though his figures are neither natural
+nor graceful, his colouring is good, and his designs full of ideal
+beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (1665-1747), Italian painter, called "Lo
+Spagnuolo" from his fondness for rich apparel, was born at Bologna, and
+was trained under Angelo Toni, Domenico Canuti and Carlo Cignani. He
+then went through a course of copying from Correggio and Barocci; this
+he followed up with a journey to Venice for the sake of Titian and Paul
+Veronese; and late in life he proclaimed himself a follower of Guercino
+and Pietro da Cortona. He was a good colourist and a facile executant,
+and was wont to employ the camera obscura with great success in the
+treatment of light and shadow; but he was careless and unconscientious.
+He was a clever portrait-painter and a brilliant caricaturist; and his
+etchings after Rembrandt and Salvator are in some demand. His greatest
+work, a "Massacre of the Innocents," is at Bologna; but the Dresden
+gallery possesses twelve examples of him, among which is his celebrated
+series of the Seven Sacraments.
+
+
+
+
+CRESS, in botany. "Garden Cress" (_Lepidium sativum_) is an annual plant
+(nat. ord. Cruciferae), known as a cultivated plant at the present day
+in Europe, North Africa, western Asia and India, but its origin is
+obscure. Alphonse de Candolle (_L'Origine des plantes cultivees_) says
+its cultivation must date from ancient times and be widely diffused, for
+very different names for it exist in the Arab, Persian, Albanian,
+Hindustani and Bengali tongues. He considered the plant to be of Persian
+origin, whence it may have spread after the Sanskrit epoch (there is no
+Sanskrit name for it) into the gardens of India, Syria, Greece and North
+Africa. It is used in salads, the young plants being cut and eaten while
+still in the seed-leaf, forming, along with plants of the white mustard
+in the same stage of growth, what is commonly called "small salad." The
+seeds should be sown thickly broadcast or in rows in succession every
+ten or fourteen days, according to the demand. The sowings may be made
+in the open ground from March till October, the earliest under
+hand-glasses, and the summer ones in a cool moist situation, where water
+from trees, shrubs, walls, &c., cannot fall on or near them. The grit
+thrown up by falling water pierces the tender tissues of the cress, and
+cannot be thoroughly removed by washing. During winter they must be
+raised on a slight hotbed, or in shallow boxes or pans placed in any of
+the glass-houses where there is a temperature of 60 deg. or 65 deg..
+Cress is subject to the attack of a fungus (_Pythium debaryanum_) if
+kept too close and moist. The pest very quickly infects a whole sowing.
+There is no cure for it; preventive measures should therefore be taken
+by keeping the sowings fairly dry and well ventilated. The seed should
+be sown on new soil, and should not be covered.
+
+The "Golden" or "Australian" cress is a dwarf, yellowish-green,
+mild-flavoured sort, which is cut and eaten when a little more advanced
+in growth but while still young and tender. It should be sown at
+intervals of a month from March onwards, the autumn sowing, for winter
+and spring use, being made in a sheltered situation.
+
+The "curled" or "Normandy" cress is a very hardy sort, of good flavour.
+In this, which is allowed to grow like parsley, the leaves are picked
+for use while young; and, being finely cut and curled, they are well
+adapted for garnishing. It should be sown thinly, in drills, in good
+soil in the open borders, in March, April and May, and for winter and
+spring use at the foot of a south wall early in September, and about the
+middle of October.
+
+_Water-cress._--"Water-cress" (_Nasturtium officinale_) is a member of
+the same natural order, and a native of Great Britain. Although now so
+largely used, it does not appear to have been cultivated in England
+prior to the 19th century, though in Germany, especially near Erfurt, it
+had been grown long previously. Its flavour is due to an essential oil
+containing sulphur. Water-cress is largely cultivated in shallow
+ditches, prepared in wet, low-lying meadows, means being provided for
+flooding the ditches at will. Where the amount of water available is
+limited, the ditches are arranged at successively higher levels, so as
+to allow of the volume admitted to the upper ditch being passed
+successively to the others. The ditches are usually puddled with clay,
+which is covered to the depth of 9 to 12 in. with well-manured soil.
+
+A stock of plants may be raised in two ways--by cuttings, and by seeds.
+If a stock is to be raised from cuttings, the desired quantity of young
+shoots is gathered--those sold in bunches for salad serve the purpose
+well--and reduced where necessary to about 3 in. in length, the basal
+and frequently rooted portion being rejected. They are dibbled thickly
+into one of the ditches, and only enough water admitted to just cover
+the soil. If the start is made in late spring, the cuttings will be
+rooted in a week. They are allowed to remain for another week or two,
+and are then taken up and dropped about 9 in. apart into the other
+ditches, which have been slightly flooded to receive them. There is no
+need to plant them--the young roots will very soon be securely anchored.
+The volume of water is increased as the plants grow. If raised from
+seed, the seed-bed is prepared as for cuttings, and seed sown either in
+drills or broadcast. No flooding is done until the seedlings are up.
+Water is then admitted, the level being raised as the plants grow. When
+5 or 6 in. high, they are taken up and dropped into their permanent
+quarters precisely like those raised from cuttings.
+
+Cultivated as above described, the plants afford frequent cuttings of
+large clean cress of excellent flavour for market purposes. Sooner or
+later growth will become less vigorous and flowering shoots will be
+produced. This will be accompanied by a pronounced deterioration of the
+remaining vegetative shoots. These signs will be interpreted by the
+grower to mean that his plants, as a market crop, are worn out. He will
+therefore take steps to repeat the routine of culture above described.
+In the winter the ditches are flooded to protect the cress from frost.
+
+The best-flavoured water-cress is produced in the pure water of running
+streams over chalk or gravel soil. Should the water be contaminated by
+sewage or other undesirable matter, the plants not only absorb some of
+the impurities but also serve to anchor much of the solid particles
+washed as scum among them. This is extremely difficult to dislodge by
+washing, and renders the cress a source of danger as food.
+
+Water-cress for domestic use may be raised as a kitchen-garden crop if
+frequently watered overhead. Beds to afford cress during the summer
+should be made in broad trenches on a border facing north. It may also
+be raised in pots or pans stood in saucers of water and frequently
+watered overhead.
+
+In recent years in America attention has been paid to the injury done to
+water-cress beds by the "water-cress sow-bug" (_Mancasellus
+brachyurus_), and the "water-cress leaf-beetle" (_Phaedon aeruginosa_).
+Another species of _Phaedon_ is known in England as "blue beetle" or
+"mustard beetle," and is a pest also of mustard, cabbage and kohlrabi
+(see F. H. Chittenden, in _Bulletin_ 66, part ii. of Bureau of
+Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, 1907).
+
+The name "nasturtium" is applied in gardens, but incorrectly, to species
+of _Tropaeolum_.
+
+
+
+
+CRESSENT, CHARLES (1685-1768), French furniture-maker, sculptor and
+_fondeur-ciseleur_. As the second son of Francois Cressent, _sculpteur
+du roi_, and grandson of Charles Cressent, a furniture-maker of Amiens,
+who also became a sculptor, he inherited the tastes and aptitudes which
+were likely to make a finished designer and craftsman. Even more
+important perhaps was the fact that he was a pupil of Andre Charles
+Boulle. Trained in such surroundings, it is not surprising that he
+should have reached a degree of achievement which has to a great extent
+justified the claim that he was the best decorative artist of the 18th
+century. Cressent's distinction is closely connected with the regency,
+but his earlier work had affinities with the school of Boulle, while his
+later pieces were full of originality. He was an artist in the widest
+sense of the word. He not only designed and made furniture, but created
+the magnificent gilded enrichments which are so characteristic of his
+work. He was likewise a sculptor, and among his plastic work is known to
+have been a bronze bust of Louis, duc d'Orleans, the son of the regent,
+for whom Cressent had made one of the finest examples of French
+furniture of the 18th century--the famous _medaillier_ now in the
+Bibliotheque Nationale. Cressent's bronze mounts were executed with a
+sharpness of finish and a grace and vigour of outline which were hardly
+excelled by his great contemporary Jacques Caffieri. His female figures
+placed at the corners of tables are indeed among the most delicious
+achievements of the great days of the French metal worker. Much of
+Cressent's work survives, and can be identified; the Louvre and the
+Wallace collection are especially rich in it, and his commode at
+Hertford House with gilt handles representing Chinese dragons is perhaps
+the most elaborate piece he ever produced. The work of identification is
+rendered comparatively easy in his case by the fact that he published
+catalogues of three sales of his work. These catalogues are highly
+characteristic of the man, who shared in no small degree the personal
+_bravoura_ of Cellini, and could sometimes execute almost as well. He
+did not hesitate to describe himself as the author of "a clock worthy to
+be placed in the very finest cabinets," "the most distinguished
+bronzes," or pieces of "the most elegant form adorned with bronzes of
+extra richness." He worked much in marqueterie, both in tortoiseshell
+and in brilliant coloured woods. He was indeed an artist to whom colour
+appealed with especial force. The very type and exemplar of the
+"feeling" of the regency, he is worthy to have given his own name to
+some of the fashions which he deduced from it.
+
+
+
+
+CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL (1794-1863), English judge, was a descendant of
+an old Northumberland family, and was born at Newcastle in 1794. He was
+educated at the Charterhouse and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He
+graduated B.A. in 1814, and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the
+profession of the law he studied at the Middle Temple, and was called to
+the bar in 1819. He joined the northern circuit, and was not long in
+earning a distinguished position among his professional brethren. In
+1837 he entered parliament as Conservative member for Liverpool, and he
+soon gained a reputation as an acute and learned debater on all
+constitutional questions. In January 1842 he was made a judge of the
+court of common pleas, being knighted at the same time; and this post he
+occupied for sixteen years. When the new court for probate, divorce and
+matrimonial causes was established (1858), Sir Cresswell Cresswell was
+requested by the Liberal government to become its first judge and
+undertake the arduous task of its organization. Although he had already
+earned a right to retire, and possessed large private wealth, he
+accepted this new task, and during the rest of his life devoted himself
+to it most assiduously and conscientiously, with complete satisfaction
+to the public. In one case only, out of the very large number on which
+he pronounced judgment, was his decision reversed. His death was sudden.
+By a fall from his horse on the 11th of July 1863 his knee-cap was
+injured. He was recovering from this when on the 29th of the same month
+he died of disease of the heart.
+
+  See Foss's _Lives of the Judges_; E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_
+  (1904).
+
+
+
+
+CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE (c. 1605-1674), English Benedictine monk, whose
+religious name was Serenus, was born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, about
+1605. He went to Oxford at the age of fourteen, and in 1626 became a
+fellow of Merton College. Having taken orders, he rose to the dignity of
+dean of Leighlin, Ireland, and canon of Windsor. He also acted as
+chaplain to Lord Wentworth, afterwards the celebrated earl of Strafford.
+For some time he travelled abroad as tutor to Lord Falmouth, and in
+1646, during a visit to Rome, joined the Roman Catholic Church. In the
+following year he published his _Exomologesis_ (Paris, 1647), or account
+of his conversion, which was highly valued by Roman Catholics as an
+answer to William Chillingworth's attacks. Cressy entered the
+Benedictine Order in 1649, and for four years resided at Somerset House
+as chaplain to Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II. He died at
+West Grinstead on the 10th of August 1674. Cressy's chief work, _The
+Church History of Brittanny or England, from the beginning of
+Christianity to the Norman Conquest_ (1st vol. only published, Rouen,
+1668), gives an exhaustive account of the foundation of monasteries
+during the Saxon heptarchy, and asserts that they followed the
+Benedictine rule, differing in this respect from many historians. The
+work was much criticized by Lord Clarendon, but defended by Antony a
+Wood in his _Athenae Oxoniensis_, who supports Cressy's statement that
+it was compiled from original MSS. and from the _Annales Ecclesiae
+Britannicae_ of Michael Alford, _Dugdale's Monasticon_, and the _Decem
+Scriptores Historiae Anglicanae_. The second part of the history, which
+has never been printed, was discovered at Douai in 1856. To Roman
+Catholics Cressy's name is familiar as the editor of Walter Hilton's
+_Scale of Perfection_ (London, 1659); of Father A. Baker's _Sancta
+Sophia_ (2 vols., Douai, 1657); and of Juliana of Norwich's _Sixteen
+Revelations on the Love of God_ (1670). These books, which would have
+been lost but for Cressy's zeal, have been frequently reprinted, and
+have been favourably regarded by a section of the Anglican Church.
+
+  For a complete list of Cressy's works see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of
+  Eng. Catholics_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+CREST, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Drome, on
+the right bank of the Drome, 20 m. S.S.E. of Valence by rail. Pop.
+(1906) town, 3971; commune, 5660. It carries on silk-worm breeding,
+silk-spinning, and the manufacture of woollens, paper, leather and
+cement. There is trade in truffles. On the rock which commands the town
+stands a huge keep, the sole survival of a castle (12th century) to
+which Crest was indebted for its importance in the middle ages and the
+Religious Wars. The rest of the castle was destroyed in the first half
+of the 17th century, after which the keep was used as a state prison.
+Crest ranked for a time as the capital of the duchy of Valentinois, and
+in that capacity belonged before the Revolution to the prince of Monaco.
+The communal charter, graven on stone and dating from the 12th century,
+is preserved in the public archives. Ten miles south-east of Crest lies
+the picturesque Forest of Saon.
+
+
+
+
+CREST (Lat. _crista_, a plume or tuft), the "comb" on an animal's head,
+and so any feathery tuft or excrescence, the "cone" of a helmet (by
+transference, the helmet itself), and the top or summit of anything. In
+heraldry (q.v.) a crest is a device, originally borne as a cognizance on
+a knight's helmet, placed on a wreath above helmet and shield in
+armorial bearings, and used separately on a seal or on articles of
+property.
+
+_Cresting_, in architecture, is an ornamental finish in the wall or
+ridge of a building, which is common on the continent of Europe. An
+example occurs at Exeter cathedral, the ridge of which is ornamented
+with a range of small _fleurs-de-lis_ in lead.
+
+
+
+
+CRESTON, a city and the county-seat of Union county, Iowa, U.S.A., about
+60 m. S.W. of Des Moines, at the crossing of the main line and two
+branches of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway. Pop. (1890) 7200;
+(1900) 7752; (1905, state census) 8382 (753 foreign-born); (1910) 6924.
+The city is on the crest of the divide between the Mississippi and the
+Missouri basins at an altitude of about 1310 ft.--whence its name. It is
+situated in a fine farming and stock-raising region, for which it is a
+shipping point. The site was chosen in 1869 by the Burlington & Missouri
+River Railroad Company (subsequently merged in the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy Railroad Company) for the location of its shops. Creston was
+incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1871.
+
+
+
+
+CRESWICK, THOMAS (1811-1869), English landscape-painter, was born at
+Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham. At Birmingham he
+first began to paint. His earliest appearance as an exhibitor was in
+1827, at the Society of British Artists in London; in the ensuing year
+he sent to the Royal Academy the two pictures named "Llyn Gwynant,
+Morning," and "Carnarvon Castle." About the same time he settled in
+London; and in 1836 he took a house in Bayswater. He soon attracted some
+attention as a landscape-painter, and had a career of uniform and
+encouraging, though not signal success. In 1842 he was elected an
+associate, and in 1850 a full member of the Royal Academy, which, for
+several years before his death, numbered hardly any other full members
+representing this branch of art. In his early practice he set an
+example, then too much needed, of diligent study of nature out of doors,
+painting on the spot all the substantial part of several of his
+pictures. English and Welsh streams may be said to have formed his
+favourite subjects, and generally British rural scenery, mostly under
+its cheerful, calm and pleasurable aspects, in open daylight. This he
+rendered with elegant and equable skill, colour rather grey in tint,
+especially in his later years, and more than average technical
+accomplishment; his works have little to excite, but would, in most
+conditions of public taste, retain their power to attract. Creswick was
+industrious and extremely prolific; he produced, besides a steady
+outpouring of paintings, numerous illustrations for books. He was
+personally genial--a dark, bulky man, somewhat heavy and graceless in
+aspect in his later years. He died at his house in Bayswater, Linden
+Grove, on the 28th of December 1869, after a few years of declining
+health. Among his principal works may be named "England" (1847); "Home
+by the Sands, and a Squally Day" (1848); "Passing Showers" (1849); "The
+Wind on Shore, a First Glimpse of the Sea, and Old Trees" (1850); "A
+Mountain Lake, Moonrise" (1852); "Changeable Weather" (1865); also the
+"London Road, a Hundred Years ago"; "The Weald of Kent"; the "Valley
+Mill" (a Cornish subject); a "Shady Glen"; the "Windings of a River";
+the "Shade of the Beech Trees"; the "Course of the Greta"; the "Wharfe";
+"Glendalough," and other Irish subjects, 1836 to 1840; the "Forest
+Farm." Frith for figures, and Ansdell for animals, occasionally worked
+in collaboration with Creswick.
+
+  In 1873 T. O. Barlow, the engraver, published a catalogue of
+  Creswick's works.
+
+
+
+
+CRESWICK, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia. 85-1/2 m. by
+rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3060. It is the centre of a mining,
+pastoral and agricultural district. Gold is found both in alluvial and
+quartz formations, the quartz being especially rich. The surrounding
+country is fertile and well-timbered, and there is a government
+plantation and nursery in connexion with the forests department.
+
+
+
+
+CRETACEOUS SYSTEM, in geology, the group of stratified rocks which
+normally occupy a position above the Jurassic system and below the
+oldest Tertiary deposits; therefore it is in this system that the
+closing records of the great Mesozoic era are to be found. The name
+furnishes an excellent illustration of the inconvenience of employing a
+local lithological feature in the descriptive title of a wide-ranging
+rock-system. The white chalk (Lat. _creta_), which gives its name to the
+system, was first studied in the Anglo-Parisian basin, where it takes a
+prominent place; but even in this limited area there is a considerable
+thickness and variety of rocks which are not chalky, and the Cretaceous
+system as a whole contains a remarkable diversity of types of sediment.
+
+_Classification._--The earlier subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks were
+founded upon the uncertain ground of similarity in lithological
+characters, assisted by observed stratigraphical sequence. This method
+yielded poor results even in a circumscribed area like Great Britain,
+and it breaks down utterly when applied to the correlation of rocks of
+similar age in Europe and elsewhere. Study of the fossils, however, has
+elicited the fact that certain forms characterize certain "zones," which
+are preceded and succeeded by other zones each bearing a peculiar
+species or distinctive assemblage of species. By these means the
+Cretaceous rocks of the world have now been correlated zone with zone,
+with a degree of exactitude proportional to the palaeontological
+information gained in the several areas of occurrence.
+
+The Cretaceous system falls naturally into two divisions, an upper and a
+lower, in all but a few limited regions. In the table on page 288 the
+names of the principal stages are enumerated; these are capable of
+world-wide application. The sub-stages are of more local value, and too
+much importance must not be attached to them for the correlation of
+distant deposits. The general table is designed to show the relative
+position in the system of some of the more important and better-known
+formations; but it must be remembered that the Cretaceous rocks of
+Europe can now be classified in considerable detail by their fossils,
+the most accurate group for this purpose being the cephalopods. The
+smaller table was compiled by T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury to
+show the main subdivisions of the North American Cretaceous rocks. The
+correlation of the minor subdivisions of Europe and America are only
+approximate.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Cretaceous Rocks]
+
+_Relation of the Cretaceous Strata to the Systems above and below._--In
+central and northern Europe the boundary between the Cretaceous and
+Tertiary strata is sharply defined by a fairly general unconformity,
+except in the Danian and Montian beds, where there is a certain
+commingling of Tertiary with Cretaceous fossils. The relations with the
+underlying Jurassic rocks are not so clearly defined, partly because the
+earliest Cretaceous rocks are obscured by too great a thickness of
+younger strata, and partly because the lowest observable rocks of the
+system are not the oldest, but are higher members of the system that
+have overlapped on to much older rocks. However, in the south of
+England, in the Alpine area, and in part of N.W. Germany the passage
+from Jurassic to Cretaceous is so gradual that there is some divergence
+of opinion as to the best position for the line of separation. In the
+Alpine region this passage is formed by marine beds, in the other two by
+brackish-water deposits. In a like manner the Potomac beds of N. America
+grade downwards into the Jurassic; while in the Laramie formation an
+upward passage is observed into the Eocene deposits. There is a very
+general unconformity and break between the Lower and Upper Cretaceous;
+this has led Chamberlin and Salisbury to suggest that the Lower
+Cretaceous should be regarded as a separate period with the title
+"Comanchean."
+
+_Physiographical Conditions and Types of Deposit._--With the opening of
+the Cretaceous in Europe there commenced a period of marine
+transgression; in the central and western European region this took
+place from the S. towards the N., slow at first and local in effect, but
+becoming more decided at the beginning of the upper division. During the
+earlier portion of the period, S. England, Belgium and Hanover were
+covered by a great series of estuarine sands and clays, termed the
+Wealden formation (q.v.), the delta of a large river or rivers flowing
+probably from the N.W. Meanwhile, in the rest of Europe alternations of
+marine and estuarine deposits were being laid down; but over the Alpine
+region lay the open sea, where there flourished coral reefs and great
+banks of clam-like molluscs. The sea gradually encroached upon the
+estuarine Wealden area, and at the time of the Aptian deposits uniform
+marine conditions prevailed from western Europe through Russia into
+Asia. This extension of the sea is illustrated in England by the overlap
+of the Gault over the Lower Greens and on to the older rocks, and by
+similar occurrences in N. France and Germany.
+
+Almost throughout the Upper Cretaceous period the marine invasion
+continued, varied here and there by slight movements in the opposite
+sense which did not, however, interfere with the quiet general advance
+of the sea. This marine extension made itself felt over the old central
+plateau of France, the N. of Great Britain, the Spanish peninsula, the
+Armorican peninsula, and also in the Bavarian Jura and Bohemia; it
+affected the northern part of Africa and East Africa; in N. America the
+sea spread over the entire length of the Rocky Mountain region; and in
+Brazil, eastern Asia and western Australia, Upper Cretaceous deposits
+are found resting directly upon much older rocks. Indeed, at this time
+there happened one of the greatest changes in the distribution of land
+and water that have been recorded in geological history.
+
+We have seen that in early Cretaceous times marine limestones were being
+formed in southern Europe, while estuarine sands and muds were being
+laid down in the Anglo-German delta, and that beds of intermediate
+character were being made in parts of N. France and Germany. During
+later Cretaceous times this striking difference between the northern and
+southern facies was maintained, notwithstanding the fact that the later
+deposits were of marine origin in both regions. In the northern region
+the gradual deepening and accompanying extension of the sea caused the
+sandy deposits to become finer grained in N.W. Europe. The sandy beds
+and clays then gave way to marly deposits, and in these early stages
+glauconitic grains are very characteristically present both in the sand
+and in the marls. In their turn these marly deposits in the
+Anglo-Parisian basin were succeeded gradually and somewhat
+intermittently by the purer, soft limestone of the chalk sea, and by
+limestones, similar in character, in N. France, extra-Alpine Germany, S.
+Scandinavia, Denmark and Russia. Meanwhile, the S. European deposits
+maintained the characters already indicated; limestones (not chalk)
+prevailed, except in certain Alpine and Carpathian tracts where detrital
+sandstones were being laid down.
+
+The great difference between the lithological characters of the northern
+and southern deposits is accompanied by an equally striking difference
+between their respective organic contents. In the north, the genera
+_Inoceramus_ and _Belemnitella_ are particularly abundant. In the south,
+the remarkable, large, clam-like, aberrant pelecypods, the
+_Hippuritidae_, _Rudistes_, _Caprotina_, &c., attained an extraordinary
+development; they form great lenticular banks, like the clam banks of
+warm seas, or like our modern oyster-beds; they appear in successive
+species in the different stages of the Cretaceous system of the south,
+and can be used for marking palaeontological horizons as the cephalopods
+are used elsewhere. Certain genera of ammonites, _Haploceras_,
+_Lytoceras_, _Phylloceras_, rare in the north, are common in the south;
+and the southern facies is further characterized by the peculiar group
+of swollen belemnites (_Dumontia_), by the gasteropods _Actionella_,
+_Nerinea_, &c., and by reef-building corals. The southern facies is far
+more widespread and typical of the period than is the chalk; it not only
+covers all southern Europe, but spreads eastwards far into Asia and
+round the Mediterranean basin into Africa. It is found again in Texas,
+Alabama, Mexico, the West Indies and Colombia; though limestones of the
+chalk type are found in Texas, New Zealand, and locally in one or two
+other places. The marine deposits are organically formed limestones, in
+which foraminifera and large bivalve mollusca play a leading part, marls
+and sandstones; dolomite and oolitic and pisolitic limestones are also
+known.
+
+  +-----------+--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+  |           |    European Classification.    |                     | Germany, &c., several |
+  |           +--------------+-----------------+       Britain.      | other parts of Europe.|
+  |           |    Stages.   |   Sub-stages.   |                     |                       |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  |           |Montian.      |(placed by some  |                     | Marls and pisolitic   |
+  |           |              |in the Tertiary).|                     |  Limestone of Meudon. |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  |           |Danian.       |                 |Chalk of Trimingham. | Limestone of Saltholm |
+  |           |              |Maestrichtian    |                     |  and Faxo (Denmark).  |
+  |           |              |  (Dordonian).   |Upper Chalk with     |                       |
+  |           |Aturian.   \  |                 |  Flints.            |Upper Quader Sandstone.|
+  |           |            | |Campanian.       |                     |                       |
+  |   Upper   |    Senonian. |                 |                     |                       |
+  |Cretaceous.|            | |Santonian.       |                     | Quader Marls and      |
+  |           |Emscherian./  |                 |                     |  Planer Marls.        |
+  |           |              |Coniacian.       |                     |                       |
+  |           |              |                 |Middle Chalk without |                       |
+  |           |              |Angoumian.       |  Flints.            | Upper Planer.         |   \
+  |           |Turonian.     |                 |                     |                       |    \
+  |           |              |Ligerian.        |                     |                       |     |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |     |
+  |           |              |Carentonian.     |Grey Chalk.          | Lr. Planer and Lr.    |     |
+  |           |Cenomanian.   |                 |Chalk marl.          |  Quader.              | Hippurite
+  |           |              |Rothomagian.     |Cambridge Greensand. |                       | limestones
+  |           |              |                 +---------------------+ Tourtia of Mons, &c.  | of
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------| Selbornian.         +-----------------------+ Southern
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       | France
+  |           |              |                 |     Gault and Upper |                       | and
+  |           |              |                 |       Greensand.    |                       | Mediterranean
+  |           |Albian.       |Gault.           |                     | Flammen mergel. Clay  | Region
+  |           |              |                 +---------------------+  of N. Germany.       |     |
+  |           |              |Gargasian.       |                     | Urgonian              |     |
+  |           |Aptian.       |                 |Lower Greensand.     | Requienia             |     |
+  |   Lower   |              |Bedoulian.       |                     |  (caprotina) Kalk     |    /
+  |Cretaceous.|              |                 |                     |  or Schrattenkalk.    |   /
+  |           |Barremian.    |                 |Weald Clay           |                       |
+  |           |              |Hauterivian.     |    and              |                       |
+  |           |Neocomian.    |                 |Hastings sands.      |         North         |
+  |           |              |Valangian.       |                     |        German         |
+  |           |              |                 |       Marine        |         Hills         |
+  |           |              |Berriasian.      |      Beds of        |       formation       |
+  |           |              |                 |      Specton.       |                       |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  |           |              |                 |                     |                       |
+  +-----------+--------------+-----------------+---------------------+-----------------------+
+
+
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |           |                Upper Cretaceous.                 :           Lower Cretaceous.         |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |           | Aptychenkalk in E. Alps ... Cretaceous Flysch... : ... Cretaceous Flysch ...           |
+  |           | Biancone of S. Alps.                             : Carpathian and Vienna Sandstones,   |
+  |  Alpine   |                                                  :   Gosau formation of E. Alps.       |
+  |  Region.  |                                                  : Seewan beds of N. Alps.             |
+  |           |                                                  : Scaglia of S. Alps.                 |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |  Africa.  |                          Nubian Sandstone of ... : ... N. Africa and Syria.            |
+  |           | Uitenhage Beds S. Africa.                        :           Pondoland Beds S. Africa. |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |  India.   | Oomia and Utatur Group.                          :        Arialoor Beds (Deccan Trap). |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |Australia. | Rolling Down Formation.                          :                   Desert Sandstone. |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |    New    | Thick conglomeratic Series with Bitumous coals.  : Waipara Beds and Limestones, Chalk, |
+  |  Zealand. |                                                  :   with Flints, Marls and Greensand. |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |S. America.| Puegiredon Series.                  Belgrano ... : ... Series.  San Martin Series.     |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |   Japan.  | Torinosa Limestone and Ryoseki Series.           : Izumi Sandstone and Hokkaido Series.|
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+  |Greenland. | Kome Group.                                      : Atani Group.  Patoot Group (part).  |
+  +-----------+--------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------+
+
+    _Note to Tables._
+
+  Montian      from Mons in Belgium.
+  Danian         "  Denmark = _Garumnien_ of Leymerie.
+  Aturian        "  Adour.
+  Maestrichtian  "  Maestricht.
+  Campanian      "  Champagne.
+  Emscherian     "  Emscher river in Westphalia.
+  Santonian      "  Saintonge.
+  Coniacian      "  Cognac.
+  Senonian       "  Sens in department of Yonne.
+  Turonian       "  Touraine.
+  Angoumian      "  Angoumois.
+  Ligerian       "  the Loire.
+  Cenomanian     "  Le Mans (Cenomanum).
+  Carentonian    "  Charente.
+  Rothomagian    "  Rouen (_Rothomagus_).
+  Albian         "  dept. of Aube.
+  Selbornian     "  Selborne in Hampshire.
+  Aptian         "  Apt in Vaucluse.
+  Gargasian      "  Gargas near Apt.
+  Bedoulian      "  la Bedoule (Var) = _Rhodanien_ of Renevie
+  Barremian      "  Barreme in Basses Alpes.
+  Hauterivian    "  Hauterive on Lake of Neuchatel.
+  Valangian      "  Chateau de Valangin near Neuchatel.
+  Neocomian      "  Neuchatel (_Neocomum_).
+  Berriasian     "  Berrias (_Ardeche_) near Besseges.
+  Urgonian       "  Orgon near Arles.
+
+The Cretaceous seas were probably comparatively shallow; this was
+certainly the case where the deposits are sandy, and in the regions
+occupied by the hippuritic fauna. Much discussion has taken place as to
+the depth of the chalk sea. Stress has been laid upon the resemblance of
+this deposit to the modern deep-sea globigerina-ooze; but on the whole
+the evidence is in favour of moderate depth, perhaps not more than 1000
+fathoms; the freedom of the deposit from detrital matter being regarded
+as due to the low elevation of the surrounding land, and the main lines
+of drainage being in other directions. Sandy and shore deposits are
+common throughout the system in every region. Besides the Weald, there
+were great lacustrine and terrestrial deposits in N. America (the
+Potomac, Kootenay, Morrison, Dakota and Laramie formations) as well as
+in N. Spain, and in parts of Germany, &c. The general distribution of
+land and sea is indicated in the map.
+
+_Earth Movements and Vulcanicity._--During the greater part of the
+Cretaceous period crustal movements had been small and local in effect,
+but towards the close a series of great deformative movements was
+inaugurated and continued into the next period. These movements make it
+possible to discriminate between the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,
+because the conditions of sedimentation were profoundly modified by
+them, and in most parts of the world there resulted a distinct break in
+the sequence of fossil remains. Great tracts of our modern continental
+land areas gradually emerged, and several mountainous tracts began to be
+elevated, such as the Appalachians, parts of the Cordilleras, and the
+Rocky Mountains, and their northern continuation, and indeed the greater
+part of the western N. American continent was intensely affected; the
+uplifting was associated with extensive faulting. Volcanic activity was
+in abeyance in Europe and in much of Asia, but in America there were
+many eruptions and intrusions of igneous rock towards the close of the
+period. Diabases and peridotites had been formed during the Lower
+Cretaceous in the San Luis Obispo region. Great masses of ash and
+conglomerate occur in the Crow's Nest Pass in Canada; porphyries and
+porphyritic tuffs of later Cretaceous age are important in the Andes;
+while similar rocks are found in the Lower Cretaceous of New Zealand. It
+is, however, in the Deccan lava flows of India that we find eruptions on
+a scale more vast than any that have been recorded either before or
+since. These outpourings of lava cover 200,000 sq. m. and are from 4000
+to 6000 ft. thick. They lie upon an eroded Cenomanian surface and are to
+some extent interbedded with Upper Cretaceous sediments.
+
+  +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+  |           |Atlantic Coast.|Eastern Gulf|  Western Gulf  |  Western Interior. | Pacific Coast.|  European.  |
+  |           |               |   Region.  |     Region.    |                    |               |             |
+  +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+  |       /   | Manasquan.    |            |                |Denver, Livingstone,|               |             |
+  |      |    |               |   ......   |     ......     |  (possibly Eocene).| Not           |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |  &c.               | differentiated|             |
+  |      |    | Rancocas.     |            |                | Laramie.           | or wanting.   | Danian.     |
+  |      |    +---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+  |      |    |               | Ripley.    |                | Montana Series     |               |             |
+  |CRETACEOUS | Monmouth.     |            | Montana Series |  2. Fox Hills.     |               | Senonian.   |
+  |      |    |               | Selma.     | Navarro.       |  1. Fort Pierre and|               |             |
+  |   Upper   |               |            |                |    Belly River.    |               |             |
+  |Cretaceous.| Matawan.      | Eutaw.     | Colorado Series| Colorado Series.   |               |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |  2. Austin     |  2. Niobrara.      | Chico.        | Turonian.   |
+  |      |    |               |            |  1. Eagle Ford |  1. Benton.        |               |             |
+  |      |    +---------------+------------+----------------|--------------------+               +-------------+
+  |      |    |               |            | Dakota.        | Dakota.            |               | Cenomanian. |
+  |      |    |    ......     |   ......   | Woodbine.      |                    |               | Albian.     |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |                    |               | Unconformity|
+  |       \   |               |     U n c o|n f o r m i t y.|                    |               |   in places.|
+  |           |...............|............|................|....................|...............|.............|
+  |       /   |               |            |                |                    | Horsetown     | Aptian.     |
+  |      |    |               |            | Washita.       |                    |               |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |                    | Knoxville.    | Urgonian.   |
+  |      |    |               | Tuskaloosa | Fredericksburg.| Kootenay and       | \__  ___/     |             |
+  |COMANCHEAN |               |    Series. |                |   Morrison (or     |    \/         | Neocomian.  |
+  |      |    |Potomac Series.|            |                |   Como).           |  Shastan.     | Wealden.    |
+  |  Lower    |  4. Raritan.  |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |Cretaceous.|  3. Patapsco. |            | Trinity.       |                    |               |             |
+  |      |    |               |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |      |    |      Jurassic?|            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |       \   | 2. Arundel    |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  |           | 1. Patuxent   |            |                |                    |               |             |
+  +-----------+---------------+------------+----------------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+
+
+_Economic Products of Cretaceous Rocks._--Coal is one of the most
+important products of the rocks of this system. The principal Cretaceous
+coal-bearing area is in the western interior of N. America, where an
+enormous amount of coal--mostly lignitic, but in places converted into
+anthracite--lies in the rocks at the foot of the Rocky Mountains; most
+of this is of Laramie age. Similar beds occur locally in Montana. Coal
+seams of Lower Cretaceous age are found in the Black Hills (S. Dakota),
+Alaska, Greenland, and in New Zealand; and the "Upper Quader" of
+Lowenberg in Silesia also contains coal seams. Coals also occur in the
+brackish and fresh-water deposits of Carinthia, Dalmatia and Istria,
+while unimportant lignitic beds are known in many other regions. The
+Fort Pierre beds are oil-bearing at Boulder, Colorado; and the Trinity
+formation bears asphalt and bitumen. Important clay deposits are worked
+in the Raritan formation of New Jersey, &c., and pottery clays are found
+in the Lowenberg district in Germany. The Washita beds yield the
+well-known hone stone. Great beds of gypsum exist in the Cretaceous
+rocks of S. America. Near Salzburg a variety of the hippuritic limestone
+is quarried for marble. Lithographic stone occurs in the Pyrenees. The
+economic products peculiar to the chalk are mentioned in the article
+CHALK. Beds of iron ore are found in the Lower Cretaceous of Germany and
+England.
+
+_The Life of the Cretaceous Period._--The fossils from the Cretaceous
+series comprise marine, fresh-water and terrestrial animals and plants.
+Foremost in interest and importance is the appearance in the Lower
+Potomac (Lower Cretaceous) of eastern and central N. America of the
+earliest representatives of angiospermous dicotyledons, and undoubted
+monocotyledons, the progenitors of our modern flowering plants. The
+angiosperms spread outward from the Atlantic coast region of N. America,
+and first appeared in Europe in the Aptian of Portugal; towards the
+close of the Lower Cretaceous period they occupied parts of Greenland,
+the remaining land areas of N. America, and were steadily advancing in
+every quarter of the globe. At first the Jurassic plants, the Cycads,
+ferns and conifers, lived on and were the dominant plant forms.
+Gradually, however, they took a subordinate place, and by the close of
+the Cretaceous period the angiosperms had gained the upper hand. The
+earliest of these fossil angiosperms is not in a true sense a primitive
+form, and no records of such types have yet been discovered. Some of the
+early forms of the Lower Cretaceous are distinctly similar to modern
+genera, such as _Ficus_, _Sassafras_ and _Aralia_; others bore leaves
+closely resembling our elm, maple, willow, oak, eucalyptus, &c. Before
+the close of the period many other representatives of living genera had
+appeared, beech, walnut, tamarisk, plane, laurel (_Laurus_), cinnamon,
+ivy, ilex, viburnum, buckthorn, breadfruit, oleander and others; there
+were also junipers, thujas, pines and sequoias and monocotyledons such
+as _Potamogeton_ and _Arundo_. This flora was widely spread and uniform;
+there was great similarity between that of Europe and N. America, and in
+parts of the United States (Virginia and Maryland) the plants were very
+like those in Greenland. The general aspect of the flora was
+sub-tropical; the eucalyptus and other plants then common in Europe and
+N. America are now confined to the southern hemisphere.
+
+The marine fauna comprised foraminifera which must have swarmed in the
+Chalk and some of the limestone seas; their shells have formed great
+thickness of rock. Common forms are the genera _Alveolina_,
+_Cristellaria_, _Rotalia_, _Textularia_, _Orbitolina_, _Globigerina_.
+Radiolarians were doubtless abundant, but their remains are rare.
+Sponges with calcareous (_Peronidilla_, _Barroisia_) and siliceous
+skeletons (_Siphonia_, _Coeloptychium_, _Ventriculites_) were very
+numerous in certain of the Cretaceous waters. Corals were comparatively
+rare, _Trochosmilia_, _Parasmilia_, _Holocystis_ being typical genera;
+reefs were formed in the Maestricht beds of Denmark and Faxoe, in the
+Neocomian and Turonian of France, in the Turonian of the Alps and
+Pyrenees, and also in the Gosau beds and in the Utatur group of India.
+Sea-urchins were a conspicuous feature, and many nearly allied forms are
+still living; _Cidaris_, _Micraster_, _Discoidea_ are examples. Crinoids
+were represented by _Marsupites_, _Uintacrinus_ and _Bourgueticrinus_;
+starfish (_Calliderma_ and _Pentagonaster_) were not uncommon. Polyzoa
+were abundant; brachiopods were fairly common, though subordinate to the
+pelecypods; they were mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, which
+lived side by side with the ancient forms, like _Crania_ and _Discina_.
+The bivalve mollusca were very important during this period,
+_Inoceramus_, _Ostrea_, _Spondylus_, _Gervillia_, _Exogyra_, _Pecten_,
+_Trigonia_ being particularly abundant in the northern seas, while in
+the southern waters the remarkable _Hippurites_, _Radiolites_,
+_Caprotina_, _Caprina_, _Monopleura_ and _Requienia_ prevailed.
+Gasteropods were well represented and included many modern genera.
+Cephalopods were important as a group, but the ammonites, so vigorous in
+the foregoing period, were declining and were assuming curious
+degenerate forms, often with a tendency to uncoil the shell;
+_Baculites_, _Hoplites_, _Turrilites_, _Ptychoceras_, _Hamites_ are some
+of the typical genera, while _Belemnites_ and _Belemnitella_ were
+abundant in the northern seas.
+
+The vertebrate fauna of the Cretaceous period differed in many features
+from that of the present day; mammals appear to have been only poorly
+represented by puny forms, related to Triassic and Jurassic types; they
+were mainly marsupials (_Batodon_, _Cimolestes_) with a few
+monotreme-like forms; carnivores, rodents and ungulates were still
+unknown. As in Jurassic times, reptiles were the dominant forms, and not
+a few genera lived on from the former period into the Cretaceous; but,
+on the whole, the reptilian assemblage was no longer so varied, and most
+of the distinctive mesozoic types had passed away before the close of
+this period. Dinosaurs were represented by herbivorous and carnivorous
+genera as in the Jurassic period, but the latter were less abundant than
+before. The _Iguanodon_ of the Sussex-Weald and Bernissart in Belgium is
+perhaps the best-known genus; but there were many others, their remains
+being particularly abundant and well-preserved in the Cretaceous
+deposits of N. America. _Titanosaurus_, _Acanthopholis_, _Megalosaurus_
+and _Hypsilophodon_ may be mentioned, some of these being of great size,
+while _Diclonius_ was a curious duck-billed creature; but most
+remarkable in appearance must have been the horned Dinosaurs, _Ceratops_
+and _Triceratops_, gross, unwieldy creatures, 25 to 30 ft. long, whose
+huge heads were grotesquely armed with horns and bony frills.
+
+Coincident, perhaps, with the widespread extension of the sea was the
+development of aquatic habits and structures suitable thereto amongst
+all the reptilian groups including also the birds. The foremost place
+was undoubtedly taken by the pythonomorphs or sea-serpents, including
+_Mosasaurus_ and many others; these were enormously elongated creatures,
+reaching up to 75 ft., with swimming flappers and powerful swimming
+tails, and they lived a predatory life in the open sea. Ichthyosaurians
+soon disappeared from Cretaceous waters; but the plesiosaurians
+(_Cimoliosaurus_ and others) reached their maximum development in this
+period. The remarkable flying lizards, pterosaurs, likewise attained
+their great development and then passed away; they ranged in size from
+that of a pigeon to creatures with a wing-spread of 25 ft.; notable
+genera are _Pteranodon_, _Ornithocheirus_, _Nyctiosaurus_. Ordinary
+lizard-like forms were represented by _Coniosaurus_, _Dolichosaurus_,
+&c.; and true crocodiles, _Goniopholis_, _Suchosaurus_, appeared in this
+period, and continued to approximate to modern genera. The earliest
+known river turtles are found in the Belly River deposits of Canada;
+marine turtles also made their first appearance and were widely
+represented, some of them, _Archelon_ and _Protostega_, being of great
+size. True snakes appeared later in the period.
+
+The birds, as far as existing evidence goes, were aquatic; some, like
+_Ichthyornis_, were built for powerful flight; others, like
+_Hesperornis_, were flightless. _Enaliornis_ is a form well known from
+the Cambridge Greensand. They were toothed birds having structural
+affinities with the Dinosaurs and Pterodactyles.
+
+Fish remains of this period show that a marked change was taking place;
+teleosteans (with bony internal skeleton) were taking a more prominent
+place, and although ganoids were still represented (_Macropoma_,
+_Lepidotus_, _Amiopris_, &c.) they had quite ceased to be the dominant
+types before the close of Cretaceous times. Sharks and rays were of the
+modern types, though distinct in species. Amongst the early forms of
+Cretaceous teleosteans may be mentioned _Elopopsis_, _Ichthyodectes_,
+_Diplomystus_ (herring), _Haplopteryx_ and _Urenchelys_ (eel).
+
+  For further information see the articles CHALK; GREENSAND; WEALDEN.
+  Sir A. Geikie's _Text-book of Geology_, vol. ii. (4th ed., 1903),
+  contains in addition to a full general account of the system very full
+  references to the literature.
+
+
+
+
+CRETE (Gr. [Greek: Krete]; Turk. _Kirid_, Ital. _Candia_), after Sicily,
+Sardinia and Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situated
+between 34 deg. 50' and 35 deg. 40' N. lat. and between 23 deg. 30' and
+26 deg. 20' E. long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is
+distant about 110 m. from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being
+partly filled by the islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western,
+Cape Grabusa, is within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea. Crete thus
+forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean and the Archipelago.
+The island is of elongated form; its length from E. to W. is 160 m., its
+breadth from N. to S. varies from 35 to 7-1/2 m., its area is 3330 sq.
+m. The northern coast-line is much indented. On the W. two narrow
+mountainous promontories, the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or
+Busa (ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bay of
+Kisamos; beyond the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rocky peninsula of
+Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbour of Suda (8-1/2 sq.
+m.), the only completely protected anchorage for large vessels which the
+island affords. Farther E. are the bays of Candia and Malea, the deep
+Mirabello Bay and the Bay of Sitia. The south coast is less broken, and
+possesses no natural harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost
+like a wall from the sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the
+southernmost point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messara
+on the W. Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of
+Kali Limenes or Fair Havens, where the ship conveying St Paul took
+refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the islands in the neighbourhood of the
+Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts xxvii. 16),
+about 25 m. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the middle ages the see
+of a bishop. On the N. side the small island of Dia, or Standia, about 8
+m. from Candia, offers a convenient shelter against northerly gales.
+Three small islands on the northern coast--Grabusa at the N.W.
+extremity, Suda, at the entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in
+Mirabello Bay--remained for some time in the possession of Venice after
+the conquest of Crete by the Turks. Grabusa, long regarded as an
+impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the flags of
+Turkey and the four protecting powers are now hoisted) and Spinalonga in
+1715.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Crete]
+
+_Natural Features._--The greater part of the island is occupied by
+ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In the western
+portion rises the massive range of the White Mountains (_Aspra Vouna_),
+directly overhanging the southern coast with spurs projecting towards
+the W. and N.W. (highest summit, Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the
+centre is the smaller, almost detached mass of Psiloriti ([Greek:
+Hypsiloreition], ancient Ida), culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the
+highest summit in the island. To the E. are the Lassithi mountains with
+Aphenti Christos (7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with
+Aphenti Kavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separate
+the central plain of Messara from the southern coast. The isolated peak
+of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia, was regarded with
+veneration in antiquity as the burial-place of Zeus. The principal
+groups are for the greater part of the year covered with snow, which
+remains in the deeper clefts throughout the summer; the intervals
+between them are filled by connecting chains which sometimes reach the
+height of 3000 ft. The largest plain is that of Monofatsi and Messara, a
+fertile tract extending between Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range,
+about 37 m. in length and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather
+slope, adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianu, through which the
+Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty and fertility. A
+peculiar feature is presented by the level upland basins which furnish
+abundant pasturage during the summer months; the more remarkable are the
+Omalo in the White Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean
+outlets ([Greek: katabothra]), Nida ([Greek: eis ten Idan]) in Psiloriti
+(between 5000 and 6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a
+more extensive area, on which are several villages. Another remarkable
+characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines ([Greek: pharangia]),
+bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous
+districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates. Numerous
+large caves exist in the mountains; among the most remarkable are the
+famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves of Melidoni, in Mylopotamo,
+and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered hundreds of refugees after the
+insurrection of 1866, and the Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place
+of Zeus. The so-called Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a
+subterranean quarry from which the city was built. The principal rivers
+are the Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of
+Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively of the
+Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards from the White
+Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes)
+flowing northwards from Psiloriti to the sea E. of Retimo.
+
+  _Geology._[1]--The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a series
+  some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied composition. They
+  include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a basic series
+  of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines). Glaucophane
+  rocks are widely spread. In the centre of the folds fossiliferous beds
+  with crinoids have been found, and the black slates at the top of the
+  series contain _Myophoria_ and other fossils, indicating that the
+  rocks are of Triassic age. It is, however, not impossible that the
+  metamorphic series includes also some of the Lias. The later beds of
+  the island belong to the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary systems. At
+  the western foot of the Ida massif calcareous beds with corals,
+  brachiopods (_Rhynchonella inconstans_, &c.) have been found, the
+  fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimmeridge clay. Lower
+  Cretaceous limestones and schists, with radiolarian cherts, arc
+  extensively developed; and in many parts of the island Upper
+  Cretaceous limestones with _Rudistes_ and Eocene beds with nummulites
+  have been found. All these are involved in the earth movements to
+  which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the Miocene
+  beds (with _Clypeaster_) and later deposits lie almost undisturbed
+  upon the coasts and the low-lying ground. With the Jurassic beds is
+  associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks (gabbro, peridotite,
+  serpentine, diorite, granite, &c.); they are chiefly of Jurassic age,
+  but the eruptions may have continued into the Lower Cretaceous.
+
+  The structure of the island is complex. In the west the folds run from
+  north to south, curving gradually westward towards the southern and
+  western coasts; but in the east the folds appear to run from west to
+  east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric folds of the Balkan
+  peninsula. The structure is further complicated by a great
+  thrust-plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds
+  upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.
+
+_Vegetation._--The forests which once covered the mountains have for the
+most part disappeared and the slopes are now desolate wastes. The
+cypress still grows wild in the higher regions; the lower hills and the
+valleys, which are extremely fertile, are covered with olive woods.
+Oranges and lemons also abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing
+almost the whole supply of continental Greece and Constantinople.
+Chestnut woods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the
+valonia oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundant
+and supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples,
+quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines;
+the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which they
+possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cotton succeed well
+in the plains and low grounds, though not at present cultivated to any
+great extent.
+
+_Animals._--Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat or _agrimi
+(Capra aegagrus)_ alone need be mentioned; it is still found in
+considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and the White
+Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasus and Mount Taurus,
+and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin of the Alps. Crete, like
+several other large islands, enjoys immunity from dangerous serpents--a
+privilege ascribed by popular belief to the intercession of Titus, the
+companion of St Paul, who according to tradition was the first bishop of
+the island, and became in consequence its patron saint. Wolves also are
+not found in the island, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The
+native breed of mules is remarkably fine.
+
+_Population._--The population of Crete under the Venetians was estimated
+at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest it greatly diminished, but
+afterwards gradually rose, till it was supposed to have attained to
+about 260,000, of whom about half were Mahommedans, at the time of the
+outbreak of the Greek revolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from
+1821 to 1830, and the emigration that followed, caused a great
+diminution, and the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only
+about 130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased; it
+was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000. According to
+the census taken in 1881, the complete publication of which was
+interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the population of the island was
+279,165, or 35.78 to the square kilometre. Of this total, 141,602 were
+males, 137,563 females; 33,173 were literate, 242,114 illiterate;
+205,010 were orthodox Christians, 73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other
+religious persuasions. The Moslem element predominated in the principal
+towns, of which the population was--Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812;
+Retimo, 9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the population
+of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased to 267,266,
+while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. The Moslems, as well as the
+Christians, are of Greek origin and speak Greek.
+
+_Towns._--The three principal towns are on the northern coast and
+possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught. Candia,
+the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete (pop. in 1900,
+22,501), is officially styled Herakleion; it is surrounded by remarkable
+Venetian fortifications and possesses a museum with a valuable
+collection of objects found at Cnossus, Phaestus, the Idaean cave and
+elsewhere. It has been occupied since 1897 by British troops. Canea
+(Xavia), the seat of government since 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in
+the Italian style; its walls and interesting galley-slips recall the
+Venetian period. The residence of the high commissioner and the
+consulates of the powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo [Greek:
+Rethumnos] is, like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other
+towns, Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant.
+
+  _Production and Industries._--Owing to the volcanic nature of its
+  soil, Crete is probably rich in minerals. Recent experiments lead to
+  the conclusion that iron, lead, manganese, lignite and sulphur exist
+  in considerable abundance. Copper and zinc have also been found. A
+  large number of applications for mining concessions have been received
+  since the establishment of the autonomous government. The principal
+  wealth of the island is derived from its olive groves; notwithstanding
+  the destruction of many thousands of trees during each successive
+  insurrection, the production is apparently undiminished, and will
+  probably increase very considerably owing to the planting of young
+  trees and the improved methods of cultivation which the Government is
+  endeavouring to promote. The orange and lemon groves have also
+  suffered considerably, but new varieties of the orange tree are now
+  being introduced, and an impulse will be given to the export trade in
+  this fruit by the removal of the restriction on its importation into
+  Greece. Agriculture is still in a primitive condition; notwithstanding
+  the fertility of the arable land the supply of cereals is far below
+  the requirements of the population. A great portion of the central
+  plain of Monofatsi, the principal grain-producing district, is lying
+  fallow owing to the exodus of the Moslem peasantry. The cultivation of
+  silk cocoons, formerly a flourishing industry, has greatly declined in
+  recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it. There are
+  few manufactures. Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the
+  principal towns, and there are two distilleries of cognac at Candia.
+
+  _Commerce._--The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded by
+  many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the harbours,
+  the want of direct steamship lines to England and other countries, and
+  the deficiency of internal communications. The total value of imports
+  in the four years 1901-1904 was L1,756,888, of exports L1,386,777;
+  excess of imports over exports, L370,111. Exports in 1904 were valued
+  at L419,642, the principal items being agricultural products (oranges,
+  lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes, valonia, &c.), value L153,858, olives
+  and products of olives (oil, soap, &c.), L134,788, and wines and
+  liquors, L48,544. The countries which accept the largest share of
+  Cretan produce are Turkey, England, Egypt, Austria and Russia. Imports
+  in 1904 were valued at L549,665, including agricultural products
+  (mainly flour and corn), value L162,535, and textiles, L129,349.
+  Cereals are imported from the Black Sea and Danube ports, ready-made
+  clothing from Austria and Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and
+  France, and cotton textiles from England. Imports are charged 8%,
+  exports 1% _ad valorem_ duty. According to a law published in 1899,
+  Turkish merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of
+  foreign nations.
+
+_Constitution and Government._--During the past half-century the affairs
+of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention of Europe. Owing to the
+existence of a strong Mussulman minority among its inhabitants, the
+warlike character of the natives, and the mountainous configuration of
+the country, which enabled a portion of the Christian population to
+maintain itself in a state of partial independence, the island has
+constantly been the scene of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which
+the numerical superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the
+aid rendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappy state of
+affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues set on foot at
+Constantinople against successive governors of the island, the conflicts
+between the Palace and the Porte, the duplicity of the Turkish
+authorities, the dissensions of the representatives of the great powers,
+the machinations of Greek agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians,
+and prolonged financial mismanagement. A long series of
+insurrections--those of 1821, 1833, 1841, 1858, 1866-1868, 1878, 1889
+and 1896 may be especially mentioned--culminated in the general
+rebellion of 1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the
+intervention of the great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish
+authorities, and the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government
+under the suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomous
+constitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in Prince George of
+Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting powers. The
+authority thus conferred was confided exclusively to the prince, and was
+declared liable to modification by law in the case of his successor. The
+modified constitution of February 1907 curtailed the large exceptional
+legislative and administrative powers then accorded. The high
+commissioner is irresponsible, but his decrees, except in certain
+specified cases, must be countersigned by a member of his council. He
+convokes, prorogues and dissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises
+the right of pardon in case of political offences, represents the island
+in its foreign relations and is chief of its military forces. The
+chamber ([Greek: boule]), which is elected in the proportion of one
+deputy to every 5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two
+months. New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercises a
+complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed without its
+consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administration by a
+cabinet of three members, styled "councillors" ([Greek: symbouloi]), who
+superintend the departments of justice, finance, education, public
+security and the interior. The councillors, who are nominated and
+dismissed by the high commissioner, are responsible to the chamber,
+which may impeach them before a special tribunal for any illegal act or
+neglect of duty.
+
+In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a conservative
+spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems established in
+Greece and the Balkan States. A further point of difference is the more
+liberal payment of public functionaries in Crete. For administrative
+purposes the departmental divisions existing under the Turkish
+government have been retained. There are 5 _nomoi_ or prefectures
+(formerly _sanjaks_) each under a prefect ([Greek: nomarchos]), and 23
+eparchies (formerly _kazas_) each under a sub-prefect ([Greek:
+eparchos]). All these functionaries are nominated by the high
+commissioner. The prefects are assisted by departmental councils. The
+system of municipal and communal government remains practically
+unchanged. The island is divided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an
+assistant-mayor, and a communal council elected by the people. The
+councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes, maintain
+roads, bridges, &c., and generally superintend local affairs. Public
+order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie ([Greek: chorophulake])
+organized and at first commanded by Italian officers, who were replaced
+by Greek officers in December 1906. The constitution authorizes the
+formation of a militia ([Greek: politophulake]) to be enrolled by
+conscription, but in existing circumstances the embodiment of this force
+seems unnecessary.
+
+_Justice._--The administration of justice is on the French model. A
+supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions of a court
+of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts at Canea and
+Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard to serious offences
+([Greek: kakourgemata ]). Minor offences ([Greek: plemmelemata]) and
+civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the five
+departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whose decision are
+referred slight contraventions of the law ([Greek: ptaismata]) and civil
+causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs. These
+functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various communes. The
+judges are chosen without regard to religious belief, and precautions
+have been taken to render them independent of political parties. They
+are appointed, promoted, transferred or removed by order of the council
+of justice, a body composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries,
+sitting at Canea. An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon
+a conviction for some specified offence before a court of law. The jury
+system has not been introduced. The Greek penal code has been adopted
+with some modifications. The Ottoman civil code is maintained for the
+present, but it is proposed to establish a code recently drawn up by
+Greek jurists which is mainly based on Italian and Saxon law. The
+Mussulman cadis retain their jurisdiction in regard to religious
+affairs, marriage, divorce, the wardship of minors and inheritance.
+
+_Religion and Education._--The vast majority of the Christian population
+belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which is governed by a synod of
+seven bishops under the presidency of the metropolitan of Candia. The
+Cretan Church is not, strictly speaking, autocephalous, being dependent
+on the patriarchate of Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek
+churches in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques,
+4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education is nominally
+compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools (527 Christian and 20
+Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools (all Christian). About L20,000 is
+granted annually by the state for the purposes of education.
+
+  _Finance._--Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insurrections,
+  the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the districts
+  formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population, and the
+  drain of gold resulting from the sale of Moslem lands and emigration
+  of the former proprietors, together with other causes, the financial
+  situation has been unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding the advance of
+  L160,000 made by the four protecting powers after the institution of
+  autonomous government and the profits (L61,937) derived from the issue
+  of a new currency in 1900, there was at the beginning of 1906 an
+  accumulated deficit of L23,470, which represents the floating debt. In
+  addition to the above-mentioned debt to the powers, the state
+  contracted a loan of L60,000 in 1901 to acquire the rights and
+  privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the salt monopoly has been
+  conceded for 20 years. In the budgets for 1905 and 1906 considerable
+  economies were effected by the curtailment of salaries, the abolition
+  of various posts, and the reduction of the estimates for education and
+  public works. The estimated revenue and expenditure for 1906 were as
+  follows:--
+
+           Revenue.                           Expenditure.
+                 Drachmae (gold).                      Drachmae (gold).
+
+    Direct taxes    1,494,000     High Commissioner        200,000
+    Indirect taxes  1,715,000     Financial
+                                     administration        694,670
+    Stamp dues        351,700     Interior (including
+                                     gendarmerie)        1,678,566
+    Other sources     780,967     Education and Justice  1,453,500
+                    ---------                            ---------
+                    4,341,667                            4,026,736
+                    ---------                            ---------
+
+  The salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000
+  drachmae.
+
+  Improved communications are much needed for the transport of
+  agricultural produce, but the state of the treasury does not admit of
+  more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public works.
+  On these the average yearly expenditure between 1898 and 1905 was
+  L13,404. The prosperity of the island depends on the development of
+  agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits by the people, and
+  the abandonment of political agitation. The Cretans were in 1906 more
+  lightly taxed than any other people in Europe. The tithe had been
+  replaced by an export tax on exported agricultural produce levied at
+  the custom-houses, and the smaller peasant proprietors and shepherds
+  of the mountainous districts were practically exempt from any
+  contribution to the state. The communal tax did not exceed on the
+  average two francs annually for each family. The poorer communes are
+  aided by a state subvention.     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+_Archaeology._
+
+  Early, Middle and Late "Minoan" periods.
+
+The recent exploration and excavation of early sites in Crete have
+entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its remote past, and afforded
+the most astonishing evidence of the existence of a highly advanced
+civilization going far back behind the historic period. Great "Minoan"
+palaces have been brought to light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together
+with a minor but highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada near
+Phaestus. "Minoan" towns, some of considerable extent, have been
+discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro, and at Zakro. The
+cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus has been explored, and throughout
+the whole length and breadth of the island a mass of early materials has
+now been collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the discovery
+of Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan palaces covers
+the close of the third and the first half of the second millennium
+before our era. But the contents of early tombs and dwellings and
+indications supplied by such objects as stone vases and seal-stones show
+that the Cretans had already attained to a considerable degree of
+culture, and had opened out communication with the Nile valley in the
+time of the earliest Egyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of
+the indigenous culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable,
+is known as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first
+half of the third millennium B.C. The succeeding period, to which the
+first palaces are due and to which the name of Middle Minoan is
+appropriately given, roughly coincides with the Middle Empire of Egypt.
+An extraordinary perfection was at this time attained in many branches
+of art, notably in the painted pottery, often with polychrome
+decoration, of a class known as "Kamares" from its first discovery in a
+cave of that name on Mount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were
+found by Flinders Petrie among XIIth Dynasty remains at Kahun. The
+beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to the Middle
+Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts as gem engraving show
+great advance. By the close of this period a manufactory of fine faience
+was attached to the palace of Cnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan
+period, best illustrated by the later palace at Cnossus and that at
+Hagia Triada, corresponds in Egypt with the Hyksos period and the
+earlier part of the New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan
+civilization attains its acme, and the succeeding style already shows
+much that may be described as rococo. The later phase, which follows on
+the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds with the
+diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and elsewhere, is already
+partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finest aspect is best
+illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wall paintings, and _gesso
+duro_ reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stucco designs at Hagia Triada,
+and the steatite vases found on the same site with zones in reliefs
+exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors, toreadors, gladiators,
+wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal throng perhaps representing a
+kind of "harvest home." Of the more conventional side of Late Minoan
+life a graphic illustration is supplied by the remains of miniature wall
+paintings found in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies
+in curiously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades of
+a sanctuary. A grand "palace style" of vase painting was at the same
+time evolved, in harmony with the general decoration of the royal halls.
+
+
+  Minoan script.
+
+It had been held till lately that the great civilization of prehistoric
+Greece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann's discoveries at Mycenae,
+was not possessed of the art of writing. In 1893, however, Arthur Evans
+observed some signs on seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe
+that a hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times.
+Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for the
+purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the island,
+fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear as well as a
+semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the island at a very
+early period ("Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script," _Journ.
+of Hellenic Studies_, xiv. pt. 11). In 1895 he obtained a libation-table
+from the Dictaean cave with a linear dedication in the prehistoric
+writing ("Further Discoveries," &c., _J.H.S._ xvii.). Finally in 1900
+all scepticism in the learned world was set at rest by his discovery in
+the palace of Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets
+inscribed both in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of
+the Minoan script (Evans, "Palace of Knossos," _Reports of Excavation,
+1900-1905_; _Scripta Minoa_, vol. i., 1909). Supplementary finds of
+inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada (F. Halbherr,
+_Rapporto, &c., Monumenti antichi_, 1903) and elsewhere (Palaikastro,
+Zakro and Gournia). It thus appears that a highly developed system of
+writing existed in Minoan Crete some two thousand years earlier than the
+first introduction under Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this,
+as in so many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking
+confirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved by Diodorus (v.
+74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but simply altered their
+forms.
+
+
+  Earlier pictographic script.
+
+There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and pictorial
+signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary with the first
+Egyptian dynasties. It is, however, during the Middle Minoan age, the
+centre point of which corresponds with the XIIth Egyptian dynasty,
+according to the Sothic system of dating, c. 2000-1850 B.C., that a
+systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes its appearance
+which is common both to signets and clay tablets. During the Third
+Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of which approach 1600 B.C., this
+pictographic script finally gives way to a still more developed linear
+system--which is itself divided into an earlier and a later class. The
+earlier class (A) is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus
+belonging to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the
+palace, and this class is specially well represented in the tablets of
+Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class (B) of the linear
+script is that used on the great bulk of the clay tablets of the
+Cnossian palace, amounting in number to nearly 2000.
+
+These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and business
+documents. Their general purport is shown in many cases by pictorial
+figures relating to various objects which appear on them--such as
+chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases, arms and implements, stores
+of corn, &c., flocks and herds. Many showing human figures apparently
+contain lists of personal names. A decimal system of numeration was
+used, with numbers going up to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet
+undeciphered, though it is clear that certain words have changing
+suffixes, and that there were many compound words. The script also
+recurs on walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes
+ink-written; and from the number of seals originally attached to
+perishable documents it is probable that parchment or some similar
+material was also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where the
+aboriginal "Eteocretan" element survived to historic times (Praesus,
+Palaikastro), later inscriptions have been discovered belonging to the
+5th and succeeding centuries B.C., written in Greek letters but in the
+indigenous language (Comparetti, _Mon. Ant._ iii. 451 sqq.; R. S.
+Conway, _British School Annual_, viii. 125 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a
+remarkable discovery was made by the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a
+clay disk with imprinted hieroglyphic characters belonging to a
+non-Cretan system and probably from W. Anatolia.
+
+
+  Character of Minoan religion.
+
+The remains of several shrines within the building, and the religious
+element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a considerable part of
+the Palace of Cnossus was devoted to purposes of cult. It is clear that
+the rulers, as so commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well
+as royal functions. The evidence supplied by this and other Cretan sites
+shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a kind of _Magna Mater_, a
+Great Mother or nature goddess, with whom was associated a male
+satellite. The cult in fact corresponds in its main outlines with the
+early religious conceptions of Syria and a large part of Anatolia--a
+correspondence probably explained by a considerable amount of ethnic
+affinity existing between a large section of the primitive Cretan
+population and that of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is
+sometimes seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more
+celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of her
+religious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in that of
+Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, _Ariadne_ ( = the exceeding holy),
+takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under her native name,
+Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, she approaches Artemis
+and Leto, again associated with an infant god, and this Cretan virgin
+goddess was worshipped in Aegina under the name of Aphaea. It is
+noteworthy that whereas, in Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme
+position, the old superiority of the Mother Goddess is still visible in
+the Cretan traditions of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus.
+
+Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the principal
+objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic class; in many
+cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and mountain peaks, with
+their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida or of Dicte. Trees and
+curiously shaped stones were also worshipped, and artificial pillars of
+wood or stone. These latter, as in the well-known case of the Lion's
+Gate at Mycenae, often appear with guardian animals as their supporters.
+The essential feature of this cult is the bringing down of the celestial
+spirit by proper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the
+dove perched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is a
+primitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by the
+pillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally "Bethel" or the "House
+of God." The story of the _baetylus_, or stone swallowed by Saturn under
+the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus, seems to cover the same
+idea and has been derived from the same Semitic word.
+
+A special form of this "baetylic" cult in Minoan Crete was the
+representation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form by
+double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in the palace of
+Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small palace at Gournia, and
+many specimens of the sacred emblem occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of
+Dicte, the mythical birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of
+worship in which libations are poured before the Sacred Axes are,
+moreover, given on a fine painted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada.
+
+
+  Labyrinth and Minotaur.
+
+The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case of Zeus
+Labrandeus, whose name is derived from _labrys_, the native name for the
+double axe, and it had already been suggested on philological grounds
+that the Cretan "labyrinthos" was formed from a kindred form of the same
+word. The discovery that the great Minoan foundation at Cnossus was at
+once a palace and a sanctuary of the Double Axe and its associated
+divinities has now supplied a striking and it may well be thought an
+overwhelming confirmation of this view. We can hardly any longer
+hesitate to recognize in this vast building, with its winding corridors
+and subterranean ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a
+matter of fact a maze pattern recalling the conventional representation
+of the Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of
+the corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not to connect
+the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace illustrating the
+cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in which girls as well as youths
+took part, with the legend of the Minotaur, or bull of Minos, for whose
+grisly meals Athens was forced to pay annual tribute of her sons and
+daughters. It appears certain from the associations in which they are
+found at Cnossus, that these Minoan bull sports formed part of a
+religious ceremony. Actual figures of a monster with a bull's head and
+man's body occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other
+Cretan sites.
+
+
+  Historic substratum of Cretan myths.
+
+It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may have been
+interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they have a solid
+substratum of reality. With such remains before us it is no longer
+sufficient to relegate Minos to the regions of sun-myths. His legendary
+presentation as the "Friend of God," like Abraham, to whom as to Moses
+the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls up indeed just such a
+priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctuary of Cnossus itself
+presupposes. It seems possible even that the ancient tradition which
+recorded an earlier or later king of the name of Minos may, as suggested
+above, cover a dynastic title. The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus
+and Phaestus, and the interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a
+succession of dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it
+is certainly convenient to apply the name "Minoan." It is interesting,
+as bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat, that
+an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the later
+palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two official signets
+with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the "associations"
+on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear that the later traditions
+in many respects accurately summed up the performances of the "Minoan"
+dynast who carried out the great buildings now brought to light. The
+palace, with its wonderful works of art, executed for Minos by the
+craftsman Daedalus, has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The
+extraordinary architectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science
+revealed in details of the building, bring us at the same time face to
+face with the power of mechanical invention with which Daedalus was
+credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic control visible in the
+clay documents of the palace point to a highly developed legal
+organization. The powerful fleet and maritime empire which Minos was
+said to have established will no doubt receive fuller illustration when
+the sea-town of Cnossus comes to be explored. The appearance of ships on
+some of the most important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to
+show how widely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouring
+Mediterranean regions.
+
+
+  Early relations with Egypt.
+
+  The Kefts and Philistines.
+
+  Early relations with Cyprus and N. Aegean.
+
+The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other fabrics of
+the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime activity on the part of
+the islanders going back to the days of the first Egyptian dynasties. In
+a deposit at Kahun, belonging to the XIIth Dynasty, c. 2000 B.C., were
+already found imported polychrome vases of "Middle Minoan" fabric. In
+the same way the important part played by Cretan enterprise in the days
+of the New Egyptian empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late
+Minoan pottery on Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover,
+belonging to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the
+representatives of the Kefts or peoples of "The Ring" and of the "Lands
+to the West" in the fashionable costume of the Cnossian court, bearing
+precious vessels and other objects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to
+the east the recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer
+have brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the
+later palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known in
+the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the Minoan name
+and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at Gaza to the latest
+classical days. Similar evidence of Minoan contact, and indeed of
+wholesale colonization from the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The
+culture of the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us by the
+excavations of the British School at Phylakopi in Melos, also attest a
+growing influence from the Cretan side, which, about the time of the
+later palace at Cnossus, becomes finally predominant.
+
+
+  Minoan influence on mainland of Greece.
+
+Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing remains of
+a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which Schliemann first
+brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae, and which from those discoveries
+received the general name of "Mycenaean," in the main represent a
+transmarine offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlier remains both at
+Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectly investigated, show that this
+Cretan influence goes back to the Middle Minoan age, with its
+characteristic style of polychrome vase decoration. The contents of the
+royal tombs, on the other hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with
+the fabrics of the first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan
+age, as illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the
+later palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada.
+The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to be slightly
+lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the painted vases and gold
+cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta, with their marvellous reliefs
+showing scenes of bull-hunting, represent the late palace style at
+Cnossus in its final development.
+
+The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are thus
+indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites are similar, and
+the religious representations show an identical form of worship. At the
+same time the local traditions and conditions differentiate the
+continental from the insular branch. In Crete, in the later period, when
+the rulers could trust to the "wooden walls" of the Minoan navy, there
+is no parallel for the massive fortifications that we see at Tiryns or
+Mycenae. The colder winter climate of mainland Greece dictated the use
+of fixed hearths, whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been
+of a portable kind, and the different usage in this respect again
+reacted on the respective forms of the principal hall or "Megaron."
+
+
+  Minoan influences in N. Greece.
+
+Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on the
+Acropolis at Athens,--a corroboration of the tradition which made the
+Athenians send their tribute children to Minos. Similar traces extend
+through a large part of northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to
+Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near mod. Volo), the
+legendary embarking place of the Argonauts. This circumstance deserves
+attention owing to the special connexion traditionally existing between
+the Minyans of Iolcus and those of Orchomenus, the point of all others
+on this side where the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken
+root. The Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest
+period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between the
+name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race, and that
+of Minos.
+
+
+  Adriatic and Italian extension.
+
+Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is
+perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its
+traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It is well marked
+throughout southern Italy from Taranto to Naples. It was with Sicily,
+however, that the later history of Minos and his great craftsman
+Daedalus was in a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as
+in Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx, and it
+was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western campaign, was said
+to have met with a violent death at the hands of the native king Kokalos
+(Cocalus) and his daughters. His name is preserved in the Sicilian
+Minoa, and his tomb was pointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum,
+with a shrine above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the
+dove; and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx
+perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of the
+worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed to us in the
+palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancient indications of a Minoan
+connexion with Sicily have now received interesting confirmation in the
+numerous discoveries, principally due to the recent excavations of P.
+Orsi, of arms and painted vases of Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age
+tombs of the provinces of Syracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging
+to the late Bronze Age. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of
+swords and vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals
+going back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age.
+
+
+  Minoan crisis: c. 1400 B.C.
+
+The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preserved by
+Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of the Greeks in
+Crete to a widespread desolation that had fallen on the central regions.
+It is certain that by the beginning of the 14th century B.C., when the
+signs of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the imported
+pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna, some heavy
+blows had fallen on the island power. Shortly before this date the
+palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus had undergone a great destruction,
+and though during the ensuing period both these royal residences were
+partially reoccupied it was for the most part at any rate by poorer
+denizens, and their great days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere
+at Cnossus, in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the
+town houses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followed by
+an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again at Palaikastro
+and other early settlements in the east of Crete. At the same time, to
+whatever cause this serious setback of Minoan civilization was owing, it
+would be very unsafe to infer as yet any large displacement of the
+original inhabitants by the invading swarms from the mainland or
+elsewhere. The evidence of a partial restoration of the domestic quarter
+of the palace of Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic
+continuity. There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the
+indigenous language did not die out during this period, and that
+therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not yet. The
+recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to the close of the great
+palace period, and in a greater degree to the age succeeding the
+catastrophe, has now conclusively shown that there was no real break in
+the continuity of Minoan culture. This third Late Minoan period--the
+beginning of which may be fixed about 1400--is an age of stagnation and
+decline, but the point of departure continued to be the models supplied
+by the age that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, and
+its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives of the
+great palace style. Not only the native form of writing, but the
+household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious rites remain
+substantially the same. The third Late Minoan age corresponds generally
+with the Late Mycenaean stage in the Aegean world (see AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION). It is an age indeed in which the culture as a whole,
+though following a lower level, attains the greatest amount of
+uniformity. From Sicily and even the Spanish coast to the Troad,
+southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and Palestine,--from the Nile valley to the
+mouth of the Po, very similar forms were now diffused. Here and there,
+as in Cyprus, we watch the development of some local schools. How far
+Crete itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonably be
+ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It is certain
+that towards the close of this third and concluding Late Minoan period
+in the island certain mainland types of swords and safety-pins make
+their appearance, which are symptomatic of the great invasion from that
+side that was now impending or had already begun.
+
+
+_Principal Minoan Sites._
+
+It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more important
+Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan sites.
+
+  _Cnossus._--The palace of Cnossus is on the hill of Kephala about 4 m.
+  inland from Candia. As a scene of human settlement this site is of
+  immense antiquity. The successive "Minoan" strata, which go well back
+  into the fourth millennium B.C., reach down to a depth of about 17 ft.
+  But below this again is a human deposit, from 20 to 26 ft. in
+  thickness, representing a long and gradual course of Neolithic or
+  Later Stone-Age development. Assuming that the lower strata were
+  formed at approximately the same rate as the upper, we have an
+  antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the first
+  Neolithic settlement on this spot. The hill itself, like a Tell of
+  Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements. The
+  palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way
+  communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill. This
+  road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal armoury,
+  and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two sides (theatral
+  area). The palace itself approximately formed a square with a large
+  paved court in the centre. It had a N.S. orientation. The principal
+  entrance was to the north, but what appears to have been the royal
+  entrance opened on a paved court on the west side. This entrance
+  communicated with a corridor showing frescoes of a processional
+  character. The west side of the palace contained a series of 18
+  magazines with great store jars and cists and large hoards of clay
+  documents. A remarkable feature of this quarter is a small council
+  chamber with a gypsum throne of curiously Gothic aspect and lower
+  stone benches round. The walls of the throne room show frescoes with
+  sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile landscape, and a
+  small bath chamber--perhaps of ritual use--is attached. This quarter
+  of the palace shows the double axe sign constantly repeated on its
+  walls and pillars, and remains of miniature wall-paintings showing
+  pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes stuck into the wooden
+  columns. Here too were found the repositories of an early shrine
+  containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs, including a snake
+  goddess--another aspect of the native divinity--and her votaries. The
+  central object of cult in this shrine was apparently a marble cross.
+  Near the north-west angle of the palace was a larger bath chamber, and
+  by the N. entrance were remains of great reliefs of bull-hunting
+  scenes in painted _gesso duro_. South of the central court were found
+  parts of a relief in the same material, showing a personage with a
+  fleur-de-lis crown and collar. The east wing of the palace was the
+  really residential part. Here was what seems to have been the basement
+  of a very large hall or "Megaron," approached directly from the
+  central court, and near this were found further reliefs, fresco
+  representations of scenes of the bull-ring with female as well as male
+  toreadors, and remains of a magnificent gaming-board of gold-plated
+  ivory with intarsia work of crystal plaques set on silver plates and
+  blue enamel (_cyanus_). The true domestic quarter lay to the south of
+  the great hall, and was approached from the central court by a
+  descending staircase, of which three flights and traces of a fourth
+  are preserved. This gives access to a whole series of halls and
+  private rooms (halls "of the Colonnades," "of the Double Axes,"
+  "Queen's Megaron" with bath-room attached and remains of the fish
+  fresco, "Treasury" with ivory figures and other objects of art),
+  together with extensive remains of an upper storey. The drainage
+  system here, including a water-closet, is of the most complete and
+  modern kind. Near this domestic quarter was found a small shrine of
+  the Double Axes, with cult objects and offertory vessels in their
+  places. The traces of an earlier "Middle Minoan" palace beneath the
+  later floor-levels are most visible on the east side, with splendid
+  ceramic remains. Here also are early magazines with huge store jars.
+  At the foot of the slope on this side, forming the eastern boundary of
+  the palace, are massive supporting walls and a bastion with descending
+  flights of steps, and a water-channel devised with extraordinary
+  hydraulic science (Evans, "Palace of Knossos," "Reports of Excavations
+  1900-1905," in _Annual of British School at Athens_, vi. sqq.; _Journ.
+  R.I.B.A._ (1902), pt. iv. For the palace pottery see D. Mackenzie,
+  _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxiii.). The palace site occupies nearly
+  six acres. To the N.E. of it came to light a "royal villa" with
+  staircase, and a basilica-like hall (Evans, _B.S. Annual_, ix. 130
+  seq.). To the N.W. was a dependency containing an important hoard of
+  bronze vessels (ib. p. 112 sqq.). The building on the hill to the W.
+  approached by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller
+  palace (_B.S. Annual_, xii., 1906). Many remains of private houses
+  belonging to the prehistoric town have also come to light (Hogarth,
+  _B.S.A._ vi. [1900], p. 70 sqq.). A little N. of the town, at a spot
+  called Zafer Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated
+  in 1904 (Evans, _The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus_, 1906), and on a
+  height about 2 m. N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square
+  chamber, which originally had a pointed vault of "Cyclopaean"
+  structure approached by a forehall or rock-cut passage. This
+  monumental work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age,
+  but has been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans,
+  _Archaeologia_, 1906, p. 136 sqq.). It is possibly the traditional
+  tomb of Idomeneus. (For later discoveries see further CNOSSUS.)
+
+  _Phaestus._--The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan
+  Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara. On the eastern hill
+  of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F. Halbherr on behalf of
+  the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out by L.
+  Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much resembling
+  on a somewhat smaller scale that of Cnossus. The plan here too was
+  roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing to the erosion of
+  the hillside a good deal of the eastern quarter has disappeared. The
+  Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods, and the earlier or
+  "Middle Minoan" part is better preserved than at Cnossus. The west
+  court and entrance belonging to the earlier building show many
+  analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court was commanded to the
+  north by tiers of stone benches like those of the "theatral area" at
+  Cnossus on a larger scale. Magazines with fine painted store jars came
+  to light beneath the floor of the later "propylaeum." The most
+  imposing block of the later building is formed by a group of
+  structures rising from the terrace formed by the old west wall. A fine
+  paved corridor running east from this gives access to a line of the
+  later magazines, and through a columnar hall to the central court
+  beyond, while to the left of this a broad and stately flight of steps
+  leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper terrace. North of the
+  central court is a domestic quarter presenting analogies with that of
+  Cnossus, but throughout the later building there was a great dearth of
+  the frescoes and other remains such as invest the Cnossian palace with
+  so much interest. There are also few remaining traces here of upper
+  storeys. It is evident that in this case also the palace was overtaken
+  by a great catastrophe, followed by a partial reoccupation towards the
+  close of the Late Minoan age (L. Pernier, _Scavi della missione
+  italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti antichi_, xii. and xiv.).
+
+  About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near the village
+  of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light in 1901,
+  belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni, _Necropoli
+  di Phaestos_, 1905).
+
+  _Hagia Triada._--On a low hill crowned by a small church of the above
+  name, about 3 m. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a small palace
+  or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavated by the Italian
+  Mission. In its structure and general arrangements it bears a general
+  resemblance to the palace of Phaestus and Cnossus on a smaller scale.
+  The buildings themselves, with the usual halls, bath-rooms and
+  magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother Goddess, occupy two
+  sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a higher level approached
+  by flights of stairs. Repositories also came to light containing
+  treasure in the shape of bronze ingots. In contrast to the palace of
+  Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved exceptionally rich,
+  and derive a special interest from the fact that the catastrophe which
+  overwhelmed the building belongs to a somewhat earlier part of the
+  Late Minoan age than that which overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus. Clay
+  tablets were here found belonging to the earlier type of the linear
+  script (Class A), together with a great number of clay sealings with
+  religious and other devices and incised countermarks. Both the signet
+  types and the other objects of art here discovered display the fresh
+  naturalism that characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan
+  period. A remarkable wall-painting depicts a cat creeping over
+  ivy-covered rocks and about to spring on a pheasant. The steatite
+  vases with reliefs are of great importance. One of these shows a
+  ritual procession, apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the
+  sound of a sistrum. On another a Minoan warrior prince appears before
+  his retainers. A tall funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a
+  considerable part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing
+  bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume,
+  the whole executed in a most masterly manner. The small palace was
+  reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level. To a
+  period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian palace
+  must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging to a neighbouring
+  cemetery. The chest is of limestone coated with stucco, adorned with
+  life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with the sacred
+  Double Axes of Minoan cult. There have also come to light remains of a
+  great domed mortuary chamber of primitive construction containing
+  relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr, _Monumenti Antichi_,
+  xiii. (1903), p. 6 sqq., and _Memorie del instituto lombardo_, 1905;
+  Paribeni, _Lavori eseguiti della missione italiana nel Palazzo e nella
+  necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti_, &c., xi. and xii.; Savignoni,
+  _Il Vaso di Haghia Triada_).
+
+  _Palaikastro._--Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of
+  Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a
+  considerable Minoan town. The buildings here show a stratification
+  analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus. The town was traversed by
+  a well-paved street with a stone sewer, and contained several
+  important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been a
+  small palace. Among the more interesting relics found were ivory
+  figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric. On an adjacent
+  hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times a
+  temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich deposits
+  of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the
+  religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back
+  to prehistoric times. On the neighbouring height of Petsofa, by a
+  rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to
+  light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interesting
+  votive offerings of terra-cotta, many of them apparently relating to
+  cures or to the warding off of diseases (R. C. Bosanquet, _British
+  School Annual_, viii. 286 sqq., ix. 274 sqq.; R. M. Dawkins, ibid. ix.
+  290 sqq., x.; J. L. Myres, ibid. ix. 356 sqq.).
+
+
+PLATE I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--PALACE OF CNOSSUS. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM
+THE EAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--VIEW OF PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF
+COLONNADES (WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUS).]
+
+(_By permission of Dr A. J. Evans._)
+
+
+PLATE II.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--LARGE OIL-JARS IN EAST MAGAZINES (CNOSSUS).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE ON WALL)
+(CNOSSUS).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).]
+
+(_By permission of Dr A. J. Evans._)
+
+  _Gournia._--Near this hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in
+  east Crete, the American archaeologist Miss Harriet Boyd has excavated
+  a great part of another Minoan town. It covers the sides of a long
+  hill, its main avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small
+  palace. It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was
+  rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and
+  pottery for household use. The bulk of the remains belong here, as at
+  Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but there
+  are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age. The remains
+  supply detailed information as to the everyday life of a Cretan
+  country town about the middle of the second millennium B.C. (H. Boyd,
+  _Excavations at Gournia_).
+
+  _Zakro._--Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast
+  important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia
+  were explored by D. G. Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits
+  containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety
+  of seal impressions. The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known
+  port of call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds
+  of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same stead to the
+  Minoan shipping (D. G. Hogarth, _Annual of the British School_, vii.
+  121 sqq., and _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. 76 sqq. and 333
+  sqq.).
+
+  _Dictaean Cave._--Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range,
+  answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with
+  the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. This cavern also shared
+  with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos,
+  Moses-like, received the law from Zeus. The exploration begun by the
+  Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found here
+  the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by Hogarth in
+  1900. Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern, which served as
+  the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a lower sanctuary
+  going down deep into the bowels of the earth. Great quantities of
+  votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish double axes and
+  stone tables of offering, were found both above and below. In the
+  lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite had been used as
+  objects of worship, and bronze votive objects thrust into their
+  crevices (Halbherr, _Museo di antichita classica_, ii. pp. 906-910;
+  Evans, _Further Discoveries_, &c., p. 350 sqq., _Myc. Tree and Pillar
+  Cult_, p. 14 sqq.; Hogarth, "The Dictaean Cave," _Annual of British
+  School at Athens_, vi. 94 sqq.).
+
+  _Pseira and Mochlos._--On these two islets on the northern coast of E.
+  Crete, R. Seager, an American explorer, has found striking remains of
+  flourishing Minoan settlements. The contents of a series of tombs at
+  Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of the Early
+  Minoan age.
+
+
+  Third Late Minoan period.
+
+The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea of the extent to
+which the remains of the great Minoan civilization are spread throughout
+the island. The "hundred cities" ascribed to Crete by Homer are in a
+fair way of becoming an ascertained reality. The great days of Crete lie
+thus beyond the historic period. The period of decline referred to above
+(Late Minoan III.), which begins about the beginning of the 14th century
+before our era, must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of
+considerable duration. As to the character of the invading elements that
+hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary
+Egyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu who represented
+Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period of the Cnossian palace
+(Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on Egyptian monuments towards the end
+of the XVIIIth Dynasty (c. 1350 B.C.), and their place is taken by the
+"Peoples of the Sea." The Achaeans, under the name _Akaiusha_, already
+appear among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of Rameses III.
+(c. 1200 B.C.) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall, "Keftiu and the
+Peoples of the Sea," _Annual of British School at Athens_, viii. 157
+sqq.).
+
+
+  Greek settlementsin Crete.
+
+About the same time the evidences of imports of Late Minoan or
+"Mycenaean" fabrics in Egypt definitely cease. In the _Odyssey_ we
+already find the Achaeans together with Dorians settled in central
+Crete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal
+"Eteocretan" element, however, as represented respectively by the
+Praesians or Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions written in
+Greek characters show that the old language survived to the centuries
+immediately preceding the Christian era.
+
+
+  The dark ages.
+
+The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic changes in
+Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of widespread destruction and
+by a considerable break in the continuity of the insular civilization.
+New burial customs, notably the rite of cremation in place of the older
+corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier tombs were
+pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use of iron for arms and
+implements now finally triumphed over bronze. Northern forms of swords
+and safety-pins are now found in general use. A new geometrical style of
+decoration like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan
+models. The civic foundations which belong to this period, and which
+include the greater part of the massive ruins of Goulas and Anavlachos
+in the province of Mirabello and of Hyrtakina in the west, affect more
+or less precipitous sites and show a greater tendency to fortification.
+The old system of writing now dies out, and it is not till some three
+centuries later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a
+Semitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilization is
+awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true dark ages
+of Greece.
+
+It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were
+preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced to a subject
+condition, and that these finally leavened the whole lump, so that once
+more--this time under a Hellenic guise--Crete was enabled to anticipate
+mainland Greece in nascent civilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhofer
+(_Anfange der Kunst_) had called attention to certain remarkable
+examples of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery of
+the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and notably the
+shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that by the 8th century
+B.C. Cretan technique in metal not only held its own beside imported
+Cypro-Phoenician work, but was distinctly ahead of that of the rest of
+Greece (Halbherr, _Bronzi del antro di Zeus Ideo_). The recent
+excavations by the British School on the site of the Dictaean temple at
+Palaikastro bear out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of
+Apollo found at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at
+fault in recording the existence of a very early school of Greek
+sculpture in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and
+Scyllis.
+
+The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed descent
+from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their sanction in the laws
+which Minos was said to have received from the hands of the Cretan Zeus.
+The great monument of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius
+(_Monumenti antichi_, iii.) is the most important monument of early law
+hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world.
+
+
+  Greek remains.
+
+Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned, besides the
+great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian Apollo at Gortyna,
+a plain square building with a _pronaos_ added in later times, excavated
+by Halbherr, 1885 and 1887 (_Mon. Ant._ iii. 2 seqq.), the Hellenic
+bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city walls of
+Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the rock-cut throne
+of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a temple. The most
+interesting record, however, that has been preserved of later Hellenic
+civilization in the island is the coinage of the Cretan cities (J. N.
+Svoronos, _Numismatique de la Crete ancienne_; W. Wroth, _B. M. Coin
+Catalogue, Crete, &c._; P. Gardner, _The Types of Greek Coins_), which
+during the good period display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style
+distinct from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes
+indicative of a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these
+artistic efforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses into
+barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions.
+
+
+  Roman remains.
+
+Under the _Pax Romana_, the Cretan cities again enjoyed a large measure
+of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices still existing at the
+time of the Venetian occupation. A good account of these is preserved
+in a MS. description of the island drawn up under the Venetians about
+1538, and existing in the library of St Mark (published by Falkener,
+_Museum of Classical Antiquities_, ii. pp. 263-303). Very little of all
+this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest and the ravages caused
+by the incessant insurrections of the last two centuries. The ruin-field
+of Gortyna still evokes something of the importance that it possessed in
+Imperial days, and at Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple
+of Aesculapius and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this
+city. At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Roman
+monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly disappeared.
+Among the early Christian remains of the island far and away the most
+important is the church of St Titus at Gortyna, which perhaps dates from
+the Constantinian age.
+
+  LITERATURE.--See the authorities already quoted, for further details.
+  Previous to the extensive excavations referred to above, Crete had
+  been carefully examined and explored by Tournefort, Pococke, Olivier
+  and other travellers, e.g. Pashley (_Travels in Crete_, 2 vols.,
+  London, 1837) and Captain Spratt (_Travels and Researches in Crete_, 2
+  vols., London, 1865). A survey sufficiently accurate as regards the
+  maritime parts was also executed, under the orders of the British
+  admiralty, by Captain Graves and Captain (afterwards Admiral) Spratt.
+  Most that can be gathered from ancient authors concerning the
+  mythology and early history of the island is brought together by
+  Meursius (_Creta_, &c., in the 3rd vol. of his works) and Hoeck
+  (_Kreta_, 3 vols., Gottingen, 1823-1829), but the latter work was
+  published before the researches which have thrown so much light on the
+  topography and antiquities of the island. Much new material,
+  especially as to the western provinces of Crete, has been recently
+  collected by members of the Italian Archaeological Mission (_Monumenti
+  Antichi_, vol. vi. 154 seqq., ix. 286, 1899; xi. 286 seqq.). (A. J.
+  E.)
+
+
+_History._
+
+_Ancient._--Lying midway between three continents, Crete was from the
+earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the passage of early
+culture from Egypt and the East to mainland Greece. On all this the
+recent archaeological discoveries (see the section on ARCHAEOLOGY) have
+thrown great light, but the earliest written history of Crete, like that
+of most parts of continental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and
+fable to so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any
+clear conclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimed for
+their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parent of all
+the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the Olympian
+deities. But passing from this region of pure mythology to the
+semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early legends and
+traditions of the island grouped around the name of Minos. According to
+the received tradition, Minos was a king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a
+son of Zeus, and enjoyed through life the privilege of habitual
+intercourse with his divine father. It was from this source that he
+derived the wisdom which enabled him to give to the Cretans the
+excellent system of laws and governments that earned for him the
+reputation of being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same
+time he was reported to have been the first monarch who established a
+naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks the
+_Thalassocracy_, or dominion of the sea.
+
+This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact both by
+Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few years received
+striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recently brought to light
+on Cretan soil tend to show that already some 2000 years before the
+Dorian conquest the island was exercising a dominant influence in the
+Aegean world. The great palaces now excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus,
+as well as the royal villa of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive
+phases of a brilliant primitive civilization which had already attained
+mature development by the date of the XIIth Egyptian dynasty. To this
+civilization as a whole it is convenient to give the name "Minoan," and
+the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover a dynastic
+even more than a personal significance in much the same way as such
+historic terms as "Pharaoh" or "Caesar."
+
+The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual existence
+of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as Sicily and on the
+other as the coast of Canaan. The historic tradition which identifies
+with the Cretans the principal element of the Philistine confederation,
+and places the tomb of Minos himself in western Sicily, thus receives
+remarkable confirmation. Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked
+by the occurrence of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of
+Minoan fabric among the remains of the XVIIIth, XIIth and even earlier
+dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian fabrics
+to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in the Homeric
+poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan civilization was
+already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only Greek people who
+attempted to compete with the Phoenicians as bold and adventurous
+navigators. In the Homeric age the population of Crete was of a very
+mixed character, and we are told in the _Odyssey_ (xix. 175) that
+besides the Eteocretes, who, as their name imports, must have been the
+original inhabitants, the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and
+Dorians. Subsequently the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by
+fresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during the historical
+period all the principal cities of the island were either Dorian
+colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect and institutions. It is
+certain that at a very early period the Cretan cities were celebrated
+for their laws and system of government, and the most extensive monument
+of early Greek law is the great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884.
+The origin of the Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but
+they had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as well
+as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed, according to
+one tradition, copied in great measure from those already existing in
+Crete.[2]
+
+It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have possessed
+for the internal regulation of the different cities, they had the one
+glaring defect, that they made no provision for any federal bond or
+union among them, or for the government of the island as a whole. It was
+owing to the want of this that the Cretans scarcely figure in Greek
+history as a people, though the island, as observed by Aristotle, would
+seem from its natural position calculated to exercise a preponderating
+influence over Greek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the
+Persian or in the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil
+contests in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were
+engaged. At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on
+this account that the few notices we find of them in history always
+represent them as engaged in local wars among one another; and Polybius
+tells us that the history of Crete was one continued series of civil
+wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosity exceeding all that
+was known in the rest of Greece.
+
+In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took the
+lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of _hegemony_ or supremacy over the
+whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia. But besides these
+three, there were many other independent cities, which, though they
+generally followed the lead of one or other of these more powerful
+rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy, and were able to shift at will from
+one alliance to another. Among the most important of these were--Lyttus
+or Lyctus, in the interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between
+Cnossus and Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna
+and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the island;
+Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda; Eleutherna and Axus, on
+the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and Lappa, between the White Mountains
+and the sea. Phalasarna on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north,
+seem to have been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia
+and Lyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains just above
+the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island were Praesus in
+the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east, while Hierapytna
+on the south coast was the only place of importance on the side facing
+Africa, and on this account rose under the Romans to be one of the
+principal cities of the island.     (A. J. E.)
+
+_Medieval to 19th Century._--Though it was continually torn by civil
+dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the various
+Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but having incurred the
+enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the great Mithradates, and
+afterwards by taking active part with their neighbours, the pirates of
+Cilicia, the Cretans were at length attacked by the Roman arms, and,
+after a resistance protracted for more than three years, were finally
+subdued by Q. Metellus, who earned by this success the surname of
+Creticus (67 B.C.). The island was now reduced to a Roman province, and
+subsequently united for administrative purposes with the district of
+Cyrenaica or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This
+arrangement lasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete was
+incorporated in the prefecture of Illyria. It continued to form part of
+the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fell into the hands
+of the Saracens (823). It then became a formidable nest of pirates and a
+great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of the Byzantine sovereigns
+to recover it till the year 960, when it was reconquered by Nicephorus
+Phocas. In the partition of the Greek empire after the capture of
+Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface,
+marquis of Montferrat, but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus
+passed under the dominion of that great republic, to which it continued
+subject for more than four centuries.
+
+Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally built by the
+Saracens, and called by them "Khandax," became the seat of government,
+and not only rose to be the capital and chief city of the island, but
+actually gave name to it, so that it was called in the official language
+of Venice "the island of Candia," a designation which from thence passed
+into modern maps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however,
+always retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its
+place in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Crete by the
+Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other dependencies, very
+arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous insurrections were the
+consequence. Daru, in his history of Venice, mentions fourteen between
+the years 1207 and 1365, the most important being that of 1361-1364,--a
+revolt not of the natives against the rule of their Venetian masters,
+but of the Venetian colonists against the republic. But with all its
+defects their administration did much to promote the material prosperity
+of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it is
+probable that the island was more prosperous than at any subsequent
+time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to the islanders external
+tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks were content to leave
+them in undisturbed possession of this opulent and important island for
+nearly two centuries after the fall of Constantinople. The Cretans
+themselves, however, were eager for a change, and, disappointed in the
+hope of a Genoese occupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of
+a Venetian commissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that
+of the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at any
+rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that the Turks made
+any serious attempt to effect the conquest of the island; but in that
+year they landed with an army of 50,000 men, and speedily reduced the
+important city of Canea. Retimo fell the following year, and in 1648
+they laid siege to the capital city of Candia. This was the longest
+siege on record, having been protracted for more than twenty years; but
+in 1667 it was pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand
+vizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled to surrender
+(September 1669). Its fall was followed by the submission of the whole
+island. Venice was allowed to retain possession of Grabusa, Suda and
+Spinalonga on the north, but in 1718 these three strongholds reverted to
+the Turks, and the island was finally lost to Venice.
+
+From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule without
+interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution. After the
+conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced Mahommedanism, and
+thus secured to themselves the chief share in the administration of the
+island. But far from this having a favourable effect upon the condition
+of the population, the result was just the contrary, and according to R.
+Pashley (_Travels in Crete_, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province
+of the Turkish empire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero
+of which was "Master" John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with great
+cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinople were wholly
+unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, who exercised without
+restraint every kind of violence and oppression. In 1813 the ruthless
+severity of the governor-general, Haji Osman, who obtained the
+co-operation of the Christians, broke the power of the janissaries; but
+after Osman had fallen a victim to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete
+again came under their control. When in 1821 the revolution broke out in
+continental Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a
+massacre at Canea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They
+carried on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves
+masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks and
+Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities. The sultan
+then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, who
+despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilities continued with no
+decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of further reinforcements
+enabled the Turkish commander to reduce the island to submission. In
+1827 the battle of Navarino took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February)
+Greece was declared independent. The allied powers (France, England and
+Russia) decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the
+islands annexed to the newly-formed kingdom of Greece; but recognizing
+that some change was necessary, they obtained from the sultan Mahmud II.
+its cession to Egypt, which was confirmed by a firman of the 20th of
+December 1832. This change of masters brought some relief to the
+unfortunate Cretans, who at least exchanged the licence of local misrule
+for the oppression of an organized despotism; and the government of
+Mustafa Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for
+a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and intelligent
+than that of most Turkish governors. He encouraged agriculture, improved
+the roads, introduced an Albanian police, and put down brigandage. The
+period of his administration has been called the "golden age" of Crete.
+
+In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced under the
+dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still retained his
+governorship until he left for Constantinople to become grand vizier in
+1852. Four years later an insurrection broke out, owing to the violation
+of the provisions of an imperial decree (February 1856), whereby liberty
+of conscience and equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been
+conferred upon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms
+until a firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised
+concessions. These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the
+inhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up for
+presentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan's reply was
+couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were ordered to render
+unquestioning obedience to the authorities. After a period of great
+distress and cruel oppression, in 1866, on the demand for reforms being
+again refused, a general insurrection took place, which was only put
+down by great exertions on the part of the Porte. It was followed by the
+concession of additional privileges to the Christians of the island and
+of a kind of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in
+what is known as the "Organic Statute" of 1868. (J. H. F.)
+
+
+  Pact of Halepa.
+
+  Insurrection of 1896-97.
+
+_Modern Constitutional._--Cretan constitutional history may be said to
+date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrection which had
+extended over three years, the Turkish government consented to grant a
+certain measure of autonomy to the island. The privileges now accorded
+were embodied in what is known as the Organic Statute, an instrument
+which eventually obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by
+Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be
+introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Various privileges
+already acquired by the Christian population were confirmed; a general
+council, or representative body, was brought into existence, composed of
+deputies from every district in the island; mixed tribunals were
+introduced, together with a highly elaborate administrative system,
+under which all the more important functionaries, Christian and
+Mussulman, were provided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The new
+constitution, however, proved costly and unworkable, and failed to
+satisfy either section of the population. The Christians were ready for
+another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government, finding Hellenic
+aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano, gave the signal for
+agitation in the island. During the insurrection which followed, the
+usual barbarities were committed on both sides; the Christians betook
+themselves to the mountains, and the Mussulman peasants crowded into the
+fortified towns. Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of
+England, which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was ready
+to accept, and the convention known as the Pact of Halepa was drawn up
+in 1878 under the auspices of Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and
+Adossides Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan
+population. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute were
+confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and administrative
+systems were maintained; the judges were declared independent of the
+executive, and an Assembly composed of forty-nine Christian and
+thirty-one Mussulman deputies took the place of the former general
+council. A parliamentary regime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare
+for a time took the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems
+attaching themselves to one or other of the political factions which now
+made their appearance among the Christians. The material interests of
+the island were neglected in the scramble for place and power; the
+finances fell into disorder, and the party which came off worst in the
+struggle systematically intrigued against the governor-general of the
+day and conspired with his enemies at Constantinople. A crisis came
+about in 1889, when the "Conservative" leaders, finding themselves in a
+minority in the chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains.
+Though the outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latent
+fanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island once more
+became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the two preceding
+movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavourably for the
+Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greek government to persuade
+the insurgents not to oppose the occupation of several strategic posts,
+despatched a military governor to the island, proclaimed martial law,
+and issued a firman abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa
+Pact. The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the number of
+its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had hitherto been
+shared with the island, was appropriated by the Turkish treasury. The
+firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it violated a convention possessing a
+quasi-international sanction, but the Christians were unable to resist,
+and the powers abstained from intervention. The elections held under the
+new system proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls,
+and for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a
+succession of Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad to worse,
+the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, which received no
+pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied. In 1894 the Porte, at
+the instance of the powers, nominated a Christian, Karatheodory Pasha,
+to the governorship, and the Christians, mollified by the concession,
+agreed to take part in the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked;
+no steps, however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which
+became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. The refusal
+of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been illegally
+diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction a loan to meet
+immediate requirements caused no little exasperation in the island,
+which was increased by the recall of Karatheodory (March 1895). Before
+that event an Epitrope, or "Committee of Reform," had appeared in the
+mountains--the harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the
+emancipation of Crete. The Epitrope was at first nothing more than a
+handful of discontented politicians who had failed to find places in the
+administration, but some slight reverses which it succeeded in
+inflicting on the Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians
+to its side, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest
+the important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantry now flocked
+to the fortified towns and civil war began. Serious disturbances broke
+out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were only quelled by the arrival of
+foreign warships. The foreign consuls intervened in the hope of bringing
+about a peaceful settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment
+of force, and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of
+that town with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detachment
+through the western districts, where other garrisons were besieged, was
+marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000 Christian peasants took
+refuge on the desolate promontory of Spada, where they suffered extreme
+privations. These events, which produced much excitement in Greece,
+quickened the energies of the powers. An international blockade of the
+island was proposed by Austria but rejected by England. The ambassadors
+at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the Porte, and the Sultan,
+alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian outbreak, began to display a
+conciliatory disposition. The Pact of Halepa was restored, the troops
+were withdrawn from the interior, financial aid was promised to the
+island, a Christian governor-general was appointed, the assembly was
+summoned, and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an
+arrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderate scheme of
+reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a few exceptions, were
+approved by the powers and eventually sanctioned by the sultan.
+
+
+  Greek Intervention.
+
+  Decision of the powers.
+
+On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted the new
+constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers for their
+intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the arrangement, which
+the powers undertook to guarantee, and, notwithstanding some symptoms of
+discontent at Candia, there was every reason to hope that the island was
+now entering upon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident,
+however, that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of
+the new reforms. Several months passed without any step being taken
+towards this realization; difficulties were raised with regard to the
+composition of the international commissions charged with the
+reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial system; intrigues were set
+on foot against the Christian governor-general; and the presence of a
+special imperial commissioner, who had no place under the constitution,
+proved so injurious to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers
+demanded his immediate recall. The indignation of the Christians
+increased, a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants
+refused to return to their homes. A new factor now became apparent in
+Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek government had
+loyally co-operated with the powers in their efforts for the
+pacification of the island, but towards the close of the year a secret
+society known as the Ethnike Hetaeria began to arrogate to itself the
+direction of Greek foreign policy. The aim of the society was a war with
+Turkey with a view to the acquisition of Macedonia, and it found a ready
+instrument for its designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan
+Christians. Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large
+consignments of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the
+island was practically in a state of insurrection. On the 21st of
+January the Greek fleet was mobilized. Affairs were brought to a climax
+by a series of conflicts which took place at Canea on the 4th of
+February; the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration
+broke out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge on
+the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government now despatched an
+ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were followed a few days later by
+a torpedo flotilla commanded by Prince George. The prince soon retired
+to Melos, but on the night of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary
+force under Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its
+commander issued a proclamation announcing the occupation of the island
+in the name of King George. On the same day Georgi Pasha, the Christian
+governor-general, took refuge on board a Russian ironclad, and, on the
+next, naval detachments from the warships of the powers occupied Canea.
+This step paralysed the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few
+slight engagements with the Turks remained practically inactive in the
+interior. The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and
+their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st February).
+The intervention of Greece caused immense excitement among the Christian
+population, and terrible massacres of Moslem peasants took place in the
+eastern and western districts. The forces of the powers shortly
+afterwards occupied Candia and the other maritime towns, while the
+international fleet blockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were
+followed by the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and
+Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the decision of the powers
+that (1) Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to
+Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of
+the reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective autonomous
+administration, intended to secure to it a separate government, under
+the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at the same time summoned to
+remove its army and fleet from the island, while the Turkish troops were
+to be concentrated in the fortresses and eventually withdrawn. The
+cabinet of Athens, however, declined to recall the expeditionary force,
+which remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the
+Greek reverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its
+return. Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March). After
+the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who had hitherto
+demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced in the decision of the
+powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under its president Dr Sphakianakis,
+a man of good sense and moderation, co-operated with the international
+commanders in the maintenance of order. The pacification of the island,
+however, was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the
+inability of the powers to agree in the choice of a new
+governor-general. The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the
+withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish
+pretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the remaining
+powers divided the island into four departments, which they severally
+undertook to administer. An attack made by the Moslems of Candia on the
+British garrison of that town, with the connivance of the Turkish
+authorities, brought home to the powers the necessity of removing the
+Ottoman troops, and the last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the
+14th of November 1898.
+
+
+  Prince George's administration.
+
+On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince George of Greece as
+high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a period of three years
+(renewed in 1901) was formally announced, and on the 21st of December
+the prince landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea amid
+enthusiastic demonstrations. For some time after his arrival complete
+tranquillity prevailed in the island, but the Moslem population, reduced
+to great distress by the prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large
+numbers. On the 27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was
+voted by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local
+administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the international
+authorities. The extensive powers conferred by the constitution upon
+Prince George were increased by subsequent enactments. In 1901 M.
+Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy part in the last insurrection, was
+dismissed from the post of councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards
+became leader of a strong opposition party, which denounced the
+arbitrary methods of the government. During the next four years party
+spirit ran high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and
+politicians addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the
+following year a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised the
+standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. The insurgents,
+who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis, proclaimed the union of
+the island with Greece (March 1905), and their example was speedily
+followed by the assembly at Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their
+decision to maintain the _status quo_, and increased their military and
+naval forces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia, and
+some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place, the
+international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie. In the
+autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtained an amnesty, laid
+down their arms. A commission appointed by the powers to report on the
+administrative and financial situation drew up a series of
+recommendations in January 1906, and a constituent assembly for the
+revision of the constitution met at Canea in the following June. On the
+25th of July the powers announced a series of reforms, including the
+reorganization of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a
+preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international troops, and
+the extension to Crete of the system of financial control established in
+Greece. On the 14th of September, under an agreement dated the 14th of
+August, they invited King George of Greece, in the event of the high
+commissionership becoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post,
+to be nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the
+25th of September Prince George left the island. He had done much for
+the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party struggles and his
+attitude towards the representatives of the powers had rendered his
+position untenable. His successor, M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime
+minister of Greece, arrived in Crete on the 1st of October.
+     (J. D. B.)
+
+On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner, took the
+oath to the new constitution elaborated after much debate by the Cretan
+national assembly. His position was one of singular difficulty. Apart
+from the rivalry of the factions within the Assembly, there was the
+question of the Mussulman minority, dwindling it is true,[3] but still a
+force to be reckoned with. The high commissioner, true to his reputation
+as a prudent statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in
+dealing with the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitude
+of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to identify
+himself with any faction. In such matters as appointments to the
+judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartiality offended both parties;
+but on the whole his administration was a marked success, and the
+cessation of the chronic state of disturbance in the island justified
+the powers in preparing for the withdrawal of their troops. In spite of
+the admission of their co-religionists to high office in the government,
+the Mussulmans, it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment
+having for its object their expatriation; but these complaints were
+declared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parliament, to
+be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed the conditions
+preliminary to evacuation--(1) the organization of a native gendarmerie,
+(2) the maintenance of the tranquillity of the island, (3) the complete
+security of the Mussulman population. On the 20th of March 1908 M.
+Zaimis called the attention of the powers to the fact that these
+conditions had been fulfilled, and on the 11th of May the powers
+announced to the high commissioner their intention of beginning the
+evacuation at once and completing it within a year. The first withdrawal
+of the troops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan
+Christians, led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves
+abandoned to their fate.
+
+Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards the annexation of
+the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where he arranged for a loan
+with the Greek National Bank and engaged Greek officers for the new
+gendarmerie. The issue was precipitated by the news of the revolution in
+Turkey. On the 12th of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the
+union with Greece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis--who had gone for a
+holiday to Santa Maura--elected a committee of six to govern the island
+in the name of the king of Greece.
+
+Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memorandum addressed
+to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs. His reply, while
+stating that his government would safeguard the interests of the
+Mussulmans, left open the question of the attitude of the powers,
+complicated now by sympathy with reformed Turkey. The efforts of
+diplomacy were directed to allaying the resentment of the "Young Turks"
+on the one hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and
+meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably in the name
+of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powers announced to the
+Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance, their decision to withdraw
+their remaining troops from Crete by July 26 and to station four
+war-ships off the island to protect the Moslems and to safeguard "the
+supreme rights" of the Ottoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly
+carried out, was avowedly "provisional" and satisfied neither party,
+leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional crises
+of 1909 and 1910.     (W. A. P.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Pashley, _Travels in Crete_ (2 vols., Cambridge and
+  London, 1837); Spratt, _Travels and Researches in Crete_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1867); Raulin, _Description physique de l'ile de Crete_ (3
+  vols, and Atlas, Paris, 1869); W. J. Stillman, _The Cretan
+  Insurrection of 1866-68_ (New York, 1874); Edwardes, _Letters from
+  Crete_ (London, 1887); Stavrakis, [Greek: Statistike tou plethysmou
+  tes Kretes] (Athens, 1890); J. H. Freese, _A Short Popular History of
+  Crete_ (London, 1897); Bickford-Smith, _Cretan Sketches_ (London,
+  1897); Laroche, _La Crete ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1898); Victor
+  Berard, _Les Affaires de Crete_ (Paris, 1898); _Monumenti Veneti dell'
+  isola de Creta_ (published by the Venetian Institute), vol. i. (1906),
+  vol. ii. (1908). See also Mrs Walker, _Eastern Life and Scenery_
+  (London, 1886), and _Old Tracks and New Landmarks_ (London, 1897); H.
+  F. Tozer, _The Islands of the Aegean_ (Oxford, 1890); J. D. Bourchier,
+  "The Stronghold of the Sphakiotes," _Fortnightly Review_ (August
+  1890); E. J. Dillon, "Crete and the Cretans," _Fortnightly Review_
+  (May 1897).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See L. Cayeux, "Les Lignes directrices des plissements de l'ile
+    de Crete," _C.R. IX. Cong. geol. internat. Vienna_, pp. 383-392
+    (1904).
+
+  [2] Among the features common to the two were the _syssitia_, or
+    public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common. Indeed, the
+    Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at training
+    up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens of more
+    mature age, in all their habits and relations of life. The supreme
+    governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi, answering
+    in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was nothing
+    corresponding to the two kings at Sparta. These Cretan institutions
+    were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but receive only
+    qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle (_Polit._
+    ii. 10).
+
+  [3] The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000 in
+    1907, and the emigration was still continuing. The loss to the
+    country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has been
+    very serious.
+
+
+
+
+CRETINISM, the term given to a chronic disease, either sporadic or
+endemic, arising in early childhood, and due to absence or deficiency of
+the normal secretion of the thyroid gland. It is characterized by
+imperfect development both of mind and body. The thyroid gland is either
+congenitally absent, imperfectly developed, or there is definite goitre.
+The origin of the word is doubtful. Its southern French form _Chrestiaa_
+suggested to Michel a derivation from _cresta_ (_crete_), the goose foot
+of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots, however,
+were not cretins. The word is usually explained as derived from
+_chretien_ (Christian) in the sense of "innocent." But _Christianus_
+(which appears in the Lombard _cristanei_; compare the Savoyard
+_innocents_ and _gens du bon dieu_) is probably a translation of the
+older _cretin_, and the latter is probably connected with _creta_
+(_craie_)--a sallow or yellow-earthy complexion being a common mark of
+cretinism.
+
+The endemic form of cretinism prevails in certain districts, as in the
+valleys of central Switzerland, Tirol and the Pyrenees. In the United
+Kingdom cretins have been found in England at Oldham, Sholver Moor,
+Crompton, Duffield, Cromford (near Matlock), and other points in
+Derbyshire; endemic goitre has been seen near Nottingham, Chesterfield,
+Pontefract, Ripon, and the mountainous parts of Staffordshire and
+Yorkshire, the east of Cumberland, certain parts of Worcester, Warwick,
+Cheshire, Monmouth, and Leicester, near Horsham in Hampshire, near
+Haslemere in Surrey, and near Beaconsfield in Buckingham. There are
+cretins at Chiselborough in Somerset. In Scotland cretins and cases of
+goitre have been seen in Perthshire, on the east coast of Fife, in
+Roxburgh, the upper portions of Peebles and Selkirk, near Lanark and
+Dumfries, in the east of Ayrshire, in the west of Berwick, the east of
+Wigtown, and in Kirkcudbright. The disease is not confined to Europe,
+but occurs in North and South America, Australia, Africa and Asia.
+Wherever endemic goitre is present, endemic cretinism is present also,
+and it has been constantly observed that when a new family moves into a
+goitrous district, goitre appears in the first generation, cretinism in
+the second. The causation of goitre has now been shown to be due to
+drinking certain waters, though the particular impurity in the water
+which gives rise to this condition has not been determined (see GOITRE).
+The causation of the sporadic form of cretinism is, however, obscure.
+
+Cretinism usually remains unrecognized until the child reaches some
+eighteen months or two years, when its lack of mental development and
+uncouth bodily form begin to attract attention. Occasionally the child
+appears to be normal in infancy, but the cretinoid condition develops
+later, any time up to puberty. The essential point in the morbid anatomy
+of these cases is the absence or abnormal condition of the thyroid gland
+(see METABOLIC DISEASES). It may be congenitally absent, atrophied, or
+the seat of a goitre, though this last condition is very rare in cases
+of sporadic cretinism. The skeleton shows arrested growth, most marked
+in the case of the long bones. The skull in the endemic form of
+cretinism is usually brachycephalic, but in the sporadic cases it is
+more commonly dolichocephalic. The pathology of cretinism and its allied
+condition myxoedema (q.v.) has now been conclusively worked out, and its
+essential cause has been shown to be loss of function of the thyroid
+gland.
+
+The condition has existed and been described in far back ages, but
+mingled with so many other entirely different deformities and
+degenerations that it is now often almost impossible to classify them
+satisfactorily. The following is a vivid picture by Beaupre
+(_Dissertation sur les cretins_, translated in Blackie on _Cretinism_,
+Edin., 1855):--
+
+  "I see a head of unusual form and size, a squat and bloated figure, a
+  stupid look, bleared hollow and heavy eyes, thick projecting eyelids,
+  and a flat nose. His face is of a leaden hue, his skin dirty, flabby,
+  covered with tetters, and his thick tongue hangs down over his moist
+  livid lips. His mouth, always open and full of saliva, shows teeth
+  going to decay. His chest is narrow, his back curved, his breath
+  asthmatic, his limbs short, misshapen, without power. The knees are
+  thick and inclined inward, the feet flat. The large head drops
+  listlessly on the breast; the abdomen is like a bag."
+
+When fully grown the height rarely exceeds 4 ft., and is often less than
+3 ft. The skin feels doughy from thickening of the subcutaneous tissues,
+and it hangs in folds over the abdomen and the bends of the joints. Very
+frequently there is an umbilical hernia. The hair has a far greater
+resemblance to horse-hair than to that of a human being, and is usually
+absent on the body of an adult cretin. The temperature is subnormal, and
+the exposed parts tend to become blue in cold weather. The blood is
+usually deficient in haemoglobin, which is often only 40-50% of the
+normal. The mental capacity varies within narrow limits; an intelligent
+adult cretin may reach the intellectual development of a child 3-4 years
+of age, though more often the standard attained is even below this. The
+child cretin learns neither to walk nor talk at the usual time. Often it
+is unable even to sit without support. Some years later a certain power
+of movement is acquired, but the gait is waddling and clumsy. Speech is
+long delayed, or in bad cases may be almost entirely lacking. The voice
+is usually harsh and unpleasant. Of the senses smell and taste are but
+slightly developed, more or less deafness is generally present, and only
+the sight is fairly normal. In the adult the genital organs remain
+undeveloped. If the cretin is untreated he rarely has a long life,
+thirty years being an exceptional age. Death results from some
+intercurrent disease.
+
+Cretinism has to be distinguished from the state of a Mongolian idiot,
+in whom there is no thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, and much
+greater alertness of mind; from achondroplasia, in which condition there
+is usually no mental impairment; and from infantilism, which covers a
+group of symptoms whose only common point is that the primary and
+secondary sexual characteristics fail to appear at the proper time.
+
+Before 1891 there was no treatment for this disease. The patients lived
+in hopeless imbecility until their death. But in that year Dr George
+Murray published his discovery of the effect of hypodermic injections of
+thyroid gland extract in cases of myxoedema. In the following year Drs
+Hector Mackenzie, E. L. Fox of Plymouth, and Howitz of Copenhagen, each
+working independently, showed the equally potent effect of the gland
+administered by the mouth. The remedy was soon after applied to
+cretinism and its effects were found to be even more wonderful. It has
+to be used, however, with the greatest care and discrimination, since
+personal idiosyncrasy seems to be a very variable factor. Even small
+doses, if beyond the patient's power, may produce fever, excitement,
+headache, insomnia and vomiting. The administration must be persisted in
+throughout life, otherwise myxoedematous symptoms appear. The first most
+apparent results are those of growth, and this may supervene even in
+patients up to 25-30 years of age. Once started, 4 to 6 in. may be
+gained in stature in the first year's treatment, though this is usually
+in inverse ratio to the age of the patient, and also diminishes in later
+stages of treatment. In young adolescents it may be so rapid that the
+patient has to be kept lying down to prevent permanent bending of the
+long bones of the leg, softened by their rapid growth. A very typical
+case under Dr Hector Mackenzie, showing what can be expected from early
+treatment, is that of a cretin aged 11 years in 1893, when thyroid
+treatment was started. He grew very rapidly and became a normal child,
+passed through school, and in 1908 was at one of the universities.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sardinian Commission, "Relazione della commissione di
+  Sardegna per studiare il cretinismo" (Torino, 1848); C. Hilton Fagge,
+  "On Sporadic Cretinism occurring in England," _Med. Chir. Trans._
+  (London, 1870); Vincenzo Allara, "Sulla causa del cretinesimo," studio
+  (Milano, 1892); Victor Horsley, "Remarks on the Function of the
+  Thyroid Gland," _Brit. Med. Journ._ (1892); "The Treatment of
+  Myxoedema and Cretinism, being a Review of the Treatment of those
+  Diseases by Thyroid Gland," _Journ. Ment. Sc._ (London, 1893); W.
+  Osler, "On Sporadic Cretinism in America," _Am. Journ. of Med. Sc._
+  (1893); C. A. Ewald, _Die Erkrankungen der Schilddruse, Myxodeme und
+  Cretinismus_ (Wien, 1896); G. R. Murray, _Diseases of the Thyroid
+  Gland_, part i. (1900); R. Virchow, "Uber Cretinismus," _Wurzburger
+  Verhand._; Hector Mackenzie, "Organotherapy," _Textbook of
+  Pharmacology and Therapeutics_ (1901); Weygandt, _Der heutige Stand
+  der Lehre vom Kretinismus_ (Halle, 1903); Hector Mackenzie,
+  "Cretinism," Allbutt & Rolleston's _System of Medicine_, part iv.
+  (1908).
+
+
+
+
+CRETONNE, originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen warp and linen
+weft. The word is said to be derived from Creton, a village in Normandy
+where the manufacture of linen was carried on. It is now applied to a
+strong, printed cotton cloth, stouter than chintz but used for very much
+the same purposes. It is usually unglazed and may be printed on both
+sides and even with different patterns. Frequently the cretonne has a
+woven fancy pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed
+design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste.
+
+
+
+
+CREUSE, a department of central France, comprising the greater portion
+of the old province of Marche, together with portions of Berry,
+Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Limousin and Poitou. Area, 2164 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 274,094. It lies on the north-western border of the central
+plateau and is bounded N. by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by
+Allier and Puy-de-Dome, S. by Correze and W. by Haute-Vienne. The
+surface is hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the
+direction of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of
+Auvergne and Limousin, branches of which project into the south of the
+department. The chief of these starts from the Plateau de Gentioux, and
+under the name of the Mountains of Marche extends along the left bank of
+the Creuse. The highest point is in the forest of Chateauvert (3050 ft.)
+in the extreme south-east of the department. Rivers, streams and lakes
+are numerous, but none are navigable; the principal is the Creuse, which
+rises on the north side of the mass of Mount Odouze on the border of the
+department of Correze, and passes through the department, dividing it
+into two nearly equal portions, receiving the Petite Creuse from the
+right, and afterwards flowing on to join the Vienne. The valleys of the
+head-streams of the Cher and of its tributary the Tardes, which near
+Evaux passes under a fine viaduct 300 ft. in height, occupy the eastern
+side; those of the heads of the Vienne and its tributary the Thaurion,
+and of the Gartempe joining the Creuse, are in the west of the
+department. The climate is in general cold, moist and variable; the
+rigorous winter covers the higher cantons with snow; rain is abundant in
+spring, and storms are frequent in summer, but the autumn is fine.
+Except in the valleys the soil is poor and infertile, and agriculture
+is also handicapped by the dearness of labour, due to the annual
+emigration of from 15,000 to 20,000 of the inhabitants to other parts of
+France, where they serve as stonemasons, &c. The produce of cereals,
+chiefly rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat, is not sufficient for home
+consumption. The chestnut abounds in the north and west; hemp and
+potatoes are also grown. Cattle-rearing and sheep-breeding are the chief
+industries of the department, which supplies Poitou and Vendee with
+draught oxen. Coal is mined to some extent, chiefly in the basin of
+Ahun. There are thermal springs at Evaux in the east of the department,
+where remains of Roman baths are preserved. The chief industrial
+establishments are the manufactories of carpets and hangings and the
+dyeworks of Aubusson and Felletin. Saw-mills and the manufacture of
+wooden shoes and hats have some importance. Exports include carpets,
+coal, live-stock and hats; imports comprise raw materials for the
+manufactures and food-supplies. The department is served by the Orleans
+railway company, whose line from Montlucon to Perigueux traverses it
+from east to west. It is divided into the four arrondissements of
+Gueret, the capital Aubusson, Bourganeuf, and Boussac, and further into
+25 cantons and 266 communes. With Haute-Vienne, Creuse forms the diocese
+of Limoges, where also is its court of appeal. It forms part of the
+academie (educational division) of Clermont and of the region of the
+XII. army corps. The principal towns are Gueret and Aubusson. La
+Souterraine, Chambon-sur-Voueize and Benevent-l'Abbaye possess fine
+churches of the 12th century. At Moutier-d'Ahun there is a church, which
+has survived from a Benedictine abbey. The nave of the 15th century with
+a fine portal, and the choir with its carved stalls of the 17th century,
+are of considerable interest. The small industrial town of Bourganeuf
+has remains of a priory, including a tower (15th century) in which
+Zizim, brother of the sultan Bajazet II., is said to have been
+imprisoned.
+
+
+
+
+CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP, COUNT (1729-1785), Swedish poet, was born in
+Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in Abo he received a post
+in the court of chancery at Stockholm in 1751. Here he met Count
+Gyllenborg, with whom his name is indissolubly connected. They were
+closely allied with Fru Nordenflycht, and their works were published in
+common; to their own generation they seemed equal in fame, but posterity
+has given the palm of genius to Creutz. His greatest work is contained
+in the 1762 volume, the idyll of _Atis och Camilla_; the exquisite
+little pastoral entitled "Daphne" was published at the same time, and
+Gyllenborg was the first to proclaim the supremacy of his friend. In
+1763 Creutz practically closed his poetical career; he went to Spain as
+ambassador, and after three years to Paris in the same capacity. In 1783
+Gustavus III. recalled him and heaped honours upon him, but he died soon
+after, on the 30th of October 1785. _Atis och Camilla_ was long the most
+admired poem in the Swedish language; it is written in a spirit of
+pastoral which is now to some degree faded, but in comparison with most
+of the other productions of the time it is freshness itself. Creutz
+introduced a melody and grace into the Swedish tongue which it lacked
+before, and he has been styled "the last artificer of the language."
+
+  See _Creutz och Gyllenborgs Vitterhetsarbeten_ (Stockholm, 1795).
+
+
+
+
+CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1771-1858), German philologist and
+archaeologist, was born on the 10th of March 1771, at Marburg, the son
+of a bookbinder. Having studied at Marburg and Jena, he for some time
+lived at Leipzig as a private tutor; but in 1802 he was appointed
+professor at Marburg, and two years later professor of philology and
+ancient history at Heidelberg. The latter position he held for nearly
+forty-five years, with the exception of a short time spent at the
+university of Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch
+climate. He was one of the principal founders of the Philological
+Seminary established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Academy of Inscriptions
+of Paris appointed him one of its members, and from the grand-duke of
+Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor. He died on the 16th
+of February 1858. Creuzer's first and most famous work was his _Symbolik
+und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen_ (1810-1812),
+in which he maintained that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from
+an Eastern source through the Pelasgians, and was the remains of the
+symbolism of an ancient revelation. This work was vigorously attacked by
+Hermann in his _Briefen uber Homer und Hesiod_, and in his letter,
+addressed to Creuzer, _Uber das Wesen und die Behandlung der
+Mythologie_; by J. H. Voss in his _Antisymbolik_; and by Lobek in his
+_Aglaophamos_. Of Creuzer's other works the principal are an edition of
+Plotinus; a partial edition of Cicero, in preparing which he was
+assisted by Moser; _Die historische Kunst der Griechen_ (1803); _Epochen
+der griech. Literaturgeschichte_ (1802); _Abriss der romischen
+Antiquitaten_ (1824); _Zur Geschichte altromischer Cultur am Oberrhein
+und Neckar_ (1833); _Zur Gemmenkunde_ (1834); _Das Mithreum von
+Neuenheim_ (1838); _Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker_ (1839); _Zur
+Geschichte der classischen Philologie_ (1854).
+
+  See the autobiographical _Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors_
+  (Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his
+  death _Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors_
+  (Frankfort, 1858); also Starck, _Friederich Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang
+  und seine bleibende Bedeutung_ (Heidelberg, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+CREVASSE, a French word used in two senses. (1) In French Switzerland,
+and thence universally in high mountain regions, it designates a fissure
+in a glacier caused by gigantic cracks in the ice-mass, sometimes of
+great depth, into which climbers frequently fall through a light bridge
+of snow which conceals the crevasse. (2) Adopted from the French of
+Louisiana, it signifies locally a wide crack or breach in the bank of a
+canal or river, and particularly of the "levee" of the Mississippi.
+
+
+
+
+CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1693-1765), French author, was born at
+Paris, where his father was a printer. He studied under Rollin and held
+the professorship of rhetoric in the college of Beauvais for twenty
+years. He completed Rollin's _Histoire romaine_ by the addition of six
+volumes (1750-1756); he also published two editions of Livy, with notes;
+_L'Histoire des empereurs des Romains, jusqu'a Constantin_ (1749);
+_Histoire de l'Universite de Paris_, and a _Rhetorique francoise_, which
+enjoyed much popularity.
+
+
+
+
+CREVILLENTE, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante, and
+on the Murcia-Alicante railway. Pop. (1900) 10,726. Crevillente is a
+picturesque old town built among the eastern foothills of the Sierra de
+Crevillente. Its flat-roofed Moorish houses are enclosed by gardens of
+cactus, dwarf palm, orange and other subtropical plants, interspersed
+with masses of rock. The surrounding country, though naturally sterile,
+is irrigated from two adjacent springs, which differ in temperature by
+no less than 25 deg. F. The district is famous for its melons, and also
+produces wine, olives, wheat and esparto grass. Local industries include
+the manufacture of coarse cloth, esparto fabrics, oil and flour.
+
+
+
+
+CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633-1721), bishop of Durham, was a son
+of John Crew (1598-1679), who was created Baron Crew of Stene in 1661,
+and a grandson of Sir Thomas Crew (1565-1634), speaker of the House of
+Commons. Born on the 31st of January 1633, Nathaniel was educated at
+Lincoln College, Oxford, and was appointed rector of the college in
+1668. He became dean and precentor of Chichester in 1669, clerk of the
+closet to Charles II. shortly afterwards, bishop of Oxford in 1671, and
+bishop of Durham in 1674. He owed his rapid preferment to James, then
+duke of York, whose favour he had gained by conniving at the duke's
+leanings to the Roman Church. After the accession of James II. Crew
+received the deanery of the Chapel Royal. He served in 1686 on the
+revived ecclesiastical commission which suspended Compton, bishop of
+London, and then shared the administration of the see of London with
+Sprat, bishop of Rochester. In 1687 he was a member of another
+ecclesiastical commission, which suspended the vice-chancellor of the
+university of Cambridge for refusing the degree of M.A. to a monk who
+would not take the customary oath. On the decline of James's power Crew
+dissociated himself from the court, and made a bid for the favour of the
+new government by voting for the motion that James had abdicated. He was
+excepted from the general pardon of 1690, but afterwards was allowed to
+retain his see. He left large estates to be devoted to charitable ends,
+and his benefaction to Lincoln College and to Oxford University is
+commemorated in the annual Crewian oration. In 1697 Crew succeeded his
+brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Crew, He died on the 18th of September 1721,
+when the barony became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O.
+Icel. _kru_, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of
+_accrue_, _accrewe_, used in the 16th century in the sense of a
+reinforcement, O. Fr. _acreue_, from _accroitre_, to grow, increase), a
+band or body of men associated for a definite purpose, a gang who
+jointly carry out a particular piece of work, and especially those who
+man a ship, exclusive of the captain, and sometimes also of the
+officers.
+
+
+
+
+CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES, 1st Earl of (1858-   ),
+English statesman and writer, was born on the 12th of January 1858,
+being the son of Lord Houghton (q.v.), and was educated at Harrow and
+Trinity, Cambridge. In 1880 he married Sibyl Marcia Graham, who died in
+1887, leaving him with two daughters. He inherited his father's literary
+tastes, and published _Stray Verses_ in 1890, besides other
+miscellaneous literary work. A Liberal in politics, he became private
+secretary to Lord Granville when secretary of state for foreign affairs
+(1883-1884), and in 1886 was made a lord-in-waiting. In the Liberal
+administration of 1892-1895 he was lord-lieutenant for Ireland, having
+Mr John Morley as chief secretary. In 1895 he was created 1st earl of
+Crewe, his maternal grandfather, the 2nd Baron Crewe, having left him
+his heir. In 1899 he married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of the 5th
+earl of Rosebery. In 1905 he became lord president of the council in the
+Liberal government; and in 1908, in Mr Asquith's cabinet, he became
+secretary of state for the colonies and Liberal leader in the House of
+Lords.
+
+
+
+
+CREWE, a municipal borough in the Crewe parliamentary division of
+Cheshire, England, 158 m. N.W. of London, on the main line of the London
+& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 42,074. The town was built on an
+estate called Oak Farm in the parish of Monk's Coppenhall, and takes its
+name from the original stations having been placed in the township of
+Crewe, in which the seat of Lord Crewe is situated. It is a railway
+junction where lines converge from London, Manchester, North Wales and
+Holyhead, North Stafford and Hereford. It is inhabited principally by
+persons in the employment of the London & North-Western railway company,
+and was practically created by that corporation, at a point where in
+1841 only a farmhouse stood in open country. Crewe is not only one of
+the busiest railway stations in the world, but is the locomotive
+metropolis of the London & North-Western company, which has centred here
+enormous workshops for the manufacture of the material and plant used in
+railways. In 1901 the 4000th locomotive was turned out of the works. A
+series of subterranean ways extending many miles have been constructed
+to enable merchandise traffic to pass through without interfering with
+passenger trains on the surface railways. The company possesses one of
+the finest electric stations in the world, and electrical apparatus for
+the working of train signals is in operation. The station is fitted with
+an extensive suite of offices for the interchange of postal traffic, the
+chief mails to and from Ireland and Scotland being stopped here and
+arranged for various distributing centres. Its enormous railway
+facilities and its geographical situation as the junction of the great
+trunk lines running north and south, tapping also the Staffordshire
+potteries on the one side and the great mineral districts of Wales on
+the other, constitute Crewe station one of the most important links of
+railway and postal communication in the kingdom. The railway company
+built its principal schools, provided it with a mechanics' institute,
+containing library, science and art classes, reading rooms, assembly
+rooms, &c. Victoria Park, also the gift of the company, was opened in
+1888. The municipal corporation built the technical school and school of
+art. The borough incorporated in 1877, is under a mayor, 7 aldermen and
+21 councillors. Area, 2185 acres.
+
+
+
+
+CREWKERNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
+Somersetshire, England, 132 m. W.S.W. of London by the London &
+South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4226. It is
+pleasantly situated in a wooded hollow, in the upper valley of the river
+Parret. The church of St Bartholomew, one of the finest in the county,
+is in the Perpendicular style characteristic of the district. The
+ornamentation throughout is beautiful, and the west front especially
+notable. The grammar school dates from 1499, but occupies modern
+buildings. Sail-cloth, horsehair, cloth and webbing are manufactured.
+
+
+
+
+CRIB (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _krib_ and
+Ger. _Krippe_; it has a common origin with the O. Eng. "cratch," a
+manger or crib, cf. Fr. _creche_), a manger or framework receptacle for
+holding fodder for cattle and horses, and so, from early times in
+English, particularly the manger in which Jesus was laid. It is thus
+used of a "cradle," from which in form it should be distinguished as
+being a small bed with high closed-in sides. The word has many
+transferred meanings, as a rough, small hut or dwelling, from which
+comes the slang use of "crib" as a berth or situation, or, as a
+burglar's term for a house to be broken into; also, technically, in
+engineering for a timber framework for masonry constructed with a
+caisson in laying foundations below water, or in mining for a timber
+lining to a shaft. "Crib-biting" is a vicious habit in horses, probably
+due in the first instance to indigestion; the horse seizes the manger or
+other object in its teeth, and draws in the breath, known as
+"wind-sucking"; the habit may be checked by the use of a throat-strap.
+The slang meaning of the verb "crib," to steal, especially used of petty
+thefts, is probably derived from an obsolete use of the substantive for
+a small wicker basket; this meaning occurs in the expression
+"time-cribbing," used of an illicit increase of the hours of labour in a
+factory or workshop, especially by the running of machinery each day
+slightly beyond the time of ceasing work. "Crib" and "cribbing" in this
+sense are also applied to any unacknowledged appropriation or plagiarism
+from an author, and particularly to the secret copying by a schoolboy of
+another's work or from a book, and also to the secret use of a
+translation and to such translation itself. "Crib," in the game of
+cribbage, of which it is a shortened form, is the term for the cards
+thrown away by each player and scored by the dealer.
+
+
+
+
+CRIBBAGE, a game of cards. A very similar game called "Noddy" was
+formerly played, the game being fifteen or twenty-one up, marked with
+counters, occasionally by means of a noddy board. Cribbage seems to be
+an improved form of Noddy. According to John Aubrey (_Brief Lives_) it
+was invented by Sir John Suckling (1609-1642).
+
+A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage board for
+scoring, drilled with sixty holes for each player and one hole (called
+"the game hole") at each end, the players usually scoring from opposite
+ends. Each player has two scoring pegs. The game is marked by inserting
+the pegs in the holes, one after the other, as the player makes a fresh
+score, commencing with the outer row at the game-hole end and going up
+the board. When the thirtieth hole is reached the player comes down the
+board, using the inner row of holes, until he places his foremost peg in
+the game-hole. If the losing player fails to obtain half the holes, his
+adversary wins a "lurch," or double game.
+
+The game may be played by two players, five or six cards being dealt to
+each, and each putting out two for what is called "crib"; or by three
+players (with a triangular scoring board), five cards being dealt to
+each, each putting out one for crib, and a card from the top of the pack
+being dealt to complete the crib; or by four players (two being partners
+against the other two, sitting and playing as at whist, and one partner
+scoring for both), five cards being dealt to each, and each putting out
+one card for crib.
+
+Two-handed five-card cribbage was formerly considered the most
+scientific game, but this verdict has now been reversed in favour of the
+six-card game. In six-card cribbage both hands and crib contain four
+cards, and 121 holes are scored.
+
+The players cut for deal, the lowest dealing. If more than one game is
+played, the winner of the last game deals. The cards rank from king
+(highest) to the ace (lowest). At the two-handed five-card game, the
+non-dealer scores three holes (called "three for last") at any time
+during the game, but usually while the dealer is dealing the first hand.
+This is not part of the six-card game, which we take as our example.
+
+The dealer deals six cards to each, singly. The undealt cards are placed
+face downwards on the table. The players then look at their hands and
+"lay out," each putting two cards face downwards on the table, on the
+side of the board nearest to the dealer, for the "crib." A player must
+not take back into his hand a card he has laid out if the cards have
+been covered, nor must the crib be touched during the play of his hand.
+
+After laying out, the non-dealer (when more than two play, the player to
+the dealer's left) cuts the pack, and the dealer turns up the top card
+of the lower packet, called the "start," or "turn-up." If this is a
+knave, the dealer marks two "for his heels." This score is forfeited if
+not marked before the dealer plays a card.
+
+The non-dealer plays first by laying face upwards on the table on his
+side of the board any card from his hand; the dealer then does the same,
+and so on alternately. When more than two play, the player to the
+leader's left plays the second card, and so on. As soon as the first
+card is laid down the player calls out the number of pips on it; if a
+picture card, ten. When the second card is laid down, the player calls
+out the sum of the pips on the two cards played, and so on until all the
+cards are played, or until neither player can play without passing the
+number thirty-one. If one player has a card or cards that will come in
+and the other has not, he is at liberty to play them; at the six-card
+game he must play as long as they can come in, and he can score runs or
+make pairs, &c., with them. If one player's cards are exhausted, the
+adversary plays out his own, and can score with them. When more than two
+play, the player next in rotation is bound to play, and so on until no
+one can come in. At the two-handed five-card game, when neither can come
+in the play stops; at the other games the cards are played turned down,
+and the remainder of the cards are played in rotation, and so on until
+all are played out.
+
+The object of the play is to make _pairs_, _fifteens_, _sequences_, and
+the "go," and to prevent the adversary from scoring.
+
+  _Pairs._--If a card is put down of the same denomination as the one
+  last played, the player pairing scores two holes. If a third card of
+  the same denomination is next played, a "pair royal" (abbreviated to
+  "prial") is made, and the maker scores six holes. If a fourth card of
+  the same denomination is next played, twelve holes are scored for the
+  "double pair royal." Kings pair only with kings, queens with queens,
+  and so with knaves and tens, notwithstanding that they all count ten
+  in play.
+
+  _Fifteens._--If either player during the play reaches fifteen exactly,
+  by reckoning the values of all the played cards, he marks two.
+
+  _Sequences._--If during the play of the hand three or more cards are
+  consecutively played which make an ascending or descending sequence,
+  the maker of the sequence marks one hole for each card forming the
+  sequence or run. King, queen, knave and ten reckon in sequence in this
+  order, notwithstanding that they are all tenth cards in play; the
+  other cards according to the number of their pips. The ace is not in
+  sequence with king, queen. If one player obtains a run of three, his
+  adversary can put down a card in sequence and mark four, and so on.
+  And, if there is a break in the sequence, and the break is filled up
+  during the play, without the intervention of a card not in sequence,
+  the player of the card that fills the break scores a run. Thus the
+  cards are played in this order: A-4, B-3, A-2, B-ace, A gets a run of
+  three, B a run of four. Had B's last card been a five, he would
+  similarly have scored a run of four, as there is no break. Had B's
+  last card been a four, he would have scored a run of three. The cards
+  need not be played in order. Thus the cards being played in this
+  order, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-6, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-5, B-6, B takes
+  a run of four for the fourth card played, but there is no run for any
+  one else, as the second five intervenes. Again, if the cards at
+  six-card cribbage are thus played, A-4, B-2, A-3, B-ace, A-5, B-2,
+  A-4, B-ace, A takes a run of three, B a run of four, A a run of five.
+  B then playing the deuce has no run, as the deuce previously played
+  intervenes.
+
+  The "go," end hole or last card is scored by the player who approaches
+  most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles to a score of
+  one. If thirty-one is reached exactly, it is a go of two instead of
+  one. After a go no card already played can be counted for pairs or
+  sequences.
+
+  _Compound Scores._--More than one of the above scores can be made at
+  the same time. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will come
+  in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a
+  sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together.
+
+  When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud. The
+  non-dealer has first show and scores and marks first; the dealer
+  afterwards counts, scores and marks what he has in hand, and then
+  takes what is in crib. In counting both hands and crib the "start" is
+  included, so that five cards are involved.
+
+  The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are fifteen,
+  pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes and "his nob."
+
+  _Fifteens._--All the combinations of cards that, taken together, make
+  fifteen exactly, count two. For example, a ten (King, Queen, Knave or
+  Ten) card and a five reckon two, called as "fifteen two." Another five
+  in the hand or turned up would again combine with the ten card, and
+  entitle to another fifteen ("fifteen four"); if the other cards were a
+  two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted ("fifteen six,"
+  "fifteen eight")--one for the combination of the three and two with
+  the ten card, and one for the combination of the two fives with the
+  three and two. Similarly two ten cards and two fives reckon eight; a
+  nine and three threes count six; and so on for other cards.
+
+  _Pairs._--Pairs are reckoned as in play.
+
+  _Sequences._--Three or more cards in sequence count one for each card.
+  If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the same
+  denomination, the sequence reckons again. For example, 3,4,5 and a 3
+  turned up reckon two sequences of three; with another 3 there would be
+  three sequences of three, and so on.
+
+  _Flushes._--If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is
+  reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one is
+  reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned unless the start
+  is of the same suit as the cards in crib.
+
+  _His Nob._--If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up for the
+  start he counts one "for his nob."
+
+  A dialogue will illustrate the technical conversation of the game, in
+  a game at six-card cribbage. The cards for crib having been discarded,
+  A holds knave of hearts, a four and a pair of twos: B holds a pair of
+  nines, a six and a four. Two of hearts is turned up by B. The hand
+  might be played thus. A lays down a two and says "Two": B plays a nine
+  and says "Eleven": A follows with a four, saying "Fifteen two";
+  pegging two holes at once: B plays his four and says "Nineteen; two
+  for a pair," and pegs: A putting on his knave, "Twenty-nine"; B says
+  "Go." A lays down his two, his last card, and says "Thirty-one; good
+  for two." B plays his nine and six, saying "Fifteen two, and one for
+  my last--three." The points are marked as they are made. A then counts
+  his hand aloud. "Six for a pair-royal" or "Three twos--good for six,"
+  and "One for his nob--seven," and throws down his hand for B's
+  inspection. B, "Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight,
+  and a pair are ten." B then looks at his crib and counts it. It
+  contains, say, king, eight, three, ace and the "start" is also
+  reckoned. B counts "Fifteen two and a run of three--five."
+
+  After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are shuffled
+  and dealt again, and so on alternately until the game is won.
+
+  The highest possible score in hand is 29--three fives and a knave,
+  with a five, of the same suit as the knave, turned up.
+
+
+
+
+CRICCIETH, a watering-place and contributory parliamentary borough of
+Carnarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan Bay, served by the Cambrian railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 1406. It is interesting for its high
+antiquity and the ruined castle, a fortress on an eminence where a neck
+of land ends, projecting into the sea. Portions of two towers are on the
+very verge of the rock. A double fosse and vallum, with the outer and
+inner court lines, can be traced. Apparently British, the castle was
+repaired later, probably in the time of Edward I. Across the bay is seen
+Harlech castle, backed by the Merionethshire hills. An old county-family
+mansion near Criccieth is Gwynfryn (happy hill), the seat of the
+Nanneys, situated near the stream Dwyfawr and within some 7 m. of
+Pwllheli. Not far is a tumulus, _Tomen fawr_. At a distance of 5 m. is
+Tremadoc (which owes its name. Town of Madocks--as does Portmadoc--to Mr
+W. Madocks, of Morfa Lodge, who made the embankment here). Criccieth has
+become a favourite watering-place, as well as a centre of excursions.
+The neighbourhood is agreeable, and the Cardigan Bay shore is shelving
+and suitable for safe bathing. Cantref y Gwaelod (the hundred of the
+bottom) is the Welsh literary name of this bay, on the shores of which
+geological depression has certainly taken place. Mythical history
+relates how Seithennin's drunkenness inundated the land now covered by
+the bay, and how King Arthur's ship was wrecked upon Meisdiroedd Enlli
+near Bardsey. The _Mabinogion_ tell how Harlech was a port. Similarly,
+in Carnarvon Bay, about 2 m. seaward, at low water, are visible the
+ruins of Caerarianrhod (fortified town of the silver wheel), a submerged
+town--due to another geological depression.
+
+
+
+
+CRICHTON, JAMES (1560-? 1582), commonly called the "Admirable Crichton,"
+was the son of Robert Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland in the reign
+of Mary and James VI., and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stewart
+of Beath, through whom he claimed royal descent. He was born probably at
+Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1560, and when ten years old was sent to St
+Salvator's College, St Andrews, where he took his B.A. in 1574 and his
+M.A. in 1575. In 1577 Crichton was undoubtedly in Paris, but his career
+on the continent is difficult to follow. That he displayed considerable
+classical knowledge, was a good linguist, a ready and versatile writer
+of verse, and above all that he possessed an astounding memory, seems
+certain, not only from the evidence of men of his own time, but from the
+fact that even Joseph Scaliger (_Prima Scaligerana_, p. 58, 1669) speaks
+of his attainments with the highest praise. But those works of his which
+have come down to us show few traces of unusual ability; and the
+laudation of him as a universal genius by Sir Thomas Urquhart and Aldus
+Manutius requires to be discounted. Urquhart (in his _Discovery of a
+most exquisite jewel_) states that while in Paris Crichton successfully
+held a dispute in the college of Navarre, on any subject and in twelve
+languages, and that the next day he won a tilting match at the Louvre.
+There is, however, no contemporary evidence for this, the only certain
+facts being that for two years Crichton served in the French army, and
+that in 1579 he arrived in Genoa. The latter event is proved by a Latin
+address (of no particular merit) to the Doge and Senate entitled _Oratio
+J. Critonii Scoti pro Moderatorum Genuensis Reipubl. electione coram
+Senatu habita...._ (Genoa, 1579). The next year Crichton was in Venice,
+and won the friendship of Aldus Manutius by his Latin ode _In appulsu ad
+urbem Venetam de Proprio statu J. Critonii Scoti Carmen ad Aldum
+Manuccium...._ (Venice, 1580). The best contemporary evidence for
+Crichton's stay in Venice is a handbill printed by the Guerra press in
+1580 (and now in the British Museum), giving a short biography and an
+extravagant eulogy of his powers; he speaks ten languages, has a command
+of philosophy, theology, mathematics; he improvises Latin verses in all
+metres and on all subjects, has all Aristotle and his commentators at
+his fingers' ends; is of most beautiful appearance, a soldier from top
+to toe, &c. This work is undoubtedly by Manutius, as it was reprinted
+with his name in 1581 as _Relatione della qualita di ... Crettone_, and
+again in 1582 (reprinted Venice, 1831).
+
+In Venice Crichton met and vanquished all disputants except Giacomo
+Mazzoni, was followed from place to place by crowds of admirers, and won
+the affection of the humanists Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati. In
+March 1581 he went to Padua, where he held two great disputations. In
+the first he extemporized in succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught
+on Aristotelian ignorance, and an oration in praise of ignorance. In the
+second, which took place in the Church of St John and St Paul, and
+lasted three days, he undertook to refute innumerable errors in
+Aristotelians, mathematicians and schoolmen, to conduct his dispute
+either logically or by the secret doctrine of numbers, &c. According to
+Aldus, who attended the debate and published an account of it in his
+dedication to Crichton prefixed to Cicero's "Paradoxa" (1581), the young
+Scotsman was completely successful. In June Crichton was once more in
+Venice, and while there wrote two Latin odes to his friends Lorenzo
+Massa and Giovanni Donati, but after this date the details of his life
+are obscure. Urquhart states that he went to Mantua, became the tutor of
+the young prince of Mantua, Vincenzo di Gonzaga, and was killed by the
+latter in a street quarrel in 1582. Aldus in his edition of Cicero's _De
+universitate_ (1583), dedicated to Crichton, laments the 3rd of July as
+the fatal day; and this account is apparently confirmed by the Mantuan
+state papers recently unearthed by Mr Douglas Crichton (_Proc. Soc. of
+Antiquaries of Scotland_, 1909). Mr Sidney Lee (_Dict. Nat. Biog._)
+argued against this date, on the ground that in 1584 and 1585 Crichton
+was alive and in Milan, as certain works of his published in that year
+testified, and regarded it as probable that he died in Mantua c.
+1585/6. But these later works seem to have been by another man of the
+same name. The epithet "admirable" (_admirabilis_) for Crichton first
+occurs in John Johnston's _Heroes Scoti_ (1603). It is probably
+impossible to recover the whole truth either as to Crichton's death or
+as to the extent of his attainments, which were so quickly elevated into
+legendary magnitude.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir Thomas Urquhart's _Discovery of a most excellent
+  jewel_ (1652; reprinted in the Maitland Club's edition of Urquhart's
+  Works in 1834) is written with the express purpose of glorifying
+  Scotland. The panegyrics of Aldus Manutius require to be received with
+  some caution, since he was given to exaggerating the merits of his
+  friend, and uses almost the same language about a young Pole named
+  Stanilaus Niegosevski; see John Black's _Life of Torquato Tasso_, ii.
+  413-451 (1810), for a criticism. The _Life of Crichton_, by P. Fraser
+  Tytler (2nd ed., 1823), contains many extracts from earlier writers;
+  see also "Notices of Sir Robert Crichton of Cluny and of his son
+  James," by John Stuart, in _Proceedings Soc. of Antiquaries of
+  Scotland_, vol. ii. pp. 103-118 (1855); and the article by Andrew
+  Lang, "The death of the Admirable Crichton," in the _Morning Post_
+  (London), Feb. 25, 1910. W. Harrison-Ainsworth in his novel _Crichton_
+  (new ed., 1892) reprints and translates some documents relating to
+  Crichton, as well as some of his poems.
+
+
+
+
+CRICKET (_Gryllidae_), a family of saltatory Orthopterous Insects,
+closely related to the Locustidae. The wings when folded form long
+slender filaments, which often reach beyond the extremity of the body,
+and give the appearance of a bifid tail, while in the male they are
+provided with a stridulating apparatus by which the well-known chirping
+sound, to which the insect owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of
+the female ends in a long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not
+exserted in the mole cricket. The house cricket (_Gryllus domesticus_)
+is of a greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses,
+especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat monotonous,
+chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of the fireplace. It is
+particularly fond of warmth, and is thus frequently found in bakeries,
+where its burrows are often sunk to within a few inches of the oven. In
+the hot summer it goes out of doors, and frequents the walls of gardens,
+but returns again to its place by the hearth on the first approach of
+cold, where, should the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes
+dormant. It is nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search
+of food, which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen.
+The field cricket (_Gryllus campestris_) is a larger insect than the
+former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a depth of
+from 6 to 12 in., and in the evening the male may be observed sitting at
+the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until a female approaches,
+"when," says Bates, "the louder notes are succeeded by a more subdued
+tone, whilst the successful musician caresses with his antennae the mate
+he has won." The musical apparatus in this species consists of upwards
+of 130 transverse ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the
+wing cover, which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure
+on the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs--about 200 in
+number--on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which resemble the
+perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form burrows for
+themselves in which they pass the winter. The mole cricket (_Gryllotalpa
+vulgaris_) owes its name to the striking analogy in its habits and
+structure to those of the common mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical
+in shape, and it burrows by means of its front legs, which are short and
+greatly flattened out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched
+so as somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy ground in
+which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft from which long
+horizontal galleries are given off; and in making those excavations it
+does immense injury to gardens and vineyards by destroying the tender
+roots of plants, which form its principal food. It also feeds upon other
+insects, and even upon the weak of its own species in the absence of
+other food. It is exceedingly fierce and voracious, and is usually
+caught by inserting a stem of grass into its hole, which being seized,
+is retained till the insect is brought to the surface. The female
+deposits her eggs in a neatly constructed subterranean chamber, about
+the size of a hen's egg, and sufficiently near the surface to allow of
+the eggs being hatched by the heat of the sun.
+
+
+
+
+CRICKET. The game of cricket may be called the national summer pastime
+of the English race. The etymology of the word itself is the subject of
+much dispute. The _Century Dictionary_ connects with O. Fr. _criquet_,
+"a stick used as a mark in the game of bowls," and denies the connexion
+with A.S. _crice_ or _cryce_, a staff. A claim has also been made for
+_cricket_, meaning a stool, from the stool at which the ball was bowled,
+while in the wardrobe account of King Edward I. for the year 1300 (p.
+126) is found an allusion to a game called _creag_. Skeat, in his
+_Etymological Dictionary_, states that the word is probably derived from
+A.S. _crice_ (repudiated by the first authority quoted), the meaning of
+which is a staff, and suggests that the "et" is a diminutive suffix; the
+word is of the same origin as "crutch." Finally the _New English
+Dictionary_ traces the O. Fr. _criquet_, defined by Littre as "_jeu
+d'addresse_," to M. Flem. _Krick, Kruke, baston a s'appuyer, quinette,
+potence_.
+
+_History._--In a MS. of the middle of the 13th century, in the King's
+library, 14 Bv, entitled _Chronique d'Angleterre, depuis Ethelberd
+jusqu'a Hen. III._, there is found a grotesque delineation of two male
+figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is undoubtedly the
+first known drawing of what was destined to develop into the scientific
+cricket of modern times. The left-hand figure is that of the batsman,
+who holds his weapon upright in the right hand with the handle
+downwards. The right-hand figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at
+once apparent by the extension of his hands. In another portion of the
+same MS., however, there is a male figure pointing a bat towards a
+female figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. In a
+Bodleian Library MS., No. 264, dated the 18th of April 1344, and
+entitled _Romance of the Good King Alexander_, fielders for the first
+time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the players are
+monks (not female figures, as Strutt misinterprets their dress in his
+_Sports and Pastimes_), and on the extreme left of the picture, the
+bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the right hand with the arm
+nearly horizontal. The batsman comes next with his cowl down, a little
+way only to the right, standing sideways to the bowler with a long
+roughly-hewn and slightly-curved bat, held upright, handle downwards in
+the left hand. On the extreme right come four figures--with cowls
+alternately down and up, and all having their hands raised in an
+attitude to catch the ball. It has been argued that the bat was always
+held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of the
+same MS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and also holding
+a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement in his left hand; but it is
+unsafe to assume that the accuracy of the artist can be trusted.
+
+The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages certain games
+on account of their interfering with the practice of archery, where the
+game of cricket is probably included among the pastimes denounced as
+"ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut valentes." In this instance
+cricket was clearly considered fit for the lower orders only, though it
+is evident from the entry in King Edward's wardrobe account, already
+mentioned, that in 1300 the game of _creag_ was patronized by the
+nobility. Judging from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the
+game consisted of bowling, batting and fielding, though it is known that
+there was an in-side and an out-side, for sometime during the 15th
+century the game was called "Hondyn or Hondoute," or "Hand in and Hand
+out." Under this title it was interdicted by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3
+(1477-1478), as one of those illegal games which still continued to be
+so detrimental to the practice of archery. By this statute, any one
+allowing the game to be played on his premises was liable to three
+years' imprisonment and L20 fine, any player to two years' imprisonment
+and L10 fine, and the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in
+and hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the Hon.
+Daines Barrington's _Observations on the more Ancient Statutes from
+Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27_. Writing in 1766, he comments thus
+on the above statute, viz.: "This is, perhaps, the most severe law ever
+made against gaming, and some of these forbidden sports seem to have
+been manly exercises, particularly the _handyn_ and _handoute_, which I
+should suppose to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still
+retained in that game."
+
+The word "cricket" occurs about the year 1550. In Russell's _History of
+Guildford_ it appears there was a piece of waste land in the parish of
+Holy Trinity in that city, which was enclosed by one John Parish, an
+innholder, some five years before Queen Elizabeth came to the throne. In
+35 Elizabeth (1593) evidence was taken before a jury and a verdict
+returned, ordering the garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed.
+Amongst other witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H.M.'s coroners
+for Surrey, _aetat._ fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for
+fifty years or more, and "when he was a scholler in the free school of
+Guildford, he and several of his fellowes did runne and play there at
+_crickett_ and other plaies." In the original edition of Stow's _Survey
+of London_ (1598) the word does not occur, though he says, "The ball is
+used by noblemen and gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the
+meaner sort in the open fields and streets."
+
+Some noteworthy references to the game may be cited. In Giovanni
+Florio's dictionary _A Worlde of Wordes most Copious and Exact_,
+published in Italy in 1595 and in London three years later, _squillare_
+is defined as "to make a noise as a cricket, to play cricket-a-wicket
+and be merry." Sir William Dugdale states that in his youth Oliver
+Cromwell, who was born in 1599, threw "himself into a dissolute and
+disorderly course," became "famous for football, cricket, cudgelling and
+wrestling," and acquired "the name of royster." In Randle Cotgrave's
+_Dictionary of French and English_, dated 1611, _Crosse_ is translated
+"crosier or bishop's staffe wherewith boys play at cricket," and
+_Crosser_ "to play at cricket."
+
+Among the earliest traces of cricket at public schools is an allusion to
+be found in the _Life of Bishop Ken_ by William Lisle Bowles (1830).
+Concerning the subject of this biography, who was admitted to Winchester
+on the 13th of January 1650/1, it is said "on the fifth or sixth day,
+our junior ... is found for the first time attempting to wield a cricket
+bat." In 1688 a "ram and bat" is charged in an Etonian's school bill,
+but it is possible this may only refer to a cudgel used for ram-baiting.
+In _The Life of Thomas Wilson, Minister of Maidstone_, published
+anonymously in 1672, Wilson having been born in 1601 and dying in or
+about 1653, occurs the following passage (p. 40): "Maidstone was
+formerly a very profane town, in as much as I have seen morrice-dancing,
+cudgel-playing, stool-ball, crickets, and many other sports openly and
+publicly indulged in on the Lord's Day." Cricket is found enumerated as
+one of the games of Gargantua in _The Works of Rabelais_, translated in
+1653 by Sir Thomas Urchard (Urquhart), vol. i. ch. xxii. p. 97. In a
+poem entitled _The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence or the Arts of Wooing
+and Complimenting_ (1658), by Edward Phillips, John Milton's nephew, the
+mistress of a country bumpkin when she goes to a fair with him says
+"Would my eyes had been beaten out of my head with a cricket ball." The
+St Alban's Cricket Club was founded in 1661, one of its earliest
+presidents being James Cecil, 4th earl of Salisbury (1666-1694).
+
+In 1662 John Davies of Kidwelly issued his translation of Adam Olearius'
+work entitled _The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors from the Duke
+of Holstein to the Grand Duke of Muscovy, and the King of Persia. Begun
+in the year 1633 and finished in 1639_. On page 297 is a description of
+the exercises indulged in by the Persian grandees in 1637, and the
+statement is made that "They play there also at a certain game, which
+the Persians call _Kuitskaukan_, which is a kind of _Mall_, or
+_Cricket_." In the Clerkenwell parish book of 1668 the proprietor of the
+Rum Inn, Smithfield, is found rated for a cricket field.
+
+The chaplain of H.M.S., "Assistance," Rev. Henry Teonge, states in his
+diary that during a visit to Antioch on the 6th of May 1676, several of
+the ship's company, accompanied by the consul, rode out of the city
+early and amongst other pastimes indulged in "krickett." During the
+first half of the 18th century the popularity of the game increased and
+is frequently mentioned by writers of the time, such as Swift, who
+alludes sneeringly to "footmen at cricket," D'Urfey, Pope, Soame
+Jenyns, Strype in his edition of Stow's _Survey of London_, and
+Arbuthnot in _John Bull_, iv. 4, "when he happened to meet with a
+football or a match at cricket."
+
+In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game under the
+statute 9 Anne, cap. 19, the court of king's bench holding "that it was
+a very manly game, not bad in itself, but only in the ill use made of it
+by betting more than ten pounds on it; but that was bad and against the
+law." Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal
+injuries caused by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden
+House. Games at this period were being played for large stakes, ground
+proprietors and tavern-keepers farming and advertising matches, the
+results of which were not always above suspicion. The old Artillery
+Ground at Finsbury was one of the earliest sites of this type of
+fixture. Here it was that the London Club--formed about 1700--played its
+matches. The president was the prince of Wales, and many noblemen were
+among its supporters. It flourished for more than half a century. One of
+the very earliest full-scores kept in the modern fashion is that of the
+match between Kent and All England, played on the Artillery Ground on
+the 18th of June 1744.
+
+Cricket, however, underwent its most material development in the
+southern counties, more especially in the hop-growing districts. It was
+at the large hop-fairs, notably that of Weyhill, to which people from
+all the neighbouring shires congregated, that county matches were
+principally arranged.
+
+The famous Hambledon Club lasted approximately from 1750 to 1791. Its
+matches were played on Broad Half-Penny and Windmill Downs, and in its
+zenith the club frequently contended with success against All England.
+The chief players were more or less retainers of the noblemen and other
+wealthy patrons of cricket. The original society was broken up in 1791
+owing to Richard Nyren, their "general," abandoning the game, of which
+in consequence "the head and right arm were gone." The dispersion of the
+players over the neighbouring counties caused a diffusion of the best
+spirit of the game, which gradually extended northward and westward
+until, at the close of the 18th century, cricket became established as
+the national game, and the custom became general to play the first game
+of each year on Good Friday.
+
+The M.C.C. (or Marylebone Cricket Club), which ranks as the leading club
+devoted to the game in any part of the globe, sprang from the old
+Artillery Ground Club, which played at Finsbury until about 1780, when
+the members migrating to White Conduit Fields became the White Conduit
+Cricket Club. In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title,
+and moved to Lord's ground, then on the site of what is now Dorset
+Square; thence in 1811 to Lord's second ground nearer what is now the
+Regent's Canal; and in 1814, when the canal was cut, to what is now
+Lord's ground in St John's Wood. Thomas Lord, whose family were obliged
+to leave their native Scotland on account of their participation in the
+rebellion of 1745, was born in Thirsk, Yorkshire, in 1757, and is first
+heard of as an attendant at the White Conduit Club, London, in 1780.
+Soon afterwards he selected and superintended a cricket ground for the
+earl of Winchilsea and other gentlemen, which was called after his name.
+He died in 1832 on a farm at West Meon, Hampshire, of which he took the
+management two years before. Lord took away the original turf of his
+cricket-ground at each migration and relaid it. In 1825 the pavilion was
+burnt down, invaluable early records of the game being destroyed; and in
+the same year the ground would have been broken up into building plots
+had not William Ward purchased Lord's interest. Dark bought him out in
+1836, selling the remainder of his lease to the club in 1864. Meanwhile,
+in 1860, the freehold had been purchased at public auction by a Mr
+Marsden--_ne_ Moses--for L7000, and he sold it to the club six years
+later for nearly L18,500, a similar sum being paid in 1887 for
+additional ground. In 1897 the Great Central railway company conveyed a
+further portion to the club, making the ground complete as it now is;
+the total area is about 20 acres, including the site of various villas
+adjoining the ground which are part of the property. The number of
+members now considerably exceeds five thousand.
+
+_Laws._--The oldest laws of cricket extant are those drawn up by the
+London Club in 1744. These were amended at the "Star and Garter" in Pall
+Mall, London, in 1755, and again in 1774, and were also revised by the
+M.C.C. in 1788. From this time the latter club has been regarded as the
+supreme authority, even though some local modifications have in recent
+years been effected in Australia. Alterations and additions have been
+frequently made, and according to the present procedure they have to be
+approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members present at the
+annual general meeting of the whole club; the administration being in
+the hands of a president, annually nominated by his outgoing
+predecessor, a treasurer and a committee composed of sixteen members,
+four annually retiring, in conjunction with a secretary and a large
+subordinate staff.
+
+_Implements._--Concerning the implements of the game, in the 1744 rules
+it was declared that the weight of the ball must be "between five and
+six ounces," and it was not until 1774 that it was decided that it
+"shall weigh not less than five ounces and a half nor more than five
+ounces and three-quarters," as it is to the present day. Not until 1838
+however came the addition, "it shall measure not less than nine inches
+nor more than nine inches and a quarter in circumference." The materials
+out of which the old balls were made are not on record. At present a
+cube of cork forms the foundation, round which layers of fine twine and
+thin shavings of cork are accumulated till the proper size and shape are
+attained, when a covering of red leather is sewn on with six parallel
+seams. Various "compositions" have been tried as a substitute for cork
+and leather, but without taking their place.
+
+For the bat, English willow has been proverbially found the best wood.
+The oldest extant bats resemble a broad and curved hockey stick, and it
+has been claimed to be an evolution of the club employed in the Irish
+game of "hurley." The straight blade was adopted as soon as the bowler
+began to pitch the ball up, an alteration which took place about 1750,
+but pictures show slightly curved bats almost to the time of the battle
+of Waterloo. The oldest were all made in one piece and were so used
+until the middle of the 19th century, when handles of ash were spliced
+into the blade, and the whole cane-handle was introduced about 1860. No
+limit was set to the length of the bat until 1840, though the width was
+restricted to 4-1/4 in. "in the widest part" by the laws of 1788, and a
+gauge was made for the use of the Hambledon Club. The length of the bat
+is now restricted to 38 in., 36 being more generally used, as a rule the
+handle being 14 in. long and the blade 22 in. As to weight, though there
+is no restriction, 2 lb. 3 oz. is considered light, 2 lb. 6 oz. fairly
+heavy; but W. Ward (1787-1849) used a bat weighing 4 lb.
+
+At present the wicket consists of three stumps (round straight pieces of
+wood) of equal thickness, standing 27 in. upright out of the ground. On
+the top are two "bails," short pieces of wood which fit into grooves
+made in the top of the stumps so as not to project more than half an
+inch above them. But the evolution of the wicket has been very gradual,
+and the history of it is very obscure, since different types of wickets
+seem to have existed simultaneously. If early pictures are to be
+trusted, no wicket was required in primitive times: the striker was
+either caught out, or run out, the fieldsman having to put the ball into
+a hole scooped in the ground, before the batsman could put his bat into
+it. A single stump, it is supposed, was sometimes substituted for the
+hole to save collision between the bat and the fieldsman's fingers. In
+due course, but at an unknown date, a wicket--a "skeleton gate"--was
+raised over the hole; it consisted of two stumps each 12 in. high, set
+24 in. apart, with a third laid on the top of them. John Nyren, however,
+writing in 1833, and discussing some memoranda given him by Mr W. Ward,
+says apropos of these dimensions, "There must be a mistake in this
+account of the width of the wicket." Undoubtedly such wickets were all
+against the bowler, who must have bowled over or through the wicket
+twenty times for every occasion when he succeeded in hitting either the
+uprights or the cross stump. In pictures of cricket played about 1743 we
+find only two stumps and a cross stump, or bail, the wicket varying
+apparently both in height and width. In a picture, the property of H.M.
+the King, entitled "A Village Match in 1768," three stumps and a bail
+are distinctly shown. Two stumps are shown as used in 1779, afterwards
+three always with one exception. Two prints, advertisements,
+representing matches played between women on consecutive days in 1811,
+show, one of them a wicket of three stumps, the other a wicket of two.
+The addition of the third stump, as is universally agreed, was due to an
+incident which occurred in a match of the Hambledon Club in 1775. "It
+was observed at a critical point in the game, that the ball passed three
+times between Mr Small's two stumps without knocking off the bail; and
+then, first a third stump was added, and seeing that the new style of
+balls which rise over the bat also rise over the wicket, then but 1 ft.
+high, the wicket was altered to the dimensions of 22 in. by 8, and to
+its present dimensions of 27 in. by 8 in 1817." So writes the Rev. J.
+Pycroft (1813-1895), quoting fairly closely from Nyren, who wrote many
+years after the event; but Pycroft is wrong in writing 22 by 8, which
+should really be 22 by 6. It is hard to believe that the 12 by 24 wicket
+lasted as long as 1775, for in the laws issued after the meeting held at
+the "Star and Garter," Pall Mall, where many "noblemen and gentlemen"
+attended "finally to settle" the laws of the game, we read that the
+stumps are to be 22 in. and the bail 6. "N.B.--It is lately settled to
+use three stumps instead of two to each wicket, the bail the same length
+as before." Regarding all the circumstances one is tempted to believe
+that Small defended a wicket of two stumps, 22 in. high and 6 in. apart,
+strange as is the circumstance that the ball should thrice in a short
+innings--for Small only made 14 runs--pass through them without
+dislodging the bail, even though the diameter of the ball is a trifle
+less than 3 in. Allusion is also found to a wicket 12 in. by 6, but it
+is hard to believe in its existence, unless it was used as a form of
+handicap. It should be recorded that in advertisements of matches about
+this time (1787) the fact that three stumps will be used "to shorten the
+game" is especially mentioned, and that the _Hampshire Chronicle_ of the
+15th of July 1797 records that "The earl of Winchilsea has made an
+improvement in the game of cricket, by having four stumps instead of
+three, and the wickets 2 in. higher. The game is thus rendered shorter
+by easier bowling out." In 1788, however, when the M.C.C. revised the
+laws, reference is made to stumps (no number given, but probably three)
+22 in. high and a bail of 6 in. Big scoring in 1796 caused the addition
+next year of 2 in. to the height and of 1 to the breadth, making the
+wicket 24 in. by 7. That three stumps were employed is shown by a print
+of the medallion of the Oxfordshire County C.C. 1797, forming the
+frontispiece to Taylor's _Annals of Lord's_ (1903). In 1817 the
+dimensions now in use were finally settled, three stumps 27 in. high,
+and a wicket 8 in. wide. Larger wickets have occasionally been used by
+way of handicap or experiment. The distance between the wickets seems
+always, or at least as far back as 1700, to have been 22 yds.--one
+chain.
+
+_The Game._--Cricket is defined in the _New English Dictionary_ as "an
+open-air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two sides of eleven
+players each; the batsman defends his wicket against the ball which is
+bowled by a player of the opposing side, the other players of this side
+being stationed about the field in order to catch or stop the ball." The
+laws define that the score shall be reckoned by runs. The side which
+scores the greatest number of runs wins the match. Each side has two
+innings taken alternately, except that the side which leads by 150 runs
+in a three days' match or by 100 runs in a two days' match or by 75 runs
+in a one day match shall have the option of requiring the other side to
+"follow their innings." In England cricket is invariably played on turf
+wickets, but in the Colonies matting wickets are often employed, and
+sometimes matches have taken place on sand, earth and other substances.
+The oldest form of the game is probably single wicket, which consists of
+one batsman defending one wicket, but this has become obsolete, though
+it was very popular in the time when matches were played for money with
+only one or two, or perhaps four or five, players on a side. Matches
+between an unequal number of players are still sometimes arranged, but
+mainly in the case of local sides against touring teams, or "colts"
+playing against eleven experienced cricketers. In any case two umpires
+are always appointed, and for English first-class county cricket these
+are now annually chosen beforehand by the county captains. Two scorers
+are officially recognized. All the arrangements as to scoreboards, and
+accommodation for players, members of the club and general spectators,
+vary considerably according to local requirements. Between six and seven
+acres forms the most suitable area for a match, but the size of a
+cricket ground has never been defined by law.
+
+The wickets are pitched opposite and parallel to one another at a
+distance of 22 yds.; the "bowling crease" being marked with whitewash on
+the turf on a line with the stumps 8 ft. 8 in. in length, with short
+"return creases" at right angles to it at each end; but the "popping
+crease," marked parallel to the wicket and 4 ft. in front of it, is
+deemed of unlimited length. The captains of the opposing sides toss for
+choice of innings, and the winner of the toss, though occasionally,
+owing to the condition of the ground or the weather prospects, electing
+to put his adversaries in first, as a general rule elects for his own
+side to bat first. The captain of the batting side sends his eleven (or
+whatever the number of his team may be) in to bat in any order he thinks
+best, and much judgment is used in deciding what this order shall be.
+Two batsmen with strong defensive powers and good nerve are usually
+selected to open the innings, the most brilliant run-getters immediately
+following them, and the weakest batsmen going in last. As there must
+always, except in the obsolete single-wicket cricket, be two batsmen in
+together, it follows that when ten of the side (in a side of eleven)
+have been put out, one of the final pair must be "not out"; that is to
+say, his innings is terminated without his getting out because there is
+none of his side left to become his partner. The batsman who is thus
+"not out" is said to "carry his bat," a phrase that recalls a period
+when two bats sufficed for the whole side, each retiring batsman leaving
+the implement on the ground for the use of his successor, till at the
+close of the innings the "not out" man carried it back to the tent or
+pavilion. As the phrase is not also applied to the last batsman to get
+out, who would of course have carried the second bat off the ground, it
+was possibly at one time restricted to a player who going in first
+survived through the whole innings. It should be observed that the term
+"wicket" is used by cricketers in a number of different senses. Besides
+being the name given to the set of three stumps with their two bails
+when pitched for a match, it is in an extended sense applied to that
+portion of the ground, also called the "pitch," on which the stumps are
+pitched, as when it is described as being "a fast wicket," a "sticky
+wicket" and so forth. It also in several idiomatic expressions signifies
+the getting out of a batsman and even the batsman himself, as in the
+phrases: "Grace lost his wicket without scoring," "Grace went in first
+wicket down," "when Grace got out England lost their best wicket,"
+"England beat Australia by two wickets."
+
+The umpires are required to decide questions arising in the course of
+play and to call the "overs," the "over" being a series of successive
+deliveries of the ball (usually six) by the bowler from one end of the
+pitch, the rest of the "out" side, or fielders, being stationed in
+various positions in the field according to well-defined principles.
+When an "over" has been bowled from one end a different bowler then
+bowls an "over" from the opposite end, the alternation being continued
+without interruption throughout the innings, and the bowlers being
+selected and changed from time to time by the captain of their side at
+his discretion. At the end of every over the fielders "change over" or
+otherwise rearrange their places to meet the batting from the other end.
+An over from which no runs are made off the bat is called a "maiden." A
+"run" is made when the two batsmen change places, each running from his
+own to the opposite wicket without being "run out." The aim of the
+batting side is to make as many runs as possible, while the object of
+the fielding side is to get their opponents out, and to prevent their
+making runs while in.
+
+There are nine ways in which the batsman, or "striker," can be put out.
+Of these the following five are the most important. (1) The striker is
+"bowled" out if the bowler hits the wicket with the ball, when bowling,
+and dislodges the bail; (2) he is "caught" out if the ball after
+touching his bat or hand be held by any member of the fielding side
+before it touches the ground; (3) he is "stumped" out if the
+wicket-keeper dislodges the bail with the ball, or with his hand holding
+the ball, at a moment when the striker in playing at the ball has no
+part of his person or bat in contact with the ground behind the popping
+crease, i.e. when the batsman is "out of his ground"; (4) he is out
+"l.b.w." (leg before wicket) if he stops with any part of his person
+other than his hand, or arm below the elbow, a ball which in the
+umpire's judgment pitched straight between the wickets, and would have
+bowled the striker's wicket; (5) if when the batsmen are attempting to
+make a run a wicket is put down (i.e. the bail dislodged) by the ball,
+or by the hand of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a moment when
+neither batsman has any part of his person or bat on the ground behind
+the popping crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket so put
+down is "run out." The remaining four ways in which a batsman may be
+dismissed are (6) hit wicket, (7) handling the ball, (8) hitting the
+ball more than once "with intent to score," and (9) obstructing the
+field.
+
+The positions of the fieldsmen are those which experience proves to be
+best adapted for the purpose of saving runs and getting the batsmen
+caught out. During the middle of the 19th century these positions became
+almost stereotyped according to the pace of the bowler's delivery and
+whether the batsmen were right or left handed. A certain number of
+fielders stood on the "on" side, i.e. the side of the wicket on which
+the batsman stands, and a certain number on the opposite or "off" side,
+towards which the batsman faces. "Point" almost invariably was placed
+square with the striker's wicket some ten or a dozen yards distant on
+the "off" side; "cover point" to the right of "point" (as he is looking
+towards the batsman) and several yards deeper; "mid on" a few yards to
+the right of the bowler, and "mid off" in a corresponding position on
+his left, and so forth. Good captains at all times exercised judgment in
+modifying to some extent the arrangement of the field according to
+circumstances, but in this respect much was learnt from the Australians,
+who on their first visit to England in 1878 varied the positions of the
+field according to the idiosyncrasies of the batsmen and other
+exigencies to a degree not previously practised in England. The
+perfection of wicket-keeping displayed by the Australian, McCarthy
+Blackham (b. 1855), taught English cricketers that on modern grounds the
+"long stop" could be altogether dispensed with; and this position, which
+in former days was considered a necessary and important one, has since
+been practically abolished. In many matches at the present day, owing to
+the character of modern bowling, no more than a single fieldsman is
+placed on the "on" side, while the number and positions of those "in the
+slips," i.e. behind the wicket on the "off" side, are subject to no sort
+of rule, but vary according to the nature of the bowling, the state of
+the ground, or any other circumstances that may influence the judgment
+of the captain of the fielding side. Charts such as were once common,
+showing the positions of the fielders for fast, slow and medium bowling
+respectively, would therefore to-day give no true idea of the actual
+practice; and much of the skill of modern captaincy is shown in placing
+the field.
+
+The score is compiled by runs made by the batsman and by the addition of
+"extras," the latter consisting of "byes," "leg-byes," "wides" and
+"no-balls." All these are included in the designation "runs," of which
+the total score is composed, though neither "wides" nor "no-balls"
+involve any actual run on the part of the batsmen. They are called by
+the umpire on his own initiative, in the one case if the bowler's
+delivery passes the batsman beyond the reach of his bat ("wide"), and in
+the other if he delivers the ball without having either foot touching
+the ground behind the "bowling crease" and within the "return crease,"
+or if the ball be jerked or thrown instead of being _bona fide_
+"bowled." "Wides" and "no-balls" count as one "run" each, and all
+"extras" are added to the score of the side without being credited to
+any individual batsman. The batsman may, however, hit a "no-ball" and
+make runs off it, the runs so made being scored to the striker's credit
+instead of the "no-ball" being entered among the "extras." The batsman
+may be "run out" in attempting a run off a "no-ball," but cannot be put
+out off it in any other way. "Byes" are runs made off a ball which
+touches neither the bat nor the person of the batsman, "leg-byes" off a
+ball which, without touching the bat or hand, touches any other part of
+his person. With the exception of these "extras" the score consists
+entirely of runs made off the bat.
+
+
+  Batting.
+
+Batting is the most scientific feature of the game. Proficiency in it,
+as in golf and tennis, depends in the first instance to a great extent
+on the player assuming a correct attitude for making his stroke, the
+position of leg, shoulder and elbow being a matter of importance; and
+although a quick and accurate eye may occasionally be sufficient by
+itself to make a tolerably successful run-getter, good style can never
+be acquired, and a consistently high level of achievement can seldom be
+gained, by a batsman who has neglected these rudiments. Good batting
+consists in a defence that is proof against all the bowler's craft,
+combined with the skill to seize every opportunity for making runs that
+the latter may inadvertently offer. If the batsman's whole task
+consisted in keeping the ball out of his wicket, the accomplishment of
+his art would be comparatively simple; it is the necessity for doing
+this while at the same time he must prevent the ball from rising off his
+bat into the air in the direction of any one of eleven skilfully-placed
+fielders, each eager to catch him out, that offers scope for the science
+of a Grace, a MacLaren or a Trumper. In early days when the wickets were
+low and the ball was trundled along the ground, the curved bats of the
+old pictures were probably well adapted for hitting, defence being
+neglected; but when the height of the wickets was raised, and bowlers
+began to pitch the ball closer to the batsman so that it would reach the
+wicket on the first bound, defence of the wicket became more necessary
+and more difficult. Hence the modern straight-bladed bat was produced,
+and a more scientific method of batting became possible. Batting and
+bowling have in fact developed together, a new form of attack requiring
+a new form of defence. One of the first principles a young batsman has
+to learn is to play with a "a straight bat" when defending his wicket
+against straight balls. This means that the whole blade of the bat
+should be equally opposite to the line on which the ball is travelling
+towards him, in order that the ball, to whatever height it may bound
+from the ground, may meet the bat unless it rises altogether over the
+batsman's hands; the tendency of the untutored cricketer being on the
+contrary to hold the bat sloping outwards from the handle to the point,
+as the golf-player holds his "driver," so that the rise of the ball is
+apt to carry it clear of the blade. Standing then in a correct position
+and playing with a straight bat, the batsman's chief concern is to
+calculate accurately the "length" of the ball as soon as he sees it
+leave the bowler's hand. The "length" of the ball means the distance
+from the batsman at which it pitches, and "good length" is the first
+essential of the bowler's art. The distance that constitutes "good
+length" is not, however, to be defined by precise measurement; it
+depends on the condition of the ground, and on the reach of the batsman.
+A "good-length ball" is one that pitches too far from the batsman for
+him to reach out to meet it with the bat at the moment it touches the
+ground or immediately it begins to rise, in the manner known as "playing
+forward"; and at the same time not far enough from him to enable him to
+wait till after it has reached the highest point in its bound before
+playing it with the bat, i.e. "playing back." When, owing to the good
+length of the ball, the batsman is unable to play it in either of these
+two ways, but is compelled to play at it in the middle of its rise from
+the ground, he is almost certain, if he does not miss it altogether, to
+send it up in the air with the danger of being caught out. If through
+miscalculation the batsman plays forward to a short-pitched ball, he
+will probably give a catch to the bowler or "mid off," if he plays back
+to a well-pitched-up ball, he will probably miss it and be bowled out.
+The bowler is therefore continually trying to pitch balls just too short
+for safe forward play, while the batsman defends his wicket by playing
+forward or back as his judgment directs so long as the bowling is
+straight and of approximately good length, and is ready the instant he
+receives a bad-length ball, or one safely wide of the wicket, to hit it
+along the ground clear of the fieldsmen so as to make as many runs as he
+and his partner can accomplish before the ball is returned to the
+wicket-keeper or the bowler. But even those balls off which runs are
+scored are not to be hit recklessly or without scientific method. A
+different stroke is brought into requisition according to the length of
+the ball and its distance wide of the wicket to the "off" or "on" as the
+case may be; and the greatest batsmen are those who with an almost
+impregnable defence combine the greatest variety of strokes, which as
+occasion demands they can make with confidence and certainty. There are,
+however, comparatively few cricketers who do not excel in some
+particular strokes more than in others. One will make most of his runs
+by "cuts" past "point," or by wrist strokes behind the wicket, while
+others, like the famous Middlesex Etonian C. I. Thornton, and the
+Australian C. J. Bonnor, depend mainly on powerful "drives" into the
+deep field behind the bowler's wicket. Some again, though proficient in
+all-round play, develop exceptional skill in some one stroke which other
+first-class players seldom attempt. A good illustration is the "glance
+stroke" off the legs which K. S. Ranjitsinhji made with such ease and
+grace. All great cricketers in fact, while observing certain general
+principles, display some individuality of style, and a bowler who is
+familiar with a batsman's play is often aware of some idiosyncrasy of
+which he can take advantage in his attack.
+
+
+  Bowling.
+
+Bowling is, indeed, scarcely less scientific than batting. It is not,
+however, so systematically taught to young amateurs, and it may be
+partly in consequence of this neglect that amateur bowling is
+exceedingly weak in England as compared with that of professionals. The
+evolution of the art of bowling, for it has been an evolution, is an
+interesting chapter in the history of cricket which can only be briefly
+outlined here. The fundamental law as to the proper mode of the bowler's
+delivering the ball is that the ball must be bowled, not thrown or
+jerked. When bowling underhand along the ground was superseded by
+"length bowling," it was found that the ball might be caused, by
+jerking, to travel at a pace which on the rough grounds was considered
+dangerous; hence the law against jerking, which was administered
+practically by chalking the inside of the bowler's elbow; if a chalk
+mark was found on his side, the ball was not allowed as fair. The
+necessity of keeping the elbow away from the side led gradually to the
+extension of the arm horizontally and to round-arm bowling, the
+invention of which is usually attributed to John Wills (or Willes; b.
+1777) of Kent and Sussex. Nyren, however, says "Tom Walker (about 1790)
+began the system of throwing instead of bowling now so much the
+fashion"; and, "The first I recollect seeing revive this fashion was
+Wills, a Sussex man," the date of the revival being 1807. Walker was
+no-balled. Beldham (1766-1862) says, "The law against jerking was owing
+to the frightful pace Tom Walker put on, and I believe that he
+afterwards tried something more like the modern throwing-bowling. Willes
+was not the inventor of that kind, or round-arm bowling. He only revived
+what was forgotten or new to the young folk." Curiously enough, Beldham
+also writes of the same Tom Walker that he was "the first lobbing slow
+bowler" he ever saw, and that he "did feel so ashamed of such baby
+bowling, but after all he did more than even David Harris himself."
+Round-arm bowling was long and vigorously opposed, especially in 1826
+when three matches were arranged between England and Sussex, the Sussex
+bowlers being round-arm bowlers. When England had lost the first two
+matches, nine of the professionals refused to take part in the third,
+"unless the Sussex bowlers bowl fair, that is, abstain from throwing."
+Five of them did play and Sussex lost, but the new style of bowling had
+indicated its existence. In 1844 the M.C.C.'s revised law reads, "The
+ball must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand must not be
+above the shoulder in delivery." Round-arm bowling was thenceforth
+legal. In 1862 Willsher (1828-1885), the Kent bowler, was no-balled by
+the umpire (Lillywhite) for raising his hand too high, amid a scene of
+excitement that almost equalled a tumult. Overhand bowling was legalized
+on the 10th of June 1864 after strenuous opposition. In early days much
+importance was attached to great pace, but the success of the slow
+lobbing bowling (pitched up underhand) led to its cultivation; in both
+styles some of the best performers delivered the ball with a curious
+high action, thrusting the ball, as it were, from close under the
+arm-pit. When the advantages of bias (or twist, or break) were first
+known is not closely recorded, but we read of one Lamborn who (about
+1800) could make the ball break from leg so that "the Kent and Surrey
+men could not tell what to make of that cursed twist of his." Whatever
+the pace of bowling, accuracy is the essential point, or, more
+correctly, the power of accurately varying pace, pitch and direction, so
+that the batsman is never at peace. If the bowler is a mere machine, the
+batsman soon becomes his master; but the question as to which of the two
+is supreme depends very largely on the condition of the turf, whether it
+be hard and true, soft and wet, hard and rough or soft and drying: the
+first pair of conditions favour the batsmen, the second pair the bowler.
+
+The immense amount of labour and expense devoted to the preparation and
+care of cricket grounds has produced during the past quarter of a
+century a perfection of smoothness in the turf which has materially
+altered the character of the game. On the rough and fiery pitches of
+earlier days, on which a "long stop" was indispensable, the behaviour of
+the ball could not be reckoned upon by the batsman with any degree of
+confidence. The first ball of an "over" might be a "shooter," never
+rising as much as an inch off the ground, the next might bound over his
+head, and the third pursue some equally eccentric course. But on the
+best grounds of to-day, subject to the well-understood changes due to
+weather, the bound of the ball is so regular as to be calculable with
+reasonable certainty by the batsman. The result has been that in fine
+weather, when wickets are true and fast, bowlers have become
+increasingly powerless to defeat the batsmen. In other words the defence
+has been strengthened out of proportion to the attack. Bowlers have
+consequently to a great extent abandoned all attempt to bowl the wicket
+down, aiming instead at effecting their purpose by bowling close to but
+clear of the wicket, with the design of getting the batsman to give
+catches. Many batsmen of the stubbornly defensive type, known in cricket
+slang as "stonewallers," retaliated by leaving such balls alone
+together, or stopping them deliberately with the legs instead of the
+bat.
+
+These tactics caused the game to become very slow; over after over was
+bowled without an attempt being made to score a run and without apparent
+prospect of getting a wicket. This not only injured the popularity of
+the game from the spectator's point of view, but, in conjunction with
+the enormous scores that became common in dry seasons, made it so
+difficult to finish a match within the three days to which first-class
+matches in England are invariably limited, that nearly 70% of the total
+number of fixtures in some seasons were drawn. Cricketers of an older
+generation have complained that the cause of this is partly to be found
+in the amount of time wasted by contemporary cricketers. These critics
+see no reason why half of a summer's day should be allowed to elapse
+before cricket begins, and they comment with some scorn on the interval
+for tea, and the fastidiousness with which play is frequently
+interrupted on account of imperfect light or for other unimperative
+reasons. Various suggestions have been made, including proposals for
+enlarging the wicket, for enabling the attack to hold its own against
+the increasing strength of the defence. But the M.C.C., the only
+recognized source of cricket legislation, has displayed a cautious but
+wise conservatism, due to the fact that its authority rests on no
+sanction more formal than that of prestige tacitly admitted by the
+cricketing world; and consequently no drastic changes have been made in
+the laws of the game, the only important amendments of recent years
+being that which now permits a side to close its innings voluntarily
+under certain conditions, and that which, in substitution for the former
+hard and fast rule for the "follow on," has given an option in the
+matter to the side possessing the requisite lead on the first innings.
+
+_Early Players._--If the era of the present form of cricket can very
+properly be dated from the visit of the first Australian team to England
+in 1878, some enumeration must be made of a few of the cricketers who
+took part in first-class matches in the earlier portion of the 19th
+century. Among amateurs should be noted the two fast bowlers, Sir F. H.
+Bathurst (1807-1881; Eton, Hampshire), and Harvey Fellowes (b. 1826;
+Eton); the batsman N. Felix (1804-1876; Surrey and Kent), who was a
+master of "cutting" and one of the earliest to adopt batting gloves; the
+cricketing champion of his time Alfred Mynn (1807-1861; Kent); and the
+keen player F. P. Miller (1828-1875; Surrey). The three Marshams, Rev.
+C. D. Marsham (b. 1835), R. H. B. Marsham (b. 1833) and G. Marsham (b.
+1849), all of Eton and Oxford, were as famous as the Studds in the
+'eighties; and R. Hankey (1832-1886; Harrow and Oxford) was a great
+scorer. In the next generation one of the greatest bats of his own or
+any time was R. A. H. Mitchell (1843-1905; Eton, Oxford, Hants). A very
+attractive run-getter was C. F. Buller (b. 1846; Harrow, Middlesex); an
+all too brief career was that of C. J. Ottaway (1850-1878; Eton, Oxford,
+Kent and Middlesex); whilst A. Lubbock (b. 1845; Eton, Kent) was a sound
+bat, and D. Buchanan (1830-1900; Rugby and Cambridge) a destructive
+bowler, as was also A. Appleby (1843-1902; Lancashire).
+
+Of the professionals, Fuller Pilch (1803-1870) and E. G. Wenman
+(1803-1897) were great bats; T. Box (1808-1876) the most skilled
+wicket-keeper of his time; W. Lillywhite (1792-1854), one of the first
+round-arm bowlers, renowned for the accuracy of his pitch, and W. Clark
+(1798-1856) possessed wonderful variety of pace and pitch. It was the
+last-named who organized the All England Eleven, and he was not chosen
+to represent the players until he had reached the age of forty-seven.
+George Parr (1826-1891), the greatest leg-hitter in England, had no
+professional rival until the advent of Richard Daft (1835-1900). J. Dean
+(1816-1891) was the finest long-stop, Julius Caesar (1830-1878) a hard
+clean hitter, as was G. Anderson (1826-1902), and T. Lockyer (1826-1869)
+seems to have been the first prominent wicket-keeper who took balls wide
+on the leg-side. Of bowlers, E. Willsher (1828-1885) would seem to have
+been the most difficult, W. Martingell (1818-1897) being a very good
+medium-paced bowler, and J. Wisden (1826-1884) a very fast bowler but
+short in his length. Four famous bowlers of a later date are George
+Freeman (1844-1895), J. Jackson (1833-1901), G. Tarrant (1838-1870) and
+G. Wootton (b. 1834). With them must be mentioned the great batsmen, T.
+Hayward (1835-1876) and R. Carpenter (1830-1901), as well as two other
+keen cricketers, H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896) and T. Hearne (1826-1900).
+
+Since the first half of the 19th century the sort of cricket to engage
+public attention has very greatly changed, and the change has become
+emphasized since the exchange of visits between Australian and English
+teams has become an established feature of first-class cricket.
+First-class cricket has become more formal, more serious and more
+spectacular. The contest for the county championship has introduced an
+annual competition, closely followed by the public, between standing
+rivals familiar with each other's play and record; an increased
+importance has become attached to "averages" and "records," and it is
+felt by some that the purely sporting side of the game has been damaged
+by the change. Professionalism has increased, and it is an open secret
+that not a few players who appear before the public as amateurs derive
+an income under some pretext or other from the game. Cricket on the
+village green has in many parts of the country almost ceased to exist,
+while immense crowds congregate to watch county matches in the great
+towns; but this must no doubt be in part attributed to the movement of
+population from the country districts; and some compensation is to be
+found in league cricket (see below), and in the numerous clubs for the
+employees of business firms and large shops, and for the members of
+social institutes of all kinds, which play matches in the suburbs of
+London and other cities. At an earlier period two great professional
+organizations, "The All England," formed in 1846, and "The United All
+England," toured the country, mainly for profit, playing local sides in
+which "given men," generally good professional players, figured. They
+did much good work in popularizing the game, and an annual match between
+the two at Lord's on Whit-Monday was once a great feature of the season;
+but the increase of county cricket led eventually to their disbandment.
+
+At this period, and much later, the first-class matches of "M.C.C. and
+ground" (i.e. ground-staff, or professionals attached to the club)
+occupied a far greater amount of importance than is at present the case.
+In recent years over 150 minor matches of the utmost value in
+propagating the best interests of cricket are annually played by the
+leading club. League cricket has of late become exceedingly popular,
+especially in the North of England, a number of clubs--about twelve to
+sixteen--combining to form a "League" and playing home-and-home matches,
+each one with each of the others in turn; points are scored according as
+each club wins, loses, or draws matches, the championship of the
+"League" being thus decided.
+
+_English County Cricket._--The first English inter-county match which is
+recorded was played on Richmond Green in 1730 between Surrey and
+Middlesex; but for very many years, though counties played counties,
+there was no systematic organization, matches often being played at odds
+or with "given" players, who had no county connexion with the side they
+represented. This was the natural outcome of the custom of playing for
+stakes. It was not till 1872 that any real effort was made to organize
+county cricket. In that year the M.C.C. took the initiative by offering
+a cup for competition between the counties, six of which were to be
+selected by the M.C.C., the matches to be played at Lord's, but the
+scheme fell through owing to the coolness of the counties themselves. It
+was only in 1890 that the counties were formally and officially
+classified, Notts (the county club dating from 1859), Lancashire (1864),
+Surrey (1845), Kent (1842), Middlesex (1864), Gloucestershire (1869),
+Yorkshire (1862), and Sussex (1839), being regarded as "first-class," as
+indeed had been the case from the time of their existence; and by
+degrees other counties were promoted to this class; Somerset in 1893;
+Derbyshire, Essex, Leicestershire, Warwickshire in 1894; Hampshire in
+1895; Worcestershire in 1899; Northamptonshire in 1905.
+
+In 1887 the County Cricket Council had been formed, working with and not
+against the Marylebone Club, for the management of county cricket, but
+the council dissolved itself in 1890, and it was then arranged that the
+county secretaries and delegates should meet and discuss such matters,
+and request the M.C.C. to consider the result of their deliberations,
+and practically to act as patron and arbitrator. In 1905 an Advisory
+Cricket Committee was formed "with the co-operation of the counties,
+with a view to improve the procedure in dealing with important matters
+arising out of the development of cricket, the effect of which will be"
+(the quotation is from the annual report of M.C.C. in 1905) "to bring
+the counties into closer touch with the M.C.C." Various methods have
+been tried as to the assignment of points or marks, the following being
+the list of champion counties up to 1909:--
+
+     1864  Surrey                  | 1873    Surrey
+     1865  Notts                   | 1874    Gloucestershire
+     1866  Middlesex               | 1875    Notts
+     1867  Yorkshire               | 1876    Gloucestershire
+     1868  Yorkshire               | 1877    Gloucestershire
+     1869  Notts                   | 1878    Notts
+     1870  Yorkshire               | 1879    Lancashire \ equal
+     1871  Notts                   |         Notts      /
+     1872  Surrey          \ equal | 1880    Notts
+           Gloucestershire /       | 1881    Lancashire
+     1882  Lancashire \ equal      | 1895 Surrey
+           Notts      /            | 1896 Yorkshire
+     1883  Yorkshire               | 1897 Lancashire
+     1884  Notts                   | 1898 Yorkshire
+     1885  Notts                   | 1899 Surrey
+     1886  Notts                   | 1900 Yorkshire
+     1887  Surrey                  | 1901 Yorkshire
+     1888  Surrey \ equal          | 1902 Yorkshire
+           Notts  /                | 1903 Middlesex
+     1889  Lancashire \ equal      | 1904 Lancashire
+           Surrey     /            | 1905 Yorkshire
+     1890  Surrey                  | 1906 Kent
+     1891  Surrey                  | 1907 Notts
+     1892  Surrey                  | 1908 Yorkshire
+     1893  Yorkshire               | 1909 Kent
+     1894  Surrey                  |
+
+
+    The Graces and Gloucestershire.
+
+  English county cricket is now the most firmly established cricketing
+  institution in the world, but in its earlier stages it owed much in
+  different counties to enthusiastic individuals and famous cricketing
+  families whose energies were devoted to its encouragement and support.
+  To Gloucestershire belongs the honour of the greatest name in the
+  history of the game. Dr W. G. Grace (q.v.) was not only the most
+  brilliant all-round cricketer in the world, but he remained supreme
+  after reaching an age when most cricketers have long abandoned the
+  game. He and his two famous brothers, E. M. Grace (b. 1841) and G. F.
+  Grace (1850-1880), rendered invaluable service to their county for
+  many years; and not to their county alone, for the great part they
+  played for a generation in first-class cricket did much to increase
+  the growing popularity of the county fixtures. A separate article is
+  devoted to Dr W. G. Grace, whose name as the champion of the game will
+  always be associated with its history. And of Dr E. M. Grace it may be
+  mentioned that, besides being the most daring field at "point" ever
+  seen, he altogether took 11,092 wickets and scored 75,625 runs. In
+  more recent years some excellent cricketers have been associated with
+  Gloucestershire, such as F. Townsend, and the professional Board; but
+  foremost stands G. L. Jessop, a somewhat "unorthodox" batsman famous
+  for his powers of hitting.
+
+
+    Kent.
+
+  What W. G. Grace did for Gloucestershire, Lord Harris (b. 1851) did
+  for Kent, and his services are not to be estimated by his performances
+  in the field alone, great as they were. His influence was always
+  exerted to impart a spirit of sportsmanship and honourable distinction
+  to the national game. Kent had been a home of cricket since the first
+  half of the 18th century, but it was Lord Harris more than any other
+  individual who made it a first-class county, celebrated for the number
+  of distinguished amateurs who have taken part in its matches. The Hon.
+  Ivo Bligh, afterwards Lord Darnley (b. 1859), and F. Marchant (b.
+  1864), both Etonians like Lord Harris himself; the two Harrovians, W.
+  H. Patterson (b. 1859) and M. C. Kemp (b. 1862), and the Wykehamist J.
+  R. Mason (b. 1874) are names that show the place taken by public
+  school men in the annals of Kent cricket, while the family of Hearnes
+  supplied the county with some famous professionals. Amateur batsmen
+  like W. Rashleigh, C. J. Burnup, E. W. Dillon and A. P. Day have been
+  prominent in the Kent eleven; and in Fielder and Blythe they have had
+  two first-class professional bowlers. The "Kent nursery" at Tonbridge
+  has proved a valuable institution for training young professional
+  players, and contributed not a little to the rising reputation of
+  Kent, which justified itself when the county won the championship in
+  1906, largely owing to the admirable batting of the amateur K. L.
+  Hutchings.
+
+
+    Middlesex and Lancashire.
+
+  Middlesex and Lancashire, not less than Kent, have been indebted to
+  the great public schools, and especially to Harrow, which provided
+  both counties with famous captains who directed their fortunes for an
+  uninterrupted period of over twenty years. I. D. Walker, the most
+  celebrated of seven cricketing brothers, all Harrovians, who founded
+  the Middlesex County Club, handed on the captaincy, after a personal
+  record of astonishing brilliancy, to a younger Harrow and Oxford
+  cricketer, A. J. Webbe, who was one of the finest leg-hitters and one
+  of the safest out-fielders of his day, and a captain of consummate
+  judgment and knowledge of the game. A. N. Hornby, a contemporary at
+  Harrow of I. D. Walker, was for many years the soul of Lancashire
+  cricket, and was succeeded in the captaincy of the county by the still
+  more famous Harrovian, A. C. MacLaren, one of the greatest batsmen in
+  the history of cricket, whose record for England in test matches
+  against Australia was almost unrivalled. In 1895, when he headed the
+  batting averages, MacLaren made the highest individual score in a
+  first-class match, viz. 424 against Somersetshire. Middlesex has also
+  the distinction of having produced the two greatest amateur
+  wicket-keepers in the history of English cricket, namely, the Hon.
+  Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857) and Gregor MacGregor, both of whom, after
+  playing for Cambridge University, gave their services to the
+  Metropolitan county; while Lancashire can boast of the greatest
+  professional wicket-keeper in Richard Pilling (1855-1891), whose
+  reputation has not been eclipsed by that of the most proficient of
+  more recent years. Another famous Cambridge University cricketer, a
+  contemporary of Lyttelton, who was invaluable to Lancashire for some
+  years when he was one of the very finest all-round cricketers in the
+  country, was A. G. Steel (b. 1858), equally brilliant as a batsman and
+  as a slow bowler; and other names memorable in Lancashire cricket were
+  R. G. Barlow (b. 1859), whose stubborn batting was a striking contrast
+  to the rapid run-getting of Hornby and the perfect style of Steel;
+  John Briggs (1862-1902), whose slow left-hand bowling placed him at
+  the head of the bowling averages in 1890; John Crossland (1853-1903)
+  and A. Mold (b. 1865), both of whom were destructive fast bowlers; J.
+  T. Tyldesley and R. H. Spooner, both among the most brilliant batsmen
+  of a later generation; and W. Brearley, the amateur fast bowler.
+
+  Middlesex, like Kent, has been better served by amateurs than
+  professionals. Indeed, with the notable exceptions of J. T. Hearne,
+  who headed the bowling averages in 1891, 1896 and 1898, and of the
+  imported Australian A. E. Trott, few professionals of high merit are
+  conspicuously associated with the history of the county cricket.
+  Trott, in 1899 and again in 1900, performed the previously
+  unprecedented feat of taking over two hundred wickets and scoring over
+  one thousand runs in the same season. And in his "benefit match" in
+  May 1907 at Lord's he achieved the "hat trick" twice in one innings,
+  taking first four and then three wickets with successive balls. But if
+  there has been a dearth of professionals in Middlesex cricket, the
+  county has produced an abundance of celebrated amateurs. In addition
+  to the Walkers and A. J. Webbe, the metropolitan county was the home
+  of the celebrated hitter, C. I. Thornton, and of the Studd family, who
+  learnt their cricket at Eton and Cambridge University. C. T. Studd,
+  one of the most polished batsmen who ever played cricket, was at the
+  same time an excellent medium-paced bowler, and his brother G. B.
+  Studd is remembered especially for his fielding, though like his elder
+  brother, J. E. K. Studd, he was an all-round cricketer of the greatest
+  value to a county team. Sir T. C. O'Brien, who made his reputation by
+  a fine innings for Oxford University against the Australian team of
+  1882, sustained it in the following years by many brilliant
+  performances for Middlesex. A. E. Stoddart for several years was the
+  best run-getter in the Middlesex eleven; and W. J. Ford and his
+  younger brother, F. G. J. Ford, were conspicuous among many prominent
+  Middlesex batsmen. In more recent times the Oxonian P. F. Warner (b.
+  1873), both as captain and as batsman, did splendid work; and B. J. T.
+  Bosanquet, besides assisting powerfully with the bat, became famous
+  for inaugurating a new style of curly bowling ("googlies") of a very
+  effective type.
+
+
+    Surrey.
+
+  A glance at the table given above shows the high place occupied by
+  Surrey in the past. Surrey county cricket can be traced as far back as
+  1730. Pycroft observes that "the name of Surrey as one united county
+  club is quite lost in the annals of cricket from 1817 to 1845." But
+  before that date two of the most celebrated cricketers, William
+  Lillywhite and Fuller Pilch, had occasionally played for the county,
+  and so also had James Broadbridge (1796-1843) and W. Lambert
+  (1779-1851). Kennington Oval became the Surrey county ground in 1845,
+  the property being leased from the duchy of Cornwall; and in the years
+  immediately following the county team included H. H. Stephenson
+  (1833-1896), Caffyn (b. 1828), N. Felix, and Lockyer (1826-1869);
+  among a later generation appeared such well-remembered names as Jupp,
+  Southerton, Pooley and R. Humphrey. After being champion county in
+  1873, Surrey did not again attain the same position for fourteen
+  years, but for the next ten years maintained an almost uninterrupted
+  supremacy. The greatest credit was due to the energetic direction of
+  J. Shuter (b. 1855), who kept together a remarkable combination of
+  cricketers, such as W. W. Read (1855-1906), Maurice Read (b. 1859),
+  George Lohmann (1865-1901), and Robert Abel (b. 1859), all of whom
+  were among the greatest players of their period. Lohmann in 1885-1890
+  would alone have made any side famous; and in the same years when he
+  was heading the bowling averages and proving himself the most deadly
+  bowler in the country, W. W. Read was performing prodigies of batting.
+  No sooner did the latter begin to decline in power than Abel took his
+  place at the head of the batting averages, scoring with astonishing
+  consistency in 1897-1900. In 1899 he made 357 not out in an innings
+  against Somersetshire, and in 1901 his aggregate of 3309 was the
+  largest then compiled. The Oxonian K. J. Key was another famous
+  batsman whose services as captain were also exceedingly valuable to
+  the county. An almost inexhaustible supply of professionals of the
+  very highest class has been at Surrey's service. W. Lockwood (b. 1868)
+  became almost as deadly a bowler as Lohmann, and Tom Richardson (b.
+  1870) was the terror of all Surrey's opponents for several seasons
+  after 1893. Richardson took in all no less than 1340 wickets at the
+  cost of 20,000 runs. Tom Hayward (b. 1867), nephew of the renowned
+  Cambridge professional of the same name, succeeded Abel as the leading
+  Surrey batsman, his play in the test matches of 1899, when he averaged
+  65, being superb. During the following years his reputation was fully
+  maintained, and in 1906 he had a particularly successful season. Key
+  was followed in the captaincy by D. L. A. Jephson, but the county did
+  not in the opening years of the 20th century maintain the high place
+  it occupied during the last quarter of the 19th. It possessed some
+  excellent professionals, however, in Hayes, Hobbs and Lees, and the
+  season of 1906, under the captaincy of Lord Dalmeny, showed a revival,
+  a new fast bowler being found in N. A. Knox, and a fine batsman and
+  bowler in J. N. Crawford.
+
+
+    Sussex.
+
+  Several of the celebrated cricketers of early times already mentioned
+  as having played for the Surrey club were more closely associated with
+  the adjoining county of Sussex, whose records go back as far as 1734,
+  in which year a match was played against Kent, the chief promoters of
+  which were the duke of Richmond and Sir William Gage. One of the
+  earliest famous cricketers, Richard Newland (d. 1791), was a Sussex
+  man; and James Broadbridge, W. Lambert, Tom Box, and the great
+  Lillywhite family were all members of the Sussex county team. Lambert,
+  in a match against Epsom, played at Lord's in 1817, made a "century"
+  (one hundred runs) in each innings, a feat not repeated in first-class
+  cricket for fifty years; and the occasion was the first when the
+  aggregate of a thousand runs was scored in a match. Broadbridge played
+  for Sussex in five reigns, while Box (1808-1876) kept wicket for the
+  county for twenty-four years without missing a match. Notwithstanding
+  this distinguished history, Sussex never attained the highest place in
+  the county rivalry, and for a number of years towards the end of the
+  19th century the left-handed batting of F. M. Lucas (1860-1887) alone
+  saved the county from complete insignificance. A revival came when W.
+  L. Murdoch (b. 1855), of Australian celebrity, qualified for Sussex;
+  and at a still later date the fortunes of the county were raised by
+  the inclusion in its eleven of Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji, afterwards
+  H.H. the Jam of Nawanagar (b. 1872), the Indian prince, who had played
+  for Cambridge University. Ranjitsinhji's dexterity, grace and style
+  were unrivalled. He scored 2780 runs in 1896, averaging 57, while in
+  county matches in 1899 his aggregate was 2555, with an average of 75.
+  Even this performance was beaten in 1900 when he scored a total of
+  2563 runs, giving an average for the season of 83. In all matches his
+  aggregates were 3159 in 1899, and 3065 in 1900. Not less remarkable
+  was the cricket of C. B. Fry (b. 1872), who came from Oxford
+  University to become a mainstay of Sussex cricket, and who in 1901
+  performed the unparalleled feat of scoring in successive innings 106,
+  209, 149, 105, 140 and 105, his aggregate for the season being 3147
+  with an average of 78. In 1905 his average for Sussex was 86, but in
+  the following year an accident kept him out of the cricket field
+  throughout the season; and in 1909 he transferred his services to
+  Hampshire.
+
+
+    Notts.
+
+  If Kent and Middlesex may be described as the counties of amateurs,
+  Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire should be called the counties of famous
+  professionals. Between 1864 and 1889 Nottinghamshire was champion
+  county twelve times and the county eleven was as a rule composed
+  almost entirely of professional players, among whom have been many of
+  the greatest names in the history of the game. Richard Daft
+  (1835-1900), after playing as an amateur, became a professional in
+  preference to abandoning the game, scorning to resort to any of the
+  pretexts by which cricketers have been known to accept payment for
+  their services while continuing to cling to the status of the amateur.
+  William Oscroft (1843-1905) was one of Nottinghamshire's early batting
+  heroes, and in Alfred Shaw (b. 1842) and F. Morley (1850-1884) the
+  county possessed an invaluable pair of bowlers. William Gunn (b.
+  1858), besides being a magnificent fielder "in the country," was an
+  exceptionally able batsman; but his performances did not equal those
+  of his greater contemporary, Arthur Shrewsbury, who in six years
+  between 1885 and 1892 headed the English batting averages.
+  Shrewsbury's perfect style combined with inexhaustible patience placed
+  him in the front rank of the "classical" batsmen of English cricket.
+  Of the batsmen nicknamed "stonewallers," who at one time endangered
+  the popularity of first-class cricket, was W. Scotton (1856-1893); and
+  among the other numerous professionals whose cricket contributed to
+  the renown of Nottinghamshire were Barnes (1852-1899), at times a most
+  formidable bat; Flowers (b. 1856), always useful both with the bat and
+  the ball; W. Attewell (b. 1861), a remarkably steady bowler who bowled
+  an abnormal number of maiden overs; Mordecai Sherwin (b. 1851), an
+  excellent successor to T. Plumb (b. 1833) and F. Wild (1847-1893) as
+  wicket-keeper for the county; and among more recent players, J.
+  Iremonger (b. 1877) and John Gunn, both of whom proved themselves
+  cricketers worthy of the Notts traditions. J. A. Dixon (b. 1861), one
+  of the few amateurs of the Nottinghamshire records, was for some time
+  captain of the county team; and he was succeeded by A. O. Jones (b.
+  1873), a dashing batsman, who in 1899 was partner with Shrewsbury when
+  the pair scored 391 for the first wicket in a match against
+  Gloucestershire.
+
+
+    Yorkshire.
+
+  The history of Yorkshire cricket is modern in comparison with that of
+  Surrey, Sussex or Kent. The county club only dates from 1861, and for
+  some years the team was composed entirely of professionals. But though
+  Yorkshire attained the championship three times during the first ten
+  years of the county club's existence, thirteen years elapsed after
+  1870 before it again occupied the place of honour. In the ten years
+  1896-1906 Yorkshire was no less than six times at the head of the
+  list, this position of supremacy being in no small measure due to the
+  captaincy of Lord Hawke (b. 1860), who played continuously for the
+  county from his university days for more than twenty years, and whose
+  influence on Yorkshire cricket was unique. But before his time
+  Yorkshire had already produced some notable cricketers, such as George
+  Ulyett (1857-1898), who headed the batting averages in 1878, and who
+  was also a fine fast bowler; Louis Hall (b. 1852), a patient bat; and
+  another excellent scorer, Ephraim Lockwood (b. 1845). William Bates
+  (1855-1900), too, was effective both as batsman and bowler; and Tom
+  Emmett (1841-1904), long proverbial for bowling "a wide and a wicket,"
+  was deservedly popular. To the earlier period belonged two fast
+  bowlers, George Freeman (1844-1895) and Allan Hill (b. 1845), and the
+  eminent wicket-keeper Pincher (1841-1903), who was succeeded by J.
+  Hunter (1857-1891), and later by his brother Daniel Hunter (b. 1862).
+  The full effect of Lord Hawke's energetic captaincy was seen in 1900,
+  when Yorkshire played through a programme of twenty-eight fixtures
+  without sustaining a defeat; and the county's record was but little
+  inferior in both the following years and again in 1905, in each of
+  which years it retained the championship. It was during this period
+  that as notable a group of cricketers wore the Yorkshire colours as
+  ever appeared in county matches. Edmund Peate (1856-1900), one of the
+  finest bowlers in his day, did not survive to take part in the later
+  triumphs of his county; but the period beginning in 1890 saw J. T.
+  Brown, J. Tunnicliffe, R. Peel, W. Rhodes, George Hirst and the Hon.
+  F. S. Jackson in the field. The two first named became famous for
+  their first wicket partnerships. In 1896 in a match against Middlesex
+  at Lord's these two batsmen scored 139 before being separated in the
+  first innings, and in the second knocked off the 147 required to win
+  the match. In the following year they made 378 for the first wicket
+  against Surrey, and during their careers they scored over a hundred
+  for the first wicket on no less than fifteen occasions, the greatest
+  feat of all being in 1898, when they beat the world's record by
+  staying together till 554 runs had been compiled. Peel was for many
+  years an untiring bowler, and Yorkshire was fortunate in discovering a
+  successor of even superior skill in Wilfrid Rhodes, who in 1900 took
+  over 200 wickets at a cost of 12 runs each in county matches alone,
+  and was also an excellent bat. Hirst and Jackson were the two finest
+  all-round cricketers in England about 1905. The Hon. F. S. Jackson (b.
+  1870), like his fellow-Harrovian A. C. MacLaren, had a wonderful
+  record in test matches against Australia; he captained the England
+  eleven in 1905, and his wonderful nerve enabled him to extricate his
+  side when in a difficulty, and to render his best service at an
+  emergency. Hirst (b. 1871) in 1904 and in 1905 scored over 2000 runs
+  and took more than 100 wickets; and in 1906 he surpassed all previous
+  records by scoring over 2000 runs and taking over 200 wickets during
+  the season. A concourse of 78,000 people watched his "benefit" match
+  (Yorkshire against Lancashire) in August 1904. Besides cricketers like
+  these, such fine players were included in the team as Wainwright (b.
+  1865), Haigh (b. 1871), Denton (b. 1874), and E. Smith (b. 1869); with
+  such material the Yorkshire eleven had no "tail," and was able to win
+  the championship six times in a decade.
+
+
+    Somersetshire.
+
+  Somersetshire hardly fulfilled the promise held out by the success
+  achieved in the closing decade of the 19th century; this had been
+  largely owing to the captaincy and brilliant batting of H. T. Hewett
+  (b. 1864), who in partnership with L. C. H. Palairet (b. 1870), famous
+  for his polished style, scored 346 for the first wicket in a match
+  against Yorkshire in 1892. Hewett was succeeded in the command of the
+  county eleven by the Cambridge fast bowler, S. M. J. Woods (b. 1868);
+  and among other members of the eleven the most valuable was L. C.
+  Braund (b. 1876), a professional who excelled as an all-round
+  cricketer.
+
+
+    Minor counties.
+
+  The counties above referred to are those which have figured most
+  prominently in the history of county cricket. Individual players of
+  the highest excellence are, however, to be found from time to time in
+  all parts of the country. Warwickshire, for example, can boast of
+  having had in A. A. Lilley (b. 1867) the best wicket-keeper of his
+  day, who represented England against Australia in the test matches;
+  while Worcestershire produced one of the best all-round professionals
+  in the country for a number of years in Arnold (b. 1877), and a
+  batsman of extreme brilliancy in R. E. Foster, a member of a
+  cricketing family to whom belongs the credit of raising Worcestershire
+  into a cricketing county of the first class. Derbyshire, similarly,
+  can claim some well-known cricket names, the bowler W. Mycroft
+  (1841-1894), W. Chatterton (b. 1863), and W. Storer (b. 1868), a
+  first-class wicket-keeper. Essex possesses at Leyton one of the best
+  county grounds in the country, and the club was helped over financial
+  difficulties by the munificent support of an old Uppingham and
+  Cambridge cricketer, C. E. Green. It has produced a fair number of
+  excellent players, notably the batsmen P. Perrin, C. MacGahey, and the
+  fast bowler C. J. Kortright; and A. P. Lucas, afterwards a member of
+  the county club, was a famous cricketer who played for England in 1880
+  in the first Australian test match. Hampshire had a fine batsman in
+  Captain E. G. Wynyard, and its annals are conspicuous for the
+  phenomenal scores made during the single season of 1899 by Major R. M.
+  Poore; these two put together 411 against Somersetshire in that year
+  before being separated. Among the later Hants professionals, Llewellyn
+  was most prominent.
+
+  The distribution of cricketing ability in England might be the subject
+  of some interesting speculation. In the first forty years of the
+  annual competition for the championship six counties alone gained the
+  coveted distinction, and three of these, Surrey, Notts and Yorkshire,
+  won it thirty-four times between them. Why, it may be asked, is it
+  that one county excels in the game while another has no place whatever
+  in the history of cricket? How comes it that great names recur
+  continually in the annals of Surrey and Yorkshire, for example, while
+  those of Berkshire and Lincolnshire are entirely barren? No doubt
+  proximity to great centres of population favours the cultivation of
+  the game, but in this respect Kent and Sussex are no better situated
+  than Hertfordshire, nor does it account for Nottinghamshire having so
+  illustrious a record while Staffordshire has none at all, nor for
+  Somersetshire having outclassed Devon. It is strange, moreover, that
+  while the universities are the chief training-grounds for amateur
+  cricketers, neither Oxfordshire nor Cambridgeshire has made any mark
+  among the counties. The influence of individuals and families, such as
+  the Graces in Gloucestershire, the Walkers in Middlesex, and in recent
+  times the Fosters in Worcestershire, has of course been of inestimable
+  benefit to cricket in those counties; but Buckinghamshire and Norfolk
+  and Cheshire send their sons to the public schools and universities no
+  less than Lancashire or Kent. It is difficult, therefore, to
+  understand why county cricket should so persistently confine itself to
+  a small number of counties; but such is the fact.
+
+  Cricket has never flourished vigorously in Scotland, Ireland or Wales,
+  a fact that may partly be accounted for by the comparative difficulty
+  of obtaining good grounds in those parts of the kingdom, and by the
+  inferiority, for the purpose of cricket, of their climate. In the
+  south of Scotland, and especially in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
+  there are clubs which keep the game alive; and Scotland, though it has
+  produced no great cricketers, either amateur or professional, has sent
+  a few players to the English university elevens who have found places
+  in English county teams. In Ireland cricket is fairly popular,
+  especially in those parts of the island where local sides can obtain
+  assistance from soldiers quartered in the neighbourhood. One or two
+  counties play annual matches, that between Kildare and Cork in
+  particular exciting keen rivalry. Trinity College, Dublin, has turned
+  out some excellent players; and the Phoenix and Leinster clubs in
+  Dublin, and the North of Ireland club in Belfast, play a full
+  programme of matches every season. D. N. Trotter, who played for
+  county Meath for many years towards the close of the 19th century, was
+  a batsman who would have found a place in any English county eleven;
+  so also would William Hone, one of several brothers all of whom were
+  keen and skilful cricketers. About the same period Lieutenant Dunn
+  scored so many centuries in Irish cricket that he was played, though
+  without any great success, for his native county of Surrey. More
+  recently L. H. Gwynn (1873-1902) batted in a style and with a success
+  that proved him capable of great things. Sir T. C. O'Brien, though an
+  Irishman, belongs as a cricketer to Middlesex; but T. C. Ross, who was
+  chosen to play for Gentlemen v. Players at Lord's in 1902, was a
+  bowler who played regularly for county Kildare.
+
+  _Gentlemen v. Players._--The most important match of the year as far
+  as purely English cricket is concerned is the match between the
+  gentlemen and players (amateurs and professionals) played at Lord's.
+  For many years a match played between sides similarly composed at the
+  Oval excited equal interest, but latterly county cricket has rather
+  starved this particular game, though it still continues as a popular
+  fixture. Other matches with the same title have been played in London
+  on Prince's Ground (now built over), and at Brighton, Hastings and
+  Scarborough and elsewhere, but those games in no way rank with the
+  London matches.
+
+  The Lord's fixture was first established in 1806, in which year two
+  matches were played; it became annual in 1819, but in those days the
+  amateurs, being no match for their opponents, generally received odds,
+  while in 1832 they defended wickets 22 in. by 6, and in 1837 the
+  professionals stood in front of wickets of four stumps, measuring in
+  all 36 in. by 12 in. This match was known as "The Barndoor Match" or
+  "Ward's Folly," and the professionals won by an innings and 10 runs.
+  Odds were not given after 1838, the gentlemen having then won eight
+  matches and lost thirteen. From 1839 to 1866 the gentlemen only won 7
+  matches as compared with 21 losses. In 1867 the tide turned, for the
+  brothers Grace, especially Dr W. G. Grace, became a power in the
+  cricket-field, and from 1867 to 1884 the gentlemen, winning fifteen
+  matches, only lost one. From 1885 the balance swung round, and by 1903
+  the professionals had won eleven matches and lost but four. The
+  gentlemen won on nine successive occasions between 1874 and 1884, a
+  draw intervening; while beginning with 1854 the professionals won
+  eleven matches "off the reel." The professionals won in 1860 by an
+  innings and no less than 181 runs; in 1900 they only won by two
+  wickets, but to do so had to make, and did make, 501 runs in the last
+  innings of the match. In 1903 the gentlemen, heavily in arrears after
+  each side had played an innings, actually scored 500 in their second
+  innings with only two men out. In 1904 the gentlemen won by two
+  wickets after being 156 runs behind on the first innings, thanks to
+  fine play by K. S. Ranjitsinhji and A. O. Jones. J. H. King had scored
+  a century in each innings, a feat previously only performed by R. E.
+  Foster in 1900. C. B. Fry's 232 not out in 1903 was the largest
+  innings scored in the match. Dr W. G. Grace, who is credited with
+  eight centuries, is the only cricketer who exceeded the hundred more
+  than twice at Lord's in the fixture, 164 by J. T. Brown being the
+  highest innings by a professional. There were seven instances before
+  1864 of two bowlers being unchanged in the match, and the Hon. F. S.
+  Jackson and S. M. J. Woods repeated this in 1894. The Oval match was
+  first played in 1857. The amateurs effected their first win in 1866,
+  and though several games were drawn the professionals did not win
+  again till 1880. As at Lord's, it was the era of Grace, but from this
+  point the amateurs could only win two matches, and by the narrowest of
+  margins, till 1903, this making their sum of victories up to then
+  thirteen, as opposed to twenty-three. In 1879 the gentlemen won in one
+  innings by 126 runs, the heaviest beating that one side had inflicted
+  on the other. The highest individual score was Robert Abel's 247, and
+  the next Dr W. G. Grace's 215. Hayward scored 203 in 1904; A. G. Steel
+  and A. H. Evans bowled unchanged in 1879.
+
+  _School and Club Cricket._--Cricket is the standing summer game at
+  every English private and public school, where it is taught as
+  carefully and systematically as either classics or mathematics. There
+  are also numbers of amateur clubs which possess no grounds of their
+  own and are connected with no particular locality, but which are in
+  fact mere associations of cricketers who play matches against the
+  universities, schools or local teams, or against each other. Of these
+  the best known, perhaps, is I Zingari (The Wanderers), popularly known
+  as I.Z., whose well-known colours, red, yellow and black stripes, are
+  prized rather as a social than as a cricketing distinction. This club
+  was founded in 1845 by Lorraine Baldwin and Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane.
+  The first rule of the club humorously declares that "the entrance fee
+  shall be nothing, and the annual subscription shall not exceed the
+  entrance fee." It is a rule of the club that no member shall play on
+  the opposing side. I.Z. has long been connected with the social
+  festivities forming a feature of the "Canterbury Week," a cricket
+  festival held at Canterbury during the first week in August, of the
+  Scarborough week, and of the Dublin horse-show. Dr W. G. Grace, who
+  almost invariably appeared in the cricket field wearing the red and
+  yellow stripes of the M.C.C., and some other notable amateurs, never
+  belonged to I.Z. or any similar club; but Dr Grace was instrumental in
+  the formation of the London county club, whose ground was at the
+  Crystal Palace at Sydenham. Other amateur clubs, similar to I Zingari,
+  are the Free Foresters, Incogniti, Etceteras, and in Ireland Na
+  Shuler; while the Eton Ramblers, Harrow Wanderers, Old Wykehamists,
+  and others are clubs whose membership is restricted to "old boys."
+
+  The Oxford and Cambridge universities match was first played in 1827,
+  but was not an annual fixture till 1838. Five matches, those of 1829,
+  1843, 1846, 1848 and 1850, were played at Oxford, the rest at Lord's.
+  The "'Varsity match," and that between the two great public schools,
+  Eton and Harrow, are great "society" events at Lord's every summer. Up
+  to 1909 Eton won thirty times, and Harrow on thirty-five occasions. D.
+  C. Boles by scoring 183 in 1904 set up a new record for this match,
+  beating the 152 obtained in 1841 by Emilius Bayley (afterwards the
+  Rev. Sir John Robert Laurie); and in 1907 the Harrow captain, M. C.
+  Bird, established a further record by scoring over a hundred runs in
+  each innings. Of the contests between Oxford and Cambridge, the latter
+  (up to 1909) had lost thirty-one and won thirty-five. Oxford's 503 in
+  1900 and Cambridge's 392 in the same match furnished the highest
+  aggregates. The largest individual innings was 172 not out by J. F.
+  Marsh in 1904; but as a feat of batting it was intrinsically inferior
+  to the 171 by R. E. Foster in 1900. Of the thirty centuries scored up
+  to 1909, Oxford was credited with sixteen. Eustace Crawley (b. 1868)
+  made a hundred both in the Eton v. Harrow and Oxford v. Cambridge
+  matches. In the match of 1870 F. C. Cobden (b. 1849) took the last
+  three Oxford wickets with consecutive balls, winning the match for
+  Cambridge by 2 runs.
+
+  _Australian Cricket._--Naturally popular in a British colony, cricket
+  made but little progress in Australia before the arrival of an English
+  professional eleven in 1861-1862, which carried all before it.
+  Subsequent visits, and the coaching of imported professionals, so
+  promoted the game that in 1878 a representative eleven of Australians
+  visited England. The visits were repeated biennially till 1890, and
+  then triennially. The visits of the Australian teams to England
+  aroused unparalleled interest and acted as an immense incentive to the
+  game. A great sensation was caused when the first team, captained by
+  D. W. Gregory, on the 27th of May 1878, defeated a powerful M.C.C.
+  eleven in a single day, disposing of them for 33 and 19, the fast
+  bowler F. R. Spofforth (b. 1853) taking 6 wickets for 4 runs, and H.
+  F. Boyle (b. 1847) 5 for 3. Their prowess was well maintained when in
+  September 1880 Australia for the first time met the whole strength of
+  England, such matches between representatives of Australia and England
+  being known as "test matches," a term that was applied later to
+  matches between England and South Africans also. Although in 1880 the
+  old country won by 5 wickets, the honours were fairly divided,
+  especially as Spofforth could not play. Dr W. G. Grace with a score of
+  152 headed the total of 420, but even finer was the Australian captain
+  W. L. Murdoch's imperturbable display, when he carried his bat for
+  153. From 1882 onwards the Colonials, with two exceptions, at
+  Blackpool and Skegness, only played eleven-a-side matches. Such
+  bowlers as Spofforth, Boyle, G. E. Palmer (b. 1861), T. W. Garrett (b.
+  1858), and G. Giffen (1859) became household names. Nor was the
+  batting less admirable, for Murdoch was supported by H. H. Massie (b.
+  1854), P. S. McDonnell (1860-1896), A. C. Bannerman (b. 1859), T.
+  Horan (b. 1855), C. J. Bonnor (b. 1855), and S. P. Jones (b. 1861),
+  whilst the wicket-keeper was McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855). This
+  visiting side in 1882 was the greatest team of all; 23 matches were
+  won, only 4 lost, and England was defeated at the Oval by 7 runs. In
+  1884 English cricket had improved, and the visiting record was hardly
+  so good. The match against England at the Oval will not soon be
+  forgotten. The Colonials scored 551 (Murdoch 211, McDonnell 103, Scott
+  102), and England responded with 346, Scotton and W. W. Read adding
+  151 for the ninth wicket.
+
+  The team of H. J. H. Scott (b. 1858) in 1886 proved less successful,
+  for all three test matches were lost, and eight defeats had to be set
+  against nine victories, but Giffen covered himself with distinction.
+  This was the first tour under the auspices of the Melbourne Club.
+  McDonnell's team in 1888 marked the appearance of the bowlers C. T. B.
+  Turner (b. 1862) and J. J. Ferris (1867-1900). The former took 314
+  wickets for 11 runs each, and the latter 220 for 14 apiece. To all
+  appearance they redeemed a poor tour, 19 matches being won and 14
+  lost. The 1890 tour, though Murdoch reappeared as captain, proved
+  disappointing, both the test matches being lost and defeats for the
+  first time exceeding victories, though the two bowlers again performed
+  marvellously well. After an interval of three years, M. Blackham
+  captained the seventh team, which was moderately fortunate. H. Graham
+  (b. 1870) and S. E. Gregory (b. 1870) batted admirably, and the 149 of
+  J. J. Lyons (b. 1863) in the match against M.C.C. was an extraordinary
+  display of punishing cricket. In 1896, though they did not win the
+  rubber of test matches, the colonials were most successful, 19 matches
+  being victories and only 6 lost. S. E. Gregory, J. Darling (b. 1870),
+  F. A. Iredale (b. 1867), G. Giffen, C. Hill (b. 1877), and G. H. S.
+  Trott (1866-1905) were the best bats, and the last-named made an
+  admirable captain. H. Trumble (1867) kept an excellent length, and E.
+  Jones (1869) was deadly with his fast bowling.
+
+  The Australian representatives in 1899 demonstrated that they were the
+  best since 1882, 16 successes and only 3 defeats (v. Essex, Surrey and
+  Kent) being emphasized by a victory over England at Lord's by 10
+  wickets, the only one of the five test matches brought to a
+  conclusion. M. A. Noble (b. 1873) and Victor Trumper (b. 1877), both
+  newcomers, batted superbly. The latter, v. Sussex, made 300, the
+  largest individual score hitherto made by an Australian in England,
+  the previous best having been 286 by Murdoch in the corresponding
+  match in 1882. H. Trumble scored 1183 runs and took 142 wickets for 18
+  runs apiece, and Darling not only made a judicious captain, but scored
+  the biggest aggregate, 1941, up to then obtained by any batsman
+  touring with a colonial eleven in England. On the home side, Hayward
+  did sound service with the bat, and his stand with F. S. Jackson in
+  the fifth test match yielded 185 runs for the first wicket.
+
+  In 1902 another fine Australian eleven, captained by Darling, won 23
+  and lost only 2 matches. They won the rubber of test matches at
+  Manchester by 3 runs, but lost the final at the Oval by one wicket
+  after an even more remarkable struggle, G. L. Jessop having scored 104
+  in an hour and a quarter. The other defeat was by Yorkshire by 5
+  wickets, when they were dismissed for 23 by Hirst and Jackson. The
+  rest of the tour was characterized by brilliant batting. The
+  performance of Trumper in making 2570 runs (with an average of 48)
+  surpassed anything previously seen; R. A. Duff (b. 1878) also proved a
+  brilliant run-getter. W. W. Armstrong (b. 1879) was useful in all
+  departments, and J. V. Saunders (b. 1876) proved a successful
+  left-handed bowler.
+
+  In 1905 there was a marked falling-off, as England won two and drew
+  the other three test matches; but only one other defeat, by Essex by
+  19 runs, had to be set against 16 Australian victories. The persistent
+  bowling off the wicket by Armstrong, and the inability to finish games
+  within three days, were the chief drawbacks. Armstrong eclipsed all
+  previous colonial records in England by heading both tables of
+  averages, scoring 2002 (average 48) and taking 130 wickets at a cost
+  of 17 runs each. He also compiled the largest individual score (303
+  not out v. Somerset) ever made on an Australian tour. M. A. Noble also
+  exceeded 2000 runs. For a long time the fast bowler, A. Cotter (b.
+  1882, N.S.W.), failed, but eventually "came off," just as F. Laver (b.
+  1869), who had taken many wickets in the earlier part of the tour, was
+  becoming less formidable. Duff saved the colonials by a great innings
+  in the fifth test match; Trumper was less certain than formerly, and
+  Clement Hill more reckless; whilst J. J. Kelly (b. 1867) on his fifth
+  tour was better than ever before with the gloves.
+
+  The Australians who visited England under the leadership of M. A.
+  Noble in 1909 were generally held to be a weaker team than most of
+  their predecessors, but they greatly improved as the season advanced,
+  proving that the side included several cricketers of the highest
+  merit, and as a captain Noble has seldom been surpassed in consummate
+  generalship. Their record of thirteen wins to four defeats offered
+  little evidence of inferiority, while the large number of twenty-one
+  drawn matches was accounted for by the cold wet weather that largely
+  prevailed throughout the summer. Two out of the five test matches were
+  unfinished, and Australia won the rubber by two matches to one. In all
+  the test matches England was under the command of A. C. MacLaren, but
+  the great Harrovian was no longer the batsman he had been some years
+  earlier; Jackson had abandoned first-class cricket; Hirst and Hayward
+  were becoming veterans; and, speaking generally, the English batting
+  was decidedly inferior, and it collapsed feebly in three of the test
+  matches. England's failure, for which poor fielding and missed catches
+  were also responsible, was the more disappointing since they began
+  well by winning the first test match at Birmingham by ten wickets. C.
+  B. Fry and Hobbs knocking off the 105 runs required to win in the
+  second innings without the loss of a wicket. In the third test match,
+  at Leeds, England was deprived of the services of Hayward and Blythe
+  through illness, and an accident to Jessop during the match compelled
+  the side to play a man short. It was in bowling that the Australians
+  were thought to be least strong; but Laver's analysis in the
+  Manchester test match, when he took 8 wickets for 31 runs in England's
+  first innings, was the most notable feature of the match; and although
+  his record at the head of the bowling averages for the tour, 70
+  wickets at an average cost of 14.9 runs, had frequently been beaten in
+  earlier Australian tours in England, it proved him a worthy successor
+  of Spofforth, Boyle and Turner. Armstrong, although he did not equal
+  his record of 1905, again scored over 1000 runs and took over 100
+  wickets, his exact figures being 1439 runs and 120 wickets. The most
+  remarkable Australian batting was that of two young left-handed
+  players who on this occasion visited England for the first time, W.
+  Bardsley (b. 1884) and Vernon Ransford (b. 1885), the latter of whom
+  headed the averages both for test matches (58.8) and for the whole
+  tour (45.5), his principal achievement being an innings of 143 not out
+  in the test match at Lord's. Bardsley, who was second in the test
+  matches averages (39.6), fell into the third place slightly below
+  Armstrong in the averages for the tour; but he alone scored over 200
+  in an innings, which he accomplished twice, and over 2000 in aggregate
+  for the tour, and he established a test match "record" by scoring 136
+  and 130 in the match at the Oval. Of the twenty-two "centuries" scored
+  by Australians during the season Bardsley and Ransford each made six.
+  Trumper and Noble each scored over a thousand runs, and Macartney was
+  an invaluable member of the side both in batting and bowling. As a
+  wicket-keeper Carter worthily filled the place of Kelly, and the
+  fielding of the Colonials fully maintained the brilliant Australian
+  standard of former years.
+
+  The following "records" of Australian cricket in England up to 1909
+  are of interest:--Highest total by an Australian team: 843 v. Past and
+  Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893. Highest total
+  against an Australian team: 576 by England at the Oval in 1899. Lowest
+  total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in 1896. Lowest total
+  against an Australian team: 17 by Gloucestershire in 1896. Highest
+  individual Australian score in one innings: 303 not out by W. W.
+  Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest individual Australian
+  aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in 1902. Two centuries in a
+  match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v. Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and
+  130 v. England in 1909 (test match record).
+
+  The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting and
+  bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909.
+
+
+    _Batting._
+
+    +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
+    |      |                        |    |Not |      |      |       |
+    | Year.|                        |Inn.|out.| Runs.| Most.| Aver. |
+    +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
+    | 1878 | C. Bannerman, N.S.W.   | 31 |  1 |  723 |  133 | 24.10 |
+    | 1880 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 19 |  1 |  465 | *153 | 25.80 |
+    | 1882 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 61 |  5 | 1711 | *286 | 30.50 |
+    | 1884 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 50 |  5 | 1378 |  211 | 30.60 |
+    | 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A.        | 63 |  9 | 1453 |  119 | 26.90 |
+    | 1888 | P. M'Donnell, V.       | 62 |  1 | 1393 |  105 | 22.50 |
+    | 1890 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W.  | 64 |  2 | 1459 | *158 | 23.33 |
+    | 1893 | H. Graham, V.          | 55 |  3 | 1492 |  219 | 28.36 |
+    | 1896 | S. E. Gregory, N.S.W.  | 48 |  2 | 1464 |  154 | 31.38 |
+    | 1899 | J. Darling, S.A.       | 56 |  9 | 1941 |  167 | 41.29 |
+    | 1902 | V. T. Trumper, N.S.W.  | 53 |  0 | 2570 |  128 | 48.49 |
+    | 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V.    | 48 |  7 | 2002 | *303 | 48.82 |
+    | 1909 | V. S. Ransford         | 43 |  4 | 1778 |  190 | 45.58 |
+    +------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
+      * Not out.
+
+
+     _Bowling._
+
+    +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
+    | Year.|                        |   O.   |  M.  |  R.  |  W. | Aver. |
+    +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
+    | 1878 | T. W. Garrett, N.S.W.  |  296.2 |  144 |  394 |  38 | 10.30 |
+    | 1880 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.|  240.8 |   82 |  396 |  46 |  8.60 |
+    | 1882 | H. F. Boyle, V.        | 1200.14|  525 | 1680 | 144 | 11.60 |
+    | 1884 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.| 1544.32|  649 | 2642 | 216 | 12.20 |
+    | 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A.        | 1693.26|  722 | 2711 | 159 | 17.05 |
+    | 1888 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 2589.3 | 1222 | 3492 | 314 | 11.38 |
+    | 1890 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1651.1 |  724 | 2725 | 215 | 12.45 |
+    | 1893 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1148   |  450 | 2202 | 160 | 13.12 |
+    | 1896 | T. R. M'Kibbin, N.S.W. |  647.1 |  198 | 1441 | 101 | 14.27 |
+    | 1899 | H. Trumble, V.         | 1249.1 |  431 | 2618 | 142 | 18.43 |
+    | 1902 | H. Trumble, V.         |  948   |  305 | 1998 | 140 | 14.27 |
+    | 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V.    | 1027   |  308 | 2288 | 130 | 17.60 |
+    | 1909 | F. Laver               |  495.5 |  161 | 1048 |  70 | 14.97 |
+    +------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
+
+  The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862, and
+  was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891) took out
+  the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur. In 1873 the
+  Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an eleven, and
+  three years later James Lillywhite conducted a team of professionals.
+  On this tour for the first time colonials contended on equal terms,
+  one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the other lost by 45
+  runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a team of amateurs
+  assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and losing 3 eleven-a-side
+  encounters, Emmett's 137 wickets averaging 8 runs each. Shaw,
+  Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized the expedition of 1881,
+  when Australia won the second test match by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo
+  Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in 1882 took a fine team, which was
+  crippled owing to an injury sustained by the bowler F. Morley. Four
+  victories could be set against three defeats; Australia winning the
+  only test match, owing to the batting of Blackham. Shaw's second tour
+  in 1884 showed Barnes heading both batting and bowling averages, while
+  six victories counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour
+  Shrewsbury became captain, but the English for the first time
+  encountered the bowling of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for
+  113 runs in two matches. Australia was twice defeated, the English
+  captain batting in fine form. On this tour was played the Smokers v.
+  Non-Smokers, when the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236,
+  W. Bruce 131, Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle,
+  Lohmann, Palmer and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams
+  in Australia, one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under
+  Shrewsbury and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being
+  headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with 58.
+  The ill-success of Lord Sheffield's team in two out of three test
+  matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G.
+  Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support from
+  Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann all
+  possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart's first team (in 1894)
+  achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first test
+  match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by 10 runs,
+  Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51, scoring 173 in
+  the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who made 228 v. Victoria),
+  Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The last tour conducted by
+  Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of the five test matches being
+  lost, and some friction being caused by various incidents. K. S.
+  Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made 175 in a test match and 189 v.
+  South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren, who scored five hundreds and
+  averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward also doing good work; but the
+  bowling broke down. Weakness in bowling was the cause of the ill
+  success of A. C. MacLaren's side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by
+  an innings and 124 runs at Sydney, the other four test matches were
+  all lost. MacLaren himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward
+  and Tyldesley. Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in
+  1903 officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in
+  every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three test
+  matches were won and two lost, while two new records were set up, one
+  by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other by R. E.
+  Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled 287.
+  Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen; Rhodes and Braund
+  both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase about "bringing back the
+  ashes" became almost proverbial; its origin is to be found in the
+  _Sporting Times_ in 1882 after Australia had defeated England at the
+  Oval.
+
+  _New Zealand._--Although cricket has not attained a degree of
+  perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it is
+  keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in 1902-1903
+  which won all the eighteen matches arranged.
+
+  _Cricket in India._--Not only the English who live in India, but the
+  natives also--Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike--play cricket. A
+  Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888.
+
+  _South Africa._--South African cricketers visiting England are
+  handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets used
+  in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer War in 1901
+  won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with Worcestershire,
+  and showing marked improvement on the team which had visited England
+  in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a fine wicket-keeper, J. H.
+  Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round cricketer, J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a
+  very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872) clever with the ball. In
+  1904 more decided success was achieved, for on a more ambitious
+  programme ten victories could be set against two defeats by
+  Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex. The most important
+  success was a victory by 189 runs over a powerful England eleven at
+  Lord's, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875) scored 102 and 26, and took 8
+  wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjitsinhji twice. Kotze and Sinclair
+  again bore the brunt of the attack. Of the English teams visiting
+  South Africa, that taken by Lord Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such
+  important opposition as the one he led in 1900, yet the side came back
+  undefeated, having won all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F.
+  Mitchell, with Tyldesley, were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and
+  Cuttell bowling finely. In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a
+  side under P. F. Warner, but it lost four out of the five test
+  matches, F. L. Fane and J. N. Crawford being the most successful of
+  the Englishmen, and G. C. White (1882) and A. D. Nourse proving
+  themselves great colonial batsmen. In 1907 a representative South
+  African team came to England, and their improved status in the
+  cricketing world was shown by the arrangement of test matches. In the
+  winter of 1909-1910 an English team under Mr Leveson Gower went to
+  South Africa, and played test matches.
+
+  _West Indies._--West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900,
+  winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A. Olivierre
+  (b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The brunt of the
+  bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878). In 1897 teams
+  under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both visited West Indies,
+  Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations. R. S. Lucas (b. 1867)
+  had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A much weaker combination in
+  1902 suffered five defeats but won 13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E.
+  R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M. Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief
+  performers. In 1906 another West Indian side visited England, but were
+  not particularly successful.
+
+  _America._--In the United States cricket has always had to contend
+  with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival
+  attractions of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity,
+  Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World.
+
+  The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play annually
+  for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the Associated
+  Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood of New York
+  matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District Cricket League and
+  the New York Cricket Association; similar organizations are the
+  Northwestern, the California and the Massachusetts associations, while
+  the Intercollegiate Cricket League consists of college teams
+  representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b.
+  1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849) may almost claim to be the fathers
+  of cricket in the United States; while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did
+  much for the game in Canada. Other eminent names in American cricket
+  are A. M. Wood; H. Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three
+  centuries in one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of
+  Pennsylvania, a very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made
+  344 not out for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved
+  most effective during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894
+  W. Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss
+  of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not
+  out. A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United
+  States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in
+  which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the
+  course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average
+  cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the
+  side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester
+  (b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be
+  cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen (b.
+  1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not, however,
+  include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen in America.
+  The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908, when they won
+  7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour King surpassed his
+  former English record by taking 115 wickets, and Wood, who played one
+  fine innings of 132, was the most successful of the American batsmen.
+
+  _Other Countries._--The English residents of Portugal support the
+  game, but were no match for a moderate English team that visited them
+  in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem, cricket is
+  played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch elevens have
+  visited England, and English elevens have crossed to Holland, the most
+  important visit being that of the gentlemen of the M.C.C. in 1902, the
+  Englishmen winning all the matches.
+
+  _Professionalism._--The remuneration of the first-class English
+  professionals is L6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid;
+  a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from L2, 10s. to L3, 10s. a
+  week when not away playing matches. A professional player generally
+  receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the amount being
+  sometimes a fixed sum of L1 for every fifty runs, more frequently a
+  sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation of the captain.
+  Some counties give their men winter pay, others try to provide them
+  with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get cricket in other
+  countries during the English winter. For international matches
+  professional players and "reserves" receive L20 each, though before
+  1896 the fee was only L10; players (and reserves) in Gentlemen v.
+  Players at Lord's are paid L10. A good county professional generally
+  receives a "benefit" after about ten years' service; but the amount of
+  the proceeds varies capriciously with the weather, the duration of the
+  match, and the attendance. In the populous northern counties of
+  England benefits are far more lucrative than in the south, but L800 to
+  L1000 may be regarded as a good average result. County clubs generally
+  exercise some control over the sums received. Umpires are paid L6 a
+  match; in minor games they receive about L1 a day.
+
+  _Records._--Records other than those already cited may be added for
+  reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in
+  1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy's match,
+  being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566
+  for Break o' Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being
+  911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886. In
+  first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is A.
+  C. MacLaren's 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in 1895.
+  Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March 1898, this
+  being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C. and Ground
+  made 735 v. Wiltshire in 1888, the highest total at Lord's. In the
+  match between A. E. Stoddart's team and New South Wales at Sydney in
+  1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled in first-class
+  cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class match is
+  918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. Yorkshire scored
+  887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The lowest total in a
+  first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v. Gloucestershire in June
+  1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by S. Colman and P. Coles at
+  Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partnership on record is 623 by
+  Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh in 1895. The best stand
+  that has been made for the last wicket in a first-class match is 230
+  runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls and Roche playing for
+  Middlesex v. Kent at Lord's in 1899.
+
+  The "averages" of individual players for batting and bowling annually
+  excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that some
+  players may think too much of their averages and too little of the
+  sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages
+  during a series of years would be misleading, owing to improvements in
+  grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number of
+  innings.
+
+  The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to the
+  end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of
+  historic cricketers; it will serve to supplement some details already
+  given above about them and others.
+
+
+    _Batting._
+
+    +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
+    |                    | Innings.|Not Out.|  Runs.|Most.| Aver. |
+    +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
+    | K. S. Ranjitsinhji |    448  |   57   | 22,277| 285 |  56.3 |
+    | C. B. Fry          |    481  |   29   | 22,865| 244 |  50.4 |
+    | T. Hayward         |    667  |   61   | 25,225| 315 |  41.3 |
+    | J. T. Tyldesley    |    491  |   38   | 18,683| 250 |  41.1 |
+    | Dr W. G. Grace     |   1463  |  103   | 54,073| 344 |  39.1 |
+    | A. Shrewsbury      |    784  |   88   | 25,819| 267 |  37.6 |
+    | R. Abel            |    964  |   69   | 32,810| 357 |  36.5 |
+    | A. C. MacLaren     |    526  |   37   | 17,364| 424 |  35.2 |
+    | G. H. Hirst        |    626  |   92   | 18,615| 341 |  34.4 |
+    | Hon. F. S. Jackson |    490  |   35   | 15,498| 160 |  34.2 |
+    | W. Gunn            |    821  |   66   | 25,286| 273 |  33.3 |
+    | W. W. Read         |    739  |   53   | 22,919| 328 |  33.2 |
+    | A. E. Stoddart     |    513  |   16   | 16,081| 221 |  32.2 |
+    +--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
+
+
+    _Bowling._
+
+    +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
+    |                      | Overs.|  Maid. |  Runs.|Wkts.| Aver.|
+    +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
+    | A. Shaw              | 22,830| 12,803 | 21,887| 1916| 11.8 |
+    | F. R. Spofforth      |  5,342|  2,168 |  8,773|  682| 12.5 |
+    | C. T. B. Turner      |  5,388|  2,396 |  8,419|  649| 12.6 |
+    | T. Emmett            | 14,672|  6,870 | 20,811| 1523| 13.1 |
+    | G. Lohmann           | 15,196|  6,508 | 23,958| 1734| 13.1 |
+    | F. Morley            | 12,610|  6,239 | 15,938| 1213| 13.1 |
+    | E. Peate             | 11,669|  5,593 | 14,299| 1061| 13.5 |
+    | W. Rhodes            | 11,014|  3,476 | 23,336| 1564| 14.1 |
+    | W. Attewell          | 22,461| 11,408 | 28,671| 1874| 15.5 |
+    | J. Briggs            | 20,300|  8,275 | 34,411| 2161| 15.2 |
+    | R. Peel              | 18,255|  7,856 | 27,795| 1733| 16.6 |
+    | S. Haigh             |  7,749|  2,279 | 18,516| 1102| 16.8 |
+    | J. T. Hearne         | 19,895|  7,395 | 40,532| 2350| 17.5 |
+    | W. H. Lockwood       |  8,733|  2,241 | 22,981| 1273| 18.6 |
+    | T. Richardson (1904) | 14,474|  3,835 | 38,126| 2081| 18.6 |
+    | Dr W. G. Grace (1904)| 28,502| 10,892 | 50,441| 2730| 18.1 |
+    | G. H. Hirst          | 11,586|  3,525 | 27,028| 1377| 19.8 |
+    +----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-known
+  annuals:--H. Bentley's _Scores from 1786 to 1822_ (published in 1823);
+  John Nyren's _Young Cricketer's Tutor_ (1833); N. Wanostrocht's _Felix
+  on the Bat_ (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lillywhite's _Cricket
+  Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840_ (1862); Rev. J. Pycroft's
+  _Cricket Field_ (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box's _Theory and
+  Practice of Cricket_ (1868); F. Gale's _Echoes from Old Cricket
+  Fields_ (1871, new ed. 1896); _Marylebone Cricket Club Scores and
+  Biographies_ (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite's _Scores and
+  Biographies_; C. Box's _English Game of Cricket_ (1877); _History of a
+  Hundred Centuries_, by W. G. Grace (1895); _History of the Middlesex
+  County Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1900); _History of the Cambridge
+  University Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1902); _History of Yorkshire
+  County Cricket_, by R. S. Holmes (1904); _History of Kent County
+  Cricket_, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); _Annals of Lord's_, by A. D.
+  Taylor (1903); _Curiosities of Cricket_, by F. S. Ashley Cooper
+  (1901); "Cricket," by Lord Hawke, in _English Sport_, by A. E. T.
+  Watson (1903); _Cricket_, edited by H. G. Hutchinson (1903); _Cricket
+  Form at a Glance_, by Home Gordon (1903); _Cricket_ (Badminton
+  Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904); _Old English
+  Cricketers_, by Old Ebor (1900); _Cricket in Many Climes_, by P. F.
+  Warner (1903); _How We Recovered the Ashes_, by P. F. Warner (1904);
+  _England v. Australia_, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877 to 1904)
+  (1904); _The Jubilee Book of Cricket_, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji (1897).
+
+
+
+
+CRICKHOWELL, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales, 14 m. E. of Brecon,
+beautifully situated on the left bank of the Usk, which divides it from
+Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The nearest railway stations are Govilon
+(5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.) on the London & North-Western railway, but a
+mail and passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and Brecon
+passes through the town. It is also served by the Brecon & Newport
+Canal, which passes through Llangattock about a mile distant.
+Agriculture is almost the sole industry of the district. The town
+derives its name from a British fortress, Crug Hywel, commonly called
+Table Mountain, about 2 m. N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of
+which only a tower remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of
+the country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a borough
+by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having possessed any
+municipal institutions. The church is in transitional Decorated style.
+
+
+
+
+CRICKLADE, a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary division of
+Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the Midland & South-Western
+Junction railway. Pop. (1901) 1517. It is pleasantly situated in the
+plain which borders the south bank of the Thames, not far from the
+Thames & Severn Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly
+Perpendicular, with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in its
+churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early English tower,
+Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch. There is some
+agricultural trade.
+
+Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek philosophers
+before the Roman conquest, and the name is given as "Greeklade" in
+Drayton's _Polyolbion_. It owed its importance in Saxon times to its
+position at the passage of the Thames. During the revolt of AEthelwald
+the AEtheling in 905 he and his army "harried all the Mercian's land
+until they came to Cricklade and there they went over the Thames"
+(Anglo-Sax. Chron. _sub anno_), and in 1016 Canute came with his army
+over the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade (ibid.). There was a mint at
+Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I., and
+William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of Stephen. In the
+reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to St John the Baptist was
+founded at Cricklade, and placed under the government of a warden or
+prior. Cricklade was a borough by prescription at least as early as the
+Domesday Survey, and returned two members to parliament from 1295 until
+disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough was never
+incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption from toll and
+passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry III. and confirmed by
+successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin de Insula obtained a grant of a
+Thursday market, and an annual three days' fair at the feast of St Peter
+ad Vincula. The market was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was
+much frequented by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now
+inconsiderable. During the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the
+dowry of the queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship
+was acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter Hungerford
+granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and chapter of Salisbury
+cathedral to aid towards the repair of their belfry.
+
+
+
+
+CRIEFF, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of Strathearn,
+17-3/4 m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5208.
+Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Earn,
+here crossed by a bridge, it practically consists of a main street, with
+narrower streets branching off at right angles. Its climate is the
+healthiest in mid-Scotland, the air being pure and dry. Its charter is
+said to date from 1218, and it was the seat of the courts of the earls
+of Strathearn till 1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A
+Runic sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old
+town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for which
+Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770. It was probably
+in connexion with this market that the "kind gallows of Crieff" acquired
+their notoriety, for they were mostly used for the execution of Highland
+cattle-stealers. The principal buildings are the town hall, tolbooth,
+public library, assembly rooms, mechanics' institute, Morison's academy
+(founded in 1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment
+built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered by
+the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist of
+manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and leather.
+Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for its gardens. They
+cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in terraces, and illustrate
+Italian, Dutch and French styles. They were planned by the 2nd earl of
+Perth (d. 1662), and take rank with the most magnificent in the United
+Kingdom. The keep of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the
+original building was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by
+Cromwell. The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction
+of the Jacobite rebellion.
+
+
+
+
+CRIME (Lat. _crimen_, accusation), the general term for offences against
+the Criminal Law (q.v.). Crime has been defined as "a failure or refusal
+to live up to the standard of conduct deemed binding by the rest of the
+community." Sir James Stephen describes it as "some act or omission in
+respect of which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is
+in default whether by acting or omitting to act." Such action or neglect
+of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It is a wrong or tort,
+to be prevented and corrected by the strong arm of the law.
+
+Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under different
+circumstances of place and custom, that which at one time is denounced
+as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious act. It was once an
+imperative duty for the family to avenge the death of a kinsman, and the
+blood feud had a sanction that made killing no murder. Again, among
+primitive tribes to make away with parents at an advanced age or
+suffering from an incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was
+sometimes encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval;
+religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy, heresy,
+sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter to accepted
+dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when people gathered into
+communities and the rights of property and of personal security were
+understood and established. The law of the strongest might still
+interfere with individual ownership; the weakest went to the wall;
+authority, whether exercised by one master or by the combined government
+of the many, was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As
+civilization spread and the bulk of the population settled into
+orderliness, society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection,
+would not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all
+law-breakers decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy. Then
+began that constant warfare between criminals and the forces of law and
+order which has been continuously waged through the centuries with
+varying degrees of bitterness.
+
+The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty. Extreme
+penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent, and the
+principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law. The harshness of
+ancient codes makes a more humane age shudder. It was the custom to hang
+or decapitate, or otherwise take life in some more or less barbarous
+fashion, on the smallest excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous
+torture. It was performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to
+death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dismemberment
+and flaying or boiling alive. These were the aggravations of the
+original idea of riddance, of checking crime by the absolute removal of
+the offender. Only slowly and gradually milder methods came into force.
+Revenge and retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a
+larger mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity to
+mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period from the sphere
+of his baneful activity was something; to subject him to more or less
+irksome processes, to solitary confinement upon short diet, deprived of
+all the solaces of life, with severe labour, were sharp lessons limited
+in effect to those actually subjected to them, but too remote to deter
+the outside crowd of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the
+administrator is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to
+reform the criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed
+characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved in this
+direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more and more
+steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in principle that to
+eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off recruits from the permanent
+army of crime the work must be undertaken when the subject is of an age
+susceptible of reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more
+enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becoming more and
+more largely accepted in practice among civilized nations.
+
+It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally present
+in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favourable to its
+growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their earliest years. They
+exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment, mendacity; they are often
+intensely selfish, are strongly acquisitive, greedy of gain, ready to
+steal and secrete things at the first opportunity. Happily the fatal
+consequences that would otherwise be inevitable are checked by the
+gradual growth of inhibitory processes, such as prudence, reflection, a
+sense of moral duty, and in many cases the absence of temptation. From
+this Dr Nicholson deduces that "in proportion as this development is
+prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or by
+lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of the
+individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual crime." In
+the lowest strata of society this risk is largely increased from the
+conditions of life. The growth of criminals is greatly stimulated where
+people are badly fed, morally and physically unhealthy, infected with
+any forms of disease and vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is
+too often the evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of
+criminals are constantly impelled to follow in their parents' footsteps
+by the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness.
+The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds congenial
+soil in which to take root and flourish.
+
+Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines and
+has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result of marked
+propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and lust. Malicious
+crimes may be amplified into offences against the person originating in
+hatred, resentment, violent temper, and rising from mere assaults into
+manslaughter and murder. Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the
+whole range of thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all
+sorts; obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies;
+house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust embrace
+the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of ungovernable
+passion and criminal depravity. The proportions in which these three
+categories are manifested have been worked out in England and Wales to
+give the following figures. The percentage in any 100,000 of the
+population is:--
+
+  Crimes of malice                 15%
+  Crimes of greed                  75%
+  Crimes of lust                   10%
+
+The members of these categories do not form distinct classes; their
+crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime in many is
+progressive and passes through all the stages from minor offences to the
+worst crimes. Murder--the culminating point of malice--is constantly
+preceded by petty larceny; theft by forcible entry; and robbery is
+associated with violence and armed resistance to capture. Criminality
+rising into its highest development shows itself under many forms. It is
+instinctive, passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the
+outcome of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense. The
+causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive is idleness,
+leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily acquired without the
+labour of continuous effort. To deprive the more industrious or more
+happily placed of their hard-won earnings or possessions, inspires the
+bulk of modern serious crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar
+feature in modern crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out.
+The greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies are
+planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole is worked by
+wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals.
+
+Other features of modern crime are especially interesting. It is
+extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years commit
+murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met with as
+professional thieves. Again, the comparative proportions of crime in the
+two sexes may be considered. Everywhere women are less criminal than
+men. Naturally they have fewer facilities for committing crimes of
+violence, although they have offences peculiar to their sex, such as
+infanticide, and are more frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70%
+against 30%. Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm
+fix the percentage of female criminals at 3% in Japan, the East
+generally, South America and some parts of North America. In some states
+of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20%; in Europe generally it
+varies between 10% and 21%. In France the proportion of accused women is
+fifteen to eighty-five men. In Great Britain it is now one in four, but
+has been less. The total sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and
+imprisonment was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up
+by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is that
+one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already been convicted
+from eleven to twenty times. It has been well said from the above
+proportions that women are less criminal according to the figures,
+because when a woman wants a crime committed she can generally find a
+man to do it for her.
+
+It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react upon the
+criminality of the country; whether, in other words, severity of
+treatment _deters_, while milder methods encourage the wrongdoers to
+despise the penalties imposed by the law. Evidence for and against the
+verdict may be drawn from the whole civilized world. In England, as
+judged by the increase or decrease of the prison population, it might be
+supposed that the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing
+crime. Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers
+because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable increase in
+the number of crimes and proportionately of those imprisoned. The
+figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in criminality for that year
+as compared with the years immediately preceding. The proportion of
+indictable offences had increased in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494
+in 1899, or in the proportion of 171.01 per 100,000 of the population as
+against 158.97, a very marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless
+the figures for 1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on
+eight occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were
+available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the
+quinquennial period 1860-1864 the annual average was 280 per 100,000 as
+compared with 171.01 for 1906 and 175 for the quinquennial period
+1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and while offences against
+property have increased, those against the person have constantly
+fallen. Quite half the whole number of crimes were committed by old
+offenders (see RECIDIVISM).
+
+Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other countries,
+but some authentic figures may be quoted for France, where the number of
+thefts increased while offences against the person diminished. In
+Belgium there has been a satisfactory decrease in recent years. In
+Prussia the prison population has on the whole increased, but there has
+been a slight diminution in more serious crime. Some very noticeable
+figures are forthcoming from the United States, and comparison is
+possible of the relative amount of crime in the two countries, America
+and England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is much
+to be regretted. On the general question serious crime in the ten years
+between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while petty crime was very
+considerably less during the period. Charges for homicide have been much
+more numerous. There were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9.1 to 100,000 of
+the population; but in 1890 these offences rose to 7351, or a ratio of
+11.7. Comparing America with England, it has been calculated in round
+numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general population was
+in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England 1 to every 1764
+persons. As regards the more serious crimes the number in English
+convict prisons was as 1 to 10,000, and in the American state prisons
+(the corresponding institutions) the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the
+lesser prisons, i.e. the English local prisons and the American city or
+county gaols, the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1 to
+2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that much of the crime
+in America is attributable to the preponderance of foreign immigrants,
+but the ratio of native born prisoners is that of 1237 to the million,
+of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the million.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. MacDonald, _Criminology_ (New York, 1893); A. Drahms,
+  _The Criminal_ (New York, 1900); E. Ferri, _La Sociologie criminelle_,
+  trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905); all these contain extensive
+  bibliographies. See also under CRIMINOLOGY.     (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMEA (ancient _Tauris_ or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by
+the Tatar name _Krym_ or _Crim_), a peninsula on the north side of the
+Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the
+mainland of which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m.
+across). It is rudely rhomboid in shape, the angles being directed
+towards the cardinal points, and measures 200 m. between 44 deg. 23' and
+46 deg. 10' N., and 110 m. between 32 deg. 30' and 36 deg. 40' E. Its
+area is 9700 sq. m.
+
+Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east, where
+is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated from the Sea of
+Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are broken by several bays
+and harbours--on the west side of the Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of
+Karkinit; on the south-west by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores
+of which the allies landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria,
+Sevastopol and Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the
+Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or Feodosiya
+(Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south side of the same.
+The south-east coast is flanked at a distance of 5 to 8 m. from the sea
+by a parallel range of mountains, the Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow
+mountains, and these are backed, inland, by secondary parallel ranges;
+but 75% of the remaining area consists of high arid prairie lands, a
+southward continuation of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently
+north-westwards from the foot of the Yaila-dagh. The main range of these
+mountains shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of
+the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at the
+south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc.
+_Parthenium_), supposed to have been crowned by the temple of Artemis in
+which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On the higher parts of this
+range are numerous flat mountain pastures (Turk, _yailas_), which,
+except for their scantier vegetation, are analogous to the _almen_ of
+the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by various passes (_bogaz_), of which
+only six are available as carriage roads. The most conspicuous summits
+in this range are the Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh
+(5060 ft.), Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The
+second parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft.,
+likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle slope
+towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands of small
+caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and several rivers
+pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley, 10 to 12 m. wide,
+separates this range from the main range, while another valley 2 to 3 m.
+across separates it from the third parallel range, which reaches
+altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft. Evidences of a fourth and still lower
+ridge can be traced towards the south-west.
+
+A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable, leap down
+the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring, e.g. the Chernaya,
+Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea, and the Salghir, with its
+affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash lagoon.
+
+In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differences
+between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral, with the slopes
+of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former, although grasses and Liliaceae
+grow on them in great variety and luxuriance in the early spring, become
+completely parched up by July and August, while the air is then filled
+with clouds of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms,
+hailstorms and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this region
+produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports numbers of cattle,
+sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are, however, impregnated with
+salt, or studded with saline lakes; there nothing grows except the usual
+species of _Artemisia_ and _Salsola_. As a rule water can only be
+obtained from wells sunk 200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now
+being bored in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered
+numerous _kurgans_ or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians. The
+picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-dagh is of
+an altogether different character. Here the narrow strip of coast and
+the slopes of the mountains are smothered with greenery. This Russian
+Riviera stretches all along the south-east coast from Cape Sarych
+(extreme S.) to Feodosiya (Theodosia), and is studded with summer
+sea-bathing resorts--Alupka, Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia.
+Numerous Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian
+imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of ancient
+Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling to the
+acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel and other nuts,
+the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs, olives and
+pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco plantations, and
+gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while the higher slopes of the
+mountains are thickly clothed with forests of oak, beech, elm, pines,
+firs and other Coniferae. Here have become acclimatized, and grow in the
+open air, such plants as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias,
+myrtles, camellias, mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover
+over 19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3-1/2 million gallons
+annually) enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in
+abundance. In some winters the tops of the mountains are covered with
+snow, but snow seldom falls to the south of them, and ice, too, is
+rarely seen in the same districts. The heat of summer is moderated by
+breezes off the sea, and the nights are cool and serene; the winters are
+mild and healthy. Fever and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts
+for a few weeks in autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April
+and May, but seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between
+the different parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following data:
+annual mean, at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop, 48 deg. Fahr.;
+at Simferopol, just within the mountains, 50 deg.; at Yalta, on the
+south-east coast, 56.5 deg.; the respective January means being 20 deg.,
+31 deg. and 39.5 deg., and the July means 74 deg., 70 deg. and 75.5
+deg.. The rainfall is small all over the peninsula, the annual average
+on the steppes being 13.8 in., at Simferopol 17.5, and at Yalta 18 in.
+It varies greatly, however, from year to year; thus at Simferopol it
+ranges between the extremes of 7.5 and 26.4 in.
+
+Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned, are salt,
+porphyry and limestone, and ironstone has recently been brought to light
+at Kerch. Fish abound all round the coast, such as red and grey mullet,
+herring, mackerel, turbot, soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock,
+pilchard, a species of pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon.
+Manufacturing industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills,
+ironworks, jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The
+Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially in
+the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming from Kharkov,
+crosses the peninsula from north to south, terminating at Sevastopol and
+sending off branch lines to Theodosia and Kerch.
+
+The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are racially
+modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic elements. The
+remainder of the population is made up of Russians, Germans, Karaite
+Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians. The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom
+only 150,000 lived in the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of
+note, in addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and
+Bakhchisarai, the old Tatar capital.
+
+_History._--The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any authentic
+traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled by the Scythians
+during the 7th century B.C. A remnant, who took refuge in the mountains,
+became known subsequently as the Tauri. In that same century Greek
+colonists began to settle on the coasts, e.g. Dorians from Heraclea at
+Chersonesus, and Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum
+(also called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 B.C.) the archon or
+ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus, a state
+which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying that city with
+wheat and other commodities. The last of these kings, Paerisades V.,
+being hard pressed by the Scythians, put himself under the protection of
+Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, in 114 B.C. After the death of this
+latter sovereign his son Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered
+to the Romans in their war against his father, was (63 B.C.) invested by
+Pompey with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 B.C. it was once more
+restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a tributary
+state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries the Crimea was overrun or
+occupied successively by the Goths (A.D. 250), the Huns (376), the
+Khazars (8th century), the Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050),
+and the Mongols (1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or
+seized the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on the
+Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria, Cembalo
+(Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia), flourishing trading
+towns, which existed down to the conquest of the peninsula by the
+Ottoman Turks in 1475. Meanwhile the Tatars had got a firm footing in
+the northern and central parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th
+century, and after the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they
+founded an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan, who
+is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned first at Solkhat
+(Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th century at
+Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary princes of the
+Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been defeated by Suvarov they
+became dependent upon Russia, and finally in 1783 the whole of the
+Crimea was annexed to the Russian empire. Since that date the only
+important phase of its history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56,
+which is treated of under a separate article. At various times, e.g.
+after the acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and
+in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in large
+numbers to the Ottoman empire.
+
+  See _Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien_ (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1854);
+  C. Bossoll, _The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea_ (52 large drawings,
+  London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, _Notices hist. et topogr. concernant les
+  colonies italiennes en Gazarie_ (St Petersburg, 1866); J. B. Telfer,
+  _The Crimea and Transcaucasia_ (2 vols., London, 2nd ed., 1877); F.
+  Remy, _Die Krim in ethnographischer, landschaftlicher und hygienischer
+  Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-Purgstall,
+  _Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft_ (Vienna,
+  1856); M. G. Canale, _Della Crimea e dei suoi dominatori dalle sue
+  origini fino al trattato di Parigi_ (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-1856); and
+  Sir Evelyn Wood, _The Crimea in 1854 and 1894_ (London, 1895). (See
+  also BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS.)     (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMEAN WAR. The war of 1853-56, usually known by this name, arose from
+causes the discussion of which will be found under the heading TURKEY:
+History. When Turkey, after a period of irregular fighting, declared war
+on Russia in October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently
+assisted by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this
+intervention was represented merely by the presence of an allied
+squadron in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great
+Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope
+(30th November) soon impelled these powers to more active measures. On
+the 27th of January 1854 they declared war on the tsar, and prepared to
+carry their armaments to the Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war,
+the Turks had hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The
+Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed the Pruth with
+two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun Moldavia and Wallachia
+without difficulty. Omar Pasha, however, disposing of superior forces,
+was able to check any further advance. During October, November and
+December the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at
+Oltenitza (Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later
+Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati) before
+reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained was for the time
+being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months later, the Russians, now
+under command of the veteran Prince Paskievich, took the offensive in
+great force. Crossing the Danube near its mouth at Galatz and Braila,
+they advanced through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of
+Silistria, which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect
+all the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported by
+the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented a close
+investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive encounter, and the
+stormers stood ready in the trenches before Silistria, when the siege
+was suddenly raised. The decision had passed into other hands. The tsar
+had learned that the Austrian army of observation in Transylvania,
+50,000 strong under Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the
+wishes of the "Four Powers." The Russian offensive was at an end, the
+army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last man
+recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once occupied by Hess.
+
+[Illustration: Seat of Crimean War]
+
+_The Invasion of the Crimea._--The primary object of the war had thus
+easily been obtained. But Great Britain and France were by no means
+content with a triumph that left untouched the vast resources of an
+enemy who was certain to employ them at the next opportunity. The two
+nations felt that Sevastopol, the home of the Black Sea fleet, the port
+whence Admiral Nachimov had sailed for Sinope, must be crippled for some
+years at least, and as early as June 29th Lord Raglan and Marshal Saint
+Arnaud, the allied commanders of England and France, had received
+instructions to "concert measures for the siege of Sevastopol." Dynastic
+considerations reinforced the arguments of policy and popular opinion in
+the case of France; in Great Britain soldier and civilian alike saw the
+menace of a Russian Mediterranean fleet in the unfinished forts and busy
+dockyards. The popular strategy for once coincided with the views of the
+responsible leaders. Yet there is no sign that either the commanders on
+the spot or their governments realized the magnitude of the undertaking.
+Few but the most urgently necessary preparations were made, and cholera,
+breaking out virulently amongst the French at this time, reduced the
+army at Varna, and even the fleet at sea, to impotence. The troops were
+so weakened that, even in September, the five-mile march from camp to
+transport exhausted most of the men. Heavy weather still further delayed
+the start, and it was not until the 7th of September that the expedition
+began to cross the Black Sea. One hundred and fifty war-vessels and
+transports conveyed the army, which, guarded on all sides by the
+fighting fleet, crossed without incident and drew up on the Crimean
+coast on September 13th. Tactical considerations prevailed in the choice
+of place. The landlocked harbours south of Sevastopol were for the time
+being neglected, and a spot known as Old Fort preferred, because the
+long beach, the heavy metal of the ships' broadsides, and a line of
+lagoons covering the front offered singularly favourable conditions for
+the delicate operation of disembarkation. Still, on this side of
+Sevastopol there was no good harbour, and it is quite open to question
+whether in this case the strategic necessities of the situation were not
+neglected in favour of purely tactical and temporary advantages. As a
+matter of fact no opposition was offered to the landing, but the weather
+prevented the disembarkation being completed until the 18th. St Arnaud
+and Raglan had at this time under their orders 51,000 British, French
+and Turkish infantry, 1000 British cavalry, and 128 guns, and on the
+19th this force (less some detachments) began the southward march in
+order of battle, the British (who alone had their cavalry present) on
+the exposed left flank, the French next the sea, the fleet moving in the
+same direction parallel to the troops.
+
+_The Alma._--Old Fort was beyond the reach of Menshikov, the Russian
+commander, but, as the fortress communicated with the interior of Russia
+via Kerch and Simferopol, it was to be expected that he would either
+accept battle on the Sevastopol road, or cover Simferopol by a flank
+attack on Lord Raglan. Both these contingencies were provided for by the
+order of march, and in due course it was ascertained that the Russians
+adopted the former alternative, and barred the Sevastopol road on the
+heights of the river Alma. Menaced by the guns of the fleet, Menshikov
+had wheeled back his left, and at the same time he strengthened his
+right in order to cover the Simferopol road. From this it followed
+naturally that the brunt of the attack fell upon the British divisions,
+whilst the French, nearer the sea, struck to some extent _dans le vide_.
+The two commanders, after a reconnaissance, decided upon their plan. The
+French divisions in echelon from the right were to cross the river and
+force Menshikov inwards, whilst the British were to move straight to
+their front against the strongest part of the Russian line.
+Substantially this plan was carried out on the 20th of September. Owing
+to want of men (he had but 36,400 against over 50,000) Menshikov was
+unable to hold his left wing very strongly, and the French were scarcely
+checked save by physical obstacles; but opposite the British force the
+ground sloped glacis-wise up to the Russian line, and nothing but their
+iron discipline, the best heritage of the Peninsular War, brought them
+victorious to the crest of Kurghane hill. The Russians had no option but
+to retreat, which they did without molestation. The allies lost about
+3000 men, mostly British (though Prince Napoleon's men also suffered
+heavily); the Russians reported 5709 casualties.
+
+_The March on Sevastopol._--On the 23rd of September the advance was
+resumed, and by the 25th Sevastopol was in full view of the allied
+outposts. It was now that the necessary consequences of the choice of
+Old Fort as the landing-place presented themselves as a problem for
+instant solution. Whatever chance there had been of assaulting the north
+side of Sevastopol was now gone. Menshikov had sacrificed some ships in
+order to seal up the harbour mouth, and naval co-operation in attack was
+now impossible, while the other Russian ships could in safety aid the
+defenders with their heavy guns. A siege, based on the beach of Old Fort
+or the open roads of Kacha, was out of the question, as was
+re-embarkation for a fresh landing. There remained only a flank march by
+Mackenzie's farm and the river Chernaya. Once established on the south
+side, the allies could use the excellent harbours of Kamiesh and
+Balaklava; this could almost certainly be effected without fighting,
+while in besieging Sevastopol itself and not merely the north side, the
+allies would be striking at the heart. But a flank march is almost
+always in itself a hazardous undertaking, and in this case the invaders
+were required further to abandon their line of retreat on Old Fort. In
+point of fact, the army, covered by a division opposite the Russian
+works, successfully accomplished the task. At the same moment Menshikov,
+after providing for the defence of Sevastopol, had marched out with a
+field army towards Bakhchiserai, and on the 25th of September each army,
+without knowing it, actually crossed the other's front. On arrival at
+Balaklava the allies regained contact with the fleet, and the detachment
+left on the north side, its mission being at an end, followed the same
+route and rejoined the main body. The French now took possession of
+Kamiesh, the British of Balaklava.
+
+[Illustration: SEVASTOPOL 1854-1856]
+
+_Beginning of the Siege._--Thus secured, the allies closed upon the
+south side of the fortress. A siege corps was formed, and the British
+army and General Bosquet's French corps covered its operations against
+interruption from the Russian field army. The harbour of Sevastopol,
+formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, was protected against attack by
+sea not only by the Russian war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by
+heavy granite forts on the south side and by the works which had defied
+the allies on the north. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb
+the trace of the works had been laid down for years. The Malakoff, a
+great tower of stone, covered the suburb, flanked on either side by the
+Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works
+marked by the Flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from the
+Redan by the inner harbour. Lieut.-Col. Todleben, the Russian chief
+engineer, had very early begun work on these sites, and daily
+re-creating, rearming and improving the fortifications, finally
+connected them by a continuous enceinte. Yet Sevastopol was not, early
+in October 1854, the towering fortress it afterwards became, and
+Todleben himself maintained that, had the allies immediately assaulted,
+they would have succeeded in taking the place. There were, however, many
+reasons against so decided a course, and it was not until the 17th of
+October that the first attack took place. All that day a tremendous
+artillery duel raged. The French siege corps lost heavily and its guns
+were overpowered. The fleet engaged the harbour batteries close inshore,
+and suffered a loss of 500 men, besides severe damage to the ships. On
+the other hand the British siege batteries silenced the Malakoff and its
+annexes, and, if failure had not occurred at the other points of attack,
+an assault might have succeeded. As it was, Todleben, by daybreak, had
+repaired and improved the damaged works. Meanwhile General Canrobert had
+succeeded St Arnaud (who died on the 29th of September) in the joint
+leadership of the allies. It was not long before Menshikov and the now
+augmented field army from Bakhchiserai appeared on the Chernaya and
+moved towards the Balaklava lines and the British base.
+
+_Balaklava._--A long line of works on the upland secured the siege corps
+from interference, and the Balaklava lines themselves were strong, but
+the low Vorontsov ridge between the two was weakly held, and here the
+Russian commander hoped to sever the line of communications. On the 25th
+of October Liprandi's corps carried its slight redoubts at the first
+rush. But the British cavalry stationed at the foot of the upland was
+situated on their flank, and as the Russian cavalry moved towards
+Kadikoi, the "Heavy Brigade" under General Scarlett charged home with
+such effect that Menshikov's troopers only rallied behind their field
+batteries near Traktir bridge. At the same time some of the Russian
+squadrons, coming upon the British 93rd regiment outside the Balaklava
+lines, were completely broken by the steady volleys of the "thin red
+line." The "Light Brigade" of British cavalry, farther north, had
+hitherto remained inactive, even when the Russians, broken by the
+"Heavies," fled across their front. The cavalry commander, Lord Lucan,
+now received orders to prevent the withdrawal of the guns taken by
+Liprandi. The aide-de-camp who carried the order was killed by the first
+shell, and the whole question of responsibility for what followed is
+wrapped in obscurity. Lord Cardigan led the Light Brigade straight at
+the Russian field batteries, behind which the enemy's squadrons had
+re-formed. From the guns in front, on the Fedukhin heights, and on the
+captured ridge to their right, the advancing squadrons at once met a
+deadly converging fire, but the gallant troopers nevertheless reached
+the guns and cut down the artillerymen. Small parties even charged the
+cavalry behind, and at least two unbroken squadrons struck out right and
+left with success, but the combat could only end in one way. The 4th
+Chasseurs d'Afrique relieved the British left by a dashing charge. The
+"Heavies" made as if to advance, but came under such a storm of fire
+that they were withdrawn. By twos and threes the gallant survivors of
+the "Light Brigade" made their way back. Two-thirds of its numbers were
+left on the field, and the day closed with the Russians still in
+possession of the Vorontsov ridge.
+
+_Inkerman._--If the heights lost in this action were not absolutely
+essential to the safety of the allies, the point selected for the next
+attempt at relief was of vital importance. The junction of the covering
+army and the siege corps near Inkerman was the scene of a slight action
+on the day following Balaklava, and the battle of Inkerman followed on
+the 5th of November. By that time the French had made good the losses of
+the 17th of October, their approaches were closing upon Flagstaff
+bastion, and the British batteries daily maintained their superiority
+over the Malakoff. On the 5th there was to have been a meeting of
+generals to fix the details of an assault, but at dawn the Russian army,
+now heavily reinforced from Odessa, was attacking with the utmost fury
+the British divisions guarding the angle between Bosquet and the siege
+corps. The battle of Inkerman defies description; every regiment, every
+group of men bore its own separate part in the confused and doubtful
+struggle, save when leaders on either side obtained a momentary control
+over its course by means of reserves which, carrying all before them
+with their original impetus, soon served but to swell the melee. It was
+a "soldiers' battle" pure and simple. After many hours of the most
+desperate fighting the arrival of Bosquet (hitherto contained by a force
+on the Balaklava ground) confirmed a success won by supreme tenacity
+against overwhelming odds, and Menshikov sullenly drew off his men,
+leaving over 12,000 on the field. The allies had lost about 3300 men, of
+whom more than two-thirds belonged to the small British force on which
+the strain of the battle fell heaviest. Their losses included several
+generals who could ill be spared, but they had held their ground, which
+was all that was required of them, with almost unrivalled tenacity. Lord
+Raglan was promoted to be field marshal after the battle.
+
+_The Winter of 1854-1855._--It was now obvious that the army must
+winter in the Crimea, and preparations in view of this were begun
+betimes. But on the night of November 14th a violent storm arose which
+wrecked nearly thirty vessels with their precious cargoes of treasure,
+medical comforts, forage, clothing and other necessaries. After so grave
+a calamity it was to be expected that the troops would be called upon to
+undergo great hardships. But the direct cause of sufferings that have
+become a byword for the utmost depths of misery was the loss of twenty
+days' forage in the great storm. Of food and clothing enough was in
+store to tide over temporary difficulties, but the only paved road from
+Balaklava to the British camps was now in Russian hands, and the few
+starving transport animals were utterly inadequate for the work of
+drawing wagons over the miry plain; things went from bad to worse with
+Raglan's troops, until from the outposts before the Redan to the
+hospitals at Scutari a state of the utmost misery prevailed, relieved
+only by the example of devotion and self-sacrifice set by officers and
+men. The British hospital returns showed eight thousand sick at the end
+of November. Even the French, whose base of Kamiesh had escaped the
+storm, were not unhurt by the severity of the winter, but Napoleon III.
+sent freely all the men his general asked, while the Russians in
+Sevastopol, who had made long painful marches from the interior, were
+the survivors of the fittest. Canrobert took over the lines before the
+Malakoff to relieve the British. He had at the end of January 1855
+78,000 men for duty; Raglan could barely muster 12,000. But, with the
+advent of spring, paved roads and a railway were promptly taken in hand,
+and during the remainder of the war the British troops were so well
+cared for that their death-rate was lower than at home, while the
+hospitals in rear, thanks to the energy and devotion of Florence
+Nightingale and her nurses, became models of good management.
+
+_Course of the Siege._--Meanwhile the siege works were making but slow
+progress, and the fortress grew day by day under the skilful direction
+of Todleben. Rifle-pits pushed out in front of the defenders' lines were
+connected so as to form a veritable envelope. Beyond the left wing a new
+line, the "White Works," sprang up in a single night, and the hill of
+the Mamelon was suddenly crowned with a lunette to cover the still
+defiant Malakoff. But the absence of bomb-proof cover exposed the huge
+working parties necessary for these defences to an almost incessant _feu
+d'enfer_, by which the Russians every week suffered the losses of a
+pitched battle. Meanwhile the field army was idle, Menshikov had been
+replaced by Prince Michael Gorchakov, Liprandi's corps had withdrawn
+from the Vorontsov ridge, and Omar Pasha, with a detachment of the
+troops he had led at Oltenitza and Cetatea, repulsed a Russian attack on
+Eupatoria (Feb. 17th). The besiegers steadily approached the White
+Works, Mamelon, Redan and Flagstaff bastion, and as spring arrived the
+logistic and material advantages of the allies returned. On Easter
+Sunday (April 8th, 1855) another terrific bombardment began, which
+lasted almost uninterruptedly for ten days. The White Works and the
+Mamelon were practically destroyed, and the Russians, drawn up in
+momentary expectation of assault, lost between six and seven thousand
+men.
+
+But the bombardment ceased, and assault did not follow. For, at the
+allied headquarters and at Paris, grave differences of opinion on the
+conduct of the war had developed. Napoleon III. wished active operations
+to be undertaken against the Simferopol field army, whereas the leaders
+on the spot, while admitting the theoretical soundness of the French
+emperor's views, considered that they were wholly beyond the means of
+the two armies. The discussions culminated in Canrobert's resignation of
+the chief command, though he would not leave the army, and took a
+subordinate post, which he filled with great distinction to the end of
+the war. His successor, General Pelissier, was a soldier trained in the
+hard school of Algerian warfare, and endowed, as was soon evident, with
+the most inflexible resolution of character. He did not hesitate to take
+up and maintain a position of decided opposition to his sovereign's
+views; and the capture of Kerch (24th May 1855), carried out by a joint
+expedition, was the first earnest of new vigour in the operations. This
+success served all the purposes of a complete investment of Sevastopol,
+the want of which had greatly troubled the allied generals. The line of
+communication and supply between Sevastopol and the interior was cut,
+vast stores intended for the fortress were destroyed, and the sea of
+Azov was cleared of shipping. On the 25th Canrobert established himself
+on the Fedukhin heights, his right continued along the Chernaya by
+General la Marmora's newly arrived Sardinians, 15,000 strong, while
+masses of Turks occupied the Vorontsov ridge and the old Balaklava
+battlefield.
+
+As June approached, Raglan and Pelissier, who, unlike most allied
+commanders, were in complete accord and sympathy, initiated very
+vigorous methods of attack. They decided that the works west of
+Flagstaff could be comparatively neglected, and the full weight of the
+bombardment once more fell upon the Mamelon and the Malakoff. Once more
+these works were reduced to ruins, but the rest of the defences still
+held out.
+
+_The Assault of the Redan._--On the 7th of June 1855 the French stormed
+the Mamelon and the White Works, the British captured and maintained
+some quarries close to the Redan, and next morning the whole of
+Todleben's envelope had become a siege-parallel. The losses were, as
+usual, heavy, 8500 to the Russians, 6883 to the allies. This was merely
+a preliminary to the great assault fixed for the 18th, the fortieth
+anniversary of Waterloo. But meanwhile Pelissier's temper and Raglan's
+health had been strained to breaking-point by continued dissensions with
+Paris and London. The telegraph, a new strategic factor, daily tormented
+the unfortunate commanders with the latest ideas of the Paris
+strategists, and on the fateful day the two armies rushed on to failure.
+The French attack on the Malakoff dwindled away into a meaningless
+fire-fight: the British, attacking the Redan in face of a cross-fire of
+one hundred heavy guns, at first succeeded in entering the work, but in
+the end sustained a bloody and disastrous repulse. Of the six generals
+who led the two attacks, four were killed and one wounded, and on the
+17th and 18th the losses to the Russians were 5400, to the allies 4000.
+But the defenders' resources were almost at an end, and the bombardment
+reopened at once with increased fury. On the 20th Todleben was wounded,
+and soon afterwards Nakhimov, the victor of Sinope, found a grave by the
+side of three other admirals who had fallen in the defence. Pelissier
+resolutely clung to his plans, in spite of the failure of the 18th,
+against ever-increasing opposition at home. Raglan, worn out by his
+troubles and heartbroken at the Redan failure, died on the 28th, mourned
+by none more deeply than by his stern colleague.
+
+_The Storming of the Malakoff._--During July the Russians lost on an
+average 250 men a day, and at last it was decided that Gorchakov and the
+field army must make another attack at the Chernaya--the first since
+Inkerman. On the 16th of August the corps of Generals Liprandi and Read
+furiously attacked the 37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights
+above Traktir Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest
+determination, but the result was never for one moment doubtful. At the
+end of the day the Russians drew off baffled, leaving 260 officers and
+8000 men on the field. The allies only lost 1700. With this defeat
+vanished the last chance of saving Sevastopol. On the same day (Aug.
+16th) the bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its
+dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the
+result that Pelissier planned the final assault. On the 8th of September
+1855 at noon, the whole of Bosquet's corps suddenly swarmed up to the
+Malakoff. The fighting was of the most desperate kind. Every casemate,
+every traverse, was taken and retaken time after time, but the French
+maintained the prize, and though the British attack on the Redan once
+more failed, the Russians crowded in that work became at once the
+helpless target of the siege guns. Even on the far left, opposite
+Flagstaff and Central bastions, there was severe hand-to-hand fighting,
+and throughout the day the bombardment mowed down the Russian masses
+along the whole line. The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege.
+All night the Russians were filing over the bridges to the north side,
+and on the 9th the victors took possession of the empty and burning
+prize. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy, to the allies
+over 10,000 men, to the Russians 13,000. No less than nineteen generals
+had fallen on that day. But the crisis was surmounted. With the capture
+of Sevastopol the war loses its absorbing interest. No serious
+operations were undertaken against Gorchakov, who with the field army
+and the remnant of the garrison held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm.
+But Kinburn was attacked by sea, and from the naval point of view the
+attack is interesting as being the first instance of the employment of
+ironclads. An armistice was agreed upon on the 26th of February and the
+definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 30th of March 1856.
+
+_Decisive Importance of the Victory._--The importance of the siege of
+Sevastopol, from the strategical point of view, lies beneath the
+surface. It may well be asked, why did the fall of a place, at first
+almost unfortified, bring the master of the Russian empire to his knees?
+At first sight Russia would seem to be almost invulnerable to a sea
+power, and no first success, however crushing, could have humbled
+Nicholas I. Indeed the capture of Sevastopol in October 1854 would have
+been far from decisive of the war, but once the tsar had decided to
+defend to the last this arsenal, the necessity for which he was in the
+best position to appreciate, the factor of unlimited resources operated
+in the allies' favour. The sea brought to the invaders whatever they
+needed, whilst the desert tracks of southern Russia were marked at every
+step with the corpses of men and horses who had fallen on the way to
+Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which, daily
+crushed by the fire of a thousand guns, had to be re-created every
+night, made huge and therefore unprotected working parties necessary,
+and the losses were correspondingly heavy. The double cause of loss
+completely exhausted even Russia's resources, and, when large bodies of
+militia appeared in line of battle at Traktir Bridge, it was obvious
+that the end was at hand. The novels of Tolstoy give a graphic picture
+of the war from the Russian point of view; the miseries of the desert
+march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the
+almost daily ordeal of manning the lines under shell-fire to meet an
+assault that might or might not come; and no student of the siege can
+leave it without feeling the profoundest respect for the courage,
+discipline and stubborn loyalty of the defenders.
+
+_Minor Operations._--A few words may be added on the minor operations of
+the war. The Asiatic frontier was the scene of severe fighting between
+the Turks and the Russians. Hindered at first by Shamyl and his
+Caucasian mountaineers, the Russians stood on the defensive during 1853,
+but next year they took the offensive, and, while their coast column won
+an action on the 16th of June at the river Churuk, another force from
+Erivan gained an important success on the Araxes and took Bayazid, and
+General Bebutov completely defeated a Turkish column from Kars at Kuruk
+Dere (July 31st, 1854). Next year Count Muraviev completely isolated the
+garrison of Kars, which made a magnificent defence, inspired by Fenwick
+Williams Pasha and other British officers. In one assault alone 7000
+Russians were killed and wounded, and it was not until the 26th of
+November 1855 that the fortress was forced to surrender. The naval
+operations in the Baltic furnish many interesting examples for the study
+of naval war. The allied fleet in 1854, after a first repulse, succeeded
+in landing a French force under Baraguay d'Hilliers before Bomarsund,
+and the place fell after an eight days' siege. In 1855 seventy allied
+warships appeared before Kronstadt, which defied them. Reinforced they
+attacked Sveaborg, but after two days' fighting had to draw off baffled.
+
+The numbers engaged in the Crimean War and the cost in men and money is
+stated in round numbers below. In May 1855 the Crimean theatre of war
+occupied 174,500 allies (of whom 32,000 were British) and 170,000
+Russians. The losses in battle were: allies 70,000 men, Russians
+128,700; and the total losses, from all causes and in all theatres of
+the war: allies 252,600 (including 45,000 English), Russians 256,000 men
+(Berndt, _Die Zahl im Kriege_, p. 35). In the siege of Sevastopol the
+Russians are stated by Berndt to have lost 102,670 men dead, wounded and
+missing. Mulhall (_Dict. of Statistics_, 1903 ed., pp. 586-587) gives
+much greater losses to each of the four powers principally engaged. The
+cost of the war in money is stated by Mulhall to have been L69,000,000
+to Great Britain, L93,000,000 to France, L142,000,000 to Russia.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Of the many works on the Crimean War those of the
+  greatest value are the following. English: the official work on the
+  _Siege of Sebastopol_; A. W. Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_
+  (London, 1863; "Student's edition" by Sir G. S. Clarke); Sir E. B.
+  Hamley, _The War in the Crimea_ (London, 1891); (Sir) W. H. Russell,
+  _The War in the Crimea_ (London, 1855-1856); Sir Evelyn Wood, _The
+  Crimea in 1854 and in 1894_ (London, 1895); Sir D. Lysons, _The
+  Crimean War from First to Last_ (London, 1895); Col. A. Lake, _The
+  Defence of Kars_ (London, 1857). French: Official, _Guerre de
+  l'Orient, Hist. de l'artillerie_ (Paris, 1859); (Marshal Niel), _Siege
+  de Sebastopol_ (official account of engineer operations, Paris, 1858),
+  and _Atlas historique et topographique de la guerre de Crimee_ (see
+  also the map of Russia by the French staff, sheets 56 and 57); Baron
+  C. de Bazancourt, _L'Expedition de Crimee_ (Paris, 1856); C. Rousset,
+  _Histoire de la guerre de Crimee_ (Paris, 1877). Russian: the work of
+  Todleben, _Die Vertheidigung von Sevastopol_ (St. Petersburg, 1864);
+  _Defense de Sebastopol_ (St Petersburg, 1863); Anitschkoff, _Feldzug
+  in der Krim_ (German trans., Berlin, 1857); Bogdanovitch, _Der
+  Orientkrieg_ (St Petersburg, 1876); Petroff, _Der Donaufeldzug
+  Russlands gegen Turkei_ (German trans., Berlin, 1891). Of German works
+  the most useful are: Kunz, _Die Schlachten und Treffen des
+  Krimkrieges_ (Berlin, 1889); _Der Feldzug in der Krim; Sammlung der
+  Berichte beider Parteien_ (Leipzig, 1855-1856).     (C. F. A.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMINAL LAW. By criminal, or penal, law is now understood the law as to
+the definition, trial and punishment of crimes, i.e. of acts or
+omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously public rights, or
+constitute a breach of duties due to the whole community. The sovereign
+is taken to be the person injured by the crime, as he represents the
+whole community, and prosecutions are in his name. Criminal law includes
+the rules as to the prevention, the investigation, prosecution and
+punishment of crime (q.v.). It lays down what constitutes a criminal
+offence, what proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal
+offence and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or
+justification for the act or omission can be legally admitted, what
+procedure should be followed in a criminal court, what degrees and kinds
+of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which come up
+for trial. Finally, it regulates the constitution of the tribunals
+established for the trial of offences according to the gravity of the
+infraction of law, and deals with the organization of the police and the
+proper management of prisons, and the maintenance of prison discipline.
+(See EVIDENCE; PRISON; POLICE.)
+
+Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and classified as
+offences and punished by fine or imprisonment, cannot be said to have a
+strictly criminal character, since they do not fall within the popular
+conception of crime. To this class belong such matters as stopping up a
+highway under claim of right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a
+chimney to emit black smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch fire
+from being unswept, or breach of building by-laws, or driving a motor
+car on a highway at a speed in excess of the legal limit. Such breaches
+of law are under the French law described as _contraventions_. In
+England most of them are described as petty misdemeanours or offences
+punishable on summary conviction, or less happily as "summary offences,"
+and some writers speak of them as _mala prohibita_ as distinguished from
+_mala in se_, i.e. as not involving any breach of ordinary morality
+other than a breach of positive regulations. Continental jurists at
+times speak of crimes _de droit commun_ (i.e. offences common to all
+systems of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a
+particular municipal law). To this class of crimes _de droit commun_
+belong most of the offences included in extradition treaties.
+
+Criminal and civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions are not only
+"wrongs" for which the person injured is entitled to recover
+compensation for his own personal injury or damage, but also "offences"
+for which the offender may be prosecuted and punished in the interest of
+the state. In non-English European systems care is taken to prevent
+civil remedies from being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual
+for the civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, the
+individual appearing as _partie civile_ and receiving an award of
+compensation by the judgment which determines the punishment to be
+inflicted for the offence against the state. Under English law it is now
+exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies to be pursued
+concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to award compensation to the
+injured party in criminal proceedings, and he is usually left to seek
+his remedy by action. Among the exceptions are the restitution of stolen
+goods on conviction of the thief if the prosecution has been at the
+instance or with the aid of the owner of the goods (Larceny Act 1861, S
+100), and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered injury
+to property by felony (Forfeiture Act 1870).
+
+
+  Development of modern criminal law.
+
+As Sir Henry Maine says (_Ancient Law_, ed. 1906, p. 381), "All
+civilized systems of law agree in drawing a distinction between offences
+against the state or community (crimes or _crimina_) and offences
+against the individual (wrongs, _torts_ or _delicta_)." But the process
+of historical development by which this distinction has been ultimately
+established has given great occasion for study of early laws and
+institutions by eminent men, whose researches have disclosed the
+extremely gradual evolution of the modern notion of criminal law
+enforced by the state from the primitive conceptions and customs of
+barbarous or semi-civilized communities. Of the oldest codes or digests
+of customs which are available to the student it has been said the more
+archaic a code the fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this
+penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of
+crimes, but of wrongs. The intervention of the community or tribe is in
+the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged person or his
+family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a blood feud and to
+accept compensation for the wrong collectively or individually
+sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation preserved in early laws
+the importance of the injured person was the measure of the compensation
+or vengeance which he was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the
+scales of punishment or compensation are fixed from this point of view.
+
+
+  Babylon.
+
+The laws of Khammurabi (2285-2242), the oldest extant code, contain
+definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments, and indicate
+the existence of tribunals to try the offences and to award the
+appropriate remedy. The punishments are very severe. It is not
+distinctly indicated whether the proceedings were at the instance of the
+state or the person wronged, but compensation and penalty could be
+awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the _lex
+talionis_ and scale of compensation for injuries tend to show that the
+procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf of the state (see
+further BABYLONIAN LAW).
+
+
+  Greece.
+
+Of the early criminal laws of Greece only fragments survive, e.g. those
+of Solon and Draco. In Athens in early times crime was dealt with in the
+Areopagus from the point of view of religion and by the archons from the
+point of view of compensation: and it was only when the state interests
+were directly affected that proceedings by way of [Greek: eisangelia] or
+impeachment were taken. In classical times crimes fell to be tried by
+panels of jurors or judges drawn from the assembly and described as
+[Greek: dikasteria].
+
+
+  Rome.
+
+The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of Rome are to
+be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII. The criminal law of imperial
+Rome is collected in books 47 and 48 of the Digest. The classification
+of crimes therein is capricious and anomalous. "In the early Roman law
+the idea of legislative power was so fully grasped and that of judicial
+power so little understood that the criminal jurisdiction arose in the
+form of a legislative enactment applicable to particular cases." Crimes
+were classified according to the mode of prosecution into:
+
+1. _Publica judicia_, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden by
+definite laws, which took the place of the standing commissions
+(_quaestiones perpetuae_) of the time of the republic. In the earlier
+stages of Roman law the state only interfered to punish offences which
+gravely affected it, and did so by _privilegia_, which correspond to
+impeachment or Bill of Pains and Penalties.
+
+
+2. _Extraordinaria crimina_, crimes for which no special procedure or
+punishment was provided: the punishment being, within limits, left to
+the discretion of the judge and the prosecution to the injured party.
+
+3. _Privata delicta_, offences for which a special form of action was
+open to the injured party, e.g. _actio furti_.
+
+The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced under the
+empire by a complete organization of the judiciary throughout the
+districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the emperor in his privy
+council (see Maine, _Ancient Law_, ed. 1906, p. 393). Public prosecution
+under the empire began by arrest of the accused, who was taken before an
+_eirenarcha_, who examined him (by torture in the case of a slave or
+parricide) and sent him on for trial before the _praeses_ of the diocese
+([Greek: dioikesis]). Private prosecution followed, a procedure closely
+resembling that of civil actions, beginning with _citatio_ (summons),
+followed by _libellus_ or accusation, and appointment of a day for
+hearing. The right of either party to call witnesses was very
+imperfectly established.
+
+
+  Celtic law.
+
+The early laws of the Celtic races are preserved as to Wales in the laws
+of Hywel Dda, and as to Ireland in the Book of Aicill and other Brehon
+law tracts, which are professional collections of precedents and
+formulae made by the hereditary law caste (Brehons), whose business it
+was "to pass sentence from precedents and commentaries." (See BREHON
+LAWS.) The development of Celtic law was arrested by the Saxon and
+Anglo-Norman conquest: but the materials preserved indicate an origin
+common with that of Germanic law.
+
+The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be so
+called, were:--
+
+1. The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable, and no
+legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or enforce it.
+
+2. All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation was made by
+assessment of damages by a consensual tribunal whose power to make
+awards depended on submission of the parties and the ultimate sanction
+of public opinion or custom. A customary tariff for compensation existed
+for all offences from wilful murder downwards. No crime was unamendable.
+The Irish law recognized a body price or compensation (S. _bot_) and an
+honour price or _eric_ (S. _wer_), for which the family or tribe of the
+offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly ascertained
+equivalent to the Saxon _wite_, or fine to the chief.
+
+
+  Germanic law.
+
+The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the _Germania_
+of Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known as the Salic and
+Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum, the Dooms of AEthelberht and the
+collections of Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in Thorpe's
+_Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_), do not indicate any adequate
+or definite division between crimes and causes of civil action, but,
+like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and contain the tariffs
+of compensation for wrongs. The idea of the compensation was originally
+to put an end (_finis_) to blood feuds and private war or vengeance.
+
+These laws formed the foundation of the criminal law of Germany,
+including the Netherlands, of England and of Scandinavia. But in each
+country the development of criminal law has been affected by influences
+other than Germanic, mainly consisting in an infusion more or less great
+of ideas derived from Roman law. In England under Alfred some part of
+the Levitical law (Exod. xxi. 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567
+the criminal law as to incest in Scotland was taken bodily from
+Leviticus xviii.
+
+
+  Anglo-Saxon law.
+
+The stage which the development of criminal law had reached in England
+by the reign of Edward the Confessor is thus described by Pollock and
+Maitland (_Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 447): "On the eve of the Norman Conquest
+what we may call the criminal law of England (but it was also the law of
+torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which deserve attention:
+Its past history had in the main consisted of the varying relations
+between them. We have to speak of outlawry, of the blood feud
+(_faidus_), of the tariffs of _wer_ and _wite_ (_fredus_ or _friede_),
+and _bot_, of punishment in life and limb. As regards the malefactor the
+community may assume one of four attitudes: it may make war on him; it
+may have him exposed to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it
+may suffer him to make atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate
+punishment, death, mutilation or the like." The _wite_ or sum paid to
+the king or lord is now thought to have been originally not a penalty
+but a fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and determining a
+controversy. But at an early stage fines for breach of peace were
+imposed. An evil result from the public point of view followed from the
+system of atoning for crime by pecuniary mulct. "Criminal jurisdiction
+became a source of revenue." So early as Canute's time certain crimes
+were pleas of the crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the
+attendant forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of
+manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (e.g. the
+criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the _soke_ (_soc_) of
+Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, e.g. Nottingham, to
+forfeitures). Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punishment, and
+became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to justice (Crown
+Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-110). Certain crimes, such as murder, rape,
+arson and burglary, became unamendable or bootless, i.e. placed the
+offender's life, limb, lands and goods at the king's mercy. These crimes
+came to be generally described by the name felony (q.v.). Other crimes
+became punishable by fines which took the place of _wites_. These were
+styled trespasses and correspond to what is now called misdemeanour
+(q.v.).
+
+
+  Anglo-Norman period.
+
+Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or nuisance, were dealt with in
+seigniorial and borough courts by presentment of the jurors of courts
+baron and courts leet, and punished by fine or in some cases by pillory,
+tumbril or stocks. Grave acts were dealt with by the sheriff as breaches
+of the peace. He sat with the freeholders in the county court, which sat
+twice a year, or in the hundred court, which sat every four weeks. So
+far as this involved dealing with pleas of the crown the sheriff's
+jurisdiction was abolished and was ultimately replaced by that of the
+justices or conservators of the peace. The sheriff then ceased to be a
+judge in criminal cases, but remained and still is in law responsible
+for the peace of his county, and is the officer for the execution of the
+law. The royal control over crime was effectually established by the
+itinerant justices sent regularly throughout the realm, who not only
+dealt with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown but
+also with the graver crimes (treason and felony), and ultimately were
+commissioned to deal with the less grave offences now classed as
+indictable misdemeanours. The change resulted from the strengthening of
+royal authority throughout England, which enabled the crown gradually to
+enlarge the pleas of the crown and to weaken and finally to supersede
+the criminal jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates
+and lords in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises. "In the
+early English laws and constitution there existed a national sovereignty
+and original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative power
+and crime were very slowly developed." During the 12th century the
+criminal law was affected by the influence of the church, which
+introduced into it elements from the Canon and Mosaic laws, and also by
+the memory of the Roman empire and the renewed study of the Roman law,
+which enabled lawyers to draw a clearer distinction than had before been
+recognized between the criminal (_dolus_) and civil (_culpa_) aspect of
+wrongful acts. The Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an
+admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source is probably
+due the more careful analysis of the mental elements necessary to create
+criminal responsibility, summed up in the somewhat misleading expression
+_nemo reus est nisi mens sit rea_.
+
+In the 14th century justices of the peace and quarter sessions were
+established to deal with offences not sufficiently important for the
+king's judges, and from that time the course of criminal justice in
+England has run substantially on the same lines, with the single and
+temporary interruption caused by the court of star chamber.
+
+
+  Classification of crimes.
+
+The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat differently,
+but in the main on the same general principles, dividing them into:--
+
+1. Offences against the external and internal order and security of the
+state.
+
+2. Offences against the administration of police and against public
+authority.
+
+3. Acts injurious to the public in general.
+
+4. Offences against the person (life, health, liberty and reputation),
+and conjugal and parental rights and duties.
+
+5. Offences relating to property and contracts (including theft, fraud,
+forgery and malicious damage).
+
+The terminology by which crimes are described by reference to their
+comparative gravity varies considerably. In many continental codes
+distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger. _Verbrechen_; Norse
+_vorbrydelser_; Span. _crimenes_; Ital. _reato_), delicts (Ger.
+_Vergehen_; Ital. _delitti_; Span, _delitos_), and contraventions (Ital.
+_contravenzioni_; Span, _faltas_).
+
+The classification adopted by English law is peculiar to itself,
+"treason," "felony" and "misdemeanour," with a tentative fourth class
+described as "summary offences." The particular distinctions between
+these three classes are dealt with under the titles TREASON; FELONY;
+MISDEMEANOUR, &c. Here it is enough to say that the distinction is a
+result of history and is marked for abolition and reclassification.
+Treason and most felonies and some misdemeanours would under foreign
+codes fall under the head of crime. Misdemeanour, roughly but not
+exactly, corresponds to the French _delit_, and summary offence to
+_contravention_.
+
+
+  Elements of criminal responsibility.
+
+In all systems of criminal law it is found necessary to determine the
+criterion of criminal responsibility, the mental elements of crime, the
+degrees of criminality and the point at which the line is to be drawn
+between intention and commission.
+
+The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by implication
+a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems of criminal law,
+competent age, sanity and some degree of freedom from coercion, are
+assumed to be essential to criminality; and it is also generally
+recognized that an act does not fall within the sanction of the criminal
+law if done by pure accident or in an honest and reasonable belief in
+circumstances which if true would make it innocent; e.g. when a married
+person marries again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief
+that the former spouse is dead. Honest and reasonable mistake of fact
+stands on the same footing as absence of the reasoning faculty, as in
+infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics.
+
+Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally, particular
+mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved in the definition
+of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory offences adequately
+and carefully defined, the mental elements necessary to constitute the
+crime may be limited by the definition so as to make the prohibition of
+the law against a particular act absolute for all persons who are not
+infants or lunatics. As a general rule of English law, it is enough to
+prove that the acts alleged to constitute a crime were done by the
+accused, and to leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the
+natural consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing
+him or otherwise making him not liable. Children are conclusively
+presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of age; and from
+seven to fourteen the presumption is against the capacity, but is not
+absolute.
+
+Under the common law, insanity was an absolute answer to an accusation
+of crime. Since 1883, where insanity is proved to have existed at the
+date of the commission of the incriminated acts, the accused is found
+guilty of the acts but insane when he did them, and is relegated to a
+criminal lunatic asylum. There was also at common law a presumption that
+a married woman committing certain crimes in the presence of her husband
+did so under his coercion. But under modern decisions and practice the
+presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (_R_. v. _Mary
+Baines_, 1900, 69 L.J. Q.B. 681). Distinctions are also drawn between
+degrees of guilt or complicity.
+
+English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if the attempt
+passes from the stage of resolution or intention to the stage of action,
+when the completion of the full offence is frustrated by something other
+than the will of the accused. Except in the case of attempt to commit
+murder, which is a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as
+misdemeanours. It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of others
+to commit crime, as a separate offence if the incitement fails, as the
+offence of being accessory before the fact or abettor if the offence is
+committed as a result of the incitement; and it punishes persons who,
+after a more serious crime--felony--has been committed, do any act to
+shield the offender from justice. In the case of the crimes described as
+felonies the law distinguishes between principals in the first or second
+degree and accessories before or after the fact. In the case of
+misdemeanours the same punishment is incurred by the principal
+offenders, and by persons who are present aiding and abetting the
+commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled or
+procured the commission of the offence (see ACCESSORY). Besides these
+degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English law known as
+conspiracy, i.e. an agreement to commit crime or to do illegal acts
+(including interference with the due course of justice), which is
+punishable even if the conspiracy does not get beyond the stage of
+agreement. The exact nature of this form of crime and the propriety of
+abolishing it or limiting its scope have been the subject of much
+controversy, especially with reference to combinations by trade unions.
+
+The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow the jury to
+reduce the penalty of an offence by finding in their verdict that the
+commission of the offence was attended by extenuating circumstances; but
+when the jury recommend to mercy a person whom they find guilty the
+judge may give effect to the recommendation or report it to the Home
+Office.
+
+In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of crime or
+degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or without
+modification, but as to conspiracy with a good deal of alteration. In
+the Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy is limited to cases of
+treason (S 121 A), and when it goes beyond agreement in the case of
+other offences it is merely a form of abetment or participation (S 107).
+
+
+  Definitions of particular crimes.
+
+The criminal law of England[1] is not codified, but is composed of a
+large number of enactments resting on a basis of common law. A very
+large part is reduced to writing in statutes. The unwritten portion of
+the law includes (1) principles relating to the excuse or justification
+of acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2) the definitions
+of many offences, e.g. murder, assault, theft, forgery, perjury, libel,
+riot, (3) parts of the law relating to procedure. The law is very rich
+in principles and rules embodied in judicial decisions and is extremely
+detailed and explicit, leaving to the judges very little latitude of
+interpretation or expression. So far as the legislature is concerned
+there is an absence of systematic arrangement. The definitions of
+particular crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the
+decisions of the judges. The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most
+part leave definitions as they stood, e.g. the Larceny Act 1861 does not
+define the crime of larceny. The consequence is that exact definitions
+are very difficult to frame, and the technical view of a crime sometimes
+includes more, sometimes less, than it ought. Thus the crime of murder,
+as settled by the existing law, would include offences of such very
+different moral gravity as killing a man deliberately for the sake of
+robbing him, and killing a man accidentally in an attempt to rob him. On
+the other hand, offences which ought to have been criminal were
+constantly declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of
+the particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly had to
+fill up the _lacunae_ in the law as interpreted by the judges.
+
+
+  Jurisdiction.
+
+The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial, and can be
+exercised only as to acts done within the territory or territorial
+waters, or on the ships of the law-giver. _Extra territorium jus dicenti
+impune non paretur._ No state will enforce the penal laws of another nor
+permit the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own
+territory. But international law recognizes the competence of a state to
+make its criminal law binding on its own subjects wherever they are, and
+perhaps even to punish foreigners who outside its territory do acts
+which menace its internal or external security, e.g. by dynamite plots
+or falsification of coin. Apart from extradition arrangements the
+national law cannot reach such persons, be they citizens or aliens,
+until they come within the territory of the state whose law has been
+broken.
+
+The codes of France, Germany and Italy make the penal law national or
+personal and not territorial. In some British colonies whose
+legislatures have a derived and limited legislative authority, indirect
+methods have been taken to deal within the colony with persons who
+commit offences outside its territory.
+
+Throughout the development of the English criminal law it showed and
+retains one particular characteristic that crime was treated as local,
+which means not merely that the common law of England was limited to
+English soil, but that an offence on English soil could be "inquired of,
+dealt with, tried, determined and punished" only in the particular
+territorial division of England in which it was committed, which was and
+is known as the venue (q.v.). Each township was responsible for crimes
+within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the "view of
+frankpledge," now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence of every man had
+to be determined by his neighbours. This rule excluded from trial by the
+courts of common law, treasons, &c. committed by Englishmen abroad and
+piracy; and it was not till Henry VIII.'s reign (1536, 1544) that the
+common-law mode of trial was extended to these offences. The legislature
+has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no settled
+plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the instance of
+the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, no attempt has been made to make the
+English criminal law apply generally to subjects when outside the realm;
+and in view of the complicated nature of the British empire and the
+absence of a common criminal code it has been found desirable to remain
+content with extradition in the case of crimes abroad, and with the
+provisions of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 in the case of criminals
+who flee from one part to another of the empire.
+
+The localization in England of crime, and the procedure for punishing
+it, differ largely from the view taken in France and most European
+countries. The French theory is that a Frenchman owes allegiance to the
+French state, and commits a breach of that allegiance whenever he
+commits a crime against French law, even although he is not at the time
+within French territory. In modern days this theory has been extended so
+as to allow French and German courts to punish their subjects for crimes
+committed in foreign countries, and by reason of this power certain
+countries refuse to extradite their subjects who have committed crimes
+in other states.
+
+
+  Offences on the high seas.
+
+The principle of the French law, though not expressly recognized in
+England, must be invoked to justify two departures from the English
+principle--(1) as regards offences on the high seas, and (2) as regards
+certain offences committed outside the United Kingdom. In early days
+offences committed by Englishmen on the high seas were punished by the
+lord high admiral, and he encroached so much on the ordinary courts as
+to render it necessary to pass an act in Richard II.'s reign (15 Rich.
+II. st. 2, c. 3) to restrain him.
+
+
+  Offences committed on land outside England.
+
+  Misdemeanours committed by public officers in colonies.
+
+In the time of Henry VIII. (1536, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15) an act was passed
+stating that, as the admiral tried persons according to the course of
+civil law, they could not be convicted unless either they confessed or
+they or the witnesses were submitted to torture, and that therefore it
+was expedient to try the offences according to the course of the common
+law. Under that act a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued
+to try these offences at the Old Bailey, and English law was satisfied
+by permitting the indictment to state that the offence was committed on
+board a ship on the high seas, to wit in the county of Middlesex. Since
+1861 these special commissions have been rendered unnecessary by the
+provision (contained in each of the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of
+that year) that all offences committed on the high seas may be tried as
+if they had been committed in England. As regards offences on land, it
+was found necessary as early as the reign of Henry VIII. (1544) to
+provide for the trial in England of treasons and murders committed on
+land outside England. This was largely due to the constant presence in
+France of the king and many of his nobles and knights, but the aid of
+this statute had to be invoked in 1903 in the case of Lynch, tried for
+treason in South Africa. The latest legislation on the subject was in
+1861 (Offences against the Person Act, S 9), and any murder or
+manslaughter committed on land out of the United Kingdom, whether within
+the king's dominions or without, and whether the person killed were a
+subject of His Majesty or not, may be dealt with in all respects as if
+it were committed in England. The jurisdiction has been extended to a
+few other cases such as slave trade, bigamy, perjury, committed with
+reference to proceedings in an English court, and offences connected
+with explosives. But these offences must be committed on land and not on
+board a foreign ship, because if a man takes service on board a foreign
+ship he is treated for the time as being a member of the foreign state
+to which that ship belongs. The principle has been also extended to
+misdemeanours (but not to felonies) committed by public officers out of
+Great Britain, whether within or without the British dominions. Thus a
+governor or an inferior officer of a colony, if appointed by the British
+government, may be prosecuted for any misdemeanour committed by him by
+virtue of his office in the colony; and cases have occurred where
+governors have been so prosecuted, such as that of General Picton at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and of Governor Eyre of Jamaica in 1865,
+and the attempt to prosecute Governor MacCallum of Natal in 1906. As a
+corollary to the system of "capitulations" applied to certain
+non-Christian states in Asia and Africa, it has been necessary to take
+powers for punishing under English law offences by British subjects in
+those states, which would otherwise go unpunished either by the law of
+the land where the offence was committed or by the law of the state to
+which the offender belonged (Jenkyns, _Foreign Jurisdiction of the
+Crown_).
+
+
+  Punishment.
+
+An essential part of the criminal law is the punishment or sanction by
+which the state seeks to prevent or avenge offences. See also under
+CRIMINOLOGY. Here it is enough to say that during the 19th century great
+changes have been made throughout the world in the modes of punishing
+crime.
+
+In England until early in the 19th century, punishments for crime were
+ferocious. The severity of the law was tempered by the rule as to
+benefit of clergy and by the rigid adherence of the judges (_in favorem
+vitae_) to the rules of correct pleading and proof, whereby the
+slightest error on the part of the prosecution led to an acquittal.
+Bentham pointed out that certainty of punishment was more effective than
+severity, that severe punishments induced juries to acquit criminals,
+and that thus the certainty of punishment was diminished. But his
+arguments and the eloquence of Sir Samuel Romilly produced no effect
+until after the reform of parliament in 1832, shortly after which
+statutes were passed abolishing the death sentence for all felonies
+where benefit of clergy existed. The severity of capital sentences had
+already been modified by the pardoning power of the crown, which
+pardoned convicts under sentence of death on their consenting to be
+transported to convict settlements in the colonies. (See DEPORTATION.)
+For some years this was only done by the consent of the convict, who
+agreed to be transported if his death sentence was remitted, but in
+1824, when a convict refused to give this consent, parliament authorized
+the crown to substitute transportation for a death sentence, and the
+same course was adopted in Ireland in 1851 when some treason-felony
+prisoners refused commutation of their sentence to transportation.
+
+The punishments now in use under the English law for indictable offences
+are:--
+
+1. Death, inflicted by hanging, with a provision that other modes of
+execution may be authorized by royal warrant in cases of high treason.
+
+2. Penal servitude, which in 1853 was substituted for transportation to
+penal settlements outside the United Kingdom. The minimum term of penal
+servitude is three years (Penal Servitude Act 1891), and the sentence is
+carried out in a convict prison, in the United Kingdom, but there is
+still power to send the convicts out of the United Kingdom.
+
+3. Imprisonment in a local prison, which must be without hard labour
+unless a statute specially authorizes a sentence of hard labour. At
+common law there is no limit to a term of imprisonment for misdemeanour;
+but for many offences (both felonies and misdemeanours) the term is
+limited by statute to two years, and in practice this limit is not
+exceeded for any offence. The treatment of prisoners is regulated by the
+prison acts and rules.
+
+4. Police supervision, on conviction or indictment of felony and certain
+misdemeanours after a previous conviction of such offences. Prevention
+of Crimes Act, c. 112, SS 8, 20.
+
+5. Pecuniary fine, a punishment appropriate only to misdemeanours and
+never imposed for a felony except under statutory authority, e.g.
+manslaughter (Offences against the Person Act, S 5). The amount of the
+fine is in the discretion of the judge, subject to the directions of
+Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights and of any statute limiting the
+maximum for a particular offence.
+
+6. Whipping was a common law punishment for misdemeanants of either sex.
+Under the present law the whipping of females is prohibited, and the
+punishment is not inflicted on males except under statutory authority,
+which is given in the case of certain assaults on the sovereign, of
+certain forms of robbery with violence or assaults with intent to commit
+felony (Garrotters Act 1863), of incorrigible rogues, larceny and
+malicious damage, and certain other offences by youthful offenders.
+
+7. Recognizances (caution) to keep peace and be of good behaviour, i.e.
+a bond with or without sureties creating a debt to the crown not
+enforceable unless the conditions as to conduct therein made are broken.
+This bond may be taken from any misdemeanant, and, under statutory
+authority, from persons convicted of any felony (except murder) falling
+within the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861.
+
+8. In the case of any offence which is not capital the court, if it is a
+first offence or if any other grounds for mercy appear, may simply bind
+the offender over to come up for judgment when required, intimating to
+him that if his conduct is good no further steps will be taken to punish
+him.
+
+Except in the case of the death penalty, the court of trial has a
+discretion as to the _quantum_ of a particular punishment, no minimum
+being fixed. In the case of offences punishable on summary conviction
+the maximum punishment is always fixed by statute. It consists of
+imprisonment with or without hard labour, or a fine of a limited amount,
+or both. The imprisonment in very few cases may exceed six months. If
+the maximum exceeds three months the accused must be informed that he
+has a right, if he so elects, to be tried by a jury.
+
+Where power is given to deal summarily with offences which under
+ordinary circumstances would be tried on indictment, the punishments are
+as follows (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879):--
+
+(a) In the case of adults pleading guilty, imprisonment not exceeding
+six months without the option of a fine.
+
+(b) In the case of adults (consenting to be summarily tried), where the
+offence affects property not worth over forty shillings, imprisonment
+not over three months, or fine not exceeding L20.
+
+(c) In the case of young persons, between twelve and sixteen years,
+imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding L10.
+
+(d) In the case of children under twelve, imprisonment not over one
+month, or fine not exceeding forty shillings.
+
+If the offence is trifling, the accused may be discharged without
+punishment, and under the First Offenders Act (1887) the justices have a
+discretionary power to forgo punishment. The justices have also the
+power, under the Prevention of Crime Act 1908, in lieu of passing a
+sentence of penal servitude or imprisonment, to commit persons between
+the ages of sixteen and twenty-one to a Borstal institution, for a
+period of detention ranging from one to three years (see JUVENILE
+OFFENDERS).
+
+In the criminal law of Europe the scale of punishments is on similar
+lines in most states, and is more elaborate than that of England, and
+less is left to the discretion of the court of trial. The following
+examples will indicate the kind of punishments awarded under the French
+penal code. Punishments are classified as (1) _afflictives et
+infamantes_, including death, _travaux forces a perpetuite ou a temps_,
+_deportation_, _detention_, _reclusion_; (2) _infamantes_, viz.
+banishment and civil degradation; (3) _peines en matiere
+correctionnelle_, viz. imprisonment in a house of correction (six days
+to five years), interdiction from certain civic rights, and fine. The
+punishments in no case have any effect to extinguish the civil claims of
+individuals who have suffered by the offence (arts. 6 and 55). Special
+provisions are made for _recidivistes_, police supervision and first
+offenders (_Loi Berenger_).
+
+In the German code of 1872 the legal punishments are: (1) death; (2)
+penal servitude for life or for a term not exceeding fifteen years nor
+less than one year; (3) imprisonment with labour for a term not
+exceeding five years nor less than one day; (4) confinement in a
+fortress (terms same as for penal servitude but involving only
+withdrawal of freedom and supervision); (5) arrest for not more than six
+weeks nor less than one day; (6) fine (not less than three marks in the
+case of crimes or delicts nor one mark in case of petty offences).
+Sentence of imprisonment is in certain cases followed by liability to be
+placed under police supervision for a term after release. In the case of
+a sentence of death or of penal servitude, the court may order
+forfeiture of civil privileges, and a condemnation to penal servitude
+permanently disqualifies for service in the army and public office (Code
+pt. 1, chap. 1, arts. 13-40).
+
+Under the Italian code of 1889 (arts. 11-30) the punishments are (1)
+_ergastolo_ (for life); (2) _reclusione_ (from three days to twenty-four
+years), which involves hard labour and cellular confinement; (3)
+_detenzione_ (like term), which involves labour and at night separate
+confinement; (4) _confino_ (one month to three years), a form of
+banishment from the commune of origin or residence of the offender; (5a)
+fine (_multa_), from ten to ten thousand lire; (5b) _amende_, from one
+to two thousand lire; (6) arrest (one day to two years); (7)
+interdiction from public office; (8) suspension from professional
+calling. Punishments (5b), (6) and (8) are applied only to
+contraventions, the others to crimes (_delitti_).
+
+The Spanish law (_Codigo Penal_, title 3, chaps. 2 and 3) contains a
+general scale of punishments classified as afflictive, correctional, light
+and accessory. The first class begins with death and runs down through
+many forms of imprisonment to disqualification (_inhabilitacion_). The
+second includes forms of imprisonment, (_presidio_ and _prision_), and
+arrest, public censure and suspension from the exercise of certain offices
+or callings. The slight punishments are minor arrest and private censure.
+Offenders in any of the three classes may also be fined or put under
+recognizance (_caucion_). The accessory punishments include payment of
+costs, degradation, civil interdiction.
+
+In England indictable offences (i.e. offences which must be tried by a
+judge and jury) are thus dealt with:--
+
+
+  Tribunals.
+
+1. Courts of assize (sitting under old commissions known as commissions
+of assize, oyer and terminer, and general gaol delivery) are held twice
+or oftener in every year in each county and also in some large cities
+and boroughs. They are the lineal successors of the justices _in
+eyre_[2] of the middle ages; but they are now integral parts of the High
+Court of Justice. These courts can try any indictable offence presented
+by a grand jury for the district in which they sit.
+
+2. For the counties of London and Middlesex and certain adjoining
+districts, a special court of assize known as the central criminal court
+sits monthly.
+
+3. In all counties and many boroughs the justices of the peace sit
+quarterly or oftener under the commission of the peace to try the minor
+indictable offences. (See QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF.)
+
+4. The High Court of Justice in the king's bench division tries a few
+special offences in its original jurisdiction, and where justice
+requires may transfer indictments from other courts for trial before
+itself.
+
+5. The court of criminal appeal has been instituted by the Criminal
+Appeal Act 1907; to it all persons convicted on indictment have a right
+of appeal. (See APPEAL.)
+
+The substantive law as to crime applies in England to all persons except
+the reigning sovereign, and criminal procedure is the same for all
+subjects alike, except in the case of peers or peeresses charged with
+felony, who have the right of trial by their peers in the House of Lords
+if it be sitting, or in the court of the lord high steward.
+
+
+  Special tribunals.
+
+There are in England no courts of a special character, such as exist in
+some foreign countries, for the determination of disputes between the
+governing classes themselves or with the governed classes, whether of a
+civil or criminal character. There are a few exceptional courts with
+criminal jurisdiction. The court of chivalry, which used to punish
+offences committed within military lines outside the kingdom, is
+obsolete. Special tribunals exist for trying naval or military offences
+committed by members of the navy and army, but those members are not
+exempt from being tried by the ordinary tribunals for offences against
+the ordinary law, as though they were civilians. The naval courts can be
+held only on board a ship, and can as a general rule try only persons
+entered on the books of a king's ship. The military courts can only try
+persons who are actually members of the army at the time, and their
+authority is annually renewed by parliament, in consequence of the
+jealousy still felt against the trial of any man except by the ordinary
+courts of law. Military and naval courts can try in any part of the
+world, and whenever the forces are in active service can try followers
+of the camp as if they were actual members of the forces. (See MILITARY
+LAW; MARTIAL LAW.)
+
+
+  Ecclesiastical courts.
+
+The ecclesiastical courts, which were formerly very powerful in England,
+and punished persons for various offences, such as perjury, swearing,
+and sexual offences, have now almost fallen into disuse. Their authority
+over Protestant dissenters from the established church was taken away by
+statute; their authority over lay members of the Church of England has
+disappeared by disuse. Occasionally suits are instituted in them against
+the clergy for offences either against morality or against doctrine or
+ritual. In these cases their sentences are enforced by penalties, such
+as suspension, or deprivation of benefice, or by imprisonment; which has
+replaced the old punishment of excommunication.
+
+
+  Procedure.
+
+A system of procedure, with the judicial machinery required to work it,
+may be created either by the direct legislative action of the supreme
+power or by custom and the action of the courts. Both at Rome and in
+England it was through usage and by the courts themselves that the
+earlier system was slowly moulded: both at Rome and in England it was
+direct legislation that established the later system. (See Bryce,
+_Studies in History and Jurisprudence_, 1901, ii. 334.)
+
+The characteristics of English criminal procedure which most
+distinguish it from the procedure of other countries are as follows:--
+
+1. It is litigious or accusatory and not inquisitorial (Stephen, _Prel.
+View Cr. Law_). It is for the prosecutor to prove by evidence the
+commission of the alleged offence. No power exists to interrogate the
+accused unless he consents to be sworn as a witness in his own defence,
+which since 1898 he may do. The right to cross-examine him even when he
+is so sworn is limited by law, with the object of excluding inquiry into
+his past character or into past offences not relevant to the particular
+charge on which he is being tried.
+
+2. The forms of criminal pleading still in use are in substance framed
+on the lines of the old system of pleading at common law in civil cases,
+which was swept away by the judicature acts. Criminal pleadings have,
+however, one peculiarity. Indictments, being in form the presentment of
+a grand jury, could not be amended until provision for that purpose was
+made in 1851. (See INDICTMENT.)
+
+3. Criminal prosecutions are ordinarily undertaken by the individuals
+who have suffered by a crime. There is not in England, as in Scotland
+and all European countries, a public department concerned to deal with
+all prosecutions for crime. The result is that the prosecution of most
+ordinary crime is left to individual enterprise or the action of the
+local police force or the justices' clerk.
+
+The attorney-general has always represented the crown in criminal
+matters, and in state prosecutions appears in person on behalf of the
+crown, and when he so appears has certain privileges as respects the
+reply to the prisoner's defence and the mode of trial. In the
+Prosecution of Offences Acts of 1879, 1884 and 1908 there is to be found
+the nucleus of a system of public prosecution such as obtains in other
+countries in case of crime. Under these acts the director of public
+prosecutions (up to 1908 an office conjoint with that of solicitor to
+the Treasury) acts under the attorney-general, but unless specially
+directed he only undertakes a limited number of prosecutions, e.g. for
+murder, coining and serious crimes affecting the government.
+
+4. Where an indictable offence is supposed to have been committed the
+accused is arrested, with or without the warrant of a justice, according
+to the nature of the offence, or is summoned by a justice before him. On
+his appearance a preliminary inquiry is held for the purpose of
+ascertaining whether there is a prima facie case against him. The
+procedure is regulated by the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and is
+entirely different from the procedure for summary offences. It may be,
+though usually it is not, held in private; it is an inquiry and not a
+trial; the justices have to consider not whether the man is guilty, but
+whether there is such a prima facie case against him that he ought to be
+tried. If they think that there is, they commit him to prison to wait
+his trial, or require him to give security, with or without sureties, to
+the amount named by them, for appearing to take his trial. If they think
+the charge unsubstantial they discharge the accused at once. The
+prosecutor in cases of felony may if he likes go before the grand jury
+whether the case has or has not been the subject of a preliminary
+inquiry, but in the case of many misdemeanours it is obligatory first to
+have a preliminary inquiry, as a protection against vexatious
+indictments.
+
+
+  The grand jury.
+
+Whether there has or has not been a preliminary inquiry before a
+magistrate, no person can be tried for any of the graver crimes, treason
+or felony, except upon indictment found by a grand jury of the county or
+place where the offence is said to have been committed or is by statute
+made cognizable. In olden days, and even now in theory, the grand jury
+inquire of their own knowledge, by the oath of good and lawful men of
+the neighbourhood, into the crime of the county, but in practice the
+charges against the accused persons are always first submitted to the
+proper officer of the court. The grand jurors are instructed as to their
+inquisition by a charge from the judge, as regards the indictments
+concerning which they are called upon to enquire whether there is a
+prima facie case to send them for trial to the petty jury. The grand
+jury must consist of not less than twelve, nor more than twenty-three,
+good and lawful men of the county. But any person who prefers an
+indictment is entitled to have it presented to the grand jury. Officers
+of the court lay the indictments before the grand jury. The charges are
+then called bills, and if the grand jury considers that there is no
+prima facie case the foreman endorses the bill with the words "no true
+bill," and it is then presented to the judge. The jury are then said to
+have ignored the bill, and if the person charged is in custody he is
+released, but is liable to be indicted again on better evidence.
+
+As a means of constitutional protection in times of monarchical
+aggression this practice had no doubt a great value, but in the present
+day, when few offenders are tried without a preliminary inquiry by
+justices, the functions of a grand jury are of secondary importance, and
+the jurors' time is perhaps needlessly occupied. The institution of the
+grand jury prevented the crown in the days of its great power from
+removing a person whom it wished to get rid of from among his
+neighbours, and placing him on trial in a strange place where the
+influence of the crown was greater. This is still true to a certain
+extent, as great injustice may be caused to a man by removing him from
+his neighbours and trying him at a distance from his friends, and from
+the witnesses whom he might call for his defence. In Ireland, for
+instance, the greatest injustice might be done by removing an Orangeman
+from Belfast and trying him in a Roman Catholic county or vice versa.
+But it has its evils where the area from which the jurors are drawn is
+small, such as a town of a few thousand inhabitants. In that case a man
+charged, say, with fraud, may be protected by his friends from being
+properly punished for that fraud. But where justice requires, an order
+may be made for the trial of the offence in another county or at the
+central criminal court.
+
+In many colonies the Scottish system has been adopted, by which the
+ordinary form of accusation is by indictment framed by the public
+prosecutor, and a grand jury is only impannelled in cases where an
+individual claims to prosecute an offence as to which the public
+officials decline to proceed. In England criminal informations by the
+attorney-general, or by leave of the court without the intervention of a
+grand jury, are permitted in cases of misdemeanour, but are now rarely
+preferred.
+
+
+  Coroner's courts.
+
+If a coroner's jury, on inquiring into any sudden death, finds that
+murder or manslaughter has been committed, that finding has the same
+effect as an indictment by a grand jury, and the man charged may be
+tried by the petty jury accordingly. The law and procedure of the
+coroner's courts are now regulated by the Coroners Act 1887. When there
+is a dead body of a person lying within the area of his jurisdiction,
+and there is reasonable cause to suspect that such person died a violent
+or unnatural death, or a sudden death of which the cause is unknown, or
+has died in prison, the coroner is entitled to hold an inquest, and if
+the verdict or inquisition finds murder or manslaughter, it is followed
+by trial in the same way as if the person accused had been indicted.
+
+
+  Trial by jury.
+
+When an indictment is found by the grand jury (twelve at least must
+concur) the person charged is brought before the court, the indictment
+is read to him, he is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he
+pleads guilty he is then sentenced by the court; if he pleads not
+guilty, a petty jury of twelve is formed from the panel or list of
+jurors who have been summoned by the sheriff to attend the court. He is
+tried by these jurors in open court. The common law method of trial of
+crimes by a jury of twelve, native to English law, has been in modern
+times transplanted to European countries. It was not the original form
+of trial, for it was preceded by wager of battle (which was not finally
+abolished till 1819); and by ordeal, which was suppressed as to criminal
+trials in 1219 in consequence of the decree of the Lateran Council
+(1216). The first was allowed only on an appeal by an individual
+accuser; the second was resorted to on an accusation by public fame,
+which the accused was allowed to meet by submitting to the ordeal. It
+was after 1219 that trial by the jury of twelve (known as trial in
+pais) began to develop. At the outset the accused used to be asked how
+he would be tried, and could not be directly compelled to plead to the
+charge or to accept trial by a jury; which led to the indirect pressure
+known as the _peine forte et dure_, which fell into disuse after the
+Revolution and was formally abolished in 1772. But it was not until 1827
+that refusal to plead was treated as a plea of not guilty, entailing a
+trial by a jury, and some old-fashioned officials still ask the old
+question "How will you be tried?" to which the old answer was "By God
+and my country."
+
+The original trial jury or inquest certainly acted on its own knowledge
+or inquiries without necessarily having evidence laid before it in
+court. The impartiality of the jurors was to some extent secured by the
+power of challenge. The exact time when the jury came into its present
+position is difficult accurately to define. On the trial before the
+petty jury the procedure and the rules of evidence differ in very few
+points from an ordinary civil case. The proceedings as already stated
+are accusatory. The prosecutor must begin to prove his case. Confessions
+(which are the object sought by French procedure) are regarded with some
+suspicion, and admissions alleged to have been made by the accused are
+not admitted unless it is clear that they were not extracted by
+inducements of a temporal nature held out by persons in authority over
+him. During the spring assizes of 1877 a prisoner was charged with
+having committed a murder twenty years before, and the counsel for the
+prosecution, with the consent of the judge, withdrew from the case
+because the only evidence, besides the prisoner's own confession, was
+that of persons who either had never known him personally or could not
+identify him. The accused may not be interrogated by the judge or the
+prosecuting counsel unless he consents to be sworn as a witness. In this
+respect the contrast between a criminal trial in England and a criminal
+trial in France is very striking. The interrogation and browbeating of
+the prisoner by the judge, consistent as it may be with the
+inquisitorial theory of their procedure, is strange to English lawyers,
+accustomed to see in every criminal trial a fair fight between the
+prisoner and the prosecution, and not a contest between the judge and
+the prisoner. The accused may, if he choose, be defended by counsel, and
+if poor may get legal aid at the public expense if the court certify for
+it. He is entitled to cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution
+and to call witnesses in his defence. At the conclusion of the evidence
+and speeches the judge sums up to the jury both as to the facts and the
+law, and the jury by their verdict acquit or convict. Immediate
+discharge follows on acquittal; sentence by the judge on conviction.
+
+
+  Summary trials.
+
+Justices of the peace may under many statutes convict in a summary
+manner (without the intervention of a jury) for offences of minor
+importance. The procedure for punishing summary offences is before two
+justices, or a stipendiary magistrate. This proceeding must not be
+confused with the preliminary inquiry already mentioned before justices
+for an indictable offence, nor with the procedure before justices in
+relation to civil matters, such as the recovery of small sums of money.
+The proceeding begins either by the issue of a warrant for the arrest of
+the person charged, in which case a sworn information must be filed, or
+by a summons directing the person charged to appear on a certain day to
+answer the complaint made by the prosecutor. The justices hear the case
+in open court; the person charged can make his defence either in person
+or by his solicitor or counsel, he can cross-examine the witnesses for
+the prosecution, call his own witnesses, and address the justices in his
+defence. The justices, after hearing the case, either acquit or convict
+him, and in case of conviction award the sentence. If the sentence is a
+fine, and the fine is not paid, the person convicted is liable to be
+imprisoned for the term fixed by the justices, not exceeding a scale
+fixed by an act of 1879, the maximum of which is one month. The
+imprisonment may be with or without hard labour.
+
+
+  Procedure for summary offences.
+
+Of late years this summary jurisdiction of the justices has received
+very large extensions, and many offences which were formerly prosecuted
+as serious offences by an indictment before the court of assize or
+quarter sessions have, where the offence was a trivial one, been made
+punishable, on summary proceedings before justices, by a small fine or a
+short term of imprisonment.
+
+The extension of the jurisdiction of the justices is open to the
+observation that it deprives a person charged of the protection of a
+jury, and also that it throws upon him, if convicted, and upon the
+prosecution if there is no conviction, the cost of the proceedings. The
+former objection is much mitigated by the enactment made in 1879, that a
+person if liable on conviction to be sentenced to imprisonment for more
+than three months, or to a fine exceeding L100, can claim to be tried by
+a jury. But the objection as to the costs remains, and the payment of
+costs is often a very serious addition to the trivial fine; and it is
+anomalous that a person convicted of a trifling offence should bear the
+cost of the prosecution, while if he is convicted before a superior
+tribunal of the most serious offence he does not pay the costs.
+
+
+  Appeal.
+
+In English law until 1907, where a criminal case had been tried by a
+jury the verdict of the jury of guilt or innocence was final and there
+was no appeal on the facts. Any considerable defect or informality in
+the procedure might be the subject of a writ of error. And if any
+question of law arose at the trial, the judge might, if he chose,
+reserve it for the opinion of the court for the consideration of crown
+cases reserved, by whom the conviction might be either quashed or
+confirmed.
+
+By the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, a new court was established, to which
+any person convicted on indictment might appeal. (See APPEAL.)
+
+
+  Costs.
+
+The expenses of prosecution for crime in England are dealt with in the
+following manner. Prosecutions for high treason and the cognate offence
+known as treason-felony are at the expense of the state, which alone
+undertakes such prosecutions. In the case of all other felonies and of
+many misdemeanours the expense of the prosecution falls on the local
+rate. In the case of other misdemeanours the expense falls on the
+prosecutor. Where an offence is summarily prosecuted the costs are in
+the discretion of the court, which may order the accused to pay them, if
+convicted, or the prosecutor to pay on acquittal, or may leave the
+parties to pay their own expenses. On charges of felony and a few
+misdemeanours the court may order the accused person to pay the expenses
+of his prosecution in relief of the local rate. In a few cases, chiefly
+where the prosecution is vexatious, the court may order the prosecution
+to pay the expenses of the defence. The expenses of witnesses for the
+defence in any indictable offence may be paid out of the local rate when
+they have been called at the preliminary inquiry; and where the court in
+the case of a poor prisoner has certified that he should have legal aid,
+the expenses of the defence may be charged to the local rate. The local
+rate upon which the expenses fall is usually that of the county or
+borough in which the offence was committed; but sometimes is that of the
+place where the offence is tried.
+
+Between 1852 and 1888 parliament reimbursed to the local authorities the
+expense imposed on the local rate. In 1888 the proceeds of certain taxes
+were set aside and handed over to the local authorities as a set-off to
+the expense incurred in prosecutions. In one class of case, offences
+committed in the admiralty jurisdiction, i.e. outside England, the
+treasury directly reimburses to the local authorities the expense
+incurred.
+
+Under most, if not all, European codes, the state pays for the
+prosecution, subject to reimbursement by the accused, if the court so
+orders.
+
+
+  Non-British criminal procedure.
+
+The English system of criminal procedure is the basis of that of most of
+the states which form the United States of America, and, with few
+exceptions, of the procedure throughout the British empire.
+
+The French penal code and code of criminal procedure are substantially
+the model of all systems of continental criminal law. They were
+promulgated in 1811 by Napoleon I., and although he called in the aid of
+the greatest French jurists, he guided, and occasionally even revised,
+their labours. The French codes have been improved upon by later
+European codes, and more especially by the Italian penal code. All
+European codes have an opening chapter where the general principles of
+criminal law in its practical application are enunciated, such as, for
+instance, the rules that--(1) no person is liable to punishment for any
+act not expressly declared to be an offence; (2) no person can be
+punished for an act which by virtue of a subsequent law is declared not
+to be an offence; (3) whoever commits an offence within the kingdom is
+tried and punished according to the criminal law of the kingdom, and by
+the tribunals created for the administration of justice, to the
+exclusion of special tribunals created for temporary purposes. This rule
+really lays down that no citizen can be deprived of his own judges when
+he is accused of a criminal offence. (4) A citizen, although he may have
+been tried in a foreign country for an offence committed within the
+kingdom, can be retried according to the law of the kingdom. (5)
+Extradition only applies to foreigners, not to citizens. The preliminary
+chapter is followed by the classification of offences according to the
+importance of the punishments the law assigns to them. The lowest degree
+of offence is denominated "contravention." It applies mainly to the
+pettiest offences, or to infractions of police regulations, and can be
+punished by fine or by imprisonment under a week, or by both fine and
+imprisonment, limited to a week. Next comes the "_delit_," which
+includes all offences punished by imprisonment over a week and under
+five years. Then, finally, we arrive at the "_crime_," the highest form
+of offence in French criminal law. It includes all offences subject to a
+more severe sentence than the punishment assigned to a _delit_. All
+cases are held to be crimes where death, life-imprisonment with or
+without hard labour, deportation out of the kingdom, detention or
+seclusion in a fortress or other expressly assigned place, are the
+punishments mentioned by the law. A certain number of explanatory
+definitions follow, of which the most important concern _attempts_ to
+commit offences, and in "crimes" they are punishable if the execution of
+the attempt was only prevented by circumstances beyond the will of the
+offender, whilst in "_delits_" an attempt is not punishable as an
+offence unless the law specially provides that it should be punished. As
+regards "contraventions," attempts not carried out are not held to be
+offences at all. Accomplices are generally subject to the same
+punishment as the principal. Old offenders (_recidivistes_) are subject
+to severer punishments. The usual exceptions as regards responsibility
+for crime, such as madness and extreme youth and _force majeure_, are to
+be found in all codes. The excuse of youth extends to all offenders
+under the age of sixteen, when the tribunal decides whether the offender
+has acted without "discernment," and acquits where the discernment is
+not found, whilst one-half of the usual punishment is inflicted where
+discernment is found. Foreign codes differ from the English law in
+allowing the injured party to claim damages in the criminal suit,
+appearing as _partie civile_. On another question there is a wide
+divergence on the continent of Europe from English law. According to the
+law of England there is no prescription in criminal law (with a few
+exceptions created by statute). An offender is always liable to
+punishment whatever time may have elapsed since the committal of the
+offence. On the continent of Europe the limitation of a judgment and
+sentence for a crime is twenty years; five years for a _delit_, and for
+a contravention two years. No proceedings can be taken as regards a
+crime after a lapse of ten years, whilst as regards a _delit_ the limit
+is three years, and two years for a contravention.
+
+There are three main differences between English criminal procedure and
+European criminal procedure.
+
+1. A criminal prosecution directed on European criminal procedure at
+once passes into the hands of the state as an infringement of law which
+must be repressed, on the ground that the whole community bases its
+security on obedience to law. In England the repression of all minor
+crime is left to the injured party.
+
+2. In England every criminal trial from beginning to end is, and has
+always been, public. Preliminary inquiries into an indictable offence
+may be, but rarely if ever are, conducted in private. On the continent
+of Europe, with rare exceptions, all preliminary proceedings in a
+criminal charge are secret. Outside English-speaking countries this
+secret investigation continues more or less. But of the two systems,
+accusatory or inquisitorial--the first meaning the right of the accused
+to defend himself, the second meaning the right of the state to examine
+any legal offence in private in order to ensure the safety of
+society,--the accusatory is gaining ground in every country. In
+English-speaking countries it is an established law that an accused
+person should have the right of publicity of the proceedings and the
+right to defend himself by counsel and by witnesses. In Europe the
+inquisitorial system is gradually being abandoned. Perhaps the best code
+of criminal procedure in Europe is that promulgated in Austria in 1873.
+It followed a fundamental law of the Empire which laid down _inter alia_
+that all legal proceedings, civil or criminal, should be oral and
+public, and that the accusatory system in criminal cases should be
+adopted. Germany followed this example. Italy, Holland. Switzerland and
+Spain have followed Austria and Germany as regards the preliminary
+investigation; Italy and Belgium have surrounded the accused with
+guarantees against arbitrary confinement before trial; Holland has
+conferred upon the accused the right of seeing the adverse testimony and
+of being confronted with the witnesses, and, further, has formally
+insisted that no insidious questions, such as questions assuming a fact
+as true which is not known to be true, should be allowed. Other
+countries still remain on the old lines. But everywhere, whether reform
+has actually been accomplished or not, there is a demand for even-handed
+justice, and a growing conviction that the accused should have all his
+rights, now that society is no longer in danger from undiscovered
+criminals and unpunished crime. Even in France, the champion of the
+inquisitorial system, a change is being made. Up to 1897 secrecy was
+imposed invariably in the preliminary investigation of crime, and was
+held necessary for the discovery and punishment of the offender. The
+_Loi de l'instruction contradictoire_, December 8, 1897, however, was a
+long step towards complete justice in the treatment of the accused in
+the preliminary inquiry. The main reform is that the accused, after he
+has once appeared before the judge and a formal charge has been made
+against him, is entitled to the assistance of counsel, either chosen by
+himself or assigned to him if he is poor. If he is in prison he is
+allowed to communicate freely with his counsel, who is entitled to see
+all the proceedings, and in every appearance before the judge his
+counsel accompanies him. There are, however, certain limitations. The
+counsel cannot address the judge without leave, which may be refused,
+nor can he insist on any proceeding he thinks necessary in his client's
+interest. He can only solicit. He has no right to be present at the
+examination of witnesses, who continue to be interrogated by the judge
+alone and not in the presence of the accused; but he must receive
+twenty-four hours' notice of every appearance of the accused, and he is
+entitled to be present whenever his client, after the first formal
+appearance, comes before the judge. In England, as already pointed out,
+although the prosecution is in the name of the crown, and although a
+public prosecutor has been appointed, still as a rule it is conducted by
+the person injured as the person injured, or by the police.
+
+3. In England the single-judge system is universal, save in appeal; on
+the continent of Europe plurality of judges is insisted upon, save in
+the most trivial cases, where the punishment is insignificant. In most
+countries of the continent of Europe the whole machinery for the
+prevention, investigation and punishment of crime, is conducted by what
+is called the _parquet_, which represents society as a collective unit
+and not the individual injured. The head of the whole parquet in France
+is the _procureur-general_, who holds equal rank with the members of the
+supreme court. Under him there are procureurs-generaux attached to each
+of the courts of appeal, of which in France there are twenty-six, and
+under each of these subordinate procureurs there are procureurs
+(prosecutors) of a lesser degree. The next stage to the parquet is the
+_juge d'instruction_, who corresponds to the English magistrate, and is
+the most formidable personage in the whole system of French criminal
+law. He can detain and accuse a person in prison, can send for him at
+any time and ask him such questions as he pleases.
+
+After the first examination the prisoner is entitled, in most European
+countries, to the assistance of counsel, but the powers of counsel are
+so limited that the juge d'instruction has a complete discretionary
+power regarding the investigation of the case. The natural consequence
+of this procedure is that the preliminary investigation really decides
+the ultimate result, and the final trial becomes more or less a solemn
+form.
+
+
+  Ireland.
+
+The criminal law of Ireland is to a great extent the same as that of
+England, resting on the same common law and on statutes which extend to
+both countries or are in almost the same terms, and is administered by
+courts of assize and quarter sessions, and by justices, as in England.
+In a few instances statutes passed for England or Great Britain before
+the Union have not been extended to Ireland, or statutes passed by the
+Irish parliament before the Union or by the British parliament since the
+Union create offences not known to English law. In Ireland the system of
+prosecution is nominally the same as in England, but in practice almost
+all prosecutions are instituted and conducted under the direction of the
+attorney-general for Ireland, who is a member of the government of the
+day, and so responsible to parliament, as in the case of the lord
+advocate. In Ireland, owing to the police being a centralized force,
+under the management of commissioners residing in Dublin, any
+prosecution which in England might be conducted by the local police,
+would in Ireland be conducted under the direction of the chief of the
+police in Dublin, who is necessarily in close communication with and
+under the control of the attorney-general.
+
+
+  Scotland.
+
+In Scotland hardly any crimes are constituted by statute law, the common
+law being to the effect that if a judge will direct any act to be a
+crime, and a jury will convict, that act is a crime. This great
+elasticity of the common law to include every sort of new crime which
+might arise was in times past very dangerous to political liberty, as it
+greatly enlarged the power of the crown to oppress political opponents,
+but in modern days it has its convenience in facilitating the punishment
+of persons committing crimes for the punishment of which in England a
+new act of parliament may be necessary. Criminal procedure in Scotland
+is regulated by an act of 1887 which greatly simplified indictments and
+proceedings. The prosecution of crime is in the hands of public
+officers, procurators fiscal, under the control of the lord advocate.
+Private prosecutions are possible, but rare. Except in the case of the
+law of treason, imported from England at the Union, no grand jury is
+required, and the indictments are filed by the public officer.
+
+
+  Other British possessions.
+
+The criminal law of England forms the basis of the criminal law of all
+British possessions abroad, with a few exceptions, e.g. the Channel
+Islands (still subject to the custom of Normandy) and the anomalous case
+of Cyprus, where Mahommedan law is to some extent in force. As to India,
+see INFRA.
+
+In many British colonies the criminal law has been codified or at the
+least consolidated. Criminal codes have been passed in Canada, New
+Zealand (1893), Queensland (1899) and W. Australia (1901). Many crown
+colonies have codes framed on the model prepared by the late Sir R. S.
+Wright for Jamaica and revised in 1901, and in British Guiana
+opportunity was taken (in 1893) to abolish the remnants of Roman-Dutch
+criminal law.
+
+The criminal law of South Africa, which is based on the Roman-Dutch law,
+including the _Constitutio Criminalis Carolina_ (1532), is not codified.
+In the Transvaal and Orange River colonies codes of criminal procedure
+are in force, drawn mainly from the common and statute law of the Cape
+Colony with the addition of provisions borrowed from English and
+colonial legislation.
+
+In Mauritius the criminal law is comprised in a penal code of 1838 and a
+procedure code of 1853, which, with the incorporated amendments, are to
+be found in the _Revised Laws of Mauritius_ (1903-1904), ii. 466 et
+seq. The penal code is based on the Code Napoleon.
+
+
+  Codification.
+
+"Criminal law has everywhere grown out of custom, and has in all
+civilized states been largely dealt with by direct legislation. In most
+civilized states (including Japan) it has been codified by statute, to
+the general satisfaction of the people; and the conspicuous success of
+the Indian penal code shows that English criminal law is susceptible of
+being so treated" (Bryce, _Studies_, ii. 34).
+
+The expediency, if not the necessity, of codifying the criminal law of
+England has long been apparent. The writings of Bentham drew attention
+to many of its substantial defects, and the efforts of Romilly and
+Mackintosh led to certain improvements embodied in what are known as
+Peel's Acts (1826 to 1832). In 1833, at the instance of Lord Chancellor
+Brougham, a royal commission was appointed to deal with the criminal
+law. The nature of the instructions indicate the crudity of the ideas
+then ruling as to codification. The commissioners were directed to
+digest into one statute all enactments touching crimes and the
+punishment thereof, and into another statute the provisions of the
+common unwritten law touching the same. The commission was renewed in
+1836 and 1837, and in 1843 a second commission was appointed. Numerous
+and voluminous reports were published, including (1848) a bill for
+consolidating and amending the law as to crimes and punishments, and
+(1849) a like bill for criminal procedure, indicating that the
+commissioners had in the meantime learned the distinction between
+substantive and adjective law. Lord Brougham in 1848 unsuccessfully
+introduced the first bill, and in the end the only fruit of the reports
+has been certain amendments of procedure in 1851 and the passing of the
+seven Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, which deal with the
+statute law as to theft, forgery, malicious injuries to property,
+coinage offences and offences against the person. The reports, however,
+proved of value in the revision of Macaulay's draft of the Indian penal
+code, and led to the formation of the Statute Law Committee, which has
+relieved the statute book of much dead matter. On his return from India,
+impressed by the success of the Indian penal code, Sir J. Stephen made a
+strong effort to obtain codification. In 1878, at the instance of Lord
+Cairns, he prepared a draft code (based on his well-known _Digest of the
+Criminal Law_), which was laid before parliament and then submitted to
+judicial criticism and revision. As a result of this revision a code
+bill was introduced in 1880; but a dissolution intervened and no serious
+effort was then made. The obstacle in the way is not lack of reports or
+digests on which to frame a code, but the incapacity of parliament to do
+the work itself, and its unwillingness to trust the work to other hands.
+
+
+  India.
+
+The Indian penal code and criminal procedure code, by their history,
+their form, and the extent and diversity of the races and peoples to
+which they apply, are perhaps the most important codes in the whole
+world. While the East India Company was merely a trading company holding
+certain forts and trading ports in India and elsewhere, such criminal
+justice as was administered under its auspices was in the main based on
+the English criminal law, said to have been introduced to some extent by
+the company's charter of 1661, but reintroduced into the presidency laws
+by later charters of 1726, 1753 and 1774. (See _Nuncomar and Impey_, by
+Sir J. Stephen.) From 1771 until 1860 the criminal law administered was
+the Mahommedan law. When in 1771 the East Indian Company determined to
+stand forth as diwan, Warren Hastings required the courts of the
+mofussil (provinces), as distinct from those of the presidency town of
+Fort William, to be guided in the administration of criminal justice by
+Mahommedan law, which under the Moguls had been used in criminal cases
+to the exclusion of Hindu law. Difficulties arose in administration,
+from the definition of crime, the nature of punishments, and in matters
+of procedure, which were removed by regulations and by enactments on
+English lines, especially in Bombay (1827); and great delays and
+considerable injustice were caused by the want of unity in judicial
+organization.
+
+Between 1834 and 1837 Macaulay with three other commissioners, Macleod,
+Anderson and Millet, prepared a draft penal code for India, for which
+they drew not only upon English and Indian laws and regulations but also
+upon Livingstone's Louisiana code and the Code Napoleon. Little or
+nothing was taken from the Mahommedan law. A revised draft of the penal
+code by Sir B. Peacock, Sir J. W. Colville and others was completed in
+1856. In framing it the reports of the English criminal law
+commissioners (published after Macaulay's draft code) were considered.
+The draft was presented to the legislative council in 1856, but owing to
+the mutiny and to objections from missionaries, &c., its passing was
+delayed till the 6th of October 1860. A draft scheme of criminal
+procedure was prepared in India in 1847-1848, which, after submission to
+a commission in England in 1853 (Government of India Act 1853), was
+moulded into a draft code which passed the India legislative council in
+1861 (Act No. XXV.) and came into force in 1862. It has been re-enacted
+with amendments in 1872 (Act X.), 1882 (Act X.) and 1898 (Act V.).
+
+The result is that in India the criminal law is the law of the
+conqueror, though for many civil purposes the law of race, religion and
+caste governs. Under the codes, one set of courts has been established
+throughout the country, composed of well-paid, well-educated judges,
+most of the higher judicial appointments being held by Englishmen; all
+those who hold subordinate judicial posts at the same time are subjected
+to a combined system of appeal and revision. The arrangement of the
+Indian penal code is natural as well as logical; its basis is the law of
+England stripped of technicality and local peculiarities, whilst certain
+modifications are introduced to meet the exigencies of a country such as
+British India. It opens with a chapter of general explanations, and
+interpretations of the terms used throughout the code. It then describes
+the various punishments to which offenders are liable; follows with a
+list of the exceptions regarding criminal responsibility under which a
+person who otherwise would be liable to punishment is exempted from the
+penal consequences of his act, such as offences committed by children,
+by accident or misfortune without any criminal intention, offences
+committed by lunatics, offences committed in the exercise of the right
+of private defence. It may be worth while to add, as an innovation on
+English law, that an act which results in harm so slight that no person
+of ordinary sense and temper would complain of such harm is not
+considered an offence under the code. Then follows a chapter on
+abetment, in other words, the instigation of a person to do a wrongful
+act. The next chapters deal with offences against the public, including
+the state, the army and navy, public tranquillity, public servants,
+contempts of the lawful authority of public servants, perjury; offences
+relating to coin and government stamps, to weights and measures;
+offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and
+morals; offences relating to religion; and offences relating to the
+human body, from murder down to the infliction of any hurt. The code
+then passes on to offences against property; offences relating to
+forgery, including trade marks, criminal breach of contracts for
+service; offences relating to marriage, defamation, criminal
+intimidation, insult and annoyance. Under this last head is included an
+attempt to cause a person to do anything which that person is not
+legally bound to do, by inducing him to believe that he would otherwise
+become subject to Divine displeasure. The last chapter deals with
+attempts to commit offences punishable by the code with transportation
+or imprisonment, and the punishment is limited to one-half of the
+longest term provided for the offence had it been carried out.
+
+  One peculiarity of the Penal Code which has proved eminently
+  successful lies in the system of illustration of the offence declared
+  in every section by a brief statement of some concrete case. For
+  instance, as illustration of the offence of an attempt to commit an
+  offence the following examples are given:--
+
+  I. "A. makes an attempt to steal some jewels by breaking open a box,
+  and finds on opening the box there is no jewel in it. He has done an
+  act towards the commission of theft, and therefore is guilty under
+  this section.
+
+  II. "A. makes an attempt to pick the pocket of Z. by thrusting his
+  hand into Z.'s pocket. A. fails in the attempt in consequence of Z.
+  having nothing in his pocket. A. is guilty under this section."
+
+
+  Indian code of criminal procedure.
+
+Passing on to the system of criminal procedure which is set forth in
+detail in the Code of Criminal Procedure as amended in 1898, it is no
+doubt modelled on the English system, but with considerable
+modifications. The principal steps are--(1) arrest by the police and
+inquiries by the police; (2) the issue of summons or warrant by the
+magistrate; (3) the mode of procedure before the magistrate, who may
+either try the accused himself or commit him to the sessions or the High
+Court, according to the importance of the case; (4) procedure before the
+court of session; (5) appeals, reference and revision by the High Court.
+
+Elaborate provision is made for the prevention of offences, as regards
+security for keeping the peace and for good behaviour, the dispersion of
+unlawful assemblies, the suppression of nuisances, disputes as to
+immovable property, which in all Oriental countries constitute one of
+the most frequent causes of a breach of the peace.
+
+Ample provision is thus made for the prevention of offences, and the
+code next deals with the mode of prosecution of offences actually
+committed.
+
+As a general rule, every offence is inquired into and tried by the court
+within the local limits of whose jurisdiction it was committed.
+Differing from the practice of continental countries, all offences, even
+attempts, may be prosecuted after any lapse of time. As in England,
+there is no statutory limitation to a criminal offence.
+
+A simple procedure is provided for what are called summons cases, as
+distinguished from warrant cases--the first being offences for which a
+police officer may arrest without warrant, the second being offences
+where he must have a warrant, or, in other words, minor offences and
+important offences. In summons cases no formal charge need be framed.
+The magistrate tells the accused the particulars of the offence charged;
+if he admits his guilt, he is convicted; if he does not, evidence is
+taken, and a finding is given in accordance with the facts as proved.
+When the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the magistrate has the
+power to fine the complainant. The code gives power of criminal appeal
+which goes much further than the system in England.
+
+In cases tried by a jury, no appeal lies as to matters of fact, but it
+is allowed as to matters of law; in other cases, criminal appeal is
+admitted on matters of law and fact.
+
+In addition to the system of appeal, the superior courts are entrusted
+with a power of revision, which is maintained automatically by the
+periodical transmission to the High Courts of calendars and statements
+of all cases tried by the inferior courts; and at the same time,
+whenever the High Court thinks fit, it can call for the record of any
+trial and pass such orders as it deems right. All sentences of death
+must be confirmed by the High Court. No appeal lies against an acquittal
+in any criminal case. This system of appeal, superintendence and
+revision would be totally inapplicable to England, but it has proved
+eminently successful as applied to the present social condition of the
+inhabitants of India. The appeals keep the judges up to their work,
+revision corrects all grave mistakes, superintendence is necessary as a
+kind of discipline over the conduct of judges, who are not subjected, as
+in England, to the criticism of enlightened public opinion.
+
+These Indian codes form the basis of the penal, &c., codes in force in
+Ceylon (superseding there the Roman-Dutch law), the Straits Settlements,
+the Sudan and the East Africa protectorates.
+
+
+  Foreign codes.
+
+It has already been stated that most European states have codified their
+criminal law. The earliest of continental codes is that of Charles V.,
+promulgated in 1532, and known as _Constitutio Criminalis Carolina_.
+Austria made further codes in 1768 (_Constitutio Criminalis Theresiana_)
+and 1787 (Emperor Joseph's code). A new code was framed in 1803, and
+amended in 1852 by reference to the Code Napoleon; and in 1906 a
+completely new code existed in draft. The Hungarian penal code dates
+from 1880. The Bavarian code of 1768 of Maximilian, revised in 1861,
+and the Prussian code of 1780, have been superseded by the German penal
+code of 1872.
+
+The most important of the continental criminal codes are those of
+France, the _Code Penal_ (1810) and the _Code d'Instruction Criminelle_
+(1808)--the work of Napoleon the Great and his advisers, which
+professedly incorporate much of the Roman law.
+
+The Belgian codes (1867), and the Dutch penal code (1880), closely
+follow the French model. In Spain the penal code dates from 1870, the
+procedure code from 1886. The Spanish American republics for the most
+part also have codes. Portugal has a penal code (1852). In Italy the
+procedure code and the penal code, perhaps the completest yet framed,
+are of 1890. The Swedish code dates from 1864. The Norwegian code was
+passed in May 1902, and came into force in 1905. Japan has a code based
+on a study of European and American models; and Switzerland is framing a
+federal criminal code.
+
+In the United States no federal criminal code is possible; but most
+states, following the lead of Louisiana, have digested their criminal
+law and procedure more or less effectually into penal codes.
+     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "It is founded," said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863,
+    "on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most
+    important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation there
+    was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an entire
+    and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enactments of
+    which were for the most part intended to supply the deficiencies of
+    the original system. These acts have been re-enacted twice over in
+    the present generation--once between 1826 and 1832 and once in 1861;
+    besides which they were all amended in 1837. Finally, every part of
+    the whole system has been made the subject of judicial comments and
+    constructions occasioned by particular cases, the great mass of which
+    have arisen within the last fifty years." (_View of the Criminal Law
+    of England_, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.)
+
+  [2] i.e. Itinerant justices. From the Latin _in itinere_, on a
+    journey.
+
+
+
+
+CRIMINOLOGY, the name given to a new branch of social science, devoted
+to the discussion of the genesis of crime (q.v.), which has received
+much attention in recent years. The expression is one of modern coinage,
+and originated with the speculative theories first advanced by the
+school of sociologists which had the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso,
+at its head. He discovered or was supposed to have discovered a criminal
+type, the "instinctive" or "born" criminal, a creature who had come into
+the world predestined to evil deeds, and who could be surely recognized
+by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical, even moral birthmarks,
+the possession of which, presumably ineradicable, foredoomed him to the
+commission of crime. Dr Lombroso, in his ingenious work _L'Uomo
+delinquente_, found many attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted
+followers. Large numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the
+conclusions of the Italian school have been warmly contested and on very
+plausible grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory
+of free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that we have
+no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled to crime by
+congenital causes, entirely beyond his control. The "instinctive"
+criminal, under this reasoning, must be classed with the lunatic whom we
+cannot justly, and practically never do, punish. There are other points
+on which proof of the existence of the criminal type fails absolutely.
+The whole theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine,
+and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern thought
+that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school must be examined
+and disposed of.
+
+The alleged discovery of the "born-criminal" as a separate and distinct
+genus of the human species was first published by Dr Lombroso in 1876 as
+the result of long continued investigation and examination of a number
+of imprisoned criminals. The personality of this human monster was to be
+recognized by certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all
+displayed by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction
+and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined as
+follows:--various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding foreheads;
+massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without symmetry; ears long,
+large and projecting (the ear _ad ansa_); noses rectilinear, wrinkles
+strongly marked, even in the young and in both sexes, hair abundant on
+the head, scanty on the cheeks and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold,
+glassy, ferocious; bad repellent faces. Much stress is laid upon the
+physiognomy, and it is said that it is independent of nationality; two
+natives of the same country do not so nearly resemble each other as two
+criminals of different countries. Other peculiarities are:--great width
+of the extended arms (_l'envergure_ of the French), extraordinary
+ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism; obtuse
+sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although the eyesight is
+superior to that of normal people. "In general," to quote Lombroso, "the
+born criminal has projecting ears, thick hair and thin beard,
+projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws, a square and protruding
+chin, large cheek bones and frequent gesticulation." So much for the
+anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the criminal. There remain
+the psychological or mental characteristics, so far as they have been
+observed. Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience
+that never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to be
+generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want of
+proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads so
+often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly marked and
+shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements rather than personal
+appearance.
+
+No sooner was this new theory made public than the very existence of the
+supposed type was questioned and more evidence demanded. A French savant
+declared that Lombroso's portraits were very similar to the photographs
+of his friends. Save for the dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and
+the misery so often seen on it, the face of the criminal does not differ
+from that of an honest man's. It was pointed out that if certain traits
+denoted the criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A
+pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made from
+insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon a
+comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their discoveries
+applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected from too small
+an area and no definite conclusions could be based upon them. Moreover,
+the criminologists were by no means unanimous. They differed amongst
+themselves and often contradicted one another as to the characteristics
+exhibited.
+
+The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent persons have been
+arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso was supported by Colajanni,
+Ferri, Garofalo; in France by J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has
+found few followers; Dr Naecke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the
+most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was any
+special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only a qualified
+approval. In England it stands generally condemned, because it gives no
+importance to circumstance and passing temptation, or to domestic or
+social environment, as affecting the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of
+Broadmoor has said that "if the criminal is such by predestination,
+heredity or accidental flaws or anomalies in brain or physical
+structure, he is such for good and all; no cure is possible, all the
+plans and processes for his betterment, education, moral training and
+disciplinary treatment are nugatory and vain." No weight can then be
+attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings, in
+moulding and forming character, particularly during the more plastic
+periods of childhood and youth.
+
+The pertinent question remains, has the study and development of
+criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can come of it in
+its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning and embraces
+larger researches. It has inquired into the sources and causes of crime,
+it has collected criminal statistics and deduced valuable lessons from
+them, it has sought and obtained guidance in the best methods of
+prevention, repression, and forms of procedure. The champions of law and
+order have been greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the
+continual combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated of
+social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulating a number
+of curious details, in recording the psychology, the secret desires, the
+springs of the criminal's nefarious actions, his corrigibility or the
+reverse, "prepared the way to his sociological explanation" (Tarde).
+Thanks to the labours of the criminologist we are moving steadily
+forward to a future improved treatment of the criminal, and may thus
+arrive at the increased morality and greater safety of society. Very
+appreciable advance has been made in the increased attention paid to
+juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now well
+established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period when the
+moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation to crime, when
+happily human nature is more malleable and susceptible to improvement
+and reform.
+
+The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy us that the
+true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomical anomalies of
+individuals, or in the fact that there are people who under "any social
+conditions whatever and of any nationality at no matter what epoch,
+would have undoubtedly become murderers and thieves." On the contrary it
+may be safely assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they
+had, e.g., been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that
+drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of their
+surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the hands of
+administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance of child-rescue
+and judicious direction of adults, have held the balance between penal
+methods, advocating the moralizing effect of open-air labour as opposed
+to prolonged isolation, and have insisted upon the desirability of
+indefinite detention for all who have obstinately determined to wage
+perpetual war against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See A. Weingart, _Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch fur das
+  Untersuchen von Verbrechen_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines, _Punishment
+  and Reformation_ (New York, 1895); C. Perrier, _Les Criminels_ (Paris,
+  1905); G. Mace, _Femmes criminelles_ (Paris, 1904); E. Carpenter,
+  _Prisons, Police and Punishment_ (1905); R. R. Rentoul, _Proposed
+  Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates_ (1904); R.
+  Sommer, _Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psychopathologie auf
+  naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. Kitzinger, _Die
+  internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung_ (1905); Reports of
+  Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to Secondary
+  Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of Commons Committee of
+  1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of the departmental committee
+  of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M. inspectors for Great Britain
+  and Ireland.     (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIMMITZSCHAU, or KRIMMITSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-Hof railway, 7 m. N.W. from
+Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845. The most important industries of the town
+are the manufacture of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and
+vicuna-wool, and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning
+connected with these. Among other manufactures are brushes, boilers and
+the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the cases and other parts of
+watches. The town has a modern school (Realschule), a commercial school,
+and technical schools for weaving and finishing.
+
+
+
+
+CRIMP (possibly connected with "crimp," to draw together, or fold in
+parallel lines, in the sense of "confine"; the primary meaning, however,
+seems to be that of "agent," and the word may be a distinct one, of
+which the origin is lost), an agent for the supplying of soldiers and
+sailors, by kidnapping, drugging, decoying or other illegal means.
+Crimps were formerly regularly employed in the days of impressment
+(q.v.). Now the term is used, first of any one who engages to supply
+merchant seamen without a licence from the Board of Trade, and is not
+either the owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the
+servant, and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a
+superintendent (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, S 111); and, with a wide
+application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house keepers, who
+are generally in league with the "crimp" proper.
+
+Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the
+protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from imposition.
+Local authorities at seaports have power to make by-laws for the
+licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for sailors, and to inflict
+penalties for the infringement thereof. If this power be not exercised,
+the Board of Trade may do so. Penalties are also imposed by the act for
+overcharging by lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen's
+effects, and for soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from
+boarding a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a
+port may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on discharge,
+and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses. Facilities are
+also given for having wages sent home from foreign ports at a small
+charge. These provisions have practically killed "crimping" in the
+United Kingdom. In the ports of the United States of America crimping
+was long prevalent, especially on the Pacific coast, and its prevention
+was very difficult, but state regulations as to the licensing of
+boarding-houses, and the limitation of the amount of so-called
+"blood-money" paid by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to
+ships denuded by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially.
+
+The term "to shanghai" is used of a more serious offence. Literally
+meaning "to ship to Shanghai," in China, it is applied to the drugging
+or rendering unconscious by violence or other means of persons, whether
+sailors or not, and shipping them to distant ports, in order
+fraudulently to obtain money in advance of wages, or for the sake of the
+premium paid for supplying crews.
+
+
+
+
+CRIMSON, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to a greater or
+less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye produced from the
+dried bodies of the cochineal insect (_Coccus cacti_). The word, in its
+earlier forms _cremesin, crymysyn_, also _cramoysin_, cf. "cramoisy,"
+the name of a red cloth, is adapted from the Med. Lat. _cremesinus_ for
+_kermesinus_ or _carmesinus_, the dye produced from the insect _Kermes_
+(_Coccus ilicis_), Arab. _quirmiz_, which Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898)
+connects with the Sanskrit _krimi_, cognate with Lat. _vermis_ and Eng.
+"worm." From the Lat. _carminus_, a shortened form of carmesinus, comes
+"carmine" (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CRINAGORAS, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished during the
+reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number of epigrams appear
+under his name in the Greek Anthology. From inscriptions discovered at
+Mytilene, he appears to have been one of the ambassadors sent from that
+city to Rome in 45 and 26 B.C.
+
+  The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. _crinis_, hair, and _linum_,
+thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and cotton or linen
+thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-like material used in
+making hat shapes, are also known by the same name. From the use of the
+material to expand ladies' skirts the term was applied, during the third
+quarter of the 19th century, when the fashion of wearing greatly
+expanded skirts was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops
+employed to support the skirts thus worn (see COSTUME). The term is also
+used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the
+framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection for a warship
+against torpedo attack.
+
+
+
+
+CRINUM, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous plants with rather
+broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing a cluster of handsome
+white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers. They are well known in
+cultivation, and owing to the wide distribution of the genus different
+methods are adopted with different species. Some require the hot, moist
+temperature of a stove; such are _C. amabile_, a native of Sumatra, _C.
+amoenum_ (India), _C. Balfourii_ (Socotra), _C. giganteum_ (West
+tropical Africa), _C. Kirkii_ (Zanzibar), _C. latifolium_ (India), _C.
+zeylanicum_ (tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a
+greenhouse; such are _C. asiaticum_, a widely distributed plant on the
+sea-coast of tropical Asia, _C. capense_ and _C. longiflorum_, from the
+Cape, and _C. Macowani_ and _C. Moorei_ from Natal. _C. asiaticum_, _C.
+capense_ and _C. Macowani_ will also thrive in sheltered positions in
+the garden.
+
+
+
+
+CRIOBOLIUM, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and the Great
+Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony instituted after the
+rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium (q.v.), which was performed
+in honour of the Great Mother, for the purpose of giving fuller
+recognition to Attis in the duality which he formed with the Mother.
+There is no evidence of its existence either in Asia or in Italy before
+the taurobolium came into prominence (after A.D. 134). When the
+criobolium was performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar
+was almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while the
+inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium only was
+performed. The celebration of the criobolium was widespread, and its
+importance such that it was sometimes performed in place of the
+taurobolium (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vi. 505, 506). The details and effect
+of the ceremony were no doubt similar to those of the taurobolium. (G.
+SN.)
+
+
+
+
+CRIPPLE CREEK, a city and the county-seat of Teller county, almost at
+the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of the phenomenal
+mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900) 10,147 (1408 foreign-born);
+(1910) 6206. The city is served by three railways--the Colorado Springs
+& Cripple Creek District (a branch of the Colorado & Southern), the
+Midland Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with
+the Colorado Midland), and the Florence & Cripple Creek. Cripple Creek
+is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid the ranges, about 9600
+ft. above the sea at the head of the stream after which it is named. The
+municipal water-supply is drawn from Pike's Peak, 10 m. distant. The
+interest of the city is in its extraordinary mines and their history.
+Cripple Creek's site was frequently prospected after 1860, and "colours"
+and gold "float" were always found, but not until February 1891 was the
+source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle range. In
+1891 the output of gold in the district was valued at $449, in 1892 at
+$583,010, and in the next three years at $2,010,367, $2,908,702 and
+$6,879,137 respectively. From 1891 to 1906 the total production of gold
+was valued at $168,584,331; in 1905[1] the product of gold was valued at
+$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at $25,023,973;
+in 1906 the output for the district was valued at $14,253,245, out of
+$23,210,629 for the entire state. The development of the camp into a
+yellow-pine town and then into something more like a substantial city
+was marvellously rapid. The first railway was completed in 1894. In the
+same year a great strike--one of the most famous in American industrial
+history--threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines; in 1896
+fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second strike, lasting
+more than a year and greater than the first, occurred. The first strike,
+which was for an eight-hour day and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners.
+The second, for the recognition outright of the union organization of
+the miners, secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The
+ores are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most
+characteristic form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very
+rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this accounted for
+the late opening of the field. The field covers a district about 8 X 10
+m. Some peculiarities of the ores have required the use of new methods
+in their treatment, and in general the development of mining methods and
+machinery is of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is
+seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are dotted
+everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous mines have been the
+"Independence" (1891) and the "Portland" (1892). The latter had in 1904
+more than 25 m. of workings above the 1100-ft. level. In 1903 the El
+Paso drain was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to
+the 880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs; in
+1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on a long bore
+was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and cyanide extracters in the
+district, but the bulk of the ore product is shipped to other places for
+treatment. Among the towns around Cripple Creek in the same mining
+district is Victor, pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as
+a city in 1898.
+
+  See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, _Geology and Gold Deposits of the
+  Cripple Creek District, Colorado_, with maps (Washington, 1906), being
+  Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological Survey; and
+  Benjamin McKie Rastall, _The Labor History of the Cripple Creek
+  District; A Study in Industrial Evolution_ (Madison, Wis., 1908), a
+  full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The value of gold mined in 1899-1902 was greater, annually, than
+    the product of 1905 or 1906; up to 1905 the greatest annual value was
+    in 1900, $18,073,539.
+
+
+
+
+CRISA, or CRISSA, in ancient geography, one of the oldest cities of
+Greece, situated in Phocis, on one of the spurs of Parnassus. Its name
+occurs both in the _Iliad_ and in the Homeric _Hymns_, where it is
+described as a powerful place, with a rich and fertile territory,
+reaching to the sea, and including within its limits the sanctuary of
+Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew up around the shrine, and the seaport
+of Cirrha arose on the Crisean Gulf, Crisa gradually lost much of its
+importance. By the ancients themselves the name of Cirrha was so often
+substituted for that of Crisa, that it soon became doubtful whether
+these names indicated the same city or not. The question was
+practically settled by the investigations of H. N. Ulrichs. From its
+position Cirrha commanded the approach to Delphi, and its inhabitants
+became obnoxious to the Greeks from the heavy tolls which they exacted
+from the devotees who thronged to the shrine. The Amphictyonic Council
+declared war (the first Sacred War) against the Criseans in 595 B.C.,
+and having taken the town, razed it to the ground, and consecrated its
+territory to the temple at Delphi. The plunder of the town was sold to
+defray the expenses of the Pythian games. In 339 the people of Amphissa
+began to rebuild the town of Cirrha and to cultivate the plain. This act
+brought on the second Sacred War, the conduct of which was entrusted by
+the Amphictyons to Philip of Macedon, who took Amphissa (mod. Salona) in
+the following year. The ruins of Crisa may be still seen where the
+ravine of the Pleistus joins the plain; its name is probably preserved
+by the modern Chryso.
+
+  See J. G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, v. 459 (note on x. 37.5).     (E. GR.)
+
+
+
+
+CRISPI, FRANCESCO (1819-1901), Italian statesman, was born at Ribera in
+Sicily on the 4th of October 1819. In 1846 he established himself as
+advocate at Naples. On the outbreak of the Sicilian revolution at
+Palermo (January 12, 1848) he hastened to the island and took an active
+part in guiding the insurrection. Upon the restoration of the Bourbon
+government (May 15, 1849) he was excluded from the amnesty and compelled
+to flee to Piedmont. Here he unsuccessfully applied for a situation as
+communal secretary of Verolengo, and eked out a penurious existence by
+journalism. Implicated in the Mazzinian conspiracy at Milan (February 6,
+1853), he was expelled from Piedmont, and obliged to take refuge at
+Malta, whence he fled to Paris. Expelled from France, he joined Mazzini
+in London, and continued to conspire for the redemption of Italy. On the
+15th of June 1859 he returned to Italy after publishing a letter
+repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont, and proclaiming himself a
+republican and a partisan of national unity. Twice in that year he went
+the round of the Sicilian cities in disguise, and prepared the
+insurrectionary movement of 1860.
+
+Upon his return to Genoa he organized, with Bertani, Bixio, Medici and
+Garibaldi, the expedition of the Thousand, and overcoming by a stratagem
+the hesitation of Garibaldi, secured the departure of the expedition on
+the 5th of May 1860. Disembarking at Marsala on the 11th, Crispi on the
+13th, at Salemi, drew up the proclamation whereby Garibaldi assumed the
+dictatorship of Sicily, with the programme: "Italy and Victor Emmanuel."
+After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed minister of the interior
+and of finance in the Sicilian provisional government, but was shortly
+afterwards obliged to resign on account of the struggle between
+Garibaldi and the emissaries of Cavour with regard to the question of
+immediate annexation. Appointed secretary to Garibaldi, Crispi secured
+the resignation of Depretis, whom Garibaldi had appointed pro-dictator,
+and would have continued his fierce opposition to Cavour at Naples,
+where he had been placed by Garibaldi in the foreign office, had not the
+advent of the Italian regular troops and the annexation of the Two
+Sicilies to Italy brought about Garibaldi's withdrawal to Caprera and
+Crispi's own resignation. Entering parliament in 1861 as deputy of the
+extreme Left for Castelvetrano, Crispi acquired the reputation of being
+the most aggressive and most impetuous member of the republican party.
+In 1864, however, he made at the chamber a monarchical profession of
+faith, in the famous phrase afterwards repeated in his letter to
+Mazzini: "The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us." In 1860
+he refused to enter the Ricasoli cabinet; in 1867 he worked to impede
+the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states, foreseeing the French
+occupation of Rome and the disaster of Mentana. By methods of the same
+character as those subsequently employed against himself by Cavallotti,
+he carried on the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which
+sundry conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused of
+corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he worked
+energetically to impede the projected alliance with France, and to drive
+the Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death of Ratazzi in 1873 induced Crispi's
+friends to put forward his candidature to the leadership of the Left;
+but Crispi, anxious to reassure the crown, secured the election of
+Depretis. After the advent of the Left he was elected (November 1876)
+president of the chamber. During the autumn of 1877 he went to London,
+Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial
+personal relationships with Gladstone, Granville and other English
+statesmen, and with Bismarck.
+
+In December 1877 he replaced Nicotera as minister of the interior in the
+Depretis cabinet, his short term of office (70 days) being signalized by
+a series of important events. On January 9, 1878, the death of Victor
+Emmanuel and the accession of King Humbert enabled Crispi to secure the
+formal establishment of a unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the
+title of Humbert I. of Italy instead of Humbert IV. of Savoy. The
+remains of Victor Emmanuel were interred in the Pantheon instead of
+being transported to the Savoy Mausoleum at Superga. On the 9th of
+February, 1879, the death of Pius IX. necessitated a conclave, the first
+to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped by Mancini and
+Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), persuaded the Sacred College to
+hold the conclave in Rome, and prorogued the chamber lest any untoward
+manifestation should mar the solemnity of the event. The statesmanlike
+qualities displayed on this occasion were unavailing to avert the storm
+of indignation conjured up by Crispi's opponents in connexion with a
+charge of bigamy not susceptible of legal proof. Crispi was compelled to
+resign office, although the judicial authorities upheld the invalidity
+of his early marriage, contracted at Malta in 1853, and ratified his
+subsequent union with Signora Barbagallo. For nine years Crispi remained
+politically under a cloud, but in 1887 returned to office as minister of
+the interior in the Depretis cabinet, succeeding to the premiership upon
+the death of Depretis (July 29, 1887).
+
+One of his first acts as premier was a visit to Bismarck, whom he
+desired to consult upon the working of the Triple Alliance. Basing his
+foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by the naval _entente_
+with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor, Count Robilant, Crispi
+assumed a resolute attitude towards France, breaking off the prolonged
+and unfruitful negotiations for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty,
+and refusing the French invitation to organize an Italian section at the
+Paris Exhibition of 1889. At home Crispi secured the adoption of the
+Sanitary and Commercial Codes, and reformed the administration of
+justice. Forsaken by his Radical friends, Crispi governed with the help
+of the Right until, on the 31st of January 1891, an intemperate allusion
+to the _sante memorie_ of the conservative party led to his overthrow.
+In December 1893 the impotence of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public
+order, then menaced by disturbances in Sicily and in Lunigiana, gave
+rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power. Upon
+resuming office he vigorously suppressed the disorders, and steadily
+supported the energetic remedies adopted by Sonnino, minister of
+finance, to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken by the
+bank and financial crises of 1892-1893. Crispi's uncompromising
+suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon either the Triple
+Alliance or the Eritrean colony, or to forsake his colleague Sonnino,
+caused a breach between him and the radical leader Cavallotti.
+Cavallotti then began against him a pitiless campaign of defamation. An
+unsuccessful attempt upon Crispi's life by the anarchist Lega brought a
+momentary truce, but Cavallotti's attacks were soon renewed more
+fiercely than ever. They produced so little effect that the general
+election of 1895 gave Crispi a huge majority, but, a year later, the
+defeat of the Italian army at Adowa in Abyssinia brought about his
+resignation. The ensuing Rudini cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti's
+campaign, and at the end of 1897 the judicial authorities applied to the
+chamber for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzlement. A
+parliamentary commission, appointed to inquire into the charges against
+him, discovered only that Crispi, on assuming office in 1893, had found
+the secret service coffers empty, and had borrowed from a state bank
+the sum of L12,000 for secret service, repaying it with the monthly
+instalments granted in regular course by the treasury. The commission,
+considering this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the chamber
+adopted, a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution.
+Crispi resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an
+overwhelming majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents. For
+some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on account of
+his growing blindness. A successful operation for cataract restored his
+eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstanding his 81 years he resumed to
+some extent his former political activity. Soon afterwards, however, his
+health began to give way permanently, and he died at Naples on the 12th
+of August 1901.
+
+The importance of Crispi in Italian public life depended less upon the
+many reforms accomplished under his administrations than upon his
+intense patriotism, remarkable fibre, and capacity for administering to
+his fellow-countrymen the political tonic of which they stood in
+constant need. In regard to foreign politics he greatly contributed to
+raise Italian prestige and to dispel the reputation for
+untrustworthiness and vacillation acquired by many of his predecessors.
+If in regard to France his policy appeared to lack suavity and
+circumspection, it must be remembered that the French republic was then
+engaged in active anti-Italian schemes and was working, both at the
+Vatican and in the sphere of colonial politics, to create a situation
+that should compel Italy to bow to French exigencies and to abandon the
+Triple Alliance. Crispi was prepared to cultivate good relations with
+France, but refused to yield to pressure or to submit to dictation; and
+in this attitude he was firmly supported by the bulk of his
+fellow-countrymen. The criticism freely directed against him was based
+rather upon the circumstances of his unfortunate private life and the
+misdeeds of an unscrupulous _entourage_ which traded upon his name than
+upon his personal or political shortcomings.
+
+  See _Scritti e discorsi politici di F. Crispi, 1847-1890_ (Rome,
+  1890); _Francesco Crispi_, by W. J. Stillman (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN, the patron saints of shoemakers, whose festival
+is celebrated on the 25th of October. Their history is largely
+legendary, and there exists no trace of it earlier than the 8th century.
+It is said that they were brothers and members of a noble family in
+Rome. They gave up their property and travelled to Soissons (Noviodunum,
+Augusta Sucessionum), where they supported themselves by shoemaking and
+made many converts to Christianity. The emperor Maximianus (Herculius)
+condemned them to death. His prefect Rictiovarus endeavoured to carry
+out the sentence, but they emerged unharmed from all the ordeals to
+which he subjected them, and the weapons he used recoiled against the
+executioners. Rictiovarus in disgust cast himself into the fire, or the
+caldron of boiling tar, from which they had emerged refreshed. At last
+Maximian had their heads cut off (c. 287-300). Their remains were buried
+at Soissons, but were afterwards removed, partly by Charlemagne to
+Osnabruck (where a festival is observed annually on the 20th of June)
+and partly to the chapel of St Lawrence in Rome. The abbeys of St
+Crepin-en-Chaye (the remains of which still form part of a farmhouse on
+the river Aisne, N.N.W. of Soissons), of St Crepin-le-Petit, and St
+Crepin-le-Grand (the site of which is occupied by a house belonging to
+the Sisters of Mercy), in or near Soissons, commemorated the places
+sanctified by their imprisonment and burial. There are also relics at
+Fulda, and a Kentish tradition claims that the bodies of the martyrs
+were cast into the sea and cast on shore on Romney Marsh (see _Acta SS.
+Bolland_, xi. 495; A. Butler, _Lives of the Saints_. October 25th).
+
+Especially in France, but also in England and in other parts of Europe,
+the festival of St Crispin was for centuries the occasion of solemn
+processions and merry-making, in which gilds of shoemakers took the
+chief part. At Troyes, where the gild of St Crispin was reconstituted as
+late as 1820, an annual festival is celebrated in the church of St
+Urban. In England and Scotland the day acquired additional importance as
+the anniversary of the battle of Agincourt (cf. Shakespeare, _Henry V._
+iv. 3); the symbolical processions in honour of "King Crispin" at
+Stirling and Edinburgh were particularly famous.
+
+  For other examples see _Notes and Queries_, 1st series, v. 30, vi.
+  243; W. S. Walsh, _Curiosities of Popular Customs_ (London, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+CRITIAS, Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty Tyrants. In his
+youth he was a pupil of Gorgias and Socrates, but subsequently devoted
+himself to political intrigues. In 415 B.C. he was implicated in the
+mutilation of the Hermae and imprisoned. In 411 he helped to put down
+the Four Hundred, and was instrumental in procuring the recall of
+Alcibiades. He was banished (probably in the democratic reaction of 407)
+and fled to Thessaly, where he stirred up the Penestae (the helots of
+Thessaly) against their masters, and endeavoured to establish a
+democracy. Returning to Athens he was made ephor by the oligarchical
+party; and he was the most cruel and unscrupulous of the Thirty Tyrants
+who in 404 were appointed by the Lacedaemonians. He was slain in battle
+against Thrasybulus and the returning democrats. Critias was a man of
+varied talents--poet, orator, historian and philosopher. Some fragments
+of his elegies will be found in Bergk, _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_. He was
+also the author of several tragedies and of biographies of distinguished
+poets (possibly in verse).
+
+  See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, ii. 3. 4. 19, _Memorabilia_, i. 2;
+  Cornelius Nepos, _Thrasybulus_, 2; R. Lallier, _De Critiae tyranni
+  vita ac scriptis_ (1875); Nestle, _Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl. Altert._
+  (1903).
+
+
+
+
+CRITICISM (from the Gr. [Greek: _krites_], a judge, [Greek: _krinein_],
+to decide, to give an authoritative opinion), the art of judging the
+qualities and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or
+the fine arts.[1] It involves, in the first instance, the formation and
+expression of a judgment on the qualities of anything, and Matthew
+Arnold defined it in this general sense as "a disinterested endeavour to
+learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world." It
+has come, however, to possess a secondary and specialized meaning as a
+published analysis of the qualities and characteristics of a work in
+literature or fine art, itself taking the form of independent
+literature. The sense in which criticism is taken as implying censure,
+the "picking holes" in any statement or production, is frequent, but it
+is entirely unjustifiable. There is nothing in the proper scope of
+criticism which presupposes blame. On the contrary, a work of perfect
+beauty and fitness, in which no fault could possibly be found with
+justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to deal with as a work of
+the greatest imperfection. It may be perfectly just to state that a book
+or a picture is "beneath criticism," i.e. is so wanting in all qualities
+of originality and technical excellence that time would merely be wasted
+in analysing it. But it can never be properly said that a work is "above
+criticism," although it may be "above censure," for the very complexity
+of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the skill of the
+analyser and reward it.
+
+It is necessary at the threshold of an examination of the history of
+criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing is more
+confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose that it
+consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy. Candid criticism
+should be neither benevolent nor adverse; its function is to give a just
+judgment, without partiality or bias. A critic ([Greek: _kritikos_]) is
+one who exercises the art of criticism, who sets himself up, or is set
+up, as a judge of literary and artistic merit. The irritability of
+mankind, which easily forgets and neglects praise, but cannot forgive
+the rankling poison of blame, has set upon the word _critic_ a seal
+which is even more unamiable than that of _criticism_. It takes its most
+savage form in Benjamin Disraeli's celebrated and deplorable _dictum_,
+"the critics are the men who have failed in literature and art." It is
+plain that such names as those of Aristotle, Dante, Dryden, Joshua
+Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not to be thus swept by a
+reckless fulmination. There have been many critics who brought from
+failure in imaginative composition a cavilling, jealous and ignoble
+temper, who have mainly exercised their function in indulging the evil
+passion of envy. But, so far as they have done this, they have proved
+themselves bad critics, and neither minute care, nor a basis of
+learning, nor wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must
+be, can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on the
+desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure unfairly.
+The examination of what has been produced by other ages of human thought
+is much less liable to this dangerous error than the attempt to estimate
+contemporary works of art and literature. There are few indeed whom
+personal passion can blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a
+poem of the 17th century. In the higher branches of historical
+criticism, prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and
+therefore, in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to
+leave out of consideration that invidious and fugitive species which
+bears the general name of "reviewing." This pedestrian criticism,
+indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very nature,
+ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks. Even when the
+reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is almost impossible
+for him to stand far enough back from the object under review to see it
+in its proper perspective. He is dazzled, or scandalized, by its
+novelty; he has formed a preconceived notion of the degree to which its
+author should be encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases,
+an element in the mental condition which he attempts to judge, and if
+not positively a defendant is at least a juryman in the court over which
+he ought to preside with remote impartiality.
+
+It may be laid down as the definition of criticism in its pure sense,
+that it should consist in the application, in the most competent form,
+of the principles of literary composition. Those principles are the
+general aesthetics upon which taste is founded; they take the character
+of rules of writing. From the days of Aristotle the existence of such
+rules has not been doubted, but different orders of mind in various ages
+have given them diverse application, and upon this diversity the
+fluctuations of taste are founded. It is now generally admitted that in
+past ages critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate
+taste rigidly, and to lay down rules that shall match every case with a
+formula. Over-legislation has been the bane of official criticism, and
+originality, especially in works of creative imagination, has been
+condemned because it did not conform to existing rules. Such instances
+of want of contemporary appreciation as the reception given to William
+Blake or Keats, or even Milton, are quoted to prove the futility of
+criticism. As a matter of fact they do nothing of the kind. They merely
+prove the immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic
+products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed during the
+life-times of those illustrious men. False critics have built domes of
+glass, as Voltaire put it, between the heavens and themselves, domes
+which genius has to shatter in pieces before it can make itself
+comprehended. In critical application formulas are often useful, but
+they should be held lightly; when the formula becomes the tyrant where
+it should be the servant of thought, fatal error is imminent. What is
+required above all else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with good
+sense, and combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste. He who
+possesses these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his
+error cannot become radical, and he is always open to correction. It is
+not his business crudely to pronounce a composition "good" or "bad"; he
+must be able to show why it is "good" and wherein it is "bad"; he must
+admire with independence and blame with careful candour. He must above
+all be assiduous to escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal
+lack of thought under a flow of words. The finest criticism should take
+every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it
+necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book. A large
+part of the reason why the criticism of productions of the past is so
+much more fruitful than mere contemporary reviewing, is that by
+remoteness from the scene of action the critic is able to make himself
+familiar with all the elements of age, place and medium which affected
+the writer at the moment of his composition. In short, knowledge and
+even taste are not sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion
+of a still rarer quality, breadth of sympathy.
+
+Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to reach
+maturity, but from very early times the instinct which induces mankind
+to review what it has produced led to the composition of imperfect but
+often extremely valuable bodies of opinion. What makes these early
+criticisms tantalizing is that the moral or political aspects of
+literature had not disengaged themselves from the purely intellectual or
+aesthetic.
+
+To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find that in
+antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the father and almost as the founder
+of literary criticism. Yet before his day, three Greek writers of
+eminence had examined, in more or less fulness, the principles of
+composition; these were Plato, Isocrates and Aristophanes. The comedy of
+_The Frogs_, by the latter, is the earliest specimen we possess of
+hostile literary criticism, being devoted to ridicule of the plays of
+Euripides. In the cases of Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form
+mainly of an examination of the rules of rhetoric. We reach, however,
+much firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose _Poetics_ and
+_Rhetoric_ are among the most valuable treatises which antiquity has
+handed down to us. Of what existed in the literature of his age,
+extremely rich in some branches, entirely empty in others, Aristotle
+speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G. Saintsbury has justly
+remarked that as his criticism of poetry was injuriously affected by the
+non-existence of the novelist, so his criticism of prose was injuriously
+affected by the omnipresence of the orator. This continues true of all
+ancient criticism. A work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study
+of Homer is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in
+the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less important
+than the foundation on which all subsequent European criticism has been
+raised. It does not appear that any of the numerous disciples of
+Aristotle understood his attitude to literature, nor do the later
+philosophical schools offer much of interest. The Neoplatonists,
+however, were occupied with analysis of the Beautiful, on which both
+Proclus and Plotinus expatiated; still more purely literary were some of
+the treatises of Porphyry. There seems to be no doubt that Alexandria
+possessed, in the third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians;
+the names of Zenodotus, of Crates and of Aristarchus were eminent in
+this connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived.
+They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere rhetoricians
+of the last Greek schools, such as Hermogenes and Aphthonius. In the 2nd
+century of our era, Dio Chrysostom, Aristides of Smyrna, and Maximus of
+Tyre were the main representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded
+by Philostratus and Libanius. The most modern of post-Christian Greek
+critics, however, is unquestionably Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who
+leads up to Lucian and Cassius Longinus. The last-mentioned name calls
+for special notice; in "the lovely and magnificent personality of
+Longinus" we find the most intelligent judge of literature who wrote
+between Aristotle and the moderns. His book _On the Sublime_ ([Greek:
+_Peri hupsous_]), probably written about A.D. 260, and first printed in
+1554, is of extreme importance, while his intuitions and the splendour
+of his style combine to lift Longinus to the highest rank among the
+critics of the world.
+
+In Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent position. In
+early days the rhetorical works of Cicero and the famous _Art of Poetry_
+of Horace exhaust the category. During the later Augustan period the
+only literary critic of importance was the elder Seneca. Passing over
+the valuable allusions to the art of writing in the poets, especially in
+Juvenal and Martial, we reach, in the Silver Age, Quintilian, the most
+accomplished of all the Roman critics. His _Institutes of Oratory_ has
+been described as the fullest and most intelligent application of
+criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one which
+places the name of Quintilian not far below those of Aristotle and
+Longinus. He was followed by Aulus Gellius, by Macrobius (whose
+reputation was great in the middle ages), by Servius (the great
+commentator on Virgil), and, after a long interval, by Martianus
+Capella. Latin criticism sank into mere pedantry about rhetoric and
+grammar. This continued throughout the Dark Ages, until the 13th
+century, when rhythmical treatises, of which the _Labyrinthus_ of
+Eberhard (1212?) and the _Ars rhythmica_ of John of Garlandia (John
+Garland) are the most famous, came into fashion. These writings
+testified to a growing revival of a taste for poetry.
+
+It is, however, in the masterly technical treatise _De vulgari eloquio_,
+generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in Italian) in 1529,
+that modern poetical criticism takes its first step. The example of this
+admirable book was not adequately followed; throughout the 14th and 15th
+centuries, criticism is mainly indirect and accidental. Boccaccio,
+indeed, is the only figure worthy of mention, between Dante and Erasmus.
+With the Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in Italy,
+producing such excellent specimens as the _Sylvae_ of Poliziano, the
+_Poetics_ (1527) of Vida, and the _Poetica_ of Trissino, the best of a
+whole crop of critical works produced, often by famous names, between
+1525 and 1560. These were followed by sounder scholars and acuter
+theorists: by Scaliger with his epoch-making _Poetices_ (1561); by L.
+Castelvetro, whose _Poetica_ (1570) started the modern cultivation of
+the Unities and asserted the value of the Epic; by Tasso with his
+_Discorsi_ (1587); and by Francesco Patrizzi in his _Poetica_ (1586).
+
+In France, the earliest and for a long time the most important specimen
+of literary criticism was the _Defense et illustration de la langue
+francaise_, published in 1549 by Joachim du Bellay. Ronsard, also, wrote
+frequently and ably on the art of poetry. The theories of the Pleiade
+were summed up in the _Art poetique_ of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which
+belongs to 1574 (though not printed until 1605).
+
+In England, the earliest literary critic of importance was Thomas
+Wilson, whose _Art of Rhetoric_ was printed in 1553, and the earliest
+student of poetry, George Gascoigne, whose _Instruction_ appeared in
+1575. Gascoigne is the first writer who deals intelligently with the
+subject of English prosody. He was followed by Thomas Drant, Harvey,
+Gosson, Lodge and Sidney, whose controversial pamphlets belong to the
+period between 1575 and 1580. Among Elizabethan "arts" or "defences" of
+English poetry are to be mentioned those of William Webbe (1586), George
+Puttenham (1589), Thomas Campion (1602), and Samuel Daniel (1603). With
+the tractates of Ben Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the
+Renaissance may be said to close.
+
+A new era began throughout Europe when Malherbe started, about 1600, a
+taste for the neo-classic or anti-romantic school of poetry, taking up
+the line which had been foreshadowed by Castelvetro. _Enfin Malherbe
+vint_, and he was supported in his revolution by Regnier, Vaugelas,
+Balzac, and finally by Corneille himself, in his famous prefatory
+discourses. It was Boileau, however, who more than any other man stood
+out at the close of the 17th century as the law-giver of Parnassus. The
+rules of the neo-classics were drawn together and arranged in a system
+by Rene Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared between
+1668 and 1674. It is in writings of this man, and of the Jesuits, Le
+Bossu and Bouhours, that the preposterous rigidity of the formal classic
+criticism is most plainly seen. The influence of these three critics
+was, however, very great throughout Europe, and we trace it in the
+writings of Dryden, Addison and Rymer. In the course of the 18th
+century, when the neoclassic creed was universally accepted, Pope,
+Blair, Kames, Harris, Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were its most
+distinguished exponents in England, while Voltaire, Buffon (to whom we
+owe the phrase "the style is the man"), Marmontel, La Harpe and Suard
+were the types of academic opinion in France.
+
+Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when the
+neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe at the very
+close of the 18th century. It has been heralded in Germany by the
+writings of Lessing, and in France by those of Diderot. Of the
+reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th century it is impossible
+to speak here with any fulness, it is contained in the record of the
+recent literature of each European language. It is noticeable, in
+England, that the predominant place in it was occupied, in violent
+contrast with Disraeli's dictum, by those who had obviously _not_ failed
+in imaginative composition, by Wordsworth, by Shelley, by Keats, by
+Landor, and pre-eminently by S. T. Coleridge, who was one of the most
+penetrative, original and imaginative critics who have ever lived. In
+France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored or even
+qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains as much a master
+as he was a precursor. He was followed by Theophile Gautier, Saint-Marc,
+Girardin, Paul de Saint Victor, and a crowd of others, down to Taine and
+the latest school of individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew
+Arnold, Pater, and their followers in England.
+
+  See G. Saintsbury, _A History of Criticism_ (3 vols., 1902-1904); J.
+  E. Spingarn, _A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance_ (2nd
+  ed. 1908); Thery, _Histoire des opinions litteraires_ (1849); J. A.
+  Symonds, _The Revival of Learning_ (1877); Matthew Arnold, _Essays in
+  Criticism_, i. (1865), ii. (1868); Bourgoin, _Les Maitres de la
+  critique au XVII^e siecle_ (1889); Paul Hamelius, _Die Kritik in der
+  englischen Literatur_ (1897); S. H. Butcher, _The Poetics of
+  Aristotle_ (1898); H. L. Havell and Andrew Lang, _Longinus on the
+  Sublime_ (1890). See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew
+  Arnold, F. Brunetiere, Anatole France, Walter Pater, _passim_.
+       (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+   [1] It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in
+   this article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses,
+   generally with some word of qualification, e.g. "textual criticism"
+   or "higher criticism"; see the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM and the
+   article BIBLE for an outstanding example of both "textual" and
+   "higher."
+
+
+
+
+CRITIUS and NESIOTES, two Greek sculptors of uncertain school, of the
+time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried away to Persia the statues
+of Harmodius and Aristogiton made by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were
+commissioned to replace them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two
+statues at Naples, wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified
+as copies of the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the
+words in which Lucian (_Rhetor. praecepta_, 9) describes the works of
+Critius and Nesiotes, "closely knit and sinewy, and hard and severe in
+outline." Critius also made a statue of the armed runner Epicharinus.
+
+
+
+
+CRITOLAUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in the 2nd century
+B.C. He lived to the age of eighty-two and died probably before 111 B.C.
+He studied philosophy under Aristo of Ceos and became one of the leaders
+of the Peripatetic school by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a
+moralist. There has been considerable discussion as to whether he was
+the immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and
+unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peripatetic
+succession (cf. Cicero, _De fin._ v. 5 "C. imitari antiquos voluit"),
+though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors. For example, he
+held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, ix. 5. 6), and
+definitely maintained that the soul consists of aether. The end of
+existence was to him the general perfection of the natural life,
+including the goods of the soul and the body, and also external goods.
+Cicero says in the _Tusculans_ that the goods of the soul entirely
+outweighed for him the other goods ("tantum propendere illam bonorum
+animi lancem"). Further, he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic
+doctrine of the eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the
+human race. There is no observed change in the natural order of things;
+mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the capacity
+given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is heir, though fatal
+to individuals, do not avail to modify the whole. Just as it is absurd
+to suppose that man is merely earth-born, so the possibility of his
+ultimate destruction is inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation
+of eternal order, must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not
+recorded. One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero (_Acad._ ii. 45)
+it appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome in
+156-155 B.C. to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed on
+Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three ambassadors
+lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much success that Cato was
+alarmed and had them dismissed the city. Gellius describes his arguments
+as _scita et teretia_.
+
+  Consult the article PERIPATETICS, and histories of ancient philosophy,
+  e.g. Zeller.
+
+
+
+
+CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN (1787-1863), American statesman, was born in
+Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of September 1787. After graduating at
+the College of William and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in
+his native state. He served for three months, in 1810, as
+attorney-general of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky,
+and during the War of 1812 he was for a time on the staff of General
+Isaac Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of
+Representatives, being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a
+United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high rank as
+a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1825
+and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter period, and from 1827 to
+1829 was United States district-attorney. He was removed by President
+Jackson, to whom he was radically opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was
+again elected to the United States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841,
+but resigned to enter the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as
+attorney-general, continuing after President Tyler's accession and
+serving from March until September. He was again a member of the United
+States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor of
+Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of Clay's compromise
+measures, and in 1850 he entered President Fillmore's cabinet as
+attorney-general, serving throughout the administration. From 1855 to
+1861 he was once more a member of the United States Senate. During these
+years he was perhaps the foremost champion of Union in the South, and
+strenuously opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared
+prophetically would unite the various elements of opposition in the
+North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable.
+Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of compromise, gave
+his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket in 1860, and in
+1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for the adoption by congress of
+the compromise measures which bear his name. When war became inevitable
+he threw himself zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great
+influence to keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member of
+the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating the
+prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures as the division
+of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the Conscription Acts. He died
+at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 26th of July 1863.
+
+  See the _Life of J. J. Crittenden_, by his daughter Mrs Chapman
+  Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871).
+
+His son, GEORGE BIBB CRITTENDEN (1812-1880), soldier, was born in
+Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and graduated at West
+Point in 1832, but resigned his commission in 1833. He re-entered the
+army as a captain of mounted rifles in the Mexican War, served with
+distinction, and was breveted major for bravery at Contreras and
+Churubusco. After the war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained
+the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered
+the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-general and
+given a command in south-east Kentucky and Tennessee, but after the
+defeat of his forces by General George H. Thomas at Mill Springs
+(January 9, 1862), he was censured and gave up his command. He served
+subsequently as a volunteer aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams.
+From 1867 to 1871 he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at
+Danville, Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880.
+
+Another son, THOMAS LEONIDAS CRITTENDEN (1815-1893), soldier, was also
+born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied law, and practised with his
+father, and in 1842 became commonwealth's attorney. He served in the
+Mexican War as a lieutenant-colonel of Kentucky volunteers, and was an
+aide on Gen. Zachary Taylor's staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From
+1849 to 1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like his
+father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861 he was
+commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general of volunteers. He
+commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry in which battle he was
+promoted major-general in July 1862. He was in command of a corps in the
+army of the Ohio under Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of
+Stone River and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia
+campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December 1864, but in
+July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank of colonel of infantry,
+receiving the brevet of brigadier-general in 1867, served on the
+frontier and in several Indian wars, and retired in 1881. He died on the
+23rd of October 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CRIVELLI, CARLO, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier part of the
+15th century. The only dates that can with certainty be given are 1468
+and 1493; these are respectively the earliest and the latest years
+signed on his pictures--the former on an altar-piece in the church of
+San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo, and the latter on a picture in the
+Oggioni collection in Milan. Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to
+have worked chiefly in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near
+Ascoli; there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian
+building, both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is
+said to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as late
+at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only a boy. The
+latter always signed as "Carolus Crivellus Venetus"; from 1490 he added
+"Miles," having been then knighted ("Cavaliere") by Ferdinand II. of
+Naples. He painted in tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in
+subject pictures of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape
+backgrounds; and was particularly partial to giving fruits and flowers
+(the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories, often in
+pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is well supplied with
+examples of Crivelli; the "Annunciation," and the "Beato Ferretti" (of
+the same family as Pope Pius IX.) in religious ecstasy, may be
+specified. Another of his principal pictures is in San Francesco di
+Matelica; in Berlin is a "Madonna and Saints" (1491); in the Vatican
+Gallery a "Dead Christ," and in the Brera of Milan the painter's own
+portrait, with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked
+individuality,--hard in form, crudely definite in contour; stern,
+forced, energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and
+expression, and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply
+vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes admitting
+into his pictures objects actually raised in surface; distinct and warm
+in colour, with an effect at once harsh and harmonious. His pictures
+gain by being seen in half-light, and at some little distance; under
+favouring conditions they grip the spectator with uncommon power. Few
+artists seem to have worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more
+forthright command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised
+that Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli (who
+was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello) and Vittorio
+Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil.
+
+  See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, _Venetian Painters
+  of the Renaissance_ (1899); Morelli, _Italian Painters_ (1892-1893);
+  Rushforth, _Carlo Crivelli_ (1900).     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CROATIA-SLAVONIA (Serbo-Croatian _Hrvatska i Slavonija_; Hung.
+_Horvat-Szlavonorszag_; Ger. _Kroatien und Slawonien_), a kingdom of the
+Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by Carniola, Styria and Hungary
+proper; E. by Hungary and Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and
+W. by the Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the
+N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by a
+section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now the
+county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom of
+Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county of Agram, is
+usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the Balkan Peninsula; and
+thus the greater part of Croatia, lying south of this river, falls
+within the peninsular boundary, while the remainder, with all Slavonia,
+belongs to the continental mainland. According to the official survey of
+1900, the total area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian
+littoral extends for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A
+narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna), separates
+it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian islands. The
+city and territories of Fiume, the sole important harbour on this coast,
+are included in Hungary proper, and controlled by the Budapest
+government. Westward from Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria,
+Carniola, Istria, Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is
+generally mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and
+eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the north, and
+the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its point at Semlin.
+
+_Physical Features_.--Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided into two
+great sections, the highlands of the west and the lowlands of the east.
+
+The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of the bare and
+desolate mountain chains between the Save and the Adriatic, notably the
+Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela), which link together the Karst and
+the Dinaric Alps, culminating in Biela Lazica (5029 ft.); the Pljecevica
+or Plicevica Planina (5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river
+Una; and the Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the
+coast, and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any
+considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border, this range
+attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of Sveto Brdo (5751
+ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large tracts of the Croatian
+highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it is only in the more sheltered
+hollows that sufficient soil collects for large trees to flourish. In
+northern Croatia and Slavonia the mountains are far more fertile, being
+often densely wooded with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the
+Uskoken Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks
+(q.v.) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their
+stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak of Ivanscica
+(3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in Sljeme or Slema (3396
+ft.), and including the beautiful stretches of Alpine pasture known as
+the Zagorje, or "land beyond the hills"; the Bilo Gebirge, or White
+Mountains, a low range of chalk, and, farther to the south, several
+groups of mountains, among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni
+Vrh (2833 ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All
+these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central
+watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In the east
+Slavonian county of Syrmia[1] the Frucka Gora or Vrdnik Mountains rise
+to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern bank of the Danube, their
+picturesque vineyards and pine or oak woods contrasting strongly with
+the plains that surround them.
+
+The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and Kulpa,
+belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alfold. Besides the
+sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as pasture, and so
+sparsely populated that it is possible to travel for many hours without
+encountering any sign of human life except a primitive artesian well or
+a shepherd's hut, there are wide expanses of fen-country, regularly
+flooded in spring and autumn. The marshes which line the Save below
+Sissek are often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river
+is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to
+abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation exceeds
+200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains are sometimes
+strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain, fruit and wine.
+
+The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave and Save, are
+fully described under separate headings. After reaching Croatian
+territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave flows along the northern
+frontier for 155 m., receiving the Bednja and Karasnica on the right,
+and falling, near Esseg, into the Danube, which serves as the
+Hungaro-Slavonian boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the
+country 16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to
+Jasenovac, constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets the
+Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina, Lonja, Ilova,
+Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central watershed; but its only large
+tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian stream, which springs in the Dinaric
+Alps, and skirts the Croatian border for 40 m. before entering the Save
+at Jasenovac; and the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m.
+from its headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at
+Sissek. The Mreznica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand tributaries
+of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven streams of the Lika unite
+and plunge into a rocky chasm near Gospic, and the few small brooks
+of this region usually vanish underground in a similar manner. Near
+Fiume, the Recina, Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a
+brief course. There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland
+pools and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their
+beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers flood the
+mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed by the river
+Gajka, near Otocac, has occasionally filled its basin to a depth of 160
+ft.
+
+  _Minerals_.--The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable of
+  further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to the
+  mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and sulphur
+  are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise at Krapina,
+  at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and elsewhere.
+
+  _Climate_.--The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in
+  different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent
+  changes, and especially to the _bora_, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which
+  renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in
+  winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts.
+  The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all
+  other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below
+  zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common among
+  the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the great winds
+  and sandstorms which sweep down the Alfold. At Agram, during the years
+  1896-1900, the mean annual temperature was 52 deg. F., with 34.6 in.
+  of rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures for the same period were 57
+  deg. and 71 in.
+
+  _Agriculture_.--The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5% of
+  the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows,
+  pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as
+  mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land
+  occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near
+  Warasdin and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens
+  are of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of
+  cereals, but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides
+  hemp, flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive
+  vineyards were much injured by _phylloxera_ towards the close of the
+  19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes,
+  besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of
+  _sliwowitz_ or _shlivovitsa_. Near Fiume the orange, lemon,
+  pomegranate, fig and olive bear well; mulberries are planted on many
+  estates for silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central
+  region favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the
+  oak and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the
+  highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last years of
+  the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace the
+  mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion of sheep to
+  other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic lands,
+  and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding is a
+  favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902 many
+  thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in South
+  Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the quality of
+  live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes, and other
+  measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept improvements.
+
+  _Forests_.--Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered
+  3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property.
+  Especially valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and
+  Sissek. Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube.
+
+  _Industries_.--Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered
+  throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the
+  rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco
+  factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia are
+  at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Re. Only 8.3 of the
+  population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than farming,
+  which occupied 85.2%. The exports mainly consist of foodstuffs,
+  especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses, and of
+  timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and colonial
+  products; with machinery and other finished articles. Goods in transit
+  to and from Hungary figure largely in the official returns for
+  Fiume[2] and Semlin, which are the centres of the foreign trade. In
+  1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking establishments.
+
+  _Communications_.--The commerce of the country is furthered by upwards
+  of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these being the
+  Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and the Josephina,
+  which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent highways were built for
+  strategic purposes before the abolition of the Military Frontier in
+  1881. The railways, which are all owned and managed by the Hungarian
+  state, intersect most parts of the country except the mountains south
+  of Ogulin, where there is, nevertheless, a considerable traffic over
+  the passes into Dalmatia and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway
+  centre, from which lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria,
+  N.N.E. to Warasdin and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of
+  Kostajnica. The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod,
+  where it meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out
+  two branch lines to Brcka and Samac in Bosnia, and several
+  branches on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross
+  the Hungarian frontier at Zakany, Barcs, Esseg, Erdar and
+  Peterwardein. Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts
+  of timber; east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but,
+  despite its great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting
+  sandbanks interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the
+  Una, the Drave below Barcs, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are
+  partially drained by the so-called "Canal of Probus," the one large
+  artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the
+  Romans in the 3rd century.
+
+  _Chief Towns_,--The principal towns are Agram, the capital, with
+  61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia (24,930);
+  Semlin (15,079); Mitrovica (11,518); Warasdin (12,930); Karlstadt
+  (7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824); Karlowitz (5643);
+  Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and Buccari (1870). These are
+  described in separate articles. The centre of the coasting trade is
+  Novi, and other small seaports are San Giorgio (_Sveto Juraj_), Porto
+  Re (_Kraljevica_) and Carlopago. Agram, Gospic (10,799), Ogulin
+  (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar (6056) are respectively the capitals of
+  the five counties which belong to Croatia proper,--Agram (Hung.
+  _Zagrab_), Modruc-Fiume, Lika-Krbava, Warasdin (_Varasd_) and
+  Bjelovar (_Belovar-Koros_); while the capitals of the three Slavonian
+  counties, Virovitica (_Verocze_), Pozega (_Pozsega_) and Syrmia
+  (_Szerem_), are Esseg, Pozega (5000) and Semlin.
+
+_Population and National Characteristics_.--The population rose from
+1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of little less than
+one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death rate, with a high
+marriage and birth rate, and characterized by that preponderance of male
+over female children which is common to all the South Slavonic lands.
+More than 75% of the inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder
+being Serbs, who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside
+Croatia-Slavonia, the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and
+northern Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of
+Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the whole
+nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The distinction
+between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less extent,
+linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single branch of the
+Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian branch. The literary
+language of the two nations is identical, but the Croats use the Latin
+alphabet,[3] while the Serbs prefer a modified form of the Cyrillic. The
+two nations have also been politically separated since the 7th century,
+if not for a longer period; but this division has produced little
+difference of character or physical type. Even the costume of the
+Croatian peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries
+are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs; their
+songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of their customs
+and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little changed by its
+closer contact with Western civilization, may be studied in Servia
+(q.v.) itself. In both countries rural society was based on the
+old-fashioned household community, or _zadruga_, which still survives in
+the territories that formed the Military Frontier, though everywhere
+tending to disappear and be replaced by individual ownership. The
+Croatian peasantry are least prosperous in the riverside districts,
+where marsh-fevers prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many
+of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch. As in
+Servia, there is practically no middle class between the peasants and
+the educated minority; and the commercial element consists to a great
+extent of foreigners, especially Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews.
+Numerically this alien population is insignificant. The Italians are
+chiefly confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and
+Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western frontier,
+where they have introduced their language, and so greatly modified the
+local dialect; the gipsies wander from city to city, as horse-dealers,
+metal workers or musicians; there are numerous Moravian and Bohemian
+settlements; and near Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is
+impossible to give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in
+the compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test of
+nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country where every
+educated person speaks two or three languages. Croatian nationalists
+also maintain that official figures are systematically altered in the
+Hungarian interest.
+
+_Constitution and Government_.--By the fundamental law of the 21st of
+December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes of internal
+government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian empire, and
+Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia. In
+theory the viceroy, or _ban_ of Croatia-Slavonia is nominated by the
+crown, and enjoys almost unlimited authority over local affairs; in
+practice the consent of the crown is purely formal, and the _ban_ is
+appointed by the Hungarian premier, who can dismiss him at any moment.
+The provincial government is subject to the _ban_, and comprises three
+ministries--the interior, justice, and religion and education,--for
+whose working the _ban_ is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to
+the national assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (_Narodna Skupctina_). This
+body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of elected deputies,
+partly of privileged members, whose numbers cannot exceed half those of
+the deputies. There are 69 constituencies, besides the 21 royal free
+cities which also return deputies. Electors must belong to certain
+professions or pay a small tax. The privileged members are the heads of
+the nobility, with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule,
+they represent the "Magyarist" section of society, which sympathizes
+with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion, education,
+justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but even within this
+limited sphere all its important enactments must be countersigned by the
+minister for Croatia-Slavonia, a member, without portfolio, of the
+Hungarian cabinet. At the polls, all votes are given orally, a system
+which facilitates corruption; the officials who control the elections
+depend for their livelihood on the _ban_, usually a Magyarist; and thus,
+even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable to Hungary
+can usually be secured. The constitutional relations between Hungary and
+Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the agreement, or _nagoda_, of 1868.
+This instrument determines the functions of the _ban_; the control of
+common interests, such as railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones,
+commerce, industry, agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates
+by the chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below,
+under _History_.
+
+
+    Local administration.
+
+  For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8 rural
+  counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties, or
+  municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. These are
+  subdivided into rural and urban communes, each with its representative
+  council. The affairs of each rural county are managed by an assembly
+  chosen for 6 years, which comprises not only elected members, but
+  delegates from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain
+  high ecclesiastics and officials.
+
+
+    Justice.
+
+  The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral
+  Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal courts of
+  appeal, the county courts of first instance, and the district courts
+  or magistracies.
+
+
+    Religion.
+
+  Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic
+  Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg and
+  Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics, with a bishop at
+  Kreuz (_Krizevac_). The Serb congregations, who had previously been
+  classed as Orthodox Greek, were officially recognized as members of
+  the Orthodox Church of Servia after 1883. Their episcopal sees of
+  Karlowitz and Pakrac depend upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but
+  from 1830 to 1838 Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian
+  Church.
+
+
+    Education.
+
+  During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of
+  education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other
+  reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third of
+  the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the
+  educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy of Sciences and
+  Arts (_Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti_), founded by
+  Strossmayer and others in 1867, as an improvement on a learned society
+  which had existed since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the
+  nationalist propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes
+  biased by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian
+  history, law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded
+  in 1874, possesses three faculties--theology, philosophy and law; but,
+  unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medicine.
+  Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In 1900 there
+  were also 19 _real-gymnasia_, teaching science, art and modern
+  languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400 elementary
+  schools; and a few special institutions, such as the naval and
+  military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and commercial
+  colleges. In almost every case the language of instruction is
+  Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education, without a
+  corresponding advance of technical education, has created an
+  intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several
+  painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence; it
+  also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional
+  careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a strong
+  native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency.
+
+
+_History._
+
+Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia in their
+present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised north-western
+Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now known as Upper Croatia. The
+whole country between the Drave and Save, thus including a large part of
+modern Croatia, was called in Latin _Slavonia_, in German _Windisches
+Land_, and in Hungarian _Totorszag_, to distinguish it from the
+territories in which the Croats were racially supreme (_Horvatorszag_).
+At the time of their conquest by the Romans (35 B.C.) both these
+divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had displaced
+an older population, the Scordisci; and both were included in the Roman
+province of Pannonia Inferior, although Slavonia had the distinctive
+name of Pannonia Savia (see PANNONIA). When the Roman dominions were
+broken up in A.D. 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western
+empire. The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by
+Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were in turn
+expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people from the western
+Carpathians, who, according to some authorities, had occupied the
+territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia, and been driven thence in the
+6th century by the Czechs. The main body of the Croats, whose tribal and
+racial names respectively are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and
+Slavonia, entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by
+the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had led the
+way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the western division of the
+great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats which colonized the lands between
+Bulgaria and the Adriatic. Contemporary chroniclers called them
+_Chrobati_, _Belochrobati_ ("White Croats"), _Chrovati_, _Horvati_, or
+by some similar Latin or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic _Khrvaty_.
+The Croats occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia,
+Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing the earlier
+inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian littoral, where the
+Italian city-states usually maintained their independence, and in
+certain districts of Slavonia, where, out of a mixed population of
+Slavonic immigrants, Avars and Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the
+Serbo-Croats, gradually became predominant. The Croats brought with them
+their primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly
+military, partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the
+Serbs (see SERVIA); agriculture, war and hunting were their chief
+pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien sovereign, they
+passed gradually under Italian influence in the extreme west, and under
+Byzantine influence in the south and south-east. In 806 the northern and
+north-eastern districts were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus
+won for the Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated
+by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines to Syrmia; it is
+still commemorated by the name Frucka Gora, "Mountains of the
+Franks," in that province.
+
+_The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091._--In 877 the Croats were temporarily
+subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after successive insurrections
+which tended to centralize their loosely knit tribal organization, and
+to place all power in the hands of a military chief, they regained their
+independence and founded a national kingdom about 910. It is probable
+that Tomislav or Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed
+the title of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that
+Tomislav only bore the title of _veliki zupan_ or "paramount chief,"
+and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced without
+interruption back to 818. On this view, Drzislav (c. 978-1000) was
+the first king properly so called. But Tomislav, whatever his official
+style, was certainly the first of a series of independent national
+rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries. The records of this
+period, regarded by many Croats as the golden age of their country, are
+often scanty, and its chronology is still unsettled. Little is known of
+Trpimir, who preceded Drzislav, or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a
+few of the kings gained a more lasting fame by their success in war and
+diplomacy. Among these were Krecimir I. (c. 940--946), his successor
+Miroslav, and especially Krecimir II., surnamed the Great (c.
+1000-1035), who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation,
+and conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the Italian
+cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had built a fleet,
+which they used first for piracy and afterwards for trade. Their skill
+in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the 9th century by the pagan
+corsairs of the Narenta (see DALMATIA: _History_), and later by the
+numerous Dalmatian and Croatian sailors who served in the navies of
+Venice and Austria, is remarkable in a Slavonic people, and one which
+had so recently migrated from central Europe. At the end of the 10th
+century they even for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but
+their power was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians
+captured and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This
+Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat of the
+kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing the
+grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine court.
+Krecimir II. and Krecimir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero of many
+national legends and lays, restored the naval power of the Croats. After
+the death of Krecimir Peter, Slavic or Slaviza reigned until 1076,
+when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir or Zvoinimir) Demetrius.
+Zvonimir was crowned by the legate of Pope Gregory VII, and appears to
+have been regarded as a vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a
+nephew of Krecimir II., died in 1089.
+
+_Hungarian Supremacy: 1091-c. 1526._--Amid the strife of rival claimants
+to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen, appealed for aid to her
+brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Ladislaus took possession of the
+country in 1091. He founded the bishopric of Agram and introduced
+Hungarian law. His death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist
+insurrection, but after two years the rebels were crushed by his
+successor Coloman. This monarch reorganized the administration on a
+system which has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by
+almost all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of
+the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic
+affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially the
+control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as the ban
+(q.v.). This office was sometimes held by princes of the royal house,
+often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also extended his authority over
+Dalmatia and the islands of the Quarnero, but the best modern
+authorities reject the tradition that in 1102 he was crowned king of
+Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed
+to Bulgaria from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019,
+was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much liberty to
+the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class, ever ready for
+civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the Bosnian heretics. Their
+most powerful leaders were the counts of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir),
+whose surname was Subic. This family played an important part in
+local politics from the 13th century to 1670, when Peter Subic was
+its last member to hold the office of ban. Paul Subic (d. 1312)
+and Mladen Subic (d. 1322) even for a short period united Croatia,
+Slavonia, Bosnia and part of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to
+1326 the Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary
+and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they carried
+on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the Krajina (Turkish
+Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals until the Turkish
+conquest.
+
+_The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718._--Here, as elsewhere, the Ottoman
+invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian sects. When King
+Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend Slavonia in 1490 it was too late;
+Matthias lost Syrmia and died in the same year. His successor Ladislaus
+of Poland (1490-1516) added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal
+title, which now included the words "King of Dalmatia and Croatia and
+Slavonia" (_Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae_). But he failed to
+repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of Hungary at the
+battle of Mohacs. In 1527 the Croats were compelled to swear allegiance
+to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had been elected king of Hungary.
+Ferdinand founded the generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the
+foundation of the military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin
+and Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia, to
+counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Throughout the
+century the Turks continued to extend their conquests until, in 1606,
+the emperor retained only western Croatia, with the cities of Agram,
+Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During the same period the doctrines of
+the Reformation had spread among the Croats; but they were forcibly
+suppressed in 1607-1610. The military occupation by the Turks left
+little permanent impression; colonization was never attempted; and the
+continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge their
+dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction of Moslem
+religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus in the reconquest of
+Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the local opposition which afterwards
+hindered the Austrian occupation of Bosnia. The successes of Prince
+Eugene in 1697 led two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which
+the Turks ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria; and
+the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz. Only
+Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of the Ottoman empire.
+
+_Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718-1814._--Austrian influence
+predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during most of the 18th
+century, although Slavonia was constitutionally regarded as belonging to
+Hungary. Despite Magyar protests the misleading name "Croatia" was
+popularly and even in official documents applied to the whole country,
+including the purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Pozega and
+Syrmia. From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were
+collectively named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of these
+divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom, with a separate
+administration, while the military frontier remained under military
+rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard, which had previously been under the
+same administration as the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to
+Croatia, but three years later Fiume was declared an integral part of
+Hungary. These administrative changes, and especially the brief
+existence of united "Illyria," stimulated the dormant nationalism of the
+Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria was forced to
+surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia, with Dalmatia, Istria,
+Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca. These territories received the
+name of the Illyrian Provinces, and remained under French rule until
+1813. All the Croats capable of service were enrolled under the French
+flag; their country was divided for administrative purposes into
+_Croatie civile_ and _Croatie militaire_. In 1814 Dalmatia was
+incorporated in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and
+Gradisca became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their
+united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia were declared
+appanages of the Hungarian crown--_partes adnexae_, or subject
+provinces, according to the Magyars; _regna socia_, or allied kingdoms,
+according to their own view. Each phrase afterwards became the watchword
+of a political party: neither is accurate. The Croats preserved their
+local autonomy, the use of their language for official purposes, their
+elected diet and other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was
+represented by the ban.
+
+_The National Revival._--The Croats acquiesced in their position of
+inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to introduce
+Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist or "Illyrist" party
+was formed under Count Drackovic and Bishop J. Strossmayer (q.v.)
+to combat Hungarian influence and promote the union of the "Illyrian"
+Slavs, i.e. the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading
+Croatian publicist, strongly supported the movement. The elections of
+1842 were marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists
+and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to
+office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed ban
+in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with Carinthia,
+Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted as much by the apathy
+of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the Magyars. A Croatian
+deputation was received at Innsbruck by Ferdinand V., but before its
+arrival the Hungarians had obtained a royal manifesto hostile to
+Illyrism. But failure only increased the agitation among the southern
+Slavs; all attempts at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of
+August the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was on
+their side. On the 11th of September the advance-guard of their army
+crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich. On the 29th they were
+driven back from Pakozd by the Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna;
+they subsequently aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian
+revolutionaries (see JELLACHICH, JOSEF, and HUNGARY: _History_). The
+constitution of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from
+Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which was annexed
+the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian supremacy lasted until
+1867; no ban was appointed, and owing to the suspension of local
+autonomy from 1850 to 1860 this period is known as "the ten years of
+reaction." It was ended by the celebrated "October Diploma" of the 20th
+of October 1860, which promised the restoration of constitutional
+liberty. But the so-called "Constitution of February" (21st February
+1861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive controlled
+by the government at Vienna. The newly elected diet was soon dissolved
+for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic confederation under imperial
+rule, and no other was elected until 1865.
+
+From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured to secure
+the formation of a subordinate Austrian kingdom comprising Dalmatia,
+Croatia-Slavonia and the islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had,
+however, resolved to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St
+Stephen, and in 1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral
+machinery. The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin
+Rauch, was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867 a
+majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and on the 29th of
+January the diet passed a resolution in favour of reunion with Hungary.
+The whole Opposition refused to take any part in the proceedings, as a
+protest against the alleged illegality of the elections; but by the 25th
+of June the Croatian commissioners and the Hungarian government had
+framed a new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides
+substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided that the
+diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject to the Croatian
+minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that Croatia-Slavonia should pay
+55% of its revenue to Hungary for mutual and imperial expenses, but
+should be represented in the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six
+delegates, and should continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official
+language. Hungary guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial
+government should be not less than two and a half million gulden
+(L250,000). In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the
+Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed revenue
+to L350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their representatives
+at Budapest, and a promise that the military frontier should be
+incorporated in the existing civil provinces. In 1877 a convention with
+Hungary regulated the control of public estates in the military
+frontier, and on the 15th of July 1881 the frontier, including the
+district of Sichelburg claimed by Carniola, was handed over to the local
+administration.
+
+Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating in the
+Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived the agitation for
+a "Great Croatia." A party separate from the regular Opposition, and
+known as the "Party of the Right," was formed to oppose the Magyarists.
+Its activity resulted in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty
+quelled; in 1885 its leader, N. Starcevic, was condemned to
+imprisonment for the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count
+Khuen-Hedervary. In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its leader,
+Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on account of his
+famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church (see STROSSMAYER). In
+1889 the financial agreement with Hungary was revised and the
+contribution of Croatia-Slavonia to the expenses shared with Hungary or
+common to the whole of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added
+burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a deficit
+in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count Khuen-Hedervary was
+responsible for several administrative improvements, but the prosperity
+of the country declined from year to year. The government was accused of
+illegal interference with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian
+arms and language in official documents, and with undue harshness in the
+censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks of rioting in
+Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious agrarian disturbances
+directed against the Magyarist landowners; in a debate in the Reichsrath
+(18th May) an Austrian deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted
+to induce the imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count
+Khuen-Hedervary was made Hungarian prime minister; Count T.
+Pejacevic succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by promising
+freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press. Since 1898 the
+financial agreement had only been renewed from year to year. But the
+estimates for 1904 revealed another heavy deficit; and this was only
+paid by Hungary on condition that the agreement should be renewed until
+the 31st of December 1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained.
+
+The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the nationalist
+agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian deputies met at Spalato
+to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and in 1906 the municipality of Agram
+endeavoured to petition the king in favour of union with Bosnia and
+Herzegovina. This propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch,
+appointed ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not
+command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909 by the
+trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy of the
+nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under the
+king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary--upwards of
+4,500,000--was less visionary than the older Illyrism, and less
+aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to include Carinthia,
+Carniola and Styria in the proposed "Great Croatia." It was opposed by
+Austria as tending to create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within
+the Dual Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance in
+Transleithania.
+
+
+_Language and Literature._
+
+For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic languages
+generally, see SLAVS. The Croatian dialects, like the Servian, have
+gradually developed from the Old Slavonic, which survives in medieval
+liturgies and biblical or apocryphal writings. The course of this
+development was similar in both cases, except that the Croats, owing to
+their dependence on Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as
+the Serbs by Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian
+linguistic forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs,
+moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while the Roman
+Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a few liturgical books
+which are written in the ancient Glagolitic script. As the literary
+language of both nations is now practically the same, and is, indeed,
+commonly known as "Serbo-Croatian," the reader may be referred to the
+article SERVIA: _Language and Literature_, for an account of its
+history, of its chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and
+inclusive of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences
+between the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia.
+
+The three most important Croatian dialects are known as the _Cakavci_,
+_Cakavctina_ or, in Servian, _Chakavski_, spoken along the Adriatic
+littoral; the _Stokavci_ (_Stokavctina_, _Shtokavski_), spoken in Servia
+and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula; and the
+_Kajkavci_ (_Kajkavctina_, _Kaykavski_), spoken by the partly Slovene
+population of the districts of Agram, Warasdin and Kreuz. This
+classification is based on the form, varying in different localities, of
+the pronoun _ca_, _cto_, or _kaj_, meaning "what."
+
+The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the Dalmatian
+writers of the 15th and 16th centuries--the golden age of Serbo-Croatian
+literature. Its history is indissolubly interwoven with that of the
+Stokavci, which ultimately superseded it, and became the literary
+language of all the Serbo-Croats, as it had long been the language of
+the best national ballads and legends.
+
+Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature,
+consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or
+educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings possess
+more philological interest than literary merit, and are hardly known
+outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts of Austria.
+
+Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian
+literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded as the common
+heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic and literary reforms which
+Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia
+about the close of this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a
+new interest in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and
+folk-tales. One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful
+attempt made between 1814 and 1830 to raise the Cakavci dialect to the
+rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia; but the
+Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption of the Stokavci, which was
+already the vernacular of the majority of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj
+(1809-1872), though he failed to create an artificial literary language
+by the fusion of the principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and
+Slovenes, was by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing
+the triumph of the Stokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent, and
+one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other writers of the
+first half of the 19th century may be mentioned Ivan Mazuranic
+(1813-1890), whose first poems were published in the _Danica ilirska_
+("Illyrian Dawnstar"), a journal founded and for a time edited by Gaj.
+In 1846 Mazuranic published his _Smrt Smail Aga Cengica_ ("Death of
+Ismail Aga Cengic"), called by Serbo-Croats the "Epos of Hate." This
+remarkable poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives
+a vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the
+hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In later life
+Mazuranic distinguished himself as a statesman, and became ban of
+Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers representative of Croatian
+literature before 1867 were the lyric poet Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and
+Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854), the author of many patriotic songs.
+
+With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, in 1867, the
+study of science and history received a new impetus. Under the
+presidency of Franko Racki (1825-1894) the academy, with its journal the
+_Rad jugoskovenske Akademije_, became the headquarters of an active
+group of savants, among whom may be mentioned Vastroslav Jagic (b.
+1838), sometime editor of the _Archiv fur slavische Philologie_; the
+historians Sime Ljubic (1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klaic, author of
+several standard works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer
+Bogoslav Sulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko
+Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal _Slovinac_
+has served, like the Agram _Rad_, as a focus of literary activity, there
+have been numerous poets and prose writers, associated, in many cases,
+with the Illyrist or the nationalist propaganda. Among these may be
+mentioned Count Medo Pucic (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban
+(1818-1903), whose tragedy _Meyrimah_ is considered by many the finest
+dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the topography, products, inhabitants and modern
+  condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see _Bau und Bild Osterreichs_, by C.
+  Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903); _Die
+  osterreich-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. xxiv., edited
+  by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902); _Fuhrer durch Ungarn, Kroatien und
+  Slawonien_, by B. Alfoldi (Vienna, 1900); _Reisefuhrer durch Kroatien
+  und Slawonien_, by A. Lukcic (Agram, 1893);
+  _Vegetationsverhaltnisse von Kroatien_, by A. Neilreich (Vienna,
+  1868); "Die Slowenen," by J. Suman, and "Die Kroaten," by F. Stare,
+  in vol. x. of _Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns_ (Vienna, 1881-1882);
+  _Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Kustenlander_, by A. Weisbach
+  (Berlin, 1884); and the map _Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije_, by M.
+  Katzenschlager (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one in
+  Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native
+  authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, from
+  1861). It is largely based on the following works: _Vetera monumenta
+  historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_, containing documents from
+  the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome, 1860); _Vetera
+  monumenta historiam Slavorum meridionalium illustrantia_, published by
+  the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1863, &c.); _Jura regni Croatiae,
+  Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privilegiis_, by J. Kukuljevic (Agram,
+  1861-1862); _Monumenta historica Slavorum meridionalium_, by V.
+  Makushev, in Latin and Italian, with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade,
+  1885); _De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666;
+  see DALMATIA, under bibliography); _Regno degli Slavi_, by M. Orbini
+  (Pesaro, 1601); and, for ecclesiastical history, _Illyricum sacrum_,
+  by D. Farlatus and others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also _Hrvatska i
+  Hrvati_, by V. Klaic (Agram, 1890, &c.); and _Slawonien vom 10. bis
+  zum 13. Jahrhundert_, translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klaic
+  by J. von Vojnicic (Agram, 1882).     (K. G. J.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Also written _Sirmia_ and _Sirmium_; Serbo-Croatian _Sriem_;
+    Hungarian _Szerem_.
+
+  [2] It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian
+    trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and is
+    the main outlet for Hungarian emigration and maritime commerce.
+
+  [3] It is important to notice the value of the following letters and
+    signs, which recur frequently:--c = ts; c = ch (hard); c = _ch_
+    (soft); j = y, or j in German; c = sh; z = zh, or j in French.
+
+
+
+
+CROCIDOLITE, a mineral described in 1815 by M. H. Klaproth under the
+name _Blaueisenstein_ (blue ironstone), and in 1831 by J. F. Hausmann,
+who gave it its present name on account of its nap-like appearance (Gr.
+[Greek: krokus], nap of cloth). It is a blue fibrous mineral belonging
+to the amphibole group and closely related to riebeckite; chemically it
+is an iron sodium silicate. Its resemblance to asbestos has gained for
+it the name Cape Asbestos, the chief occurrence being in Cape Colony.
+The mineral suffers alteration by removal of alkali and peroxidation of
+the ferrous iron, and further by deposition of silica between the
+fibres, or by their replacement by silica; a hard siliceous mineral is
+thus formed which when polished shows, in consequence of its fibrous
+structure, a beautiful chatoyance or silky lustre. This is the
+ornamental stone which is known when blue as "hawk's-eye," and when of
+rich golden brown colour as "tiger-eye." The latter, which represents
+the final alteration of the crocidolite, has become very fashionable as
+"South African cat's eye," and is often termed "crocidolite," though
+practically only a mixture of quartz with brown oxide of iron. The
+following are analyses by A. Renard and C. Klement of the unaltered
+crocidolite and of the blue and brown products of alteration:--
+
+  +---------------+--------------+-------------+------------+
+  |               | Crocidolite. | Hawk's-eye. | Tiger-eye. |
+  |               +--------------+-------------+------------+
+  | Silica        |    51.89     |   93.45     |   93.05    |
+  | Ferric oxide  |    19.22     |    2.41     |    4.94    |
+  | Alumina       |      ..      |    0.23     |    0.66    |
+  | Ferrous oxide |    17.53     |    1.43     |     ..     |
+  | Magnesia      |     2.43     |    0.22     |    0.26    |
+  | Lime          |     0.40     |    0.13     |    0.44    |
+  | Soda          |     7.71     |     ..      |     ..     |
+  | Potash        |     0.15     |     ..      |     ..     |
+  | Water         |     2.36     |    0.82     |    0.76    |
+  |               +--------------+-------------+------------+
+  |    Total      |   101.69     |   98.69     |  100.11    |
+  +---------------+--------------+-------------+------------+
+
+
+Another alteration product of the crocidolite, consisting of silica and
+ferric hydrate, has been called griqualandite. Crocidolite and the
+minerals resulting from its alteration occur in seams, associated with
+magnetite and other iron-ores, in the jasper-slates of the Asbestos
+Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony. It is known also from a few
+other localities, but only in subordinate quantity. (See CAT'S-EYE.)
+
+
+
+
+CROCKET (Ital. _uncinetti_, Fr. _crochet_, _crosse_, Ger. _Haklein_,
+_Knollen_), in architecture, an ornament running up the sides of
+gablets, hood-moulds, pinnacles, spires; generally a winding stem like a
+creeping plant, with flowers or leaves projecting at intervals, and
+terminating in a finial.
+
+
+
+
+CROCKETT, DAVID (1786-1836), American frontiersman, was born in Greene
+county, Tennessee, on the 17th of August 1786. His education was
+obtained chiefly in the rough school of experience in the Tennessee
+backwoods, where he acquired a wide reputation as a hunter, trapper and
+marksman. In 1813-1814 he served in the Creek War under Andrew Jackson,
+and subsequently became a colonel in the Tennessee militia. In 1821-1824
+he was a member of the state legislature, having won his election not by
+political speeches but by telling stories. In 1827 he was elected to the
+national House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat, and was
+re-elected in 1829. At Washington his shrewdness, eccentric manners and
+peculiar wit made him a conspicuous figure, but he was too independent
+to be a supporter of all Jackson's measures, and his opposition to the
+president's Indian policy led to administration influences being turned
+against him with the result that he was defeated for re-election in
+1831. He was again elected in 1833, but in 1835 lost his seat a second
+time, being then a vigorous opponent of many distinctively Jacksonian
+measures. Discouraged and disgusted, he left his native state, and
+emigrated to Texas, then engaged in its struggle for independence. There
+he lost his life as one of the defenders of the Alamo at San Antonio on
+the 6th of March 1836.
+
+  A so-called "autobiography," which he very probably dictated or at
+  least authorized, was published in Philadelphia in 1834; a work
+  purporting to be a continuation of this autobiography and entitled
+  _Colonel Crockett's Exploits and Adventures in Texas_ (Philadelphia,
+  1836) is undoubtedly spurious. These two works were subsequently
+  combined in a single volume, of which there have been several
+  editions. Numerous popular biographies have been written, the best by
+  E. S. Ellis (Philadelphia, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD (1860-   ), Scottish novelist, was born at
+Duchrae, Galloway, on the 24th of September 1860, the son of a Galloway
+farmer. He was brought up on a Galloway farm, and graduated from
+Edinburgh University in 1879. After some years of travel he became in
+1886 minister of Penicuik, but eventually abandoned the Free Church
+ministry for novel-writing. The success of Mr J. M. Barrie had created a
+demand for stories in the Scottish dialect when Mr Crockett published
+his successful story of _The Stickit Minister_ in 1893. It was followed
+by a rapidly produced series of popular novels dealing often with the
+past history of Scotland, or with his native Galloway. Such are _The
+Raiders_, _The Lilac Sun-bonnet_ and _Mad Sir Uchtred_ in 1894; _The Men
+of the Moss Hags_ in 1895; _Cleg Kelly_ and _The Grey Man_ in 1896; _The
+Surprising Adventures of Sir Toady Lion_ (1897); _The Red Axe_ (1898);
+_Kit Kennedy_ (1899); _Joan of the Sword Hand_ and _Little Anna Mark_ in
+1900; _Flower o' the Corn_ (1902); _Red Cap Tales_ (1904), &c.
+
+
+
+
+CROCKFORD, WILLIAM (1775-1844), proprietor of Crockford's Club, was born
+in London in 1775, the son of a fishmonger, and for some time himself
+carried on that business. After winning a large sum of money--according
+to one story L100,000--either at cards or by running a gambling
+establishment, he built, in 1827, a luxurious gambling house at 50 St
+James's Street, which, to ensure exclusiveness, he organized as a club.
+Crockford's quickly became the rage; every English social celebrity and
+every distinguished foreigner visiting London hastened to become a
+member. Even the duke of Wellington joined, though, it is averred, only
+in order to be able to blackball his son, Lord Douro, should he seek
+election. Hazard was the favourite game, and very large sums changed
+hands. Crockford retired in 1840, when, in the expressive language of
+Captain R. H. Gronow, he had "won the whole of the ready money of the
+then existing generation." He took, indeed, about L1,200,000 out of the
+club, but subsequently lost most of it in unlucky speculations.
+Crockford died on the 24th of May 1844.
+
+  See John Timbs, _Club Life of London_ (London, 1866); Gronow,
+  _Celebrities of London and Paris_, 3rd series (London, 1865).
+
+
+
+
+CROCODILE, a name for certain reptiles, taken from ancient Gr. [Greek:
+kordylos], signifying lizard and newt; with reduplication [Greek:
+korkordylos], and by metathesis ultimately [Greek: krokodeilos].
+Herodotus makes mention of them, and tells us that the Egyptian name was
+_champsa_. The Arabic term is _ledschun_. The same root _kar_ leads
+through something like _kar-kar-ta_, _glakarta_ (_glazard_ in Breton),
+to _lacerta_ and to "lizard." Lacerta in turn has become, in Spanish,
+_lagarto_, which, with the article, _el lagarto_, is the origin of the
+term "alligator." This word is, however, artificial, although now widely
+used; Spanish and Portuguese-speaking people in America universally call
+the crocodile and the alligator simply _lagarto_, which is never
+intended for lizard.
+
+The Crocodilia form a separate order of reptiles with many
+peculiarities. The premaxillae are short and always enclose the
+nostrils. The posterior nares or choanae open far behind in the roof of
+the mouth, in recent forms within the pterygoids. The under jaws are
+hinged on to the quadrate bones, which extend obliquely backwards, and
+are immovably wedged in between the squamosal and the lateral occipital
+wings. The teeth form a complete series in the under jaw, and in the
+upper jaw on the premaxillary and maxillary bones. They are conical and
+deeply implanted in separate sockets. They are often shed throughout
+life, the successors lying on the inner side, and with their caps partly
+fitting into the wide open roots of the older teeth. Especially in
+alligators the upper teeth overlap laterally those of the lower jaw,
+whilst in most crocodiles the overlapping is less marked and the teeth
+mostly interlock, a feature which increases with the slenderness of the
+snout. In old specimens some of the longer, lower teeth work their tips
+into deep pits, and ultimately even perforate the corresponding parts of
+the upper jaw. The first and second vertebrae each have a pair of long,
+movable ribs. There is a compound abdominal sternum. The so-called pubic
+bones are large and movable. There are five fingers and four toes,
+provided with claws, excepting the outer digits.
+
+The tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under surface; its
+hinder margin is raised into a transverse fold, which, by meeting a
+similar fold from the palate, can shut off the mouth completely from the
+wide cavity of the throat. Dorsally the posterior nares open into this
+cavity. Consequently the beast can lie submerged in the water, with only
+the nostrils exposed, and with the mouth open, and breathe without water
+entering the windpipe. Within the glottis is a pair of membranous folds
+which serve as vocal cords; all the Crocodilia are possessed of a loud,
+bellowing voice.
+
+The stomach is globular, rather muscular, with a pair of tendinous
+centres like those of birds; its size is comparatively small, but the
+digestion is so rapid and powerful that every bone of the creature's
+prey is dissolved whilst still being stowed away in the wide and long
+gullet. The anal opening forms a longitudinal slit; within it, arising
+from its anterior corner, is the unpaired copulatory organ. The vascular
+system has attained the highest state of development of all reptiles.
+The heart is practically quadrilocular, the right and left halves being
+completely partitioned, except for a small communication, the _foramen
+Panizzae_, between the right and left aortae where these cross each
+other on leaving their respective ventricles. The outer ear lies in a
+recess which can be closed tightly by a dorsal flap of skin. The power
+of hearing is acute, and so is the sight, the eyes being protected by
+upper and lower lids and by a nictitating membrane. The skin of the
+whole body is scaly, with a hard, horny, waterproof covering of the
+epidermis, but between these mostly flat scales the skin is soft. The
+scutes or dermal portions of the scales are more or less ossified,
+especially on the back, and form the characteristic dermal armour. The
+skins or "hides" of commerce consist entirely of the tanned cutis
+minus, the epidermis and the horny coverings of the scutes. All the
+Crocodilia possess two pairs of musk-glands in the skin; one is situated
+on the inner side of the lower jaw. The opening of the glands is
+slit-like and leads into a pocket, which is filled with a smeary,
+strongly scented matter. The other pair lies just within the lips of the
+cloacal opening.
+
+Propagation takes place by eggs, which are oval, quite white, with a
+very hard and strong shell. Their size varies from 2 to 4 in. in length,
+according to the size of the species and the age of the female. She lays
+several dozen eggs in a carefully prepared nest. The Nile crocodile
+makes a hole in white sand, which is then filled up and smoothed over;
+the mother sleeps upon the nest, and keeps watch over her eggs, and when
+these are near hatching--after about twelve weeks--she removes the 18
+in. or 2 ft. of sand. Other species, especially the alligators, make a
+very large nest of leaves, twigs and humus, scraping together a mound
+about a yard high and two or more yards in diameter. The eggs, in
+several layers, are laid near the top. The adults frequently dig long
+subterranean passages into the banks of streams, and, during dry
+seasons, they have been found deep in the hardened mud, whence they
+emerge with the beginning of the rains. They spend most of their time in
+the water, but are also very fond of basking in the hot sun on the banks
+of rivers or in marshes, usually with the head turned towards the water,
+to which they take on the slightest alarm. They can walk perfectly well,
+and they do so deliberately with the whole body raised a little above
+the ground. When their pools dry up, or when in search of new
+hunting-grounds, they sometimes undertake long wanderings over land. But
+the water is their true element. They swim rapidly, propelled by the
+powerful tail and by the mostly webbed limbs, or they submerge
+themselves, with only the tip of the nose and the eyes showing, or
+sometimes also the back. They then look like floating logs; and thus
+they float or gently approach their prey, which consists of anything
+they can overpower. Many a large mammal coming to drink at its
+accustomed place is dragged into the water by the lurking monster.
+Certainly there are occasional man-eaters amongst them, and in some
+countries they are much feared. As a rule, however, they are so wary and
+suspicious that they are very difficult to approach, and their haunts
+are so well stocked with fish and other game that they make off and hide
+rather than attack a man swimming in their waters. But if a dog is sent
+in there will be a sudden yelp, the splash from a big tail, and a
+widening eddy.
+
+Crocodile stories, not all fabulous, are plentiful, and begin with one
+of the oldest writings in the world, the book of Job. "Canst thou draw
+leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest
+down?... Lay thine hand upon him, remember the battle, do no more." This
+is a very interesting passage, since it can apply only to a large-sized
+crocodile. Now nothing is known of the occurrence of such in Arabia, but
+a few specimens of rather small size seem still to exist in Syria, in
+the Wadi Zerka, an eastern tributary of the Jordan.
+
+Crocodiles are caught in various ways,--for instance, with two pointed
+sticks, which are fastened crosswise within the bait, an animal's
+entrails, to which is attached a rope. When the creature has swallowed
+the spiked bait it keeps its jaws so firmly closed that it can be
+dragged out of the water. A kind of plover, _Pluvianus aegyptius_, often
+sits upon basking crocodiles, and, since the latter often rest with
+gaping mouth, it is possible that these agile birds do pick the
+reptiles' teeth in search of parasites. Being a very watchful bird, its
+cry of warning, when it flies off on the approach of danger, is probably
+appreciated by the crocodile. But the story of the ichneumon or mongoose
+is a fable. Although an inveterate destroyer of eggs, this little
+creature prefers those of birds and the soft-shelled eggs of lizards to
+the very hard and strong-shelled eggs which are deeply buried in the
+crocodile's nest.
+
+  Considering the interest which is taken in crocodiles and their
+  allies, on account of their size, their dangerous nature and the
+  sporting trophies which they yield, the following "key," based upon
+  easily ascertained characters of the skull, is given.
+
+  I. Snout very long and slender. The mandibular symphysis extends
+  backwards at least to the fifteenth tooth.
+
+    (a) Nasal bones very small, and widely separated from the
+    premaxilla (which encloses the nostrils) by the maxillaries which
+    join each other for a long distance along the dorsal mid-line....
+    _Gavialis gangeticus_ of India, the "gharial" or fish-eater.
+
+    (b) Nasal bones long, so as to be in contact with the premaxilla at
+    the hinder corner of the nostril groove.... _Tomistoma schlegeli_ of
+    Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra.
+
+  II. Snout mostly triangular or rounded off. The mandibular symphysis
+  does not reach beyond the eighth tooth.
+
+    (a), The fourth mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw.
+    Crocodiles.
+
+      1. Without a bon nasal septum between the nostrils....
+      Crocodiles.
+
+      2. The nasal bones project through the nasal groove, forming a
+      bony septum. _Osteolaemus frontatus s. tetraspis_ of West rica.
+
+    (b) Fourth mandibular tooth fitting into a pit in the upper jaw.
+    Alligators.
+
+      1. Without a bony nasal septum.... _Caiman_, Central and South
+      America.
+
+      2. Nasal bones dividing the nasal groove.... _Alligator_, America
+      and China.
+
+The genus _Cracodilus_ contains seven species. _C. vulgaris_ or
+_niloticus_ of most of Africa, is found from the Senegal to Egypt and to
+Madagascar, reaching a length of 15 ft. It has eighteen or nineteen
+upper and fifteen lower teeth on each side. _C. palustris_, the "mugger"
+or "marsh crocodile" of India and Ceylon, extends westwards into
+Baluchistan, eastwards into the Malay islands. It has nineteen upper and
+lower teeth on either side. The scutes on the neck, six in number, are
+packed closely together, the four biggest forming a square. The length
+of 12 ft. is a fair size for a large specimen. _C. porosus_ or
+_biporcatus_ is easily recognised by the prominent longitudinal ridge
+which extends in front of each eye. Specimens of more than 20 ft. in
+length are not uncommon, and a monster of 33 ft. is on record. It is
+essentially an inhabitant of tidal waters and estuaries, and often goes
+out to sea; hence its wide distribution, from the whole coast of Bengal
+to southern China, to the northern coasts of Australia and even to the
+Fiji islands. Australians are in the habit of calling their crocodiles
+alligators. _C. cataphractus_ is the common crocodile of West Africa,
+easily recognised by the slender snout which resembles that of the
+gavial, but the mandibular symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth
+tooth. _C. johnstoni_ of northern Australia and Queensland is allied to
+the last species mentioned, with which it agrees by the slender snout.
+Lastly there are two species of true crocodiles in America, _C.
+intermedius_ of the Orinoco, allied to the former, and _C. americanus_
+or _acutus_ of the West Indies, Mexico, Central America to Venezuela and
+Ecuador; its characteristic feature is a median ridge or swelling on the
+snout, which is rather slender.
+
+The above list shows that the usual statement that crocodiles inhabit
+the Old World and alligators the New World is not strictly true. In the
+Tertiary epoch alligators, crocodiles and long-snouted gavials existed
+in Europe.     (H. F. G.)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 7, Slice 6, by Various
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