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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/32975-8.txt b/32975-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a5ea43 --- /dev/null +++ b/32975-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17469 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 1, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1 + "Calhoun" to "Camoens" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 25, 2010 [EBook #32975] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article CALIPH: "Mohallab was soon after deprived of the government + of Khorasan, Hajjaj accusing him of partiality towards the rebels + of Yemenite extraction." 'Hajjaj' amended from 'Majjaj'. + + Article CALIPH: "Moreover, Hajjaj, in order to maintain the regular + revenue from taxation, had been obliged to introduce stringent + regulations ..." 'maintain' amended from 'maintian'. + + Article CALIPH: "Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Hajjaj, was made + governor of Irak." 'Hajjaj' amended from 'Majjaj'. + + Article CALIPH: "Still, they could not believe that it was + according to the will of the caliph that they were thus treated, + until a certain number of their chiefs went as a deputation to + Hisham ..." 'were' amended from 'here'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME V, SLICE I + + Calhoun to Camoens + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL CALW + CALI CALYDON + CALIBRATION CALYPSO + CALICO CAM (CÃO), DIOGO + CALICUT CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO + CALIFORNIA CAMALDULIANS + CALIFORNIA, LOWER CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE + CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF CAMARGUE + CALIPASH and CALIPEE CAMARINA + CALIPH CAMBACÉRÈS, JEAN JACQUES RÉGIS DE + CALIPHATE CAMBALUC + CALIVER CAMBAY + CALIXTUS (popes) CAMBAY, GULF OF + CALIXTUS, GEORG CAMBER + CALL CAMBERT, ROBERT + CALLANDER CAMBERWELL + CALLAO CAMBIASI, LUCA + CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL CAMBODIA + CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH + CALLIAS CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL + CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS CAMBORNE + CALLIMACHUS (Athenian sculptor) CAMBRAI + CALLIMACHUS (Greek poet) CAMBRIA + CALLINUS CAMBRIAN SYSTEM + CALLIOPE CAMBRIC + CALLIRRHOE CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF + CALLISTHENES CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN + CALLISTO CAMBRIDGE (of England) + CALLISTRATUS (grammarian) CAMBRIDGE (Maryland, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (Athenian poet) CAMBRIDGE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (Greek sophist) CAMBRIDGE (Ohio, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (of Aphidnae) CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS + CALLOT, JACQUES CAMBRIDGESHIRE + CALLOVIAN CAMBUSLANG + CALM CAMBYSES + CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT + CALNE CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT + CALOMEL CAMDEN, WILLIAM + CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE CAMDEN (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + CALORESCENCE CAMDEN (South Carolina, U.S.A.) + CALORIMETRY CAMEL + CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT + CALPURNIUS, TITUS CAMELLIA + CALTAGIRONE CAMEO + CALTANISETTA CAMERA + CALTROP CAMERA LUCIDA + CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE CAMERA OBSCURA + CALUMET CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (classical scholar) + CALUMPIT CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (German botanist) + CALVADOS CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB + CALVART, DENIS CAMERINO + CALVARY CAMERON, JOHN + CALVÉ EMMA CAMERON, RICHARD + CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART CAMERON, SIMON + CALVERT (English artists) CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT + CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN + CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART CAMERONIANS + CALVES' HEAD CLUB CAMEROON + CALVI CAMILING + CALVIN, JOHN CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS + CALVINISTIC METHODISTS CAMILLUS and CAMILLA + CALVISIUS, SETHUS CAMISARDS + CALVO, CARLOS CAMOENS, LUIS VAZ DE + + + + +CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1850), American statesman and +parliamentarian, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in Abbeville +District, South Carolina, on the 18th of March 1782. His father, Patrick +Calhoun, is said to have been born in Donegal, in North Ireland, but to +have left Ireland when a mere child. The family seems to have emigrated +first to Pennsylvania, whence they removed, after Braddock's defeat, to +Western Virginia. From Virginia they removed in 1756 to South Carolina +and settled on Long Cane Creek, in Granville (now Abbeville) county. +Patrick Calhoun attained some prominence in the colony, serving in the +colonial legislature, and afterwards in the state legislature, and +taking part in the War of Independence. In 1770 he had married Martha +Caldwell, the daughter of another Scottish-Irish settler. + +The opportunities for obtaining a liberal education in the remote +districts of South Carolina at that time were scanty. Fortunately, young +Calhoun had the opportunity, although late, of studying under his +brother-in-law, the Rev. Moses Waddell (1770-1840), a Presbyterian +minister, who afterwards, from 1819 to 1829, was president of the +University of Georgia. In 1802 Calhoun entered the junior class in Yale +College, and graduated with distinction in 1804. He then studied first +at the famous law school in Litchfield, Conn., and afterwards in a law +office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was admitted to the bar. He +began practice in his native Abbeville District, and soon took a leading +place in his profession. In 1808 and 1809 he was a member of the South +Carolina legislature, and from 1811 to 1817 was a member of the national +House of Representatives. + +When he entered the latter body the strained relations between Great +Britain and the United States formed the most important question for the +deliberation of Congress. Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, being +eager for war and knowing Calhoun's hostility to Great Britain, gave him +the second place on the committee of foreign affairs, of which he soon +became the actual head. In less than three weeks the committee reported +resolutions, evidently written by Calhoun, recommending preparations for +a struggle with Great Britain; and in the following June Calhoun +submitted a second report urging a formal declaration of war. Both sets +of resolutions the House adopted. Clay and Calhoun did more, probably, +than any other two men in Congress to force the reluctant president into +beginning hostilities. + +In 1816 Calhoun delivered in favour of a protective tariff a speech that +was ever after held up by his opponents as evidence of his inconsistency +in the tariff controversy. The embargo and the war had crippled American +commerce, but had stimulated manufactures. With the end of the +Napoleonic wars in Europe the industries of the old world revived, and +Americans began to feel their competition. In the consequent distress in +the new industrial centres there arose a cry for protection. Calhoun, +believing that there was a natural tendency in the United States towards +the development of manufactures, supported the Tariff Bill of 1816, +which laid on certain foreign commodities duties higher than were +necessary for the purposes of revenue. He believed that the South would +share in the general industrial development, not having perceived as yet +that slavery was an insuperable obstacle. His opposition to protection +in later years resulted from an honest change of convictions. He always +denied that in supporting this bill he had been inconsistent, and +insisted that it was one for revenue. + +From 1817 to 1825 Calhoun was secretary of war under President Monroe. +To him is due the fostering and the reformation of the National Military +Academy at West Point, which he found in disorder, but left in a most +efficient state. Calhoun was vice-president of the United States from +1825 to 1832, during the administration of John Quincy Adams, and during +most of the first administration of Andrew Jackson. This period was for +Calhoun a time of reflection. His faith in a strong nationalistic policy +was gradually undermined, and he finally became the foremost champion of +particularism and the recognized leader of what is generally known as +the "States Rights" or "Strict Construction" party. + +In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties. In 1828 a +still higher tariff act, the so-called "Bill of Abominations," was +passed, avowedly for the purpose of protection. The passage of these +acts caused great discontent, especially among the Southern states, +which were strictly agricultural. They felt that the great burden of +this increased tariff fell on them, as they consumed, but did not +produce, manufactured articles. Under such conditions the Southern +states questioned the constitutionality of the imposition. Calhoun +himself now perceived that the North and the South represented diverse +tendencies. The North was outstripping the South in population and +wealth, and already by the tariff acts was, as he believed, selfishly +levying taxes for its sole benefit. The minority must, he insisted, be +protected from "the tyranny of the majority." In his first important +political essay, "The South Carolina Exposition," prepared by him in the +summer of 1828, he showed how this should be done. To him it was clear +that the Federal Constitution was a limited instrument, by which the +sovereign states had delegated to the Federal government certain general +powers. The states could not, without violating the constitutional +compact, interfere with the activities of the Federal government so long +as the government confined itself to its proper sphere; but the attempt +of Congress, or any other department of the Federal government, to +exercise any power which might alter the nature of the instrument would +be an act of usurpation. The right of judging such an infraction +belonged to the state, being an attribute of sovereignty of which the +state could not be deprived without being reduced to a wholly +subordinate condition. As a remedy for such a breach of compact the +state might resort to nullification (q.v.), or, as a last resort, to +secession from the Union. Such doctrines were not original with Calhoun, +but had been held in various parts of the Union from time to time. It +remained for him, however, to submit them to a rigid analysis and reduce +them to a logical form. + +Meantime the friendship between Calhoun and Jackson had come to an end. +While a member of President Monroe's cabinet, Calhoun had favoured the +reprimanding of General Jackson (q.v.) for his high-handed course in +Florida in 1818, during the first Seminole War. In 1831 W.H. Crawford, +who had been a member of this cabinet, desiring to ruin Calhoun +politically by turning Jackson's hostility against him, revealed to +Jackson what had taken place thirteen years before. Jackson could brook +no criticism from one whom he had considered a friend; Calhoun, +moreover, angered the president still further by his evident sanction of +the social proscription of Mrs Eaton (q.v.); the political views of the +two men, furthermore, were becoming more and more divergent, and the +rupture between the two became complete. + +The failure of the Jackson administration to reduce the Tariff of 1828 +drew from Calhoun his "Address to the People of South Carolina" in 1831, +in which he elaborated his views of the nature of the Union as given in +the "Exposition." In 1832 a new tariff act was passed, which removed the +"abominations" of 1828 but left the principle of protection intact. The +people of South Carolina were not satisfied, and Calhoun in a third +political tract, in the form of a letter to Governor James Hamilton +(1786-1857) of South Carolina, gave his doctrines their final form, but +without altering the fundamental principles that have already been +stated. + +In 1832 South Carolina, acting in substantial accordance with Calhoun's +theories, "nullified" the tariff acts passed by Congress in 1828 and +1832 (see NULLIFICATION; SOUTH CAROLINA; and UNITED STATES). On the 28th +of December 1832 Calhoun resigned as vice-president, and on the 4th of +January 1833 took his seat in the Senate. President Jackson had, in a +special message, taken strong ground against the action of South +Carolina, and a bill was introduced to extend the jurisdiction of the +courts of the United States and clothe the president with additional +powers, with the avowed object of meeting the situation in South +Carolina. Calhoun, in turn, introduced resolutions upholding the +doctrine held by South Carolina, and it was in the debate on the +first-named measure, termed the "Force Bill," and on these resolutions, +that the first intellectual duel took place between Daniel Webster and +Calhoun. Webster declared that the Federal government through the +Supreme Court was the ultimate expounder and interpreter of its own +powers, while Calhoun championed the rights of the individual state +under a written contract which reserved to each state its sovereignty. + +The practical result of the conflict over the tariff was a compromise. +Congress passed an act gradually reducing the duties to a revenue basis, +and South Carolina repealed her nullification measures. As the result of +the conflict, Calhoun was greatly strengthened in his position as the +leader of his party in the South. Southern leaders generally were now +beginning to perceive, as Calhoun had already seen, that there was a +permanent conflict between the North and the South, not only a +divergence of interests between manufacturing and agricultural sections, +but an inevitable struggle between free and slave labour. Should enough +free states be admitted into the Union to destroy the balance of power, +the North would naturally gain a preponderance in the Senate, as it had +in the House, and might, within constitutional limits, legislate as it +pleased. The Southern minority recognized, therefore, that they must +henceforth direct the policy of the government in all questions +affecting their peculiar interests, or their section would undergo a +social and economic revolution. The Constitution, if strictly +interpreted according to Calhoun's views, would secure this control to +the minority, and prevent an industrial upheaval. + +An element of bitterness was now injected into the struggle. The +Northern Abolitionists, to whom no contract or agreement was sacred that +involved the continuance of slavery, regarded the clauses in the Federal +Constitution which maintained the property rights of the slave-owners as +treaties with evil, binding on no one, and bitterly attacked the +slave-holders and the South generally. Their attacks may be said to have +destroyed the moderate party in that section. Any criticism of their +peculiar institution now came to be highly offensive to Southern +leaders, and Calhoun, who always took the most advanced stand in behalf +of Southern rights, urged (but in vain) that the Senate refuse to +receive abolitionist petitions. He also advocated the exclusion of +abolitionist literature from the mails. + +Indeed from 1832 until his death Calhoun may be said to have devoted his +life to the protection of Southern interests. He became the exponent, +the very embodiment, of an idea. It is a mistake, however, to +characterize him as an enemy to the Union. His contention was that its +preservation depended on the recognition of the rights guaranteed to the +states by the Constitution, and that aggression by one section could +only end in disruption. Secession, he contended, was the only final +remedy left to the weaker. Calhoun was re-elected to the Senate in 1834 +and in 1840, serving until 1843. From 1832 to 1837 he was a man without +a party. He attacked the "spoils system" inaugurated by President +Jackson, opposed the removal of the government deposits from the Bank of +the United States, and in general was a severe critic of Jackson's +administration. In this period he usually voted with the Whigs, but in +1837 he went over to the Democrats and supported the "independent +treasury" scheme of President Van Buren. He was spoken of for the +presidency in 1844, but declined to become a candidate, and was +appointed as secretary of state in the cabinet of President Tyler, +serving from the 1st of April 1844, throughout the remainder of the +term, until the 10th of March 1845. While holding this office he devoted +his energies chiefly to the acquisition of Texas, in order to preserve +the equilibrium between the South and the constantly growing North. One +of his last acts as secretary of state was to send a despatch, on the +3rd of March 1845, inviting Texas to accept the terms proposed by +Congress. Calhoun was once more elected to the Senate in 1845. The +period of his subsequent service covered the settlement of the Oregon +dispute with Great Britain and the Mexican War. On the 19th of February +1847 he introduced in the Senate a series of resolutions concerning the +territory about to be acquired from Mexico, which marked the most +advanced stand as yet taken by the pro-slavery party. The purport of +these resolutions was to deny to Congress the power to prohibit slavery +in the territories and to declare all previous enactments to this effect +unconstitutional. + +In 1850 the Union seemed in imminent danger of dissolution. California +was applying for admission to the Union as a state under a constitution +which did not permit slavery. Her admission with two Senators would have +placed the slave-holding states in the minority. In the midst of the +debate on this application Calhoun died, on the 31st of March 1850, in +Washington. + +Calhoun is most often compared with Webster and Clay. The three +constitute the trio upon whom the attention of students at this period +naturally rests. Calhoun possessed neither Webster's brilliant rhetoric +nor his easy versatility, but he surpassed him in the ordered method and +logical sequence of his mind. He never equalled Clay in the latter's +magnetism of impulse and inspiration of affection, but he far surpassed +him in clearness and directness and in tenacity of will. He surpassed +them both in the distinctness with which he saw results, and in the +boldness with which he formulated and followed his conclusions. + +Calhoun in person was tall and slender, and in his later years was +emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh, but with a +striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue. To his slaves +he was just and kind. He lived the modest, unassuming life of a country +planter when at his home, and at Washington lived as unostentatiously as +possible, consistent with his public duties and position. His character +in other respects was always of stainless integrity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collected edition of Calhoun's _Works_ (6 vols., New + York, 1853-1855) has been edited by Richard K. Crallé. The most + important speeches and papers are:--_The South Carolina Exposition_ + (1828); _Speech on the Force Bill_ (1833); _Reply to Webster_ (1833); + _Speech on the Reception of Abolitionist Petitions_ (1836), _and on + the Veto Power_ (1842); a _Disquisition on Government_, and a + _Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States_ + (1849-1850)--the last two, written a short time before his death, + defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a government + such as that of the United States. Calhoun's _Correspondence_, edited + by J. Franklin Jameson, has been published by the American Historical + Association (see _Report_ for 1899, vol. ii.). The biography of + Calhoun by Dr Hermann von Holst in the "American Statesmen Series" + (Boston, 1882) is a condensed study of the political questions of + Calhoun's time. Gustavus M. Pinckney's _Life of John C. Calhoun_ + (Charleston, 1903) gives a sympathetic Southern view. Gaillard Hunt's + _John C. Calhoun_ (Philadelphia, 1908) is a valuable work. + (H. A. M. S.) + + + + +CALI, an inland town of the department of Cauca, Colombia, South +America, about 180 m. S.W. of Bogotá and 50 m. S.E. of the port of +Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch of the Cauca. Pop. (1906 +estimate) 16,000. Cali stands 3327 ft. above sea-level on the western +side of the Cauca valley, one of the healthiest regions of Colombia. The +land-locked character of this region greatly restricts the city's trade +and development; but it is considered the most important town in the +department. It has a bridge across the Cali, and a number of religious +and public edifices. A railway from Buenaventura will give Cali and the +valley behind it, with which it is connected by over 200 m. of river +navigation, a good outlet on the Pacific coast. Coal deposits exist in +the immediate vicinity of the town. + + + + +CALIBRATION, a term primarily signifying the determination of the +"calibre" or bore of a gun. The word _calibre_ was introduced through +the French from the Italian _calibro_, together with other terms of +gunnery and warfare, about the 16th century. The origin of the Italian +equivalent appears to be uncertain. It will readily be understood that +the calibre of a gun requires accurate adjustment to the standard size, +and further, that the bore must be straight and of uniform diameter +throughout. The term was subsequently applied to the accurate +measurement and testing of the bore of any kind of tube, especially +those of thermometers. + +In modern scientific language, by a natural process of transition, the +term "calibration" has come to denote the accurate comparison of any +measuring instrument with a standard, and more particularly the +determination of the errors of its scale. It is seldom possible in the +process of manufacture to make an instrument so perfect that no error +can be discovered by the most delicate tests, and it would rarely be +worth while to attempt to do so even if it were possible. The cost of +manufacture would in many cases be greatly increased without adding +materially to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in +all cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correction of +errors, is to economize time and labour in production by taking pains in +the subsequent verification or calibration. This process of calibration +is particularly important in laboratory research, where the observer has +frequently to make his own apparatus, and cannot afford the time or +outlay required to make special tools for fine work, but is already +provided with apparatus and methods of accurate testing. For +non-scientific purposes it is generally possible to construct +instruments to measure with sufficient precision without further +correction. The present article will therefore be restricted to the +scientific use and application of methods of accurate testing. + +_General Methods and Principles._--The process of calibration of any +measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two parts, which +differ greatly in importance in different cases, and of which one or the +other may often be omitted. (1) The determination of the value of the +unit to which the measurements are referred by comparison with a +standard unit of the same kind. This is often described as the +_Standardization_ of the instrument, or the determination of the +_Reduction factor_. (2) The verification of the accuracy of the +subdivision of the scale of the instrument. This may be termed +calibration of the scale, and does not necessarily involve the +comparison of the instrument with any independent standard, but merely +the verification of the accuracy of the relative values of its +indications. In many cases the process of calibration adopted consists +in the comparison of the instrument to be tested with a standard over +the whole range of its indications, the relative values of the +subdivisions of the standard itself having been previously tested. In +this case the distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, +and the term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to +include both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part +only, but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall +restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning. + + The methods of standardization or calibration employed have much in + common even in the cases that appear most diverse. They are all + founded on the axiom that "things which are equal to the same thing + are equal to one another." Whether it is a question of comparing a + scale with a standard, or of testing the equality of two parts of the + same scale, the process is essentially one of interchanging or + substituting one for the other, the two things to be compared. In + addition to the things to be tested there is usually required some + form of balance, or comparator, or gauge, by which the equality may be + tested. The simplest of such comparators is the instrument known as + the _callipers_, from the same root as calibre, which is in constant + use in the workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions, or + uniformity of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated forms of + optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and screw + adjustments are essentially similar in principle, being finely + adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can be + successively fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison is + that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the gauge + or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most accurate + and most important methods of calibration. The common balance for + testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate and so easily tested + that the process of calibration may frequently with advantage be + reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the calibration + of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities of mercury + required to fill it to different marks. The balance may, however, be + regarded more broadly as the type of a general method capable of the + widest application in accurate testing. It is possible, for instance, + to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical resistances + against each other, or to measure the refractivity of a gas by + balancing it against a column of air adjusted to produce the same + retardation in a beam of light. These "equilibrium," or "null," or + "balance" methods of comparison afford the most accurate measurements, + and are generally selected if possible as the basis of any process of + calibration. In spite of the great diversity in the nature of things + to be compared, the fundamental principles of the methods employed are + so essentially similar that it is possible, for instance, to describe + the testing of a set of weights, or the calibration of an electrical + resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and to represent the + calibration correction of a mercury thermometer or of an ammeter by + precisely similar curves. + + _Method of Substitution._--In comparing two units of the same kind and + of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general method of + substitution is invariably adopted. The same method in a more + elaborate form is employed in the calibration of a series of multiples + or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method depend on the + system of subdivision adopted, which is to some extent a matter of + taste. The simplest method of subdivision is that on the binary scale, + proceeding by multiples of 2. With a pair of submultiples of the + smallest denomination and one of each of the rest, thus 1, 1, 2, 4, 8, + 16, &c., each weight or multiple is equal to the sum of all the + smaller weights, which may be substituted for it, and the small + difference, if any, observed. If we call the weights A, B, C, &c., + where each is approximately double the following weight, and if we + write a for observed excess of A over the rest of the weights, b for + that of B over C + D + &c., and so on, the observations by the method + of substitution give the series of equations, + + A - rest = a, B - rest = b, C - rest = c, &c. (1) + + Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second, and + so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of the + preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest, which + is most conveniently taken as the standard + + B = A/2 + (b - a)/2, C = B/2 + (c - b)2, &c. (2) + + The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in + addition to its extreme simplicity, are (1) that there is only one + possible combination to represent any given weight within the range of + the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights is required + to cover any given range; (3) that the smallest number of + substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These + advantages are important in cases where the accuracy of calibration is + limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in the + case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the case + when it is a question of accuracy of estimation by an observer. + + In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded by + familiarity with the decimal system is the most important + consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal system + for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens, hundreds, &c., + arranged in groups of four adjusted in the proportion of the numbers + 1, 2, 3, 4. The relative values of the weights in each group of four + can then be determined by substitution independently of the others, + and the total of each group of four, making ten times the unit of the + group, can be compared with the smallest weight in the group above. + This gives a sufficient number of equations to determine the errors of + all the weights by the method of substitution in a very simple manner. + A number of other equations can be obtained by combining the different + groups in other ways, and the whole system of equations may then be + solved by the method of least squares; but the equations so obtained + are not all of equal value, and it may be doubted whether any real + advantage is gained in many cases by the multiplication of + comparisons, since it is not possible in this manner to eliminate + constant errors or personal equation, which are generally aggravated + by prolonging the observations. A common arrangement of the weights in + each group on the decimal system is 5, 2, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1. These + do not admit of the independent calibration of each group by + substitution. The arrangement 5, 2, 1, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1, 1, permits + independent calibration, but involves a larger number of weights and + observations than the 1, 2, 3, 4, grouping. The arrangement of ten + equal weights in each group, which is adopted in "dial" + resistance-boxes, and in some forms of chemical balances where the + weights are mechanically applied by turning a handle, presents great + advantages in point of quickness of manipulation and ease of + numeration, but the complete calibration of such an arrangement is + tedious, and in the case of a resistance-box it is difficult to make + the necessary connexions. In all cases where the same total can be + made up in a variety of ways, it is necessary in accurate work to make + sure that the same weights are always used for a given combination, or + else to record the actual weights used on each occasion. In many + investigations where time enters as one of the factors, this is a + serious drawback, and it is better to avoid the more complicated + arrangements. The accurate adjustment of a set of weights is so simple + a matter that it is often possible to neglect the errors of a + well-made set, and no calibration is of any value without the most + scrupulous attention to details of manipulation, and particularly to + the correction for the air displaced in comparing weights of different + materials. Electrical resistances are much more difficult to adjust + owing to the change of resistance with temperature, and the + calibration of a resistance-box can seldom be neglected on account of + the changes of resistance which are liable to occur after adjustment + from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to remember that the + order of accuracy required, and the actual values of the smaller + resistances, depend to some extent on the method of connexion, and + that the box must be calibrated with due regard to the conditions + under which it is to be used. Otherwise the method of procedure is + much the same as in the case of a box of weights, but it is necessary + to pay more attention to the constancy and uniformity of the + temperature conditions of the observing-room. + + _Method of Equal Steps_.--In calibrating a continuous scale divided + into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale + divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees of + temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by a + method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the method + of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers or tubes of + small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution employing a + column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge for comparing the + capacities of different parts of the tube. A precisely similar method, + employing a pair of microscopes at a fixed distance apart as a + standard of length, is applicable to the calibration of a divided + scale. The interval to be calibrated is divided into a whole number of + equal steps or sections, the points of division at which the + corrections are to be determined are called _points of calibration._ + + _Calibration of a Mercury Thermometer_.--To facilitate description, we + will take the case of a fine-bore tube, such as that of a thermometer, + to be calibrated with a thread of mercury. The bore of such a tube + will generally vary considerably even in the best standard + instruments, the tubes of which have been specially drawn and + selected. The correction for inequality of bore may amount to a + quarter or half a degree, and is seldom less than a tenth. In ordinary + chemical thermometers it is usual to make allowance for variations of + bore in graduating the scale, but such instruments present + discontinuities of division, and cannot be used for accurate work, in + which a finely-divided scale of equal parts is essential. The + calibration of a mercury thermometer intended for work of precision is + best effected after it has been sealed. A thread of mercury of the + desired length is separated from the column. The exact adjustment of + the length of the thread requires a little manipulation. The + thermometer is inverted and tapped to make the mercury run down to the + top of the tube, thus collecting a trace of residual gas at the end of + the bulb. By quickly reversing the thermometer the bubble passes to + the neck of the bulb. If the instrument is again inverted and tapped, + the thread will probably break off at the neck of the bulb, which + should be previously cooled or warmed so as to obtain in this manner, + if possible, a thread of the desired length. If the thread so obtained + is too long or not accurate enough, it is removed to the other end of + the tube, and the bulb further warmed till the mercury reaches some + easily recognized division. At this point the broken thread is + rejoined to the mercury column from the bulb, and a microscopic bubble + of gas is condensed which generally suffices to determine the + subsequent breaking of the mercury column at the same point of the + tube. The bulb is then allowed to cool till the length of the thread + above the point of separation is equal to the desired length, when a + slight tap suffices to separate the thread. This method is difficult + to work with short threads owing to deficient inertia, especially if + the tube is very perfectly evacuated. A thread can always be separated + by local heating with a small flame, but this is dangerous to the + thermometer, it is difficult to adjust the thread exactly to the + required length, and the mercury does not run easily past a point of + the tube which has been locally heated in this manner. + + Having separated a thread of the required length, the thermometer is + mounted in a horizontal position on a suitable support, preferably + with a screw adjustment in the direction of its length. By tilting or + tapping the instrument the thread is brought into position + corresponding to the steps of the calibration successively, and its + length in each position is carefully observed with a pair of reading + microscopes fixed at a suitable distance apart. Assuming that the + temperature remains constant, the variations of length of the thread + are inversely as the variations of cross-section of the tube. If the + length of the thread is very nearly equal to one step, and if the tube + is nearly uniform, the average of the observed lengths of the thread, + taking all the steps throughout the interval, is equal to the length + which the thread should have occupied in each position had the bore + been uniform throughout and all the divisions equal. The error of each + step is therefore found by subtracting the average length from the + observed length in each position. Assuming that the ends of the + interval itself are correct, the correction to be applied at any point + of calibration to reduce the readings to a uniform tube and scale, is + found by taking the sum of the errors of the steps up to the point + considered with the sign reversed. + + + Table I.--_Calibration by Method of Gay Lussac_. + + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | No. of | | | | | | | | | | | + | Step. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Ends of |+.010|-.016|-.020|-.031|+.016|+.008|+.013|+.017|+.004|-.088| + | thread. |+.038|+.017|-.003|-.022|+.010|+.005|+.033|+.018|+.013|-.003| + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Excess- |-.028|-.033|-.017|-.009|+.006|-.003|-.020|-.001|-.004|+.005| + | Length | | | | | | | | | | | + | Error of |-17.6|-22.6|- 6.6|+ 1.4|+16.4|+ 7.4|- 9.6|+ 9.4|+ 6.4|+15.4| + | step. | | | | | | | | | | | + | Correc- |+17.6|+40.2|+46.8|+45.4|+29.0|+21.6|+31.2|+21.8|+15.4| 0 | + | tion. | | | | | | | | | | | + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + In the preceding example of the method an interval of ten degrees is + taken, divided into ten steps of 1° each. The distances of the ends of + the thread from the nearest degree divisions are estimated by the aid + of micrometers to the thousandth of a degree. The error of any one of + these readings probably does not exceed half a thousandth, but they + are given to the nearest thousandth only. The excess length of the + thread in each position over the corresponding degree is obtained by + subtracting the second reading from the first. Taking the average of + the numbers in this line, the mean excess-length is -10.4 thousandths. + The error of each step is found by subtracting this mean from each of + the numbers in the previous line. Finally, the corrections at each + degree are obtained by adding up the errors of the steps and changing + the sign. The errors and corrections are given in thousandths of 1°. + + _Complete Calibration._--The simple method of Gay Lussac does very + well for short intervals when the number of steps is not excessive, + but it would not be satisfactory for a large range owing to the + accumulation of small errors of estimation, and the variation of the + personal equation. The observer might, for instance, consistently + over-estimate the length of the thread in one half of the tube, and + under-estimate it in the other. The errors near the middle of the + range would probably be large. It is evident that the correction at + the middle point of the interval could be much more accurately + determined by using a thread equal to half the length of the interval. + To minimize the effect of these errors of estimation, it is usual to + employ threads of different lengths in calibrating the same interval, + and to divide up the fundamental interval of the thermometer into a + number of subsidiary sections for the purpose of calibration, each of + these sections being treated as a step in the calibration of the + fundamental interval. The most symmetrical method of calibrating a + section, called by C.E. Guillaume a "Complete Calibration," is to use + threads of all possible lengths which are integral multiples of the + calibration step. In the example already given nine different threads + were used, and the length of each was observed in as many positions as + possible. Proceeding in this manner the following numbers were + obtained for the excess-length of each thread in thousandths of a + degree in different positions, starting in each case with the + beginning of the thread at 0°, and moving it on by steps of 1°. The + observations in the first column are the excess-lengths of the thread + of 1° already given in illustration of the method of Gay Lussac. The + other columns give the corresponding observations with the longer + threads. The simplest and most symmetrical method of solving these + observations, so as to find the errors of each step in terms of the + whole interval, is to obtain the differences of the steps in pairs by + subtracting each observation from the one above it. This method + eliminates the unknown lengths of the threads, and gives each + observation approximately its due weight. Subtracting the observations + in the second line from those in the first, we obtain a series of + numbers, entered in column 1 of the next table, representing the + excess of step (1) over each of the other steps. The sum of these + differences is ten times the error of the first step, since by + hypothesis the sum of the errors of all the steps is zero in terms of + the whole interval. The numbers in the second column of Table III. are + similarly obtained by subtracting the third line from the second in + Table II., each difference being inserted in its appropriate place in + the table. Proceeding in this way we find the excess of each interval + over those which follow it. The table is completed by a diagonal row + of zeros representing the difference of each step from itself, and by + repeating the numbers already found in symmetrical positions with + their signs changed, since the excess of any step, say 6 over 3, is + evidently equal to that of 3 over 6 with the sign changed. The errors + of each step having been found by adding the columns, and dividing by + 10, the corrections at each point of the calibration are deduced as + before. + + + TABLE II.--_Complete Calibration of Interval of 10° in 10 Steps._ + + +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Lengths of Threads. | 1° | 2° | 3° | 4° | 5° | 6° | 7° | 8° | 9° | + +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + |Observed excess-lengths 0° | -28 | -32 | -47 | -62 | -11 | -15 | -48 | - 2 | - 8 | + | of threads, in various 1° | -33 | -21 | -47 | -28 | +14 | - 8 | -22 | +21 | +24 | + | positions, the 2° | -17 | + 2 | - 8 | + 1 | +26 | +23 | + 6 | +58 | | + | beginning of the 3° | - 9 | +26 | + 5 | - 3 | +41 | +36 | +28 | | | + | thread being set 4° | + 6 | +31 | - 7 | + 4 | +45 | +49 | | | | + | near the points. 5° | - 3 | + 5 | -15 | - 6 | +43 | | | | | + | 6° | -20 | + 7 | -16 | + 2 | | | | | | + | 7° | - 1 | +23 | +10 | | | | | | | + | 8° | - 4 | +29 | | | | | | | | + | 9° | + 5 | | | | | | | | | + +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + + TABLE III.--_Solution of Complete Calibration._ + + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Step No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 1 | 0 | - 5 | +11 | +20 | +34 | +25 | + 7 | +26 | +23 | +32 | + | 2 | + 5 | 0 | +16 | +23 | +39 | +29 | +12 | +31 | +28 | +37 | + | 3 | -11 | -16 | 0 | + 8 | +24 | +13 | - 4 | +15 | +13 | +22 | + | 4 | -20 | -23 | - 8 | 0 | +15 | + 5 | -12 | + 7 | + 4 | +13 | + | 5 | -34 | -39 | -24 | -15 | 0 | - 9 | -26 | - 8 | -10 | - 2 | + | 6 | -25 | -29 | -13 | - 5 | + 9 | 0 | -17 | + 2 | - 1 | + 8 | + | 7 | - 7 | -12 | + 4 | +12 | +26 | +17 | 0 | +19 | +16 | +26 | + | 8 | -26 | -31 | -15 | - 7 | + 8 | - 2 | -19 | 0 | - 3 | + 6 | + | 9 | -23 | -28 | -13 | - 4 | +10 | + 1 | -16 | + 3 | 0 | + 9 | + | 10 | -32 | -37 | -22 | -13 | + 2 | - 8 | -26 | - 6 | - 9 | 0 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Error of | | | | | | | | | | | + | step. | -17.3| -22.0| - 6.4| + 1.9| +16.7| + 7.1| -10.1| + 8.9| + 6.1| +15.1| + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Corrections.| +17.3| +39.3| +45.7| +43.8| +27.1| +20.0| +30.1| +21.2| +15.1| 0| + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + The advantages of this method are the simplicity and symmetry of the + work of reduction, and the accuracy of the result, which exceeds that + of the Gay Lussac method in consequence of the much larger number of + independent observations. It may be noticed, for instance, that the + correction at point 5 is 27.1 thousandths by the complete calibration, + which is 2 thousandths less than the value 29 obtained by the Gay + Lussac method, but agrees well with the value 27 thousandths obtained + by taking only the first and last observations with the thread of 5°. + The disadvantage of the method lies in the great number of + observations required, and in the labour of adjusting so many + different threads to suitable lengths. It is probable that + sufficiently good results may be obtained with much less trouble by + using fewer threads, especially if more care is taken in the + micrometric determination of their errors. + + The method adopted for dividing up the fundamental interval of any + thermometer into sections and steps for calibration may be widely + varied, and is necessarily modified in cases where auxiliary bulbs or + "ampoules" are employed. The Paris mercury-standards, which read + continuously from 0° to 100° C., without intermediate ampoules, were + calibrated by Chappuis in five sections of 20° each, to determine the + corrections at the points 20°, 40°, 60°, 80°, which may be called the + "principal points" of the calibration, in terms of the fundamental + interval. Each section of 20° was subsequently calibrated in steps of + 2°, the corrections being at first referred, as in the example already + given, to the mean degree of the section itself, and being afterwards + expressed, by a simple transformation, in terms of the fundamental + interval, by means of the corrections already found for the ends of + the section. Supposing, for instance, that the corrections at the + points 0° and 10° of Table III. are not zero, but C° and C' + respectively, the correction C_n at any intermediate point n will + evidently be given by the formula, + + C_n = C° + c_n + (C' - C°)n/10 (3) + + where c_n is the correction already given in the table. + + If the corrections are required to the thousandth of a degree, it is + necessary to tabulate the results of the calibration at much more + frequent intervals than 2°, since the correction, even of a good + thermometer, may change by as much as 20 or 30 thousandths in 2°. To + save the labour and difficulty of calibrating with shorter threads, + the corrections at intermediate points are usually calculated by a + formula of interpolation. This leaves much to be desired, as the + section of a tube often changes very suddenly and capriciously. It is + probable that the graphic method gives equally good results with less + labour. + + _Slide-Wire._--The calibration of an electrical slide-wire into parts + of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that of a capillary tube + into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster method, employing short + steps of equal resistance, effected by transferring a suitable small + resistance from one side of the slide-wire to the other, is exactly + analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers from the same defect + of the accumulation of small errors unless steps of several different + lengths are used. The calibration of a slide-wire, however, is much + less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube for several reasons. + It is easy to obtain a wire uniform to one part in 500 or even less, + and the section is not liable to capricious variations. In all work of + precision the slide-wire is supplemented by auxiliary resistances by + which the scale may be indefinitely extended. In accurate electrical + thermometry, for example, the slide-wire itself would correspond to + only 1°, or less, of the whole scale, which is less than a single step + in the calibration of a mercury thermometer, so that an accuracy of a + thousandth of a degree can generally be obtained without any + calibration of the slide-wire. In the rare cases in which it is + necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as the cylinder + potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best effected by + comparison with a standard, such as a Thomson-Varley slide-box. + +_Graphic Representation of Results._--The results of a calibration are +often best represented by means of a correction curve, such as that +illustrated in the diagram, which is plotted to represent the +corrections found in Table III. The abscissa of such a curve is the +reading of the instrument to be corrected. The ordinate is the +correction to be added to the observed reading to reduce to a uniform +scale. The corrections are plotted in the figure in terms of the whole +section, taking the correction to be zero at the beginning and end. As a +matter of fact the corrections at these points in terms of the +fundamental interval were found to be -29 and -9 thousandths +respectively. The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in +terms of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the +points +29 and +9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates from this +line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may be replotted with +the new ordinates thus obtained. In drawing the curve from the +corrections obtained at the points of calibration, the exact form of the +curve is to some extent a matter of taste, but the curve should +generally be drawn as smoothly as possible on the assumption that the +changes are gradual and continuous. + +The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the +corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to the +first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under the term +"Standardization." It effects the reduction of the readings to a common +standard, and may be neglected if relative values only are required. A +precisely analogous correction occurs in the case of electrical +instruments. A potentiometer, for instance, if correctly graduated or +calibrated in parts of equal resistance, will give correct relative +values of any differences of potential within its range if connected to +a constant cell to supply the steady current through the slide-wire. But +to determine at any time the actual value of its readings in volts, it +is necessary to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or +reduction-factor, by comparison with a standard cell. + +[Illustration: CALIBRATION CURVE.] + + A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by Professor + W.A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of dividing machines + or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as applied by + Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect in point of + uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced by the + method of mounting. In the production of divided scales, and more + particularly in the case of optical gratings, it is most important + that the errors should be as small as possible, and should be + automatically corrected during the process of ruling. With this object + a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the uncorrected + screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal template may + then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correction curve on a + suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut which feeds the + carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour of the + template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each point of the + travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the screw. A small + periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each revolution, + may be similarly corrected by means of a suitable cam or eccentric + revolving with the screw and actuating the template. This kind of + error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to determine + and correct. + +_Calibration by Comparison with a Standard._--The commonest and most +generally useful process of calibration is the direct comparison of the +instrument with a standard over the whole range of its scale. It is +necessary that the standard itself should have been already calibrated, +or else that the law of its indications should be known. A continuous +current ammeter, for instance, can be calibrated, so far as the relative +values of its readings are concerned, by comparison with a tangent +galvanometer, since it is known that the current in this instrument is +proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an +alternating current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an +electrodynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the +current. But in either case it is neccessary, in order to obtain the +readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some particular +value of the current by comparison with a voltameter, or in some +equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters and voltmeters are +calibrated by comparison of their readings with those of a +potentiometer, the calibration of which can be reduced to the comparison +and adjustment of resistances, which is the most accurate of electrical +measurements. The commoner kinds of mercury thermometers are generally +calibrated and graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases +this is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A mercury +thermometer of limited scale reading between 250° and 400° C., with gas +under high pressure to prevent the separation of the mercury column, +cannot be calibrated on itself, or by comparison with a mercury standard +possessing a fundamental interval, on account of difficulties of stem +exposure and scale. The only practical method is to compare its readings +every few degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under the +conditions for which it is to be used. This method has the advantage of +combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, &c., with the +calibration correction in a single curve, except the correction for +variation of zero which must be tested occasionally at some point of the +scale. + + AUTHORITIES.--Mercurial Thermometers: Guillaume, _Thermométrie de + Précision_ (Paris, 1889), gives several examples and references to + original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and testing of + standards are generally to be found in publications of Standards + Offices, such as those of the Bureau International des Poids et + Mésures at Paris. Dial Resistance-Box: Griffiths, _Phil. Trans._ A, + 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box: J.A. Harker and P. Chappuis, _Phil. + Trans._ A, 1900; Thomson-Varley Potentiometer and Binary Scale Box: + Callendar and Barnes, _Phil. Trans._ A, 1901. (H. L. C.) + + + + +CALICO, a general name given to plain cotton cloth. The word was spelt +in various forms, including "calicut," which shows its derivation from +the Indian city of Calicut or Kolikod, a seaport in the presidency of +Madras, and one of the chief ports of intercourse with Europe in the +16th century, where cotton cloths were made. The name seems to have been +applied to all kinds of cotton cloths imported from the East. In England +it is now applied particularly to grey or bleached cotton cloth used for +domestic purposes, and, generally, to any fairly heavy cotton cloth +without a pattern. In the United States there is a special application +to printed cloth "of a coarser quality than muslin." In England "printed +calico" is a comprehensive term. + + + + +CALICUT, a city of British India, in the Malabar district of Madras; on +the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypur. In 1901 the population was 76,981, showing +an increase of 14% in the decade. The weaving of cotton, for which the +place was at one time so famous that its name became identified with its +_calico_, is no longer of any importance. Calicut is of considerable +antiquity; and about the 7th century it had its population largely +increased by the immigration of the Moplahs, a fanatical race of +Mahommedans from Arabia, who entered enthusiastically into commercial +life. The Portuguese traveller Pero de Covilham (q.v.) visited Calicut +in 1487 and described its possibilities for European trade; and in May +1498 Vasco da Gama, the first European navigator to reach India, arrived +at Calicut. At that time it was a very flourishing city, and contained +several stately buildings, among which was especially mentioned a +Brahminical temple, not inferior to the largest monastery in Portugal. +Vasco da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he met with persistent +hostility from the local chief (_zamorin_), and a similar attempt made +by Cabral two years later ended in the destruction of the factory by the +Moplahs. In revenge the Portuguese bombarded the town, but no further +attempt was made for some years to establish a trading settlement there. +In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an unsuccessful attack on +the city; and in the following year it was again assailed by Albuquerque +with 3000 troops. On this occasion the palace was plundered and the town +burnt; but the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships +after heavy loss. In the following year they concluded a peace with the +zamorin and were allowed to build a fortified factory on the north bank +of the Kallayi river, which was however again, and finally, abandoned in +1525. In 1615 the town was visited by an English expedition under +Captain Keeling, who concluded a treaty with the zamorin; but it was not +until 1664 that an English trading settlement was established by the +East India Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was +founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali, who expelled +all the merchants and factors, and destroyed the cocoa-nut trees, +sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country reduced to ruin might +present no temptation to the cupidity of Europeans. In 1782 the troops +of Hyder were driven from Calicut by the British; but in 1788 it was +taken and destroyed by his son Tippoo, who carried off the inhabitants +to Beypur and treated them with great cruelty. In the latter part of +1790 the country was occupied by the British; and under the treaty +concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his dominions, +Calicut fell to the British. After this event the inhabitants returned +and rebuilt the town, which in 1800 consisted of 5000 houses. + +As the administrative headquarters of the district, Calicut maintains +its historical importance. It is served by the Madras railway, and is +the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, and the principal exports are +coffee, timber and coco-nut products. There are factories for +coffee-cleaning, employing several hundred hands; for coir-pressing and +timber-cutting. The town has a cotton-mill, a saw-mill, and tile, coffee +and oil works. A detachment of European troops is generally stationed +here to overawe the fanatical Moplahs. + + + + +CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific Coast states of the United States of +America, physically one of the most remarkable, economically one of the +more independent, and in history and social life one of the most +interesting of the Union. It is bounded N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and +Arizona, from which last it is separated by the Colorado river, and S. +by the Mexican province of Lower California. The length of its medial +line N. and S. is about 780 m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350 m., +and its total area is 158,207 sq. m., of which 2205 are water surface. +In size it ranks second among the states of the Union. The coast is bold +and rugged and with very few good harbours; San Diego and San Francisco +bays being exceptions. The coast line is more than 1000 m. long. There +are eight coast islands, all of inconsiderable size, and none of them as +yet in any way important. + +_Physiography._--The physiography of the state is simple; its main +features are few and bold: a mountain fringe along the ocean, another +mountain system along the east border, between them--closed in at both +ends by their junction--a splendid valley of imperial extent, and +outside all this a great area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to +the Great Basin and partly to the Open Basin region. + +Along the Pacific, and some 20-40 m. in width, runs the mass of the +Coast Range, made up of numerous indistinct chains--most of which have +localized individual names--that are broken down into innumerable ridges +and spurs, and small valleys drained by short streams of rapid fall. The +range is cut by numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of +recent activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause +the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of which seem +to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast Range vary from about 2000 to +8000 ft.; in the neighbourhood of San Francisco Bay the culminating +peaks are about 4000 ft. in height (Mount Diablo, 3856 ft.; Mount St +Helena, 4343 ft.), and to the north and south the elevation of the +ranges increases. In the east part of the state is the magnificent +Sierra Nevada, a great block of the earth's crust, faulted along its +eastern side and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west +and a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system of +the United States. The Sierra proper, from Lassen's Peak to Tehachapi +Pass in Kern county, is about 430 m. long (from Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou +county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside county, more than 600 m.). It +narrows to the north and the altitude declines in the same direction. +Far higher and grander than the Coast Range, the Sierra is much less +complicated, being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of +structure. It is only here and there that a double line of principal +summits exists. The slope is everywhere long and gradual on the west, +averaging about 200 ft. to the mile. Precipitous gorges or canyons often +from 2000 to 5000 ft. in depth become a more and more marked feature of +the range as one proceeds northward; over great portions of it they +average probably not more than 20 m. apart. Where the volcanic +formations were spread uniformly over the flanks of the mountains, the +contrast between the canyons and the plain-like region of gentle slope +in which they have been excavated is especially marked and +characteristic. The eastern slope is very precipitous, due to a great +fault which drops the rocks of the Great Basin region abruptly downward +several thousand feet. Rare passes cross the chain, opening at the foot +of the mountains on the east and the west high on their flanks, +7000-10,000 ft. above the sea. Between 36° 20' and 38° the lowest gap +of any kind is above 9000 ft., and the average height of those actually +used is probably not less than 11,000 ft. The Kearsarge, most used of +all, is still higher. Very few in the entire Sierra are passable by +vehicles. Some forty peaks are catalogued between 5000 and 8000 ft., and +there are eleven above 14,000. The highest portion of the system is +between the parallels of 36° 30' and 37° 30'; here the passes are about +12,000 ft. in elevation, and the peaks range from 13,000 ft. upward, +Mount Whitney, 14,502 ft., being the highest summit of the United +States, excluding Alaska. From this peak northward there is a gradual +decline, until at the point where the Central Pacific crosses in lat. +39° 20' the elevation is only 7000 ft. + +Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of the highest +Sierra opposite Owen's Lake, where there is a drop eastward into the +valley of about 10,000 ft. in 10 m.; the snowy volcanic cone of Mt +Shasta, rising 10,000 ft. above the adjacent plains; and the lovely +valleys of the Coast Range, and the south fork of the King river--all +these have their charms; but most beautiful of all is the unique scenery +of the Yosemite Valley (q.v.). Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the +mountains is due to the erosive action of many alpine glaciers that once +existed on the higher summits, and which have left behind their +evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with towering walls, polished +rock-expanses, glacial lakes and meadows and tumbling waterfalls. +Remnants of these glaciers are still to be seen,--as notably on Mt. +Shasta,--though shrunk to small dimensions. Glacial action may be +studied well as far south as 36°. The canyons are largely the work of +rivers, modified by glaciers that ran through them after the rivers had +formed them. All of the Sierra lakes and ponds are of glacial origin and +there are some thousands of them. The lower lake line is about 8000 ft.; +it is lower to the north than to the south, owing to the different +climate, and the different period of glacial retrogression. Of these +lakes some are fresh, and some--as those of the north-east +counties--alkali. The finest of all is Tahoe, 6225 ft. above the sea, +lying between the true Sierras and the Basin Ranges, with peaks on +several sides rising 4000-5000 ft. above it. It is 1500 ft. deep and its +waters are of extraordinary purity (containing only three grains of +solid matter to the gallon). Clear Lake, in the Coast Range, is another +beautiful sheet of water. It is estimated by John Muir that on an +average "perhaps more than a mile" of degradation took place in the last +glacial period; but with regard to the whole subject of glacial action +in California as in other fields, there is considerable difference of +opinion. The same authority counted 65 small residual glaciers between +36° 30' and 39°; two-thirds of them lie between 37° and 38°, on some of +the highest peaks in the district of the San Joaquin, Merced, Tuolumne +and Owen's rivers. They do not descend, on an average, below 11,000 ft.; +the largest of all, on Mt. Shasta, descends to 9500 ft. above the sea. + +Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, especially in the +northern half of the range, whereas the evidences of glacial action are +most perfect (though not most abundant) in the south. Lava covers most +of the northern half of the range, and there are many craters and +ash-cones, some recent and of perfect form. Of these the most remarkable +is Mt. Shasta. In Owen's Valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant +volcanoes. + +Among the other indications of great geological disturbances on the +Pacific Coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes to which California +like the rest of the coast is liable. From 1850 to 1887 almost 800 were +catalogued by Professor E.H. Holden for California, Oregon and +Washington. They occur in all seasons, scores of slight tremors being +recorded every year by the Weather Bureau; but they are of no +importance, and even of these the number affecting any particular +locality is small. From 1769 to 1887 there were 10 "destructive" and 24 +other "extremely severe" shocks according to the Rossi Forel +nomenclatural scale of intensity. In 1812 great destruction was wrought +by an earthquake that affected all the southern part of the state; in +1865 the region about San Francisco was violently disturbed; in 1872 the +whole Sierra and the state of Nevada were violently shaken; and in 1906 +San Francisco (q.v.) was in large part destroyed by a shock that caused +great damage elsewhere in the state. + +North of 40° N. lat. the Coast Range and Sierra systems unite, forming a +country extremely rough. The eastern half of this area is covered +chiefly with volcanic plains, very dry and barren, lying between +precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges; the western half is +magnificently timbered, and toward the coast excessively wet. Between +35° and 36° N. lat. the Sierra at its southern end turns westward toward +the coast as the Tehachapi Range. The valley is thus closed to the north +and south, and is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is broken down in +but a single place, the gap behind the Golden Gate at San Francisco. +Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The length of +the valley is about 450 m., its breadth averages about 40 m. if the +lower foothills be included, so that the entire area is about 18,000 sq. +m. The drainage basin measured from the water-partings of the enclosing +mountains is some three times as great. From the mouth of the Sacramento +to Redding, at the northern head of the valley, the rise is 552 ft. in +192 m., and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to Kern lake it +is 282 ft. in 260 m. + +Two great rivers drain this central basin,--the San Joaquin, whose +valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire basin, and the +Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder. The San Joaquin is a +very crooked stream flowing through a low mud-plain, with tule banks; +the Sacramento is much less meandering, and its immediate basin, which +is of sandy loam, is higher and more attractive than that of the San +Joaquin. The eastward flanks of the Coast Range are very scantily +forested, and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach +either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season. On the +eastern side of both rivers are various important tributaries, fed by +the more abundant rains and melting snows of the western flank of the +Sierra; but these streams also shrink greatly in the dry season. The +Feather, emptying into the Sacramento river about 20 m. N. of the city +of Sacramento, is the most important tributary of the Sacramento river. +A striking feature of the Sacramento system is that for 200 m. north of +the Feather it does not receive a single tributary of any importance, +though walled in by high mountains. Another peculiar and very general +feature of the drainage system of the state is the presence of numerous +so-called river "sinks," where the waters disappear, either directly by +evaporation or (as in Death Valley) after flowing for a time beneath the +surface. These "sinks" are therefore not the true sinks of limestone +regions. The popular name is applied to Owen's lake, at the end of +Owen's river; to Mono lake, into which flow various streams rising in +the Sierra between Mount Dana and Castle Peak; and to Death Valley, +which contains the "sink" of the Amargosa river, and evidently was once +an extensive lake, although now only a mud-flat in ordinary winters, and +a dry, alkaline, desert plain in summer. All these lakes, and the other +mountain lakes before referred to, show by the terraces about them that +the water stood during the glacial period much higher than it does now. +Tulare lake, which with Buena Vista lake and Kern lake receives the +drainage of the southern Sierra, shows extreme local variations of +shore-line, and is generally believed to have shrunk extremely since +1850, though of this no adequate proof yet exists. In 1900 it was about +200 sq. m. in area. In wet seasons it overflows its banks and becomes +greatly extended in area, discharging its surplus waters into the San +Joaquin; but in dry seasons the evaporation is so great that there is no +such discharge. The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou and Modoc counties has +no outlet to the sea and is collected in a number of great alkaline +lakes. + +Finally along the sea below Pt. Conception are fertile coastal plains of +considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts by various +mountain ranges from 5000 to 7000 ft. high, and with peaks much higher +(San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto, 10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). +Unlike the northern Sierra, the ranges of Southern California are broken +down in a number of places. It is over these passes--Soledad, 2822 ft., +Cajon, San Gorgonio, 2560 ft.--that the railways cross to the coast. +That part of California which lies to the south and east of the southern +inosculation of the Coast Range and the Sierra comprises an area of +fully 50,000 sq. m., and belongs to the Basin Range region. For the most +part it is excessively dry and barren. The Mohave desert--embracing +Kern, Los Angeles and San Bernardino, as also a large part of San Diego, +Imperial and Riverside counties--belong to the "Great Basin," while a +narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the "Open Basin Region." +They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for slight areas through +the Colorado river. The Mohave desert is about 2000 ft. above the sea in +general altitude. The southern part of the Great Basin region is vaguely +designated the Colorado desert. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside +counties a number of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are +normally dry, flow centrally toward the desert of Salton Sink or "Sea"; +this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the +level of the sea,--at Salton 263 ft., and 287 ft. at the lowest point. +In 1900 the Colorado river (q.v.) was tapped south of the Mexican +boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial Valley +along the Southern Pacific railway, adjoining Salton Sea. The river +enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than that to its +mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding Salton Sea;[1] +and when the break in this river was closed for the second time in +February 1907, though much of its water still escaped through minor +channels and by seepage, a lake more than 400 sq. m. in area was left. A +permanent 60 ft. masonry dam was completed in July 1907. The region to +the east of the Sierra, likewise in the Great Basin province, between +the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very mountainous. +Owen's river runs through it from north to south for some 180 m. Near +Owen's lake the scenery is extremely grand. The valley here is very +narrow, and on either side the mountains rise from 7000 to 10,000 ft. +above the lake and river. The Inyo range, on the east, is quite bare of +timber, and its summits are only occasionally whitened with snow for a +few days during the winter, as almost all precipitation is cut off by +the higher ranges to the westward. Still further to the east some 40 m. +from the lake is Death Valley (including Lost or Mesquite Valley)--the +name a reminder of the fate of a party of "forty-niners" who perished +here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death Valley, some 50 m. +long and on an average 20-25 m. broad from the crests of the inclosing +mountain ranges (or 5-10 m. at their base), constitutes an independent +drainage basin. It is below sea level (about 276 ft. according to recent +surveys), and altogether is one of the most remarkable physical features +of California. The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant +with varied colours. The Amargosa river, entering the valley from +Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities of borax, +already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known to be present in +the surrounding country, the former as almost pure borate of lime in +Tertiary lake sediments. + +The physiography of the state is the evident determinant of its climate, +fauna and flora. California has the highest land and the lowest land of +the United States, the greatest variety of temperature and rainfall, and +of products of the soil. + +[Illustration: Map of CALIFORNIA and NEVADA] + +_Climate._--The climate is very different from that of the Atlantic +coast; and indeed very different from that of any part of the country +save that bordering California. Amid great variations of local weather +there are some peculiar features that obtain all over the state. In the +first place, the climate of the entire Pacific Coast is milder and more +uniform in temperature than that of the states in corresponding latitude +east of the mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57° +N. lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of Halifax, +Nova Scotia, in latitude 44° 39'. And going south along the coast, we +find the mean temperature of San Diego 6° or 7° less than that of +Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. The quantity of total annual heat +supply at Puget Sound exceeds that at Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cleveland +or Omaha, all more than 500 m. farther south; Cape Flattery, exposed +the year round to cold ocean fogs, receives more heat than Eastport, +Maine, which is 3° farther south and has a warmer summer. In the second +place, the means of winter and summer are much nearer the mean of the +year in California than in the east. This condition of things is not so +marked as one goes inward from the coast; yet everywhere save in the +high mountains the winters are comparatively mild. In the third place, +the division of the year into two seasons--a wet one and a dry (and +extremely dusty) one--marks this portion of the Pacific Coast in the +most decided manner, and this natural climatic area coincides almost +exactly in its extension with that of California; being truly +characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part of +Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally, in the fourth +place, except on the coast the disagreeableness of the heat of summer is +greatly lessened by the dryness of the air and the consequent rapidity +of evaporation. Among the peculiarities of Californian climate it is not +one of the least striking that as one leaves the Sacramento or San +Joaquin plains and travels into the mountains it becomes warmer, at +least for the first 2000 or 3000 ft. of ascent. + +Along both the Coast Range and the Sierra considerable rainfall is +certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumulations of the former, +its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy rain-belt, with a normal +fall of more than 40 in., covers all the northern half of the Sierra and +the north-west counties; shading off from this is the region of 10-20 +in. fall, which covers all the rest of the state save Inyo, Kern and San +Bernardino counties, Imperial county and the eastern portion of +Riverside county; the precipitation of this belt is from 0 to 10 in. In +excessively dry years the limits of this last division may include all +of the state below Fresno and the entire Central Valley as well. In the +mountains the precipitation increases with the altitude; above 6000 or +7000 ft. it is almost wholly in the form of snow; and this snow, melting +in summer, is of immense importance to the state, supplying water once +for placer mining and now for irrigation. The north-west counties are +extremely wet; many localities here have normal rainfalls of 60-70 in. +and even higher annually, while in extreme seasons as much as 125 in. +falls. Along the entire Pacific Coast, but particularly N. of San +Francisco, there is a night fog from May to September. It extends but a +few miles inland, but within this belt is virtually a prolongation of +the rainy season and has a marked effect on vegetation. Below San +Francisco the precipitation decreases along the coast, until at San +Diego it is only about 10 in. The south-east counties are the driest +portions of the United States. At Ogilby, Volcano, Indio and other +stations on the Southern Pacific line the normal annual precipitation is +from 1.5 to 2.5 in.; and there are localities near Owen's lake, even on +its very edge, that are almost dry. For days in succession when it +storms along the Southern California coasts and dense rain clouds blow +landwards to the mountains, leaving snow or rain on their summits, it +has been observed that within a few miles beyond the ridge the contact +of the desert air dissipates the remaining moisture of the clouds into +light misty masses, like a steam escape in cold air. The extreme heat of +the south-east is tempered by the extremely low humidity characteristic +of the Great Basin, which in the interior of the two southernmost +counties is very low. The humidity of places such as Fresno, Sacramento +and Red Bluff in the valley varies from 48 to 58. Many places in +northern, southern, central, mountain and southern coastal California +normally have more than 200 perfectly clear days in a year; and many in +the mountains and in the south, even on the coast, have more than 250. +The extreme variability in the amount of rainfall is remarkable.[2] The +effects of a season of drought on the dry portions of the state need not +be adverted to; and as there is no rain or snow of any consequence on +the mountains during summer, a succession of dry seasons may almost bare +the ranges of the accumulated stock of previous winter snows, thus +making worse what is already bad. + +The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila Valley of Arizona) is +the hottest part of the United States. Along the line of the Southern +Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently from 124° to 129° F. (i.e. in +the shade, which is almost if not quite the greatest heat ever actually +recorded in any part of the world). At the other extreme, temperatures +of -20° to -36° are recorded yearly on the Central (Southern) Pacific +line near Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the coldest localities +of the state are from 37° to 44° F.; the monthly means from 20° to 65° +F. The normal annual means on Indio, Mammoth Tanks, Salton and Volcano +Springs are from 73.9° to 78.4 F.; the monthly means from 52.8° to +101.3° (frequently 95° to 98°). The normal trend of the annual isotherms +of the state is very simple: a low line of about 40° circles the angle +in the Nevada boundary line; 50° normally follows the northern Sierra +across the Oregon border; lines of higher temperature enclose the Great +Valley; and lines of still higher temperature--usually 60° to 70°, in +hotter years 60° to 75°--run transversely across the southern quarter of +the state. + +Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely regular in +their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes, and seasonal +trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an on-shore breeze blows +every summer day; in the evening it is replaced by a night-fog, and the +cooler air draws down the mountain sides in opposition to its movement +during the day. In the upper air a dry off-shore wind from the Rocky +Mountain plateau prevails throughout the summer; and in winter an +on-shore rain wind. The last is the counter-trade, the all-year wind of +Alaska and Oregon; it prevails in winter even off Southern California. + +There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates. At +Truckee, for example, lying about 5800 ft. above the sea near Lake +Tahoe, the lowest temperature of the year may be -25° F. or colder, when +70 m. westward at Rocklin, which lies in the foothills about 250 ft. +above the sea, the mercury does not fall below 28°. Snow never falls at +Rocklin, but falls in large quantity at Truckee; ice is the crop of the +one, oranges of the other, at the same time. There are points in +Southern California where one may actually look from sea to desert and +from snow to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, situation with +reference to the mountain ranges, and altitude are all important +determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the last seems +to be most important. At any rate it may be said that generally speaking +the maximum, minimum and mean temperatures of points of approximately +equal altitude are respectively but slightly different in northern or +southern California.[3] + +Death Valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any meteorological +stations on earth where regular observations are taken, although for +extremes of heat it is exceeded by places in the Colorado desert. The +minimum daily temperature in summer is rarely below 70° F. and often +above 90° F. (in the shade), while the maximum may for days in +succession be as high as 120° F. A record of 6 months (1891) showed an +average daily relative humidity of 30.6 in the morning and 15.6 in the +evening, and the humidity sometimes falls to 5. Yet the surrounding +country is not devoid of vegetation. The hills are very fertile when +irrigated, and the wet season develops a variety of perennial herbs, +shrubs and annuals. + +_Fauna._--California embraces areas of every life-zone of North America: +of the boreal, the Hudsonian and Canadian subzones; of the transition, +the humid Pacific subzone; of the upper austral, the arid or upper +Sonoran subzone; of the lower austral, the arid or lower Sonoran; of the +tropical, the "dilute arid" subzone. As will be inferred from the above +account of temperature, summer is longer in the north, and localities +in the Valley have more hours of heat than do those of south California. +Hence that climatic characteristic of the entire Pacific Coast--already +referred to and which is of extreme importance in determining the +life-zones of California--the great amount of total annual heat supply +at comparatively high latitudes. A low summer temperature enables +northern species to push far southward, while the high heat total of the +year enables southern species to push far north. The resultant +intermingling of forms is very marked and characteristic of the Pacific +Coast states. The distribution of life-zones is primarily a matter of +altitude and corresponds to that of the isotherms. The mountain goat and +mountain sheep live in the Sierran upper-land, though long ago well-nigh +exterminated. The Douglas red squirrel is ubiquitous in the Sierran +forests and their most conspicuous inhabitant. White-tailed deer and +especially black-tails are found on the high Sierra; the mule deer, too, +although its habitat is now mainly east of the range, on the plateau, is +also met with. Grizzly, black, cinnamon and brown bears are all +Californian species once common and to-day rare. When Americans began to +rule in California elk and antelope herded in great numbers in the Great +Valley; the former may to-day sometimes be seen, possibly, in the +northern forests, and the latter occasionally cross into the state from +Nevada. The sage-hen is abundant on the eastern flank of the Sierra. +Grouse, quail, crows and woodpeckers (_Melanerpes formicivorus_) furnish +species characteristic of the state. There are various species of +ground-squirrels and gophers, which are very abundant. Noteworthy in the +animal life of the lower Sonoran and tropic region are a variety of +snakes and lizards, desert rats and mice; and, among birds, the cactus +wren, desert thrasher, desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk, mocking-bird +and ground cuckoo or road runner (_Geococcyx Californianus_). The +California vulture, the largest flying bird in North America and fully +as large as the Andean condor, is not limited to California but is +fairly common there. In the zoology and botany of California as of the +rest of the Pacific Coast, the distinctions between the upper austral +and humid transition zones are largely obliterated; and as one passes +southward into the arid lands, life forms of both these zones +intermingle with those of the arid transition. + +Fish are abundant. The United States fish commission, and an active +state commission established in 1869, have done much to preserve and +increase this source of food. In 1904 the yield of the fisheries of the +three Pacific Coast states was 168,600,000 lbs., valued at +$6,681,000,--nearly half that of the New England states, more than +one-third that of the Middle Atlantic states and more than that of the +South Atlantic and Gulf states combined. Of the total, California +yielded between a quarter and a third. A third of her fish comes from +the Sacramento river. Some 230--more or less--marine food fishes are to +be found in the market at San Francisco. The exports of fish from that +port from 1892-1899 were valued at from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000 +annually. Native oysters are small and of peculiar flavour; eastern +varieties also are fattened, but not bred in California waters. Shrimp +are abundant; the shrimp fishers are Chinese and four-fifths of the +catch is exported to China. Sturgeon were once the cheapest fish after +salmon; to-day, despite all efforts to increase the supply, they are the +dearest. Salmon, once threatened with extinction, have been saved, +maintained in good supply, and indeed have probably regained their +pristine abundance. Shad and striped bass are both very abundant and +cheap. Black bass, flounders, terrapin, sea-turtles, perch, turbot, sole +and catfish are also common. Great herds of seals once lay like +toll-gatherers off the Golden Gate and other bays of the coast, taking a +large share of the salmon and other fish; but they are no longer common. +The sea-lions sometimes raid the rivers for 100 m. inland. They have +greatly increased since hunting them for their hides and oil ceased to +be profitable, and thousands sometimes gather on the Farallones, off the +Golden Gate. + +_Flora._--Inclusiveness of range in the distribution of vegetable life +is perhaps more suggestive than the distribution of animal species. The +variation is from dwarf mountain pine to giant cactus and dates. The +humid transition belt is the habitat of California's magnificent +forests. Nut pine, juniper and true sage-brush (_Artemisia tridentata_) +characterize the upper Sonoran,--although the latter grows equally in +the transition zone. Cereals, orchard fruits and alfalfa are of primary +importance in the upper and of secondary importance in the lower +Sonoran. In the arid portions of this and the tropic areas the +indigenous plants are creosote, mesquite and alfileria bushes, desert +acacias, paloverdes, alkali-heath, salt grass, agaves, yuccas +(especially the Spanish-bayonet and Joshua tree) and cactuses. Among +exotics the Australian saltbush spreads successfully over the worst +alkali land. The introduction of other exotics into these zones,--made +humid by irrigation, which converts them, the one into true +austro-riparian the other into true humid tropical,--has revolutionized +the agricultural, and indeed the whole, economy of California. At the +two ends of Cajon Pass, only four or five kilometres apart, are the two +utterly distinct floras of the Mohave desert and the San Bernardino +valley. Despite the presence of the pass, plants do not spread, so great +is the difference of climatic conditions. On the desert the same plant +will vary in different years from 4 in. to 10 ft. in height when equally +mature, according to the rainfall and other conditions of growth. Many +mature plants are not taller than 0.4 to 0.8 in. The tree yucca often +attains a height of 20 to 25 ft., and a diameter of 1.5 ft. About 600 +species of plants were catalogued in desert California in 1891 by a +government botanical party. The flora of the coast islands of California +is very interesting. On Santa Cruz Professor Joseph Le Conte found 248 +species, nearly all of which are distinctively Californian, 48 being +peculiar to the surrounding islands and 28 peculiar to Southern +California. Various other things indicate a separation of the islands +from the mainland in quaternary times; since which, owing to the later +southward movement on the continent of northern forms in glacial times, +there has been a struggle for existence on the mainland from which the +islands have largely escaped. + +_Forests._--The forests and agricultural crops of the state demand +particular notice. In 1900 the woodland was estimated by the United +States census at 22% of the state's area, and the total stand at 200,000 +million ft. of timber. The variety of forest trees is not great, but +some of the California trees are unique, and the forests of the state +are, with those of Oregon and Washington, perhaps the most magnificent +of the world. At least the coniferous forests which make up nine-tenths +of California's woodland surpass all others known in number of species +and in the size and beauty of the trees. Forty-six species occur, +namely, 32 species of pitch trees (18 pines), 12 species of the +cypresses and their allies (2 sequoia), and 2 species of yews or their +allies. Peculiar to California are the two species of sequoia +(q.v.),--the redwood (_S. sempervirens_), and the big-tree (_S. +gigantea_), remnants of an earlier age when they were common in other +parts of the world. The redwood grows only in a narrow strip on the +Coast Range from Southern Oregon (where there are not more than 1000 +acres) down nearly to the Golden Gate, in a habitat of heavy rains and +heavy fogs. They cover an area of about 2000 sq. m. almost unmixed with +other species. One fine grove stands S. of San Francisco near Santa +Cruz. These noble trees attain very often a height of more than 300 ft., +frequently of 350 and even more, and a butt diameter of more than 15 to +20 ft., with clean, straight fluted trunks rising 200 ft. below the +lowest branches. They grow in a very dense timber stand; single acres +have yielded 1,500,000 ft. B.M. of lumber, and single trees have cut as +high as 100,000 ft. The total stand in 1900 was estimated by the United +States census as 75,000,000,000 ft., and the ordinary stand per acre +varies from 25,000 to 150,000 ft., averaging probably 60,000 ft. The +redwood is being rapidly used for lumber. There is nowhere any +considerable young growth from seed, although this mode of reproduction +is not (as often stated) unknown; the tree will reproduce itself more +than once from the stump (hence its name). In thirty years a tree has +been known to grow to a height of 80 ft. and a diameter of 16 in. The +wood contains no pitch and much water, and in a green condition will not +burn. To this fact it owes its immunity from the forest fires which +wreak frightful havoc among the surrounding forests. As the redwood is +limited to the Coast Range, so the big tree is limited wholly to the +Sierra Nevada. Unlike the redwood the big tree occurs in scattered +groves (ten in all) among other species. Its habitat extends some 200 +m., from latitude 36° to 39°, nowhere descending much below an altitude +of 5000 ft., nor rising above 8000 ft. The most northerly grove and the +nearest to San Francisco is the Calaveras Grove near Stockton; the +Mariposa Grove just south of the Yosemite National Park, is a state +reservation and easily accessible to tourists. The noblest groves are +near Visalia, and are held as a national park. The average height is +about 275 ft., and the diameter near the ground 20 ft.; various +individuals stand over 300 ft., and a diameter of 25 ft. is not rare. One +tree measures 35.7 ft. inside the bark 4 ft. above the ground, 10 ft. at +200 ft. above the ground, and is 325 ft. tall. Specimens have been cut +down that were estimated to be 1300 and even 2200 years old; many trees +standing are presumably 2500 years old. It is the opinion of John Muir +that the big tree would normally live 5000 years or more; that the +California groves are still in their prime; that, contrary to general +ideas, the big tree was never more widely distributed than now, at least +not within the past 8000 or 10,000 years; that it is not a decaying +species, but that on the contrary "no tree of all the forest is more +enduringly established in concord with climate and soil," growing like +the mountain pine even on granite, and in little danger save from the +greed of the lumberman; but other excellent authorities consider it as +hardly holding its own, especially in the north. Three main wood belts +cover the flanks of the Sierra: the lower or main pine belt, the silver +fir belt, and the upper pine belt. The sugar pine, the yellow or silver +pine and the Douglas spruce (considerably smaller than in Oregon and +Washington), are rivals in stature and nobility, all attaining 200 ft. +or more when full grown; and the incense cedar reaches a height of 150 +ft. In this belt and the following one of firs the big tree also grows. +The white silver fir (_abies concolor_) and the silver or red fir (_ab. +magnifica_), standing 200 to 250 ft., make up almost wholly the main +forest belt from 5000 to 9000 ft. for some 450 m. Above the firs come +the tamarack, constituting the bulk of the lower Alpine forest; the +hardy long-lived mountain pine; the red cedar or juniper, growing even +on the baldest rocks; the beautiful hemlock spruce; the still higher +white pine, nut pine, needle pine; and finally, at 10,000 to 12,000 ft., +the dwarf pine, which grows in a tangle on the earth over which one +walks, and may not show for a century's growth more than a foot of +height or an inch of girth. The Nevada slope of the mountains below 7500 +ft. is covered with the nut pine down to the sage plains. Its nuts are +gathered in enormous amounts by the Indians for food; and it is +estimated that the yearly harvest of these nuts exceeds in bulk that of +all the cereals of California (John Muir). On the Sierra the underbrush +is characterized by the pungent manzanita, the California buckeye and +the chamiso; the last two growing equally abundantly on the Coast Range. +The chamiso and the manzanita, with a variety of shrubby oaks and thorny +plants, often grow together in a dense and sometimes quite impenetrable +undergrowth, forming what is known as "chaparral"; if the chamiso occurs +alone the thicket is a "chamisal." The elm, the hickory, the beech, the +chestnut, and many others of the most characteristic and useful trees of +the eastern states were originally entirely wanting in California. Oaks +are abundant; they are especially characteristic of the Great Valley, +where they grow in magnificent groves. Up to 1910 national forest +reserves amounted to 27,968,510 acres. In 1909 Congress created a +national forest to include the big tree groves in Calaveras and Tuolumne +counties. One of the noblest redwood areas (that of Santa Cruz county) +is a state reservation (created in 1901). Even within reservations +almost all the merchantable timber is owned by private individuals. In +addition to native trees many others--especially ornamental +species--have been successfully introduced from various parts of the +world. + +_Soil._--Sand and loams in great variety, grading from mere sand to +adobe, make up the soils of the state. The plains of the north-east +counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east sandy. It is +impossible to say with accuracy what part of the state may properly be +classed as tillable. The total farm acreage in 1900 was 28,828,951 +acres, of which 41.5% were improved; since 1880 the absolute amount of +improved land has remained practically constant, despite the +extraordinary progress of the state in these years. Much land is too +rough, too elevated or too arid ever to be made agriculturally +available; but irrigation, and the work of the state and national +agricultural bureaus in introducing new plants and promoting scientific +farming, have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. The +peculiarities of the climate, especially its division into two seasons, +make Californian (and Southern Arizona) agriculture very different from +that of the rest of the country. During the winter no shelter is +necessary for live-stock, nor, during summer, for the grains that are +harvested in June and July, and may lie for weeks or months in the +field. The mild, wet winter is the season of planting and growth, and so +throughout the year there is a succession of crops. The dangers of +drought in the long dry seasons particularly increase the uncertainties +of agriculture in regions naturally arid. Irrigation was introduced in +Southern California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its +spread slow till after 1850. In 1900 almost 1,500,000 acres were +irrigated--an increase of 46% since 1890. About half of this total was +in San Joaquin Valley. California has the greatest area of irrigated +land of any state in the Union, and offers the most complete utilization +of resources. In the south artesian wells, and in the Great Valley the +rivers of the Sierra slope, are the main source of water-supply. On +nearly all lands irrigated some crops will grow in ordinary seasons +without irrigation, but it is this that makes possible selection of +crops; practically indispensable for all field and orchard culture in +the south, save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases +the yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the state. Of +the acreage devoted to alfalfa in 1899, 76.2% was irrigated; of that +devoted to subtropical fruits, 71.7%. Small fruits, orchard fruits, +hay, garden products and grains are decreasingly dependent on +irrigation; wheat, which was once California's great staple, is (for +good, but not for best results) comparatively independent of it,--hence +its early predominance in Californian agriculture, due to this success +on arid lands since taken over for more remunerative irrigated crops. + +_Agriculture._--The spread of irrigation and of intensive cultivation, +and the increase of small farms during the last quarter of the 19th +century, have made California what it is to-day. Agriculture had its +beginning in wheat-raising on great ranches, from 50,000 even to several +hundred thousand acres in extent. A few of these, particularly in the +Great Valley, are still worked, but only a few. The average size of +farms in 1850 (when the large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, +and these unbroken) was 4466 acres; in 1860 it was 466.4, and in 1900 +only 397.4 acres. Stock ranches, tobacco plantations, and hay and grain +farms, average from 800 to 530 acres, and counteract the tendency of +dairy farms, beet plantations, orchards, vegetable gardens and nurseries +to lower the size of the farm unit still further. The renting of large +holdings prevails to a greater extent than in any other state except +Texas. From 1880 to 1900 the number of farms above 500 and below 1000 +acres doubled; half of the total in 1900 were smaller than 100 acres. +The most remunerative and most characteristic farming to-day is +diversified and intensive and on small holdings. The essential character +of California's economic life has been determined by the successive +predominance of grass, gold, grain and fruits. Omitting the second it +may be truly said that the order of agricultural development has been +mainly one of blind experiment or fortuitous circumstances. Staple +products have changed with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, +of life-zones and of the fitness of crops; first hides and tallow, then +wool, wheat, grapes (which in the early eighteen-nineties were the +leading fruit), deciduous orchard fruits, and semi-tropical citrus +fruits successively. Prunes were introduced in 1854, but their +possibilities were only slightly appreciated for some thirty years. Of +various other crops much the same is true. Of late years progress has +been very intelligent; in earlier years it was gained through a +multitude of experiments and failures, and great pecuniary loss, and +progress was a testimonial chiefly to courage and perseverance. The +possibilities of the lower Sonoran and tropical areas are still +imperfectly known. Nature has been niggard of rain but lavish in soil +and sun. Irrigation has shown that with water, arid and barren plains, +veritable deserts may be made to bloom with immense wealth of +semi-tropical fruits; and irrigation in the tropical area along the +Colorado river, which is so arid that it naturally bears only desert +vegetation, has made it a true humid-tropical region like Southern +Florida, growing true tropical fruits. + +In 1900 California ranked eleventh among the states in total value of +farm property ($796,527,955) and in 1899 fourteenth in the value of farm +products ($131,690,606). The growth of the former from 1890 to 1900 was +only 2.5%, one of the smallest increases among all the states. + +The pastoral period extended from 1769 to 1848. The live-stock industry +was introduced by the Franciscans and flourished exceedingly. In 1834, +when the missions had already passed their best days, there were some +486,000 cattle, horses, mules and asses on the ranges, and 325,000 small +animals, principally sheep. Throughout the pre-American period +stock-raising was the leading industry; it built up the prosperity of +the missions, largely supported the government and almost exclusively +sustained foreign commerce. Hides and tallow were the sum and substance +of Californian economy. Horses were slaughtered wholesale at times to +make way for cattle on the ranges. There was almost no dairying; olive +oil took the place of butter, and wine of milk, at the missions; and in +general indeed the Mexicans were content with water. In the development +of the state under the American regime the live-stock industry has been +subordinate. A fearful drought in 1862-1864 greatly depressed it, and +especially discouraged cattle ranching. Sheep then became of primary +importance, until the increase of the flocks threatened ranges and +forests with destruction. As late as 1876 there were some 7,000,000 +sheep, in 1900 only 2,581,000, and in 1906 only 1,750,000. In the total +value of all live stock (5,402,297 head) in 1900 ($65,000,000) the rank +of the state was 15th in the Union, and in value of dairy products in +1899 (12.84 million dollars) 12th. The live-stock industry showed a +tendency to decline after 1890, and the dairy industry also, despite +various things--notably irrigation and alfalfa culture--that have +favoured them. + +Cereals replaced hides and tallow in importance after 1848. Wheat was +long California's greatest crop. Its production steadily increased till +about 1884, the production in 1880, the banner year, being more than 54 +million bushels (32,537,360 centals). Since 1884 its production has +markedly fallen off; in 1905 the wheat crop was 17,542,013 bushels, and +in 1906, 26,883,662 bushels (valued at $20,162,746). There has been a +general parallelism between the amount of rain and the amount of wheat +produced; but as yet irrigation is little used for this crop. In the +eighth decade of the 19th century, the value of the wheat product had +come to exceed that of the annual output of gold. Barley has always been +very important. The acreage given to it in 1899 was one-fourth the total +cereal acreage, and San Francisco in 1902-1904 was the shipping point of +the larger part of American exported barley, of (roughly) three-quarters +in 1902, seven-eighths in 1903 and four-fifths in 1904. In 1906 +California produced 38,760,000 bushels of barley, valued at $20,930,400. +The great increase in the acreage of barley, which was 22.5% of the +country's barley acreage in 1906, and 24.2% in 1905, is one reason for +the decreased production of wheat. The level nature of the great grain +farms of the valley led to the utilization of machinery of remarkable +character. Combined harvesters (which enter a field of standing grain +and leave this grain piled in sacks ready for shipment), steam +gang-ploughs, and other farm machinery are of truly extraordinary size +and efficiency. In 1899 cereals represented more than a third of the +total crop acreage and crop product ($93,641,334) of the state. Wheat +and other cereals are in part cut for hay, and the hay crop of 1906 was +1,133,465 tons, valued at $12,751,481. California is one of the leading +hop-producing states of the Union, the average annual production since +1901 being more than 10,000,000 lb. The product of sugar beets increased +between 1888 and 1902 from 1910 to 73,761 tons (according to the state +board of trade), and in 1909 (according to the department of +agriculture) it was 882,084 tons, from which 254,544,000 lb of sugar was +manufactured. In this industry California in 1909 ranked second to +Colorado. Truck gardening for export is an assured industry, especially +in the north. Great quantities of vegetables, fresh and canned, are +shipped yearly, and the same is true on a far larger scale of fruit. +Vegetable exports more than doubled between 1894 and 1903. In 1899 hay +and grain represented slightly more than a third of the farm acreage and +capital and also of the value of all farm products; live-stock and dairy +farms represented slightly more than half the acreage, and slightly +under 30% of the capital and produce; fruit farms absorbed 6.2% of the +acreage and 27% of the capital, and returned 22.5% of the value of +farm produce. + +_Fruit-growing._--Horticulture is now the principal industry, and in +this field California has no rival in the United States, although +ranking after Florida in the growth of some tropical or semi-tropical +fruits,--pineapples, guava, limes, pomeloes or grape-fruit and Japanese +persimmons. In 1899 California's output of fruit was more than a fifth +of that of the whole Union. The supremacy of the state is established in +the growth of oranges, lemons, citrons, olives, figs, almonds, Persian +(or English) walnuts, plums and prunes, grapes and raisins, nectarines, +apricots and pomegranates; it also leads in pears, and peaches, but here +its primacy is not so assured. Southern California by no means +monopolizes the warm-zone fruits. Oranges, lemons and walnuts come +chiefly from that section, but citrus fruits grow splendidly in the +Sierra foothills of the Sacramento Valley, and indeed ripen earlier +there than in the southern district. Almonds, as well as peaches, pears, +plums, cherries and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over half of +the prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the raisin +output from Fresno county. Olives thrive as far north as the head of the +Great Valley, growing in all the valleys and foothills up to 1500 or +2000 ft. They were introduced by the Franciscans (as were various other +subtropical fruits, pears and grapes), but their scientific betterment +and commercial importance date from about 1885. They grow very +abundantly and of the finest quality; for many years poor methods of +preparation prejudiced the market against the Californian product, but +this has ceased to be the case. The modern orange industry practically +began with the introduction into Southern California in 1873 of two +seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have been developed +by budding millions of trees bearing a seedless fruit known as the +"Washington navel," which now holds first rank in American markets; +other varieties, mainly seedlings, are of great but secondary +importance. Shipments continue the year round. There has been more than +one horticultural excitement in California, but especially in orange +culture, which was for a time almost as epidemic a fever as gold seeking +once was. By reason of the co-operative effort demanded for the large +problems of irrigation, packing and marketing, the citrus industry has +done much for the permanent development of the state, and its +extraordinary growth made it, towards the close of the 19th century, the +most striking and most potent single influence in the growth of +agriculture. State legislation has advanced the fruit interest in all +possible ways. Between 1872 and 1903 exports of canned fruits increased +from 91 to 94,205 short tons; between 1880 and 1903 the increase of +dried fruit exports was from 295 to 149,531 tons; of fresh deciduous +fruits, from 2590 to 101,199; of raisins, from 400 to 39,963; of citrus +fruits, from 458 to 299,623; of wines and brandies between 1891 and +1903, from 47,651 to 97,332 tons. Of the shipments in 1903 some 44% +were from Southern California,--i.e. from the seven southernmost +counties. + +Grape culture has a great future in California. Vines were first +introduced by the Franciscans in 1771 from Spain, and until after 1860 +"Mission" grapes were practically the only stock in California. +Afterwards many hundreds of European varieties were introduced with +great success. "The state has such a variety of soil, slope, elevation, +temperature and climatic conditions as to reproduce, somewhere within +its borders, any wine now manufactured" (United States Census, 1900); +but experience has not as yet divided the state into districts of +specialized produce, nor determined just how far indigenous American +vines may profitably be used, either as base or graftings, with European +varieties. Grapes are grown very largely over the state. Raisins do well +as far north as Yolo county, but do best in Madera, Fresno, Kings, +Tulare and San Diego counties. The product is more than sufficient for +the markets of the United States. Dry wine grapes do best in the +counties around San Francisco Bay, on unirrigated lands; while sweet +wine stocks do best in Yolo, San Joaquin and the counties of the raisin +grape, and on irrigated lands. In 1900 California produced about +three-fifths in value ($3,937,871) and in 1905 the same proportion +($6,688,620) of the wine output of the United States. The value of +product more than sextupled from 1880 to 1900. In quantity the product +was more than four times the combined product of all other states. The +better California wines are largely sold under French labels. Brandies +are an important product. They are made chiefly from grapes, and are +used to fortify wines. It was officially estimated that in the spring of +1904 there were some 227,000 acres of vineyards in the state, of which +exactly five-tenths were in wine grapes and four-tenths in raisin +grapes. + +_Gold._--Between the pastoral period and the era of wheat was the golden +epoch of Californian history. The existence of gold had long been +suspected, and possibly known, in California before 1848, and there had +been desultory washings in parts where there was very little to reward +prospectors. The first perfectly authenticated discovery was made near +Los Angeles in 1842. The discovery of real historical importance was +made in January 1848 (the 24th is the correct date) at John A. Sutter's +mill, on the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman, +James W. Marshall (1810-1885). His monument now marks the spot. From +1848 to the 1st of January 1903, according to the state mining bureau, +California produced $1,379,275,408 in gold. There were two periods of +intense excitement. The first ended in 1854, at which time there was a +decided reaction throughout the United States in regard to mining +matters. The Californian discoveries had given rise to a general search +for metalliferous deposits in the Atlantic states, and this bad been +followed by wild speculations. At the time of their greatest +productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of the washings was +probably not less than $65,000,000 a year; according to the state mining +bureau the average production from 1851-1854 was $73,570,087 +($81,294,270 in 1852, the banner year), and from 1850-1861 $55,882,861, +never falling below $50,000,000. The estimates of other competent +authorities differ considerably, and generally are somewhat less +generous than these figures. + +At first the diggings were chiefly along the rivers. These were +"flumed,"--that is, the water was diverted by wooden flumes from the +natural channel and the sand and gravel in the bed were washed. All the +"gulches" or ravines leading down into the canyons were also worked +over, with or without water. These were the richest "placers," but in +them the gold was very unequally distributed. Those who first got +possession of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, Feather, Stanislaus +and the other smaller streams in the heart of the gold region, made +sometimes from $1000 to $5000 a day; but after one rich spot was worked +out it might be days or weeks before another was found. In 1848 $500-700 +a day was not unusual luck; but, on the other hand, the income of the +great majority of miners was certainly far less than that of men who +seriously devoted themselves to trade or even to common labour. Many +extraordinary nuggets were found, varying from $1000 to $20,000 in +value. The economic stimulus given by such times may be imagined. For +several years gold-dust was a regular circulating medium in the cities +as well as in the mining districts of the state. An ounce of dust in +1848 frequently went for $4 instead of $17; for a number of years +traders in dust were sure of a margin of several dollars, as for example +in private coinage, mints for which were common by 1851. From the record +of actual exports and a comparison of the most authoritative estimates +of total production, it may be said that from 1848 to 1856 the yield was +almost certainly not less than $450,000,000, and that about 1870 the +billion dollar mark had been passed. Just at this time came the highest +point and the sudden fall of the second great mining fever of the state. +This was a stock speculation based on the remarkable output +($300,000,000 in 20 years) of the silver "bonanzas" of the Comstock lode +at Virginia City, Nevada, which were opened and financed by San +Francisco capitalists. The craze pervaded all classes. Shares that at +first represented so many dollars per foot in a tangible mine were +multiplied and remultiplied until they came to represent paper +thicknesses or almost nothing, yet still their prices mounted upward. In +April 1872 came the revulsion; there was a shrinkage of $60,000,000 in +ten days; then in 1873 a tremendous advance, and in 1875 a final and +disastrous collapse; in ten years thereafter the stock of the Comstock +lode shrank from $3,000,000 to $2,000,000. This Comstock fever belongs +to Californian rather than to Nevadan history, and is one of the most +extraordinary in mining annals. + +First the "rocker," then the "tom," the "flume," and the hydraulic +stream were the tools of the miner. Into the "rocker" and the "tom" the +miner shovelled dirt, rocking it as he poured in water, catching the +gold on riffles set across the bottom of his box; thus imitating in a +wooden box the work of nature in the rivers. The "flume" enabled him to +dry the bed of a stream while he worked over its gravels. The hydraulic +stream came into use as early as 1852 (or 1853) when prospecting of the +higher ground made it certain that the "deep" or "high" gravels--i.e. +the detrital deposits of tertiary age--contained gold, though in too +small quantities to be profitably worked in the ordinary way. The +hydraulic process received an immense development through successive +improvements of method and machinery. In this method tremendous blasts +of powder, sometimes twenty-five or even fifty tons, were used to loosen +the gravel, which was then acted on by the jet of water thrown from the +"pipes." To give an idea of the force of the agent thus employed it may +be stated that when an eight-inch nozzle is used under a heavy head, +more than 3000 ft. may be discharged in a minute with a velocity of 150 +ft. per second. The water as it thus issues from the nozzle feels to the +touch like metal, and the strongest man cannot sensibly affect it with a +crowbar. A gravel bank acted on by such tremendous force crumbled +rapidly, and the disintegrated material could be run readily through +sluices to the "dumps." Hydraulic mining is no longer practised on the +scale of early days. The results were wonderful but disastrous, for the +"dumps" were usually river-beds. From 1870-1879 the bed of Bear river +was raised in places in its lower course 97 ft. by the detritus wash of +the hydraulic mines, and that of Sleepy Hollow Creek 136 ft. The total +filling up to that time on the streams in this vicinity had been from +100 to 250 ft., and many thousand acres of fine farming land were buried +under gravel,--some 16,000 on the lower Yuba alone. For many years the +mining interests were supreme, and agriculture, even after it had become +of great importance, was invariably worsted when the two clashed; but in +1884 the long and bitter "anti-débris" or "anti-slickins" fight ended in +favour of the farmers. In 1893 the United States government created a +California Débris Commission, which has acted in unison with the state +authorities. Permits for hydraulic mining are granted by the commission +only when all gravel is satisfactorily impounded and no harm is done to +the streams; and the improvement of these, which was impossible so long +as limits were not set to hydraulic mining, can now be effectively +advanced. Quartz mining began as early as 1851. In 1908 about +five-eighths of the gold output was from such mines. Quartz veins are +very often as good at a depth of 3000 ft. as at the surface. A +remarkable feature of recent years (especially since 1900) is gold +"dredging." Thousands of acres even of orchard, vineyard and farming +land have been thus treated in recent years. Gold was being produced in +1906 in more than thirty counties. The annual output since 1875 has been +about $15,000,000 to $17,000,000; in 1905, according to the Mines +Report, it was $18,898,545. Colorado now excels California as a gold +producer. + +_Mineral Products._--California produces more than forty mineral +substances that are of commercial significance. Gold, petroleum, copper, +borax and its products, clays, quicksilver and silver lead, in order of +importance, representing some four-fifths of the total. From 1894 to +1902 the aggregate production increased from 20.2 to 35.1 million +dollars; in 1908 it was $65,137,636. Metallic products long represented +three-fourths of the total, but the feature of recent years has been the +rising importance of hydrocarbons and gases, and of structural +materials, and indeed of non-metallic products generally. The production +of crude petroleum has grown very rapidly since about 1895. Oil is found +from north to south over some 600 m., but especially in Southern +California. The high cost of coal, which has always been a hindrance to +the development of manufactures, makes the petroleum deposits of +peculiar value. Their total output increased from 4,250,000 to +44,854,737 barrels between 1900 and 1908, and the value of the product +in 1908 was $23,433,502. The Kern river field is the most important in +the state and one of the greatest in the world. Those of Coalinga, Santa +Maria and Lompoc, and Los Angeles are next in importance. Both in 1900 +and in 1905 California ranked fifth among the states of the United +States in the petroleum refining industry. Copper has risen in +importance in very recent years; it is mined mainly in Shasta county; +the value of the state's total product in 1908 was $5,232,986. Gold +mining still centres in the mountainous counties north of Tuolumne. This +is the region of quartz mining. In borax (of which California's output +in 1904 was 45,647 tons) and structural materials San Bernardino has a +long lead. More than nine-tenths of the borax product of the country +comes from about Death Valley. San Bernardino marbles have a very high +repute. California was the fourth state of the Union in 1908 in the +production of granite. It furnishes about two-fifths of the quicksilver +of the world. This has been mined since 1824; the output was greatest +from 1875-1883, when it averaged about 43,000,000 pounds. The New +Almaden mine (opened in 1824) in Santa Clara county produced from 1850 +to 1896 some 73,000,000 pounds. The centre of production is north and +south of San Francisco Bay. Californian coal is almost wholly inferior +brown lignite, together with a small quantity of bituminous coals of +poor quality; the state does not produce a tenth part of the coal it +consumes. Of growing importance are the gems found in California: a few +diamonds in Butte county; rock crystal in Calaveras county; and +tourmalines, kunzite, the rare pink beryl and bright blue topazes in San +Diego county. Chrysoprase, mined near Porterville and near Visalia +(Tulare county), is used partly for gems, but more largely (like the +vesuvianite found near Exeter, in the same county) for mosaic work; and +there are ledges of fine rose quartz in the Coahuila mountains of +Riverside county and near Lemon Cove, Tulare county. + +A vivid realization of the industrial revolution in the state is to be +gained from the reflection that in 1875 California was pre-eminent only +for gold and sheep; that the aggregate mineral output thirty years later +was more than a third greater than then, and that nevertheless the value +of farm produce at the opening of the 20th century exceeded by more than +$100,000,000 the value of mineral produce, and exceeded by $50,000,000 +the most generous estimate of the largest annual gold output in the +annals of the state. + +_Manufactures._--Previous to 1860 almost every manufactured article used +in the state was imported from the east or from Europe. Dairy products, +for example, for whose production good facilities always existed, were +long greatly neglected, and not for two decades at least after 1848 was +the state independent in this respect. The high cost of coal, the +speculative attractions of mining, and the high wages of labour, +handicapped the development of manufactures in early years. The first +continued to be a drag on such industries, until after 1895 the +increasing use of crude petroleum obviated the difficulty. Several +remarkable electric power and lighting plants utilize the water power of +the mountains.[4] Geographic isolation has somewhat fostered state +industries. The value of gross manufactured products increased 41.9% +from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year California ranked 12th among the +states in the gross value of all manufactures ($302,874,761); the +per-capita value of manufactured and agricultural products being +$293,--$89 of the latter, $204 of the former. Of the wage-earners 61% +were engaged in manufacturing. Fourteen industries represented from 41% +to 45% of the employees, wages, capital and product of the aggregate +manufacturers of the state. The leading ones in order of importance and +the value of product in millions of dollars were: the manufacture of +railway, foundry, and machine shop products (19.6 million dollars), +lumber and timber industries (18.57), sugar and molasses refining +(15.91), beef slaughtering (15.72), canning and preserving (13.08), +flour and grist milling (13.10), the manufacture of malt, vinous and +distilled liquors (9.26), leather industries (7.40), printing and +publishing (6.86). In the second, third and fifth of these industries +the state ranked respectively fifth, fourth and first in the Union.[5] +The canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables is in the main an +industry of the northern and central counties. In 1890 the state board +of forestry estimated that the redwood forests were in danger of +exhaustion by 1930. The redwood is a general utility lumber second only +to the common white pine, and the drain on the woods has been continuous +since 1850. The wood has a fine, straight and even grain; and though +light and soft, is firm and extremely durable, lying, it is +authoritatively asserted, for centuries in the forest without +appreciable decay. It takes a beautiful polish. The colour varies from +cedar colour to mahogany. A small southern belt in San Mateo, Santa +Clara and Santa Cruz counties is not being commercially exploited. The +annual lumber cut from 1898-1903 averaged more than 663,348,000 ft.; of +the 852,638,000 ft. cut in 1903, 465,460,000 were of redwood, and +264,890,000 of yellow pine; fir and sugar pines contributing another +104,600,000, and spruce and cedar 17,670,000 ft. In 1900 California +ranked 16th among the states in value of product ($13,764,647, out of a +total of $566,852,984). The total cut was under ½ of 1% of the +estimated stand. In Humboldt county, in the redwood belt near Eureka, +are probably the most modern and remarkable lumber mills of the world. +In 1900 it was estimated that lumbermen controlled somewhat less than a +fifth of the timber of the state, and the same part of the redwood. +After 1890 important shipyards were established near San Francisco. The +most important naval station of the United States on the Pacific coast +is at Mare Island at the northern end of San Francisco Bay, and the +private Union Iron Works, on the peninsula near San Francisco, is one of +the largest shipyards of the country. In 1905 more than one-half of the +factory product was the output of four cities: San Francisco +($137,788,233), Los Angeles ($34,814,475), Sacramento ($10,319,416) and +Fresno ($9,849,001); next ranked Oakland, Stockton, and San José. + +The transportation facilities in California increased rapidly after +1870. The building of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific lines are +among the romances of American railway history. They joined tracks near +Ogden, Utah, in May 1869. The New Orleans line of the Southern Pacific +was opened in January 1883; the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé completed +its line to San Diego in 1885, and to San Francisco Bay in 1900. The San +Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, with trans-continental connexions at the +eastern terminus, was chartered in 1901 and fully opened in March 1903. +Railway mileage increased 137.3% from 1870 to 1880, and 154.6% from +1880 to 1900. At the close of 1908 the total mileage was 7039.36 m., +practically all of which is either owned or controlled by the two great +trans-continental systems of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, +Topeka & Santa Fé. From 1869 to 1875 registered mail exchanges were +opened with China, Japan, Hawaii and Australia. There are now frequent +mail connexions from San Francisco with Hawaii, Australasia, and eastern +Asia, as well as with American ports north and south. The commerce of +San Francisco amounts to some $80,000,000 or $90,000,000 yearly, about +equally divided between imports and exports, until after 1905--in 1907 +the imports were valued at $54,207,011, and the exports at $30,378,355 +(less than any year since 1896). San Diego has a very good harbour, and +the harbours of San Pedro (Los Angeles) and Eureka are fairly good and +of growing importance. Grains, lumber, fish, fruits and fruit products, +petroleum, vegetables and sugar are the leading items in the commerce of +San Francisco. Other ports are of very secondary importance. Navigation +on the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers was very important in early +days, but is to-day of relatively slight importance in comparison with +railway traffic. + +_Population._--The population of California increased in successive +decades from 1850 to 1910 respectively by 310.3, 47.3, 54.3, 40.3, 22.4 +and 60.1%. (The percentage of increase in 1900-1910 was exceeded in +Washington, Oklahoma, Idaho, Nevada, North Dakota and Oregon.) In 1910 +the total population was 2,377,549, or 15.2 per sq. m. In 1900 there were +116 incorporated towns and cities; and of the total population 43.3% +was urban,--i.e. resident in cities (11 in number) of 8000 or more +inhabitants. These 11 cities were: San Francisco (pop. 342,782), Los +Angeles (102,479), Oakland (66,960), Alameda (16,464), Berkeley +(13,214),--the last three being suburbs of San Francisco, and the last +the seat of the state university,--Sacramento, the state capital +(29,282), San José (21,500), San Diego (17,700), Stockton (17,506), +Fresno (12,470), and Pasadena (9117). Eight other cities had populations +of more than 5000--Riverside City (7973), Vallejo (7965), Eureka (7327), +Santa Rosa (6673), Santa Barbara (6587), San Bernardino (6156), Santa +Cruz (5659), and Pomona (5526). + +Of the entire population in 1900 persons of foreign birth or parentage +(one or both parents being foreign) constituted 54.2 and those of native +birth were 75.3%. Of the latter six-tenths were born in California. The +foreign element included 45,753 Chinese (a falling off of 25,313 since +1890), and 10,151 Japanese (an increase of 9004 in the same decade). +Twenty-two foreign countries contributed over 1000 residents each, the +leading ones being the United Kingdom (91,638), Germany (72,449), Canada +(29,618; 27,408 being English Canadians), Italy (22,777), Sweden +(14,549), France (12,256), Portugal (12,068), Switzerland (10,974), +Japan, Denmark, and Mexico, in the order named. Persons of negro descent +numbered 11,045. Almost all the Indians of the state are taxed as +citizens. In 1906 of 611,464 members of religious denominations 354,408 +were Roman Catholics, 64,528 Methodist Episcopalians, 37,682 +Presbyterians, 26,390 Congregationalists, 24,801 Baptists, 21,317 +Protestant Episcopalians, 11,371 Lutherans, and 9,110 members of +Eastern Orthodox churches. A peculiar feature in the population +statistics of California is the predominance of males, which in 1900 was +156,009; the Asiatic element accounts for a third of this number. Since +1885 the eight counties south of the Tehachapi Range, which are known +collectively and specifically as Southern California have greatly +advanced in population. In 1880 their population was 7.3, in 1890 17.2, +and in 1900 20.1% of the total population of the state. The initial +impulse to this increase was the beginning of the "fruit epoch" in these +counties, combined with a railway "rate-war" following the completion to +the coast in 1885 of the Santa Fe, and an extraordinary land boom +prevailing from 1886 to 1888. The conjuncture of circumstances, and the +immigration it induced, were unusual. The growth of the South, as of the +rest of the state, has been continuous and steady. + +The Indians were prominent in early Californian history, but their +progress toward their present insignificance began far back in the +Spanish period. It proceeded much more rapidly after the restraining +influence of the missions was removed, leaving them free to revert to +savagery; and the downward progress of the race was fearfully +accelerated during the mining period, when they were abused, depraved, +and in large numbers killed. There have been no Indian wars in +California's annals, but many butcheries. The natives have declined +exceedingly in number since 1830, in 1900 numbering 15,377. They have +always been mild-tempered, low, and unintelligent, and are to-day a poor +and miserable race. They are all called "Digger Indians" +indiscriminately, although divided by a multiplicity of tongues. + +_Government and Institutions._--In the matter of constitution-making +California has been conservative, having had only two between 1849 and +1910. The first was framed by a convention at Monterey in 1849, and +ratified by the people and proclaimed by the United States military +governor in the same year. The present constitution, framed by a +convention in 1878-1879, came into full effect in 1880, and was +subsequently amended. It was the work of the labour party, passed at a +time of high discontent, and goes at great length into the details of +government, as was demanded by the state of public opinion. The +qualifications required for the suffrage are in no way different from +those common throughout the Union, except that by a constitutional +amendment of 1894 it is necessary for a voter to be able to read the +state constitution and write his name. As compared with the earlier +constitution it showed many radical advances toward popular control, the +power of the legislature being everywhere curtailed. The power of +legislation was taken from it by specific inhibition in thirty-one +subjects before within its power; its control of the public domain, its +powers in taxation, and its use of the state credit were carefully +safe-guarded. "Lobbying" was made a felony; provisions were inserted +against lotteries and stock-exchange gambling, to tax and control common +carriers and great corporations, and to regulate telegraph, telephone, +storage and wharfage charges. The powers of the executive department +were also somewhat curtailed. For the judiciary, provisions were made +for expediting trials and decisions. Notable was the innovation that +agreement by three-fourths of a jury should be sufficient in civil cases +and that a jury might be waived in minor criminal cases, a provision +which of course was based on experience under the Mexican law. All these +changes in the organic law reflect bitter experience after 1850; and, +read with the history of those years as a commentary, few American +constitutions are more instructive. The constitution of 1879 corresponds +very closely to the ordinary state constitution of to-day. The +incorporation of banks issuing circulating notes is forbidden. Marriage +is not only declared a civil contract, but the laws expressly recognize +that the mere consent of the parties is adequate to constitute a binding +marriage. The union of whites with persons of African descent is +forbidden. Felons twice convicted may not be pardoned except on the +recommendation of a majority of the judges of the supreme court. Judges +and state executive officers are elected for terms longer than is usual +in the different states (supreme judges 12 years, executive officers 4 +years). These few provisions are mentioned, not as of particular +importance in themselves, but as exceptions of some moment to the usual +type of state Constitutions (see UNITED STATES). The Australian ballot +was introduced in 1891. In local government there are no deviations from +the usual types that demand notice. In the matter of liquor-laws there +is local option, and a considerable proportion of the towns and smaller +cities, particularly in the south, adopt prohibition. In most of the +rest high licence is more or less strictly enforced. + +The total assessed valuation of property grew from $666,399,985 in 1880 +to $1,217,648,683 in 1900 and $1,879,728,763 in 1907. In 1904, when the +U.S. Census Report showed California to be the twenty-first state of the +Union in population but the sixth in wealth, the total estimated true +value of all property was $4,115,491,106, of which $2,664,472,025 was +the value of real property and improvements thereon. The per capita +wealth of the state was then reported as $2582.32, being exceeded only +by the three sparsely settled states of Montana, Wyoming and Nevada. In +1898 California had the largest savings-bank deposit per depositor +($637.75) of any state in the Union; the _per caput_ deposit was $110 in +1902, and about one person in seven was a depositor. The state bonded +debt in 1907 amounted to three and a half million dollars, of which all +but $767,529.03 was represented by bonds purchased by the state and held +for the school and university funds; for the common school fund on the +1st of July 1907 there were held bonds for $4,890,950, and $800,000 in +cash available for investment; for the university fund there were held +$751,000 in state bonds, and a large amount in other securities. The +total bonded county indebtedness was $4,879,600 in 1906 (not including +that of San Francisco, a consolidated city and county, which was +$4,568,600). A homestead, entered upon record and limited to a value of +$5000 if held by the head of a family and to a value of $1000 if held by +one not the head of a family, is exempt from liability for debts, except +for a mortgage, a lien before it was claimed as a homestead or a lien +afterward for improvements. A homestead held by a married man cannot be +mortgaged without consent of his wife. + +Under an act approved on the 25th of March 1903 a state board of +charities and corrections,--consisting of six members, not more than +three being of the same political party, appointed by the governor, with +the advice and consent of the senate, and holding office for twelve +years, two retiring at the end of each quadrennium,--investigates, +examines, and makes "reports upon the charitable, correctional and penal +institutions of the state," excepting the Veterans' Home at Yountville, +Napa county, and the Woman's Relief Corps Home at Evergreen, Santa Clara +county. There are state prisons with convicts working under the public +account system, at San Quentin, Marin county, and Folsom, Sacramento +county. The Preston (Sonoma county) School of Industry, for older boys, +and the Whittier (Los Angeles county) State School, for girls and for +boys under sixteen, are the state reformatories, each having good +industrial and manual training departments. There are state hospitals +for the insane at Agnew, Santa Clara county; at Stockton, San Joaquin +county; at Napa, Napa county; at Patton, San Bernardino county; and, +with a colony of tubercular patients, at Ukiah, Mendocino county. In +1906 the ratio of insane confined to institutions, to the total +population, was 1 to every 270. Also under state control are the home +for care and training of feeble-minded children, at Eldridge, Sonoma +county; the institution for the deaf and the blind at Berkeley, and the +home of mechanical trades for the adult blind at Oakland. A Juvenile +Court Law was enacted in 1903 and modified in 1905. + +The educational system of California is one of the best in the country. +The state board of education is composed of the governor of the state, +who is its president; the superintendent of public instruction, who is +its secretary; the presidents of the five normal schools and of the +University of California, and the professor of pedagogy in the +university. Sessions are long in primary schools, and attendance was +made compulsory in 1874 (and must not be less than two-thirds of all +school days). The state controlled the actual preparation and sale of +text-books for the common schools from 1885 to 1903, when the Perry +amendment to the constitution (ratified by popular vote in 1884) was +declared to mean that such text-books must be manufactured within the +state, but that the texts need not be prepared in California. The +experiment of state-prepared text-books was expensive, and its effect +was bad on the public school system, as such text-books were almost +without exception poorly written and poorly printed. After 1903 +copyrights were leased by the state. Secondary schools are closely +affiliated with, and closely inspected by, the state university. All +schools are generously supported, salaries are unusually good, and +pension funds in all cities are authorized by state laws. The value of +school property in 1900 was $19,135,722, and the expenditure for the +public schools $6,195,000; in 1906 the value of school property was +$29,013,150, and the expenditure for public schools $10,815,857. The +average school attendance for all minors of school age (5-20 years) was +59.9%; of those native-born 61.5, of those foreign-born 34.6; of +coloured children, including Asiatics and Indians, 35.8, and of white, +60.8%. In 1900, 6.2% of the males of voting age, and 2.4% of the +native-born males of voting age, were illiterate (could not write). Some +3% of the total population could not speak English; Chinese and +Japanese constituting almost half of the number, foreign-born whites +somewhat less, and Indians and native-born whites of foreign parentage +together less than a tenth of the total. Of the higher educational +institutions of the state the most important are the state university at +Berkeley and Leland Stanford Jr. University at Palo Alto. The former is +supported with very great liberality by the state; and the latter, the +endowment of which is private (the state, however, exempting it from +taxation), is one of the richest educational institutions of America. In +1906 there were also five state normal schools (at Chico, Los Angeles, +San Diego, San Francisco, and San José), and a considerable number of +denominational colleges. There is also a state polytechnic school at San +Luis Obispo (1903). + +_History._--The name "California" was taken from Ordoñez de Montalvo's +romance of chivalry _Las Sergas de Esplandian_ (Madrid, 1510), in which +is told of black Amazons ruling an island of this name "to the right of +the Indies, very near the quarter of the terrestrial paradise." The name +was given to the unknown north-west before 1540. It does not show that +the namers were prophets or wise judges, for the Spaniards really knew +California not at all for more than two centuries, and then only as a +genial but rather barren land; but it shows that the _conquistadores_ +mixed poetry with business and illustrates the glamour thrown about the +"Northern Mystery." Necessarily the name had for a long time no definite +geographical meaning. The lower Colorado river was discovered in 1540, +but the explorers did not penetrate California; in 1542-1543 Juan +Rodriguez Cabrillo explored at least the southern coast; in 1579 Sir +Francis Drake repaired his ships in some Californian port (almost +certainly not San Francisco Bay), and named the land New Albion; two +Philippine ships visited the coast in 1584 and 1595, and in 1602 and +1603 Sebastian Vizcaino discovered the sites of San Diego and Monterey. +There was apparently no increase of knowledge thereafter for 150 years. +Most of this time California was generally supposed to be an island or a +group of islands. Jesuit missionaries entered Lower California as early +as 1697, maintaining themselves there until Charles III.'s expulsion in +1767 of all Jesuits from his dominions; but not until Russian +explorations in Alaska from 1745-1765 did the Spanish government show +interest in Upper California. Because of these explorations, and also +the long-felt need of a refitting point on the California coast for the +galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 and Monterey in +1770 as a result of urgent orders from Charles III. San Francisco Bay +was discovered in the former year. Meanwhile the Jesuit property in the +Peninsula had been turned over to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the +Dominicans took over the missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly +withdrew to Upper California, where they were to thrive remarkably for +some fifty years. + + + The rule of the missions. + +This is the mission period--or from an economic standpoint, the +pastoral period--of Californian history. In all, twenty-one missions +were established between 1769 and 1823. The leader in this movement was +a really remarkable man, Miguel José Serra (known as Junipero Serra, +1713-1784), a friar of very great ability, purest piety, and tireless +zeal. He possessed great influence in Mexico and Madrid. "The theory of +the mission system," says H.H. Bancroft, "was to make the savages work +out their own salvation and that of the priests also." The last phrase +scarcely does justice to the truly humane and devout intentions of the +missionaries; but in truth the mission system was a complete failure +save in the accumulation of material wealth. Economically the missions +were the blood and life of the province. At them the neophytes worked up +wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cultivated hemp and wheat, raised a +few oranges, made soap, some iron and leather articles, mission +furniture, and a very little wine and olive oil. Such as it was, this +was about the only manufacturing or handicraft in California. Besides, +the hides and tallow yielded by the great herds of cattle at the +missions were the support of foreign trade and did much toward paying +the expenses of the government. The Franciscans had no sympathy for +profane knowledge, even among the Mexicans,--sometimes publicly burning +quantities of books of a scientific or miscellaneous nature; and the +reading of Fénelon's _Télémaque_ brought excommunication on a layman. As +for the intellectual development of the neophytes the mission system +accomplished nothing; save the care of their souls they received no +instruction, they were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal +dependence, so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once into +barbarism. It cannot be said, however, that Anglo-Americans have done +much better for them. + +The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808 made little +stir in this far-off province. Joseph was never recognized, and +allegiance was sworn to Ferdinand (1809). When revolution broke out in +Mexico (1811), California remained loyal, suffering much by the +cessation of supplies from Mexico, the resulting deficits falling as an +added burden upon the missions. The occupation of Monterey for a few +hours by a Buenos Aires privateer (1818) was the only incident of actual +war that California saw in all these years; and it, in truth, was a +ridiculous episode, fit introduction to the bloodless play-wars, soon to +be inaugurated in Californian politics. In 1820 the Spanish constitution +was duly sworn to in California, and in 1822 allegiance was given to +Mexico. Under the Mexican Federal constitution of 1824 Upper California, +first alone (it was made a distinct province in 1804) and then with +Lower California, received representation in the Mexican congress. + +The following years before American occupation may be divided into two +periods of quite distinct interest. From about 1840 to 1848 foreign +relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to 1840 there is a +complicated and not uninteresting movement of local politics and a +preparation for the future,--the missions fall, republicanism grows, the +sentiment of local patriotism becomes a political force, there is a +succession of sectional controversies and personal struggles among +provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign commerce, of foreign +immigration and of foreign influence. + +The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in sympathies. They +viewed with displeasure and foreboding the fall of Iturbide's empire and +the creation of the republic. They were not treasonable, but talked +much, refusing allegiance to the new government; and as they controlled +the resources of the colony and the good will of the Indians, they felt +their strength against the local authority; besides, they were its +constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with the growth +of republican ideas. There was talk in California of the rights of man +and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The missions were never +intended to be permanent. The missionaries were only the field workers +sent out to convert and civilize the Indians, who were to be turned over +then to the regular clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new +fields. This was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the +Spanish Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America +that were ten years old, but this decree was not published in +California until 1821. After that secularization was the burning +question in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made +in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough +secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was +consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and by 1840 at all. +At some of the missions the monks acted later as temporary curates for +the civil authorities, until in 1845-1846 all the missions were sold by +the government. Unfortunately the manner of carrying it out discredited +a policy neither unjust nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in +the political struggles of the time. The friars were in no way +mistreated: Californians did not share Mexican resentments against +Spaniards, and the national laws directed against these were in the main +quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question led to a +rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor Manuel +Victoria. He was driven out of the province. + +This was the first of the opéra bouffe wars. The causes underlying them +were serious enough. In the first place, there was a growing +dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accomplished nothing tangible +for good in California,--although its plans were as excellent as could +be asked had there only been peace and means to realize them; however, +it made the mistake of sending convicts as soldiers. Californians were +enthusiastic republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow +in coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of these and +other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of foreign residents, +and the ambitions of leading Californian families united to foment and +propagate discontent. The feeling against Mexicans--those "de la otra +banda" as they were significantly termed--invaded political and even +social life. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between +northern towns and southern towns, northern families and southern +families. These entered into disputes over the location of the capital +and the custom-house, in the Franciscan question also (because the +friars came some from a northern and some from a southern college), and +in the question of the distribution of commands in the army and offices +in the civil government. Then there was the mission question; this +became acuter about 1833 when the friars began to destroy, or sell and +realize on, the mission property. The next decade was one of plunder and +ruin in mission history. Finally there was a real growth of +republicanism, and some rulers--notably Victoria--were wholly out of +sympathy with anything but personal, military rule. From all these +causes sprang much unrest and considerable agitation. + +In 1828-1829 there was a revolution of unpaid soldiers aided by natives, +against alleged but not serious abuses, that really aimed at the +establishment of an independent native government. In 1831 Governor +Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Governor Mariano Chico was frightened out +of the province; in 1836 Governor Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1844-1845 +Governor Manuel Micheltorena were driven out of office. The leading +natives headed this last rising. There was talk of independence, but +sectional and personal jealousies could not be overcome. In all these +wars there was not enough blood shed to discolour a sword. The rising of +1836 against Gutierrez seems to-day most interesting, for it was in part +a protest against the growth of federalism in Mexico. California was +even deferred to as (declared to be seems much too strong a statement) +an Estado Libre y Soberano; and from 1836 to 1838, when the +revolutionary governor, Juan B. Alvarado, was recognized by the Mexican +government, which had again inclined to federalism and, besides, did not +take the matter very seriously, the local government rested simply on +local sentiment. The satisfaction of this ended all difficulties. + + + American immigration. + + American and European intriques. + +By this time foreign influence was showing itself of importance. Foreign +commerce, which of course was contraband, being contrary to all Spanish +laws, was active by the beginning of the 19th century. It was greatly +stimulated during the Spanish-American revolutions (the Lima and Panama +trade dating from about 1813), for, as the Californian authorities +practically ignored the law, smuggling was unnecessary; this was, +indeed, much greater after 1822 under the high duties (in 1836-1840 +generally about 100%) of the Mexican tariffs. In the early 'forties some +three-fourths of the imports, even at Monterey itself, are said to have +paid no duties, being landed by agreement with the officials. Wholesale +and retail trade flourished all along the coast in defiance of +prohibitory laws. American trade was by far most important. The Boston +traders--whose direct trade began in 1822, but the indirect ventures +long before that--were men of decided influence in California. The trade +supplied almost all the clothing, merchandise and manufactures used in +the province; hides and furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade +was not to be received, still less were foreign travellers, under the +Spanish laws. However, the Russians came in 1805, and in 1812 founded on +Bodega Bay a post they held till 1841, whence they traded and hunted +(even in San Francisco Bay) for furs. From the day of the earliest +foreign commerce sailors and traders of divers nationalities began to +settle in the province. In 1826 American hunters first crossed to the +coast; in 1830 the Hudson's Bay Company began operations in northern +California. By this time the foreign element was considerable in number, +and it doubled in the next six years, although the true overland +immigration from the United States began only about 1840. As a class +foreigners were respected, and they were influential beyond proportion +to their numbers. They controlled commerce, and were more energetic, +generally, than were the natives; many were naturalized, held generous +grants of land, and had married into Californian families, not excluding +the most select and influential. Most prominent of Americans in the +interior was John A. Sutter (1803-1880), who held a grant of eleven +square leagues around the present site of Sacramento, whereon he built a +fort. His position as a Mexican official, and the location of his +fortified post on the border, commanding the interior country and lying +on the route of the overland immigrants, made him of great importance in +the years preceding and immediately following American occupation; +although he was a man of slight abilities and wasted his great +opportunities. Other settlers in the coast towns were also of high +standing and importance. In short, Americans were hospitably received +and very well treated by the government and the people; despite some +formalities and ostensible surveillance there was no oppression +whatever. There was, however, some jealousy of the ease with which +Americans secured land grants, and an entirely just dislike of "bad" +Americans. The sources from which all the immigrants were recruited made +inevitable an element of lawlessness and truculence. The Americans +happened to predominate. Along with a full share of border individuality +and restlessness they had the usual boisterous boastfulness and a racial +contempt, which was arrogantly proclaimed, for Mexicans,--often too for +Mexican legal formalities. The early comers were a conservative force in +politics, but many of the later comers wanted to make California a +second Texas. As early as 1805 (at the time of James Monroe's +negotiations for Florida), there are traces of Spain's fear of American +ambitions even in this far-away province. It was a fear she felt for all +her American possessions. Spain's fears passed on to Mexico, the +Russians being feared only less than Americans. An offer was made by +President Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern part of California, +including San Francisco Bay, but was refused. In 1836 and 1844 Americans +were prominent in the incidents of revolution; divided in opinion in +both years they were neutral in the actual "hostilities" of the latter, +but some gave active support to the governor in 1836. From 1836 on, +foreign interference was much talked about. Americans supposed that +Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; France +also was thought to be watching for an opening for gratifying supposed +ambitions; and all parties saw that even without overt act by the United +States the progress of American settlement seemed likely to gain them +the province, whose connexion with Mexico had long been a notoriously +loose one. A considerable literature written by travellers of all the +countries named had before this discussed all interests. In 1840 for too +active interest in politics some Americans and Englishmen were +temporarily expelled. + + + The "Bear Flag." + +In 1842 Commodore T.A.C. Jones (1789-1858) of the United States navy, +believing that war had broken out between his country and Mexico and +that a British force was about to seize California, raised the American +flag over Monterey (October 21st), but finding that he had acted on +misinformation he lowered the flag next day with due ceremony and warm +apology. In California this incident served only to open up agreeable +personal relations and social courtesies, but it did not tend to clarify +the diplomatic atmosphere. It showed the ease of seizing the country, +the indifference of the natives, and the resolution of the United States +government. Mexico sought to prevent American immigration, but the local +authorities would not enforce such orders, however positive. Between +1843 and 1845, Great Britain, the United States, and France opened +consulates. By 1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among +all American residents (then not 700 in number) as regards the future of +the country. The policy of France and Great Britain in these years is +unknown. That of the United States is fully known. In 1845 the American +consul at Monterey, Thomas O. Larkin (1802-1858), was instructed to work +for the secession of California from Mexico, without overt aid from the +United States, but with their good-will and sympathy. He very soon +gained from leading officers assurances of such a movement before 1848. +At the same time American naval officers were instructed to occupy the +ports in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the +good-will of the natives. In 1845 Captain J.C. Frémont,--whose doings in +California in the next two years were among the main assets in a +life-long reputation and an unsuccessful presidential campaign,--while +engaged in a government surveying expedition, aroused the apprehensions +of the Californian authorities by suspicious and very possibly +intentionally provocative movements, and there was a show of military +force by both parties. Frémont had information beyond that of ordinary +men that made him believe early hostilities between the United States +and Mexico to be inevitable; he was also officially informed of Larkin's +secret task and in no way authorized to hamper it. Resentment, however, +incited him to personal revenge on the Californian government, and an +ambition that clearly saw the gravity of the crisis prompted him to +improve it unscrupulously for his own advancement, leaving his +government to support or disavow him according as war should come or +not. In violation therefore of international amities, and practically in +disobedience of orders, he broke the peace, caused a band of Mexican +cavalry mounts to be seized, and prompted some American settlers to +occupy Sonoma (14th June 1846). This episode is known as the "Bear Flag +War," inasmuch as there was short-lived talk of making California an +independent state, and a flag with a bear as an emblem (California is +still popularly known as the Bear Flag State) flew for a few days at +Sonoma. It was a very small, very disingenuous, inevitably an anomalous, +and in the vanity of proclamations and other concomitant incidents +rather a ridiculous affair; and fortunately for the dignity of +history--and for Frémont--it was quickly merged in a larger question, +when Commodore John Drake Sloat (1780-1867) on the 7th of July raised +the flag of the United States over Monterey, proclaiming California a +part of the United States. The opening hostilities of the Mexican War +had occurred on the Rio Grande. The excuses and explanations later given +by Frémont--military preparations by the Californian authorities, the +imminence of their attack, ripening British schemes for the seizure of +the province, etc.--made up the stock account of historians until the +whole truth came out in 1886 (in Royce's _California_). Californians had +been very friendly to Americans, but Larkin's intimates thought they had +been tricked, and the people resented the stealthy and unprovoked +breaking of peace, and unfortunately the Americans did not known how to +treat them except inconsiderately and somewhat contemptuously. The +result was a feeble rising in the south. The country was fully pacified +by January 1847. The aftermath of Frémont's filibustering acts, followed +as they were by wholly needless hostilities and by some injustice then +and later in the attitude of Americans toward the natives, was a growing +misunderstanding and estrangement, regrettable in Californian history. +Thus there was an end to the "lotos-land society" of California. Another +society, less hospitable, less happy, less contented, but also less +mild, better tempered for building states, and more "progressive," took +the place of the old. + + + California ceded to the United States. + + The rush for gold. + +By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 Mexico ceded California to +the United States. It was just at this time that gold was discovered, +and the new territory took on great national importance. The discussion +as to what should be done with it began in Congress in 1846, immediately +involving the question of slavery. A furious conflict developed, so that +nothing was accomplished in two successive sessions; even at the end of +a third, in March 1849, the only progress made toward creating a +government for the territory was that the national revenue laws had been +extended over it and San Francisco had been made a port of entry. +Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabitants. Before the +end of the war Mexican laws not incompatible with United States laws +were by international law supposed to be in force; but nobody knew what +they were, and the uncertainties of vague and variable alcalde +jurisdictions were increased when Americans began to be alcaldes and +grafted English common-law principles, like the jury, on Californian +practice. Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the +motley Californian people of 1848-1849, yet they had none when, with +peace, military rule and Mexican law technically ended. There was a +curious extra-legal fusion of laws, a half-breed legal system, and no +definite basis for either law or government. Even the acts and theories +of the officials were very inconsistent. Early in 1849 temporary local +governments were set up in various towns, and in September a convention +framed a free-state constitution and applied for admission to the Union. +On the 7th of September 1850 a bill finally passed Congress admitting +California as a free state. This was one of the bargains in the +"Compromise Measures of 1850" that were intended to dispose of the +question of slavery in the Territories. Meanwhile the gold discoveries +culminated and surpassed "three centuries of wild talk about gold in +California." For three months there was little excitement, then a wild +rush. Settlements were completely deserted; homes, farms and stores +abandoned. Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San +Francisco--there were 500 of them in July 1850; soldiers deserted +wholesale, churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit, +merchants, clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody, flocked +to the foothills. Soon, from Hawaii, Oregon and Sonora, from the Eastern +states, the South Seas, Australia, South America and China came an +extraordinary flow of the hopeful and adventurous. In the winter of '48 +the rush began from the states to Panama, and in the spring across the +plains. It is estimated that 80,000 men reached the coast in 1849, about +half of them coming overland; three-fourths were Americans. Rapid +settlement, excessive prices, reckless waste of money, and wild +commercial ventures that glutted San Francisco with all objects usable +and unusable made the following years astounding from an economic point +of view; but not less bizarre was the social development, nor less +extraordinary the problems of state-building in a society "morally and +socially tried as no other American community ever has been tried" +(Royce). There was of course no home life in early California. In 1850 +women numbered 8% of the population, but only 2% in the mining +counties. The miners were an energetic, covetous, wandering, abnormally +excitable body of men. Occasionally a kind of frenzy even would seem to +seize on them, and lured by the hope of new deposits of unheard-of +richness thousands would flock on unfounded rumours to new and perhaps +distant localities, where many might perish from disease and starvation, +the rest returning in poverty and rags. Such were the Kern River fever +of 1855 and the greater "Fraser River rush" of 1858, the latter, which +took perhaps 20,000 men out of the state, causing a terrible amount of +suffering. Many interior towns lost half their population and some +virtually all their population as a result of this emigration; and it +precipitated a real estate crash in San Francisco that threatened +temporary ruin. Mining times in California brought out some of the most +ignoble and some of the best traits of American character. Professor +Josiah Royce has pictured the social-moral process by which society +finally impressed its "claims on wayward and blind individuals" who +"sought wealth and not a social order," and so long as possible shirked +all social obligations. Through varied instruments--lynch law, popular +courts, vigilance committees--order was, however, enforced, better as +times went on, until there was a stable condition of things. In the +economic life and social character of California to-day the legacies of +1848 are plain. + + + Disputed land grants. + +The slavery question was not settled for California in 1850. Until the +Civil War the division between the Whig and Democratic parties, whose +organization in California preceded statehood, was essentially based on +slavery. The struggle fused with the personal contests of two men, +rivals for the United States Senate, William McKendree Gwin (1805-85, +U.S. senator, 1850-55 and 1857-61), the leader of the pro-slavery party, +and David Colbreth Broderick (1819-1859), formerly a leader of Tammany +in New York, and after 1857 a member from California of the United +States Senate, the champion of free labour, who declared in 1860 for the +policy of the Republican party. Broderick's undoing was resolved upon by +the slavery party, and he was killed in a duel. The Gwin party hoped to +divide California into two states and hand the southern over to slavery; +on the eve of the Civil War it considered the scheme of a Pacific coast +republic. The decade 1850-1860 was also marked by the activity of +filibusters against Sonora and Central America. Two of these--a French +adventurer, one Gaston Raoux, comte de Raousset-Boulbon (1817-1854), and +William Walker, had very picturesque careers. The state was thoroughly +loyal when war came. The later 'fifties are characterized by H.H. +Bancroft as a period of "moral, political and financial night." National +politics were put first, to the complete ignoring of excessive taxation, +financial extravagance, ignorant legislation and corruption in +California. The public was exploited for many years with impunity for +the benefit of private interests. One legacy that ought to be briefly +noted here is that of disputed land grants. Under the Mexican régime +such grants were generous and common, and the complicated formalities +theoretically essential to their validity were very often, if not +usually, only in part attended to. Titles thus gained would never have +been questioned under continued Mexican government, but Americans were +unaccustomed to such riches in land and to such laxity. From the very +first hundreds "squatted" on large claims, contesting the title. Instead +of confirming all claims existing when the country passed to the United +States, and so ensuring an immediate settlement of the matter, which was +really the most important thing for the peace and purse of the +community, the United States government undertook through a land +commission and courts to sift the valid from the fraudulent. Claims of +enormous aggregate value were thus considered and a large part of those +dating from the last years of Mexican dominion (many probably artfully +concocted and fraudulently antedated after the commission was at work) +were finally rejected. This litigation filled the state and federal +courts for many years. The high value of realty in San Francisco +naturally offered extraordinary inducements to fraud, and the largest +part of the city was for years involved in fraudulent claims, and its +peace broken by "squatter"-troubles. Twenty or thirty years of the +state's life were disturbed by these controversies. Land monopoly is an +evil of large proportions in California to-day, but it is due to the +laxness of the United States government in enabling speculators to +accumulate holdings and not to the original extent of Mexican grants. + +In state gubernatorial elections after the Civil War the Democrats won +in 1867, 1875, 1882, 1886, 1894; the Republicans in 1871, 1879, 1890, +1898, 1902, 1906, 1910. Features of political life and of legislation +after 1876 were a strong labour agitation, the struggle for the +exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of hydraulic mining, +irrigation, and the advancement by state-aid of the fruit interests; the +last three of which have already been referred to above. Labour +conditions were peculiar in the decade following 1870. Mining, war times +and the building of the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices +and prosperity. Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather +that money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there was +any over-supply of labour. The turning off of some 15,000 Chinese +(principally in 1869-1870) from the Central Pacific lines who flocked to +San Francisco, augmented the discontent of incompetents, of disappointed +late immigrants, and the reaction from flush times. Labour unions became +strong and demonstrative. In 1877-1878 Denis Kearney (1847-1907), an +Irish drayman and demagogue of considerable force and daring, headed the +discontented. This is called the "sand-lots agitation" from the +favourite meeting-place (in San Francisco) of the agitators. + +The outcome of these years was the Constitution of 1879, already +described, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law. In 1879 +California voted against further immigration of Chinese by 154,638 to +883. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in 1902. All authorities +agree that the Chinese in early years were often abused in the mining +country and their rights most unjustly neglected by the law and its +officers. Men among the most respected in California (Joaquin Miller, +H.H. Bancroft and others) have said most in praise and defence of the +Chinaman. From railroad making to cooking he has proved his abilities +and trustworthiness. He is found to-day in the mines and fisheries, in +various lines of manufacture, in small farming, and in all branches of +domestic service. The question of the economic development of the state, +and of trade to the Orient, the views of the mercenary labour-contractor +and of the philanthropist, the factor of "upper-race" repugnance, the +"economic-leech" argument, the "rat-rice-filth-and-opium" argument, have +all entered into the problem. Certain it is that though the unprejudiced +must admit that exclusion has not been at all an unmixed blessing, yet +the consensus of opinion is that a large population, non-citizen and +non-assimilable, sending--it is said--most of their earnings to China, +living in the main meanly at best, and practically without wives, +children or homes, is socially and economically a menace outweighing the +undoubted convenience of cheaper (and frequently more trustworthy) +menial labour than the other population affords. The exclusion had much +to do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable and in +leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops. Many of +the Chinese now in the state are wealthy. Race feeling against them has +become much less marked. + +One outcome of early mission history, the "Pious Fund of the +Californias," claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague Tribunal. (See +ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL, Hague cases section.) In 1906-1907 there was +throughout the state a remarkable anti-Japanese agitation, centring in +San Francisco (q.v.) and affecting international relations and national +politics. + + GOVERNORS OF CALIFORNIA (State)[6] + + I. SPANISH + + Gasper de Portolá served 1767-1770 + Filipe de Barri " 1771-1774 + Felipe de Neve " 1774-1782 + Pedro Pages " 1782-1791 + Jose Antonio Romeu " 1791-1792 + *José Joaquin de Arillaga " 1792-1794 + Diego de Borica " 1794-1800 + *José Joaquin de Arillaga " 1800-1804 + José Joaquin de Arillaga " 1804-1814 + *José Diario Arguello " 1814-1815 + Pablo Vicente de Sola " 1815-1822 + + II. Mexican + + Pablo Vicente de Sola served 1822 + *Luis Antonio Arguello " 1822-1825 + José Maria Echeandía " 1825-1831 + Manuel Victoria " 1831 + José Maria Echeandía[7] " 1831-1832 + Pio Pico[8] " 1832 + José Figueroa " 1832-1835 + *José Castro " 1835-1836 + *Nicolas Gutierrez " 1836 + Mariano Chico " 1836 + Nicolas Gutierrez " 1836 + Juan Bautista Alvarado[9] " 1836-1842 + Carlos Antonio Carrillo[10] " 1837-1838 + Manuel Micheltorena " 1842-1845 + Pio Pico " 1845-1846 + + III AMERICAN + (a) _Military_ + + John D. Sloat appointed 1846 + Richard F. Stockton " 1846-1847 + Stephen W. Kearny " 1847 + R.B. Mason " 1847-1849 + Bennett Riley " 1849 + + (b) _State_. + + Peter H. Burnett 1849-1851 Democrat + *John H. McDougall 1851-1852 " + John Bigler 1852-1856 " + John M. Johnson 1856-1858 Know Nothing + John B. Weller 1858-1860 Lecompton Democrat + Milton S. Latham 1869 (6 days) " " + *John G. Downey 1860-1862 " " + Leland Stanford 1862-1863 Republican + Frederick F. Low 1863-1867 " + Henry H. Haight 1867-1871 Democrat + Newton Booth 1871-1875 Republican + *Romualdo Pacheco 1875 " + William Irwin 1875-1880 Democrat + George G. Perkins 1880-1883 Republican + George C. Stoneman 1883-1887 Democrat + Washington Bartlett 1887 " + *Robert W. Waterman 1887-1891 Republican + Henry H. Markham 1891-1895 " + James H. Budd 1895-1899 Democrat + Henry T. Gage 1899-1903 Republican + George C. Pardee 1903-1907 " + James N. Gillett 1907-1911 " + Hiram W. Johnson 1911- " + + The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors indicates + that he acted only _ad interim_, and, in the case of governors since + 1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor and + succeeded to the office of governor. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For list of works on California, see University of + California _Library Bulletin_, No. 9, 1887, "List of Printed Maps of + California"; catalogue of state official publications by State Library + (Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on different + aspects:-- + + TOPOGRAPHY.--J. Muir, _Mountains of California_ (New York, 1894); H. + Gannett, "Dictionary of Elevations" (1898), and "River Profiles," + publications of _United States Geological Survey_; G.W. James, _The + Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906). + + CLIMATE, &c.--_U.S. Department of Agriculture, California Climate and + Crop Service_, monthly reports; E.S. Holden, _Recorded, Earthquakes + in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington Territory_ + (California State University, 1887); _United States Department + Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins,_ Alexander G. McAdie, + "Climatology of California" (Washington, 1903). There is a great mass + of general descriptive literature, especially on Southern California, + such as Charles Dudley Warner, _Our Italy_ (New York, 1891); Kate + Sanborn, _A Truthful Woman in Southern California_ (New York, 1893); + W. Lindley and J.P. Widney, _California of the South_ (New York, + 1896); J.W. Hanson, _American Italy_ (Chicago, 1896); T.S. Van Dyke, + _Southern California_ (New York, 1886), &c. + + FAUNA, FLORA.--Muir, _op. cit._; _United States Geological Survey, + 19th Annual Report_, pt. v., H. Gannett, "Forests of the United + States"; idem, _20th Annual Report,_ pt. v., "United States Forest + Reserves"; _United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin_ No. 28, "A + Short Account of the Big Trees of California" (1900), No. 38, "The + Redwood" (a volume, 1903), also _Professional Papers, e.g._ No. 8, + J.B. Leiberg, "Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada" + (1902); _California Board of Forestry, Reports_ (1885- ); _United + States Censuses,_ reports on forests; _United States Biological + Survey, North American Fauna,_ No. 16, 1899, C.H. Merriam, + "Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta"; _United States Department + Agriculture, Contributions from United States National Herbarium,_ + iv., 1893, F.V. Coville, "Botany of Death Valley Expedition"; _State + Board of Fish Commissioners, Reports,_ from 1877; _United States Fish + Commissioners, Annual Reports,_ from 1871, and _Bulletins_ from 1882; + J. le Conte, "Flora of the Coast Islands" (1887), being _Bulletin_ No. + 8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its _Proceedings_, + _Memoirs_, and _Occasional Papers;_ G.J. Peirce, _Studies on the + Coast Redwood_ (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University, 1901). + + AGRICULTURE.--_California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins_ + from 1884; _Reports of the State Dairy Bureau_, from 1898; _State + Board of Horticulture, Reports,_ 1889-1894; _United States Censuses,_ + 1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation. + + INDUSTRIES.--J.S. Hittell, _Resources of California_ (7th ed., San + Francisco, 1879); J.S. Hittell, _Commerce and Industries of the + Pacific Coast_ (San Francisco, 1882); T.F. Cronise, _Natural Wealth + of California_ (San Francisco, 1868); E.W. Maslin, _Resources of + California,_ prepared by order of Governor H.H. Markham (Sacramento, + 1893); _United States Treasury, Bureau of Statistics,_ report by T.J. + Vivian on "Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Transportation and + Other Industries of California" (Washington 1890, valuable for whole + period before 1890); _United States Censuses,_ 1890 and 1900, reports + on agriculture, manufactures, mines and fisheries; _California State + Board of Trade_ (San Francisco), _Annual Report_ from 1890. On Mineral + Industries:--J.R. Browne, Report on "Mineral Resources of the States + and Territories west of the Rocky Mountains" (_United States + Treasury,_ 2 vols., Washington, 1867-1868); _United States Geological + Survey, Annual Reports, Mineral Resources;_ consult also the + bibliographies of publications of the _Survey_, issued as _Bulletins; + California State Mining Bureau, Bulletins_ from 1888, note especially + No. 30, 1904, by A.W. Vodges, "Bibliography relating to the Geology, + Palaeontology and Mineral Resources of California" (2nd ed., the 1st + being _Bulletin_ No. 10, 1896); _California Débris Commission_, + _Reports_ (in _Annual Reports Chief of Engineers, United States Army,_ + from 1893). + + GOVERNMENT.--E.F. Treadwell, _The Constitution of the State of + California ... Annotated_ (San Francisco, 1902); _Johns Hopkins + University, Studies in History and Political Science,_ xiii., R.D. + Hunt, "Genesis of California's First Constitution"; _Annals of the + American Academy of Political and Social Science,_ xii., R.D. Hunt, + "Legal Status of California, 1846-1849"; Reports of the various + officers, departments and administrative boards of the state + government (Sacramento), and also the _Appendix to the Journals of the + Senate and Assembly,_ which contains, especially in the earlier + decades of the state's history, many of these state official reports + along with valuable legislative reports of varied character. + + HISTORY.--Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by Z.E. + Eldridge in _California Genealogical Society_ (1901); elaborate + bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many + works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work of two + men, Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The former has + published a _History of California, 1542-1890_ (7 vols., San + Francisco, 1884-1890), also _California Pastoral, 1769-1848_ (San + Francisco, 1888), _California Inter-Pocula, 1848-1856_ (San Francisco, + 1888), and _Popular Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887). These + volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft's direction and + control by an office staff, and are of very unequal value; they are a + vast storehouse of detailed material which is of great usefulness, + although their judgments of men are often inadequate and prejudiced. + As regards events the histories are of substantial accuracy and + adequacy. Written by one hand and more uniform in treatment and good + judgment, is T.H. Hittell's _History of California_ (4 vols., San + Francisco, 1885-1897). The older historian of the state was Francisco + Palou, a Franciscan, the friend and biographer of Serra; his "Noticias + de la Nueva California" (Mexico, 1857, in the _Doc. Hist. Mex.,_ ser. + iv., tom, vi.-viii.; also San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer + of importance save for its historical interest. Of the contemporary + material on the period of Mexican domination the best is afforded by + R.H. Dana's _Two Years Before the Mast_ (New York, 1840, many later + and foreign editions); also A. Robinson, _Life in California_ (New + York, 1846); and Alexander Forbes, _California: A History of Upper and + Lower California from their First Discovery to the Present Time_ + (London, 1839); see also F.W. Blackmar, "Spanish Institutions of the + Southwest" (_Johns Hopkins University Studies,_ 1891). A beautiful, + vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is given + in Helen Hunt Jackson's novel, _Ramona_ (New York, 1884). There is no + really scientific separate account of mission history; there are books + by Father Z. Engelhart, _The Franciscans in California_ (Harbor + Springs, Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan + standpoint; C.F. Carter, _Missions of Nueva California_ (San + Francisco, 1900); Bryan J. Clinch, _California and its Missions: Their + History to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo_ (2 vols., San Francisco, + 1904); Francisco Palou, _Relacion Historica de la Vida ... del Fray + Junipero Serra_ (Mexico, 1787), the standard contemporary source; the + _Craftsman_ (Syracuse, N.Y., vol. v.), a series of articles on + "Mission Buildings," by G.W. James. On the case of the Pious Fund of + the missions see J.F. Doyle, _History of the Pious Fund_ (San + Francisco, 1887); _United States Department of State,_ "United States + _v._ Mexico. Report of J.H. Ralston, agent of the United States and of + counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Californias" + (Washington, 1902). On the "flush" mining years the best books of the + time are J.Q. Thornton's _Oregon and California_ (2 vols., New York, + 1849); Edward Bryant's _What I Saw in California_ (New York, 1848); W. + Shaw's _Golden Dreams_ (London, 1851); Bayard Taylor's _Eldorado_ (2 + vols., New York, 1850); W. Colton's _Three Years in California_ (New + York, 1850); E.G. Buffum's _Six Months in the Gold Mines; from a + Journal of Three Years' Residence in Upper and Lower California_ + (London, 1850); J.T. Brooks' _Four Months among the Gold Finders_ + (London, 1849); G.G. Foster, _Gold Regions of California_ (New York, + 1884). On this same period consult Bancroft's _Popular Tribunals_; + D.Y. Thomas, "A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired + Territory of the United States," in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of + _Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law_; + C.H. Shinn's _Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government_ + (New York, 1885); J. Royce, _California ... A Study of American + Character, 1846-1856_ (Boston, 1886); and, for varied pictures of + mining and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret + Harte. See also P.H. Burnet, _Recollections and Opinions of an Old + Pioneer_ (New York, 1880); S.J. Field, _Personal Reminiscences of + Early Days in California_ (privately published, copyright 1893). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was + occupied by a lake 60 m. long. + + [2] During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at San + Francisco ranged from 11.37 to 49.27 in.; from 1850 to 1904 the + average was 22.74, and the probable annual variation 4 in. + + [3] The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and Fresno, + of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey and + Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them lie + between 56° and 63° F. The places mentioned are scattered over 3½° of + longitude and 6½° of latitude. + + [4] Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use of + turbines are important features of such plants. One on the North Yuba + river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves Oakland, San + Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in San Francisco + (220 m. away) 75% of its power. Other plants are one at Electra (154 + m. from San Francisco), and one on the San Joaquin, which delivers to + Fresno 62 m. distant. + + [5] The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments + under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for + 1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows:--total value of + products, 1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of + 42.7%; leading industries, with value of product in millions of + dollars--canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23.8 millions, + third in 1900 with 13.4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing, + second in 1905 with 21.79 millions, first in 1900 with 15.71 + millions; flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20.2 + millions, fourth in 1900 with 13.04 millions; lumber and timber, + fourth in 1905 with 18.27 millions, second in 1900 with 13.71 + millions; printing and publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17.4 millions, + sixth in 1900 with 9.6 millions; foundry and machine shop products, + sixdth in 1905 with 15.7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12.04 millions; + planing mill products, seventh in 1905 with 13.9 millions, twelfth in + 1900 with 4.8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in + 1905 with 10.6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4.87 millions. + + [6] As months and even years often elapsed between the date when + early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual + service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of + service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at + Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto in + Lower California. All the Spanish and Mexican governors were + appointed by the national government, except in the case of the + semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose + title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national + statute regarding gubernatorial vacancies. + + [7] Acting political chief, revolutionary title. + + [8] Briefly recognized in South. + + [9] Revolutionary title, 1836-1838. + + [10] Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North. + + + + +CALIFORNIA, LOWER (_Baja California_), a long narrow peninsula between +the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, forming a territory of the +republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), 42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California +is a southward extension of the State of California, United States, and +is touched by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E. +The peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and has +an area of 58,328 sq. m. It is traversed throughout its entire length by +an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes toward the Pacific +in a succession of low hills, but breaks down abruptly toward the Gulf. +The coast has two or three good sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the +Gulf side and of Magdalena on the Pacific side being best known. The +coast is bordered by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. +The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly +because of the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty +rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of +the desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern part is +hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern part receives +more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild and pleasant climate. +The principal natural product in this region is _orchil_, or Spanish +moss, but by means of irrigation the soil produces a considerable +variety of products, including sugar cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, +tobacco and grapes. Horses, sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile +valleys, but only to a limited extent. The territory is rich in +minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and +salt. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early +as 1700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz +being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W. +coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of mining and +other industries in the territory has led to an extension of the +California railway system southward into the peninsula, with the Mexican +government's permission, the first section of 37 m. from the northern +frontier being completed and opened to traffic in 1907. The territory is +divided into two districts, the northern having its capital at the +insignificant little village of La Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and +the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay +opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamships running +between Mazatlan and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in +1900. La Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San +Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory, +and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m. +inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures and +exports flour and leather. + +By orders of Cortés the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539 +by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It was called +California, the name (according to E.E. Hale) being derived from a +popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled _Sergas de Esplandian_, +in which an island named California was mentioned and situated "on the +right hand of the Indies, very near the terrestrial paradise." The name +must have been given derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower +California could not have suggested the proximity of a "terrestrial +paradise." The exploration of the coast did not extend above the +peninsula until 1842. The name California was at first applied +exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait +connected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name +Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous theory was held as +late as 1721. The first settlement was made in 1597, but was abandoned. +From 1633 to 1683 five unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a +settlement at La Paz. Finally the Jesuits succeeded in founding a +mission at Loreto on the Gulf coast, in about 26° N. lat., in 1697, and +at La Paz in 1720. At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had +sixteen missions which were either self-supporting or were maintained by +funds invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper +California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were +distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, the +seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. The two +provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one governor +residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then reunited in a single +department through the political changes of 1836, which lasted no later +than 1847. Lower California was only slightly disturbed by the struggle +for independence among the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822 +Admiral Lord Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean +revolutionists, appeared on the coast and plundered San José del Cabo, +Todos Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United States +La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small detachments from +California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under +William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic +consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the +mainland, the filibusters first withdrew to La Ensenada, near the +American frontier, and then in the following year broke up altogether +during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the +leadership of Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, +but died for want of material support in 1880. The development of mining +and other industries since that time, together with vigorous efforts to +found colonies in the more favoured localities, have greatly improved +the situation in the territory. + + See the two volumes of H.H. Bancroft's _North Mexican States and + Texas_, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his _Works_; also Arthur Walbridge + North, _The Mother of California_ (San Francisco, 1908). + + + + +CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most important of +state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, California, on the +E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place of the College of +California (founded in 1855), received California's portion of the +Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered as a state institution by the +legislature in 1868, and opened its doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it +was removed to its present site. In the revised state constitution of +1879 provision is made for it as the head of the state's educational +system. The grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes +(299-900 ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above +the university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the Golden +Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings have gradually +been provided. In 1896 an international architectural competition was +opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. Hearst (made a regent of the +university in 1898) for plans for a group of buildings harmonizing with +the university's beautiful site, and ignoring all buildings already +existing. The first prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Bénard, of Paris. +The first building begun under the new plans was that for the college of +mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, providing worthily +for the important school of mining, from 1885 directed by Prof. S.B. +Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, built by state appropriation, had +been completed in 1906. The Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium +seating 7500 spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering +eucalypts, was the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used +regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra, under +the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), who originated +the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free public concerts are given on +Sunday afternoons; and there have been some remarkable dramatic +performances here, notably Sudraka's _Mricchakattika_ in English, and +Aeschylus's _Eumenides_ in Greek, in April 1907. There are no +dormitories. Student self-government works through the "Undergraduate +Students' Affairs Committee" of the Associated Students. The faculty of +the university has its own social club, with a handsome building on the +grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the colleges of letters, +social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, agriculture, mechanical, +mining and civil engineering, and chemistry, and the first two years' +course of the college of medicine--the Toland Medical College having +been absorbed by the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of +the Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of +dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post graduate +or clinical) years of the medical course--the San Francisco Polyclinic +having become a part of the university in 1892. Three of the San +Francisco departments occupy a group of three handsome buildings in the +western part of the city, overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick +astronomical department (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San +José, occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by +James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with $700,000, +$610,000 of this being used for the original buildings and equipments, +which were formally transferred to the university in 1888. The art +department (San Francisco Institute of art) was until 1906 housed in the +former home of Mark Hopkins, a San Francisco "railroad king"; it dated +from 1893, under the name "Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building +was destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under its +present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the old site. At the +university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davisville, Yolo county, +instruction is given in practical agriculture, horticulture, dairying, +&c.; courses in irrigation are given at Berkeley; a laboratory of plant +pathology, established in 1907 at Whittier, Riverside county, and an +experiment station on 20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study +of plant and tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine +biological laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and +another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; the +Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. The +university has excellent anthropological and archaeological collections, +mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by Mrs Hearst, to Peru +and to Egypt. In 1907 the university library contained 160,000 volumes, +ranking, after the destruction of most of the San Francisco libraries in +1906, as the largest collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe +library (given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of +the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has also the +valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and countless pamphlets +and manuscripts, dealing principally with the history of the Pacific +Coast from Alaska through Central America, and of the Rocky Mountain +region, including Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico +and Western Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe +Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr Bancroft +contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the newly organized +Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library of Karl Weinhold +(1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich in Germanic linguistics +and "culture history," was presented to the university in 1903 by John +D. Spreckels. The university publishes _The University of California +Chronicle_, an official record; and there are important departmental +publications, especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, +edited by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of +various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physiology, edited by +Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited by William Albert Setchell (b. +1864); in zoology, edited by William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in +astronomy, the publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William +Wallace Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry Morse +Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of history, a department +of university extension was organized; lecture courses, especially on +history and literature, were delivered in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension +"centres," at most of which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the +university, but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley +Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological Seminary +(Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary and a Unitarian +school. + +The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From 1890 to 1900 +the number of students increased fourfold. In the latter year the +university of California was second to Harvard only in the number of +academic graduate and undergraduate students, and fifth among the +educational institutions of the country in total enrolment. In July 1907 +there were 519 officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 +were in the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there +were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for 1906-1907 +thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. The university +conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in 1905. The affairs of +the university are administered by a board of twenty-three regents, +seven state officials and heads of educational institutions, being +members _ex officio_, and sixteen other members being appointed by the +governor and senate of the state; its instruction is governed by the +faculties of the different colleges, and an academic senate in which +these are joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was +$1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from investments, state +and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder was gifts and +endowments. There is a permanent endowment of more than $3,000,000, +partly from munificent private gifts, especially from Mrs Hearst and +from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The financial support of the state has always +been generous. No tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to +students resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students +from without the state. The university maintains about 90 undergraduate +scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellowships. All +able-bodied male students are required to take the courses in military +science, under instruction by an officer of the United States army +detailed for the purpose. Physical culture and hygiene are prescribed +for all men and women. A state law forbids the sale of liquor within one +mile of the university grounds. To realize the ideal of the university +as the head of the educational system of the state, a system of +inspection of high schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching +the prescribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for +admission to the university without examination. It was anticipated at +one time that the foundation of the Leland Stanford Junior University at +Palo Alto would injure the state institution at Berkeley; but in +practice this was not found to be the case; on the contrary, the +competition resulted in giving new vigour and enterprise to the older +university. Joseph Le Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. +Oilman (president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly +connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler (b. 1854) +became president. He had been a graduate (1875) of Brown University, and +was professor first of comparative philology and then of Greek at +Cornell University; his chief publications are _Der griechische +Nominalaccent_ (1885); _Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in +Language_ (1887); _Principles of Language Growth_ (1891); _The +Organization of Higher Education in the United States_ (1897); _Dionysos +and Immortality_ (1899); and _Life of Alexander the Great_ (1900). + + + + +CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with _carapace,_ the upper +shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper and lower +shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull +greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour. + + + + +CALIPH, CALIF, or KHALIF (Arab, _khalifa_; the lengthening of the a is +strictly incorrect), literally "successor," "representative," a title +borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the death of Mahomet, became the +civil and religious head of the Mahommedan state. In the same sense the +term is used in the Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of +God. Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known as +the "perfect" caliphs; after them the title was borne by the thirteen +Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by the thirty-seven +Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell before the Turks in 1258. +By some rigid Moslems these rulers were regarded as only amirs, not +caliphs. There were titular caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from +that date till 1517 when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the +fall of the Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the +Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova (755-1031), +and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended to descent from Ali, and +Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also assumed the name (see FATIMITES). + +According to the Shi'ite Moslems, who call the office the "imamate" or +leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of +the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the office belongs to the tribe of +Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet himself belonged, but this condition +would vitiate the claim of the Turkish sultans, who have held the office +since its transference by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a +tradition falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a +time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he "is a rebel." +(See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) + + + + +CALIPHATE.[1] The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the East who bore +the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three main +divisions:--(_a_) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of +Mahomet; (_b_) The Omayyad caliphs; (_c_) The Abbasid caliphs. To these +three groups the present article is confined; for the Western caliphs, +see SPAIN: _History_ (and minor articles such as ALMOHADES, +ALMORAVIDES); for the Egyptian caliphs see EGYPT: _History_ (§ +Mahommedan) and FATIMITES. The history of Arabia proper will be found +under ARABIA: _History_. + + +A.--THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS + +After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be his +"representative." The choice lay with the community of Medina; so much +was understood; but whom were they to choose? The natives of Medina +believed themselves to be now once more masters in their own house, and +wished to promote one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see MAHOMET) +asserted their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into +the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to terrorize +the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into two parties. The +Emigrants' leading spirit was Omar; he did not, however, cause homage to +be paid to himself, but to Abu Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the +Prophet. + +The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the opportune +defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward schism which +threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once more limited to the +community of Medina; only Mecca and Taif (Tayef) remained true. The +Bedouins were willing enough to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay +taxes; their defection, as might have been expected, was a political +movement.[2] None the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the +political society and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment +to Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion in +the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as +prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam's success. + +1. _Reign of Abu Bekr_.--Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal to the +perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the expedition +against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, quietly to set out, +limiting himself for the time to the defence of Medina. On the return of +the army he proceeded to attack the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam +kept the men of Medina together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing +zeal for the faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and +no better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was to be +expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns of the Moslems, +sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell the revolt. Those who +submitted were forthwith received back into favour; those who persevered +in rebellion were punished with death. The majority accordingly +converted, the obstinate were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was +there a severe struggle; the Banu Hanifa under their prophet Mosailima +fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed. + +The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to say, +brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border +countries which Mahomet had already inaugurated, was the best means for +making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at +the same time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was +organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by quite +other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means the first +occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; once and again in +former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins had settled on the borders of +the wilderness. This had last happened in consequence of the events +which destroyed the prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time +the small Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira had arisen in the western +and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented to Moslem +conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch as Hira was subject +to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to the Greeks, the annexation of +the Arabians involved the extension of the war beyond the limits of +Arabia to a struggle with the two great powers (see further ARABIA: +_History_). + +After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. +al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the conquest of the +districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where +hostilities had also broken out. Damascus fell late in the summer of +635, and on the 20th of August 636 was fought the great decisive battle +on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) +finally to abandon Syria.[3] Left to themselves, the Christians +henceforward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified +cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of the +Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was also carried on +against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at first, until the tide +turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, Qadisiya) (end of 637). In +consequence of the defeat which they here sustained, the Persians were +forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit +themselves to Iran proper. The Moslems made themselves masters of +Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and +conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two +rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face to face in +Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the +principal old Semitic lands--Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and +Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little +difficulty by 'Amr ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) in 640. (See EGYPT: _History_, § +Mahommedan.) This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the +wilderness of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and +natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously occurred. The +kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts hitherto, now became the +headquarters of the Arabs; the new empire had its centres on the one +hand at Damascus, on the other hand at Kufa and Basra, the two +newly-founded cities in the region of old Babylonia. The capital of +Islam continued indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz +(Hijaz) and the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of +affairs. + +The ease with which the native populations of the conquered districts, +exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted themselves to the new +rule is very striking. Their nationality had been broken long ago, but +intrinsically it was more closely allied to the Arabian than to the +Greek or Persian. Their religious sympathy with the West was seriously +impaired by dogmatic controversies; from Islam they might at any rate +hope for toleration, even though their views were not in accordance with +the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the masses from +Christianity to Islam, however, which took place during the first +century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that +in reality they had no inward relation to the gospel at all. They +changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of +Moslem citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so; indeed the +Omayyad caliphs saw with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the +poll-tax derived from their Christian subjects (see MAHOMMEDAN +INSTITUTIONS). + +It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian +empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic +lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so +ready as the Greeks to give up the contest; they did not rest until the +Moslems had subjugated the whole of the Sassanid empire. The most +important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, +was the battle of Nehawend in 641;[4] the most obstinate resistance was +offered by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr +(Persepolis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous +provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into the +hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III. (q.v.), was +compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came +to a miserable end.[5] But it was long before the Iranians learned to +accept the situation. Unlike the Christians of western Asia, they had a +vigorous feeling of national pride, based upon glorious memories and +especially upon a church having a connexion of the closest kind with the +state. Internal disturbances of a religious and political character and +external disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids +indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They were +fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, in defence of +their holiest possessions, their nationality and their faith. Their +subjection was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating +them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated. Even when in process of +time they did accept the religion of the prophet, they leavened it +thoroughly with their own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it +of the practical political and national character which it had assumed +after the flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a +thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its internal +order, and it was from them also that it at last received its outward +death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their work, and with the +Omayyads fell the Arabian empire. + +2. _Reign of Omar_.--Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the 22nd of +August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by Omar. To Omar's +ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests. He +himself did not take the field, but remained in Medina with the +exception of his visit to Syria in 638; he never, however, suffered the +reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the influence of his +personality and the Moslem community of feeling. His political insight +is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite +extension of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national +Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam,[6] and especially to +promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying with which he +began his reign will never grow antiquated: "by Allah, he that is +weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have +vindicated for him his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as +the weakest, until he complies with the laws." After the administration +of justice he directed his organizing activity, as the circumstances +demanded, chiefly towards financial questions--the incidence of taxation +in the conquered territories,[7] and the application of the vast +resources which poured into the treasury at Medina. It must not be +brought against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with these +he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the chartered plunderers +of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone by his death for the +fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Kufan +workman and died in November 644. + +3. _Reign of Othman._--Before his death Omar had nominated six of the +leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the caliph from among +themselves--Othman, Ali, Zobair, Talha, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, and +Abdarrahman b. Auf. The last-named declined to be a candidate, and +decided the election in favour of Othman. Under this weak sovereign the +government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish +nobility. We have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for +this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the Emigrants +were unanimous among themselves in thinking that the precedence and +leadership belonged to them as of right. Thanks to the energy of Omar, +they were successful in appropriating to themselves the succession to +the Prophet. They indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority +of their services to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood +relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right to the +inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with the Koreish in +general. In point of fact they felt a closer connexion with these than, +for example, with the natives of Medina; nature had not been expelled by +faith.[8] The supremacy of the Emigrants naturally furnished the means +of transition to the supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all +in his power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged +to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he should favour +his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every possible way, seemed +to him a matter of course. Every position of influence and emolument was +assigned to them; they themselves boastingly called the important +province of Irak the garden of Koreish. In truth, the entire empire had +become that garden. Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization +of Islam the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew the +world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca, and after +them those of Taif, people like Khalid b. al-Walid, Amr-ibn-el-Ass, +'Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghira b. Sho'ba, and, above all, old Abu Sofian +with his son Moawiya. + +Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began +to appear. It was led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of +Islam, which, as distinguished from the hereditary nobility of Mecca, +might also be designated as the nobility of merit, consisting of the +"Defenders" (_Ansar_), and especially of the Emigrants who had lent +themselves to the elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the +intention of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition +was headed by Ali, Zobair, Talha, both as leading men among the +Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate. Their +motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their own, not religion +but power and preferment, were what they sought.[9] Their party was a +mixed one. To it belonged the men of real piety, who saw with +displeasure the promotion to the first places in the commonwealth of the +great lords who had actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined +themselves to it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a +band of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system, but of +persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the provinces there was +agitation against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where +Othman's cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu Sofian (see below), carried on a +wise and strong administration. The movement was most energetic in Irak +and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of +Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet +seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then there were +enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah. + +The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands they came +from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions from Othman, who, +though his armies were spreading terror from the Indus and Oxus to the +Atlantic, had no troops at hand in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers +by concessions, but as soon as they had gone, he let matters resume +their old course. Thus things went on from bad to worse. In the +following year (656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt +and Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph again +tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend to keep. But +the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his word,[10] and now +demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own house, where he was +defended by a few faithful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last +took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty. +His death in the act of maintaining his rights was of the greatest +service to his house and of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy. + +4. _Reign of Ali._--Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose +among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mutineers summoned +Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zobair to do him +homage. But soon these two, along with Ayesha, the mother of the +faithful, who had an old grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their +escape to Irak, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. +Ali in point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover +was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the desire of +power, so that men of penetration, even although they condemned Othman's +method of government, yet refused to recognize his successor. The new +caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at +the battle of the Camel, fought at Basra in November 656, Talha and +Zobair were slain, and Ayesha was taken prisoner. + +But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of Othman the +dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate +cry--that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired caliph and a +distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya, whose position in Syria +was impregnable. The kernel of his subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, +not only recent immigrants along with Islam, but also old settlers who, +through contact with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had +become to some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter had +become habituated to monarchical government and loyal obedience, and for +a long time much better order had prevailed amongst them than elsewhere +in Arabia. Syria was the proper soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, +and Moawiya was just the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited +Othman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited +his Syrians to vengeance. + +Ali's position in Kufa was much less advantageous. The population of +Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, +and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters +here; Kufa and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, +the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was +that had raised Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any +personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and +more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of +Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either act or refrain from acting +as he chose, secure in either case of the obedience of his subjects. +Ali, on the other hand, was unable to convert enthusiasm for the +principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was +necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his +supporters, which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him +suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on +the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians fastened copies +of the Koran to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word +of God should decide the contest (see further below, B.1; also ALI). But +in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of +the minority, the genuine zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the +enemy of Islam, and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him +as a denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was +resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had to turn +his armies in the first instance against them. He succeeded in disposing +of them without difficulty at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success +he lost the soul of his following. For they were the true champions of +the theocratic principle; through their elimination it became clear that +the struggle had in no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali's +defeat was a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed +him; the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far +superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January 661), +thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes of a large part +of the Mahommedan world (Shi'a) which he had never possessed during his +life. + + +B.--THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY + +_Summary of Preceding Movements._--The conquest of Mecca had been of the +greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because Islam thus obtained +possession of this important city with its famous sanctuary, but above +all because his late adversaries were at last compelled to acknowledge +him as the Envoy of God. Among these there were many men of great +ability and influence, and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the +Arabic expression has it, "to mellow their hearts" by concessions and +gifts, that his loyal helpers (_Ansar_) at Medina became dissatisfied +and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it. Mahomet +was a practical man; he realized that the growing state needed skilful +administrators, and that such were found in much greater number among +the antagonists of yesterday than among the honest citizens of Medina. +The most important positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and +Yemen, were entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the +Makhzum and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's +example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the death of +Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the Moslems, the +principal generals belonged to them. Omar did not deviate from that line +of conduct. It was he who appointed Yazid, the son of Abu Sofian, and +after his death, his brother Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned +the province of Egypt to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b. As). It is even +surprising to find among the leading men so few of the house of Hashim, +the nearest family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain +this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too noble +to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they could not be +spared at Medina, where their counsel was required in all important +affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which Ali himself calls the +Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar lived opposition was silent. But +Othman had not the strong personality of his predecessor, and, although +he practically adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of +favouring the members of his own family--the caliph belonged himself to +the house of Omayya--at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar. The +jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the +governorship and military commands had become not only much more +important, but also much more lucrative, while power and money again +procured many adherents. The truly devout Moslems on the other hand were +scandalized by the growing luxury which relaxed the austere morals of +the first Moslems, and this also was imputed to Othman. + +We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya developed itself, and +how there arose against it an opposition, which led in the first place +to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali, and furthermore, +during the whole period of the Omayyad caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous +outbreaks, culminating in the great catastrophe which placed the +Abbasids on the throne. The elements of this opposition were of very +various kinds:--(1) The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the _Ansar_ and +_Mohajir_, who had been Mahomet's first companions and supporters, and +could not bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the +Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed _tolaqa_ (freedmen), should be in +control of the imamate, which carried with it the management of affairs +both civil and religious. This party was in the foreground, chiefly in +the first period. (2) The partisans of Ali, the Shi'a (Shi'ites), who in +proportion as their influence with the Arabs declined, contrived to +strengthen it by obtaining the support of the non-Arabic Moslems, aided +thereto, especially in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the +decisive moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves. +(3) The Kharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sustained at +the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining new adherents from +among those austere Moslems, who held both Omayyads and Alids as +usurpers, and have often been called, not unjustly, the Puritans of +Islam. (4) The non-Arabic Moslems, who on their conversion to Islam, had +put themselves under the patronage of Arabic families, and were +therefore called maula's (clients). These were not only the most +numerous, but also, in virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the +most dangerous. The largest and strongest group of these were the +Persians, who, before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the +ruling class of that country, so that Persian was the dominant language. +With them all malcontents, in particular the Shi'ites, found support; by +them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the supremacy of the Arabs was +finally overthrown. To these elements of discord we must add:--(1) That +the Arabs, notwithstanding the bond of Islam that united them, +maintained their old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds +and factions; (2) that the old antagonism between Ma'adites[11] +(original northern tribes) and Yemenites (original southern tribes), +accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged to the +former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter division, gave +rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one dangerous +pretender--some of them of the reigning family itself--contended with +the caliph for the sovereignty, and must be crushed _coûte que coûte_. +It is only by the detailed enumeration of these opposing forces that we +can form an idea of the heavy task that lay before the Prince of the +Believers, and of the amount of tact and ability which his position +demanded. + +The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely difficult. +Never perhaps has the system of undermining authority by continual +slandering been applied on such a scale as by the Alids and the +Abbasids. The Omayyads were accused by their numerous missionaries of +every imaginable vice; in their hands Islam was not safe; it would be a +godly work to extirpate them from the earth. When the Abbasids had +occupied the throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion. +But not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves, +they carried their hostility to a further point. The official history of +the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is coloured by Abbasid +feeling to such an extent that we can scarcely distinguish the true from +the false. An example of this occurs at the outset in the assertion that +Moawiya deliberately refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and +indeed that it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of +the plot. The facts seem to contradict this view. When, ten weeks before +the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt and Irak, +pretending that they were on their pilgrimage to Mecca, but wanted to +bring before the caliph their complaints against his vicegerents, nobody +could have the slightest suspicion that the life of the caliph was in +danger; indeed it was only during the few days that Othman was besieged +in his house that the danger became obvious. If the caliph then, as the +chroniclers tell, sent a message to Moawiya for help, his messenger +could not have accomplished half the journey to Damascus when the +catastrophe took place. There is no real reason to doubt that the +painful news fell on Moawiya unexpectedly, and that he, as mightiest +representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his own the duty of +avenging the crime. He could not but view Ali in the light of an +accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did not abet the murderers, +yet he took them under his protection. An acknowledgment of Ali as +caliph by Moawiya before he had cleared himself from suspicion was +therefore quite impossible. + +1. _The Reign of Moawiya._--Moawiya, son of the well-known Meccan chief +Abu Sofian, embraced Islam together with his father and his brother +Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and was, like them, treated +with the greatest distinction. He was even chosen to be one of the +secretaries of Mahomet. When Abu Bekr sent his troops for the conquest +of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of Abu Sofian, held one of the chief +commands, with Moawiya as his lieutenant. In the year 639 Omar named him +governor of Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the +north of Syria and Mesopotamia. To him was committed the conduct of the +war against the Byzantine emperor, which he continued with energy, at +first only on land, but later, when the caliph had at last given in to +his urgent representations, at sea also. In the year 34 (A.D. 655) was +fought off the coast of Lycia the great naval battle, which because of +the great number of masts has been called "the mast fight," in which the +Greek[12] fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans II. in person, was +utterly defeated. Moawiya himself was not present, as he was conducting +an attack (the result of which we do not know) on Caesarea in +Cappadocia. The Arabic historians are so entirely preoccupied with the +internal events that they have no eye for the war at the frontier. The +contention which Moawiya had with Ali checked his progress in the north. + +Moawiya was a born ruler, and Syria was, as we have seen, the best +administered province of the whole empire. He was so loved and honoured +by his Syrians that, when he invited them to avenge the blood of Othman, +they replied unanimously, "It is your part to command, ours to obey." +Ali was a valiant man, but had no great talent as a ruler. His army +numbered a great many enthusiastic partisans, but among them not a few +wise-acres; there were also others of doubtful loyalty. The battle at +Siffin (657), near the Euphrates, which lasted two months and consisted +principally in, sometimes bloody, skirmishes, with alternate success, +ended by the well-known appeal to the decision of the Koran on the part +of Moawiya. This appeal has been called by a European scholar "one of +the unworthiest comedies of the whole world's history," accepting the +report of very partial Arabic writers that it happened when the Syrians +were on the point of losing the battle. He forgot that Ali himself, +before the Battle of the Camel, appealed likewise to the decision of the +Koran, and began the fight only when this had been rejected. There is in +reality no room for suspecting Moawiya of not having been in earnest +when making this appeal; he might well regret that internecine strife +should drain the forces which were so much wanted for the spread of +Islam. That the Book of God could give a solution, even of this arduous +case, was doubtless the firm belief of both parties. But even if the +appeal to the Koran had been a stratagem, as Ali himself thought, it +would have been perfectly legitimate, according to the general views of +that time, which had been also those of the Prophet. It is not unlikely +that the chief leader of the Yemenites in Ali's army, Ash'ath b. Qais, +knew beforehand that this appeal would be made. Certainty is not to be +obtained in the whole matter. + +On each side an umpire was appointed, Abu Musaa al-Ash'ari, the +candidate of Ash'ath, on that of Ali, Amr-ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) on that of +Moawiya. The arbitrators met in the year 37 (A.D. 658) at Adhroh, in the +south-east of Syria, where are the ruins of the Roman Castra described +by Brünnow and Domaszewsky (_Die Provincio Arabia,_ i. 433-463). Instead +of this place, the historians generally put Dumat-al-Jandal, the +biblical Duma, now called Jauf, but this rests on feeble authority. The +various accounts about what happened in this interview are without +exception untrustworthy. J. Wellhausen, in his excellent book _Das +arabische Reich und sein Sturz,_ has made it very probable that the +decision of the umpires was that the choice of Ali as caliph should be +cancelled, and that the task of nominating a successor to Othman should +be referred to the council of notable men (_shura_), as representing the +whole community. Ali refusing to submit to this decision, Moawiya became +the champion of the law, and thereby gained at once considerable support +for the conquest of Egypt, to which above all he directed his efforts. +As soon as Amr returned from Adhroh, Moawiya sent him with an army of +four or five thousand men against Egypt. About the same time the +constitutional party rose against Ali's vicegerent Mahommed, son of Abu +Bekr, who had been the leader of the murderous attack on Othman. +Mahommed was beaten, taken in his flight, and, according to some +reports, sewn in the skin of an ass and burned. + +Moawiya, realizing that Ali would take all possible means to crush him, +took his measures accordingly. He concluded with the Greeks a treaty, by +which he pledged himself to pay a large sum of money annually on +condition that the emperor should give him hostages as a pledge for the +maintenance of peace. Ali, however, had first to deal with the +insurrection of the Kharijites, who condemned the arbitration which +followed the battle of Siffin as a deed of infidelity, and demanded that +Ali should break the compact (see above, A.4). Freed from this +difficulty, Ali prepared to direct his march against Moawiya, but his +soldiers declined to move. One of his men, Khirrit b. Rashid, renounced +him altogether, because he had not submitted to the decision of the +umpires, and persuaded many others to refuse the payment of the +poor-rate. Ali was obliged to subdue him, a task which he effected not +without difficulty. Not a few of his former partisans went over to +Moawiya, as already had happened before the days of Siffin, amongst +others Ali's own brother 'Aqil. Lastly, there were in Kufa, and still +more in Basra, many Othmaniya or legitimists, on whose co-operation he +could not rely. Moawiya from his side made incessant raids into Ali's +dominion, and by his agents caused a very serious revolt in Basra. The +statement that a treaty was concluded between Moawiya and Ali to +maintain the _status quo_, in the beginning of the year 40 (A.D. 660), +is not very probable, for it is pretty certain that just then Ali had +raised an army of 40,000 men against the Syrians, and also that in the +second or third month of that year Moawiya was proclaimed caliph at +Jerusalem. At the same time Bosr b. Abi Artat made his expedition +against Medina and Mecca, whose inhabitants were compelled to +acknowledge the caliphate of Moawiya. On the murder of Ali in 661, his +son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he recoiled before the prospect of a +war with Moawiya, having neither the ambition nor the energy of Ali. +Moawiya stood then with a large army in Maskin, a rich district lying to +the north of the later West Bagdad, watered by the Dojail, or Little +Tigris, a channel from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The army of Trak was +near Madain, the ancient Ctesiphon. The reports about what occurred are +confused and contradictory; but it seems probable that Abdallah b. +Abbas, the vicegerent of Ali at Basra and ancestor of the future Abbasid +dynasty, was in command. No battle was fought. Hasan and Ibn Abbas +opened, each for himself, negotiations with Moawiya. The latter made it +a condition of surrender that he should have the free disposal of the +funds in the treasury of Basra. Some say that he had already before the +death of Ali rendered himself master of it. Notwithstanding the protest +of the Basrians, he transported this booty safely to Mecca. When his +descendants had ascended the throne and he had become a demi-saint, the +historians did their best to excuse his conduct. Hasan demanded, in +exchange for the power which he resigned, the contents of the treasury +at Kufa, which amounted to five millions of dirhems, together with the +revenues of the Persian province of Darabjird (Darab). When these +negotiations became known, a mutiny broke out in Hasan's camp. Hasan +himself was wounded and retired to Medina, where he died eight or nine +years afterwards. The legend that he was poisoned by order of Moawiya is +without the least foundation. It seems that he never received the +revenues of Darabjird, the Basrians to whom they belonged refusing to +cede them. + +Moawiya now made his entry into Kufa in the summer of A.H. 41 (A.D. 661) +and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the Believers. This +year is called the year of union (_jama'a_). Moghira b. Sho'ba was +appointed governor of Kufa. Homran b. Aban had previously assumed the +government of Basra. This is represented commonly as a revolt, but as +Homran was a client of Othman, and remained in favour with the Omayyads, +it is almost certain that he took the management of affairs only to +maintain order. + +One strong antagonist to Moawiya remained, in the person of Ziyad. This +remarkable man was said to be a bastard of Abu Sofian, the father of +Moawiya, and was, by his mother, the brother of Abu Bakra, a man of +great wealth and position at Basra. He thus belonged to the tribe of +Thaqif at Taif, which produced many very prominent men. At the age of +fourteen years Ziyad was charged with the financial administration of +the Basrian army. He had won the affection of Omar, by his knowledge of +the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet, and by the fact that he had +employed the first money he earned to purchase the freedom of his mother +Somayya. He was a faithful servant of Ali and put down for him the +revolt excited by Moawiya's partisans in Basra. Thence he marched into +Fars and Kirman, where he maintained peace and kept the inhabitants in +their allegiance to Ali. After Ali's death he fortified himself in his +castle near Istakhr and refused to submit. Moawiya, therefore, sent Bosr +b. Abi Artat to Basra, with orders to capture Ziyad's three sons, and to +force Ziyad into submission by threatening to kill them. Ziyad was +obdurate; and it was due to his brother Abu Bakra, who persuaded Moawiya +to cancel the order, that the threat was not executed. On his return to +Damascus, Moawiya charged Moghira b. Sho'ba to bring his countryman to +reason. Abdallah b. 'Amir was made governor of Basra. + +As soon as Moawiya had his hands free, he directed all his forces +against the Greeks. Immediately after the submission of Irak, he had +denounced the existing treaty, and as early as 662 had sent his troops +against the Alans and the Greeks. Since then, no year passed without a +campaign. Twice he made a serious effort to conquer Constantinople, in +669 when he besieged it for three months, and in 674. On the second +occasion his fleet occupied Cyzicus, which it held till shortly after +his death in 680, when a treaty was signed. In Africa also the extension +of Mahommedan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took place the +famous march of 'Okba ('Oqba) b. Nafi' and the foundation of Kairawan, +where the great mosque still bears his name. Our information about these +events, though very full, is untrustworthy, while of the events in Asia +Minor the accounts are scarce and short. The Arabic historians are still +absorbed by the events in Irak and Khorasan. + +The talented prefect of Kufa, Moghira b. Sho'ba, eventually broke down +the resistance of Ziyad, who came to Damascus to render an account of +his administration, which the caliph ratified. Moawiya seems also to +have acknowledged him as the son of Abu Sofian, and thus as his brother; +in 664 this recognition was openly declared.[13] In the next year Ziyad +was appointed governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to +it. As the austere champion of the precepts of Islam, he soon restored +order in the whole district. Outwardly, this was the case in Kufa also. +A rising of Kharijites in the year 663 had ended in the death of their +chief. But the Shi'ites were dissatisfied and even dared to give public +utterance to their hostility. Moghira contented himself with a warning. +He was already aged and had no mind to enter on a conflict. He died +about the year 670, and his province also was entrusted to Ziyad, who +appointed 'Amr b. Horaith as his vicegerent. At a Friday service in the +great mosque 'Amr was insulted and pelted with pebbles. Ziyad then came +himself, arrested the leader of the Shi'ites, and sent fourteen rebels +to Damascus, among them several men of consideration. Seven of them who +refused to pledge themselves to obedience were put to death; the +Shi'ites considered them as martyrs and accused Moawiya of committing a +great crime. But in Kufa peace was restored, and this not by military +force, but by the headmen of the tribes. We must not forget that Kufa +and Basra were military colonies, and that each tribe had its own +quarter of the city. A wholesome diversion was provided by the serious +resumption of the policy of eastern expansion, which had been +interrupted by the civil war. For this purpose Irak had to furnish the +largest contingent. The first army sent by Ziyad into Khorasan +recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered Tokharistan and advanced as +far as the Oxus. In 673 'Obaidallah, the son of Ziyad, crossed the +river, occupied Bokhara, and returned laden with booty taken from the +wandering Turkish tribes of Transoxiana. He brought 2000 Turkish archers +with him to Basra, the first Turkish slaves to enter the Moslem empire. +Sa'id, son of the caliph Othman, whom Moawiya made governor of Khorasan, +in 674 marched against Samarkand. Other generals penetrated as far as +the Indus and conquered Kabul, Sijistan, Makran and Kandahar. + +Ziyad governed Irak with the greatest vigour, but as long as discontent +did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death (672-673), order +was so generally restored that "nobody had any more to fear for life or +estate, and even the unprotected woman was safe in her house without +having her door bolted." + +Moawiya was a typical Arab _sayyid_ (gentleman). He governed, not by +force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-control, his mildness +and magnanimity. The following anecdote may illustrate this. One of +Moawiya's estates bordered on that of Abdallah b. Zobair, who complained +in a somewhat truculent letter that Moawiya's slaves had been guilty of +trespassing. Moawiya, disregarding his son Yazid's advice that he should +exact condign punishment for Zobair's disrespect, replied in flattering +terms, regretting the trespass and resigning both slaves and estate to +Zobair. In reply Zobair protested his loyalty to Moawiya, who thereupon +pointed a moral for the instruction of Yazid. + +Moawiya has been accused of having poisoned more than one of his +adversaries, among them Malik Ashtar, Abdarrahman the son of the great +captain Khalid b. Walid, and Hasan b. Ali. As for the latter, European +scholars have long been agreed that the imputation is groundless. As to +Abdarrahman the story is in the highest degree improbable. Madaini says +that Moawiya was prompted to it, because when he consulted the Syrians +about the choice of his son Yazid as his successor, they had proposed +Abdarrahman. The absurdity of this is obvious, for Abdarrahman died in +the year 666.[14] Others say[15] that Moawiya was afraid lest +Abdarrahman should become too popular. Now, Abdarrahman had not only +been a faithful ally of Moawiya in the wars with Ali, but after the +peace devoted all his energy to the Greek war. It is almost incredible +that Moawiya out of petty jealousy would have deprived himself of one of +his best men. The probability is that Abdarrahman was ill when returning +from the frontier, that Moawiya sent him his own medical man, the +Christian doctor Ibn Othal, and that the rumour arose that the doctor +had poisoned him. It is remarkable withal that this rumour circulated, +not in Homs (Emesa), where Abdarrahman died, but in Medina. There a +young relation of Abdarrahman was so roused by the taunt that the death +of his kinsman was unavenged, that he killed Ibn Othal near the mosque +of Damascus. Moawiya imprisoned him and let him pay a high ransom, the +law not permitting the talio against a Moslem for having killed a +Christian. The story that this relative was Khalid, the son of +Abdarrahman, is absurd inasmuch as Moawiya made this Khalid commander +against the Greeks in succession to his father. In the third case--that +of Malik Ashtar--the evidence is equally inadequate. In fact, since +Moawiya did not turn the weapon of assassination against such men as +Abdallah b. Zobair and Hosain b. Ali, it is unlikely that he used it +against less dangerous persons. These two men were the chief obstacles +to Moawiya's plan for securing the Caliphate for his son Yazid. The +leadership with the Arabic tribes was as a rule hereditary, the son +succeeding his father, but only if he was personally fit for the +position, and was acknowledged as such by the principal men of the +tribe. The hereditary principle had not been recognized by Islam in the +cases of Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman; it had had some influence upon the +choice of Ali, the husband of Fatima and the cousin of the Prophet. But +it had been adopted entirely for the election of Hasan. The example of +Abu Bekr proved that the caliph had the right to appoint his successor. +But this appointment must be sanctioned by the principal men, as +representing the community. Moawiya seems to have done his best to gain +that approbation, but the details given by the historians are altogether +unconvincing. This only seems to be certain, that the succession of +Yazid was generally acknowledged before the death of his father, except +in Medina. (See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) + +Moawiya died in the month of Rajab 60 (A.D. 680). His last words are +said to have been: "Fear ye God, the Elevated and Mighty, for God, +Praise be to Him, protects the man that fears Him; he who does not fear +God, has no protection." Moawiya was, in fact, a religious man and a +strict disciple of the precepts of Islam. We can scarcely, therefore, +credit the charges made by the adversaries of his chosen successor +Yazid, that he was a drinker of wine, fond of pleasure, careless about +religion. All the evidence shows that, during the reign of the Omayyads, +life in Damascus and the rest of Syria was austere and in striking +contrast to the dissolute manners which prevailed in Medina. + +2. _Rule of Yazid._--When Moawiya died, the opposition had already been +organized. On his accession Yazid sent a circular to all his prefects, +officially announcing his father's death, and ordering them to +administer the oath of allegiance to their subjects. In that sent to +Walid b. 'Otba, the governor of Medina, he enclosed a private note +charging him in particular to administer the oath to Hosain, Abdallah b. +Omar and Abdallah b. Zobair, if necessary, by force. Walid sent a +messenger inviting them to a conference, thus giving them time to +assemble their followers and to escape to Mecca, where the prefect Omar +b. Sa'id could do nothing against them. In the month Ramadan this Omar +was made governor of Medina and sent an army against Ibn Zobair. This +army was defeated, and from that time Ibn Zobair was supreme at Mecca. + +On the news of Yazid's accession, the numerous partisans of the family +of Ali in Kufa sent addresses to Hosain, inviting him to take refuge +with them, and promising to have him proclaimed caliph in Irak. Hosain, +having learned that the majority of the inhabitants were apparently +ready to support him strenuously, prepared to take action. Meanwhile +Yazid, having been informed of the riotous behaviour of the Shi'ites in +Kufa, sent Obaidallah, son of the famous Ziyad and governor of Basra, to +restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used before, +Obaidallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made them responsible +for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijja Hosain set out +from Mecca with all his family, expecting to be received with enthusiasm +by the citizens of Kufa, but on his arrival at Kerbela west of the +Euphrates, he was confronted by an army sent by Obaidallah under the +command of Omar, son of the famous Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, the founder of +Kufa. Hosain gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid from Kufa, +and fell with almost all his followers on the 10th of Muharram 61 (10th +of October 680). + +No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. But, as +it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of Ali, and so many +members of his family, Hosain's devout partisans at Kufa, who by their +overtures had been the principal cause of the disaster, regarded it as +a tragedy, and the facts gradually acquired a wholly romantic colouring. +Omar b. Sa'd and his officers, Obaidallah and even Yazid came to be +regarded as murderers, and their names have ever since been held +accursed by all Shi'ites. They observe the 10th of Muharram, the day of +'Ashura, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages are +erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted, representing +the misfortunes of the family of Ali.[16] "Revenge for Hosain" became +the watchword of all Shi'ites, and the Meshed Hosain (Tomb of the martyr +Hosain) at Kerbela is to them the holiest place in the world (see +KERBELA). Obaidallah sent the head of Hosain to Damascus, together with +the women and children and Ali b. Hosain, who, being ill, had not taken +part in the fight. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the +prisoners under safe-conduct to Medina. Ali remained faithful to the +caliph, taking no share in the revolt of the Medinians, and openly +condemning the risings of the Shi'ites. + +Ibn Zobair profited greatly by the distress caused by Hosain's death. +Though he named himself publicly a refugee of the House of God, he had +himself secretly addressed as caliph, and many of the citizens of Medina +acknowledged him as such. Yazid, when informed of this, swore in his +anger to have him imprisoned. But remembering the wisdom of his father, +he sent messengers with a chain made of silver coins, and bearing +honourable proposals. At the same time he received a number of the chief +men of Medina, sent by the prefect, with great honour and loaded them +with gifts and presents. But Ibn Zobair refused, and the Medinians, of +whom the majority probably had never before seen a prince's court, +however simple, were only confirmed in their rancour against Yazid, and +told many horrible tales about his profligacy, that he hunted and held +wild orgies with Bedouin sheikhs, and had no religion. A +characteristically Arabic ceremony took place in the mosque of Medina. +"I cast off the oath of allegiance to Yazid, as I cast off my turban," +exclaimed the first, and all others followed, casting off one of their +garments, till a heap of turbans and sandals lay on the floor. Ibn +Hanzala was made commander. The Omayyads, though they with their clients +counted more than 1000 men, were not able to maintain themselves, and +were allowed to depart only on condition of strict neutrality. + +At last the patience of Yazid was exhausted. An army--the accounts about +the number vary from 4000 to 20,000--was equipped in all haste and put +under the command of Moslim b. 'Oqba, with orders first to exact +submission from the Medinians, if necessary by force, and then to march +against Ibn Zobair. Moslim, having met the expelled Omayyads at Wadi +'l-Qora, encamped near the city (August 683) and gave the inhabitants +three days in which to return to obedience, wishing to spare the city of +the Prophet and to prevent the shedding of blood. When, however, after +the lapse of three days, a final earnest appeal had been answered +insultingly, he began the battle. The Medinians fought valiantly, but +could not hold out against the well-disciplined Syrians. Moreover, they +were betrayed by the Medinian family of the Banu Haritha, who introduced +Syrian soldiers into the town. Medina lies between two volcanic hills, +called _harra_. After one of these the battle has been named "The Day of +Harra." For three days the city was given up to plunder. It is said that +a thousand bastards (the "children of the Harra") were born in +consequence of these days. The remaining citizens were compelled to take +the oath of allegiance to Yazid in a humiliating form; the few who +refused were killed. Ali b. Hosain, who had refused to have anything to +do with the revolt, was treated with all honour. Mahommed b. +al-Hanafiya, the son of Ali, and Abdallah b. Omar had likewise +abstained, but they had left Medina for Mecca. + +Moslim then proceeded towards Mecca. He was already ill, and died about +midway between the two cities, after having given the command, according +to the orders of the caliph, to Hosain b. Nomair. It is quite natural +that the man who delivered up the city of the Prophet to plunder, and at +whose hands so many prominent Moslems fell, should have been an object +of detestation to the devout. Even some European scholars have drawn a +false picture of his personality, as has been clearly shown by +Wellhausen. About Medina also false statements have been made. The city +recovered very soon from the disaster, and remained the seat not only of +holy tradition and jurisdiction, but also of the Arabic aristocracy. In +no city of the empire, during the reign of the Omayyads, lived more +singers and musicians than in Medina. + +Hosain b. Nomair arrived before Mecca in September 683 and found Ibn +Zobair ready to defend it. A number of the citizens of Medina had come +to the aid of the Holy City, as well as many Kharijites from Yamama +under Najda b. 'Ämir. The siege had lasted 65--others say 40--days, when +the news came of the death of Yazid, which took place presumably on the +14th of Rabia I, 64 (12th November 683). Eleven days before a fire, +caused by imprudence, had consumed all the woodwork of the Ka'ba and +burst the black stone in three places. The evidence is quite conclusive; +yet the fire has been imputed to the Syrians, and a tale was invented +about ballistas which hurled against the House of God enormous stones +and vessels full of bitumen. In fact, the siege had been confined to +enclosure and skirmishes. It is said that on the news of the death of +Yazid a conference took place between Hosain and Ibn Zobair, and that +the former offered to proclaim the latter as caliph provided he would +accompany him to Syria and proclaim a general amnesty. Ibn Zobair +refused haughtily, and Hosain, with a contemptuous criticism of his +folly, ordered his army to break up for Syria. + +Hitherto Ibn Zobair had confined himself to an appeal to the Moslems to +renounce Yazid and to have a caliph elected by the council (_shura_) of +the principal leading men. He now openly assumed the title of caliph and +invited men to take the oath of allegiance. He was soon acknowledged +throughout Arabia, in Egypt and in Irak. The Omayyads, who had returned +to Medina, were again expelled. + +Yazid is described in the _Continuatio Isidori Byz._§27, as +"iucundissimus et cunctis nationibus regni eius subditis vir gratissime +habitus, qui nullam unquam, ut omnibus moris est, sibi regalis fastigii +causa gloriam appetivit, sed communis[17] cum omnibus civiliter vixit." +This is confirmed by the fact that Moawiya II. is said to have been a +mild ruler, like his father, and goes far to outweigh the prejudiced +account given by his opponents and coloured still further by tradition. +Against the accusation of being a drinker of wine he himself protested +in verses which he recited when he sent the army against Ibn Zobair. +Decisive is also the testimony of Ibn al-Hanafiya, who declared that all +the accusations brought by the Medinians were false. It may be true that +he was fond of hunting, but he was a peace-loving, generous prince. It +is uncertain at what age he died. Accounts vary between 33 and 39. The +latter finds confirmation in the statement that he was born in A.H. 25, +though another account places his birth in 22. As his son Moawiya who +succeeded him was certainly adult (the accounts vary between 17 and 23), +the latter date seems to be preferable. + +3. Moawiya II. had reigned a very short time--how long is again wholly +uncertain--when he fell sick and died. Then commenced a period of the +greatest confusion. The mother of Yazid, Maisun, belonged to the most +powerful tribe in Syria, the Kalb, and it seems that this and the +cognate tribes of Qoda'a (Yemenites) had enjoyed certain prerogatives, +which had aroused the jealousy of the Qais and the cognate tribes of +Modar. Immediately after the death of Yazid, Zofar b. Harith, who had +already fought with Ibn Zobair against Yazid, had induced northern Syria +and Mesopotamia to declare for Ibn Zobair. In Homs (Emesa) the governor +No'man b. Bashir had pledged himself to the same cause. The prefect of +Damascus, Dahhak b. Qais, seemed to be wavering in his loyalty. Khalid, +the brother of Moawiya II., was still a youth and appears to have had no +strength of character. There was, however, a much more dangerous +candidate, viz. Merwan b. Hakam, of another branch of the Omayyads, who +had been Othman's right-hand man. He had pledged himself after some +hesitation to Yazid, but now his turn had come. The amir of the Kalb, +Ibn Bahdal, persuaded probably by Obaidallah b. Ziyad, conceived that +only a man of distinction could win the contest, and proclaimed Merwan +caliph, on condition that his successor should be Khalid b. Yazid, and +after him 'Amr b. Sa'id al-Ashdaq, who belonged to the third branch of +the Omayyads. Meanwhile Dahhak had declared himself openly for Ibn +Zobair. A furious battle (A.D. 684) ensued at Merj Rahit, near Damascus, +in which Dahhak and Zofar, though they had the majority of troops, were +utterly defeated. This battle became the subject of a great many poems +and had pernicious consequences, especially as regards the antagonism +between the Qais-Modar and Kalb-Yemenite tribes. + +4. _Reign of Merwan I._--Merwan strengthened his position according to +the old oriental fashion by marrying the widow of Yazid, and soon felt +himself strong enough to substitute his own son Abdalmalik for Khalid b. +Yazid as successor-designate. Khalid contented himself with protesting; +he was neither a politician nor a soldier, but a student of alchemy and +astronomy; translations of Greek books have been ascribed to him (Jahiz, +_Bayan_, i. p. 126). In the year A.H. 435 there was still in Egypt a +brazen globe attributed to Ptolemy which had belonged to Khalid (Ibn +Qifti, p. 440, 1.15). He was also consulted about future events. There +were, however, not a few who deplored the fact that the throne had +passed from the descendants of Abu Sofian. This feeling gave rise to the +prophecy that there should appear later a Sofiani on the throne, who +would reign with might and wisdom. 'Amr Ashdaq made no opposition till +the death of Merwan. After the victory at Merj Rahit, Merwan conquered +Egypt, and installed as governor his second son Abdalaziz. An army sent +to the rescue by Ibn Zobair under the command of his brother Mus'ab was +beaten in Palestine by 'Amr Ashdaq. But a division sent by Merwan to the +Hejaz was cut to pieces. Obaidallah b. Ziyad set out with the purpose of +subduing Mesopotamia and marching thence against Irak. But he was +detained a whole year in the former country, by a rising of the Shi'ites +in Kufa, who were still in mourning for Hosain and had formed an army +which called itself "the army of the penitent." They were routed at Ras +'Ain, but Obaidallah had still to fight Zofar. + +Meanwhile Mokhtar (son of that Abu 'Obaid the Thaqifite who had +commanded the Arabs against the Persians in the unfortunate battle of +the Bridge), a man of great talents and still greater ambition, after +having supported Ibn Zobair in the siege of Mecca, had gone to Kufa, +where he joined the Shi'ites, mostly Persians, and acquired great power. +He claimed that he was commissioned by Ali's son, Mahommed ibn +al-Hanafiya, who after the death of Hosain was recognized by the +Shi'ites as their Mahdi. A vague message from Mahommed, that it was the +duty of every good Moslem to take part with the family of the Prophet, +was interpreted in favour of Mokhtar, and thenceforward all the +Shi'ites, among them the powerful Ibrahim, son of Ali's right hand Malik +Ashtar, followed him blindly as their chief. Afterwards Ibn al-Hanafiya +seems to have acknowledged him distinctly as his vicegerent. Ibn +Zobair's representative in Kufa was compelled to flee, and all those who +had participated in the battle of Kerbela were put to death. An army +despatched against Obaidallah under Ibrahim routed the Syrians near +Mosul (battle of Khazir); Obaidallah and Hosain b. Nomair were slain. +Mokhtar was now at the zenith of power, but Ibn Zobair, determined to +get rid at all costs of so dangerous an enemy, named his brother Mus'ab +governor of Basra and ordered him to march against Kufa. Basra was at +that time full of fugitives from Kufa, Arabian chiefs who resented the +arrogance of Mokhtar's adherents, and desired eagerly to regain their +former position in Kufa. The troops of Basra had been, since the death +of Yazid, at war with the Kharijites, who had supported Ibn Zobair +during the siege of Mecca, but had deserted him later. Their caliph, +Nafi' b. Azraq, after whom they were called also Azraqites, threatened +even the city itself, when Mohallab b. Abi Sofra, a very able general, +compelled them to retire. Mohallab then marched with Mus'ab against +Kufa. Mokhtar fell, and with him the ephemeral dominion of the Persian +Shi'ites. This had been their first attempt to dispute the authority of +their Arabian conquerors, but it was not to be the last. Ibrahim b. +Ashtar, Mokhtar's governor of Mesopotamia, submitted and acknowledged +the Caliphate of Ibn Zobair. + +5. Reign of Abdalmalik.--Merwan died on the 27th of Ramadan 65 (7th May +685); according to tradition, he was suffocated by his wife, because he +had insulted her son Khalid and herself. The accession of Abdalmalik was +attended with no difficulty, but the first years of his reign were +occupied by troubles in northern Syria, where, instigated by the Greeks, +the Mardaites of the Amanus, called Jarajima by the Arabs, penetrated +into the Lebanon. He was obliged to conclude an unfavourable treaty +first with them, later with the emperor of Constantinople. Moreover, in +the year 68 (A.D. 687-688) Syria was afflicted by a serious famine. Ibn +Zobair, however, was occupied at Mecca with the rebuilding of the Ka'ba, +and Mus'ab was harassed not only by the Kharijites, but also by a noble +freebooter, Obaidallah b. Horr, who had created for himself a +principality in the vicinity of Madain (Ctesiphon). + +The period of the pilgrimage caused a momentary truce to all these +struggles, and in Dhu 'l-hijja, A.H. 68 (January 688), was seen the +curious spectacle of four different standards planted near Mecca, +belonging respectively to four chiefs, each of whom was a pretender to +the empire; the standard of Abdallah b. Zobair, caliph of Mecca; that of +the caliph of Damascus, Abdalmalik; that of Ali's son Mahommed b. +al-Hanafiya, Mahdi of the Shi'ites; and that of the Kharijites, who were +at that time under the command of Najda b. 'Amir. Such, however, was the +respect inspired by the holy places, that no disorders resulted. + +When, in the year (69 A.H.) 689 Abdalmalik had at last encamped at Botan +Habib in the vicinity of Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin),[18] with the purpose of +marching against Mus'ab, his cousin 'Amr Ashdaq, to whom by the treaty +of Jabia, before the battle of Merj Rahit, the succession to Merwan had +been promised, took advantage of his absence to lay claim to the supreme +power, and to have himself proclaimed caliph by his partisans. +Abdalmalik was obliged to retrace his steps and to lay siege to his own +capital. The garrison of Damascus took fright, and deserted their posts, +so that 'Amr Ashdaq was compelled to surrender. The caliph Abdalmalik +summoned him to his palace and slew him with his own hand. Abdalmalik +has every claim to our esteem as one of the ablest monarchs that ever +reigned, but this murder remains a lasting blot on his career. + +Abdalmalik could now give his whole attention to the projected +expedition against Irak. Mus'ab was encamped at Bajomaira in the +neighbourhood of Takrit. But Abdalmalik's first task was to subdue Zofar +and his Qaisites at Kerkesia (Qarqisia), and the rest of the partisans +of Mokhtar at Nisibis. Meanwhile, Mus'ab had to curb a violent revolt in +Basra, brought about by agents of Abdalmalik, and called after a place +in the city the revolt of the Jofrites. About the middle of A.D. 691 +Abdalmalik at last encamped at Dair al-Jathaliq (the monastery of the +Catholicus) between Maskin, not far from the site of Bagdad, and +Bajomaira. Mus'ab's best troops were fighting under Mohallab against the +Kharijites; many Basrians were secretly favourable to the Omayyads, nor +were the Kufian soldiers to be trusted. The people of Irak had never +been accustomed to discipline, and no improvement had taken place during +the troubles of the last years. Abdalmalik, therefore, wrote secretly to +the chiefs of Mus'ab's army, and persuaded them to desert to him, with +the exception of Ibrahim b. Ashtar, the brave son of a brave father, +who, after the fall of Mokhtar, had become a faithful supporter of Ibn +Zobair. His death, in the beginning of the battle, decided the fate of +Mus'ab, who was slain sword in hand by a Shi'ite of Kufa. + +This victory opened the gates of Kufa to Abdalmalik, and all Irak +received him with acclamation. Thence, a few days later, he sent Hajjaj +b. Yusuf at the head of 2000 Syrians against Ibn Zobair in Mecca, and +despatched a messenger to Tariq b.'Amr, who was encamped at Wadi +'l-Qora with 5000 men, to make himself master of Medina and thence to +rejoin Hajjaj. Before the arrival of this reinforcement, Hajjaj confined +himself to skirmishes, in which his soldiers always had the advantage. +Then, in Dhu 'l Qa'da 72 (March 25th, 692) Mecca was invested. The +blockade lasted more than six months, during which the city was a prey +to all the horrors of siege and famine. Hajjaj had set up a balista on +the hill of Abu Qobais, whence he poured on the city a hail of stones, +which was suspended only in the days of the pilgrimage. Ibn Zobair +employed against him Abyssinians armed with Greek-fire-tubes, who, +however, quitted him soon under the pressure of famine. This at length +triumphed over his last adherents. Ten thousand fighting men, and even +two of the sons of the pretender (it is said, on his own advice), left +the city and surrendered. Mecca being thus left without defenders, Ibn +Zobair saw that ruin was inevitable. Hajjaj having promised him amnesty +if he would surrender, he went to his mother Asma, the daughter of Abu +Bekr, who had reached the age of a hundred years, and asked her counsel. +She answered that, if he was confident in the justice of his cause, he +must die sword in hand. In embracing him for the last time, she felt the +cuirass he wore and exclaimed that such a precaution was unworthy of a +man resolved to die. He, therefore, took off the cuirass, and, when the +Omayyad troops made their way into the city, attacked them furiously, +notwithstanding his advanced age, and was slain. His head was cut off, +and sent by Hajjaj to Damascus. + +With Ibn Zobair perished the influence which the early companions of +Mahomet had exercised over Islam. Medina and Mecca, though they +continued to be the holy cities, had no longer their old political +importance, which had already been shaken to its foundations by the +murder of Othman and the subsequent troubles. Henceforward we shall find +temporal interests, represented by Damascus, predominating over those of +religion, and the centre of Islam, now permanently removed beyond the +limits of Arabia, more susceptible to foreign influence, and +assimilating more readily their civilizing elements. Damascus, Kufa and +Basra will attract the flower of all the Moslem provinces, and thus that +great intellectual, literary and scientific movement, which reached its +apogee under the first Abbasid Caliphs at Bagdad, steadily becomes more +marked. + +After the burning of the Ka'ba during the siege of Mecca by Hosain b. +Nomair, Ibn Zobair had rebuilt and enlarged the house of God. It is said +that he thus carried out a design of the Prophet, which he had not +ventured to undertake for fear of offending the newly converted +Koreishites. Hajjaj pulled down the enlargements and restored the Ka'ba +to its old state. Meanwhile, the caliph committed to him the government +of the Hejaz. The Medinians, whose loyalty was suspected, were treated +by him with severity; not a few _maulas_ (clients) were obliged to wear +a leaden badge on their neck (Tabari, ii. p. 854 seq.). + +Thus the protracted war against Ibn Zobair was brought to an end; hence +this year (71) also is called the "year of union" (_jama'a_). But the +storms in Irak and Mesopotamia had not yet altogether subsided. The Qais +could not leave unavenged the blood shed at Merj Rahit. For about ten +years the Syrian and Mesopotamian deserts were the scene of a series of +raids, often marked by great cruelty, and which have been the subject of +a great many poems. Abdalmalik had need of all his tact and energy to +pacify ultimately the zealous sectaries, but the antagonism between +Yemenites (Kalb and Azd) and Modarites (Qais and Tamim) had been +increased by these struggles, and even in the far east and the far west +had fatal consequences. + +When Abdalmalik, after a stay of forty days, returned from Irak to +Syria, he left two Omayyad princes as his vicegerents in Kufa and Basra. +Mohallab, who at the time of the battle of Bajomaira was in the field +against the Azraqites (Kharijites), and had put himself at the disposal +of the caliph, had orders to carry on the war. But the two princes +proved unequal to their task and did not support Mohallab sufficiently, +so that the Kharijites gained more than one victory. Abdalmalik in alarm +made Hajjaj governor of Irak with the most extensive powers. The troops +of Kufa, who accompanied Mohallab in an expedition against the +Kharijites, had abandoned their general and dispersed to their homes, +and nothing could induce them to return to their duty. Then, in the year +75 (A.D. 694), at the moment when the people were assembled in the +mosque for morning prayers, an unknown young man of insignificant +appearance, with a veil over his face, ascended the pulpit. It seemed at +first that he could not find his words. One of the audience, with a +contemptuous remark, took a handful of pebbles to pelt him with. But he +let them fall when Hajjaj lifted his veil and began to speak. + +"Men of Kufa," he said, "I see before me heads ripe for the sickle, and +the reaper--I am he. It seems to me, as if I saw already the blood +between your turbans and your shoulders. I am not one of those who can +be frightened by inflated bags of skin, nor need any one think to +squeeze me like a fig. The Prince of the Believers has spread before him +the arrows of his quiver, and has tried every one of them by biting its +wood. It is my wood that he has found the hardest and strongest, and I +am the arrow which he shoots against you." + +At the end of this address he ordered his clerk to read the letter of +the caliph. He began: "From the servant of God, Abdalmalik, Prince of +the Believers, to the Moslems that are in Kufa, peace be with you." As +nobody uttered a word in reply, Hajjaj said: "Stop, boy," and exclaimed: +"The Prince of the Believers salutes you, and you do not answer his +greeting! You have been but poorly taught. I will teach you afresh, +unless you behave better. Read again the letter of the Prince of the +Believers." Then, as soon as he had read: "peace upon ye," there +remained not a single man in the mosque who did not respond, "and upon +the Prince of the Believers be peace." Thereupon Hajjaj ordered that +every man capable of bearing arms should immediately join Mohallab in +Khuzistan (Susiana), and swore that all who should be found in the town +after the third day should be beheaded. This threat had its effect, and +Hajjaj proceeded to Basra, where his presence was followed by the same +results. Mohallab, reinforced by the army of Irak, at last succeeded, +after a struggle of eighteen months, in subjugating the Kharijites and +their caliph Qatara b. Foja'a, and was able at the beginning of the year +78 (A.D. 697) to return to Hajjaj at Basra. The latter loaded him with +honours and made him governor of Khorasan, whence he directed several +expeditions into Transoxiana. In the meantime Hajjaj himself had, in 695 +and 696, with great difficulty suppressed Shabib b. Yazid at the head of +the powerful tribe of Shaiban, who, himself a Kharijite, had assumed the +title of Prince of the Believers, and had even succeeded in occupying +Kufa. In the east the realm of Islam had been very much extended under +the reign of Moawiya, when Ziyad was governor of Irak and Khorasan. +Balkh and Tokharistan, Bokhara, Samarkand and Khwarizm (modern Khiva), +even Kabul and Kandahar had been subdued; but in the time of the civil +war a great deal had been lost again. Now at last the task of recovering +the lost districts could be resumed. When, in 697, Hajjaj gave the +government of Khorasan to Mohallab, he committed that of Sijistan +(Seistan) to Obaidallah b. Abi Bakra, a cousin of Ziyad. This prefect +allowed himself to be enticed by Zanbil, prince of Zabulistan, to +penetrate into the country far from his base, and escaped narrowly, not +without severe losses. The command over Sijistan was now given to +Abdarrahman b. Ash'ath, a descendant of the old royal family of Kinda, +and a numerous army was entrusted to him, so magnificently equipped that +it was called "the peacock army." Not long after his arrival in +Sijistan, Ibn Ash'ath, exasperated by the masterful tone of Hajjaj, the +plebeian, towards himself, the high-born, decided to revolt. The +soldiers of Irak, who did not love the governor, and disliked the +prospect of a long and difficult war far from home, eagerly accepted the +proposition of returning to Irak, and even proclaimed the dethronement +of Abdalmalik, in favour of Ibn Ash'ath. The new pretender entered Fars +and Ahwaz (Susiana), and it was in this last province near Tostar +(Shuster) that Hajjaj came up with him, after receiving from Syria the +reinforcements which he had demanded in all haste from the caliph. Ibn +Ash'ath drove him back to Basra, entered the city, and then turned his +arms against Kufa, of which he took possession with aid from within. +Hajjaj, afraid lest his communications with Syria should be cut off, +pitched his camp at Dair Qorra, eighteen miles west from Kufa towards +the desert, where Mahommed, the brother of the caliph, and Abdallah, his +son, brought him fresh troops. Ibn Ash'ath encamped not far from him at +Dair al-Jamajim with a far more numerous army. In great alarm Abdalmalik +endeavoured to stifle the revolt by offering to dismiss Hajjaj from his +post. The insurgents rejected this offer, and hostilities recommenced. +At the end of three months and a half, in July 702, a decisive action +took place. Victory declared for Hajjaj. Ibn Ash'ath fled to Basra, +where he managed to collect fresh troops; but having been again beaten +in a furious battle that took place at Maskin near the Dojail, he took +refuge at Ahwaz, from which he was soon driven by the troops of Hajjaj +under 'Omara b. Tamim. The rebel then retired to Sijistan, and +afterwards sought an asylum with the king of Kabul. His partisans fled +before 'Omara's army and penetrated into Khorasan, where they were +isarmed by the governor Yazid, son of the celebrated Mohallab, who had +died in the year 701. The pretender was betrayed by the king of Kabul +and killed himself. His head was sent to Hajjaj and then to Damascus. +This happened in the year 703 or 704. Yazid b. Mohallab was soon after +deprived of the government of Khorasan, Hajjaj accusing him of +partiality towards the rebels of Yemenite extraction. He appointed in +his stead first his brother Mofaddal b. Mohallab, and nine months after +Qotaiba b. Moslim, who was destined in a later period to extend the sway +of Islam in the east as far as China. + +The struggle of Ibn Ash'ath was primarily a contest for hegemony between +Irak and Syria. The proud Arabic lords could not acquiesce in paying to +a plebeian like Hajjaj, invested with absolute power by the caliph, the +strict obedience he required. They considered it further as an injustice +that the Syrian soldiers received higher pay than those of Irak. This is +apparent from the fact that one of the conditions of peace proposed by +Abdalmalik before the battle of Dair al-Jamajim had been that henceforth +the Irakian troops should be paid equally with the Syrian. Moreover, +Hajjaj, in order to maintain the regular revenue from taxation, had been +obliged to introduce stringent regulations, and had compelled a great +many villagers who had migrated to the cities to return to their +villages. Several of these were _faqihs_, students of Koranic science +and law, and all these seconded Ibn Ash'ath with all their might. But, +as Wellhausen has shown, it is not correct to consider the contest as a +reaction of the _maula's_ (Persian Moslems) against the Arabic +supremacy. + +Immediately after the victories of Dair al-Jamajim and Maskin, in 702, +Hajjaj, built a new residence on the Tigris, between Basra and Kufa, +which he called Wasit ("Middle"). There his Syrian soldiers were not in +contact with the turbulent citizens of the two capitals, and were at any +moment ready to suppress any fresh outburst. + +At the beginning of his reign Abdalmalik had replaced the humble mosque +built by Omar on the site of the temple at Jerusalem by a magnificent +dome, which was completed in the year 691. Eutychius and others pretend +that he desired to substitute Jerusalem for Mecca, because Ibn Zobair +had occupied the latter place, and thus the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba had +become difficult for the Syrians. This is quite improbable. Abdalmalik +was born and educated in Islam, and distinguished himself in his youth +by piety and continence. He regarded himself as the champion of Islam +and of the communion of the believers, and had among his intimates men +of acknowledged devoutness such as Raja b. Haywa. The idea of +interfering with the pilgrimage to the House of God at Mecca, which +would have alienated from him all religious men, and thus from a +political point of view would have been suicidal, cannot have entered +his mind for a moment. But the glorification of Jerusalem, holy alike +for Moslems, Christians and Jews, could not but exalt the glory of Islam +and its rulers within and without. + +As soon as the expedition to Irak against Mus'ab had terminated, the +holy war against the Greeks was renewed. The operations in Asia Minor +and Armenia were entrusted to Mahommed b. Merwan, the caliph's brother, +who was appointed governor of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 692 beat +the army of Justinian II. near Sebaste in Cilicia. From this time forth +the Moslems made yearly raids, the chief advantage of which was that +they kept the Syrian and Mesopotamian Arabs in continual military +exercise. After the victorious march of Okba (Oqba) b. Nafi' through +north Africa and the foundation of Kairawan, his successor Qais b. +Zohair had been obliged to retreat to Barca (Cyrenaica). In the year 696 +Abdalmalik sent Hassan b. No'man into Africa at the head of a numerous +army. He retook Kairawan, swept the coast as far as Carthage, which he +sacked, expelling the Greek garrisons from all the fortified places; he +then turned his arms against the Berbers, who, commanded by the Kahina +(Diviner), as the Arabs called their queen, beat him so completely that +he was compelled to retreat to Barca. Five years later he renewed the +war, defeated and killed the Kahina, and subdued the Berbers, who +henceforward remained faithful to the Arabs. Hassan continued to be +governor of Kairawan till after the death of Abdalmalik. + +In the meantime Abdalmalik reconstituted the administration of the +empire on Arabic principles. Up to the year 693 the Moslems had no +special coinage of their own, and chiefly used Byzantine and Persian +money, either imported or struck by themselves. Moawiya, indeed, had +struck dinars and dirhems with a Moslem inscription, but his subjects +would not accept them as there was no cross upon them. Abdalmalik +instituted a purely Islamitic coinage. If we may believe Theophanes, who +says that Justinian II. refused to receive these coins in payment of the +tribute and therefore declared the treaty at an end, we must put the +beginning of the coinage at least two years earlier. Hajjaj coined +silver dirhems at Kufa in 694. A still greater innovation was that +Arabic became the official language of the state. In the conquered +countries till then, not only had the Greek and Persian administration +been preserved, but Greek remained the official language in the western, +Persian in the eastern provinces. All officials were now compelled to +know Arabic and to conduct their administration in that language. To +this change was due in great measure the predominance of Arabic +throughout the empire. Lastly, a regular post service was instituted +from Damascus to the provincial capitals, especially destined for +governmental despatches. The postmasters were charged with the task of +informing the caliph of all important news in their respective +countries. + +All the great rivals of Abdalmalik having now disappeared, he was no +longer like his predecessors _primus inter pares_, but _dominus_. Under +his rule the members of the Omayyad house enjoyed a greater amount of +administrative control than had formerly been the case, but high office +was given only to competent men. He succeeded in reconciling the sons of +'Amr Ashdaq, and also Khalid b. Yazid, to whom he gave his own daughter +in marriage. He himself had married 'Atika, a daughter of Yazid, a union +which was in all respects a happy one. He took great care in the +education of his sons, whom he destined as his successors. His brother +Abdalaziz, governor of Egypt, whom Merwan had marked out as his +successor, died in the year 703 or 704, and Abdalmalik chose as heirs to +the empire first his son Walid, and after him his second son Suleiman. +He himself died on the 14th Shawwal 86 (9th October 705) at the age of +about sixty. His reign was one of the most stormy in the annals of +Islam, but also one of the most glorious. Abdalmalik not only brought +triumph to the cause of the Omayyads, but also extended and strengthened +the Moslem power as a whole. He was well versed in old Arabic tradition +and in the doctrine of Islam, and was passionately fond of poetry. His +court was crowded with poets, whom he loaded with favours, even if they +were Christians like Akhtal. In his reign flourished also the two +celebrated rivals of Akhtal, Jarir and Farazdaq. + +6. _Reign of Walid I._--This is the most glorious epoch in the history +of Islam. In Asia Minor and Armenia, Maslama, brother of the caliph, and +his generals obtained numerous successes against the Greeks. Tyana was +conquered after a long siege, and a great expedition against +Constantinople was in preparation. In Armenia Maslama advanced even as +far as the Caucasus. In Africa, Musa b. Nosair, who succeeded Hassan b. +No'man as governor, in a short time carried his conquests as far as Fez, +Tangier and Ceuta, and one of his captains even made a descent on Sicily +and plundered Syracuse. When he returned from the west to Kairawan, he +made his client Tariq (or Tarik) governor of Tangier and of the whole +western part of Africa. Under him the chiefs who had submitted to the +Moslem arms retained their authority. One of them was the Greek exarch +of Tangier, Julian, who, supported by the powerful Berber tribe of +Ghomera, had long resisted and even asked for aid from Spain, but had +been compelled to surrender and was left governor of Ceuta. Meanwhile in +Spain, after the death of the Gothic king Witiza in the year 90 +(708-709), anarchy arose, which was terminated by the council of +noblemen at Toledo electing Roderic, the powerful duke of Baetica, to be +his successor in the fifth year of Walid. The eldest son of Witiza then +applied to Julian, and asked the aid of the Arabs for the recovery of +his father's throne. Tariq forwarded the embassy to Kairawan, and Musa +asked the caliph's permission to send an expedition into Spain. +Authorized by Musa, Tariq now sent, in Ramadan 91 (July 710), 500 +Berbers under the command of Tarif to reconnoitre the country. This +expedition, seconded by partisans of Witiza, was successful. In the +beginning of A.D. 711 Roderic had been summoned to the north on account +of an invasion of Navarra by the Franks, caused, it is said, by the +conspirators. Tariq, thus certain of meeting no serious opposition to +his landing, passed into Spain himself with an army composed mainly of +Berbers of the Ghomera tribe under the guidance of Julian. The spot +where he landed thence acquired the name of Jebel Tariq, "Mountain of +Tariq," afterwards corrupted into Gibraltar. Having made himself master +of Algeçiras and thereby secured his communication with Africa, Tariq +set out at once in the direction of Cordova. At the news of the invasion +Roderic hastened back and led a numerous army against the combined +forces of Tariq and the partisans of Witiza. A fierce battle took place +in the plain of Barbata on the little river of Guadaleta (north of +Medina Sidonia), in which Roderic was completely routed. The spoils of +the victors were immense, especially in horses, but the king himself had +disappeared. Fearing lest he should have escaped to Toledo and should +there fit out another army, the partisans of Witiza insisted that Tariq +should march immediately against the capital. Tariq complied with their +wishes, notwithstanding the express command of Musa b. Nosair that he +should not venture too far into the country, and the protests of Julian. +Having made himself master of Ecija and having despatched a detachment +under Moghith against Cordova, Tariq took Mentesa (Villanueva de la +Fuente) and marched upon Toledo, which he soon conquered. At the same +time Moghith took Cordova. But, notwithstanding these successes, Tariq +knew that his situation was most critical. King Roderic, who had escaped +to Lusitania, and the noble Goths, who had fled from Toledo, would +certainly not be slow in making efforts to regain what they had lost. He +therefore sent a message in all haste to Musa, entreating him to come +speedily. Musa, though angered by the disobedience of Tariq, hastened to +the rescue and embarked in April 712 with 18,000 men, among them many +noble Arabs, and began, advised by Julian, a methodical campaign, with +the purpose of establishing and securing a line of communication between +the sea and Toledo. After having taken Seville, Carmona and Merida, he +marched from the latter place by the Via Romana to Salamanca, after +having ordered Tariq to rejoin him in order to encounter king Roderic. +Not far from Tamames the king was defeated and killed. King Alphonso the +Great found his tombstone at Viseo with the inscription, "Hic requiescit +Rodericus rex Gothorum." After this battle Musa reconquered Toledo, +which, after the departure of Tariq, had recovered its independence, and +entered the capital in triumph. Already, before the expedition to +Salamanca, he had perceived that the sons of Witiza had neither military +nor political ability. He therefore proclaimed the caliph of Damascus as +sole ruler of the whole peninsula. The Gothic princes must content +themselves with honours and apanages, in which they readily acquiesced. +In the same year 93 (A.D. 712) Musa struck Moslem coins with Latin +inscriptions. Musa then continued the subjugation of Spain, till Walid +recalled him to Damascus. He obeyed after having appointed his son +Abdalaziz governor of Andalos (Andalusia), as the Arabs named the +peninsula, and assigned Seville as his residence. Abdalaziz consolidated +his power by marrying the widow of the late king Roderic. Musa left +Spain about August 714, and reached Damascus shortly before the death of +Walid. Notwithstanding the immense booty he brought, he did not receive +his due reward. Accused of peculation, he was threatened with +imprisonment unless he paid a fine of 100,000 pieces of gold. The old +man--he was born in the year 640--was released by Yazid b. Mohallab, the +then mighty favourite of the caliph Suleiman, but died in the same year +716 on his way to Mecca. His son Abdalaziz was an excellent ruler, who +did much for the consolidation of the new conquests, but he reigned only +one year and eleven months, when he was murdered. His death has been +falsely imputed by some historians to the caliph Suleiman.[19] + +In the East the Moslem armies gained the most astonishing successes. In +the course of a few years Qotaiba b. Moslim conquered Paikend, Bokhara, +Samarkand, Khwarizm (mod. Khiva), Ferghana and Shash (Tashkent), and +even Kashgar on the frontiers of China. Meanwhile Mahommed b. Qasim +invaded Makran, took Daibol, passed the Indus, and marched, after having +beaten the Indian king Daher, through Sind upon Multan, which he +conquered and whence he carried off an immense booty. + +Walid was the first caliph, born and trained as prince, who felt the +majesty of the imamate and wished it to be felt by his subjects. He +desired to augment the splendours of Islam and its sovereign, as +Abdalmalik had already done by building the dome of Jerusalem. In the +time of the conquest of Damascus, one half of the great church had been +made a mosque, while the remaining half had been left to the Christians. +Walid annexed this part, indemnifying the Christians elsewhere, and +restored the whole building sumptuously and magnificently. In his time +many fine palaces and beautiful villas were built in Syria, and Becker's +conjecture seems not altogether improbable, that from this period dates +the palace of Mashetta, the façade of which is now in the Kaiser +Friedrich Museum at Berlin, as perhaps also the country houses +discovered by Musil in the land of Moab. Walid also caused the mosque of +Medina to be enlarged. For this purpose, the apartments of the Prophet +and his wives were demolished, which at first caused much discontent in +Medina, some crying out that thereby a verse of the Book of God (S. 49, +v. 4) was cancelled. With this exception, the citizens of Medina had +nothing to complain of. The vicegerent of Abdalmalik had treated them +harshly. Walid immediately on his accession appointed as governor of +Hejaz his cousin Omar b. Abdalaziz, who was received there with joy, his +devoutness and gentle character being well known. But the reputation of +Omar attracted to the two holy cities a great number of the inhabitants +of Irak, who had been deeply involved in the rebellion of Ibn Ash'ath. +Hajjaj, however, was not the man to allow the formation of a fresh +nucleus of sedition, and persuaded the caliph to dismiss Omar in the +year 712, and appoint Othman b. Hayyan at Medina and Khalid al-Qasri at +Mecca. These two prefects compelled the refugees to return to Irak, +where many of them were severely treated and even put to death by +Hajjaj. + +Few people have been so slandered as this great viceroy of the Orient. +In reality he was a man of extraordinary ability, and accomplished the +task committed to him with vigour and energy. To his unflagging +constancy was due the suppression of the dangerous rebellion of Ibn +Ash'ath. After the restoration of peace his capacity for organization +was displayed in all directions. The draining and tilling of submerged +or uncultivated land on a large scale, the promotion of agriculture in +every way, in particular by the digging of channels, and the regulation +of the system of taxation, were carried out on his initiative. He showed +the utmost wisdom in the selection of his lieutenants. The fear of his +name was so great that even in the desert there was security for life +and property, and his brilliant military successes were unquestionably +due in a great measure to the care which he bestowed on equipment and +commissariat. The heavy expenses entailed thereby were largely met by +the booty which he won. Hajjaj was a sincere Moslem; this, however, did +not prevent him from attacking Ibn Zobair in the Holy City, nor again +from punishing rebels, though they bore the name of holy men. He enjoyed +the entire confidence of Abdalmalik with Walid, but Suleiman, the +appointed successor, regarded him with disfavour. Yazid b. Mohallab, +whom he had recalled from Khorasan, and imprisoned, had escaped and put +himself under the protection of Suleiman, who made himself surety for +the fine to which Yazid had been condemned. Hajjaj foreboded evil, and +prayed eagerly that he might die before Walid. His death took place +about the end of Ramadan 95 (June or July 714). + +7. _Reign of Suleiman_ (_Solaiman_).--Suleiman had early missed the +throne. Walid wished to have his son Abdalaziz chosen as his successor, +and had offered Suleiman a large sum of money to induce him to surrender +his rights. Walid went still further and sent letters to the governors +of all the provinces, calling on them to take the oath of allegiance to +his son. None, except Hajjaj and his two generals Qotaiba b. Moslim and +Mahommed b. Qàsim, consented thus to set at naught the order of +succession established by Abdalmalik; and Suleiman succeeded without +difficulty on the death of his brother Jomada II. 96 (February 715). We +can easily conceive the hatred felt by Suleiman for Hajjaj and for all +that belonged to him. Hajjaj himself was dead; but Suleiman poured out +his wrath on his family and his officers. The governors of Medina and +Mecca were dismissed; Mahommed b. Qasim, the conqueror of India, cousin +of Hajjaj, was dismissed from his post and outlawed. Qotaiba b. Moslim, +the powerful governor of Khorasan, tried to anticipate the caliph by a +revolt, but a conspiracy was formed against him, which ended in his +murder. Some historians say that he was falsely accused of rebellion. + +Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Hajjaj, was made governor of Irak. His +arrival was hailed with joy, especially by the Azd, to whom his family +belonged, and the other Yemenite tribes. Yazid discovered soon that the +system of taxation as regulated by Hajjaj could not be altered without +serious danger to the finances of the empire, and that he could not +afford the expenses which his prodigal manner of life involved. He +therefore asked the caliph to give him the governorship of Khorasan +also, and took his residence in Merv, where he was free from control. On +his return to Khorasan he set on foot a series of new expeditions +against Jorjan and Tabaristan, with only partial success. He sent, +however, to the caliph an exaggerated account of his victories and the +booty he had made. He had cause to repent this later. + +Walid had, in the last years of his reign, made preparations for a great +expedition against Constantinople. Suleiman carried them on with energy, +and as early as the autumn of A.D. 715 Maslama invaded Asia Minor at the +head of a numerous army, whilst a well-equipped fleet under Omar b. +Hobaira sailed out to second him. It is said that Suleiman was firmly +persuaded that Constantinople would be conquered during his reign, in +accordance with a Sibylline prophecy which said that the city would be +subdued by a caliph bearing the name of a prophet, he himself being the +first to fulfil this condition.[20] Moreover, the Byzantine empire was +in these years disturbed by internal troubles. The first year of the +expedition was not unsuccessful. The siege of Amorium in Phrygia was +broken up, but Pergamum and Sardis were taken. On the 25th of August 716 +the blockade of Constantinople began from the land side, and two weeks +later from the sea side. A few months before, Leo the Isaurian had +ascended the throne and prepared the city for the siege. This lasted +about a year. The besieged were hard pressed, but the besiegers suffered +by the severe winter, and were at last obliged to raise the siege. +Maslama brought back the rest of his army in a pitiful state, while the +fleet, on its return, was partly destroyed by a violent tempest. The +Moslems regard this failure as one of the great evils that have befallen +the human race, and one which retarded the progress of the world for +ages,[21] the other calamity being the defeat in the battle of Tours by +Charles Martel. + +Maslama was still on his way back when Suleiman died at Dabiq in +northern Syria, which was the base of the expeditions into Asia Minor. +He seems not to have had the firmness of character nor the frugality of +Walid; but he was very severe against the looseness of manners that +reigned at Medina, and was highly religious. Raja b. Haywa, renowned for +his piety, whose influence began under Abdalmalik and increased under +Walid, was his constant adviser and even determined him to designate as +his successor his devout cousin Omar b. Abdalaziz. Suleiman was kind +towards the Alids and was visited by several of them, amongst others by +Abu Hashim, the son of Mahommed b. al Hanafiya, who after his father's +death had become the secret Imam (head) of the Shi'ites. On his way back +to Hejaz this man visited the family of Abdallah b. 'Abbas, which +resided at Homaima, a place situated in the vicinity of 'Amman, and died +there, after having imparted to Mahommed b. Ali b. Abdallah b. Abbas the +names of the chiefs of the Shi'a in Irak and Khorasan, and disclosed his +way of corresponding with them. From that time the Abbasids began their +machinations against the Omayyads in the name of the family of the +Prophet, avoiding all that could cause suspicion to the Shi'ites, but +holding the strings firmly in their own hands. + +8. _Reign of Omar II._--Omar b. Abdalaziz did his best to imitate his +grandfather Omar in all things, and especially in maintaining the simple +manner of life of the early Moslems. He was, however, born in the midst +of wealth; thus frugality became asceticism, and in so far as he +demanded the same rigour from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused +uneasiness and discontent. By paying the highest regard to integrity in +the choice of his officers, and not to ability, he did not advance the +interests of his subjects, as he earnestly wished to do. In the matter +of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he did harm to the +public revenues. The principle of Islam was, that no Moslem, whatever +might be his nationality, should pay any tax other than the _zakat_ or +poor-rate (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). In practice, this privilege was +confined to the Arabic Moslems. Omar wished to maintain the principle. +The original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as +agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for each +district. If one of these adopted Islam, Omar permitted him to leave his +place, which had been strictly forbidden by Hajjaj in Irak and the +eastern provinces, because by it many hands were withdrawn from the +tilling of the ground, and those who remained were unable to pay the +allotted amount. Omar's system not only diminished the actual revenue, +but largely increased in the cities the numbers of the _maula's_ +(clients), mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their +Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. Their short +dominion in Kufa under Mokhtar had been suppressed, but the discontent +continued. In North Africa particularly, and in Khorasan the effect of +Omar's proclamation was that a great multitude embraced Islam. When it +became necessary to impose a tribute upon the new converts, great +discontent arose, which largely increased the number of those who +followed the Shi'ite preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was +promoted by the severe regulations which Omar introduced for the +non-believers, such as Christians and Jews. It was he who issued those +humiliating rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to +Omar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than one illegal +impost. He endeavoured above all to procure justice for all his +subjects. Complaints against oppression found in him a ready listener, +and many unlawfully acquired possessions were restored to the legal +owners, for instance, to the descendants of Ali and Talha. Even to the +Kharijites he contrived to give satisfaction, as far as possible. In all +these matters he followed the guidance of divines and devotees, in whose +congenial company he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at +that these men saw in Omar the ideal of a prince, and that in Moslem +history he has acquired the reputation of a saint. + +After the failure of the siege of Constantinople, the advanced posts in +Asia Minor were withdrawn, but the raids were continued regularly. It +has been said that it was Omar's intention to give up his Spanish +conquests, but the facts argue the contrary. The governor, named by +Omar, Samh b. Abdallah, even crossed the Pyrenees and took possession of +Narbonne; but he was beaten and killed at Toulouse in July 720. But Omar +did all he could to prevent the degradation of the Holy War, which, +instead of being the ultimate expedient for the propagation of Islam, if +all other means had failed, had often degenerated into mere pillaging +expeditions against peaceful nations. + +9. _Reign of Yazid II._--Omar's reign was as short as that of his +predecessor. He died on the 24th of Rajab 101 (A.D. 9th February 720). +Yazid II., son of Abdalmalik and, by his mother 'Atika, grandson of +Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposition. He had at once, +however, to put down a dangerous rebellion. Yazid b. Mohallab had +returned to Irak, after the conquest of Jorjan, when Suleiman was still +alive. Shortly after, Adi b. Artat, whom Omar II. had appointed +governor, arrived, arrested Yazid, and sent him to Omar, who called him +to account for the money he had mentioned in his letter to Suleiman, and +imprisoned him when he pretended not to be able to pay the amount. Yazid +II. had personal grounds for ill-will to Yazid b. Mohallab. One of the +wives of the new caliph, the same who gave birth to that son of Yazid +II. who afterwards reigned as Walid II., was niece to the celebrated +Hajjaj, whose family had been ill-treated by the son of Mohallab, when +he was governor of Irak under Suleiman. Aware that Yazid b. Abdalmalik, +on ascending the throne, would spare neither him nor his family, Yazid +b. Mohallab had succeeded in escaping to Basra, the home of his family, +where his own tribe the Azd was predominant. Meanwhile 'Adi b. Artat had +all the brothers of Yazid and other members of the family of Mohallab +arrested, and tried to prevent Yazid from entering the city. But 'Adi +was too scrupulous to employ the public money for raising the pay of his +soldiers, whilst Yazid promised mountains of gold. Yazid stormed the +castle and took 'Adi prisoner, the public treasury fell into his hands, +and he employed the money to pay his troops largely and to raise fresh +ones. A pardon obtained for him from the caliph came too late; he had +already gone too far. He now proclaimed a Holy War against the Syrians, +whom he declared to be worse enemies of Islam than even the Turks and +the Dailam. Notwithstanding the warnings of the aged Hasan al-Basri, the +friend of Omar II., the religious people, took the part of Yazid, and +were followed by the _maulas_. Though the number of his adherents thus +increased enormously, their military value was small. Ahwaz (Khuzistan), +Fars and Kirman were easily subdued, but in Khorasan the Azd could not +prevail over the Tamim, who were loyal to the caliph. As the rebellion +threatened to spread far and wide, Yazid II. was obliged to appeal to +his brother, the celebrated Maslama. With the approach of the Syrians, +Yazid b. Mohallab tried to forestall them at Kufa. He took his way over +Wasit, which he mastered--the Syrian garrison seems to have been +withdrawn in the days of Omar II.--but, before he could get hold of +Kufa, the Syrian troops arrived. The meeting took place at 'Aqr in the +vicinity of Babel, and Yazid was completely defeated and fell in the +battle. His brothers and sons fled to Basra; thence they went by sea to +Kirman and then to Kandabil in India; but they were pursued relentlessly +and slain with only two exceptions by the officers of Maslama. The +possessions of the Mohallabites were confiscated. + +Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of Irak and Khorasan, but +was soon replaced by Omar b. Hobaira, who under Omar II. had been +governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to the tribe of Qais, and was very +severe against the Azd and other Yemenite tribes, who had more or less +favoured the part of Yazid b. Mohallab. In these years the antagonism +between Qais (Modar) and Yemenites became more and more acute, +especially in Khorasan. The real cause of the dismissal of Maslama was, +that he did not send the revenue-quota to Damascus. Omar b. Hobaira, to +supply the deficiency, ordered the prefect of Khorasan, +Sa'id-al-Harashi, to take tribute from the Sogdians in Transoxiana, who +had embraced Islam on the promise of Omar II. The Sogdians raised a +revolt in Ferghana, but were subdued by Sa'id and obliged to pay. A +still more questionable measure of Ibn Hobaira was his ordering the +successor of Sa'id Harashi to extort large sums of money from several of +the most respectable Khorasanians. The discontent roused thereby became +one of the principal causes of the fall of the Omayyads. + +In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause. Yazid b. Abi +Moslim, who had been at the head of the financial department in Irak +under Hajjaj, and had been made governor of Africa by Yazid II., issued +orders that the villagers who, having adopted Islam, were freed from +tribute according to the promise of Omar II., and had left their +villages for the towns, should return to their domiciles and pay the +same tribute as before their conversion. The Berbers rose in revolt, +slaughtered the unfortunate governor, and put in his place the former +governor Mahommed b. Yazid. The caliph at first ratified this choice, +but soon after dismissed Mahommed from his post, and replaced him by +Bishr b. Safwan, who under Hisham made an expedition against Sicily. + +Yazid II. was by natural disposition the opposite of his predecessor. He +did not feel that anxiety for the spiritual welfare of his subjects +which had animated Omar II. Poetry and music, not beloved by Suleiman +and condemned by Omar, were held by him in great honour. Two +court-singers, Sallama and Hababa, exercised great influence, tempered +only by the austerity of manners that prevailed in Syria. He was so +deeply affected by the death of Hababa, that Maslama entreated him not +to exhibit his sorrow to the eyes of the public. He died a few days +later, on the 26th of January 724, according to the chroniclers from +grief for her loss. As his successor he had appointed in the first place +his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid. + +10. _Reign of Hisham_.--Hisham was a wise and able prince and an enemy +of luxury, not an idealist like Omar II., nor a worldling like Yazid +II., but more like his father Abdalmalik, devoting all his energy to the +pacification of the interior, and to extending and consolidating the +empire of Islam. But the discontent, which had been sown under his +predecessors, had now developed to such an extent that he could not +suppress it in detail. His first care was to put an end to the +tyrannical rule of the Qaisites (Modarites) in Irak and Khorasan by +dismissing Omar b. Hobaira and appointing in his place Khalid al-Qasri. +This very able man, who under Hajjaj had been prefect of Mecca, belonged +properly neither to the Qaisites nor to the Yemenites, but as he took +the place of Ibn Hobaira and dismissed his partisans from their posts, +the former considered him as their adversary, the latter as their +benefactor. After his death, in particular, the Yemenites celebrated him +as their chief, and assigned as the reason for their revolt the injuries +which he suffered. Khalid himself assuredly did not intend it. He was a +loyal servant of the dynasty, and remained such even after receiving +very harsh treatment from them. For fifteen years Khalid governed the +eastern half of the empire, and continued to maintain peace with only +few exceptions throughout. He did much for the reclaiming and improving +of lands in Irak, in which the caliph himself and several princes took +an active part. The great revenues obtained thereby naturally caused +much jealousy. Khalid lived on a very rich scale and was extraordinarily +liberal, and he was charged with having carried out all his improvements +for his own interests, and upbraided for selling the corn of his estates +only when the prices were high. To these charges were added the +accusation that he was too tolerant to Christians, Jews and +Zoroastrians. As his mother professed the Christian religion, he was +accused of infidelity. At last a conspiracy, into which the principal +engineer of Khalid, Hassan the Nabataean, had been drawn, succeeded in +inciting Hisham against Khalid. They told him that Khalid had used +disrespectful terms in speaking of the caliph, and that he had +appropriated revenues belonging to the state. The latter imputation +especially influenced Hisham, who was very parsimonious. When the +dismissal of Khalid had been resolved upon, Yusuf b. Omar, his appointed +successor, was sent secretly to Kufa, where he seized on Khalid +unawares. For eighteen months Khalid remained in prison. But when he +declined even under torture to confess that he had been guilty of +extensive peculation, he was finally released. He settled at Damascus +and made a noble return for his injuries by taking an active part in the +war against the Greeks. In the summer of A.D. 740, while he was in Asia +Minor, a great fire broke out in Damascus, the guilt of which was +attributed to Khalid. Though it soon appeared that the imputation was +false, Khalid, on his return, was furious, and uttered very offensive +words against the caliph. Hisham, however, would not again punish his +old servant; on the contrary, he seems to have regarded his indignation +as a proof of innocence. + +The successor of Khalid in Irak had not long been in office when Zaid b. +Ali, grandson of Hosain b. Ali, who had come to Kufa for a lawsuit, was +persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi'a to organize a revolt. He succeeded +in so far that 15,000 Kufians swore to fight with him for the +maintenance of the commandments of the Book of God and the _Sunna_ +(orthodox tradition) of his Prophet, the discomfiture of the tyrants, +the redress of injury, and last, not least, the vindication of the +family of the Prophet as the rightful caliphs. The revolt broke out on +the 6th of January 740. Unfortunately for Zaid he had to do with the +same Kufians whose fickleness had already been fatal to his family. He +was deserted by his troops and slain. His body was crucified in Kufa, +his head sent to Damascus and thence to Medina. His son Yahya, still a +youth, fled to Balkh in Khorasan, but was discovered at last and hunted +down, till he fell sword in hand under Walid II. Abu Moslim, the founder +of the Abbasid dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that +occasion adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive +colour of the dynasty. + +In Khorasan also there were very serious disturbances. The Sogdians, +though subdued by Sa'id al Harashi, were not appeased, but implored the +assistance of the Turks, who had long been contending earnestly against +the Arabs for the dominion of Transoxiana. They found besides a most +valuable ally in Harith b. Soraij, a distinguished captain of the Arabic +tribe of Tamim, who, with many pious Moslems, was scandalized by the +government's perfidy in regard to the new converts. Harith put himself +at the head of all the malcontents, and raised the black flag, in +compliance with a Sibylline prophecy, holding that the man with the +black flag (the Prophet's flag) would put an end to the tyranny, and be +the precursor of the Mahdi.[22] The government troops suffered more than +one defeat, but in the last month of the year 118 (A.D. 736) the +governor Asad al-Qasri, the brother of Khalid, after having defeated +Harith, gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, which finally caused +them to retreat. Asad died almost simultaneously with the dismissal of +Khalid. Hisham then separated Khorasan from Irak and chose as governor +of the former Nasr b. Sayyar, a valiant soldier who had grown grey in +war, and who, besides all his other capacities, was an excellent poet. +Nasr instituted a system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced +earlier, would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that +which later on was generally adopted, viz. that all possessors of +conquered lands (i.e. nearly the whole empire except Arabia), whether +Moslems or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in addition to pay a +poll-tax, from which they were relieved on conversion to Islam. During +the reign of Hisham, Nasr made a successful expedition against Harith +and the Turks. The propaganda of the Shi'a by the Abbasids was +continued in these years with great zeal. + +In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam under the +Caliphate of Omar II. declared themselves independent, because the +promise of equal rights for all Moslems was not kept under the reign of +his successors. This led to the evacuation of the eastern part of India +(called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the name of the western part), and +to the founding of the strong cities of Mahfuza and Mansura for the +purpose of controlling the land. + +In the north and north-west of the empire there were no internal +disorders, but the Moslems had hard work to maintain themselves against +the Alans and the Khazars. In the year 112 (A.D. 730) they suffered a +severe defeat, in which the general Jarrah perished. But the illustrious +Maslama b. Abdalmalik, and Merwan b. Mahommed (afterwards caliph), +governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan (Adherbaijan), succeeded in repelling +the Khazars, imposing peace on the petty princes of the eastern +Caucasus, and consolidating the Arab power in that quarter. The war +against the Byzantines was continued with energy during the whole of +Hisham's reign. Moawiya, the son of Hisham, whose descendants reigned +later in Spain, was in command till 118 (A.D. 736), when he met his +death accidentally in Asia Minor by a fall from his horse. After his +death, Suleiman, another son of the caliph, had the supreme command. +Both were eager and valiant warriors. But the hero of all the battles +was Abdallah b. Hosain, surnamed al-Battal (the brave). He has been the +subject of many romantic tales. Tabari tells how he took the emperor +Constantine prisoner in the year 114 (A.D. 732; but Constantine V. +Copronymus only began to reign in 740 or 741 A.D.); another Arabic +author places this event in the year 122, adding that al-Battal, having +defeated the Greeks, was attacked and slain in returning with his +captives. The Greek historians say nothing about Constantine having been +made prisoner. It is probable that the Arabs took another Greek soldier +for the prince.[23] The victories of the Moslems had no lasting results. +During the troubles that began in the reign of Walid II., the Greeks +reconquered Marash (Germanicia), Malatia (Malatiyeh) and Erzerum +(Theodosiopolis). + +In Spain the attention of the Moslems was principally turned to avenge +the defeat of Samh beyond the Pyrenees. As early as the second year of +the reign of Hisham, 'Anbasa, the governor of Spain, crossed the +Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations vigorously. Carcassonne and +Nîmes were taken, Autun sacked. The death of 'Anbasa in A.D. 725 and +internal troubles put a stop to further hostilities. The Berbers were +the chief contingent of the Moslem troops, but were treated by their +Arab masters as inferior people. They began to resent this, and one of +their chiefs, Munisa (Munuza), made himself independent in the north and +allied himself with Odo, king of Aquitaine, who gave him his daughter in +marriage. In the year 113 Abdarrahman b. Abdallah subdued Munisa, +crossed the mountains and penetrated into Gascony by the valley of +Roncesvalles. The Moslems beat Odo, gained possession of Bordeaux, and +overran the whole of southern Gaul nearly as far as the Loire. But in +October 732 their march was checked between Tours and Poitiers by +Charles Martel and after some days of skirmishing a fierce but +indecisive battle was fought. Abdarrahman was among the slain and the +Moslems retreated hastily in the night, leaving their camp to the +Franks. They were, however, not yet discouraged. In 739 the new governor +of Spain, Oqba (Aucupa) b. Hajjaj, a man of high qualities, re-entered +Gaul and pushed forward his raids as far as Lyons, but the Franks again +drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne. Thenceforth the continual +revolts of the Berbers in Africa, and the internal troubles which +disturbed Spain until the reign of Abdarrahman I., effectually checked +the ambition of the Moslems. + +In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The Berbers, though +they had pledged themselves to Islam and had furnished the latest +contingents for the Holy War, were treated as tributary serfs, +notwithstanding the promises given by Omar II. The Kharijites, of whom a +great many had emigrated to Africa, found them eager listeners. Still, +they could not believe that it was according to the will of the caliph +that they were thus treated, until a certain number of their chiefs went +as a deputation to Hisham, but failed to obtain an audience. Thereupon a +fierce insurrection broke out, against which the governor of Africa was +powerless. Hisham at once sent an army of more than 30,000 men, under +the command of Kolthum al-Qoshairi, and Balj b. Bishr. Not far from the +river Sabu in Algeria,[24] the meeting with the army of the insurgents +took place (A.D. 740). Kolthum was beaten and killed; Balj b. Bishr led +the rest of the Syrian army to Ceuta, and thence, near the end of 741, +to Spain, where they aided in the suppression of the dangerous revolt of +the peninsular Berbers. Balj died in 742. A year later the governor, +Abu'l-Khattar, assigned to his troops for settlement divers countries +belonging to the public domain.[25] An effort of the African Berbers to +make themselves masters of Kairawan failed, their army being utterly +defeated by the governor Hanzala. + +Hisham died in February 743, after a reign of twenty years. He had not +been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins of the government +in his own hands. He was a correct Moslem and tolerant towards +Christians and Jews. His financial administration was sound and he +guarded against any misuse of the revenues of the state. But he was not +popular. His residence was at Rosafa on the border of the desert, and he +rarely admitted visitors into his presence; as a rule they were received +by his chamberlain Abrash. Hisham tried to keep himself free from and +above the rival parties, but as his vicegerents were inexorable in the +exaction of tribute, the Qaisites against the Yemenites, the Yemenites +against the Qaisites, both parties alternately had reason to complain, +whilst the non-Arabic Moslems suffered under the pressure and were +dissatisfied. He caused a large extent of land to be brought into +cultivation, and many public works to be executed, and he was accused of +overburdening his subjects for these purposes. Therefore, Yazid III. (as +also the Abbasids) on taking office undertook to abstain from spending +money on building and digging. The principle that a well-filled treasury +is the basis of a prosperous government was pushed by him too far. +Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to the management of +affairs, the Moslem power declined rather than advanced, and signs of +the decay of the Omayyad dynasty began to show themselves. The history +of his four successors, Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim and Merwan II., +is but the history of the fall of the Omayyads. + +11. _Reign of Walid II._--Walid II. was a handsome man, possessed of +extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished poet. But Hisham, +to whom he was successor-designate, foolishly kept him in the +background, and even made earnest efforts to get his own son Maslama +acknowledged as his successor. Walid therefore retired to the country, +and passed his time there in hunting, cultivating poetry, music and the +like, waiting with impatience for the death of Hisham and planning +vengeance on all those whom he suspected of having opposed him. His +first public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10 +dirhems, that of the Syrians by 20. The Omayyads who came to pay their +respects to him received large donations. Many philanthropic +institutions were founded. As to the family of his predecessor, he +contented himself with confiscating their possessions, with the single +exception of Suleiman b. Hisham, whom he had whipped and put in prison. +But the Makhzumites, who were related to Hisham by his mother, he +deprived of all their power and had them tortured to death. The +vicegerents of Hisham were replaced by Qaisites; Yusuf b. Omar, the +governor of Irak, being a Qaisite, was not only confirmed in his office, +but received with it the supreme command of Khorasan. He made use of it +immediately by ordering Nasr b. Sayyar to collect a rich present of +horses, falcons, musical instruments, golden and silver vessels and to +offer it to the caliph in person, but before the present was ready the +news came that Walid had been murdered. + +It is not certain that Walid also suspected Khalid al-Qasri of having +intrigued against him. But Yusuf b. Omar did not rest until he had his +old enemy in his power. It is said that he guaranteed Walid a large sum +of money, which he hoped to extort from Khalid. This unfortunate man +died under torture, which he bore with fortitude, in Muharram 126 +(November 743). + +Walid designated his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate. These were +still under age and were not the children of a freeborn, noble mother. +Both circumstances, according to the then prevailing notions, made them +unfit for the imamate. Moreover, it was an affront, in particular, for +the sons of Walid I., who already had considered the nomination of Yazid +II. as a slight to themselves. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. +Walid I., and joined by the majority of the Merwanid princes and many +Kalbites and other Yemenites who regarded the ill-treatment of Khalid +al-Qasri as an insult to themselves. Various stories were circulated +about the looseness of Walid's manner of life; Yazid accused him of +irreligion, and, by representing himself as a devout and God-fearing +man, won over the pious Moslems. The conspirators met with slight +opposition. A great many troops had been detached by Hisham to Africa +and other provinces, the caliph himself was in one of his country +places; the prefect of Damascus also was absent. Without difficulty, +Yazid made himself master of Damascus, and immediately sent his cousin +Abdalaziz with 2000 men against Walid, who had not more than 200 +fighting men about him. A few men hastened to the rescue, among others +'Abbas b. Walid with his sons and followers. Abdalaziz interrupted his +march, took him prisoner and compelled him to take the oath of +allegiance to his brother Yazid. Walid's small body of soldiers was soon +overpowered. After a valiant combat, the caliph retired to one of his +apartments and sat with the Koran on his knee, in order to die just as +Othman had died. He was killed on the 17th of April 744. His head was +taken to Damascus and carried about the city at the end of a spear. + +On the news of the murder of the caliph, the citizens of Homs (Emesa) +put at their head Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani, a grandson of Yazid I., and +marched against Damascus. They were beaten by Suleiman b. Hisham at a +place called Solaimania, 12 m. from the capital. Abu Mahommed was taken +prisoner and shut up with several of his brethren and cousins in the +Khadra, the old palace of Moawiya, together with the two sons of Walid +II. One or two risings in Palestine were easily suppressed. But the +reigning family had committed suicide. Their unity was broken. The +holiness of their Caliphate, their legitimate authority, had been +trifled with; the hatred of the days of Merj Rahit had been revived. The +orthodox faith also, whose strong representative and defender had +hitherto been the caliph, was shaken by the fact that Yazid III. +belonged to the sect of the Qadaris who rejected the doctrine of +predestination. The disorganization of the empire was at hand. + +12. _Reign of Yazid III._--Yazid III., on his accession, made a fine +speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected from a +good and wise ruler, even offering to make place immediately for the man +whom his subjects should find better qualified for the Caliphate than +himself. He cancelled, however, the increase of the pay granted by Walid +and thus earned the nickname of the _Naqis_ (diminisher). As he owed his +position to the aid of the Kalbites, he chose his officers from among +them. The governorship of Irak was confided to a Kalbite, Mansur b. +Jomhur, a hot-headed and unscrupulous man. Yusuf b. Omar was unable to +offer resistance, and was ultimately taken and confined in the Khadra. +Mansur had hardly been three months in office when Yazid replaced him by +Abdallah, son of Omar II. The distant provinces, with the exception of +Sind and Sijistan, renounced the authority of the new caliph. In Africa +Abdarrahman b. Habib, a descendant of the famous 'Oqba b. Nafi', was +almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself from a +suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Nasr b. Sayyar, the +governor of Khorasan, had not yet decided whether he ought to take the +oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a reign of only five months +and a half, on the 12th of Dhu'l-Hijja A.H. 126 (25th September A.D. +744). + +13. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. He was +acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned no longer +than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and to submit to the +authority of Merwan II. + +14. Merwan II., the son of Mahommed b. Merwan and cousin of Maslama, was +a man of energy, and might have revived the strength of the Omayyad +dynasty, but for the general disorder which pervaded the whole empire. +In 732 Hisham had entrusted to him the government of Armenia and +Azerbaijan, which he held with great success till the death of Walid II. +He had great military capacity and introduced important reforms. On the +murder of Walid he prepared to dispute the supreme power with the new +caliph, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in alarm, offered him as +the price of peace the government of this province together with Armenia +and Azerbaijan. Merwan resolved to accept those conditions, and sent a +deputation to Damascus, which, however, had just reached Manbij +(Hierapolis) when Yazid died. Leaving his son Abdalmalik with 40,000 men +in Rakka, Merwan entered Syria with 80,000 men. Suleiman b. Hisham, at +the head of 120,000 men, was defeated at 'Ain al-Jarr, between Baalbek +and Damascus. Merwan made many prisoners, whom he treated with the +greatest mildness, granting them freedom on condition that they should +take the oath of allegiance to the sons of Walid II. He then marched +upon Damascus. But Suleiman b. Hisham, Yazid, the son of Khalid +al-Qasri, and other chiefs, hastened to the Khadra and killed the two +princes, together with Yusuf b. Omar. Suleiman then made himself master +of the treasury and fled with the caliph Ibrahim to Tadmor (Palmyra). +Only Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani escaped the murderers. When Merwan entered +Damascus this man testified that the sons of Walid II., who had just +become adult, had named Merwan successor to the Caliphate, and was the +first to greet him as Prince of the Believers. All the generals and +officers followed his example and took the oath of allegiance (7th +December A.D. 744). Merwan did all he could to pacify Syria, permitting +the Arabs of the four provinces to choose their own prefects, and even +acquiescing in the selection as prefect of Palestine of Thabit b. +No'aim, who had behaved very treacherously towards him before, but whom +he had forgiven. He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but +transplanted the seat of government to his own town, Harran in +Mesopotamia. Suleiman b. Hisham and Ibrahim tendered their submission +and were pardoned. + +But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Omayyad princes +considered Merwan as an upstart, his mother being a slave-girl; the +Damascenes were angry because he had chosen Harran for his residence; +the Kalbites felt themselves slighted, as the Qaisites predominated. +Thabit b. No'aim revolted in Palestine, Emesa (Homs) and Tadmor were +turbulent, Damascus was besieged by Yazid b. Khalid al Qasri. Merwan, +who wanted to march against Irak, was obliged to return to Syria, where +he put an end to the troubles. This time Thabit b. No'aim had to pay for +his perfidy with his life. After this new pacification, Merwan caused +the Syrians to acknowledge his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate, and +married them to two daughters of Hisham. All the Omayyad princes were +invited to the wedding, Merwan hoping still to conciliate them. He then +equipped 10,000 Syrians, and ordered them to rejoin the army of 20,000 +men from Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin) and Mesopotamia, who, under Yazid b. Omar +b. Hobaira, were already on the march towards Irak. When these Syrians +came to Rosafa (Rusafa), Suleiman b. Hisham persuaded them to proclaim +himself caliph, and made himself master of Kinnesrin. From all sides +Syrians flocked to his aid till he had 70,000 men under his orders. +Merwan immediately ordered Ibn Hobaira to stop his march and to wait for +him at Durin, and marched with the main force against Suleiman, whom he +utterly defeated at Khosaf in the district of Kinnesrin. Suleiman fled +to Homs and thence to Tadmor and on to Kufa, leaving his brother Sa'id +in Homs. The siege of this place by Merwan lasted nearly five months. +After the victory the walls were demolished, and likewise those of +Baalbek, Damascus, Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, +and therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until the +summer of 128 (A.D. 746) could Merwan resume his campaign against Irak. + +The governor of this province, Abdallah, the son of Omar II., was a man +of small energy, whose principal care was his personal ease and comfort. +An ambitious man, Abdallah b. Moawiya, a great-grandson of Ali's brother +Ja'far, put himself at the head of a band of Shi'ites and _maulas_, made +himself master of Kufa and marched upon Hira, where, since Yusuf b. +Omar, the governor and the Syrian troops had resided. The rebels were +defeated, and Kufa surrendered (October 744) under condition of amnesty +for the insurgents and freedom for Abdallah b. Moawiya. This adventurer +now went into Media (Jabal), where a great number of _maulas_ and +Shi'ites, even members of the reigning dynasty and of the Abbasid +family, such as the future caliph Mansur, rejoined him. With their help +he became master of a vast empire, which, however, lasted scarcely three +years. + +Ibn Omar did not acknowledge Merwan as caliph. For the moment Merwan +could do no more than send a new governor, Ibn Sa'id al Harashi. This +officer was supported only by the Qaisite troops, the Kalbites, who were +numerically superior, maintaining Ibn Omar in his residence at Hira. +There were many skirmishes between them, but a common danger soon forced +them to suspend their hostilities. The general disorder after the death +of Hisham had given to the Khawarij an opportunity of asserting their +claims such as they had never had before. They belonged for the greater +part to the Rabi'a, who always stood more or less aloof from the other +Arabs, and had a particular grudge against the Modar. Their leading +tribe, the Shaiban, possessed the lands on the Tigris in the province of +Mosul, and here, after the murder of Walid II., their chief proclaimed +himself caliph. Reinforced by many Kharijites out of the northern +provinces, he marched against Kufa. Ibn Omar and Ibn Sa'id al Harashi +tried to defend their province, but were completely defeated. Harashi +fled to Merwan, Ibn Omar to Hira, which, after a siege of two months, he +was obliged to surrender in Shawwal 127 (August A.D. 745). Mansur b. +Jomhur was the first to pass over to the Khawarij; then Ibn Omar himself +took the oath of allegiance. That a noble Koreishite, a prince of the +reigning house, should pledge himself to follow Dahhak the Shaibanite as +his Imam, was an event of which the Khawarij were very proud. Ibn Omar +was rewarded with the government of eastern Irak, Khuzistan and Fars. + +Whilst Merwan besieged Homs, Dahhak returned to Mesopotamia and took +Mosul, whence he threatened Nisibis, where Abdallah, the son of Merwan, +maintained himself with difficulty. Suleiman b. Hisham also had gone +over to the Khawarij, who now numbered 120,000 men. Mesopotamia itself +was in danger, when Merwan at last was able to march against the enemy. +In a furious battle at Kafartutha (September A.D. 746) the Khawarij were +defeated; Dahhak and his successor Khaibari perished; the survivors were +obliged to retire to Mosul, where they crossed the Tigris. Merwan +followed them and encamped on the western bank. Immediately after the +battle of Kafartutha, Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira directed his troops +towards Irak. He beat the Kharijites repeatedly and entered Kufa in May +or June 747. Ibn Omar was taken prisoner; Mansur b. Jomhur fled to Ibn +Moawiya. Ibn Hobaira was at last free to send Ibn Dobara with an army to +Mesopotamia. At his approach the Kharijites left their camp and fled to +Abdallah b. Moawiya, who was now at the height of his power. But it was +not destined to last. The two generals of Ibn Hobaira, Ibn Dobara and +Nobata b. Hanzala defeated his army; Ibn Moawiya fled to Khorasan, where +he met his death; the chief of the Kharijites, Shaiban Yashkori went to +eastern Arabia; Suleiman b. Hisham and Mansur b. Johmur escaped to +India. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern parts of the empire +lay at the feet of Merwan. But in the north-east, in Khorasan, meanwhile +a storm had arisen, against which his resources and his wisdom were +alike of no avail. + +When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khorasan, Nasr b. +Sayyar did not at once acknowledge the Caliphate of Yazid III., but +induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir of Khorasan, until a +caliph should be universally acknowledged. Not many months later +(Shawwal 126) he was confirmed in his post by Yusuf b. Omar, the +governor of Irak. But Nasr had a personal enemy, the chief of the Azd +(Yemenites) Jodai' al-Kirmani, a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose, +and in a short time the Azd under Kirmani, supported by the Rabi'a, who +always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection, which +Nasr tried in vain to put down by concessions. + +So stood matters when Harith b. Soraij, seconded by Yazid III., +reappeared on the scene, crossed the Oxus and came to Merv. Nasr +received him with the greatest honour, hoping to get his aid against +Kirmani, but Harith, to whom 3000 men of his tribe, the Tamim, had gone +over, demanded Nasr's abdication and tried to make himself master of +Merv. Having failed in this, he allied himself with Kirmani. Nasr could +hold Merv no longer, and retired to Nishapur. But the Tamim of Harith +could not endure the supremacy of the Azd. In a moment the allies were +divided into two camps; a battle ensued, in which Harith was defeated +and killed. Originally, Harith seems to have had the highest aims, but +in reality he did more than any one else to weaken the Arabic dominion. +He brought the Turks into the field against them; he incited the native +population of Transoxiana against their Arab lords, and stirred up +discord between the Arabs themselves. Being a Tamimite, he belonged to +the Modar, on whom the government in Khorasan depended; but he aided the +Yemenites to gain the upper hand of them. Thus he paved the way for Abu +Moslim. + +Since the days of Ali there had been two tendencies among the Shi'ites. +The moderate party distinguished itself from the other Moslems only by +their doctrine that the imamate belonged legally to a man of the house +of the Prophet. The other party, that of the ultra-Shi'ites, named +Hashimiya after Abu Hashim the son of Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, preached +the equality of all Moslems, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the +same divine spirit that had animated the Prophet, incorporated itself +again in his heirs (see SHI'ITES). After the death of Hosain, they chose +for their Imam Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, and at his decease his son Abu +Hashim, from whom Mahommed b. Ali, the grandson of Abdallah b. Abbas, +who resided at Homaima in the south-east of Syria, obtained the secrets +of the party and took the lead (A.H. 98, see above). This Mahommed, the +father of the two first Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability +and great ambition. He directed his energies primarily to Khorasan. The +missionaries were charged with the task of undermining the authority of +the Omayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took place +under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of the court, as +contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects. God would not +suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe that time could not +be far off--He would send a saviour--and out of the house of the +Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore Islam to its original purity. All +who desired to co-operate in this holy purpose must pledge themselves to +unlimited obedience to the Imam, and place their lives and property at +his disposal. As a proof of their sincerity they were required at once +to pay a fixed sum for the Imam. The missionaries had great success, +especially among the non-Arabic inhabitants of Khorasan and Transoxiana. + +Mahommed b. Ali died A.H. 126 (A.D. 743-744), and his son Ibrahim, the +Imam, took his place. Ibrahim had a confidant about whose antecedents +one fact alone seems certain, that he was a _maula_ (client) of Persian +origin. This man, Abu Moslim by name, was a man of real ability and +devoted to his master's cause. To him, in 745-746, the management of +affairs in Khorasan was entrusted, with instructions to consult in all +weighty matters the head of the mission, the Arab Suleiman b. Kathir. At +first the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize +Abu Moslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet. In the +year 129 he judged that the time for open manifestation had arrived. His +partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides on a fixed day at +Siqadenj in the province of Merv. Then, on the 1st Shawwal (15th June +747), the first solemn meeting took place and the black flags were +unfolded. On that occasion Suleiman b. Kathir was still leader, but by +the end of the year Abu Moslim, whom the majority believed to belong +himself to the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a +strong army. Meantime, Nasr had moved from Nishapur to Merv, and here +the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last, the true +significance of Abu Moslim's work was recognized. Nasr warned the Arabs +against their common enemy, "who preaches a religion that does not come +from the Envoy of God, and whose chief aim is the extirpation of the +Arabs." In vain he had entreated Merwan and Ibn Hobaira to send him +troops before it should be too late. When at last it was possible to +them to fulfil his wish, it was in fact too late. For a moment it seemed +as though the rival Arab factions, realizing their common peril, would +turn their combined forces against the Shi'ites. But Abu Moslim +contrived to re-awaken their mutual distrust and jealousy, and, taking +advantage of the opportunity, made himself master of Merv, in Rabia II. +A.H. 130 (December 747). Nasr escaped only by a headlong flight to +Nishapur. This was the end of the Arabic dominion in the East. Many Arab +chiefs were killed, partly by order of Abu Moslim, partly by their +clients. The latter, however, was strictly forbidden by Abu Moslim. So +severe indeed was the discipline he exercised, that one of the chief +missionaries, who by a secret warning had rendered possible the escape +of Nasr from Merv, paid for it with his life. + +As soon as Abu Moslim had consolidated his authority, he sent his chief +general Qahtaba against Nishapur. Nasr's son Tamim was vanquished and +killed, and Nasr retreated to Kumis (Qumis) on the boundary of Jorjan, +whither also advanced from the other side Nobata at the head of an army +sent by Merwan. Qahtaba detached his son Hasan against Nasr and went +himself to meet Nobata, whom he beat on the 1st of Dhu'l-hijja 130 (6th +August 748). Nasr could not further resist. He reached Sawa in the +vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of +eighty-five years. Rei and Hamadan were taken without serious +difficulty. Near Nehawend, Ibn Dobara, at the head of a large army, +encountered Qahtaba, but was defeated and killed. In the month of +Dhu'l-qa'da 131 (June 749) Nehawend (Nehavend) surrendered, and thereby +the way to Irak lay open to Qahtaba. Ibn Hobaira was overtaken and +compelled to retire to Wasit. Qahtaba himself perished in the combat, +but his son Hasan entered Kufa without any resistance on the 2nd of +September 740. + +Merwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the movement in +Khorasan, and had seized upon Ibrahim the Imam and imprisoned him at +Harran. There he died, probably from the plague, though Merwan was +accused of having killed him. When the other Abbasids left Homaima is +not certain. But they arrived at Kufa in the latter half of September +749, where in the meantime the head of the propaganda, Abu Salama, +called the wazir of the family of Mahomet, had previously undertaken the +government. This Abu Salama seems to have had scruples against +recognizing Abu'l-Abbas as the successor of his brother Ibrahim, and to +have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked for from Medina, would not +be slow in making his appearance, little thinking that an Abbasid would +present himself as such. But Abu Jahm, on the instructions of Abu +Moslim, declared to the chief officers of the Khorasanian army that the +Mahdi was in their midst, and brought them to Abu'l-Abbas, to whom they +swore allegiance. Abu Salama also was constrained to take the oath. On +Friday, the 12th Rabia II. A.H. 132 (28th November 749) Abu'l-Abbas was +solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal mosque of Kufa. The trick +had been carried out admirably. On the point of gathering the ripe +fruit, the Alids were suddenly pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched +away by the Abbasids. The latter gained the throne and they took good +care never to be deprived of it. + +After the conquest of Nehawend, Qahtaba had detached one of his +captains, Abu 'Aun, to Shahrazur, where he defeated the Syrian army +which was stationed there. Thereupon Abu 'Aun occupied the land of +Mosul, where he obtained reinforcements from Kufa, headed by Abdallah b. +Ali, an uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, who was to have the supreme command. +Merwan advanced to meet him, and was completely defeated near the +Greater Zab, an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted eleven +days. Merwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to +Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle towards the end of 132 (August +750). His head was cut off and sent to Kufa.[26] Abu Aun, who had been +the real leader of the campaign against Merwan, remained in Egypt as its +governor. Ibn Hobaira, who had been besieged in Wasit for eleven months, +then consented to a capitulation, which was sanctioned by Abu'l-Abbas. +Immediately after the surrender, Ibn Hobaira and his principal officers +were treacherously murdered. In Syria, the Omayyads were persecuted with +the utmost rigour. Even their graves were violated, and the bodies +crucified and destroyed. In order that no members of the family should +escape, Abdallah b. Ali pretended to grant an amnesty to all Omayyads +who should come in to him at Abu Fotros (Antipatris) and acknowledge the +new caliph, and even promised them the restitution of all their +property. Ninety men allowed themselves to be entrapped, and Abdallah +invited them to a banquet. When they were all collected, a body of +executioners rushed into the hall and slew them with clubs. He then +ordered leathern covers to be thrown upon the dying men, and had the +banquet served upon them. In Medina and Mecca Da'ud b. Ali, another +uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, conducted the persecution; in Basra, Suleiman b. +Ali. Abu'l-Abbas himself killed those he could lay his hands on in Hira +and Kufa, amongst them Suleiman b. Hisham, who had been the bitterest +enemy of Merwan. Only a few Omayyads escaped the massacre, several of +whom were murdered later. A grandson of Hisham, Abdarrahman, son of his +most beloved son Moawiya, reached Africa and founded in Spain the +Omayyad dynasty of Cordova. + +With the dynasty of the Omayyads the hegemony passes finally from Syria +to Irak. At the same time the supremacy of the Arabs came to an end. +Thenceforth it is not the contingents of the Arabic tribes which compose +the army, and on whom the government depends; the new dynasty relies on +a standing army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers. +The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations begins +to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic language and the +Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and spread more and more over +the whole empire. + + +C.--THE ABBASIDS + +We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under which the power +of Islam reached its highest point. + +1. Abu'l-Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue in which he +announced the era of concord and happiness which was to begin now that +the House of the Prophet had been restored to its right. He asserted +that the Abbasids were the real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants +of his oldest uncle Abbas. Addressing the Kufians, he said, "Inhabitants +of Kufa, ye are those whose affection towards us has ever been constant +and true; ye have never changed your mind, nor swerved from it, +notwithstanding all the pressure of the unjust upon you. At last our +time has come, and God has brought you the new era. Ye are the happiest +of men through us, and the dearest to us. I increase your pensions with +100 dirhems; make now your preparations, for I am the lavish shedder of +blood[27] and the avenger of blood." + +Notwithstanding these fine words, Abu'l-Abbas did not trust the +Kufians. He resided outside the town with the Khorasanian troops, and +with them went first to Hira, then to Hashimiya, which he caused to be +built in the neighbourhood of Anbar. For their real sympathies, he knew, +were with the house of Ali, and Abu Salama their leader, who had +reluctantly taken the oath of allegiance, did not conceal his +disappointment. Abu Jahm, the vizier (q.v.; also MAHOMMEDAN +INSTITUTIONS), or "helper," of Abu Moslim, advised that Abu Ja'far, the +caliph's brother, should be sent to Khorasan to consult Abu Moslim. The +result was that Abu Salama was assassinated, and at the same time +Suleiman b. Kathir, who had been the head of the propaganda in Khorasan, +and had also expected that the Mahdi would belong to the house of Ali. +It is said that Abu Ja'far, whilst in Khorasan, was so impressed by the +unlimited power of Abu Moslim, and saw so clearly that, though he called +his brother and himself his masters, he considered them as his +creatures, that he vowed his death at the first opportunity. + +The ruin of the Omayyad empire and the rise of the new dynasty did not +take place without mighty convulsions. In Bathaniya and the Hauran, in +the north of Syria, in Mesopotamia and Irak Khorasan insurrections had +to be put down with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the +provinces among the principal members of his family and his generals. To +his brother Abu Ja'far he gave Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and Armenia; to +his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, Syria; to his uncle Da'ud, Hejaz, Yemen and +Yamama (Yemama); to his cousin 'Isa b. Musa, the province of Kufa. +Another uncle, Suleiman b. Ali, received the government of Basra with +Bahrein and Oman; Isma 'il b. Ali that of Ahwaz; Abu Moslim, Khorasan +and Transoxiana; Mahommed b. Ash'ath, Fars; Abu 'Aun, Egypt. In Sind the +Omayyad governor, Mansur b. Jomhur, had succeeded in maintaining +himself, but was defeated by an army sent against him under Musa b. +Ka'b, and the black standard of the Abbasids was raised over the city of +Mansura. Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the +Abbasids never gained any real footing in Spain, while Africa remained, +at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection to the new +dynasty. In 754 Abu Moslim came to Irak to visit Abu'l-Abbas and to ask +his permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was received with +great honour, but the caliph said that he was sorry not to be able to +give him the leadership of the pilgrimage, which he had already +purposely entrusted to his brother, Abu Ja'far. + +Abu'l-Abbas died on the 13th of Dhu'l-hijja 136 (5th June 754). He seems +to have been a man of limited capacity, and had very little share in the +achievements accomplished in his name. He initiated practically nothing +without the consent of Abu Jahm, who was thus the real ruler. In the few +cases where he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his +brother Abu Ja'far. + +2. _Reign of Mansur._--Abu'l-Abbas had designated as his successors +first Abu Ja'far, surnamed al-Mansur (the victorious), and after him his +cousin 'Isa b. Musa. Abu Ja'far was, according to the historians, older +than Abu'l-Abbas, but while the mother of the latter belonged to the +powerful Yemenite tribe of al-Harith b. Ka'b, the mother of Abu Ja'far +was a Berber slave-girl. But he was a son of Mahommed b. Ali, and was +therefore preferred by Abu Moslim to his uncles and cousins. +Abu'l-Abbas, however, had promised the succession to his uncle Abdallah +b. Ali, when he marched against Merwan. When the news of the death of +Abu'l-Abbas reached Abdallah, who at the head of a numerous army was on +the point of renewing the Byzantine war, he came to Harran, furious at +his exclusion, and proclaimed himself caliph. Abu Moslim marched against +him, and the two armies met at Nisibis, where, after a number of +skirmishes, a decisive engagement took place (28th November 754). +Abdallah was defeated and escaped to Basra, where he found a refuge with +his brother Suleiman. A year later he asked for pardon, and took the +oath of allegiance to Mansur. The caliph spared his life for a time, but +he did not forget. In 764 Abdallah met his death by the collapse of his +house, which had been deliberately undermined. + +The first care of Mansur was now to get rid of the powerful Abu Moslim, +who had thus by another brilliant service strengthened his great +reputation. On pretence of conferring with him on important business of +state, Mansur induced him, in spite of the warnings of his best general, +Abu Nasr, to come to Madain (Ctesiphon), and in the most perfidious +manner caused him to be murdered by his guards. Thus miserably perished +the real founder of the Abbasid dynasty, the _Sahib addaula_, as he is +commonly called, the _Amin_ (trustee) of the House of the Prophet. A +witty man, being asked his opinion about Abu Ja'far (Mansur) and Abu +Moslim, said, alluding to the Koran 21, verse 22, "if there were two +Gods, the universe would be ruined." The Khorasanian chiefs were bribed +into submission, and order was at last re-established by Mansur's +general Khazim b. Khozaima in Mesopotamia, and by Abu Da'ud, the +governor of Khorasan in the east. + +About the same time Africa[28] and Spain escaped from the dominion of +the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season, the latter permanently. +The cause of the revolt of Africa was as follows. Mansur had written to +Abdarrahman, announcing the death of Abu'l-Abbas, and requiring him to +take the oath of allegiance. Abdarrahman sent in his adhesion, together +with a few presents of little value. The caliph replied by a threatening +letter which angered Abdarrahman. He called the people together at the +hour of prayer, publicly cursed Mansur from the pulpit and declared him +deposed. He next caused a circular letter, commanding all Maghribins to +refuse obedience to the caliph, to be read from the pulpit throughout +the whole extent of the Maghrib (western North Africa). A brother of +Abdarrahman, Ilyas, saw in this revolt an opportunity of obtaining the +government of Africa for himself. Seconded by many of the inhabitants of +Kairawan, who had remained faithful to the cause of the Abbasids, he +attacked his brother, slew him, and proclaimed himself governor in his +stead. This revolution in favour of the Abbasids was, however, not of +long duration. Habib, the eldest son of Abdarrahman, who had fled in the +night of his father's murder, was captured, but the vessel which was to +convey him to Spain having been detained by stress of weather, his +partisans took arms and rescued him. Ilyas was marching against them, +when the idea occurred to Habib of challenging him to single combat. +Ilyas hesitated, but his own soldiers compelled him to accept the +challenge. He measured arms with Habib, and was slain. The party of +independence thus triumphed, but in the year 144 (761) Mahommed b. +Ash'ath, the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained possession +of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the year 800, it must +be added, Africa only nominally belonged to the Abbasids; for, under the +reign of Harun al-Rashid, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with +the government of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, +that of the Aghlabites. + +At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent Caliphate of +the western Omayyads was founded in Spain. The long dissensions which +had preceded the fall of that dynasty in the East had already prepared +the way for the independence of a province so distant from the centre of +the empire. Every petty amir then tried to seize sovereign power for +himself, and the people groaned under the consequent anarchy. Weary of +these commotions, the Arabs of Spain at last came to an understanding +among themselves for the election of a caliph, and their choice fell +upon one of the last survivors of the Omayyads, Abdarrahman b. Moawiya, +grandson of the caliph Hisham. This prince was wandering in the deserts +of Africa, pursued by his implacable enemies, but everywhere protected +and concealed by the desert tribes, who pitied his misfortunes and +respected his illustrious origin. A deputation from Spain sought him out +in Africa and offered him the Caliphate, which he accepted with joy. On +the 1st Rabia I. 138 (14th August 755) Abdarrahman landed in the Iberian +peninsula, where he was universally welcomed, and speedily founded at +Cordova the Western Omayyad Caliphate (see SPAIN: _History_). + +While Mansur was thus losing Africa and Spain, he was trying to redeem +the losses the empire had sustained on the northern frontier by the +Byzantines. In 750-751 the emperor Constantine V. (Copronymus) had +unsuccessfully blockaded Malatia; but five years later he took it by +force and razed its wall to the ground. Mansur now sent in 757 an army +of 70,000 men under the command of his cousin Abdalwahhab, the son of +Ibrahim the Imam, whom he had made governor of Mesopotamia, the real +chief being Hasan b. Qahtaba. They rebuilt all that the emperor had +destroyed, and made this key of Asia Minor stronger than ever before. +The Moslems then made a raid by the pass of Hadath (Adata) and invaded +the land of the Byzantines. Two aunts of the caliph took part in this +expedition, having made a vow that if the dominion of the Omayyads were +ended they would wage war in the path of God. Constantine advanced with +a numerous army, but was afraid of attacking the invaders. The Moslems +also rebuilt Mopsuestia. But from 758 till 763 Mansur was so occupied +with his own affairs that he could not think of further raids. + +In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called +Rawendis (q.v.), went to Hashimiya, the residence of the caliph, not far +from Kufa. They believed that the caliph was their lord, to whom they +owed their daily bread, and came to pay him divine honours. They began +by marching in solemn procession round the palace, as if it had been the +Ka'ba. Mansur being told of it said: "I would rather they went to hell +in obedience to us, than to heaven in disobedience." But as they grew +tumultuous, and he saw that this impious homage gave offence to his men, +he caused the principal leaders to be seized and thrown into prison. The +Rawendis immediately rose in revolt, broke the prison doors, rescued +their chiefs, and returned to the palace. The unfortunate fanatics were +hunted down and massacred to the last man, and thereby the ties that +bound the Abbasids to the ultra-Shi'ites were severed. From that time +forward the Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam, +just as the Omayyads had been. The name of Hashimiya, which the reigning +family still retained, was henceforward derived not from Abu Hashim, but +from Hashim, the grandfather of Abbas, the great-grandfather of the +Prophet. + +A much greater danger now threatened Mansur. In the last days of the +Omayyads, the Shi'ites had chosen as caliph, Mahommed b. Abdallah b. +Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi and the "pure soul," and Mansur had +been among those who pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, +the Alids in Medina were indignant at being supplanted by the Abbasids, +and Mansur's chief concern was to get Mahommed into his power. +Immediately after his occupying the throne, he named Ziyad b. Obaidallah +governor of Medina, with orders to lay hands on Mahommed and his brother +Ibrahim, who, warned betimes, took refuge in flight. In 758 Mansur, +informed that a revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and +ordered Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or +would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other +relatives were seized and transported to Irak, where Abdallah and his +brother Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned. Notwithstanding all +these precautions, a vast conspiracy was formed. On the same day +Mahommed was to raise the standard of revolt in Medina, Ibrahim in +Basra. But the Alids, though not devoid of personal courage, never +excelled in politics or in tactics. In A.D. 762 Mahommed took Medina and +had himself proclaimed caliph. The governor of Kufa, 'Isa b. Musa, +received orders to march against him, entered Arabia, and captured +Medina, which, fortified by Mahommed by the same means as the Prophet +had employed against the besieging Meccans, could not hold out against +the well-trained Khorasanians. Mahommed was defeated and slain. His head +was cut off and sent to Mansur. When on the point of death, Mahommed +gave the famous sword of the Prophet called Dhu'l-Fiqar to a merchant to +whom he owed 400 dinars. It came later into the possession of Harun +al-Rashid. In the meanwhile Ibrahim had not only gained possession of +Basra, Ahwaz and Fars, but had even occupied Wasit. The empire of the +Abbasids was in great jeopardy. For fifty days Mansur stayed in his +room, neither changing his clothes nor allowing himself a moment's +repose. The greater part of his troops were in Rei with his son +al-Mahdi, who had conquered Tabaristan, in Africa, with Mahommed b. +Ash'ath, and in Arabia with 'Isa b. Musa. Had Ibrahim marched at once +against Kufa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the +opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Ba-Khamra, 48 m. from +Kufa. Homaid b. Qahtaba, the commander of Mansur's army, was defeated, +only a small division under 'Isa b. Musa holding its ground. At that +moment Salm, the son of the famous Qotaiba b. Moslim, came to the rescue +by attacking the rear of Ibrahim. Homaid rallied his troops, and Ibrahim +was overpowered. At last he fell, pierced by an arrow, and, in spite of +the desperate efforts of his followers, his body remained in the hands +of the enemy. His head was cut off and brought to Mansur. + +Mansur could now give his mind to the founding of the new capital. When +the tumult of the Rawendis took place he saw clearly that his personal +safety was not assured in Hashimiya,[29] where a riot of the populace +could be very dangerous, and his troops were continually exposed to the +perverting influence of the fickle and disloyal citizens of Kufa. He had +just made choice of the admirable site of the old market-town of Bagdad +when the tidings came of the rising of Mahommed in Medina. In those days +he saw that he had been very imprudent to denude himself of troops, and +decided to keep henceforth always with him a body of 30,000 soldiers. So +Bagdad, or properly "the round city" of Mansur, on the western bank of +the Tigris, was built as the capital. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in +the centre of which was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. +But around this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which +was to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate +lasted.[30] The building lasted three years and was completed in the +year 149 (A.D. 766). That year is really the beginning of the new era. +"The Omayyads," says the Spanish writer Ibn Hazm, "were an Arabic +dynasty; they had no fortified residence, nor citadel; each of them +dwelt in his villa, where he lived before becoming caliph; they did not +desire that the Moslems should speak to them as slaves to their master, +nor kiss the ground before them or their feet; they only gave their care +to the appointment of able governors in the provinces of the empire. The +Abbasids, on the contrary, were a Persian dynasty, under which the Arab +tribal system, as regulated by Omar, fell to pieces; the Persians of +Khorasan were the real rulers, and the government became despotic as in +the days of Chrosroes." The reign of Abu'l-Abbas and the first part of +that of Mansur had been almost a continuation of the former period. But +now his equals in birth and rank, the Omayyads and the Alids, had been +crushed; the principal actors in the great struggle, the leaders of the +propaganda and Abu Moslim were out of the way; the caliph stood far +above all his subjects; and his only possible antagonists were the +members of his own family. + +'Isa b. Musa had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu'l-Abbas as +successor to Mansur. The latter having vainly tried to compel 'Isa to +renounce his right of succession, in favour of Mansur's son Mahommed +al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who swore that he had done so. +However unwillingly, 'Isa was obliged at last to yield, but it was +understood that, in case of Mahommed's death, the succession should +return to 'Isa. One of the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khalid +b. Barmak, the head of that celebrated family the Barmecides (q.v.), +which played so important a part in the reign of Harun al-Rashid. This +Khalid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family in Balkh, and +had been one of the trusty supporters of Abu Moslim, Mansur appointed as +minister of finance. + +A son of Mahommed the Alid had escaped to India, where, with the +connivance of the governor Omar b. Hafs Hazarmerd, he had found refuge +with an Indian king. Mansur discovered his abode, and caused him to be +killed. His infant son was sent to Medina and delivered to his family. +Omar Hazarmerd lost his government and received a command in Africa, +where he died in 770. + +In A.H. 158 (A.D. 775) Mansur undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca, but +succumbed to dysentery at the last station on the route. He was about +sixty-five years of age, and had reigned for twenty-two years. He was +buried at Mecca. He was a man of rare energy and strength of mind. His +ambition was boundless and no means, however perfidious, were despised +by him. But he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able +officers for all places. He was thrifty and anxious to leave to his son +a full treasury. He seems to have cherished the ideal that this son, +called Mahommed b. Abdallah, after the Prophet, should fulfil the +promises of peace and happiness that had been tendered to the believers, +and therefore to have called him al-Mahdi. For that purpose it was +necessary that he should have the means not only to meet all state +expenses, but also to be bounteous. But from the report of the historian +Haitham b. 'Adi[31] about the last discourse which father and son had +together, we gather that the former had misgivings in regard to the +fulfilment of his wishes. + +Khalid b. Barmak took the greatest care of the revenues, but contrived +at the same time to consult his own interests. Mansur discovered this in +the same year in which he died, and threatened him with death unless he +should pay to the treasury three millions of dirhems within three days. +Khalid already had so many friends that the sum was brought together +with the exception of 30,000 dirhems. At that moment tidings came about +a rising in the province of Mosul, and a friend of Khalid said to the +caliph that Khalid was the only man capable of putting it down. +Thereupon Mansur overlooked the deficiency and gave Khalid the +government of Mosul. "And," said a citizen of that town, "we had such an +awe and reverence for Khalid, that he appeased the disorders, almost +without punishing anybody." + +3. _Reign of Mahdi._--As soon as Mansur was dead, Rabi', his client and +chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals who accompanied the +caliph, to take the oath of allegiance to his son Mahommed al-Mahdi, who +was then at Bagdad. Isa b. Musa hesitated, but was compelled to give in. +In 776 Mahdi constrained him for a large bribe to renounce his right of +succession in favour of his sons, Musa and Harun. Mansur wrote in his +testament to his son that he had brought together so much money that, +even if no revenue should come in for ten years, it would suffice for +all the wants of the state. Mahdi, therefore, could afford to be +munificent, and in order to make his accession doubly welcome to his +subjects, he began by granting a general amnesty to political prisoners. +Among these was a certain Ya'qub b. Da'ud, who, having insinuated +himself into the confidence of the caliph, especially by discovering the +hiding places of certain Alids, was afterwards (in 778) made prime +minister. The provincial governors in whom his father had placed +confidence, Mahdi superseded by creatures of his own. + +In Khorasan many people were discontented. The promises made to them +during the war against the Omayyads had not been fulfilled, and the new +Mahdi did not answer at all to their ideal. A revolt in 160 under the +leadership of a certain Yusuf b. Ibrahïm, surnamed al-Barm, was +suppressed by Yazid b. Mazyad, who, after a desperate struggle, defeated +Yusuf, took him prisoner and brought him in triumph to Bagdad, where he +with several of his officers was killed and crucified. In the following +year, Mahdi was menaced by a far more dangerous revolt, led by a +sectary, known generally as Mokanna (q.v.), or "the veiled one," because +he always appeared in public wearing a mask. He took up his abode in the +Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he gathered around +him a great number of adherents. After some successes, the pretender was +ultimately cornered at the castle of Sanam near Kish, and took poison +together with all the members of his family. His head was cut off and +sent to Mahdi in the year 163. + +Mahdi had been scarcely a year on the throne when he resolved to +accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca. The chroniclers relate that on this +occasion for the first time camels loaded with ice for the use of the +caliph came to Mecca. Immediately on his arrival in the Holy City he +applied himself, at the request of the inhabitants, to the renewal of +the curtains which covered the exterior walls of the Ka'ba. For a very +long time no care had been taken to remove the old covering when a new +one was put on; and the accumulated weight caused uneasiness respecting +the stability of the walls. Mahdi caused the house to be entirely +stripped and anointed with perfumes, and covered the walls again with a +single cloth of great richness. The temple itself was enlarged and +restored. On this occasion he distributed considerable largesses among +the Meccans. From Mecca Mahdi went to Medina, where he caused the mosque +to be enlarged, and where a similar distribution of gifts took place. +During his stay in that city he formed for himself a guard of honour, +composed of 500 descendants of the Ansar,[32] to whom he assigned a +quarter in Bagdad, named after them the Qati'a (Fief) of the Ansar. +Struck by the difficulties of every kind which had to be encountered by +poor pilgrims to Mecca from Bagdad and its neighbourhood, he ordered +Yaqtin, his freedman, to renew the milestones, to repair the old +reservoirs, and to dig wells and construct cisterns at every station of +the road where they were missing. He also had new inns built and decayed +ones repaired. Yaqtin remained inspector of the road till 767. + +During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the Byzantines had +taken place almost without intermission, but the only feat of importance +had been the conquest of Laodicea, called "the burnt" ([Greek: hae +katakekaumenae]), by Ma'yuf b. Yahya in the year 770. At first the +armies of Mahdi were not successful. The Greeks even conquered Marash +(Germanicia) and annihilated the Moslem army sent from Dabiq. In 778, +however, Hasan b. Qahtaba made a victorious raid as far as Adhruliya +(Dorylaeum); it was on his proposition that Mahdi resolved on building +the frontier town called Hadath (Adata), which became an outpost. In 779 +the caliph decided on leading his army in person. He assembled his army +in the plains of Baradan north of Bagdad and began his march in the +early spring of 780, taking with him his second son Harun, and leaving +his elder son Musa as his lieutenant in Bagdad. Traversing Mesopotamia +and Syria, he entered Cilicia, and established himself on the banks of +the Jihan (Pyramus). Thence he despatched an expeditionary force, +nominally under the command of Harun, but in reality under that of his +tutor, the Barmecide Yahya b. Khalid. Harun captured the fortress Samalu +after a siege of thirty-eight days, the inhabitants surrendering on +condition that they should not be killed or separated from one another. +The caliph kept faith with them, and settled them in Bagdad, where they +built a monastery called after their native place. In consequence of +this feat, Mahdi made Harun governor of the whole western part of the +empire, including Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out +afresh between the Moslems and the Greeks. Leo IV., the East Roman +emperor, had recently died, leaving the crown to Constantine VI. This +prince being only ten years old, his mother Irene acted as regent and +assumed the title Augusta. By her orders an army of 90,000 men, under +the command of Michael Lachanodrakon, entered Asia Minor. The Moslems, +on their side, invaded Cilicia under the orders of Abdalkabir who, being +afraid of encountering the enemy, retired with his troops. Irritated by +this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Harun, accompanied by his +chamberlain Rabi', with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with orders to +carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. The patrician +Nicetas, count of Opsikion, who sought to oppose his march, was defeated +by Harun's general, Yazid b. Mazyad, and put to flight. Harun then +marched against Nicomedia, where he vanquished the domesticus, the chief +commander of the Greek forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the +Bosporus. Irene took alarm, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for +three years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual +tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Moslems with guides and +markets on their way home. This brilliant success so increased Mahdi's +affection for Harun that he appointed him successor-designate after Musa +and named him _al-Rashid_ ("the follower of the right cause"). Three +years later, he resolved even to give to him the precedence in the +succession instead of Musa, yielding to the importunity of Khaizoran, +the mother of the two princes, and to his own predilection. It was +necessary first to obtain from Musa a renunciation of his rights; and +for that purpose he was recalled from Jorjan, where he was engaged on an +expedition against the rebels of Tabaristan. Musa, informed of his +father's intentions, refused to obey this order, and Mahdi determined to +march in person against him. But, after his arrival at Masabadhan, a +place in Jabal (Media, the later Persian Irak), he died suddenly, at the +age of only forty-three. Some attribute his death to an accident met +with in hunting; others believe him to have been poisoned. Some European +scholars have suspected Musa of having been concerned in it, but of this +we have no proof whatever. + +The reign of Mahdi was a time of great prosperity. Much was done for the +organization of the huge empire; agriculture and commerce flourished; +the revenues were increasing, whilst the people fared well. The power of +the state was acknowledged even in the far east: the emperor of China, +the king of Tibet, and many Indian princes concluded treaties with the +caliph. He was an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, repudiating all +the extravagant doctrine preached by the Abbasid missionaries and +formerly professed by his father. In particular he persecuted +mercilessly the Manichaeans and all kinds of freethinkers. + +4. _Reign of Hadi_.--On the death of Mahdi, Harun, following the advice +of Yahya. b. Khalid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate, with letters of +condolence and congratulation, to Musa in Jorjan, and brought the army +which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully back from Media to Bagdad. Musa +returned in all haste to the capital, and assumed the title of _al-Hadi_ +("he who directs"). The accession of a new caliph doubtless appeared to +the partisans of the house of Ali a favourable opportunity for a rising. +Hosain b. Ali b. Hasan III. raised an insurrection at Medina with the +support of numerous adherents, and proclaimed himself caliph. Thence he +went to Mecca, where on the promise of freedom many slaves flocked to +him, and many pilgrims also acknowledged him. Suleiman b. Mansur, the +caliph's representative in the pilgrimage of that year, was entrusted +with the command against him. Hosain was attacked at Fakh, 3 m. from +Mecca, and perished in the combat with many other Alids. His maternal +uncle, Idris b. Abdallah, a brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, the rivals +of Mansur, succeeded in escaping, and fled to Egypt, whence by the help +of the postmaster, himself a secret partisan of the Shi'ites, he passed +into West Africa, where at a later period his son founded the Idrisite +dynasty in Fez (see MOROCCO). + +Hadi, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly escaped +being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for excluding him from +the Caliphate and transmitting the succession to his own son Ja'far. To +this he obtained the assent of his ministers and the principal chiefs of +his army, with the exception of Yahya b. Khalid, Harun's former tutor, +who showed such firmness and boldness that Hadi cast him into prison and +resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already given +orders for his execution, when he himself was killed (September 14th, +786) by his mother Khaizoran, who had systematically and successfully +intrigued against him with the object of gaining the real power for +herself. Hadi, indignant at the fact that she was generally regarded as +the real source of authority, had attempted to poison her, and +Khaizoran, hoping to find a more submissive instrument of her will in +her second and favourite son, caused Hadi to be smothered with cushions +by two young slaves whom she had presented to him. She herself died +three years later. + +5. _Reign of Harun al-Rashid_.--We have now reached the most celebrated +name among the Arabian caliphs, celebrated not only in the East, but in +the West as well, where the stories of the _Thousand and One Nights_ +have made us familiar with that world which the narrators represent in +such brilliant colours. Harun ascended the throne without opposition. +His first act was to choose as prime minister his former tutor, the +faithful Yahya b. Khalid, and to confide important posts to the two sons +of Yahya, Fadl and Ja'far, of whom the former was his own +foster-brother, the latter his intimate friend. The Barmecide family +were endowed in the highest degree with those qualities of generosity +and liberality which the Arabs prized so highly, and the chronicles +never weary in their praises. Loaded with all the burdens of government, +Yahya brought the most distinguished abilities to the exercise of his +office. He put the frontiers in a good state of defence; he filled the +public treasury, and carried the splendour of the throne to the highest +point. His sons, especially Fadl, were worthy of their father. + +Although the administration of Hãrun's states was committed to skilful +hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free from +troubles. Towards the year 176 (A.D. 792-793) a man of the house of Ali, +named Yahya b. Abdallah, another brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, who +had taken refuge in the land of Dailam on the south-western shores of +the Caspian Sea, succeeded in forming a powerful party, and publicly +claimed the Caliphate. Hãrun immediately sent against him an army of +50,000 men, under the command of Fadl, whom he made governor of all the +Caspian provinces. Reluctant, however, to fight against a descendant of +the Prophet, Fadl first attempted to induce him to submit by promising +him safety and a brilliant position at the court of Bagdad. +Yahyaaccepted the proposal, but required that the caliph should send him +letters of pardon countersigned by the highest legal authorities and the +principal personages of the empire. Harun consented and Yahya went to +Bagdad, where he met with a splendid reception. At the end of some +months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy, and the +caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a possible rival, +threw him into prison, where he died, according to the majority of the +historians, of starvation. Others say that Ja'far b. Yahya b. Khalid, to +whose care he had been entrusted, suffered him to escape, and that this +was the real cause of Harun's anger against the Barmecides (q.v.). +Dreading fresh insurrections of the Alids, Harun secured the person of +another descendant of Ali, Musa b. Ja'far, surnamed al-Kazim, who +enjoyed great consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and +released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by the caliph +himself to Bagdad, and there died, apparently by poison. + +Meanwhile Harun did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam. In the +first year of his reign all the strong places of Kinnesrin and +Mesopotamia were formed into a special province, which received the name +of al-'Awasim ("the defending fortresses"), with Manbij (Hierapolis) as +its capital. The building of the fortress of Hadath having been +completed, Harun committed to Faraj the Turk the task of rebuilding and +fortifying the city of Tarsus. Thanks to these and similar measures, the +Moslem armies were able to advance boldly into Asia Minor. Almost every +year successful raids were made, in the year 797 under the command of +the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to sue for peace. An +attack by the Khazars called the caliph's attention from his successes +in Asia Minor. This people had made an irruption into Armenia, and their +attack had been so sudden that the Moslems and Christians were unable to +defend themselves, and 100,000 had been reduced to captivity. Two +valiant generals, Khozaima b. Khazim and Yazid b. Mazyad, marched +against the Khazars and drove them out of Armenia. + +In the midst of the cares of war, Harun was assiduous in his religious +duties, and few years passed without his making the pilgrimage. Having +determined to fix the order of succession in so formal a manner as to +take away all pretext for future contentions, he executed a deed by +which he appointed his eldest son Mahommed his immediate heir, and after +him the second, Abdallah, and after Abdallah the third, Qasim. Mahommed +received the surname of _al-Amin_ ("the Sure"), Abdallah that of +_al-Ma'mun_ ("he in whom men trust"), and Qasim that of _al-Mo'tamin +billah_ ("he who trusts in God"). Harun further stipulated that Mamun +should have as his share during the lifetime of his brother the +government of the eastern part of the empire. Each of the parties +concerned swore to observe faithfully every part of this deed, which the +caliph caused to be hung up in the Ka'ba, imagining that it would be +thus guaranteed against all violation on the part of men, a precaution +which was to be rendered vain by the perfidy of Amim. + +It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very moment when +the Barmecides thought their position most secure, that Harun brought +sudden ruin upon them. The causes of their disgrace have been +differently stated by the annalists (see BARMECIDES). The principal +cause appears to have been that they abused the sovereign power which +they exercised. Not a few were jealous of their greatness and sought for +opportunities of instilling distrust against them into the mind of +Harun, and of making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The +secret dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some +apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the Alid Yahya +b. Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Harun resolved on their +destruction, and Ja'far b. Yahya, who had just taken leave of him after +a day's hunting, was arrested, taken to the castle of Harun, and +beheaded. The following day, his father Yahya, his brother Fadl, and all +the other Barmecides were arrested and imprisoned; all their property +was confiscated. The only Barmecide who remained unmolested with his +family was Mahommed the brother of Yahya, who had been the chamberlain +of the caliph till 795, when Fadl b. Rabi' got his place. This latter +had henceforward the greatest influence at court. + +In the same year a revolution at Constantinople overthrew the empress +Irene. The new emperor Nicephorus, thinking himself strong enough to +refuse the payment of tribute, wrote an insulting letter to Harun, who +contented himself with replying: "Thou shall not hear, but see, my +answer." He entered Asia Minor and took Heraclea, plundering and burning +along his whole line of march, till Nicephorus, in alarm, sued for +peace. Scarcely had the caliph returned into winter quarters when +Nicephorus broke the treaty. When the news came to Rakka, where Harun +was residing, not one of the ministers ventured to tell him, until at +last a poet introduced it in a poem which pleased the monarch. +Notwithstanding the rigour of the season, Harun retraced his steps, and +Nicephorus was compelled to observe his engagements. In 805 the first +great ransoming of Moslem prisoners took place on the banks of the +little river Lamus in Cilicia. But Nicephorus, profiting by serious +disturbances in Khorasan, broke the treaty again, and overran the +country as far as Anazarba and Kanisat as-sauda ("the black church") on +the frontier, where he took many prisoners, who were, however, recovered +by the garrison of Mopsuestia. Thus Harun was obliged to take the field +again. He entered Asia Minor with an army of 135,000 regulars, beside +volunteers and camp followers. Heraclea was taken, together with many +other places, and Tyana was made a military station. At the same time +his admiral, Homaid b. Ma'yuf, conquered Cyprus, which had broken the +treaty, and took 16,000 of its people captive. Nicephorus was now so +completely beaten that he was compelled to submit to very harsh +conditions. In the year 808 the second ransoming between the Moslems and +the Greeks took place near the river Lamus. + +The disturbances in Khorasan were caused by the malversations of the +governor of that province, Ali b. 'Isa b. Mahan. The caliph went in +person to Merv, in order to judge of the reality of the complaints which +had reached him. Ali b. 'Isa hastened to meet the caliph on his arrival +at Rai (Rhagae), near the modern Teheran, with a great quantity of +costly presents, which he distributed with such profusion among the +princes and courtiers that no one was anxious to accuse him. Harun +confirmed him in his post, and, after having received the chiefs of +Tabaristan who came to tender their submission, returned through Bagdad +to Rakka on the Euphrates, which city was his habitual residence. In the +following year Rafi' b. Laith, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyar, raised the +standard of revolt in Samarkand, and, at the head of a numerous army, +defeated the son of Ali b. 'Isa. Thereupon Ali fled from Balkh, leaving +the treasury, which was plundered by the populace after his departure. +The caliph on learning that the revolt was due to Ali's tyranny, sent +Harthama b. A'yan with stringent orders to seize Ali and confiscate his +possessions. This order was carried out, and it is recorded that 1500 +camels were required to transport the confiscated treasures. The +caliph's hope that Rafi' would submit on condition of receiving a free +pardon was not fulfilled, and he resolved to set out himself to +Khorasan, taking with him his second son Mamun. On the journey he was +attacked by an internal malady, which carried him off, ten months after +his departure from Bagdad, A.H. 193 (March 809), just on his arrival at +the city of Tus. Harun was only forty-five years of age. He was far from +having the high qualifications of his grandfather Mansur; indeed he did +not even possess the qualities of his father and his brother. When the +latter asked him to renounce his right of succession, he was willing to +consent, saying that a quiet life with his beloved wife, the princess +Zobaida, was his highest wish, but he obeyed his mother and Yahya b. +Khalid. As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on their +direction. After their disgrace he was led into many impolitic actions +by his violent and often cruel propensities. But the empire was, +especially in the earlier part of his reign, in a very prosperous state, +and was respected widely by foreign powers. Embassies passed between +Charlemagne and Harun in the years 180 (A.D. 797) and 184 (A.D. 801), by +which the former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, +the latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean +ports. The ambassadors brought presents with them; on one of these +occasions the first elephant reached the land of the Franks. + +Under the reign of Harun, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, the governor of Africa, +succeeded in making himself independent of the central government, on +condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his suzerain the caliph. +This was, if we do not take Spain into the account, the first instance +of dismemberment, later to be followed by many others. + +In the days of this caliph the first paper factories were founded in +Bagdad. + +6. _Reign of Amin_.--On the death of Harun his minister, Fadl b. Rabi', +with the view of gaining the new caliph's confidence, hastened to call +together all the troops of the late caliph and to lead them back to +Bagdad, in order to place them in the hands of the new sovereign, Amin. +He even, in direct violation of Harun's will, led back the corps which +was intended to occupy Khorasan under the authority of Mamun. Aware, +however, that in thus acting he was making Mamun his irreconcilable +enemy, he persuaded Amin to exclude Mamun from the succession. Mamun, on +receiving his brother's invitation to go to Bagdad, was greatly +perplexed; but his tutor and later vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, a Zoroastrian +of great influence, who in 806 had adopted Islam, reanimated his +courage, and pointed out to him that certain death awaited him at +Bagdad. Mamun resolved to hold out, and found pretexts for remaining in +Khorasan. Amin, in anger, caused the will of his father, which, as we +have seen, was preserved in the Ka'ba, to be destroyed, declared on his +own authority that Mamun's rights of succession were forfeited, and +caused the army to swear allegiance to his own son Musa, a child of +five, on whom he bestowed the title of _an-Natiq bil-Haqq_ ("he who +speaks according to truth"), A.H. 194 (A.D. 809-810). On hearing the +news, Mamun, strong in the rightfulness of his claim, retaliated by +suppressing the caliph's name in all public acts. Amin immediately +despatched to Khorasan an army of 40,000 under the command of Ali b. +'Isa, who had regained his former influence, and told the caliph that, +at his coming to Khorasan, all the leading men would come over to his +side. Zobaida, the mother of the caliph, entreated Ali to treat Mamun +kindly when he should have made him captive. It is said that Fadl b. +Sahl had, through a secret agent, induced Fadl b. Rabi' to select Ali, +knowing that the dislike felt towards him by the Khorasanians would +double their strength in fighting against him. Mamun, on his side, sent +in all haste an army of less than 4000 men of his faithful Khorasanians, +and entrusted their command to Tahir b. Hosain, who displayed +remarkable abilities in the war that ensued. The two armies met under +the walls of Rai (Shaaban 195, May 811). By a bold attack, in the manner +of the Kharijites of yore, Tahir penetrated into the centre of the +hostile army and killed Ali. The frightened army fled, leaving the camp +with all its treasures to Tahir, who from that day was named "the man +with the two right hands." A courier was despatched immediately to Merv, +who performed the journey, a distance of about 750 miles, in three days. +On the very day of his arrival, Harthama b. A'yan had left Merv with +reinforcements. Mamun now no longer hesitated to take the title of +caliph. + +When the news of Ali's defeat came to Bagdad, Amin sent Abdarrahman b. +Jabala to Hamadan with 20,000 men. Tahir defeated him, forced Hamadan to +surrender, and occupied all the strong places in Jabal (Media). The year +after, Amin placed in the field two new armies commanded respectively by +Ahmad b. Mazyad and Abdallah b. Homaid b. Qahtaba. The skilful Tahir +succeeded in creating divisions among the troops of his adversaries, and +obtained possession, without striking a blow, of the city of Holwan, an +advantage which opened the way to the very gates of Bagdad. He was here +reinforced by troops sent from Khorasan under the command of Harthama b. +A'yan, who was appointed leader of the war against Amin, with orders to +send Tahir to Ahwaz. Tahir continued his victorious march, conquered +Ahwaz, took Wasit and Madain, and pitched his camp near one of the gates +of the capital, where he was rejoined by Harthama. One after the other +the provinces fell away from Amin, and he soon found himself in +possession of Bagdad alone. The city, though blockaded on every side, +made a desperate defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern +part of the city fell into the hands of Tahir, and Amin, deserted by his +followers, was compelled to surrender. He resolved to treat with +Harthama, as he was averse to Tahir; but this step caused his ruin. +Tahir succeeded in intercepting him on his way to Harthama, and +immediately ordered him to be put to death. His head was sent to Mamun +(September 813). It was presented to him by his vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, +surnamed Dhu'l-Riyasatain, or "the man with two governments," because +his master had committed to him both the ministry of war and the general +administration. Mamun hid his joy beneath a feigned display of sorrow. + +Amin was only twenty-eight years old. As a ruler he was wholly +incompetent. He hardly comprehended the importance of the affairs with +which he was called upon to deal. He acted invariably on the advice of +those who for the time had his confidence, and occupied himself mainly +with the affairs of his harem, with polo, fishing, wine and music. The +five years of his reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular +to Bagdad which never entirely recovered its old splendour. + +7. _Reign of Mamun._--On the day following the death of Amin Tahir +caused Mamun to be proclaimed at Bagdad, and promised in his name a +general amnesty. The accession of this prince appeared likely to restore +to the empire the order necessary for its prosperity. It was not so, +however. The reign of Mamun--that reign in which art, science and +letters, under the patronage of the caliph, threw so brilliant a +lustre--had a very stormy beginning. Mamun was in no haste to remove to +Bagdad, but continued to reside at Merv. In his gratitude to Fadl b. +Sahl, to whose service he owed his success, he not only chose him as +prime minister of the empire, but also named his brother, Hasan b. Sahl, +governor of Media, Fars, Ahwaz, Arabia and Irak. The two generals to +whom he owed still more were not treated as they deserved. Harthama was +ordered to return to Khorasan; Tahir was made governor of Mesopotamia +and Syria, with the task of subduing Nasr b. Shabath, who with numerous +adherents refused submission to the caliph. The Alids seized on the +elevation of Mamun as a pretext for fresh revolts. At Kufa a certain Ibn +Tabataba placed an army in the field under Abu'l-Saraya, who had been a +captain in the army of Harthama. An army sent by Hasan b. Sahl was +defeated, and Abu'l-Saraya, no longer content to play a second part, +poisoned his chief, Ibn Tabataba, and put in his place another of the +family of Ali, Mahommed b. Mahommed, whom, on account of his extreme +youth, he hoped to govern at his will. Abu'l-Saraya's success continued, +and several cities of Irak--Basra, Wasit and Madain--fell into his +hands. Mecca, Medina and Yemen also were mastered by the Alids, who +committed all kinds of atrocities and sacrilege. Abu'l-Saraya, who even +struck money in Kufa, began to menace the capital, when Hasan b. Sahl +hastily sent a messenger to Harthama b. A'yan, who was already at Holwan +on his way back to Merv, entreating him to come to his aid. Harthama, +who was deeply offended by his dismissal, refused at first, but at last +consented, and at once checked the tide of disaster. The troops of the +Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of Irak fell again into +the hands of the Abbasids. Kufa opened its gates; Basra was taken by +assault. Abu'l-Saraya and Mahommed b. Mahommed fled to Mesopotamia, but +were made prisoners. The former was decapitated, the latter was sent to +Khorasan, the revolt in Arabia was quickly suppressed, and peace seemed +within reach. This, however, was by no means the case. The disorder of +civil war had caused a multitude of robbers and vagabonds to emerge from +the purlieus of Bagdad. These ruffians proceeded to treat the capital as +a conquered city, and it became necessary for all good citizens to +organize themselves into a regular militia. Harthama, having vanquished +Abu'l-Saraya, did not go to Hasan b. Sahl, but proceeded towards Merv +with the purpose of telling Mamun that the state of affairs was not as +Fadl b. Sahl represented it to him, and urging him to come to Bagdad, +where his presence was necessary. Fadl, informed of his intentions, +filled the caliph's mind with distrust against the old general, so that +when Harthama arrived Mamun had him cast into prison, where he died +shortly afterwards. When the tidings of his disgrace came to Bagdad, the +people expelled the lieutenant of Hasan b. Sahl, called by them the +Majuzi ("the Zoroastrian"), who had chosen Madain for his residence, and +put at their head Mansur, a son of Mahdi, who refused to assume the +title of caliph, but consented to be Mamun's vicegerent instead of Hasan +b. Sahl. + +Meanwhile, at Merv, Mamun was adopting a decision which fell like a +thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In A.H. 201 (A.D. 817), under pretence of +putting an end to the continual revolts of the partisans of Ali, and +acting on the advice of his prime minister Fadl, he publicly designated +as his successor in the Caliphate Ali ar-Rida, a son of that Musa +al-Kazim who perished in the prison of Mahdi, a direct descendant of +Hosain, the son of Ali, and proscribed black, the colour of the +Abbasids, in favour of that of the house of Ali, green. This step was +well calculated to delight the followers of Ali, but it could not fail +to exasperate the Abbasids and their partisans. The people of Bagdad +refused to take the oath to Ali b. Musa, declared Mamun deposed, and +elected his uncle, Ibrahim, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate.[33] It was +only indirectly that the news reached the caliph, who then saw that Fadl +had been treating him as a puppet. His anger was great, but he kept it +carefully to himself. Fadl was one day found murdered, and Ali b. Musa +died suddenly. The historians bring no open accusation against Mamun, +but it seems clear that the opportune removal of these men was not due +to chance. Mamun affected the profoundest grief, and, in order to disarm +suspicion, appointed as his prime minister the brother of Fadl, Hasan b. +Sahl, whose daughter Buran he afterwards married. Soon after the news +came to him that Hasan b. Sahl had become insane. Mamun appointed an +officer to act as his lieutenant, and wrote that he was coming to Bagdad +in a short time. From that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrahim found +himself deserted, and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His +precarious reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Mamun had found +out also that the general uneasiness was largely due to his treatment of +Harthama and Tahir, the latter having been put in a rebellious country +without the men and the money to maintain his authority. The caliph +therefore wrote to Tahir to meet him at Nahrawan, where he was received +with the greatest honour. Having taken all precautions, Mamun now made +his solemn entry into Bagdad, but, to show that he came as a master, he +still displayed for several days the green colours, though at last, at +the request of Tahir, he consented to resume the black. From this time, +A.H. 204 (August 819), the real reign of Mamun began, freed as he now +was from the tutelage of Fadl. + +When welcoming Tahir, Mamun bade him ask for any reward he might desire. +Tahir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to endure the sight of +the murderer of his brother, should change his mind towards him, +contrived to get himself appointed governor of Khorasan. Like most of +the great Moslem generals, Tahir, it is said, had conceived the project +of creating an independent kingdom for himself. His death, A.H. 207 +(A.D. 822), prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded +him one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in +reality to have founded a dynasty in Khorasan. His son Abdallah b. Tahir +was a special favourite of Mamun, He brought Nasr b. Shabath to +subjection in Mesopotamia, and overcame by great ability a very +dangerous rebellion in Egypt. When he returned thence, the caliph gave +him the choice between the government of Khorasan and that of the +northern provinces, where he would have to combat Babak the Khorramite. +Abdallah chose the former (see below, § 8). + +The pseudo-caliph, Ibrahim, who, since Mamun's entry into Bagdad, had +led a wandering life, was eventually arrested. But Mamun generously +pardoned him, as well as Fadl b. Rabi', the chief promoter of the +terrible civil war which had so lately shaken the empire. After that +time, Ibrahim lived peacefully at the court, cultivating the arts of +singing and music. + +Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Mamun gave himself up +to science and literature. He caused works on mathematics, astronomy, +medicine and philosophy to be translated from the Greek, and founded in +Bagdad a kind of academy, called the "House of Science," with a library +and an observatory. It was also by his orders that two learned +mathematicians undertook the measurement of a degree of the earth's +circumference. Mamun interested himself too in questions of religious +dogma. He had embraced the Motazilite doctrine about free will and +predestination, and was in particular shocked at the opinion which had +spread among the Moslem doctors that the Koran was the uncreated word of +God. In the year 212 (A.D. 827) he published an edict by which the +Motazilite (Mu'tazilite) doctrine was declared to be the religion of the +state, the orthodox faith condemned as heretical. At the same time he +ordered all his subjects to honour Ali as the best creature of God after +the Prophet, and forbade the praise of Moawiya. In A.H. 218 (A.D. 833) a +new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors were summoned to +renounce the error of the uncreated word of God. Several distinguished +doctors, and, among others, the celebrated Ahmad b. Hanbal (q.v.), +founder of one of the four orthodox Moslem schools, were obliged to +appear before an inquisitorial tribunal; and as they persisted in their +belief respecting the Koran, they were thrown into prison. Mamun, being +at Tarsus, received from the governor of Bagdad the report of the +tribunal, and ordered that the culprits should be sent off to him. +Happily for these unfortunate doctors, they had scarcely reached Adana, +when news of the caliph's death arrived and they were brought back to +Bagdad. The two successors of Mamun maintained the edicts--Ahmad b. +Hanbal, who obstinately refused to yield, was flogged in the year +834--but it seems that Motasim did not himself take much interest in the +question, which perhaps he hardly understood, and that the prosecution +of the inquisition by him was due in great part to the charge which was +left him in Mamun's will. In the reign of Motawakkil the orthodox faith +was restored, never to be assailed again.[34] + +In spite of these manifold activities Mamun did not forget the +hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 832 he made +expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theophilus, the Greek +emperor, sued for peace, which Mamun haughtily refused to grant. +Accordingly, he decided on marching in the following year against +Amorium, and thence to Constantinople itself. Having sent before him his +son Abbas to make Tyana a strong fortress, he set out for Asia Minor to +put himself at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by +bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 40 m. from Tarsus, in Rajab 218 +(A.D. August 833), at the age of forty-eight. + +Mamun was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers of the +whole dynasty after Mansur. By him the ascendancy of the Persian element +over the Arabian was completed. Moreover, he began to attract young +Turkish noblemen to his court, an example which was followed on a much +larger scale by his successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a +later period. + +8. _Reign of Motasim._--Abu Ishak al-Mo'tasim had for a long time been +preparing himself for the succession. Every year he had bought Turkish +slaves, and had with him in the last expedition of Mamun a bodyguard of +3000. Backed by this force he seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph +to designate him as his successor. The chroniclers content themselves +with recording that he himself wrote in the name of the caliph to the +chief authorities in Bagdad and elsewhere that he was to be the +successor. His accession, however, met at first with active opposition +in the army, where a powerful party demanded that Abbas should take the +place of his father. Abbas, however, publicly renounced all pretension +to the Caliphate, and the whole army accepted Motasim, who immediately +had the fortifications of Tyana demolished and hastened back to Bagdad, +where he made his public entry on the 20th of September 833. + +Motasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately after his coming +to Bagdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves living there who had +distinguished themselves. Among them were Ashnas, Itakh, Wasif, Sima, +all of whom later became men of great influence. The guard was composed +of an undisciplined body of soldiers, who, moreover, held in open +contempt the religious precepts of Islam. Tired of the excesses +committed by these Turks, the people of Bagdad beat or killed as many of +them as they could lay hands on, and Motasim, not daring to act with +severity against either his guard or the citizens, took the course of +quitting the city. Having bought in 834 territories at Samarra, a small +place situated a few leagues above Bagdad, he caused a new residence to +be built there, whose name, which could be interpreted "Unhappy is he +who sees it," was changed by him into Sorra-man-ra'a, "Rejoiced is he +who sees it." Leaving the government of the capital in the hands of his +son Harun al-Wathiq, he established himself at Samarra in 836. This +resolution of Motasim was destined to prove fatal to his dynasty; for it +placed the caliphs at the mercy of their praetorians. In fact, from the +time of Wathiq, the Caliphate became the plaything of the Turkish guard, +and its decline was continuous. + +In the time of the civil war the marshlands in Irak between Basra and +Wasit had been occupied by a large population of Indians, called _yat_, +or, according to the Arabic pronunciation, _Zott_, who infested the +roads and levied a heavy tribute from the ships ascending and descending +the Tigris. From the year 821 onwards Mamun had tried in vain to bring +them to submission. When Motasim came back to Bagdad, after the death of +his brother, he found the people in great distress, their supply of +dates from Basra having been cut off by the Zott, and resolved to put +them down with all means. After seven months of vigorous resistance, +they at last yielded on condition of safety of life and property. In +January 835 the Zott in their national costume and with their own music +were conducted on a great number of boats through Bagdad. Thence they +were transported to Ainzarba (Anazarba) on the frontier of the Greek +empire. Twenty years later they entered Asia Minor, whence in a later +period they came into Europe, under the name of Athinganoi (Ziganes) and +Egyptians (gipsies).[35] + +A far more difficult task lay before Motasim, the subjection of Babak +al-Khorrami in Azerbaijan. Though the name Khorrami is often employed by +the Moslem writers to designate such extravagant Moslem sectaries as +the Hashimiya, the real Khorrami were not Moslems, but Persian +Mazdaqites, or communists. The name Khorrami, or Khorramdini, "adherent +of the pleasant religion," seems to be a nickname. As they bore red +colours, they were also called Mohammira, or Redmakers. Their object was +to abolish Islam and to restore "the white religion." We find the first +mention of them in the year 808, when Harun al-Rashid sent an army +against them. During the civil war their power was steadily increasing, +and spread not only over Azerbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and +Khorasan. The numerous efforts of Mamun to put them down had been all in +vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor. +Therefore, in the year 835, Motasim made Afshin, a Turkish prince who +had distinguished himself already in the days of Mamun, governor of +Media, with orders to take the lead of the war against Babak. After +three years' fighting, Babak was taken prisoner. He was carried to +Samarra, led through the city on the back of an elephant, and then +delivered to the executioners, who cut off his arms and legs. His head +was sent to Khorasan, his body was crucified. For long afterwards the +place where this happened bore the name of "Babak's Cross." + +In the hope of creating a diversion in Babak's favour, Theophilus in 837 +fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of Zibatra. There and in +several other places he took a great number of prisoners, whom he +mutilated. The news arrived just after that of the capture of Babak, and +Motasim swore to take exemplary vengeance. He assembled a formidable +army, penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium, where he +gained rich plunder. During his return the caliph was informed of a +conspiracy in the army in favour of 'Abbas the son of Mamun, of which +'Ojaif b. 'Anbasa was the ringleader. The unfortunate prince was +arrested and died soon after in prison. The conspirators were killed, +many of them with great cruelty. (For the campaign see Bury in _J.H.S._, +1909, xxix. pt. i.) + +Motasim had just returned to Samarra when a serious revolt broke out in +Tabaristan, Maziyar, one of the hereditary chiefs of that country, +refusing to acknowledge the authority of Abdallah Ibn Tahir, the +governor of Khorasan, of which Tabaristan was a province. The revolt was +suppressed with great difficulty, and it came out that it was due to the +secret instigation of Afshin, who hoped thereby to cause the fall of the +Tahirids, and to take their place, with the ulterior object of founding +an independent kingdom in the East. Afshin, who stood at that moment in +the highest favour of the caliph, was condemned and died in prison. +Motasim died a year later, January 842. + +9. _Reign of Wathiq._--His son Wathiq, who succeeded, though not in the +least to be compared with Mamun, had yet in common with him a thirst for +knowledge--perhaps curiosity would be a more appropriate term--which +prompted him, as soon as he became caliph, to send the famous astronomer +Mahommed b. Musa into Asia Minor to find out all about the Seven +Sleepers which he discovered in the neighbourhood of Arabissus,[36] and +Sallam the Interpreter to explore the situation of the famous wall of +Gog and Magog, which he reached at the north-west frontier of China.[37] +For these and other personal pursuits he raised money by forcing a +number of high functionaries to disgorge their gains. In so vast an +empire the governors and administrators had necessarily enjoyed an +almost unrestricted power, and this had enabled them to accumulate +wealth. Omar had already compelled them to furnish an account of their +riches, and, when he found that they had abused their trust, to +relinquish half to the state. As time went on, nomination to an office +was more and more generally considered a step to wealth. During the +reign of the Omayyads a few large fortunes were made thus. But with the +increasing luxury after Mansur, the thirst for money became universal, +and the number of honest officials lessened fast. Confiscation of +property had been employed with success by Harun al-Rashid after the +disgrace of the Barmecides, and occasionally by his successors, but +Wathiq was the first to imprison high officials and fine them heavily on +the specific charge of peculation. + +The caliph also shared Mamun's intolerance on the doctrinal question of +the uncreated Koran. He carried his zeal to such a point that, on the +occasion of an exchange of Greek against Moslem prisoners in 845, he +refused to receive those Moslem captives who would not declare their +belief that the Koran was created. The orthodox in Bagdad prepared to +revolt, but were discovered in time by the governor of the city. The +ringleader Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khoza'i was seized and brought to Samarra, +where Wathiq beheaded him in person. The only other event of importance +in the reign of Wathiq was a rising of the Arabian tribes in the +environs of Medina, which the Turkish general Bogha with difficulty +repressed. When he reached Samarra with his prisoners, Wathiq had just +died (August 846). That the predominance of the praetorians was already +established is clear from the fact that Wathiq gave to two Turkish +generals, Ashnas and Itakh respectively, the titular but lucrative +supreme government of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In +his days the soldiery at Samarra was increased by a large division of +Africans (Maghribis). + +10. _Reign of Motawakkil._--As Wathiq had appointed no successor the +vizier Mahommed Zayyat had cast his eye on his son Mahommed, who was +still a child, but the generals Wasif and Itakh, seconded by the upper +cadi Ibn abi Da'ud, refused their consent, and offered the supreme power +to Wathiq's brother Ja'far, who at his installation adopted the name of +_al-Motawakkil 'ala 'llah_ ("he who trusts in God"). The new caliph +hated the vizier Zayyat, who had opposed his election, and had him +seized and killed with the same atrocious cruelty which the vizier +himself had inflicted on others. His possessions, and those of others +who had opposed the caliph's election, were confiscated. But the +arrogance of Itakh, to whom he owed his Caliphate, became insufferable. +So, with the perfidy of his race, the caliph took him off his guard, and +had him imprisoned and killed at Bagdad. He was succeeded by Wasif. + +About this time an impostor named Mahmud b. Faraj had set himself up as +a prophet, claiming to be Dhu'l-Qarnain (Alexander the Great) risen from +the dead. Asserting that Gabriel brought him revelations, he had +contrived to attract twenty-seven followers. The caliph had him flogged, +and compelled each of the twenty-seven to give him ten blows on the head +with his fist. The "prophet" expired under the blows (850). + +One of the first acts of Motawakkil was the release of all those who had +been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the created Koran, +and the strict order to abstain from any litigation about the Book of +God. The upper cadi Ibn abi Da'ud, the leader of the movement against +orthodoxy, who had stood in great esteem with Mamun and had fulfilled +his high office under the reigns of Motasim and Wathiq, had a stroke of +paralysis in the year 848. His son Mahommed was put in his place till +851, when all the members of the family were arrested. They released +themselves by paying the enormous sum of 240,000 dinars and 16,000,000 +dirhems, which constituted nearly their whole fortune, and were then +sent to Bagdad, where father and son died three years later. An orthodox +upper cadi was named instead, and the dogma of the created Koran was +declared heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of +that doctrine and other Motazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed, never +again to lose its place as the state religion. Hand in hand with these +reactionary measures came two others, one against Jews and Christians, +one against the Shi'ites. The first caliph who imposed humiliating +conditions on the Dhimmis, or Covenanters, who, on condition of paying a +certain not over-heavy tribute, enjoyed the protection of the state and +the free exercise of their cult, was Omar II., but this policy was not +continued. A proposition by the cadi Abu Yusuf to Harun al-Rashid to +renew it had not been adopted. Motawakkil, in 850, formulated an edict +by which these sectaries were compelled to wear a distinctive dress and +to distinguish their houses by a figure of the devil nailed to the +door, excluding them at the same time from all public employments, and +forbidding them to send their children to Moslem schools. Nevertheless, +he kept his Christian medical men, some of whom were high in favour. He +showed his hatred for the Shi'ites by causing the mausoleum erected over +the tomb of Hosain at Kerbela, together with all the buildings +surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be ploughed +up, and by forbidding any one to visit the spot. A year before, a +descendant of Hosain, Yahya b. Omar, had been arrested and flogged on +his orders. He escaped afterwards, rose in rebellion at Kufa in 864, and +was killed in battle. It is reported that the caliph even permitted one +of his buffoons to turn the person of Ali into mockery. + +In the year 848-849 Ibn Ba'ith, who had rendered good service in the war +against Babak, but had for some cause been arrested, fled from Samarra +to Marand in Azerbaijan and revolted. Not without great difficulty +Bogha, the Turkish general, succeeded in taking the town and making Ibn +Ba'ith prisoner. He was brought before Motawakkil and died in prison. In +the year 237 (A.D. 851-852) a revolt broke out in Armenia. +Notwithstanding a vigorous resistance, Bogha subdued and pacified the +province in the following year. In that same year, 852-853, the +Byzantines made a descent on Egypt with 300 vessels. 'Anbasa the +governor had ordered the garrison of Damietta to parade at the capital +Fostat. The denuded town was taken, plundered and burned. The Greeks +then destroyed all the fortifications at the mouth of the Nile near +Tinnis, and returned with prisoners and booty. The annual raids of +Moslems and Greeks in the border districts of Asia Minor were attended +with alternate successes, though on the whole the Greeks had the upper +hand. In 856 they penetrated as far as Amid (Diarbekr), and returned +with 10,000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a heavy +defeat with losses of men and cattle, the emperor Michael himself was in +danger, whilst the fleet of the Moslems captured and sacked Antalia. +This was followed by a truce and an exchange of prisoners in the +following year. + +In 855 a revolt broke out in Homs (Emesa), where the harsh conditions +imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews had caused great +discontent. It was repressed after a vigorous resistance. A great many +leading men were flogged to death, all churches and synagogues were +destroyed and all the Christians banished. + +In the year 851 the Boja (or Beja), a wild people living between the Red +Sea and the Nile of Upper Egypt, the Blemmyes of the ancients, refused +to pay the annual tribute, and invaded the land of the gold and emerald +mines, so that the working of the mines was stopped. The caliph sent +against them Mahommed al-Qommi, who subdued them in 856 and brought +their king Ali Baba to Samarra before Motawakkil, on condition that he +should be restored to his kingdom. + +About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy of the +Tahirids. Ya'qub b. Laith al-Saffar proclaimed himself amir of that +province in the year 860, and was soon after confirmed in this dignity +by the caliph. + +In 858 Motawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant patronage of +Wasif, who had taken the place of Itakh as head of the Turkish guard, +transferred his residence to Damascus. But the place did not agree with +him, and he returned to Samarra, where he caused a magnificent quarter +to be built 3 m. from the city, which he called after his own name +Ja'fariya, and on which he spent more than two millions of dinars (about +£900,000). He found the means by following the example of his +predecessor in depriving many officials of their ill-gotten gains. He +contrived to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater +part Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. In the year of his elevation to +the Caliphate, he had regulated the succession to the empire in his own +family by designating as future caliphs his three sons, _al-Montasir +billah_ ("he who seeks help in God"), _al-Mo'tazz billah_ ("he whose +strength is of God"), and _al-Mowayyad billah_ ("he who is assisted by +God"). By and by he conceived an aversion to his eldest son, and wished +to supplant him by Motazz, the son of his favourite wife Qabiha. The day +had been fixed on which Montasir, Wasif and several other Turkish +generals were to be assassinated. But Wasif and Montasir had been +informed, and resolved to anticipate him. In the night before, Shawwal +A.H. 247 (December 861), Motawakkil, after one of his wonted orgies, was +murdered, together with his confidant, Fath b. Khaqan. The official +report, promulgated by his successor, was that Fath b. Khaqan had +murdered his master and had been punished for it by death. For the +administrative system in this reign see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. + +11. _Reign of Montasir._--On the very night of his father's +assassination Montasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was a man of +very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands of his vizier +Ahmad b. Khasib and the Turkish generals. He was compelled to send +Wasif, the personal enemy of Ibn Khasib, to the frontier for a term of +four years, and then to deprive his two brothers Motazz and Mowayyad, +who were not agreeable to them, of their right of succession. He died +six months after, by poison, it is said. + +12. _Reign of Mosta'in._--The Turkish soldiery, now the chief power in +the state, chose, by the advice of Ibn Khasib, in succession to +Montasir, his cousin Ahmad, who took the title of _al-Mosta'in billah_ +("he who looks for help to God"). In the reign of this feeble prince the +Greeks inflicted serious losses on the Moslems in Asia Minor. A great +many volunteers from all parts, who offered their services, were hunted +down as rioters by the Turkish generals, who were wholly absorbed by +their own interests. The party which had placed Mosta'in on the throne, +led by Ibn Khasib and Otamish, were soon overpowered by Wasif and Bogha. +Ibn Khasib was banished to Crete, Otamish murdered. The superior party, +however, maintained Mosta'in on the throne, because they feared lest +Motazz should take vengeance upon them for the murder of his father +Motawakkil. But in the year 865 Wasif and Bogha fled with Mosta'in to +Bagdad, and Motazz was proclaimed caliph at Samarra. A terrible war +ensued; Mosta'in was obliged to abdicate, and was killed in the +following year. + +In 864 a descendant of Ali, named Hasan b. Zaid, gained possession of +Tabaristan and occupied the great city of Rai (Rey) near Teheran. A year +later the province was reconquered by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan, +so that Hasan was obliged to retreat for refuge to the land of the +Dailam. But he returned soon, and after many reverses ruled over +Tabaristan and Jorjan for many years. + +13. _Reign of Motazz._--Motazz, proclaimed caliph at Bagdad in the first +month of 252 (January 866), devoted himself to the object of freeing +himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals, especially Wasif and +Bogha, who had opposed his election. But such a task demanded an ability +and energy which he did not possess. He was obliged to grant them +amnesty and to recall them to Samarra. He mistrusted also his brothers +Mowayyad and Mowaffaq, who had interceded for them. He put the former to +death and drove the latter into exile to Bagdad. Some time after he had +the satisfaction of seeing Wasif killed by his own troops, and +succeeded, a year later, in having Bogha assassinated. But a more +difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish, Persian and African +guards, which was said to have amounted in A.H. 252 to 200,000,000 +dirhems[38] (about £6,500,000), or apparently twice the revenue derived +from the land tax. As the provincial revenues annually decreased, it +became impossible to pay this sum, and Salih the son of Wasif, in spite +of the remonstrances of the caliph, confiscated the property of state +officials. Upon a further demand, Motazz, having failed to procure money +from his mother Qabiha, who was enormously rich, was seized upon and +tortured, and died of starvation in prison (Shaaban 255, July 868). + +The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these years, and the +caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual independence of the +governors Ya'qub the Saffarid (see SAFFARIDS and PERSIA, _History_, § B) +in Seistan, and Ahmad b. Tulun in Egypt. + +14. _Reign of Mohtadi._--Immediately after the seizure of Motazz, the +Turks, led by Salih b. Wasif, proclaimed as caliph one of the sons of +Wathiq with the title of al-Mohtadi billah ("the guided by God"), who, +however, refused to occupy the throne until his predecessor had solemnly +abdicated. Mohtadi, who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had +no lack of energy, began by applying the precarious measure of power +which was left him to the reform of the court. He banished the musicians +and singers, and forbade all kinds of games; he devoted himself to the +administration of justice, and gave public audiences to the people for +the redress of their grievances. At the same time he contrived to +elevate the power of the Abna, the descendants of those Persian soldiers +who had established the dynasty of the Abbasids, in order to break the +supremacy of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Mohtadi came too late, +and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work. + +On the news of the conspiracy against Motazz, Musa, the son of the +famous general Bogha,[39] then governor of Media (Jabal), ordered his +deputy-general Moflih to return at once from a proposed invasion of +Dailam, and moved with his army towards Samarra, notwithstanding the +peremptory orders of the caliph. At his approach Salih, who was afraid +of Musa, hid himself, but was soon discovered and killed. At that moment +a Kharijite, named Mosawir, who in 867 had risen in Mesopotamia and +beaten more than one general of the government, took Balad and menaced +Mosul. Musa could not refuse to comply with the formal command of the +caliph to march against him. During the absence of these troops, Mohtadi +seems to have tried to get rid of the principal Turkish leaders. A +brother of Musa and one of his best generals, Bayikbeg (Baiekbak), were +killed, but the soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong +enough. Mohtadi was overwhelmed and killed, Rajab 256 (June 870). + +15. _Reign of Motamid._--Whether from weariness or from repentance, the +Turkish soldiery discontinued for a time their hateful excesses, and +their new leader, Musa b. Bogha, was without the greed and ambition of +his predecessors. A son of Motawakkil was brought out of prison to +succeed his cousin, and reigned for twenty-three years under the name of +_al-Mo'tamid 'ala'llah_ ("he whose support is God"). He was a feeble, +pleasure-loving monarch, but Mohtadi had regained for the Caliphate some +authority, which was exercised by Obaidallah b. Khaqan, the able vizier +of Mohtadi, and by Motamid's talented brother Abu Ahmad al-Mowaffaq; +Musa b. Bogha himself remained till his death a staunch servant of the +government. During the reign of Motamid great events took place. The +great power long wielded by the Tahirids, not only in the eastern +provinces, but also at Bagdad itself, had been gradually diminishing, +and came to an end in the year 873, when Ya'qub the Saffarid occupied +Nishapur and imprisoned Mahommed b. Tahir with his whole family. The +power of Ya'qub then increased to such an extent that he was not content +with the caliph's offer to recognize him as supreme in the provinces he +had conquered, and military governor of Bagdad, but marched against +Irak. The caliph himself, wearing the mantle and the staff of the +Prophet, then went out against him, and after a vigorous resistance he +was beaten by Mowaffaq, who had the command of the troops, and fled to +Jondisapur in Khuzistan, where he died three years later, leaving his +empire to his brother 'Amr. This prince maintained himself in power till +the year 900, when he was beaten and taken prisoner by Isma'il b. Ahmed +the Samanid. The Samanids had been governors of Transoxiana from the +time of Mamun, and after the fall of the Tahirids, had been confirmed in +this office by the caliph. After 287 (900) they were independent +princes, and under their dominion these districts attained to high +prosperity. + +Motamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves in the +province of Basra, led by one Ali b. Mahommed, who called himself a +descendant of Ali. It lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked the government +to its utmost.[40] + +In the west, Ahmad b. Tulun became a mighty prince, whose sway extended +over Syria and a part of Mesopotamia. Motamid, who wished to free +himself from the guardianship of his brother Mowaffaq, concerted with +him a plan to emigrate to Egypt, Ahmad being himself angered against +Mowaffaq on personal grounds. Motamid's flight was stopped by his vizier +Ibn Makhlad, and the caliph himself was reconducted to Samarra as a +prisoner in the year 882. From that time there was war between the +Abbasids and the Tulunids. Ahmad died in 270 (884). His son Khomaruya +succeeded him, and maintained himself in power till his death in 896, in +which year his daughter was married to the caliph Motadid. Ten years +later Egypt was conquered by a general of the caliph Moktafi. + +During the reign of Motamid the emperor Basil I. conducted the war +against the Moslems with great success, till in the year 270 (A.D. 884) +his army suffered a terrible defeat near Tarsus, in which the greater +part of the army, the commander Andreas, and many other patricians +perished. + +Motamid had appointed his son al-Mofawwid as successor to the Caliphate, +and after him his brother Mowaffaq. When the latter died in the year +891, his son Abu 'l-'Abbas, _al-Mo'tadid_ ("he who seeks his support in +God"), was put in his place. Next year Mofawwid was compelled to +abdicate in favour of his cousin. Shortly after Motamid died, Rajab 279 +(October 892). Not long before these events, the seat of the Caliphate +had been restored to Bagdad. + +16. _Reign of Motadid_.--Motadid may be called, after Mansur, the most +able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers. He took good care of the +finances, reformed the administration, was an excellent commander in +war, and maintained order as far as possible. The Kharijites in +Mesopotamia, who for many years had molested the government, were +finally crushed with the aid of their former ally Hamdan, who became the +founder of the well-known dynasty of the Hamdanites. The mighty house of +Abu Dolaf in the south-west of Media, which had never ceased to encroach +on the Caliphate, was put down. The governor of Azerbaijan and Armenia, +belonging to the powerful Turkish house of the Sajids or Sajites, whose +loyalty was always doubtful, planned an invasion of Syria and Egypt. +Motadid frustrated it by a quick movement. The citizens of Tarsus who +were involved in the plot were severely punished. The chief punishment, +however, the burning of the fleet, was a very impolitic measure, as it +strengthened the hands of the Byzantines. + +Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves in Basra there +arose in the province of Kufa the celebrated sect of the Carmathians +(q.v.), Fatimites[41] or Isma'ilites. This powerful sect, which save for +a difference of opinion would have joined the negro rising, remained +outwardly quiet during Motamid's reign, but under Motadid the government +began to have misgivings about them. Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, who had +founded a Carmathian state in Bahrein, the north-eastern province of +Arabia (actually called Lahsa), which could become dangerous for the +pilgrim road as well as for the commerce of Basra, in the year 900 +routed an army sent against him by Motadid, and warned the caliph that +it would be safer to let the Carmathians alone. In the same year the +real chief of the sect, whose abode had been discovered by the caliph, +fled from Salamia in Syria, where he lived, to Africa, and hid himself +at Sijilmasa (in Tafilalt) in the far west, whence he reappeared ten +years later at Kairawan as the Mahdi, the first caliph of the +Fatimites.[42] + +Motadid died in Rabia II. A.H. 289 (March 902), leaving the Caliphate to +his son _al-Moktafi billah_ ("he who sufficeth himself in God"). + +17. _Reign of Moktafi_.--Moktafi inherited his father's intrepidity, and +seems to have had high personal qualities, but his reign of six years +was a constant struggle against the Carmathians in Syria, who defeated +the Syrian and Egyptian troops, and conquered Damascus and other +cities. Moktafi led his troops in person, and his general, Mahommed b. +Suleiman, gained a signal victory. Three of their chiefs were taken and +put to death. But, to avenge their defeat, they lay in wait for the +great pilgrim caravan on its return from Mecca in the first days of 294 +(906), and massacred 20,000 pilgrims, making an immense booty. This +horrible crime raised the whole Moslem world against them. Zikruya their +chief was defeated at last and perished. + +After the defeat of the Syrian Carmathians, Mahommed b. Suleiman was +sent by the caliph to Egypt, where he overthrew the dominion of the +Tulunids. 'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari was made governor in their stead +(905). + +The war with the Byzantines was conducted with great energy during the +reign of Moktafi. In the year 905 the Greek general Andronicus took +Marash, and penetrated as far as Haleb (Aleppo), but the Moslems were +successful at sea, and in 907 captured Iconium, whilst Andronicus went +over to the caliph's side, so that the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy +to Bagdad to ask for a truce and an exchange of prisoners. + +18. _Reign of Moqtadir._--The sudden death of Moktafi, Dhu'l-qa'da 295 +(August 908), was a fatal blow to the prestige of the Caliphate, which +had revived under the successive governments of Mowaffaq, Motadid and +himself. The new caliph, _al-Moqtadir billah_ ("the powerful through +God"), a brother of Moktafi, was only thirteen years of age when he +ascended the throne. Owing to his extreme youth many of the leading men +at Bagdad rebelled and swore allegiance to Abdallah, son of the former +caliph Motazz, a man of excellent character and of great poetical gifts; +but the party of the house of Motadid prevailed, and the rival caliph +was put to death. Moqtadir, though not devoid of noble qualities, +allowed himself to be governed by his mother and her ladies and eunuchs. +He began by squandering the 15,000,000 dinars which were in the treasury +when his brother died in largesses to his courtiers, who, however, +merely increased their demands. His very able vizier, the noble and +disinterested Ali b. 'Isa, tried to check this foolish expenditure, but +his efforts were more than counterbalanced by the vizier Ibn abi'l-Forat +and the court. The most shameless bribery and the robbery of the +well-to-do went together with the most extravagant luxury. The +twenty-four years of Moqtadir's reign are a period of rapid decay. The +most important event in the reign was the foundation of the Fatimite +dynasty, which reigned first in the Maghrib and then in Egypt for nearly +three centuries (see FATIMITES and EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan"). + +Far more dangerous, however, for the Caliphate of Bagdad at the time +were the Carmathians of Bahrein, then guided by Abu Tahir, the son of +Abu Sa'id Jannabi. In 311 (A.D. 923) they took and ransacked Basra; in +the first month of the following year the great pilgrim caravan on its +return from Mecca was overpowered; 2500 men perished, while an even +larger number were made prisoners and brought to Lahsa, the residence of +the Carmathian princes, together with an immense booty. The caravan +which left Bagdad towards the end of this year returned in all haste +before it had covered a third of the way. Then Kufa underwent the fate +that had befallen Basra. In 313 (A.D. 926) the caravan was allowed to +pass on payment of a large sum of money. The government of Bagdad +resolved to crush the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated +by Abu Tahir in 315 (927), and Bagdad was seriously threatened. Next +year Mecca was taken and plundered; even the sacred Black Stone was +transported to Lahsa, where it remained till 339 (950), when by the +express order of the Imam, the Fatimite caliph, it was restored to the +Ka'ba. + +In 317 (929) a conspiracy was formed to dethrone Moqtadir, to which +Munis, the chief commander of the army, at first assented, irritated by +false reports. Very soon he withdrew, and though he could not prevent +the plundering of the palace, and the proclamation as caliph of another +son of Motadid with the title _al-Qahir billah_ ("the victorious through +God"), he rescued Moqtadir and his mother, and at the same time his +imprisoned friend Ali b. 'Isa, and brought them to his own house. A few +days later, a counter-revolution took place; the leaders of the revolt +were killed, and Moqtadir, against his wish, was replaced on the throne. +In 320 (A.D. 932) Munis, discovering a court intrigue against him, set +out for Mosul, expecting that the Hamdanids, who owed to him their +power, would join him. Instead of doing this, they opposed him with a +numerous army, but were defeated. Munis took Mosul, and having received +reinforcements from all parts, marched against Bagdad. The caliph, who +wished nothing more than to be reconciled to his old faithful servant, +was forced to take arms against him, and fell in battle Shawwal 320 +(October 932), at the age of 38 years. His reign, which lasted almost +twenty-five years, was in all respects injurious to the empire. + +19. _Reign of Qahir_.--After the victory Munis acted with great +moderation and proclaimed a general amnesty. His own wish was to call +Abu Ahmad, a son of Moktafi, or a son of Moqtadir, to the Caliphate, but +the majority of generals preferring Qahir because he was an adult man +and had no mother at his side, he acquiesced, although he had a personal +dislike for him, knowing his selfish and cruel character. Qahir was a +drunkard, and derived the money for his excesses from promiscuous +confiscation. He ill-treated the sons of Moqtadir and Abu Ahmad, and +ultimately assassinated his patrons Munis and Yalbak, whose guardianship +he resented. In Jomada I. 322 (April 934) he was dethroned and blinded, +and died in poverty seven years later. + +During the last years of Moqtadir and the reign of Qahir a new dynasty +rose. Buya, the chief of a clan of the Dailam, a warlike people who +inhabit the mountainous country south-west of the Caspian Sea, had +served under the Samanids, and found a footing in the south of Media +(Jabal), whence his three sons--well known under the titles they assumed +at a later period: 'Imad addaula ("prop of the dynasty"), Rokn addaula +("pillar of the dynasty"), and Mo'izz addaula ("strengthener of the +dynasty")--succeeded in subduing the province of Fars, at the time of +Qahir's dethronement (see PERSIA: _History_). + +20. _Reign of Radi_.--Moqtadir's son, who was then proclaimed caliph +under the name of _ar-Radi billah_ ("the content through God"), was +pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the shadow of power. The +vizier Ibn Moqla tried to maintain his authority at least in Irak and +Mesopotamia, but without success. The treasury was exhausted, the troops +asked for pay, the people in Bagdad were riotous. In this extremity the +caliph bade Ibn Raiq, who had made himself master of Basra and Wasit, +and had command of money and men, to come to his help. He created for +him the office of Amir al-Omara, "Amir of the Amirs," which nearly +corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace among the Franks.[43] +Thenceforth the worldly power of the Caliphate was a mere shadow. The +empire was by this time practically reduced to the province of Bagdad; +Khorasan and Transoxiana were in the hands of the Samanids, Fars in +those of the Buyids; Kirman and Media were under independent sovereigns; +the Hamdanids possessed Mesopotamia; the Sajids Armenia and Azerbaijan; +the Ikshidites Egypt; as we have seen, the Fatimites Africa, the +Carmathians Arabia. The Amir al-Omara was obliged to purchase from the +latter the freedom of the pilgrimage to Mecca, at the price of a +disgraceful treaty. + +During the troubles of the Caliphate the Byzantines had made great +advances; they had even taken Malatia and Samosata (Samsat). But the +great valour of the Hamdanid prince Saif-addaula checked their march. +The Greek army suffered two severe defeats and sued for peace. + +21. _Reign of Mottaqi_.--Radi died in Rabia I. A.H. 329 (December 940). +Another son of Moqtadir was then proclaimed caliph under the name of +_al-Mottaqi billah_ ("he who guards himself by God"). At the time of his +accession the Amir al-Omara was the Turkish general Bajkam, in whose +favour Ibn Raiq had been obliged to retire. Unfortunately Bajkam died +soon after, and his death was followed by general anarchy. A certain +Baridi, who had carved out for himself a principality in the province of +Basra, marched against Bagdad and made himself master of the capital, +but was soon driven out by the Dailamite general Kurtakin. Ibn Raiq +came back and reinstated himself as Amir al-Omara. But Baridi again laid +siege to Bagdad, and Mottaqi fled to Nasir addaula the Hamdanid prince +of Mosul, who then marched against Bagdad, and succeeded in repelling +Baridi. In return he obtained the office of Amir al-Omara. But the +Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer him to keep this office +longer than several months. Tuzun, a former captain of Bajkam, compelled +him to return to Mosul and took his place. Mottaqi fled again to Mosul +and thence to Rakka. The Ikshid, sovereign of Egypt and Syria, offered +him a refuge, but Tuzun, fearing to see the caliph obtain such powerful +support, found means to entice him to his tent, and had his eyes put +out, Saphar 333 (October 944). + +22. _Reign of Mostakfi._--As successor Tuzun chose _al-Mostakfi billah_ +("he who finds full sufficiency with God"), a son of Moktafi. This +prince, still more than his predecessors, was a mere puppet in the hands +of Tuzun, who died a few months later, and his successor Ibn Shirzad. +Such was the weakness of the caliph that a notorious robber, named +Hamdi, obtained immunity for his depredations by a monthly payment of +25,000 dinars. One of the Buyid princes, whose power had been steadily +increasing, marched about this time against Bagdad, which he entered in +Jomada I. A.H. 334 (December 945), and was acknowledged by the caliph as +legal sovereign, under the title of Sultan. He assumed at this time the +name of Mo'izz addaula. Mostakfi was soon weary of this new master, and +plotted against him. At least Mo'izz addaula suspected him and deprived +him of his eyesight, Jomada II. A.H. 334 (January 946). There were thus +in Bagdad three caliphs who had been dethroned and blinded, Qahir, +Mottaqi and Mostakfi. + +23. _Reign of Moti._--Mo'izz addaula soon abandoned his original idea of +restoring the title of caliph to one of the descendants of Ali, fearing +a strong opposition of the people, and also dreading lest this should +lead to the recovery by the caliphs of their former supremacy. His +choice fell on a son of Moqtadir, who took the title of _al-Moti' +billah_ ("he who obeys God"). The sultan, reserving to himself all the +powers and revenues of the Caliphate, allowed the caliph merely a +secretary and a pension of 5000 dirhems a day. Though in public prayers +and on the coins the name of the caliph remained as that of the supreme +authority, he had in reality no authority out of the palace, so that the +saying became proverbial, "he contents himself with sermon and coin." + +The Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who began to think his possessions +threatened by Mo'izz addaula, tried without success to wrest Bagdad from +him, and was obliged to submit to the payment of tribute. He died in 358 +(A.D. 969), and ten years later the power of this branch of the +Hamdanids came to an end. The representative of the other branch, Saif +addaula, the prince of Haleb (Aleppo), conducted the war against the +Byzantines with great valour till his death in 356 (A.D. 967), but could +not stop the progress of the enemy. His descendants maintained +themselves, but with very limited power, till A.H. 413 (A.D. 1022). + +Mo'izz addaula died in the same year as Saif addaula, leaving his power +to his son Bakhtiyar 'Izz addaula, who lacked his father's energy and +loved pleasure more than business. + +While the Abbasid dynasty was thus dying out in shame and degradation, +the Fatimites, in the person of Mo'izz li-din-allah (or Mo'izz Abu Tamin +Ma'add) ("he who makes God's religion victorious"), were reaching the +highest degree of power and glory in spite of the opposition of the +Carmathians, who left their old allegiance and entered into negotiations +with the court of Bagdad, offering to drive back the Fatimites, on +condition of being assisted with money and troops, and of being rewarded +with the government of Syria and Egypt. The former condition was +granted, but the caliph emphatically refused the latter demand, saying: +"Both parties are Carmathians, they profess the same religion and are +enemies of Islam." The Carmathians drove the Fatimites out of Syria, and +threatened Egypt, but, notwithstanding their intrepidity, they were not +able to cope with their powerful rival, who, however, in his turn could +not bring them to submission. In 978-979 peace was made on condition +that the Carmathians should evacuate Syria for an annual payment of +70,000 dinars. But the losses sustained by the Carmathians during that +struggle had been enormous. Their power henceforward declined, and came +to an end in A.H. 474 (A.D. 1081). + +Mo'izz addaula, as we have seen, professed a great veneration for the +house of Ali. He not only caused the mourning for the death of Hosain +and other Shi'ite festivals to be celebrated at Bagdad, but also allowed +imprecations against Moawiya and even against Mahomet's wife Ayesha and +the caliphs Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, to be posted up at the doors of +the mosques. These steps annoyed the people and the Turkish soldiery, +who were Sunnites, and led at last to an insurrection. Moti was +compelled to abdicate, and Bakhtiyar was driven out of Bagdad +Dhu'l-qa'da 363 (August 974). + +24. _Reign of Tai._--Moti left the empty title of caliph to his son +_al-Ta'i li-amri'llah_ ("the obedient to the command of God"). The Turks +who had placed him on the throne could not maintain themselves, but so +insignificant was the person of the caliph that 'Adod addaula, who +succeeded his cousin Bakhtiyar in Bagdad, did not think of replacing him +by another. Under this prince, or king, as he was called, the power of +the Buyids reached its zenith. His empire stretched from the Caspian to +the Persian Sea, and in the west to the eastern frontier of Syria. He +did his best to remedy the misery caused by the intestine Wars, repaired +the ruined mosques and other public edifices, founded hospitals and +libraries--his library in Shiraz was one of the wonders of the +world--and improved irrigation. It was also he who built the mausoleum +of Hosain at Kerbela, and that of Ali at Kufa. But after his death in +the year 372 (A.D. 983), his sons, instead of following the example of +their predecessors, the three sons of Buya, fought one against the +other. In 380 (A.D. 990) the youngest of them, Baha addaula, had the +upper hand. This prince, who was as avaricious as he was ambitious, +wishing to deprive the caliph Ta'i of his possessions, compelled him to +abdicate A.H. 381 (A.D. 991). + +25. _Reign of Qadir._--A grandson of Moqtadir was then made caliph under +the name of _al-Qadir billah_ ("the powerful through God"). The only +deed of power, however, that is recorded of him, is that he opposed +himself to the substitution of a Shi'ite head cadi for the Sunnite, so +that Baha addaula had to content himself with giving to the Shi'ites a +special judge, to whom he gave the title of _naqib_ (superintendent). +During this caliphate the Buyid princes were in continual war with one +another. Meanwhile events were preparing the fall of their dynasty. In +350 (A.D. 961) a Turkish general of the Samanids had founded for himself +a principality in Ghazni, arid at his death in 366 (A.D. 976) his +successor Sabuktagin had conquered Bost in Sijistan and Qosdar in +Baluchistan, beaten the Indian prince Diaya Pala, and been acknowledged +as master of the lands west of the Indus. At his death in 387 his son +Mahmud conquered the whole of Khorasan and Sijistan, with a great part +of India. He then attacked the Buyids, and would have destroyed their +dynasty but for his death in the year 421 (A.D. 1030). + +In 389 (A.D. 999) Ilek-khan, the prince of Turkistan, took Bokhara and +made an end to the glorious state of the Samanids, the last prince of +which was murdered in 395 (A.D. 1005). The Samanids had long been a +rampart of the Caliphate against the Turks, whom they held under firm +control. From their fall dates the invasion of the empire by that +people. The greatest gainer for the moment was Mahmud of Ghazni. In +Mesopotamia and Irak several petty states arose on the ruins of the +dominions of the Hamdanids and of the Abbasids. + +Qadir died in the last month of A.H. 422 (November 1031). He is the +author of some theological treatises. + +26. _Reign of Qaim_.--He was succeeded by his son, who at his accession +took the title of _al-Qaim bi-amri'llah_ ("he who maintains the cause of +God"). During the first half of his long reign took place the +development of the power of the Ghuzz, a great Turkish tribe, who took +the name Seljuk from Seljuk their chief in Transoxiana. Already during +the reign of Mahmud large bodies had passed the Oxus and spread over +Khorasan and the adjacent countries. In the time of his successor the +bulk of the tribe followed, and in the year 429 (A.D. 1038) Toghrul Beg, +their chief, beat the army of the Ghaznevids and made his entry into +Nishapur. Thenceforth this progress was rapid (see SELJUKS). The +situation in Bagdad had become so desperate that the caliph called +Toghrul to his aid. This prince entered Bagdad in the month of Ramadan +A.H. 447 (December 1055), and overthrew finally the dynasty of the +Buyids.[44] In 449 (A.D. 1058) the caliph gave him the title of "King of +the East and West." But in the following year, 450, during his absence, +the Shi'ites made themselves masters of the metropolis, and proclaimed +the Caliphate of the Fatimite prince Mostansir. They were soon +overthrown by Toghrul, who was now supreme, and compelled the caliph to +give him his daughter in marriage. Before the marriage, however, he +died, and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan, who died in 465 (25th +December) (A.D. 1072). Qaim died two years later, Shaaban A.H. 467 +(April 1075). + +In the year 440 Mo'izz b. Badis, the Zeirid ruler of the Maghrib, made +himself independent, and substituted in prayer the name of the Abbasid +caliph for that of Mostansir. In order to punish him, the latter gave +permission to the Arab tribes in Egypt to cross the Nile, and granted +them possession of all the lands they should conquer. This happened in +442 (A.D. 1050) and was of the greatest significance for the subsequent +fate of Africa. + +27. _Reign of Moqtadi_.--In the first year of the Caliphate of +_al-Moqtadi bi-amri'llah_ ("he who follows the orders of God"), a +grandson of Qaim, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its zenith. All +the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor, Syria with the +exception of a few towns on the shore, the main part of West Africa +acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad as the Imam. Yemen had been subjected, +and at Mecca and Medina his name was substituted in the public prayers +for that of the Fatimite caliph. But after the death of Malik-Shah a +contest for the sultanate took place. The caliph, who had in 1087 +married the daughter of Malik-Shah, had been compelled two years after +to send her back to her father, as she complained of being neglected by +her husband. Just before his death, the Sultan had ordered him to +transfer his residence from Bagdad to Basra. After his death he stayed +and supported the princess Turkan Khatun. This lost him his life. The +day after Barki-yaroq's triumphant entry into Bagdad, Muharram 487 +(February 1094), he died suddenly, apparently by poison. + +28. _Reign of Mostazhir_.--_Al-Mostazhir billah_ ("he who seeks to +triumph through God"), son of Moqtadi, was only sixteen years old when +he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable chiefly for the growing +power of the Assassins (q.v.) and for the first Crusade (see CRUSADES). +The Seljuk princes were too much absorbed by internal strife to +concentrate against the new assailants. After the death of Barkiyaroq in +November 1104, his brother Mahommed reigned till April 1118. His death +was followed about four months later by that of Mostazhir. + +29. _Reign of Mostarshid._--_Al-Mostarshid billah_ ("he who asks +guidance from God"), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512 (August +1118), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to reestablish the power +of the caliph. Towards the end of the year 529 (October 1134) he was +compelled to promise that he would confine himself to his palace and +never again take the field. Not long after he was assassinated. About +the same time Dobais was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu +Mazyad, who had founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of +the ruins of Babel in 1102. + +30. _Reign of Rashid._--_Al-Rashid billah_ ("the just through God") +tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of Zengi, the +prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas'ud beat the army of the allies, took +Bagdad and had Rashid deposed (August 1136). Rashid escaped, but was +murdered two years later. + +31. _Reign of Moqtafi._--His successor _Al-Moqtafi li-amri'llah_ ("he +who follows the orders of God"), son of Mostazhir, had better success. +He was real ruler not only of the district of Bagdad, but also of the +rest of Irak, which he subdued by force. He died in the month of Rabia +II. 555 (March 1160). Under his reign the central power of the Seljuks +was rapidly sinking. In the west of Atabeg (prince's guardian) Zengi, +the prince of Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the +north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam against +the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (A.D. 1146), his noble son, the +well-known Nureddin, who was called "the just king," continued his +father's glorious career. Transoxiana was conquered by the heathen +hordes of Khata, who towards the end of 535 (A.D. 1141) under the king +Ghurkhan defeated the great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the +Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan. + +32. _Reign of Mostanjid._--_Al-Mostanjid billah_ ("he who invokes help +from God"), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the dominion of the Caliphate +by making an end to the state of the Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies +were the Arabic tribe of the Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in +southern Irak. The greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was +the conquest of Egypt by the army of Nureddin, the overthrow of the +Fatimite dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his +majordomo in Rabia II. 566 (December 1170). + +33. _Reign of Mostadi._--His son and successor _al-Mostadi' +bi-amri'llah_ ("he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God "), +though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers for that +of the Fatimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real authority. By the +death of Nureddin in 569 (A.D. 1174) Saladin's power became firmly +rooted. The dynasty founded by him is called that of the Ayyubites, +after the name of his father Ayyub. Mostadi died in the month of +Dhu'l-qa'da 575 (March 1180). + +34. _Reign of Nasir._--Quite a different man from his father was his +successor _al-Nasir li-dini'llah_ ("he who helps the religion of God"). +During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab 583 +(October 2nd, 1187). Not long before that event the well-known Spanish +traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin, and came to Bagdad +in 580, where he saw the caliph himself. Nasir was very ambitious; he +had added Khuzistan to his dominions, and desired to become also master +of Media (Jabal, or Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the +Seljuks). Here, however, he came into conflict with the then mighty +prince of Khwarizm (Khiva), who, already exasperated because the caliph +refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved to overthrow the +Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a descendant of Ali on the +throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety, Nasir took a step which brought the +greatest misery upon western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival. + +In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish tribes +(Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known under his +honorific title Jenghiz Khan, had conquered the northern provinces of +China, and extended its power to the frontiers of the Transoxianian +regions. To this heathen chief the Imam of the Moslems sent a messenger, +inducing him to attack the prince of Khwarizm, who already had provoked +the Mongolian by a disrespectful treatment of his envoys. Neither he nor +the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they conjured +up. When Nasir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225), the eastern provinces +of the empire had been trampled down by the wild hordes, the towns +burned, and the inhabitants killed without mercy. + +35. _Reign of Zahir_.--_Al-Zahir bi-amri'llah_ ("the victorious through +the orders of God") died within a year after his father's death, in +Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor are praised as +beneficent and just princes. + +36. _Reign of Mostansir_.--_Al-Mostansir billah_ ("he who asks help from +God") was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640 (December 1242). In +the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khan died, but the Mongol invasion continued +to advance with immense strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes +with success, to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwarizm, +but after his death in 628 (A.D. 1231) all resistance was paralysed. + +37. _Reign of Mostasim_.--_Al-Mosta'sim billah_ ("he who clings to God +for protection"), son of Mostansir, the last caliph of Bagdad, was a +narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover by bad counsellors. In +the last month of the year 653 (January 1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the +brother of the gteat khan of the Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by +destroying all the strongholds of the Isma'ilis. Then the turn of Bagdad +came. On the 11th of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived under +the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for peace. Totally +devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by surrendering and imploring +mercy from the barbarian victor. On the 4th of Saphar (February 10th) he +came with his retinue into the camp. The city was then given up to +plunder and slaughter; many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, +after having been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of +the family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. With him +expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, which had lasted 524 +years, from the entry of Abu'I-Abbas into Kufa. + +In vain, three years later, did Abu'I-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of the race +of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with Bibars the Mameluke +sultan, and who had been proclaimed caliph under the title _al-Mostansir +billah_ ("he who seeks help from God"), make an effort to restore a +dynasty which was now for ever extinct. At the head of an army he +marched against Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached +that city. Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found +an asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name of +_al-Hakim bi-amrillah_ ("he who decides according to the orders of +God"). His sons inherited his title, but, like their father, remained in +Egypt without power or influence (see EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan +period"). This shadow of sovereignty continued to exist till the +conquest of Egypt by the Turkish sultan Selim I., who compelled the last +of them, Motawakkil, to abdicate in his favour (see TURKEY: _History_). +He died at Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538. + +Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great-grandson of the +caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a refuge in India, where the +sultan of Delhi received him with the greatest respect, named him +Makhdumzadeh, "the Master's son," and treated him as a prince. Ibn +Batuta saw him when he visited India, and says that he was very +avaricious. On his return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young +man, son of this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as +imam in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father. +It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to Sumatra, +where in the old Samutra the graves of their descendants have been +lately discovered. (M. J. de G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places + appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents or + other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles on + these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such + cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration + adopted, are there given in addition. + + [2] See Noldeke, _Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ + (1864), pp. 89 seq. + + [3] De Goeje, _Mémoires d'hist. et de géog. orient._ No. 2 (2nd ed., + Leiden, 1864); Nöldeke, _D.M.Z._, 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Baladhuri 137. + + [4] The accounts differ; see Baladhuri 305. The chronology of the + conquests is in many points uncertain. + + [5] Baladhuri 315 sq.; Tabari. i. 1068. + + [6] He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the Arabs + were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire + landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made + state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a + perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the + army. + + [7] Nöldeke, _Tabari_, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of + the Era of the Flight (Hegira). + + [8] Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the + Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and + distinguished from the men of Medina. + + [9] It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular + nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred + cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the + elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual + nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage + was as apparent in Ali's hostilities against Zobair and Talha, as in + that of the Abbasids against the followers af Ali. + + [10] Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to + 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh seems to have been a trick played on the + caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it. + + [11] Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Modar and + the Rab'ia tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Modar. + + [12] The Arabs always call them Rum, i.e. Romans. + + [13] A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazan, says that he was a legitimate + son of Abu Sofian, and that his mother was Asma, daughter of A'war. + But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a + slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofian, and who became later also + the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofian + acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid + caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyad and his descendants struck off + the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, the persons concerned + gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names + replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479). + + [14] Aghani xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118. + + [15] Tabari ii. p. 82. + + [16] See Chodzko, _Théâtre persan_ (Paris, 1878). + + [17] Dozy took _communis_ for a gloss to _civiliter_ + + [18] Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; it + lies a day's march west from Haleb (Aleppo). + + [19] This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches + of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in his _Estudio sobre la + Invasion de los Arabes en España_ (Madrid, 1892). Some of the + details, however, e.g. the battle near Tamames and the part played by + the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but on + probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa and + Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir, _Caliphate_ (London, 1891), pp. 368-9. + + [20] Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to be + found in the _Kitab al-Oyun_, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138. + + [21] Seyid Ameer Ali, _A Critical Examination of the Life and + Teachings of Mahomet_, pp. 341-343. + + [22] Cf. Van Vloten, _Recherches sur la domination arabe, le + Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des + Omayades_ (Amsterdam, 1894), p. 63 seq. + + [23] Cf. Wellhausen, _Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der Zeit + der Umaijiden_ (Göttingen, 1901), p. 31. + + [24] Bayan i. p. 42; Dozy, _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne_, i. p. + 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist + Nauam. + + [25] Dozy i. p. 268. + + [26] Merwan has been nicknamed _al-Ja'di_ and _al-Himar_ (the Ass). + As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, + it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarani (ed. de Jong, p. 31), + who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja'd b. Durham, killed + under the reign of Hisham for heretical opinions, had followers in + Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khorasanians + called him a Ja'd, pretending that all'Ja'd had been his teacher. As + to al-Himar this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his + usual title, al-Faras, "the race-horse." + + [27] The Arabic word for "shedder of blood," _as-Saffah_, which by + that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host + who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have + taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it + an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the + same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abu'l-Abbas finally + established his power. + + [28] The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly + established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent + princes (see MOROCCO, _History_). + + [29] This Hashimiya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded + by Abu'l-Abbas near Anbar. + + [30] Cf. G. le Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ + (Oxford, 1900). + + [31] Tabari iii. p. 443 seq. + + [32] The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called + Ansar ("helpers"). + + [33] On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in + the _Journal Asiatique_ for March-April, 1869. + + [34] Cf. W.M. Patton, _Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_ (Leiden, + 1897); and article MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. + + [35] See M.J. de Goeje, _Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes + travers l'Asie_ (Leiden, 1903); also GIPSIES. + + [36] See M.J. de Goeje, "De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze," + _Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk._ 4^e Reeks, + iii., 1900. + + [37] See M.J. de Goeje, "De muur van Gog en Magog," _Versl. en + Meded._ 3^e Reeks, v., 1888. + + [38] "Dinars" in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for + "dirhems." + + [39] This Bogha was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Wasif, a + man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor. + + [40] See Nöldeke, _Orientalische Skizzen_, pp. 155 seq. + + [41] For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under + FATIMITES. + + [42] M.J. de Goeje, _Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahraïn et les + Fatimides_ (Leiden, 1886). + + [43] See Defrémery, _Mémoire sur les Emirs al-Omara_ (Paris, 1848). + + [44] Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the + Seljuk princes (see SELJUKS). + + + + +CALIVER, a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is an English +corruption of "calibre," and arises from the "arquebus of calibre," that +is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. "Caliver," +therefore, is practically synonymous with "arquebus." The heavier +musket, fired from a rest, replaced the caliver or arquebus towards the +close of the century. + + + + +CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS, the name of three popes. + +CALIXTUS I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery +of the book of the _Philosophumena_. From this work, which is in part a +pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a +slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into +collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured +his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope +Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the government +of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus (217) he was elected in +his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological +adversary Hippolytus, the author of the _Philosophumena_, accused him of +having favoured the medalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and +after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most +prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him also of +certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus reduced the +penitential severities applied until his time to those guilty of +adultery and other analogous sins. Under Calixtus and his two immediate +successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized +by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in +222, in circumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine +the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr popes. + (L. D.*) + +CALIXTUS II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a +noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and +belonged to the party which favoured reform in the Church. In September +1112, after Pope Paschal II. had made a surrender to the emperor Henry +V., Guido called a council at Vienne, which declared against lay +investiture, and excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen +pope at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the +anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he +opened negotiations with the emperor with a view to settling the dispute +over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment +difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 +both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. +The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He +was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory, having +fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands and treated with great +ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations +between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of +Worms made in September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible +by concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, and +was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. During his short +reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern +Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the +city of Rome. During preparations for a crusade he died in Rome on the +13th or 14th of December 1124. + + See M. Maurer, _Pabst Calixt II._ (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, _Hisloire + du pape Calixte II._ (Paris, 1891); and A. Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, + Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). + +CALIXTUS III. (_c._1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a Spaniard +named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a +great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor at Lerida; in 1429 he +was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion +mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and +Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a +crusade against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, +succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the people of +Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, and very little result +came from the pope's exertions. During his papacy Calixtus became +involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now +also king of Naples, and after the king's death in June 1458 he refused +to recognize his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, +asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was +notorious for nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, +Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on the +6th of August 1458. + + See A. Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). + + + + +CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelby, a +village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying philology, philosophy and +theology at Helmstädt, Jena, Giessen, Tübingen and Heidelberg, he +travelled through Holland, France and England, where he became +acquainted with the leading Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was +appointed professor of theology at Helmstädt by the duke of Brunswick, +who had admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute +with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a book, +_Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus_, which +provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he +published his _Epitome theologiae_, and some years later his _Theologia +Moralis_ (1634) and _De Arte Nova Nihusii_. Roman Catholics felt them to +be aimed at their own system, but they gave so great offence to +Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher to charge the author with a +secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refuted the accusation of +Buscher, when, on account of his intimacy with the Reformed divines at +the conference of Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a +reconciliation between them and the Lutherans, a new charge was +preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius +(1612-1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim +of his life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant +differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, known in the +Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime +of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran church, till a new controversy +arose with P.J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656. + + There is a monograph on Calixtus by E.L.T. Henke (2 vols., 1853-1856); + see also Isaak Dorner, _Gesch. d. protest. Theol._ pp. 606-624; and + especially Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_. + + + + +CALL (from Anglo-Saxon _ceallian_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch +_kallen_, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and +particularly to attract some one's attention by a loud utterance. Hence +its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the occupier, to whom +the visit was made, was called aloud, in early times, to indicate the +presence of the visitor. It is thus transferred to a short stay at a +place, but usually with the idea of a specific purpose, as in "port of +call," where ships stop in passing. Connected with the idea of summoning +by name are such uses as "roll-call" or "call-over," where names are +called over and answered by those present; similar uses are the "call to +the bar," the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students qualified +to practise as barristers, and the "call within the bar" to the +appointment of king's counsel. In the first case the "bar" is that which +separates the benchers from the rest of the body of members of the Inn, +in the other the place in a court of law within which only king's +counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law, are allowed to plead. "Call" is +also used with a particular reference to a divine summons, as of the +calling of the apostles. It is thus used in nonconformist churches of +the invitation to serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. +It is from this sense of a _vocatio_ or summons that the word "calling" +is used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man's ordinary +profession, occupation or business. In card games "call" is used, in +poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest bettor be exposed or +seen, exercised by that player who equals his bet; in whist or bridge, +of a certain method of play, the "call" for a suit or for trumps on the +part of one partner, to which the other is expected to respond; and in +many card games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is +laid face up on the table, and may be thus "called" for, at any point +the opponent may choose. + +"Call" is also a term on the English and American stock exchanges for a +contract by which, in consideration of a certain sum, an "option" is +given by the person making or signing the agreement to another named +therein or his order or to bearer, to "call" for a specified amount of +stock at a certain day for a certain price. A "put," which is the +reverse of a "call," is the option of selling (putting) stock at a +certain day for a certain price. A combined option of either calling or +putting is termed a "straddle," and sometimes on the American stock +exchange a "spread-eagle." (See further STOCK EXCHANGE.) The word is +also used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand +for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company has not +been demanded or "called" up at once. (See COMPANY.) + + + + +CALLANDER, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m. north-west of +Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 1458. Situated on the +north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a three-arched bridge, and +sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is in growing repute as a +health resort. A mile and a half north-east are the Falls of Bracklinn +(Gaelic, "white-foaming pool"), formed by the Keltie, which takes a leap +of 50 ft. down the red sandstone gorge on its way to the Teith. Two +miles north-west of Callander is the Pass of Leny, "the gate of the +Highlands," and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the +shores of which stand the ruins of St Bride's chapel. Callander owes +much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from which the +Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that described in Scott's +_Lady of the Lake_. The ascent of Ben Ledi is commonly made from the +town. + + + + +CALLAO, a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8½ m. west of Lima, +in 12° 04' S., 77° 13' W. Pop. (1905) 31,128, of whom 3349 were +foreigners. The department includes the city and its environs, +Bellavista and La Punta, and the neighbouring islands, San Lorenzo, +Fronton, the Palominos, &c., and covers an area of 14½ sq. m. Callao is +the principal port of the republic, its harbour being a large bay +sheltered by a tongue of land on the south called La Punta, and by the +islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and +the harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. +The city stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a flat +point of land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most +part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly paved, +irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast is swept by cool +ocean breezes, the average temperatures ranging from 65° to 77° F., but +notwithstanding this, Callao has a bad reputation for fevers and +contagious diseases, chiefly because of its insanitary condition. Its +noteworthy public buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses +which occupy the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish +government between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, +the military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three +Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some modern +commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north of the site of +the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake and tidal wave in +1746. For a short time the commercial interests of the stricken city +centred at Bellavista, 1¼ m. east, where wheat granaries were built and +still remain, but later the greater convenience of a waterside site drew +the merchants and population back to the vicinity of the submerged town. +The importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only open +port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political order, +because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss of its +monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked, and the modern +development of the port began, when a railway was built from Callao into +the heart of the Andes, and Callao is now an important factor in the +development of copper-mining. The port is connected with Lima by two +railways and an electric tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and +with Cerro de Pasco by railway 221 m. A short railway also runs from the +port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with modern +harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete blocks, two +fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels, and a large +floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable of receiving +vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight), which was built in +Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863. The docks are provided with +gas and electric lights, 18 steam cranes for loading and discharging +vessels, a triple line of railway and a supply of fresh water. Callao +was formerly the headquarters in South America of the Pacific Steam +Navigation Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies +that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of Lima, few +industrial establishments in the city; among them are a large sugar +refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory for making effervescent +drinks, and a number of foundries and repair shops. Being a port of the +first class, Callao is an important distributing centre for the coasting +trade, in which a large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign +steamship companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific +Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compañia Sud-America (Chilean), the +Kosmos and Roland lines (German), the Merchants line (New York), and a +Japanese line from the ports of Japan and China. A subsidized Peruvian +line is also contemplated to ply between the Pacific ports of South +America with an eventual extension of the service to Europe. The +arrivals from and clearances for foreign ports in 1907 were as +follows:-- + + Steamers. Sailing Vessels. + No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. + Arrivals 518 937,302 924 174,165 + Clearances 517 937,706 931 163,365 + +The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides, silver, +copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include timber and +other building materials, cotton and other textiles, general merchandise +for personal, household and industrial uses, railway material, coal, +kerosene, wheat, flour and other food stuffs. The maintenance of peace +and order, and the mining development of the interior, have added to the +trade and prosperity of the port. + +The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was founded in +1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima. As the port of that +capital and the only open port below Panama it grew rapidly in +importance and wealth. It was raised to the dignity of a city in 1671. +The appearance of Sir Francis Drake in the bay in 1578 led to the +fortification of the port, which proved strong enough to repel an attack +by the Dutch in 1624. The city was completely destroyed and partly +submerged by the great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which +about 6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and +figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also in the +various revolutions which have convulsed the republic. Its political +autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a coast department. The +Callao fortifications were bombarded by a Spanish fleet under Admiral +Mendez Nuñez on the 2nd of May 1866, when there were heavy losses both +in lives and material. Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the +Chileans, though it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession +of the invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before +the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were sunk, +to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy. + + + + +CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL (1779-1844), English landscape painter, was +born at Kensington in 1779 and died there in 1844. His first study was +music; and he sang for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. +But at the age of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had +exhibited his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to +distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an academician in +1810. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood; and, seven years +later, was appointed surveyor of the royal pictures. His two principal +subject pictures--"Raphael and the Fornarina," and "Milton dictating to +his Daughters," are much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in +the highest class by their refined taste and quiet beauty. + +His wife, MARIA, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married in 1827, was +a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. +(d. 1822). With her first husband she travelled in India, South Africa +and South America, where she acted for some time as teacher of Donna +Maria, who became queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her +second husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She published +accounts of her visits to India (1812), and to the environs of Rome +(1820); _Memoirs of Poussin_ (1820); a _History of France_; a _History +of Spain_ (1828); _Essays toward a History of Painting_ (1836); _Little +Arthur's History of England_ (1836); and the _Scripture Herbal_ (1842). + + + + +CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL (1766-1821), English musician, brother of Sir +Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the 20th of November 1766. +At the age of seven he was sent to a neighbouring day-school, where he +continued for five years, studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this +time he frequently went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which +his father was employed, and the impression he received on hearing the +organ of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The +organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott received his +first musical instruction. He did not, however, choose music as a +profession, as he wished to become a surgeon. But on witnessing a +surgical operation he found his nervous system so seriously affected by +the sight, that he determined to devote himself to music. His intimacy +with Dr Arnold and other leading musicians of the day procured him +access to artistic circles; he was deputy organist at St George the +Martyr, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, from 1783 to 1785, in which year his +successful competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by +the "Catch Club" soon spread his reputation as composer of glees, +catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music. The +compositions with which he won these medals were--the catch "O beauteous +fair," the canon "Blessed is he," and the glee "Dull repining sons of +care." In these and other similar compositions he displays considerable +skill and talent, and some of his glees retain their popularity at the +present day. In 1787 Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the +"Glee Club." In 1789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul's, +Covent Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for +Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never succeeded, +not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But of far greater +importance than his compositions are his theoretical writings. His +_Musical Grammar_, published in 1806 (3rd ed., 1817), was long +considered the standard English work of musical instruction, and in +spite of its being antiquated when compared with modern standards, it +remains a scholarly and lucid treatment of the rudiments of the art. +Callcott was a much-esteemed teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he +took his degree of Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had +received his degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr +Crotch as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of +his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of his +mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on the 15th of +May 1821. A posthumous collection of his most favourite vocal pieces was +published in 1824 with a memoir of his life by his son-in-law, William +Horsley, himself a composer of note. + +Callcott's son, WILLIAM HUTCHINS CALLCOTT (1807-1882), inherited to a +large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song, "The last man," +and his anthem, "Give peace in our time, O Lord," were his best-known +compositions. + + + + +CALLIAS, tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance of Philip II. +of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contemplated the subjugation of +the whole island. But finding that Philip was unwilling to help him, +Callias had recourse to the Athenians, although he had previously (350 +B.C.) been engaged in hostilities with them. With the support of +Demosthenes, he was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the +tribute formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over to +him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his rule, with +Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up tyrants chosen +by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently, when Philip's attention +was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians in conjunction with Callias drove +out these tyrants, and Callias thus became master of the island +(Demosthenes, _De Pace_, p. 58; _Epistola Philippi_, p. 159; Diod. Sic. +xvi. 74). At the end of his life he appears to have lived at Athens, and +Demosthenes proposed to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines, +_Contra Ctesiphontem_, 85, 87). + + + + +CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, two names borne alternately by the heads of a +wealthy and distinguished Athenian family. During the 5th and 4th +centuries B.C. the office of _daduchus_ or torch-bearer at the +Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary privilege of the family till its +extinction. The following members deserve mention. + +1. CALLIAS, the second of the name, fought at the battle of Marathon +(490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of Cimon, probably +about 445 B.C., he was sent to Susa to conclude with Artaxerxes, king of +Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards misnamed the "peace of Cimon." +Cimon had nothing to do with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea +of peace with Persia (see CIMON). At all events Callias's mission does +not seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason on +his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents. + + See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes, _De Falsa + Legatione_, p. 428; Grote recognizes the treaty as a historical fact, + _History of Greece_, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii. ch. ii., denies + the conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, + _Forschungen_, ii.; J.B. Bury in _Hermathena_, xxiv. (1898). + +2. HIPPONICUS, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon he commanded +the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian territory (426 B.C.) +and was slain at the battle of Delium (424). His wife, whom he +divorced, subsequently became the wife of Pericles; one of his +daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades; another, the wife of +Theodorus, was the mother of the orator Isocrates. + + See Thucydides iii. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides, _Contra + Alcibiadem_, 13. + +3. CALLIAS, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was +notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed by the +comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian (Aristophanes, +_Frogs_, 429, _Birds_, 283, and schol. Andocides, _De Mysteriis_, +110-131). The scene of Xenophon's _Symposium_ and Plato's _Protagoras_ +was laid at his house. He was reduced to a state of absolute poverty +and, according to Aelian (_Var. Hist._ iv. 23), committed suicide, but +there is no confirmation of this. In spite of his dissipated life he +played a certain part in public affairs. In 392 he was in command of the +Athenian hoplites at Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by +Iphicrates. In 371 he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms +with Sparta. The peace which was the result was called after him the +"peace of Callias." + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv. 5, vi. 3; and DELIAN LEAGUE. + + + + +CALLIMACHUS, an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the 5th century +B.C. Ancient critics associate him with Calamis, whose relative he may +have been. He is given credit for two inventions, the Corinthian column +and the running borer for drilling marble. The most certain facts in +regard to him are that he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and +made a golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408 B.C.); and that he used +to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour. + + + + +CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Cyrene and a +descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae, flourished about +250 B.C. He opened a school in the suburbs of Alexandria, and some of +the most distinguished grammarians and poets were his pupils. He was +subsequently appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the +Alexandrian library, which office he held till his death (about 240). +His _Pinakes_ (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically +arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history of +Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800 works, in +verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four epigrams and some +fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of the _Hecale_, an +idyllic epic, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon +in _Classical Review_, November 1893). His _Coma Berenices_ is only +known from the celebrated imitation of Catullus. His _Aitia_ (causes) +was a collection of elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the +foundation of cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According +to Quintilian (_Instit._ x. i. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac +poets; his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by +Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns are extremely +learned, and written in a laboured and artificial style. The epigrams, +some of the best specimens of their kind, have been incorporated in the +Greek Anthology. Art and learning are his chief characteristics, +unrelieved by any real poetic genius; in the words of Ovid (_Amores_, i. +15)-- + + "Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet." + + EDITIONS.--Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by + Bentley) by J.A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) (with + elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke + (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (1897). See _Neue Bruchstücke + aus der Hekale des Kallimachus_, by T. Gomperz (1893); also G. Knaack, + _Callimachea_ (1896); A. Bertrami, _Gl' Inni di Callimacho e il Nomo + di Terpandro_ (1896); K. Kuiper, _Studia Callimachea_ (1896); A. + Hamette, _Les Épigrammes de Callimaque: étude critique et litteraire_ + (Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd + (1755) and H.W. Tytler (1793); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). See also + Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (ed. 1906), p. 122. + + + + +CALLINUS of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets and the +creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed to have +flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the Cimmerii and their +expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 B.C.). During his lifetime his own +countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the +Magnesians. These two events give the key to his poetry, in which he +endeavours to rouse the indolent Ionians to a sense of patriotism. Only +scanty fiagments of his poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in +Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus. + + Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bergk, _Poetae + Lyrici Graeci_ (1882). On the date of Callinus, see the histories of + Greek literature by Mure and Müller; G.H. Bode, _Geschichte der + hellenischen Dichtkunst_, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger, _De + Callini Aetate_ (1877), who places him earlier, about 642. + + + + +CALLIOPE, the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweetness of her +vioce (Gr. [Greek: kallos], beauty; [Greek: ops], voice). In Hesiod she +was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over the +others. (See also MUSES, THE.) + + + + +CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-god Achelous +and wife of Alcmaeon (q.v.). At her earnest request her husband induced +Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia, and the father of his first wife +Arsinoë (or Alphesiboea), to hand over to him the necklace and peplus +(robe) of Harmonia (q.v.), that he might dedicate them at Delphi to +complete the cure of his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were +really meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid +and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102). Callirrhoe +now implored the gods that her two young sons might grow to manhood at +once and avenge their father's death. This was granted, and her sons +Amphoterus and Acarnan slew Phegeus with his two sons, and returning +with the necklace and peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, _Metam._ +ix. 413). + + + + +CALLISTHENES (_c._ 360-328 B.C.), of Olynthus, Greek historian, a +relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation he was +appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. He +censured Alexander's adoption of oriental customs, inveighing especially +against the servile ceremony of adoration. Having thereby greatly +offended the king, he was accused of being privy to a treasonable +conspiracy and thrown into prison, where he died from torture or +disease. His melancholy end was commemorated in a special treatise +([Greek: Kallisthenaes ae peri penthous]) by his friend Theophrastus, +whose acquaintance he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote +an account of Alexander's expedition, a history of Greece from the peace +of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a history of the Phocian +war and other works, all of which have perished. The romantic life of +Alexander, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the middle ages, +originated during the time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form +belongs to the 3rd century A.D. Its author is usually known as +pseudo-Callisthenes, although, in the Latin translation by Julius +Valerius Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is +ascribed to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and +Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are also +Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek +versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle ages (see +Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_, 1897, p. 849). +Valerius's translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, +arch-priest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-called _Historia de +Preliis_. + + See _Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni_ (by C.W. Müller, in the Didot + edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments and the + text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduction; A. + Westermann, _De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene + Commentatio_ (1838-1842); J. Zacher, _Pseudo-Callisthenes_ (1867); W. + Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1898), pp. 363, 819; + article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyklopädie_; A. Ausfeld, _Zur Kritik des griechischen + Alexanderromans_ (Bruchsal, 1894); Plutarch, _Alexander_, 52-55; + Arrian, _Anab_. iv. 10-14; Diog. Laërtius v. I; Quintus Curtius viii. + 5-8; Suidas _s.v._ See also ALEXANDER THE GREAT (_ad fin._). For the + Latin translations see Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ + (Eng, trans.), § 399; and M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen + Litteratur_, iv. i., p. 43. + + + + +CALLISTO, in Greek mythology, an Arcadian nymph, daughter of Lycaon and +companion of Artemis. She was transformed into a bear as a penalty for +having borne to Zeus a son, Arcas, the ancestor of the Arcadians. Hera, +Zeus and Artemis are all mentioned as the authors of the transformation. +Arcas, when hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot +her, had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where he +placed them as a constellation. In another version, she was slain by +Artemis. Callisto was originally only an epithet of the Arcadian Artemis +herself. + + See Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ ii. 381-530; R. Franz, _De + Callistus fabula_ (1890), which deals exhaustively with the various + forms of the legend. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at the beginning of the +2nd century B.C. He was one of the pupils of Aristophanes of Byzantium, +who were distinctively called Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted +himself to the elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his +commentaries have been preserved in the various collections of scholia +and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscellaneous work called +[Greek: Summikta] used by the later lexicographers, and of a treatise on +courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D). He is not to be confused +with Callistratus, the pupil and successor of Isocrates and author of a +history of Heraclea in Pontus. + + See R. Schmidt, _De Callistrato Aristophaneo_, appended to A. Nauck's + _Aristophanis Byzantii Fragmenta_ (1848); also C.W. Müller, _Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum_, iv. p. 353 note. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, only known as the author of a hymn in +honour of Harmodius (q.v.) and Aristogeiton. This ode, which is to be +found in Athenaeus (p. 695), has been beautifully translated by Thomas +Moore. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, Greek sophist and rhetorician, probably flourished in the +3rd century. He wrote [Greek: Ekfraseis], descriptions of fourteen works +of art in stone or brass by distinguished artists. This little work, +which is written in a dry and affected style, without any real artistic +feeling, is usually edited with the [Greek: Eikones] of Philostratus. + + Edition by Schenkl-Reisch (Teubner series, 1902); see also C.G. Heyne, + _Opuscula Academica_, v. pp. 196-221, with commentary on the + _Descriptiones_; F. Jacobs, _Animadversiones criticae in Callistrati + statuas_ (1797). + + + + +CALLISTRATUS of Aphidnae, Athenian orator and general in the 4th century +B.C. For many years, as _prostates_, he supported Spartan interests at +Athens. On account of the refusal of the Thebans to surrender Oropus, +which on his advice they had been allowed to occupy temporarily, +Callistratus, despite his magnificent defence (which so impressed +Demosthenes that he resolved to study oratory), was condemned to death, +361 B.C. He fled to Methone in Macedonia, and on his return to Athens in +355 he was executed. + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii. 3, vi. 2; Lycurgus, _In Leocr._ 93. + + + + +CALLOT, JACQUES (1592-1635), French engraver, was born at Nancy in +Lorraine, where his father, Jean Callot, was a herald-at-arms. He early +discovered a very strong predilection for art, and at the age of twelve +quitted home without his father's consent, and set out for Rome where he +intended to prosecute his studies. Being utterly destitute of funds he +joined a troop of Bohemians, and arrived in their company at Florence. +In this city he had the good fortune to attract the notice of a +gentleman of the court, who supplied him with the means of study; but he +removed in a short time to Rome, where, however, he was recognized by +some relatives, who immediately compelled him to return home. Two years +after this, and when only fourteen years old, he again left France +contrary to the wishes of his friends, and reached Turin before he was +overtaken by his elder brother, who had been despatched in quest of him. +As his enthusiasm for art remained undiminished after these +disappointments, he was at last allowed to accompany the duke of +Lorraine's envoy to the papal court. His first care was to study the art +of design, of which in a short time he became a perfect master. Philip +Thomasin instructed him in the use of the graver, which, however, he +ultimately abandoned, substituting the point as better adapted for his +purposes. From Rome he went to Florence, where he remained till the +death of Cosimo II., the Maecenas of these times. On returning to his +native country he was warmly received by the then duke of Lorraine, who +admired and encouraged him. As his fame was now spread abroad in various +countries of Europe, many distinguished persons gave him commissions to +execute. By the Infanta Isabella, sovereign of the Low Countries, he was +commissioned to engrave a design of the siege of Breda; and at the +request of Louis XIII. he designed the siege of Rochelle and the attack +on the Isle of Ré. When, however, in 1631 he was desired by that +monarch to execute an engraving of the siege of Nancy, which he had just +taken, Callot refused, saying, "I would rather cut off my thumb than do +anything against the honour of my prince and of my country"; to which +Louis replied that the duke of Lorraine was happy in possessing such +subjects as Callot. Shortly after this he returned to his native place, +from which the king failed to allure him with the offer of a handsome +pension. He engraved in all about 1600 pieces, the best of which are +those executed in aquafortis. No one ever possessed in a higher degree +the talent for grouping a large number of figures in a small space, and +of representing with two or three bold strokes the expression, action +and peculiar features of each individual. Freedom, variety and _naiveté_ +characterize all his pieces. His Fairs, his Miseries of War, his Sieges, +his Temptation of St Anthony and his Conversion of St Paul are the +best-known of his plates. + + See also Edouard Meaume, _Recherches sur la vie de Jacques Callot_ + (1860). + + + + +CALLOVIAN (from _Callovium_, the Latinized form of Kellaways, a village +not far from Chippenham in Wiltshire), in geology, the name introduced +by d'Orbigny for the strata which constitute the base of the Oxfordian +or lowermost stage of the Middle Oolites. The term used by d'Orbigny in +1844 was "Kellovien," subsequently altered to "Callovien" in 1849; +William Smith wrote "Kellaways" or "Kelloways Stone" towards the close +of the 18th century. In England it is now usual to speak of the +Kellaways Beds; these comprise (1) the Kellaways Rock, alternating clays +and sands with frequent but irregular concretionary calcareous +sandstones, with abundant fossils; and (2) a lower division, the +Kellaways Clay, which often contains much selenite but is poor in +fossils. The lithological characters are impersistent, and the sandy +phase encroaches sometimes more, sometimes less, upon the true Oxford +Clay. The rocks may be traced from Wiltshire into Bedfordshire, +Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, where they are well exposed in the cliffs at +Scarborough and Gristhorpe, at Hackness (90 ft.), Newtondale (80 ft.) +and Kepwick (100 ft.). In Yorkshire, however, the Callovian rocks lie +upon a somewhat higher palaeontological horizon than in Wiltshire. In +England, _Kepplerites calloviensis_ is taken as the zone fossil; other +common forms are _Cosmoceras modiolare_, _C. gowerianum_, _Belemnites +oweni_, _Ancyloceras calloviense_, _Nautilus calloviensis_, _Avicula +ovalis_, _Gryphaea bilobata_, &c. + +On the European continent the "Callovien" stage is used in a sense that +is not exactly synonymous with the English Callovian; it is employed to +embrace beds that lie both higher and lower in the time-scale. Thus, the +continental Callovien includes the following zones:-- + + Upper Callovien / Zone of _Peltoceras athleta_, _Cosmoceras Duncani_, + (Divesien) \ _Quenstedtoceras Lamberti_ and _Q. mariae._ + + / Zone of _Reineckia anceps_, _Stephanoceras + Lower Callovien < coronatum_ and _Cosmoceras jason_ and a lower zone + | of _C. gowerianum_ and _Macrocephalites + \ macrocephalus_. + +Rocks of Callovian age (according to the continental classification) are +widely spread in Europe, which, with the exception of numerous insular +masses, was covered by the Callovian Sea. The largest of these land +areas lay over Scandinavia and Finland, and extended eastward as far as +the 40th meridian. In arctic regions these rocks have been discovered in +Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, the east coast of Greenland, and Siberia. +They occur in the Hebrides and Skye and in England as indicated above. +In France they are well exposed on the coast of Calvados between +Trouville and Dives, where the marls and clays are 200 ft. thick. In the +Ardennes clays bearing pyrites and oolitic limonite are about 30 ft. +thick. Around Poitiers the Callovian is 100 ft. thick, but the formation +thins in the direction of the Jura. + +Clays and shales with ferruginous oolites represent the Callovian of +Germany; while in Russia the deposits of this age are mainly +argillaceous. In North America Callovian fossils are found in +California; in South America in Bolivia. In Africa they have been found +in Algeria and Morocco, in Somaliland and Zanzibar, and on the west +coast of Madagascar. In India they are represented by the shales and +limestones of the Chari series of Cutch. Callovian rocks are also +recorded from New Guinea and the Moluccas. + + See JURASSIC; also A. de Lapparent, _Traité de géologie_, vol. ii. + (5th ed., 1906), and H.B. Woodward, "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," + _Mem. Geol. Survey_, vol. v. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CALM, an adjective meaning peaceful, quiet; particularly used of the +weather, free from wind or storm, or of the sea, opposed to rough. The +word appears in French _calme_, through which it came into English, in +Spanish, Portuguese and Italian _calma_. Most authorities follow Diez +(_Etym. Wörterbuch der romanischen Sprachen_) in tracing the origin to +the Low Latin _cauma_, an adaptation of Greek [Greek: kauma], burning +heat, [Greek: kaiein], to burn. The Portuguese _calma_ has this meaning +as well as that of quiet. The connexion would be heat of the day, rest +during that period, so quiet, rest, peacefulness. The insertion of the +_l_, which in English pronunciation disappears, is probably due to the +Latin _calor_, heat, with which the word was associated. + + + + +CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1672-1757), French Benedictine, was born at +Mesnil-la-Horgne on the 26th of February 1672. At the age of seventeen +he joined the Benedictine order, and in 1698 was appointed to teach +theology and philosophy at the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was +successively prior at Lay, abbot at Nancy and of Sénones in Lorraine. He +died in Paris on the 25th of October 1757. The erudition of Calmet's +exegetical writings won him a reputation that was not confined to the +Roman Catholic Church, but they have failed to stand the test of modern +scholarship. The most noteworthy are:--_Commentaire de la Bible_ (Paris, +23 vols. 1707-1716), and _Dictionnaire historique, géographique, +critique, chronologique et littéral de la Bible_ (Paris, 2 vols., 1720). +These and numerous other works and editions of the Bible are known only +to students, but as a pioneer in a branch of Biblical study which +received a wide development in the 19th century, Calmet is worthy of +remembrance. As a historical writer he is best known by his _Histoire +ecclésiastique et civile de la Lorraine_ (Nancy, 1728), founded on +original research and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full +list is given In Vigouroux's _Dictionnaire de la Bible_. + + See A. Digot, _Notice biographique et littéraire sur Dom Augustin + Calmet_ (Nancy, 1860). + + + + +CALNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99 m. west of London by +the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3457. Area, 356 acres. It lies in +the valley of the Calne, and is surrounded by the high table-land of +Salisbury Plain and the Marlborough Downs. The church of St Mark has a +nave with double aisles, and massive late Norman pillars and arches. The +tower, which fell in 1628, was perhaps rebuilt by Inigo Jones. Other +noteworthy buildings are a grammar school, founded by John Bentley in +1660, and the town-hall. Bacon-curing is the staple industry, and there +are flour, flax and paper mills. The manufacture of broadcloth, once of +great importance, is almost extinct. Calne is governed by a mayor, four +aldermen and twelve councillors. + +In the 10th century Calne (_Canna_, _Kalne_) was the site of a palace of +the West-Saxon kings. Calne was the scene of the synod of 978 when, +during the discussion of the question of celibacy, the floor suddenly +gave way beneath the councillors, leaving Archbishop Dunstan alone +standing upon a beam. Here also a witenagemot was summoned in 997. In +the Domesday Survey Calne appears as a royal borough; it comprised +forty-seven burgesses and was not assessed in hides. In 1565 the borough +possessed a gild merchant, at the head of which were two gild stewards. +Calne claimed to have received a charter from Stephen and a confirmation +of the same from Henry III., but no record of these is extant, and the +charter actually issued to the borough by James II. in 1687 apparently +never came into force. The borough returned two members to parliament +more or less irregularly from the first parliament of Edward I. until +the Reform Bill of 1832. From this date the borough returned one member +only until, by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the privilege +was annulled. In 1303 Lodovicus de Bello Monte, prebendary of +Salisbury, obtained a grant of a Saturday market at the manor of Calne, +and a three days' fair at the feast of St Mary Magdalene; the latter was +only abandoned in the 19th century. Calne was formerly one of the chief +centres of cloth manufacture in the west of England, but the industry is +extinct. + + + + +CALOMEL, a drug consisting of mercurous chloride, mercury subchloride, +Hg2Cl2, which occurs in nature as the mineral horn-quicksilver, found as +translucent crystals belonging to the tetragonal system, with an +adamantine lustre, and a dirty white grey or brownish colour. The chief +localities are Idria, Obermoschel, Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in +Spain. It was used in medicine as early as the 16th century under the +names _Draco mitigatus, Manna metallorum, Aquila alba, Mercurius +dulcis_; later it became known as calomel, a name probably derived from +the Greek [Greek: kalos], beautiful, and [Greek: melas], black, in +allusion to its blackening by ammonia, or from [Greek: kalos] and +[Greek: meli], honey, from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by +heating mercury in chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive +sublimate) with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by +heating a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron retorts, +and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers. In the wet way it +is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt with hydrochloric acid. +Calomel is a white powder which sublimes at a low red heat; it is +insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. Boiling with stannous chloride +solution reduces it to the metal; digestion with potassium iodide gives +mercurous iodide. Nitric acid oxidizes it to mercuric nitrate, while +potash or soda decomposes it into mercury and oxygen. Long continued +boiling with water gives mercury and mercuric chloride; dilute +hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline chlorides convert it into +mercuric chloride on long boiling. + +The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion for much +discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour density to be 8.3 (air += 1), corresponding to HgCl. The supporters of the formula Hg2Cl2 +pointed out that dissociation into mercury and mercuric chloride would +give this value, since mercury is a monatomic element. After +contradictory evidence as to whether dissociation did or did not occur, +it was finally shown by Victor Meyer and W. Harris (1894) that a rod +moistened with potash and inserted in the vapour was coloured yellow, +and so conclusively proved dissociation. A. Werner determined the +molecular weights of mercurous, cuprous and silver bromides, iodides and +chlorides in pyridine solution, and obtained results pointing to the +formula HgCl, etc. However, the double formula, Hg2Cl2, has been +completely established by H.B. Baker (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p. +646) by vapour density determinations of the absolutely dry substance. + +Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in medicine which +are dealt with here as a supplement to the general discussion of the +pharmacology and therapeutics of mercury (q.v.). Calomel exerts remote +actions in the form of mercuric chloride. The specific value of +mercurous chloride is that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric +chloride in the safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is +continuously and freshly generated in small quantities. Its +pharmacopeial preparations are the "Black wash," in which calomel and +lime react to form mercurous oxide, a pill still known as "Plummer's +pill" and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any particular +advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the existence of the +official ointment. Internally the salt is given in doses--for an adult +of from one-half to five grains. It is an admirable aperient, acting +especially on the upper part of the intestinal canal, and causing a +slight increase of intestinal secretion. The stimulant action occurring +high up in the canal (duodenum and jejunum), it is well to follow a dose +of calomel with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special +value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power and its +stimulation of the liver. The stools are dark green, containing calomel, +mercuric sulphide and bile which, owing to the antiseptic action, has +not been decomposed. The salt is often used in the treatment of +syphilis, but is probably less useful than certain other mercurial +compounds. It is also employed for fumigation; the patient sits naked +with a blanket over him, on a cane-bottomed chair, under which twenty +grains of calomel are volatilized by a spirit-lamp; in about twenty +minutes the calomel is effectually absorbed by the skin. + + + + +CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (1734-1803), French statesman, was born at +Douai of a good family. He entered the profession of the law, and became +in succession advocate to the general council of Artois, _procureur_ to +the parlement of Douai, master of requests, then intendant of Metz +(1768) and of Lille (1774). He seems to have been a man of great +business capacity, gay and careless in temperament, and thoroughly +unscrupulous in political action. In the terrible crisis of affairs +preceding the French Revolution, when minister after minister tried in +vain to replenish the exhausted royal treasury and was dismissed for +want of success, Calonne was summoned to take the general control of +affairs. He assumed office on the 3rd of November 1783. He owed the +position to Vergennes, who for three years and a half continued to +support him; but the king was not well disposed towards him, and, +according to the testimony of the Austrian ambassador, his reputation +with the public was extremely poor. In taking office he found "600 +millions to pay and neither money nor credit." At first he attempted to +develop the latter, and to carry on the government by means of loans in +such a way as to maintain public confidence in its solvency. In October +1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he developed the _caisse d' +escompte_. But these measures failing, he proposed to the king the +suppression of internal customs, duties and the taxation of the property +of nobles and clergy. Turgot and Necker had attempted these reforms, and +Calonne attributed their failure to the malevolent criticism of the +parlements. Therefore he had an assembly of "notables" called together +in January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury, and +proposed the establishment of a _subvention territoriale_, which should +be levied on all property without distinction. This suppression of +privileges was badly received by the privileged notables. Calonne, +angered, printed his reports and so alienated the court. Louis XVI. +dismissed him on the 8th of April 1787 and exiled him to Lorraine. The +joy was general in Paris, where Calonne, accused of wishing to augment +the imposts, was known as "Monsieur Deficit." In reality his audacious +plan of reforms, which Necker took up later, might have saved the +monarchy had it been firmly seconded by the king. Calonne soon +afterwards passed over to England, and during his residence there kept +up a polemical correspondence with Necker on the finances. In 1789, when +the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over to Flanders +in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for election, but he was +sternly forbidden to enter France. In revenge he joined the _émigré_ +party at Coblenz, wrote in their favour, and expended nearly all the +fortune brought him by his wife, a wealthy widow. In 1802, having again +taken up his abode in London, he received permission from Napoleon to +return to France. He died on the 30th of October 1802, about a month +after his arrival in his native country. + + See Ch. Gomel, _Les Causes financières de la Révolution_ (Paris, + 1893); R. Stourm, _Les Finances de l'ancien régime et de la + Révolution_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); Susane, _La Tactique financière de + Calonne_, with bibliography (Paris, 1902). + + + + +CALORESCENCE (from the Lat. _calor_, heat), a term invented by John +Tyndall to describe an optical phenomenon, the essential feature of +which is the conversion of rays belonging to the dark infra-red portion +of the spectrum into the more refrangible visible rays, i.e. heat rays +into rays of light. Such a transformation had not previously been +observed, although the converse phenomenon, i.e. the conversion of short +waves of light into longer or less refrangible waves, had been shown by +Sir G.G. Stokes to occur in fluorescent bodies. Tyndall's experiments, +however, were carried out on quite different lines, and have nothing to +do with fluorescence (q.v.). His method was to sift out the long dark +waves which are associated with the short visible waves constituting the +light of the sun or of the electric arc and to concentrate the former to +a focus. If the eye was placed at the focus, no sensation of light was +observed, although small pieces of charcoal or blackened platinum foil +were immediately raised to incandescence, thus giving rise to visible +rays. + +The experiment is more easily carried out with the electric light than +with sunlight, as the former contains a smaller proportion of visible +rays. According to Tyndall, 90% of the radiation from the electric arc +is non-luminous. The arc being struck in the usual way between two +carbons, a concave mirror, placed close behind it, caused a large part +of the radiation to be directed through an aperture in the camera and +concentrated to a focus outside. In front of the aperture were placed a +plate of transparent rock-salt, and a flat cell of thin glass containing +a solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide. Both rock-salt and carbon +bisulphide are extremely transparent to the luminous and also to the +infra-red rays The iodine in the solution, however, has the property of +absorbing the luminous rays, while transmitting the infra-red rays +copiously, so that in sufficient thicknesses the solution appears nearly +black. Owing to the inflammable nature of carbon bisulphide, the plate +of rock-salt was found to be hardly a sufficient protection, and Tyndall +surrounded the iodine cell with an annular vessel through which cold +water was made to flow. Any small body which was a good absorber of dark +rays was rapidly heated to redness when placed at the focus. Platinized +platinum (platinum foil upon which a thin film of platinum had been +deposited electrolytically) and charcoal were rendered incandescent, +black paper and matches immediately inflamed, ordinary brown paper +pierced and burned, while thin white blotting-paper, owing to its +transparency to the invisible rays, was scarcely tinged. A simpler +arrangement, also employed by Tyndall, is to cause the rays to be +reflected outwards parallel to one another, and to concentrate them by +means of a small flask, containing the iodine solution and used as a +lens, placed some distance from the camera. The rock-salt and cold water +circulation can then be dispensed with. + +Since the rays used by Tyndall in these experiments are similar to those +emitted by a heated body which is not hot enough to be luminous, it +might be thought that the radiation, say from a hot kettle, could be +concentrated to a focus and employed to render a small body luminous. It +would, however, be impossible by such means to raise the receiving body +to a higher temperature than the source of radiation. For it is easy to +see that if, by means of lenses of rock-salt or mirrors, we focused all +or nearly all the rays from a small surface on to another surface of +equal area, this would not raise the temperature of the second surface +above that of the first; and we could not obtain a greater concentration +of rays from a large heated surface, since we could not have all parts +of the surface simultaneously in focus. The desired result could be +obtained if it were possible, by reflection or otherwise, to cause two +different rays to unite without loss and pursue a common path. Such a +result must be regarded as impossible of attainment, as it would imply +the possibility of heat passing from one body to another at a higher +temperature, contrary to the second law of thermodynamics (q.v.). +Tyndall used the dark rays from a luminous source, which are emitted in +a highly concentrated form, so that it was possible to obtain a high +temperature, which was, however, much lower than that of the source. + + A full account of Tyndall's experiments will be found in his _Heat, a + Mode of Motion_. (J. R. C.) + + + + +CALORIMETRY, the scientific name for the measurement of quantities of +heat (Lat. _calor_), to be distinguished from thermometry, which +signifies the measurement of temperature. A calorimeter is any piece of +apparatus in which heat is measured. This distinction of meaning is +purely a matter of convention, but it is very rigidly observed. +Quantities of heat may be measured indirectly in a variety of ways in +terms of the different effects of heat on material substances. The most +important of these effects are (_a_) rise of temperature, (_b_) change +of state, (_c_) transformation of energy. + +§ 1. The rise of temperature of a body, when heat is imparted to it, is +found to be in general nearly proportional to the quantity of heat +added. The _thermal capacity_ of a body is measured by the quantity of +heat required to raise its temperature one degree, and is necessarily +proportional to the mass of the body for bodies of the same substance +under similar conditions. The _specific heat_ of a substance is +sometimes defined as the thermal capacity of unit mass, but more often +as the ratio of the thermal capacity of unit mass of the substance to +that of unit mass of water at some standard temperature. The two +definitions are identical, provided that the thermal capacity of unit +mass of water, at a standard temperature, is taken as the unit of heat. +But the specific heat of water is often stated in terms of other units. +In any case it is necessary to specify the temperature, and sometimes +also the pressure, since the specific heat of a substance generally +depends to some extent on the external conditions. The methods of +measurement, founded on rise of temperature, may be classed as +_thermometric methods,_ since they depend on the observation of change +of temperature with a thermometer. The most familiar of these are the +method of mixture and the method of cooling. + + § 2. The _Method of Mixture_ consists in imparting the quantity of + heat to be measured to a known mass of water, or some other standard + substance, contained in a vessel or calorimeter of known thermal + capacity, and in observing the rise of temperature produced, from + which data the quantity of heat may be found as explained in all + elementary text-books. This method is the most generally convenient + and most readily applicable of calorimetric methods, but it is not + always the most accurate, for various reasons. Some heat is generally + lost in transferring the heated body to the calorimeter; this loss may + be minimized by performing the transference rapidly, but it cannot be + accurately calculated or eliminated. Some heat is lost when the + calorimeter is raised above the temperature of its enclosure, and + before the final temperature is reached. This can be roughly estimated + by observing the rate of change of temperature before and after the + experiment, and assuming that the loss of heat is directly + proportional to the duration of the experiment and to the average + excess of temperature. It can be minimized by making the mixing as + rapid as possible, and by using a large calorimeter, so that the + excess of temperature is always small. The latter method was generally + adopted by J.P. Joule, but the rise of temperature is then difficult + to measure with accuracy, since it is necessarily reduced in nearly + the same proportion as the correction. There is, however, the + advantage that the correction is rendered much less uncertain by this + procedure, since the assumption that the loss of heat is proportional + to the temperature-excess is only true for small differences of + temperature. Rumford proposed to eliminate this correction by starting + with the initial temperature of the calorimeter as much below that of + its enclosure as the final temperature was expected to be above the + same limit. This method has been very generally recommended, but it is + really bad, because, although it diminishes the absolute magnitude of + the correction, it greatly increases the uncertainty of it and + therefore the probable error of the result. The coefficient of heating + of a calorimeter when it is below the temperature of its surroundings + is seldom, if ever, the same as the coefficient of cooling at the + higher temperature, since the convection currents, which do most of + the heating or cooling, are rarely symmetrical in the two cases, and + moreover, the duration of the two stages is seldom the same. In any + case, it is desirable to diminish the loss of heat as much as possible + by polishing the exterior of the calorimeter to diminish radiation, + and by suspending it by non-conducting supports, inside a polished + case, to protect it from draughts. It is also very important to keep + the surrounding conditions as constant as possible throughout the + experiment. This may be secured by using a large water-bath to + surround the apparatus, but in experiments of long duration it is + necessary to use an accurate temperature regulator. The method of + lagging the calorimeter with cotton-wool or other non-conductors, + which is often recommended, diminishes the loss of heat considerably, + but renders it very uncertain and variable, and should never be used + in work of precision. The bad conductors take so long to reach a + steady state that the rate of loss of heat at any moment depends on + the past history more than on the temperature of the calorimeter at + the moment. A more serious objection to the use of lagging of this + kind is the danger of its absorbing moisture. The least trace of damp + in the lagging, or of moisture condensed on the surface of the + calorimeter, may produce serious loss of heat by evaporation. This is + another objection to Rumford's method of cooling the calorimeter below + the surrounding temperature before starting. Among minor difficulties + of the method may be mentioned the uncertainty of the thermal capacity + of the calorimeter and stirrer, and of the immersed portion of the + thermometer. This is generally calculated by assuming values for the + specific heats of the materials obtained by experiment between 100° C. + and 20° C. Since the specific heats of most metals increase rapidly + with rise of temperature, the values so obtained are generally too + high. It is best to make this correction as small as possible by using + a large calorimeter, so that the mass of water is large in proportion + to that of metal. Analogous difficulties arise in the application of + other calorimetric methods. The accuracy of the work in each case + depends principally on the skill and ingenuity of the experimentalist + in devising methods of eliminating the various sources of error. The + form of apparatus usually adopted for the method of mixtures is that + of Regnault with slight modifications, and figures and descriptions + are given in all the text-books. Among special methods which have been + subsequently developed there are two which deserve mention as + differing in principle from the common type. These are (1) the + constant temperature method, (2) the continuous flow method. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + The _constant temperature method of mixtures_ was proposed by N. + Hesehus (_Jour. Phys._, 1888, vii. p. 489). Cold water at a known + temperature is added to the calorimeter, immediately after dropping in + the heated substance, at such a rate as to keep the temperature of the + calorimeter constant, thus eliminating the corrections for the water + equivalent of the calorimeter and the external loss of heat. The + calorimeter is surrounded by an air-jacket connected to a petroleum + gauge which indicates any small change of temperature in the + calorimeter, and enables the manipulator to adjust the supply of cold + water to compensate it. The apparatus as arranged by F.A. Waterman is + shown in fig. 1 (_Physical Review,_ 1896, iv. p. 161). A is the + calorimetric tube, B the air-jacket and L the gauge. H is an electric + heater for raising the body to a suitable temperature, which can swing + into place directly over the calorimeter. W is a conical can + containing water cooled by ice I nearly to 0°, which is swung over the + calorimeter as soon as the hot body has been introduced and the heater + removed. The cold water flow is regulated by a tap S with a long + handle O, and its temperature is taken by a delicate thermometer with + its bulb at G. The method is interesting, but the manipulations and + observations involved are more troublesome than with the ordinary type + of calorimeter, and it may be doubted whether any advantage is gained + in accuracy. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + The _continuous flow method_ is specially applicable to the important + case of calorific value of gaseous fuel, where a large quantity of + heat is continuously generated at a nearly uniform rate by combustion. + Fig. 2 illustrates a recent type of gas calorimeter devised by C.V. + Boys (_Proc. R.S.,_ 1906, A. 77, p. 122). The heated products of + combustion from the burner B impinge on a metal box H, through which + water is circulating, and then pass downwards and outwards through a + spiral cooler which reduces them practically to the atmospheric + temperature. A steady stream of water enters the apparatus by the + inflow thermometer O, flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and + finally through the box H, where it is well mixed before passing the + outflow thermometer P. As soon as a steady state is reached, the + difference of temperature between the outflow and inflow thermometers, + multiplied by the current of water in grammes per minute gives the + heat per minute supplied by combustion. The gas current is + simultaneously observed by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary + corrections for pressure, temperature, &c., gives the necessary data + for deducing calorific value. + + A continuous flow calorimeter has been used by the writer for + measuring quantities of heat conveyed by conduction (see CONDUCTION OF + HEAT), and also for determining the variation of the specific heat of + water. In the latter case two steady currents of water at different + temperatures, say 0° and 100° are passed through an equalizer, and the + resulting temperature measured without mixing the currents, which are + then separately determined by weighing. This is a very good method of + comparing the mean specific heats over two ranges of temperature such + as 0-50, and 50-100, or 0-20 and 20-40, but it is not so suitable as + the electric method described below for obtaining the actual specific + heat at any point of the range. + +§ 3. _Method of Cooling._--A common example of this method is the +determination of the specific heat of a liquid by filling a small +calorimeter with the liquid, raising it to a convenient temperature, and +then setting it to cool in an enclosure at a steady temperature, and +observing the time taken to fall through a given range when the +conditions have become fairly steady. The same calorimeter is afterwards +filled with a known liquid, such as water, and the time of cooling is +observed through the same range of temperature, in the same enclosure, +under the same conditions. The ratio of the times of cooling is equal to +the ratio of the thermal capacities of the calorimeter and its contents +in the two cases. The advantage of the method is that there is no +transference or mixture; the defect is that the whole measurement +depends on the assumption that the rate of loss of heat is the same in +the two cases, and that any variation in the conditions, or uncertainty +in the rate of loss, produces its full effect in the result, whereas in +the previous case it would only affect a small correction. Other sources +of uncertainty are, that the rate of loss of heat generally depends to +some extent on the rate of fall of temperature, and that it is difficult +to take accurate observations on a rapidly falling thermometer. As the +method is usually practised, the calorimeter is made very small, and the +surface is highly polished to diminish radiation. It is better to use a +fairly large calorimeter to diminish the rate of cooling and the +uncertainty of the correction for the water equivalent. The surface of +the calorimeter and the enclosure should be permanently blackened so as +to increase the loss of heat by radiation as much as possible, as +compared with the losses by convection and conduction, which are less +regular. For accurate work it is essential that the liquid in the +calorimeter should be continuously stirred, and also in the enclosure, +the lid of which must be water-jacketed, and kept at the same steady +temperature as the sides. When all these precautions are taken, the +method loses most of the simplicity which is its chief advantage. It +cannot be satisfactorily applied to the case of solids or powders, and +is much less generally useful than the method of mixture. + +§ 4. _Method of Fusion._--The methods depending on change of state are +theoretically the simplest, since they do not necessarily involve any +reference to thermometry, and the corrections for external loss of heat +and for the thermal capacity of the containing vessels can be completely +eliminated. They nevertheless present peculiar difficulties and +limitations, which render their practical application more troublesome +and more uncertain than is usually supposed. They depend on the +experimental fact that the quantity of heat required to produce a given +change of state (e.g. to convert one gramme of ice at 0° C. into water +at 0° C., or one gramme of water at 100° C. into steam at 100° C.) is +always the same, and that there need be no change of temperature during +the process. The difficulties arise in connexion with the determination +of the quantities of ice melted or steam condensed, and in measuring the +latent heat of fusion or vaporization in terms of other units for the +comparison of observations. The earlier forms of ice-calorimeter, those +of Black, and of Laplace and Lavoisier, were useless for work of +precision, on account of the impossibility of accurately estimating the +quantity of water left adhering to the ice in each case. This +difficulty was overcome by the invention of the Bunsen calorimeter, in +which the quantity of ice melted is measured by observing the diminution +of volume, but the successful employment of this instrument requires +considerable skill in manipulation. The sheath of ice surrounding the +bulb must be sufficiently continuous to prevent escape of heat, but it +must not be so solid as to produce risk of strain. The ideal condition +is difficult to secure. In the practical use of the instrument it is not +necessary to know both the latent heat of fusion of ice and the change +of volume which occurs on melting; it is sufficient to determine the +change of volume per calorie, or the quantity of mercury which is drawn +into the bulb of the apparatus per unit of heat added. This can be +determined by a direct calibration, by inserting a known quantity of +water at a known temperature and observing the contraction, or weighing +the mercury drawn into the apparatus. In order to be independent of the +accuracy of the thermometer employed for observing the initial +temperature of the water introduced, it has been usual to employ water +at 100° C., adopting as unit of heat the "mean calorie," which is +one-hundredth part of the heat given up by one gramme of water in +cooling from 100° to 0° C. The weight of mercury corresponding to the +mean calorie has been determined with considerable care by a number of +observers well skilled in the use of the instrument. The following are +some of their results:--Bunsen, 15.41 mgm.; Velten, 15.47 mgm.; +Zakrevski, 15.57 mgm.; Staub, 15.26 mgm. The explanation of these +discrepancies in the fundamental constant is not at all clear, but they +may be taken as an illustration of the difficulties of manipulation +attending the use of this instrument, to which reference has already +been made. It is not possible to deduce a more satisfactory value from +the latent heat and the change of density, because these constants are +very difficult to determine. The following are some of the values +deduced by well-known experimentalists for the latent heat of +fusion:--Regnault, 79.06 to 79.24 calories, corrected by Person to +79.43; Person, 79.99 calories; Hess, 80.34 calories; Bunsen, 80.025 +calories. Regnault, Person and Hess employed the method of mixture which +is probably the most accurate for the purpose. Person and Hess avoided +the error of water sticking to the ice by using dry ice at various +temperatures below 0° C., and determining the specific heat of ice as +well as the latent heat of fusion. These discrepancies might, no doubt, +be partly explained by differences in the units employed, which are +somewhat uncertain, as the specific heat of water changes rapidly in the +neighbourhood of 0° C; but making all due allowance for this, it remains +evident that the method of ice-calorimetry, in spite of its theoretical +simplicity, presents grave difficulties in its practical application. + + One of the chief difficulties in the practical use of the Bunsen + calorimeter is the continued and often irregular movement of the + mercury column due to slight differences of temperature, or pressure + between the ice in the calorimeter and the ice bath in which it is + immersed. C.V. Boys (_Phil. Mag._, 1887, vol. 24, p. 214) showed that + these effects could be very greatly reduced by surrounding the + calorimeter with an outer tube, so that the ice inside was separated + from the ice outside by an air space which greatly reduces the free + passage of heat. The present writer has found that very good results + may be obtained by enclosing the calorimeter in a vacuum jacket (as + illustrated in fig. 3), which practically eliminates conduction and + convection. If the vacuum jacket is silvered inside, radiation also is + reduced to such an extent that, if the vacuum is really good, the + external ice bath may be dispensed with for the majority of purposes. + If the inner bulb is filled with mercury instead of water and ice, the + same arrangement answers admirably as a Favre and Silbermann + calorimeter, for measuring small quantities of heat by the expansion + of the mercury. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.] + + The question has been raised by E.L. Nichols (_Phys. Rev._ vol. 8, + January 1899) whether there may not be different modifications of ice + with different densities, and different values of the latent heat of + fusion. He found for natural pond-ice a density 0.9179 and for + artificial ice 0.9161. J. Vincent (_Phil. Trans._ A. 198, p. 463) also + found a density .9160 for artificial ice, which is probably very + nearly correct. If such variations of density exist, they may + introduce some uncertainty in the absolute values of results obtained + with the ice calorimeter, and may account for some of the + discrepancies above enumerated. + +§ 5. The _Method of Condensation_ was first successfully applied by J. +Joly in the construction of his steam calorimeter, a full description of +which will be found in text-books. The body to be tested is placed in a +special scale-pan, suspended by a fine wire from the arm of a balance +inside an enclosure which can be filled with steam at atmospheric +pressure. The temperature of the enclosure is carefully observed before +admitting steam. The weight of steam condensed on the body gives a means +of calculating the quantity of heat required to raise it from the +atmospheric temperature up to 100° C. in terms of the latent heat of +vaporization of steam at 100° C. There can be no appreciable gain or +loss of heat by radiation, if the admission of the steam is sufficiently +rapid, since the walls of the enclosure are maintained at 100° C., very +nearly. The thermal capacity of the scale-pan, &c., can be determined by +a separate experiment, or, still better, eliminated by the differential +method of counterpoising with an exactly similar arrangement on the +other arm of the balance. The method requires very delicate weighing, as +one calorie corresponds to less than two milligrammes of steam +condensed; but the successful application of the method to the very +difficult problem of measuring the specific heat of a gas at constant +volume, shows that these and other difficulties have been very skilfully +overcome. The application of the method appears to be practically +limited to the measurements of specific heat between the atmospheric +temperature and 100° C. The results depend on the value assumed for the +latent heat of steam, which Joly takes as 536.7 calories, following +Regnault. Joly has himself determined the mean specific heat of water +between 12° and 100° C. by this method, in terms of the latent heat of +steam as above given, and finds the result .9952. Assuming that the mean +specific heat of water between 12° and 100° is really 1.0011 in terms of +the calorie at 20° C. (see table, p. 66), the value of the latent heat +of steam at 100° C., as determined by Joly, would be 540.2 in terms of +the same unit. The calorie employed by Regnault is to some extent +uncertain, but the difference is hardly beyond the probable errors of +experiment, since it appears from the results of recent experiments that +Regnault made an error of the same order in his determination of the +specific heat of water at 100° C. + +§ 6. _Energy Methods._--The third general method of calorimetry, that +based on the transformation of some other kind of energy into the form +of heat, rests on the general principle of the conservation of energy, +and on the experimental fact that all other forms of energy are readily +and completely convertible into the form of heat. It is therefore often +possible to measure quantities of heat indirectly, by measuring the +energy in some other form and then converting it into heat. In addition +to its great theoretical interest, this method possesses the advantage +of being frequently the most accurate in practical application, since +energy can be more accurately measured in other forms than in that of +heat. The two most important varieties of the method are (_a_) +mechanical, and (_b_) electrical. These methods have reached their +highest development in connexion with the determination of the +mechanical equivalent of heat, but they may be applied with great +advantage in connexion with other problems, such as the measurement of +the variation of specific heat, or of latent heats of fusion or +vaporization. + +§ 7. _Mechanical Equivalent of Heat._--The phrase "mechanical equivalent +of heat" is somewhat vague, but has been sanctioned by long usage. It is +generally employed to denote the number of units of mechanical work or +energy which, when completely converted into heat without loss, would be +required to produce one heat unit. The numerical value of the mechanical +equivalent necessarily depends on the particular units of heat and work +employed in the comparison. The British engineer prefers to state +results in terms of foot-pounds of work in any convenient latitude per +pound-degree-Fahrenheit of heat. The continental engineer prefers +kilogrammetres per kilogramme-degree-centigrade. For scientific use the +C.G.S. system of expression in ergs per gramme-degree-centigrade, or +"calorie," is the most appropriate, as being independent of the value of +gravity. A more convenient unit of work or energy, in practice, on +account of the smallness of the erg, is the _joule,_ which is equal to +10.7 ergs, or one _watt-second_ of electrical energy. On account of its +practical convenience, and its close relation to the international +electrical units, the _joule_ has been recommended by the British +Association for adoption as the absolute unit of heat. Other convenient +practical units of the same kind would be the _watt-hour,_ 3600 joules, +which is of the same order of magnitude as the kilo-calorie, and the +_kilowatt-hour,_ which is the ordinary commercial unit of electrical +energy. + + § 8. _Joule_.--The earlier work of Joule is now chiefly of historical + interest, but his later measurements in 1878, which were undertaken on + a larger scale, adopting G.A. Hirn's method of measuring the work + expended in terms of the torque and the number of revolutions, still + possess value as experimental evidence. In these experiments (see fig. + 4) the paddles were revolved by hand at such a speed as to produce a + constant torque on the calorimeter _h_, which was supported on a float + _w_ in a vessel of water _v_, but was kept at rest by the couple due + to a pair of equal weights _k_ suspended from fine strings passing + round the circumference of a horizontal wheel attached to the + calorimeter. Each experiment lasted about forty minutes, and the rise + of temperature produced was nearly 3° C. The calorimeter contained + about 5 kilogrammes of water, so that the rate of heat-supply was + about 6 calories per second. Joule's final result was 772.55 + foot-pounds at Manchester per pound-degree-Fahrenheit at a temperature + of 62° F., but individual experiments differed by as much as 1%. This + result in C.G.S. measure is equivalent to 4.177 joules per calorie at + 16.5° C., on the scale of Joule's mercury thermometer. His + thermometers were subsequently corrected to the Paris scale by A. + Schuster in 1895, which had the effect of reducing the above figure to + 4.173. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + § 9. _Rowland_.--About the same time H.A. Rowland (_Proc. Amer. Acad._ + xv. p. 75, 1880) repeated the experiment, employing the same method, + but using a larger calorimeter (about 8400 grammes) and a petroleum + motor, so as to obtain a greater rate of heating (about 84 calories + per second), and to reduce the importance of the uncertain correction + for external loss of heat. Rowland's apparatus is shown in fig. 5. The + calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire, the torsion of which made + the equilibrium stable. The torque was measured by weights O and P + suspended by silk ribbons passing over the pulleys n and round the + disk kl. The power was transmitted to the paddles by bevel wheels, f, + g, rotating a spindle passing through a stuffing box in the bottom of + the calorimeter. The number of revolutions and the rise of temperature + were recorded on a chronograph drum. He paid greater attention to the + important question of thermometry, and extended his researches over a + much wider range of temperature, namely 5° to 35° C. His experiments + revealed for the first time a diminution in the specific heat of water + with rise of temperature between 0° and 30° C., amounting to four + parts in 10.000 per 1° C. His thermometers were compared with a + mercury thermometer standardized in Paris, and with a platinum + thermometer standardized by Griffiths. The result was to reduce the + coefficient of diminution of specific heat at 15° C. by nearly one + half, but the absolute value at 20° C. is practically unchanged. Thus + corrected his values are as follows:-- + + Temperature 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° + Joules per cal. 4.197 4.188 4.181 4.176 4.175 4.177 + + These are expressed in terms of the hydrogen scale, but the difference + from the nitrogen scale is so small as to be within the limits of + experimental error in this particular case. Rowland himself considered + his results to be probably correct to one part in 500, and supposed + that the greatest uncertainty lay in the comparison of the scale of + his mercury thermometer with the air thermometer. The subsequent + correction, though not carried out strictly under the conditions of + the experiment, showed that the order of accuracy of his work about + the middle of the range from 15° to 25° was at least 1 in 1000, and + probably 1 in 2000. At 30° he considered that, owing to the increasing + magnitude and uncertainty of the radiation correction, there "might + be a small error in the direction of making the equivalent too great, + and that the specific heat might go on decreasing to even 40° C." The + results considered with reference to the variation of the specific + heat of water are shown in the curve marked Rowland in Fig. 6. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + § 10. _Osborne Reynolds and W.H. Moorby (Phil. Trans.,_ 1897, p. 381) + determined the mechanical equivalent of the mean thermal unit between + 0° and 100° C., on a very large scale, with a Froude-Reynolds + hydraulic brake and a steam-engine of 100 h.p. This brake is + practically a Joule calorimeter, ingeniously designed to churn the + water in such a manner as to develop the greatest possible resistance. + The admission of water at 0° C. to the brake was controlled by hand in + such a manner as to keep the outflow nearly at the boiling-point, the + quantity of water in the brake required to produce a constant torque + being regulated automatically, as the speed varied, by a valve worked + by the lifting of the weighted lever attached to the brake. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + The accompanying illustration (fig. 7) shows the brake lagged with + cotton-wool, and the 4-ft. lever to which the weights are suspended. + The power of the brake may be estimated by comparison with the size of + the rope pulley seen behind it on the same shaft. With 300 pounds on a + 4-ft. lever at 300 revolutions per minute, the rate of generation of + heat was about 12 kilo-calories per second. In spite of the large + range of temperature, the correction for external loss of heat + amounted to only 5%, with the brake uncovered, and was reduced to less + than 2% by lagging. This is the special advantage of working on so + large a scale with so rapid a generation of heat. But, for the same + reason, the method necessarily presents peculiar difficulties, which + were not overcome without great pains and ingenuity. The principal + troubles arose from damp in the lagging which necessitated the + rejection of several trials, and from dissolved air in the water, + causing loss of heat by the formation of steam. Next to the radiation + loss, the most uncertain correction was that for conduction of heat + along the 4-in. shaft. These losses were as far as possible eliminated + by combining the trials in pairs, with different loads on the brake, + assuming that the heat-loss would be the same in the heavy and light + trials, provided that the external temperature and the gradient in the + shaft, as estimated from the temperature of the bearings, were the + same. The values deduced in this manner for the equivalent agreed as + closely as could be expected considering the impossibility of + regulating the external condition of temperature and moisture with any + certainty in an engine-room. The extreme variation of results in any + one series was only from 776.63 to 779.46 ft.-pounds, or less than + ½%. This variation may have been due to the state of the lagging, + which Moorby distrusted in spite of the great reduction of the + heat-loss, or it may have been partly due to the difficulty of + regulating the speed of the engine and the water-supply to the brake + in such a manner as to maintain a constant temperature in the outflow, + and avoid variations in the heat capacity of the brake. Since hand + regulation is necessarily discontinuous, the speed and the temperature + were constantly varying, so that it was useless to take readings + nearer than the tenth of a degree. The largest variation recorded in + the two trials of which full details are given, was 4-9° F. in two + minutes in the outflow temperature, and four or five revolutions per + minute on the speed. These variations, so far as they were of a purely + accidental nature, would be approximately eliminated on the mean of a + large number of trials, so that the accuracy of the final result would + be of a higher order than might be inferred from a comparison of + separate pairs of trials. Great pains were taken to discuss and + eliminate all the sources of constant error which could be foreseen. + The results of the light trials with 400 ft.-pounds on the brake + differ slightly from those with 600 ft.-pounds. This might be merely + accidental, or it might indicate some constant difference in the + conditions requiring further investigation. It would have been + desirable, if possible, to have tried the effect of a larger range of + variation in the experimental conditions of load and speed, with a + view to detect the existence of constant errors; but owing to the + limitations imposed by the use of a steam-engine, and the difficulty + of securing steady conditions of running, this proved to be + impossible. There can be no doubt, however, that the final result is + the most accurate direct determination of the value of the mean + calorie between 0° and 100° C. in mechanical units. Expressed in + joules per calorie the result is 4.1832, which agrees very closely + with the value found by Rowland as the mean over the range 15° to 20° + C. The value 4.183 is independently confirmed in a remarkable manner + by the results of the electrical method described below, which give + 4.185 joules for the mean calorie, if Rowland's value is assumed as + the starting-point, and taken to be 4.180 joules at 20° C. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +§ 11. _Electrical Methods._--The value of the international electrical +units has by this time been so accurately determined in absolute measure +that they afford a very good, though indirect, method of determining the +mechanical equivalent of heat. But, quite apart from this, electrical +methods possess the greatest value for calorimetry, on account of the +facility and accuracy of regulating and measuring the quantity of heat +supplied by an electric current. The frictional generation of heat in a +metallic wire conveying a current can be measured in various ways, which +correspond to slightly different methods. By Ohm's law, and by the +definition of difference of electric pressure or potential, we obtain +the following alternative expressions for the quantity of heat H in +joules generated in a time T seconds by a current of C amperes flowing +in a wire of resistance R ohms, the difference of potential between the +ends of the wire being E = CR volts:-- + + H = ECT = C^2RT = E^2T/R (1). + +The method corresponding to the expression C^2RT was adopted by Joule +and by most of the early experimentalists. The defects of the earlier +work from an electrical point of view lay chiefly in the difficulty of +measuring the current with sufficient accuracy owing to the imperfect +development of the science of electrical measurement. These difficulties +have been removed by the great advances since 1880, and in particular by +the introduction of accurate standard cells for measurements of +electrical pressure. + + § 12. _Griffiths_.--The method adopted by E.H. Griffiths (_Phil. + Trans.,_ 1893, p. 361), whose work threw a great deal of light on the + failure of previous observers to secure consistent results, + corresponded to the last expression E^2T/R, and consisted in + regulating the current by a special rheostat, so as to keep the + potential difference E on the terminals of the resistance R balanced + against a given number of standard Clark cells of the Board of Trade + pattern. The resistance R could be deduced from a knowledge of the + temperature of the calorimeter and the coefficient of the wire. But in + order to obtain trustworthy results by this method he found it + necessary to employ very rapid stirring (2000 revolutions per minute), + and to insulate the wire very carefully from the liquid to prevent + leakage of the current. He also made a special experiment to find how + much the temperature of the wire exceeded that of the liquid under the + conditions of the experiment. This correction had been neglected by + previous observers employing similar methods. The resistance R was + about 9 ohms, and the potential difference E was varied from three to + six Clark cells, giving a rate of heat-supply about 2 to 6 watts. The + water equivalent of the calorimeter was about 85 grammes, and was + determined by varying the quantity of water from 140 to 260 or 280 + grammes, so that the final results depended on a difference in the + weight of water of 120 to 140 grammes. The range of temperature in + each experiment was 14° to 26° C. The rate of rise was observed with a + mercury thermometer standardized by comparison with a platinum + thermometer under the conditions of the experiment. The time of + passing each division was recorded on an electric chronograph. The + duration of an experiment varied from about 30 to 70 minutes. Special + observations were made to determine the corrections for the heat + supplied by stirring, and that lost by radiation, each of which + amounted to about 10% of the heat-supply. The calorimeter C, fig. 8, + was gilded, and completely surrounded by a nickel-plated steel + enclosure B, forming the bulb of a mercury thermo-regulator, immersed + in a large water-bath maintained at a constant temperature. In spite + of the large corrections the results were extremely consistent, and + the value of the temperature-coefficient of the diminution of the + specific heat of water, deduced from the observed variation in the + rate of rise at different points of the range 15° to 25°, agreed with + the value subsequently deduced from Rowland's experiments over the + same range, when his thermometers were reduced to the same scale. + Griffiths' final result for the average value of the calorie over this + range was 4.192 joules, taking the E.M.F. of the Clark cell at 15° C. + to be 1.4342 volts. The difference from Rowland's value, 4.181, could + be explained by supposing the E.M.F. of the Clark cells to have in + reality been 1.4323 volts, or about 2 millivolts less than the value + assumed. Griffiths subsequently applied the same method to the + measurement of the specific heat of aniline, and the latent heat of + vaporization of benzene and water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + § 13. _Schuster and Gannon._--The method employed by A. Schuster and + W. Gannon for the determination of the specific heat of water in terms + of the international electric units (_Phil. Trans._ A, 1895, p. 415) + corresponded to the expression ECT, and differed in many essential + details from that of Griffiths. The current through a platinoid + resistance of about 31 ohms in a calorimeter containing 1500 grammes + of water was regulated so that the potential difference on its + terminals was equal to that of twenty Board of Trade Clark cells in + series. The duration of an experiment was about ten minutes, and the + product of the mean current and the time, namely CT, was measured by + the weight of silver deposited in a voltameter, which amounted to + about 0.56 gramme. The uncertainty due to the correction for the water + equivalent was minimized by making it small (about 27 grammes) in + comparison with the water weight. The correction for external loss was + reduced by employing a small rise of temperature (only 2.22°), and + making the rate of heat-supply relatively rapid, nearly 24 watts. The + platinoid coil was insulated from the water by shellac varnish. The + wire had a length of 760 cms., and the potential difference on its + terminals was nearly 30 volts. The rate of stirring adopted was so + slow that the heat generated by it could be neglected. The result + found was 4.191 joules per calorie at 19° C. This agrees very well + with Griffiths considering the difficulty of measuring so small a rise + of temperature at 2° with a mercury thermometer. Admitting that the + electro-chemical equivalent of silver increases with the age of the + solution, a fact subsequently discovered, and that the E.M.F. of the + Clark cell is probably less than 1.4340 volts (the value assumed by + Schuster and Gannon), there is no difficulty in reconciling the result + with that of Rowland. + + § 14. _H.L. Callendar and H.T. Barnes_ (_Brit. Assoc. Reports,_ 1897 + and 1899) adopted an entirely different method of calorimetry, as well + as a different method of electrical measurement. A steady current of + liquid, Q grammes per second, of specific heat, Js joules per degree, + flowing through a fine tube, A B, fig. 9, is heated by a steady + electric current during its passage through the tube, and the + difference of temperature d[theta] between the inflowing and the + outflowing liquid is measured by a single reading with a delicate pair + of differential platinum thermometers at A and B. The difference of + potential E between the ends of the tube, and the electric current C + through it, are measured on an accurately calibrated potentiometer, in + terms of a Clark cell and a standard resistance. If hd[theta] is the + radiation loss in watts we have the equation, + + EC = JsQd[theta] + hd[theta] (2). + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + The advantage of this method is that all the conditions are steady, so + that the observations can be pushed to the limit of accuracy and + sensitiveness of the apparatus. The water equivalent of the + calorimeter is immaterial, since there is no appreciable change of + temperature. The heat-loss can be reduced to a minimum by enclosing + the flow-tube in a hermetically sealed glass vacuum jacket. Stirring + is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs + of the thermometers and the heating conductor as indicated in the + figure. The conditions can be very easily varied through a wide range. + The heat-loss hd[theta] is determined and eliminated by varying the + flow of liquid and the electric current simultaneously, in such a + manner as to secure approximately the same rise of temperature for two + or more widely different values of the flow of liquid. An example + taken from the _Electrician_, September 1897, of one of the earliest + experiments by this method on the specific heat of mercury will make + the method clearer. The flow-tube was about 1 metre long and 1 millim. + in diameter, coiled in a short spiral inside the vacuum jacket. The + outside of the vacuum jacket was immersed in a water jacket at a + steady temperature equal to that of the inflowing mercury. + + + SPECIFIC HEAT OF MERCURY BY CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC METHOD + + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + |Flow of Hg.| Rise of Temp. |Watts.| Heat-loss. | Specific Heat. | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + | gm./sec. | d[theta] | EC | hd[theta] | Per gm. deg. | + | 8.753 | 11.764 |14.862| 0.655 | \ .13780 joules| + | 4.594 | 12.301 | 7.912| 0.865 | / .03297 cals. | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + + It is assumed as a first approximation that the heat-loss is + proportional to the rise of temperature _d[theta]_, provided that + _d[theta]_ is nearly the same in both cases, and that the distribution + of temperature in the apparatus is the same for the same rise of + temperature whatever the flow of liquid. The result calculated on + these assumptions is given in the last column in joules, and also in + calories of 20° C. The heat-loss in this example is large, nearly 4.5% + of the total supply, owing to the small flow and the large rise of + temperature, but this correction was greatly reduced in subsequent + observations on the specific heat of water by the same method. In the + case of mercury the liquid itself can be utilized to conduct the + electric current. In the case of water or other liquids it is + necessary to employ a platinum wire stretched along the tube as + heating conductor. This introduces additional difficulties of + construction, but does not otherwise affect the method. The absolute + value of the specific heat deduced necessarily depends on the absolute + values of the electrical standards employed in the investigation. But + for the determination of relative values of specific heats in terms of + a standard liquid, or of the variations of specific heat of a liquid, + the method depends only on the constancy of the standards, which can + be readily and accurately tested. The absolute value of the E.M.F. of + the Clark cells employed was determined with a special form of + electrodynamometer (Callendar, _Phil. Trans._ A. 313, p. 81), and + found to be 1.4334 volts, assuming the ohm to be correct. Assuming + this value, the result found by this method for the specific heat of + water at 20° C. agrees with that of Rowland within the probable limits + of error. + + § 15. _Variation of Specific Heat of Water._--The question of the + variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest and + importance in connexion with the choice of a thermal unit. Many of the + uncertainties in the reduction of older experiments, such as those of + Regnault, arise from uncertainty in regard to the unit in terms of + which they are expressed, which again depends on the scale of the + particular thermometer employed in the investigation. The first + experiments of any value were those of Regnault in 1847 on the + specific heat of water between 110° C. and 192° C. They were conducted + on a very large scale by the method of mixture, but showed + discrepancies of the order of 0.5%, and the calculated results in + many cases do not agree with the data. This may be due merely to + deficient explanation of details of tabulation. We may probably take + the tabulated values as showing correctly the rate of variation + between 110° and 190° C., but the values in terms of any particular + thermal unit must remain uncertain to at least 0.5% owing to the + uncertainties of the thermometry. Regnault himself adopted the + formula, + + s = 1 + 0.00004t + 0.0000009t^2 (Regnault), (3) + + for the specific heat _s_ at any temperature _t_ C. in terms of the + specific heat at 0° C. taken as the standard. This formula has since + been very generally applied over the whole range 0° to 200° C., but + the experiments could not in reality give any information with regard + to the specific heat at temperatures below 100° C. The linear formula + proposed by J. Bosscha from an independent reduction of Regnault's + experiments is probably within the limits of accuracy between 100° and + 200° C., so far as the mean rate of variation is concerned, but the + absolute values require reduction. It may be written-- + + s = S_100 + .00023(t - 100) (Bosscha-Regnault) (4). + + The work of L. Pfaundler and H. Platter, of G.A. Hirn, of J.C. Jamin + and Amaury, and of many other experimentalists who succeeded Regnault, + appeared to indicate much larger rates of increase than he had found, + but there can be little doubt that the discrepancies of their results, + which often exceeded 5%, were due to lack of appreciation of the + difficulties of calorimetric measurements. The work of Rowland by the + mechanical method was the first in which due attention was paid to the + thermometry and to the reduction of the results to the absolute scale + of temperature. The agreement of his corrected results with those of + Griffiths by a very different method, left very little doubt with + regard to the rate of diminution of the specific heat of water at 20° + C. The work of A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati by the method of mixture + between 0° and 30° C., though their curve is otherwise similar to + Rowland's, had appeared to indicate a minimum at 20° C., followed by a + rapid rise. This lowering of the minimum was probably due to some + constant errors inherent in their method of experiment. The more + recent work of Lüdin, 1895, under the direction of Prof. J. Pernet, + extended from 0° to 100° C., and appears to have attained as high a + degree of excellence as it is possible to reach by the employment of + mercury thermometers in conjunction with the method of mixture. His + results, exhibited in fig. 6, show a minimum at 25° C., and a maximum + at 87° C., the values being .9935 and 1.0075 respectively in terms of + the mean specific heat between 0° and 100° C. He paid great attention + to the thermometry, and the discrepancies of individual measurements + at any one point nowhere exceed 0.3%, but he did not vary the + conditions of the experiments materially, and it does not appear that + the well-known constant errors of the method could have been + completely eliminated by the devices which he adopted. The rapid rise + from 25° to 75° may be due to radiation error from the hot water + supply, and the subsequent fall of the curve to the inevitable loss of + heat by evaporation of the boiling water on its way to the + calorimeter. It must be observed, however, that there is another grave + difficulty in the accurate determination of the specific heat of water + near 100° C. by this method, namely, that the quantity actually + observed is not the specific heat _at_ the higher temperature _t_, but + the _mean specific heat_ over the range 18° to _t_. The specific heat + itself can be deduced only by differentiating the curve of + observation, which greatly increases the uncertainty. The peculiar + advantage of the electric method of Callendar and Barnes, already + referred to, is that the specific heat itself is determined over a + range of 8° to 10° at each point, by adding accurately measured + quantities of heat to the water at the desired temperature in an + isothermal enclosure, under perfectly steady conditions, without any + possibility of evaporation or loss of heat in transference. These + experiments, which have been extended by Barnes over the whole range + 0° to 100°, agree very well with Rowland and Griffiths in the rate of + variation at 20° C., but show a rather flat minimum of specific heat + in the neighbourhood of 38° to 40° C. At higher points the rate of + variation is very similar to that of Regnault's curve, but taking the + specific heat at 20° as the standard of reference, the actual values + are nearly 0.56% less than Regnault's. It appears probable that his + values for higher temperatures may be adopted with this reduction, + which is further confirmed by the results of Reynolds and Moorby, and + by those of Lüdin. According to the electric method, the whole range + of variation of the specific heat between 10° and 80° is only 0.5%. + Comparatively simple formulae, therefore, suffice for its expression + to 1 in 10,000, which is beyond the limits of accuracy of the + observations. It is more convenient in practice to use a few simple + formulae, than to attempt to represent the whole range by a single + complicated expression:-- + + Below 20° C. s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t - 40)^2 - 0.0000005(t - 20)^3. + + From 20° to 60°, s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t - 40)^2 (5). + + / s = 0.9944 + .00004t + 0.0000009t^2 + Above 60° to 200° < (Regnault corrd.) + \ s = 1.000 + 0.00022(t - 60), (Bosscha corrd.) + + The addition of the cubic term below 20° is intended to represent the + somewhat more rapid change near the freezing-point. This effect is + probably due, as suggested by Rowland, to the presence of a certain + proportion of ice molecules in the liquid, which is also no doubt the + cause of the anomalous expansion. Above 60° C. Regnault's formula is + adopted, the absolute values being simply diminished by a constant + quantity 0.0056 to allow for the probable errors of his thermometry. + Above 100° C., and for approximate work generally, the simpler formula + of Bosscha, similarly corrected, is probably adequate. + + The following table of values, calculated from these formulae, is + taken from the _Brit. Assoc. Report,_ 1899, with a slight modification + to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 20° C. This was + estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the constant + quantity 0.20 to the values of the total heat h of the liquid as + reckoned by the parabolic formula (5). This quantity is now, as the + result of further experiments, added to the values of h, and also + represented in the formula for the specific heat itself by the cubic + term. + + + SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER IN TERMS OF UNIT AT 20° C. 4.180 JOULES + + +-------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + | t° C. |Joules.| s. | h | Rowland. | + +-------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + | 0° | 4.208 | 1.0094 | 0 | 0 | + | 5° | 4.202 | 1.0054 | 5.037 | 5.037 | + | 10° | 4.191 | 1.0027 | 10.056 | 10.058 | + | 15° | 4.184 | 1.0011 | 15.065 | 15.068 | + | 20° | 4.180 | 1.0000 | 20.068 | 20.071 | + | 25° | 4.177 | 0.9992 | 25.065 | 25.067 | + | 30° | 4.175 | 0.9987 | 30.060 | 30.057 | + | 35° | 4.173 | 0.9983 | 35.052 | 35.053 | + | 40° | 4.173 | 0.9982 | 40.044 | | + | 50° | 4.175 | 0.9987 | 50.028 | | + | 60° | 4.180 | 1.0000 | 60.020 | | + | 70° | 4.187 | 1.0016 | 70.028 | | + | 80° | 4.194 | 1.0033 | 80.052 | | + | 90° | 4.202 | 1.0053 | 90.095 | Shaw | + | 100° | 4.211 | 1.0074 | 100.158 | Regnault | + | 120° | 4.231 | 1.0121 | 120.35 | 120.73 | + | 140° | 4.254 | 1.0176 | 140.65 | 140.88 | + | 160° | 4.280 | 1.0238 | 161.07 | 161.20 | + | 180° | 4.309 | 1.0308 | 181.62 | 182.14 | + | 200° | 4.341 | 1.0384 | 202.33 | | + | 220° | 4.376 | 1.0467 | 223.20 | | + +-------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + + The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the specific + heat of water at 20° C. for the reasons given below. This unit is + taken as being 4.180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade on the scale + of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute scale as + explained in the article THERMOMETRY, which has been shown to be + practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4.180 joules + at 20° C. is the mean between Rowland's corrected result 4.181 and the + value 4.179, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds and Moorby on + the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific heat 0° to 100° to + that at 20° is 1.0016, as given by the formulae representing the + results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate that Rowland's + corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In any case the + value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at least 1 in 2000. + + The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be obtained + by integrating the formulae between the limits required, or by taking + the difference of the corresponding values of the total heat h, and + dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity actually observed + by Rowland was the total heat. It may be remarked that starting from + the same value at 5°, for the sake of comparison, Rowland's values of + the total heat agree to 1 in 5000 with those calculated from the + formulae. The values of the total heat observed by Regnault, as + reduced by Shaw, also show a very fair agreement, considering the + uncertainty of the units. It must be admitted that it is desirable to + redetermine the variation of the specific heat above 100° C. This is + very difficult on account of the steam-pressure, and could not easily + be accomplished by the electrical method. Callendar has, however, + devised a continuous method of mixture, which appears to be peculiarly + adapted to the purpose, and promises to give more certain results. In + any case it may be remarked that formulae such as those of Jamin, + Henrichsen, Baumgartner, Winkelmann or Dieterici, which give far more + rapid rates of increase than that of Regnault, cannot possibly be + reconciled with his observations, or with those of Reynolds and + Moorby, or Callendar and Barnes, and are certainly inapplicable above + 100° C. + +§ 16. _On the Choice of the Thermal Unit._--So much uncertainty still +prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed over without +reference. There are three possible kinds of unit, depending on the +three fundamental methods already given: (1) the thermometric unit, or +the thermal capacity of unit mass of a standard substance under given +conditions of temperature and pressure on the scale of a standard +thermometer. (2) The latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required +to melt or vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given +conditions. This unit has the advantage of being independent of +thermometry, but the applicability of these methods is limited to +special cases, and the relation of the units to other units is difficult +to determine. (3) The absolute or mechanical unit, the quantity of heat +equivalent to a given quantity of mechanical or electrical energy. This +can be very accurately realized, but is not so convenient as (1) for +ordinary purposes. + + In any case it is necessary to define a thermometric unit of class + (1). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always + selected, although some less volatile liquid, such as aniline or + mercury, would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of + temperature, there is very general agreement that the absolute scale + as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be adopted as + the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen thermometer is + not directly available for the majority of experiments, it is + necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition of + the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum presents + very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury thermometer in + point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability to the practical + conditions of experiment. The conditions of use of a mercury + thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are necessarily different + from those under which its corrections are determined, and this + difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in practical + work. The primary consideration in the definition of a unit is to + select that method which permits the highest order of accuracy in + comparison and verification. For this reason the definition of the + thermal unit will in the end probably be referred to a scale of + temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum thermometer. + + There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question of the + standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Regnault's formula, have + selected 0° C. as the standard temperature, but this cannot be + practically realized in the case of water, and his formula is + certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite temperature to + select is 4° C., the temperature of maximum density, since at this + point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that at + constant pressure But this is really of no consequence, since the + specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized. The + specific heat at 4° could be accurately determined at the mean over + the range 0° to 8° keeping the jacket at 0° C. But the change appears + to be rather rapid near 0°, the temperature is inconveniently low for + ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4° would be so much larger + than the specific heat at ordinary temperatures that nearly all + experiments would require reduction. The natural point to select would + be that of minimum specific heat, but if this occurs at 40° C. it + would be inconveniently high for practical realization except by the + continuous electrical method. It was proposed by a committee of the + British Association to select the temperature at which the specific + heat was 4.200 joules, leaving the exact temperature to be + subsequently determined. It was supposed at the time, from the + original reduction of Rowland's experiments, that this would be nearly + at 10° C., but it now appears that it may be as low is 5° C., which + would be inconvenient. This is really only an absolute unit in + disguise, and evades the essential point, which is the selection of a + standard temperature for the water thermometric unit. A similar + objection applies to selecting the temperature at which the specific + heat is equal to its mean value between 0° and 100°. The mean calorie + cannot be accurately realized in practice in any simple manner, and is + therefore unsuitable as a standard of comparison. Its relation to the + calorie at any given temperature, such as 15° or 20°, cannot be + determined with the same degree of accuracy as the ratio of the + specific heat at 15° to that at 20°, if the scale of temperature is + given. The most practical unit is the calorie at 15° or 20° or some + temperature in the range of ordinary practice. The temperature most + generally favoured is 15°, but 20° would be more suitable for accurate + work. These units differ only by 11 parts in 10,000 according to + Callendar and Barnes, or by 13 in 10,000 according to Rowland and + Griffiths, so that the difference between them is of no great + importance for ordinary purposes. But for purposes of definition it + would be necessary to take the mean value of the specific heat _over a + given range_ of temperature, preferably at least 10°, rather than the + specific heat _at a point_ which necessitates reference to some + formula of reduction for the rate of variation. The specific heat at + 15° would be determined with reference to the mean over the range 10° + to 20°, and that at 20° from the range 15° to 25°. There can be no + doubt that the range 10° to 20° is too low for the accurate thermal + regulation of the conditions of the experiment. The range 15° to 25° + would be much more convenient from this point of view, and a mean + temperature of 20° is probably nearest the average of accurate + calorimetric work. For instance 20° is the mean of the range of the + experiments of Griffiths and of Rowland, and is close to that of + Schuster and Gannon. It is readily attainable at any time in a modern + laboratory with adequate heating arrangements, and is probably on the + whole the most suitable temperature to select. + +§ 17. _Specific Heat of Gases._--In the case of solids and liquids under +ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of expansion is so +small that it may generally be neglected; but with gases or vapours, or +with liquids near the critical point, the external work becomes so large +that it is essential to specify the conditions under which the specific +heat is measured. The most important cases are, the specific heats (1) +at constant volume; (2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure +in the case of a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal +capacity of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the +difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except in case +(2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat meagre and +conflicting, but the question of the relation of the specific heats of +gases is one of great interest in connexion with the kinetic theory and +the constitution of the molecule. The well-known experiments of Regnault +and Wiedemann on the specific heat of gases at constant pressure agree +in showing that the _molecular specific heat,_ or the thermal capacity +of the molecular weight in grammes, is approximately independent of the +temperature and pressure in case of the more stable diatomic gases, such +as H2, O2, N2, CO, &c., and has nearly the same value for each gas. They +also indicate that it is much larger, and increases considerably with +rise of temperature, in the case of more condensible vapours, such as +Cl2, Br2, or more complicated molecules, such as CO2, N2O, NH3, C2H4. +The direct determination of the specific heat at constant volume is +extremely difficult, but has been successfully attempted by Joly with +his steam calorimeter, in the case of air and CO2. Employing pressures +between 7 and 27 atmospheres, he found that the specific heat of air +between 10° and 100° C. increased very slightly with increase of +density, but that of CO2 increased nearly 3% between 7 and 21 +atmospheres. The following formulae represent his results for the +specific heat s at constant volume in terms of the density d in gms. per +c. c.:-- + + Air, s = 0.1715 + 0.028d, + + CO2, s = 0.165 + 0.213d + 0.34d^2. + + § 18. _Ratio of Specific Heats._--According to the elementary kinetic + theory of an ideal gas, the molecules of which are so small and so far + apart that their mutual actions may be neglected, the kinetic energy + of translation of the molecules is proportional to the absolute + temperature, and is equal to 3/2 of pv, the product of the pressure + and the volume, per unit mass. The expansion per degree at constant + pressure is v/[theta] = R/p. The external work of expansion per degree + is equal to R, being the product of the pressure and the expansion, + and represents the difference of the specific heats S - s, at constant + pressure and volume, assuming as above that the internal work of + expansion is negligible. If the molecules are supposed to be like + smooth, hard, elastic spheres, incapable of receiving any other kind + of energy except that of translation, the specific heat at constant + volume would be the increase per degree of the kinetic energy namely + 3pv/2[theta] - 3R/2, that at constant pressure would be 5R/2, and the + ratio of the specific heats would be 5/3 or 1.666. This appears to be + actually the case for monatomic gases such as mercury vapour (Kundt + and Warburg, 1876), argon and helium (Ramsay, 1896). For diatomic or + compound gases Clerk Maxwell supposed that the molecule would also + possess energy of rotation, and endeavoured to prove that in this case + the energy would be equally divided between the six degrees of + freedom, three of translation and three of rotation, if the molecule + were regarded as a rigid body incapable of vibration-energy. In this + case we should have s = 3R, S = 4R, S/s = 4/3 = 1.333. In 1879 Maxwell + considered it one of the greatest difficulties which the kinetic + theory had yet encountered, that in spite of the many other degrees of + freedom of vibration revealed by the spectroscope, the experimental + value of the ratio S/s was 1.40 for so many gases, instead of being + less than 4/3. Somewhat later L. Boltzmann suggested that a diatomic + molecule regarded as a rigid dumb-bell or figure of rotation, might + have only five effective degrees of freedom, since the energy of + rotation about the axis of symmetry could not be altered by collisions + between the molecules. The theoretical value of the ratio S/s in this + case would be the required 7/5. For a rigid molecule on this theory + the smallest value possible would be 4/3. Since much smaller values + are found for more complex molecules, we may suppose that, in these + cases, the energy of rotation of a polyatomic molecule may be greater + than its energy of translation, or else that heat is expended in + splitting up molecular aggregates, and increasing energy of vibration. + A hypothesis doubtfully attributed to Maxwell is that each additional + atom in the molecule is equivalent to two extra degrees of freedom. + From an m-atomic molecule we should then have S/s = 1 + 2/(2m + 1). + This gives a series of ratios 5/3, 7/5, 9/7, 11/9, &c., for 1, 2, 3, + 4, &c., atoms in the molecule, values which fall within the limits of + experimental error in many cases. It is not at all clear, however, + that energy of vibration should bear a constant ratio to that of + translation, although this would probably be the case for rotation. + For the simpler gases, which are highly diathermanous and radiate + badly even at high temperature, the energy of vibration is probably + very small, except under the special conditions which produce + luminosity in flames and electric discharges. For such gases, assuming + a constant ratio of rotation to translation, the specific heat at low + pressures would be very nearly constant. For more complex molecules + the radiative and absorptive powers are known to be much greater. The + energy of vibration may be appreciable at ordinary temperatures, and + would probably increase more rapidly than that of translation with + rise of temperature, especially near a point of dissociation. This + would account for an increase of S, and a diminution of the ratio S/s, + with rise of temperature which apparently occurs in many vapours. The + experimental evidence, however, is somewhat conflicting, and further + investigations are very desirable on the variation of specific heat + with temperature. Given the specific heat as a function of the + temperature, its variation with pressure may be determined from the + characteristic equation of the gas. The direct methods of measuring + the ratio S/s, by the velocity of sound and by adiabatic expansion, + are sufficiently described in many text-books. + + § 19. _Atomic and Molecular Heats._--The ideal atomic heat is the + thermal capacity of a gramme-atom in the ideal state of monatomic gas + at constant volume. This would be nearly three calories. For a + diatomic gas, the molecular heat would be nearly five calories, or the + atomic heat of a gas in the diatomic state would be 2.5. Estimated at + constant pressure the atomic heat would be 3.5. Some authors adopt 2.5 + and some 3.5 for the ideal atomic heat. The atomic heat of a metal in + the solid state is in most cases larger than six calories at ordinary + temperatures. Considering the wide variations in the physical + condition and melting points, the comparatively close agreement of the + atomic heats of the metals at ordinary temperatures, known as Dulong + and Petit's Law, is very remarkable. The specific heats as a rule + increase with rise of temperature, in some cases, e.g. iron and + nickel, very rapidly. According to W.A. Tilden (_Phil. Trans.,_ 1900), + the atomic heats of pure nickel and cobalt, as determined from + experiments at the boiling-points of O2, and CO2, diminish so rapidly + at temperatures below 0° C. as to suggest that they would reach the + value 2.42 at the absolute zero. This is the value of the minimum of + atomic heat calculated by Perry from diatomic hydrogen, but the + observations themselves might be equally well represented by taking + the imaginary limit 3, since the quantity actually observed is the + mean specific heat between 0° and -182.5° C. Subsequent experiments on + other metals at low temperatures did not indicate a similar diminution + of specific heat, so that it may be doubted whether the atomic heats + really approach the ideal value at the absolute zero. No doubt there + must be approximate relations between the atomic and molecular heats + of similar elements and compounds, but considering the great + variations of specific heat with temperature and physical state, in + alloys, mixtures or solutions, and in allotropic or other + modifications, it would be idle to expect that the specific heat of a + compound could be accurately deduced by any simple additive process + from that of its constituents. + + AUTHORITIES.--Joule's _Scientific Papers_ (London, 1890); Ames and + Griffiths, _Reports to the International Congress_ (Paris, 1900), "On + the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat," and "On the Specific Heat of + Water"; Griffiths, _Thermal Measurement of Energy_ (Cambridge, 1901); + Callendar and Barnes, _Phil. Trans._ A, 1901, "On the Variation of the + Specific Heat of Water"; for combustion methods, see article + THERMOCHEMISTRY, and treatises by Thomsen, Pattison-Muir and + Berthelot; see also articles THERMODYNAMICS and VAPORIZATION. + (H. L. C.) + + + + +CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM (1612-1686), German Lutheran divine, was born at +Mohrungen in east Prussia, on the 16th of April 1612. After studying at +Königsberg, in 1650 he was appointed professor of theology at +Wittenberg, where he afterwards became general superintendent and +primarius. He died on the 25th of February 1686. Calovius was the most +noteworthy of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century. +He strongly opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians, attacked in +particular the reconciliation policy or "syncretism" of Georg Calixtus +(cf. the _Consensus repetitus fidei vere lutheranae,_ 1665), and as a +writer of polemics he had few equals. His chief dogmatic work, _Systema +locorum theologicorum_ (12 vols. 1655-1677), represents the climax of +Lutheran scholasticism. In his _Biblia Illustrata_ (4 vols.), written +from the point of view of a very strict belief in inspiration, his +object is to refute the statements made by Hugo Grotius in his +Commentaries. His _Historia Syncretistica_ (1682) was suppressed. + + + + +CALPURNIUS, TITUS, Roman bucolic poet, surnamed SICULUS from his +birthplace or from his imitation of the style of the Sicilian +Theocritus, most probably flourished during the reign of Nero. Eleven +eclogues have been handed down to us under his name, of which the last +four, from metrical considerations and express MS. testimony, are now +generally attributed to Nemesianus (q.v.), who lived in the time of the +emperor Carus and his sons (latter half of the 3rd century A.D.). Hardly +anything is known of the life of Calpurnius; we gather from the poems +themselves (in which he is obviously represented by "Corydon") that he +was in poor circumstances and was on the point of emigrating to Spain, +when "Meliboeus" came to his aid. Through his influence Calpurnius +apparently secured a post at Rome. The time at which Calpurnius lived +has been much discussed, but all the indications seem to point to the +time of Nero. The emperor is described as a handsome youth, like Mars +and Apollo, whose accession marks the beginning of a new golden age, +prognosticated by the appearance of a comet, doubtless the same that +appeared some time before the death of Claudius; he exhibits splendid +games in the amphitheatre (probably the wooden amphitheatre erected by +Nero in 57); and in the words + + maternis causam qui vicit Iulis[1] (i. 45), + +there is a reference to the speech delivered in Greek by Nero on behalf +of the Ilienses (Suetonius, _Nero_, 7; Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 58), from +whom the Julii derived their family.[2] Meliboeus, the poet's patron, +has been variously identified with Columella, Seneca the philosopher, +and C. Calpurnius Piso. Although the sphere of Meliboeus's literary +activity (as indicated in iv. 53) suits none of these, what is known of +Calpurnius Piso fits in well with what is said of Meliboeus by the poet, +who speaks of his generosity, his intimacy with the emperor, and his +interest in tragic poetry. His claim is further supported by the poem +_De Laude Pisonis_ (ed. C.F. Weber, 1859) which has come down to us +without the name of the author, but which there is considerable reason +for attributing to Calpurnius.[3] The poem exhibits a striking +similarity with the eclogues in metre, language and subject-matter. The +author of the _Laus_ is young, of respectable family and desirous of +gaining the favour of Piso as his Maecenas. Further, the similarity +between the two names can hardly be accidental; it is suggested that the +poet may have been adopted by the courtier, or that he was the son of a +freedman of Piso. The attitude of the author of the _Laus_ towards the +subject of the panegyric seems to show less intimacy than the relations +between Corydon and Meliboeus in the eclogues, and there is internal +evidence that the _Laus_ was written during the reign of Claudius +(Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Rom. Lit._ § 306, 6). + +Mention may here be made of the fragments of two short hexameter poems +in an Einsiedeln MS., obviously belonging to the time of Nero, which if +not written by Calpurnius, were imitated from him. + +Although there is nothing original in Calpurnius, he is "a skilful +literary craftsman." Of his models the chief is Virgil, of whom (under +the name of Tityrus) he speaks with great enthusiasm; he is also +indebted to Ovid and Theocritus. Calpurnius is "a fair scholar, and an +apt courtier, and not devoid of real poetical feeling. The bastard style +of pastoral cultivated by him, in which the description of nature is +made the writer's pretext, while ingenious flattery is his real purpose, +nevertheless excludes genuine pleasure, and consequently genuine +poetical achievement. He may be fairly compared to the minor poets of +the reign of Anne" (Garnett). + + Calpurnius was first printed in 1471, together with Silius Italicus + and has been frequently republished, generally with Gratius Faliscus + and Nemesianus. The separate authorship of the eclogues of Calpurnius + and Nemesianus was established by M. Haupt's _De Carminibus bucolicis + Calpurnii et Nemesiani_ (1854). Editions by H. Schenkl (1885), with + full introduction and _index verborum_, and by C.H. Keene (1887), with + introduction, commentary and appendix. English verse translation by + E.J.L. Scott (1891); see H.E. Butler, _Post-Augustan Poetry_ (Oxford, + 1909), pp. 150 foil., and F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 1 (1897). (J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Iulis_ for _in ulnis_ according to the best MS. tradition. + + [2] According to Dr R. Garnett (and Mr Greswell, as stated in + Conington's _Virgil_, i. p. 123, note) the emperor referred to is the + younger Gordian (A.D. 238). His arguments in favour of this will be + found in the article on Calpurnius by him in the 9th edition of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and in the _Journal of Philology_, xvi., + 1888; see in answer J.P. Postgate, "The Comet of Calpurnius Siculus" + in _Classical Review_, June 1902. Dean Merivale (_Hist. of the Romans + under the Empire_, ch. 60) and Pompei, "Intorno al Tempo del Poeta + Calpurnio" in _Atti del Istituto Veneto_, v. 6 (1880), identify the + amphitheatre with the Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) and assign + Calpurnius to the reign of Domitian. + + [3] It has been variously ascribed to Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius + and Saleius Bassus. + + + + +CALTAGIRONE, a city and episcopal see of the province of Catania, +Sicily, situated 1999 ft. above sea-level, 36 m. S.W. of Catania direct +(55 m. by rail). Pop. (1881) 25,978; (1901) town 35,116; commune 45,956. +It is well built, and is said to be the most civilized provincial town +in Sicily. Extensive Sicel cemeteries have been explored to the north of +the town (_Not. Scavi_, 1904, 65), and a Greek necropolis of the 6th and +5th centuries B.C. has been found to the south-east (_ibid._ 132). +Remains of buildings of Roman date have also been discovered; but the +name of the ancient city which stood here is unknown. The present name +is a corruption of the Saracen _Kalat-al-Girche_ (the castle of Girche, +the chieftain who fortified it). + + + + +CALTANISETTA, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, the capital of a +province of the same name, 60 m. S.E. of Palermo direct and 83 m. by +rail, situated 1930 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 43,303. The town is +of Saracenic origin, as its name _Kalat-al-Nisa_, the "Ladies' Castle," +indicates, and some ruins of the old castle (called _Pietrarossa_) still +exist. Otherwise the town contains no buildings of artistic or +historical interest, but it commands striking views. It is the centre of +the Sicilian sulphur industry and the seat of a royal school of mines. +Two miles east is the interesting Norman abbey of S. Spirito. + + + + +CALTROP (from the Mid. Eng. _calketrappe_, probably derived from the +Lat. _calx_, a heel, and _trappa_, Late Lat. for a snare), an iron ball, +used as an obstacle against cavalry, with four spikes so arranged, that +however placed in or on the ground, one spike always points upwards. It +is also the botanical name for several species of thistles. + + + + +CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE, a town of eastern France, in the department of Rhone, +2½ m. N. by E. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906) 9255. It has manufactures +of coarse earthenware and hard-ware, copper and bronze foundries and +nursery-gardens. + + + + +CALUMET (Norm. Fr. form of _chalumet_, from Lat. _calamus_, a reed), the +name given by the French in Canada to the "peace-pipe" of the American +Indians. This pipe occupied among the tribes a position of peculiar +symbolic significance, and was the object of profound veneration. It was +smoked on all ceremonial occasions, even on declarations of war, but its +special use was at the making of treaties of peace. It was usually about +2½ ft. long, and in the west the bowl was made of red pipes tone +(catlinite), a fine-grained, easily-worked stone of a rich red colour +found chiefly in the Côteau des Prairies west of Big Stone Lake, Dakota. +The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring Indian +tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the locality and +its product (Longfellow, _Hiawatha_, i.). The pipe stem was of reed +decorated with eagles' quills or women's hair. Native tobacco mixed with +willow-bark or sumac leaves was smoked. The pipe was offered as a +supreme proof of hospitality to distinguished strangers, and its refusal +was regarded as a grievous affront. In the east and south-east, the bowl +was of white stone, sometimes pierced with several stem holes so that +many persons might smoke at once. + + See Joseph D. Macguire (exhaustive report,640 pages), "Pipes and + Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines" in _Smithsonian Report_ + (American Bureau of Ethnology) for 1897, vol. i.; and authorities + quoted in _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + + +CALUMPIT, a town of the province of Bulacán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +at the junction of the Quiñgua river with the Rio Grande de la Pampanga, +about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 13,897. It is served by the +Manila & Dagupan railway, and the bridge across the Rio Grande is one of +the longest in the Philippines. The surrounding country is a fertile +plain, producing large quantities of rice, as well as sugar, Indian corn +and a variety of fruits. Calumpit has a large rice-mill and one of the +largest markets in the Philippines. The bridge, convent and church of +the town were fired and completely destroyed by insurgent troops in +1899. The language is Tagalog. + + + + +CALVADOS, a department of north-western France, formed in 1790 out of +Bessin, Cinglais, Hiémois, Bocage, the Campagne de Caen, Auge and the +western part of Lieuvin. Pop. (1906) 403,431. Area, 2197 sq. m. It +received its name from a ledge of rocks, stretching along the coast for +a distance of about 15 m. between the mouths of the rivers Orne and +Vire. It is bounded N. by the English Channel, E. by the department of +Eure, S. by that of Orne, W. by that of Manche. The Bocage, or +south-western part of the department, is elevated, being crossed from +south-east to north-west by the hills of Normandy, the highest of which +is 1197 ft.; the rest of the surface is gently undulating, and consists +of extensive valleys watered by numerous streams which fall into the +English Channel. The coast, formed by cliffs, sandy beaches or reefs, is +generally inaccessible, except at the mouths of the principal rivers, +such as the Touques, the Dives, the Orne and the Vire, which are +navigable at high tide for several miles inland. Trouville is the chief +of the numerous coast resorts. The climate, though humid and variable, +is healthy. The raising of cattle, sheep and horses is the mainstay of +the agriculture of the department. Pasture is good and abundant in the +east and north-west, and there is a large export trade in the butter, +eggs and cheese (Camembert, Livarot, Pont l'Evêque) of these districts, +carried on by Honfleur, Isigny and other ports. The plain of Caen is a +great centre for horse breeding. Wheat, oats, barley, colza and potatoes +are the chief crops. The orchards of Auge and Bessin produce a superior +kind of cider, of which upwards of 40,000,000 gallons are made in the +department; a large quantity of cider brandy (eau-de-vie de Calvados) is +distilled. Poultry to a considerable amount is sent to the Paris +markets, and there is a large output of honey and wax. The spinning and +weaving of wool and cotton are the chief industries. Besides these, +paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, +rope-works, dye-works, distilleries and bleach-fields, scattered +throughout the department, give employment to a number of hands. There +are productive iron-mines and building-stone, slate and lime are +plentiful. Fisheries, chiefly of lobster, oyster (Courseulles), herring +and mackerel, are prosecuted. Coal, timber, grain, salt-fish and cement +are among the imports; exports include iron, dairy products and sand. +Caen and Honfleur are the most important commercial ports. There is a +canal 9 m. in length from Caen to Ouistreham on the coast. The +department is served by the Ouest-Êtat railway. It is divided into the +six arrondissements (38 cantons, 763 communes) of Caen, Falaise, Bayeux, +Vire, Lisieux and Pont l'Evêque. Caen, the capital, is the seat of a +court of appeal and the centre of an _académie_ (educational division). +The department forms the diocese of Bayeux, in the ecclesiastical +province of Rouen, and belongs to the region of the III. army-corps. The +other principal towns are Falaise, Lisieux, Condé-sur-Noireau, Vire, +Honfleur and Trouville (q.v.). + +Amongst the great number of medieval churches which the department +possesses, the fine Gothic church of St. Pierre-sur-Dives is second in +importance only to those of Lisieux and Bayeux; that of Norrey, a good +example of the Norman-Gothic style, and that of Tour-en-Bessin, in which +Romanesque and Gothic architecture are mingled, are of great interest. +Fontaine-Henri has a fine château of the 15th and 16th centuries. + + + + +CALVART, DENIS (1540-1619), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. After +studying landscape-painting for some time in his native city he went to +Bologna, where he perfected himself in the anatomy of the human form +under Prospero Fontana, and so completely lost the mannerism of Flemish +art that his paintings appear to be the work of an Italian. From Bologna +he went to Rome, where he assisted Lorenzo Sabbatini (1533-1577) in his +works for the papal palace, and devoted much of his time to copying and +studying the works of Raphael. He ultimately returned to Bologna and +founded a school, of which the greatest ornaments are Guido and +Domenichino. His works are especially admired for the power of grouping +and colouring which they display. + + + + +CALVARY, the conventional English rendering of the _calvaria_ of the +Vulgate, the Latin version of the Greek _[Greek: kranion]_, both meaning +"skull" and representing the Hebrew Golgotha, the name given to the +scene of Christ's crucifixion. The term "a Calvary" is applied to a +sculptured representation of the Crucifixion, either inside a church, or +adjoining one in the open air. There are many examples of the latter in +France, Italy and Spain. Among the most important are the Sacro Monte +(1486) at Varallo in Piedmont, and those at Guimiliau (1581), Plougastel +(1602), St Thegonnec (1610), and Pleyben near Quimper (1670), in +Brittany, all in good preservation. + + + + +CALVÉ EMMA (1864- ), Spanish operatic soprano, was born at Madrid, and +trained in Paris, making her first important appearance in opera at +Brussels in 1882. She sang mainly in Paris for some years, but in 1892 +was first engaged at Covent Garden, London, and at once became famous as +the most vivid Carmen (in Bizet's opera) of the day. + + + + +CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART (1831-1884), English poet and wit, and the +literary father of what may be called the university school of humour, +was born at Martley in Worcestershire on the 22nd of December 1831. His +father, the Rev. Henry Blayds, resumed in 1852 the old family name of +Calverley, which his grandfather had exchanged for Blayds in 1807. It +was as Charles Stuart Blayds that most of the son's university +distinctions were attained. He went up to Balliol from Harrow in 1850, +and was soon known in Oxford as the most daring and most high-spirited +undergraduate of his time. He was a universal favourite, a delightful +companion, a brilliant scholar and the playful enemy of all "dons." In +1851 he won the Chancellor's prize for Latin verse, and it is said that +the entire exercise was written in an afternoon, when his friends had +locked him into his rooms, declining to let him out till he had finished +what they were confident would prove the prize poem. A year later he +took his name off the books, to avoid the consequences of a college +escapade, and migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge. Here he was again +successful in Latin verse, and remains the unique example of an +undergraduate who has won the Chancellor's prize at both universities. +In 1856 he took second place in the first class in the Classical Tripos. +He was elected fellow of Christ's (1858), published _Verses and +Translations_ in 1862, and was called to the bar in 1865. Owing to an +accident while skating he was prevented from following up a professional +career, and during the last years of his life he was an invalid. His +_Translations into English and Latin_ appeared in 1866; his _Theocritus +translated into English Verse_ in 1869; _Fly Leaves_ in 1872; and +_Literary Remains_ in 1885. He died on the 17th of February 1884. +Calverley was one of the most brilliant men of his day; and, had he +enjoyed health, might have achieved distinction in any career he chose. +Constitutionally indolent, he was endowed with singular gifts in every +department of culture; he was a scholar, a musician, an athlete and a +brilliant talker. What is left us marks only a small portion of his +talent, but his sparkling, dancing verses, which have had many clever +imitators, are still without a rival in their own line. His humour was +illumined by good nature; his satire was keen but kind; his laughter was +of that human sort which is often on the verge of tears. Imbued with the +classical spirit, he introduced into the making of light verse the +polish and elegance of the great masters, and even in its most whimsical +mood his verse is raised to the level of poetry by the saving excellence +of style. + + His _Complete Works,_ with a biographical notice by Sir W.J. Sendall, + appeared in 1901. (A. Wa.) + + + + +CALVERT, the name of three English artists: Charles (1785-1852), a +well-known landscape-painter; Edward (1803-1883), an important +wood-engraver and follower of Blake; and Frederick, an excellent +topographical draughtsman, whose work in water-colour is represented at +the Victoria and Albert Museum, and who published a volume of +_Picturesque Views in Staffordshire and Shropshire_ (1830). + + + + +CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE (1819-1873), English chemist, was born in +London on the 14th of November 1819. From about 1836 till 1846 he lived +in France, where, after a course of study at Paris, he became manager of +some chemical works, later acting as assistant to M.E. Chevreul. On his +return to England he settled in Manchester as a consulting chemist, and +was appointed professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution in that +city. Devoting himself almost entirely to industrial chemistry, he gave +much attention to the manufacture of coal-tar products, and particularly +carbolic acid, for the production of which he established large works in +Manchester in 1865. Besides contributing extensively to the English and +French scientific journals, he published a work on _Dyeing and +Calico-Printing._ He died in Manchester on the 24th of October 1873. + + + + +CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART. (c. 1763-1826), British general, was probably +born early in 1763 at Hampton, near London. He was educated at Harrow, +and at the age of fifteen entered the army. In the following year he +served with his regiment in America, being present at the siege of +Charleston, and serving through the campaign of Lord Cornwallis which +ended with the surrender of Yorktown. From 1781 to 1783 he was a +prisoner of war. Returning to England in 1784, he next saw active +service in 1793-1794 in the Low Countries, where he was aide-de-camp to +the duke of York, and in 1795 was engaged on a confidential mission to +Brunswick and Berlin. In 1799, having already served as deputy adjutant +general, he was made adjutant general, holding the post till 1818. In +this capacity he effected many improvements in the organization and +discipline of the service. He greatly improved the administration of the +army medical and hospital department, introduced regimental schools, +developed the two existing military colleges (since united at +Sandhurst), and was largely responsible for the founding of the Duke of +York's school, Chelsea. In recognition of his work as adjutant general +he was made a G.C.B. (1815), and, on retiring from office, received a +baronetcy (1818). In 1820 he was made governor of Chelsea hospital. He +died on the 3rd of September 1826, at Middle Claydon, Buckinghamshire. + + + + +CALVES' HEAD CLUB, a club established shortly after his death in +derision of the memory of Charles I. Its chief meeting was held on the +30th of each January, the anniversary of the king's execution, when the +dishes served were a cod's head to represent the individual, Charles +Stuart; a pike representing tyranny; a boar's head representing the king +preying on his subjects; and calves' heads representing Charles as king +and his adherents. On the table an axe held the place of honour. After +the banquet a copy of the king's _Ikon Basilike_ was burnt, and the +toast was "To those worthy patriots who killed the tyrant." After the +Restoration the club met secretly. The first mention of it is in a tract +reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_ entitled "The Secret History of +the Calves' Head Club." The club survived till 1734, when the diners +were mobbed owing to the popular ill-feeling which their outrages on +good taste provoked, and the riot which ensued put a final stop to the +meetings. + + + + +CALVI, a sea-port in Corsica, capital of an arrondissement in the N.W. +of the island, 112 m. N. of Ajaccio by road. Pop. (1906) 1967. It is +situated on the Bay of Calvi, in a malarial region, and is the port in +Corsica nearest to France, being 109 m. from Antibes; the harbour, +however, is exposed to the east and north-east winds. The modern town +lies at the foot of a rock, on which stands the old town with its steep +rock-paved streets and fortified walls, commanded by the Fort Muzello. +Fishing is carried on, and timber, oil, wine, lemons and other +sub-tropical fruits are exported to some extent. The most important +buildings are the old palace of the Genoese governor, used as barracks, +and the church (16th century), with the monument of the Baglioni +family, which was intimately associated with the history of the town. + +Calvi was founded in the 13th century and in 1278 passed into the hands +of the Genoese. From that date it was remarkable for its adherence to +their side, especially in 1553 when it repulsed two attacks of the +united forces of the French and Turks. In recognition thereof the +Genoese senate caused the words _Civitas Calvi semper fidelis_ to be +carved on the chief gate of the city, which still preserves the +inscription. In 1794 Calvi was captured by the English, but it was +retaken by the Corsicans in the following year. + + + + +CALVIN, JOHN (1500-1564), Swiss divine and reformer, was born at Noyon, +in Picardy, on the 10th of July 1509. His father, Gérard Cauvin or +Calvin,[1] was a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal for the lordship +of Noyon, besides holding certain ecclesiastical offices in connexion +with that diocese. The name of his mother was Jeanne le Franc; she was +the daughter of an innkeeper at Cambrai, who afterwards came to reside +at Noyon. Gérard Cauvin was esteemed as a man of considerable sagacity +and prudence, and his wife was a godly and attractive lady. She bore him +five sons, of whom John was the second. By a second wife there were two +daughters. + +Of Calvin's early years only a few notices remain. His father destined +him from the first for an ecclesiastical career, and paid for his +education in the household of the noble family of Hangest de Montmor. In +May 1521 he was appointed to a chaplaincy attached to the altar of La +Gésine in the cathedral of Noyon, and received the tonsure. The actual +duties of the office were in such cases carried out by ordained and +older men for a fraction of the stipend. The plague having visited +Noyon, the young Hangests were sent to Paris in August 1523, and Calvin +accompanied them, being enabled to do so by the income received from his +benefice. He lived with his uncle and attended as an out-student the +Collège de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin +Cordier, a man of character, learning and repute as a teacher, who in +later days followed his pupil to Switzerland, taught at Neuchâtel, and +died in Geneva in 1564. In dedicating to him his _Commentary on the +First Epistle to the Thessalonians,_ as "eximiae pietatis et doctrinae +viro," he declares that so had he been aided by his instruction that +whatever subsequent progress he had made he only regarded as received +from him, and "this," he adds, "I wish to testify to posterity that if +any utility accrue to any from my writings they may acknowledge it as +having in part flowed from thee." From the Collège de la Marche he +removed to the Collège de Montaigu,[2] where the atmosphere was more +ecclesiastical and where he had for instructor a Spaniard who is +described as a man of learning and to whom Calvin was indebted for some +sound training in dialectics and the scholastic philosophy. He speedily +outstripped all his competitors in grammatical studies, and by his skill +and acumen as a student of philosophy, and in the college disputations +gave fruitful promise of that consummate excellence as a reasoner in the +department of speculative truth which he afterwards displayed. Among his +friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and Michel Cop, +sons of the king's Swiss physician, and his own kinsman Pierre Robert, +better known as Olivétan. Such friendships testify both to the worth and +the attractiveness of his character, and contradict the old legend that +he was an unsociable misanthrope. Pleased with his success, the canons +at Noyon gave him the curacy of St Martin de Marteville in September +1527. After holding this preferment for nearly two years, he exchanged +it in July 1529 for the cure of Pont L'Évêque, a village near to Noyon, +and the place to which his father originally belonged. He appears to +have been not a little elated by his early promotion, and although not +ordained, he preached several sermons to the people. But though the +career of ecclesiastical preferment was thus early opened to him, Calvin +was destined not to become a priest. A change came over the mind both of +his father and himself respecting his future career. Gérard Cauvin began +to suspect that he had not chosen the most lucrative profession for his +son, and that the law offered to a youth of his talents and industry a +more promising sphere.[3] He was also now out of favour with the +cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said also that John himself, on the +advice of his relative, Pierre Robert Olivétan, the first translator of +the Bible into French, had begun to study the Scriptures and to dissent +from the Roman worship. At any rate he readily complied with his +father's suggestion, and removed from Paris to Orleans (March 1528) in +order to study law under Pierre Taisan de l'Etoile, the most +distinguished jurisconsult of his day. The university atmosphere here +was less ascetic than at Paris, but Calvin's ardour knew no slackening, +and such was his progress in legal knowledge that he was frequently +called upon to lecture, in the absence of one or other of the regular +staff. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him while +in this city, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age he eagerly +developed his classical knowledge. "By protracted vigils," says Beza, +"he secured indeed a solid erudition and an excellent memory; but it is +probable he at the same time sowed the seeds of that disease (dyspepsia) +which occasioned him various illnesses in after life, and at last +brought upon him premature death."[4] His friends here were Melchior +Wolmar, a German schoolmaster and a man of exemplary scholarship and +character, François Daniel, Francois de Connam and Nicolas Duchemin; to +these his earliest letters were written. + +From Orleans Calvin went to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to continue +his studies under the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati (1492-1550), +whom Francis I. had invited into France and settled as a professor of +law in that university. His friend Daniel went with him, and Wolmar +followed a year later. By Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced +to the study of the New Testament in the original, a service which he +gratefully acknowledges in one of his printed works.[5] The conversation +of Wolmar may also have been of use to him in his consideration of the +doctrines of the Reformation, which were now beginning to be widely +diffused through France. Twelve years had elapsed since Luther had +published his theses against indulgences--twelve years of intense +excitement and anxious discussion, not in Germany only, but in almost +all the adjacent countries. In France there had not been as yet any +overt revolt against the Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy +with any attempt to improve the church by education, by purer morals, by +better preaching and by a return to the primitive and uncorrupted faith. +Though we cannot with Beza regard Calvin at this time as a centre of +Protestant activity, he may well have preached at Lignières as a +reformatory Catholic of the school of Erasmus. Calvin's own record of +his "conversion" is so scanty and devoid of chronological data that it +is extremely difficult to trace his religious development with any +certainty. But it seems probable that at least up to 1532 he was far +more concerned about classical scholarship than about religion. + +His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his father in May +1531. Immediately after this event he went to Paris, where the "new +learning" was now at length ousting the medieval scholasticism from the +university. He lodged in the Collège Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre +Danès and beginning Hebrew with François Vatable. It was at this time +(April 1532) that Calvin issued his first publication, a commentary in +Latin on Seneca's tract _De Clementia_. This book he published at his +own cost, and dedicated to Claude Hangest, abbot of St Éloi, a member of +the de Montmor family, with whom Calvin had been brought up. It was +formerly thought that Calvin published this work with a view to +influence the king to put a stop to the attacks on the Protestants, but +there is nothing in the treatise itself or in the commentary to favour +this opinion. + +Soon after the publication of his first book Calvin returned to Orleans, +where he stayed for a year, perhaps again reading law, and still +undecided as to his life's work. He visited Noyon in August 1533, and by +October of the same year was settled again in Paris. Here and now his +destiny became certain. The conservative theology was becoming +discredited, and humanists like Jacques Lefèvre of Étaples (Faber +Stapulensis) and Gérard Roussel were favoured by the court under the +influence of Margaret of Angoulême, queen of Navarre and sister of +Francis I. Calvin's old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected +rector of the university and had to deliver an oration according to +custom in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The +oration (certainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin) was in +effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of the doctrine of +justification by faith alone. It is to the period between April 1532 and +November 1533, and in particular to the time of his second sojourn at +Orleans, that we may most fittingly assign the great change in Calvin +which he describes (_Praef. ad Psalmos_; opera xxxi. 21-24) as his +"sudden conversion" and attributes to direct divine agency. It must have +been at least after his _Commentary on Seneca's De Clementia_ that his +heart was "so subdued and reduced to docility that in comparison with +his zeal for true piety he regarded all other studies with indifference, +though not entirely forsaking them. Though himself a beginner, many +flocked to him to learn the pure doctrine, and he began to seek some +hiding-place and means of withdrawal from people." This indeed was +forced upon him, for Cop's address was more than the conservative party +could bear, and Cop, being summoned to appear before the parlement of +Paris, found it necessary, as he failed to secure the support either of +the king, or of the university, to make his escape to Basel. An attempt +was at the same time made to seize Calvin, but, being forewarned of the +design by his friends, he also made his escape. His room in the Collège +Fortet, however, was searched, and his books and papers seized, to the +imminent peril of some of his friends, whose letters were found in his +repositories. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him being +dropped, soon returned to Paris. But desiring both security and solitude +for study he left the city again about New Year of 1534 and became the +guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of the cathedral, at Angoulême, where +at the request of his host he prepared some short discourses, which were +circulated in the surrounding parishes, and read in public to the +people. Here, too in du Tillet's splendid library, he began the studies +which resulted in his great work, the _Institutes_, and paid a visit to +Nérac, where the venerable Lefèvre, whose revised translation of the +Bible into French was published about this time, was spending his last +years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre. + +Calvin was now nearly twenty-five years of age, and in the ordinary way +would have been ordained to the priesthood. Up till this time his work +for the evangelical cause was not so much that of the public preacher or +reformer as that of the retiring but influential scholar and adviser. +Now, however, he had to decide whether, like Roussel and other of his +friends, he should strive to combine the new doctrines with a position +in the old church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome. +His mind was made up, and on the 4th of May he resigned his chaplaincy +at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont l'Évêque. Towards the end of the +same month he was arrested and suffered two short terms of imprisonment, +the charges against him being not strong enough to be pressed. He seems +to have gone next to Paris, staying perhaps with Étienne de la Forge, a +Protestant merchant who suffered for his faith in February 1535. To this +time belongs the story of the proposed meeting between Calvin and the +Spanish reformer Servetus. Calvin's movements at this time are difficult +to trace, but he visited both Orleans and Poitiers, and each visit +marked a stage in his development. + +The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and were +disseminating many wild and fanatical opinions among those who had +seceded from the Church of Rome. Among other notions which they had +imbibed was that of a sleep of the soul after death. To Calvin this +notion appeared so pernicious that he composed a treatise in refutation +of it, under the title of _Psychopannychia_. The preface to this +treatise is dated Orleans 1534, but it was not printed till 1542. In it +he chiefly dwells upon the evidence from Scripture in favour of the +belief that the soul retains its intelligent consciousness after its +separation from the body--passing by questions of philosophical +speculation, as tending on such a subject only to minister to an idle +curiosity. At Poitiers Calvin gathered round him a company of cultured +and gentle men whom in private intercourse he influenced considerably. +Here too in a grotto near the town he for the first time celebrated the +communion in the Evangelical Church of France, using a piece of the rock +as a table. + +The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time forward his +influence became supreme, and all who had accepted the reformed +doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and instruction, attracted +not only by his power as a teacher, but still more, perhaps because they +saw in him so full a development of the Christian life according to the +evangelical model. Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him "the most +Christian man of his time," and attributes to this his success as a +reformer. Certain it is that already he had become conspicuous as a +prophet of the new religion; his life was in danger, and he was obliged +to seek safety in flight. In company with his friend Louis du Tillet, +whom he had again gone to Angoulême to visit, he set out for Basel. On +their way they were robbed by one of their servants, and it was only by +borrowing ten crowns from their other servant that they were enabled to +get to Strassburg, and thence to Basel. Here Calvin was welcomed by the +band of scholars and theologians who had conspired to make that city the +Athens of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief +pastor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the aupices and +guidance of Sebastian Münster, Calvin now gave himself to the study of +Hebrew. + +Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protestants but +anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to break with the +Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his ambassador to assure these +princes that it was only against Anabaptists, and other parties who +called in question all civil magistracy, that his severities were +exercised. Calvin, indignant at the calumny which was thus cast upon the +reformed party in France, hastily prepared for the press his _Institutes +of the Christian Religion_, which he published "first that I might +vindicate from unjust affront my brethren whose death was precious in +the sight of the Lord, and, next, that some sorrow and anxiety should +move foreign peoples, since the same sufferings threatened many." The +work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it in Latin +that it might find access to the learned in all lands.[6] Soon after it +appeared he set about translating it into French, as he himself attests +in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at rest a question, at one +time much agitated, whether the book appeared first in French or in +Latin. The earliest French edition known is that of 1540, and this was +after the work had been much enlarged, and several Latin editions had +appeared. In its first form the work consisted of only six chapters, and +was intended merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrine. The +chapters follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching: (1) The Law, +(as in the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles' Creed) (3) Prayer, +(4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False Sacraments, (6) +Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil administration. The +closing chapters of the work are more polemical than the earlier ones. +His indebtedness to Luther is of course great, but his spiritual kinship +with Martin Bucer of Strassburg is even more marked. Something also he +owed to Scotus and other medieval schoolmen. The book appeared +anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in view +beyond furnishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted +Protestants, whom he saw cruelly cut to pieces by impious and perfidious +court parasites.[7] In this work, though produced when the author was +only twenty-six years of age, we find a complete outline of the +Calvinist theological system. In none of the later editions, nor in any +of his later works do we find reason to believe that he ever changed his +views on any essential point from what they were at the period of its +first publication. Such an instance of maturity of mind and of opinion +at so early an age would be remarkable under any circumstances; but in +Calvin's case it is rendered peculiarly so by the shortness of the time +which had elapsed since he gave himself to theological studies. It may +be doubted also if the history of literature presents us with another +instance of a book written at so early an age, which has exercised such +a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both of +contemporaries and of posterity. + +After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renée, duchess of +Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), which at that time afforded an +asylum to several learned and pious fugitives from persecution, Calvin +returned through Basel to France to arrange his affairs before finally +taking farewell of his native country. His intention was to settle at +Strassburg or Basel, and to devote himself to study. But being unable, +in consequence of the war between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach +Strassburg by the ordinary route, he with his younger brother Antoine +and his half-sister Marie journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making +for Basel. In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution to +pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by what he +calls the "formidable obtestation" of Guillaume Farel.[8] After many +struggles and no small suffering, this energetic spirit had succeeded in +planting the evangelical standard at Geneva; and anxious to secure the +aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated him on his arrival to +relinquish his design of going farther, and to devote himself to the +work in that city. Calvin at first declined, alleging as an excuse his +need of securing more time for personal improvement, but ultimately, +believing that he was divinely called to this task and that "God had +stretched forth His hand upon me from on high to arrest me," he +consented to remain at Geneva. He hurried to Basel, transacted some +business, and returned to Geneva in August 1536. He at once began to +expound the epistles of St Paul in the church of St Pierre, and after +about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with the +consent of the people, an office which he would not accept until it had +been repeatedly pressed upon him. His services seem to have been +rendered for some time gratuitously, for in February 1537 there is an +entry in the city registers to the effect that six crowns had been voted +to him, "since he has as yet hardly received anything." + +Calvin was in his twenty-eighth year when he was thus constrained to +settle at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his life, with the +exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post to which he was thus +called was not an easy one. Though the people of Geneva had cast off the +obedience of Rome, it was largely a political revolt against the duke of +Savoy, and they were still (says Beza) "but very imperfectly enlightened +in divine knowledge; they had as yet hardly emerged from the filth of +the papacy."[9] This laid them open to the incursions of those fanatical +teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the Reformation had called +forth, and who hung mischievously upon the rear of the reforming body. +To obviate the evils thence resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew +up a condensed statement of Christian doctrine consisting of twenty-one +articles. This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to +profess and swear to as the confession of their faith--a process which, +though not in accordance with modern notions of the best way of +establishing men in the faith, was gone through, Calvin tells us, "with +much satisfaction." As the people took this oath in the capacity of +_citizens_, we may see here the basis laid for that theocratic system +which subsequently became peculiarly characteristic of the Genevan +polity. Deeply convinced of the importance of education for the young, +Calvin and his coadjutors were solicitous to establish schools +throughout the city, and to enforce on parents the sending of their +children to them; and as he had no faith in education apart from +religious training, he drew up a catechism of Christian doctrine which +the children had to learn whilst they were receiving secular +instruction. Of the troubles which arose from fanatical teachers, the +chief proceeded from the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public +disputation was held on the 16th and 17th of March 1537, and so excited +the populace that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the +Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About the same time +also, the peace of Calvin and his friends was much disturbed and their +work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, another native of northern France, +who, though a man of loose principle and belief, had been appointed +chief pastor at Lausanne and was discrediting the good work done by +Pierre Viret in that city. Calvin went to Viret's aid and brought Caroli +before the commissioners of Bern on a charge of advocating prayers for +the dead as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a +counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and Arianism, +because they would not enforce the Athanasian creed, and had not used +the words "Trinity" and "Person" in the confession they had drawn up. It +was a struggle between the thoroughgoing humanistic reformer who drew +his creed solely from the "word of God" and the merely semi-Protestant +reformer who looked on the old creed as a priceless heritage. In a synod +held at Bern the matter was fully discussed, when a verdict was given in +favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli deposed from his office and +banished. He returned to France, rejoined the Roman communion and spent +the rest of his life in passing to and from the old faith and the new. +Thus ended an affair which seems to have occasioned Calvin much more +uneasiness than the character of his assailant, and the manifest +falsehood of the charge brought against him, would seem to justify. Two +brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled _De fugiendis impiorum sacris,_ +the other _De sacerdotio papali abjiciendo,_ were also published early +in this year. + +Hardly was the affair of Caroli settled, when new and severer trials +came upon the Genevan Reformers. The austere simplicity of the ritual +which Farel had introduced, and to which Calvin had conformed; the +strictness with which the ministers sought to enforce not only the laws +of morality, but certain sumptuary regulations respecting the dress and +mode of living of the citizens; and their determination in spiritual +matters and ecclesiastical ceremonies not to submit to the least +dictation from the civil power, led to violent dissensions. Amidst much +party strife Calvin perhaps showed more youthful impetuosity than +experienced skill. He and his colleagues refused to administer the +sacrament in the Bernese form, i.e. with unleavened bread, and on Easter +Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all because of the popular tumult. +For this they were banished from the city. They went first to Bern, and +soon after to Zürich, where a synod of the Swiss pastors had been +convened. Before this assembly they pleaded their cause, and stated what +were the points on which they were prepared to insist as needful for the +proper discipline of the church. They declared that they would yield in +the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ unleavened bread in the +eucharist, to use fonts in baptism, and to allow festival days, provided +the people might pursue their ordinary avocations after public service. +These Calvin regarded as matters of indifference, provided the +magistrates did not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them; +and he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped thereby to +meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose ritual was less simple +than that established by Farel at Geneva. But he and his colleagues +insisted, on the other hand that for the proper maintenance of +discipline, there should be a division of parishes--that +excommunications should be permitted, and should be under the power of +elders chosen by the council, in conjunction with the clergy--that +order should be observed in the admission of preachers--and that only +the clergy should officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It +was proposed also, as conducive to the welfare of the church, that the +sacrament of the Lord's Supper should be administered more frequently, +at least once every month, and that congregational singing of psalms +should be practised in the churches. On these terms the synod interceded +with the Genevese to restore their pastors; but through the opposition +of some of the Bernese (especially Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) +this was frustrated, and a second edict of banishment was the only +response. + +Calvin and Farel betook themselves, under these circumstances, to Basel, +where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neuchâtel and Calvin to +Strassburg. At the latter place Calvin resided till the autumn of 1541, +occupying himself partly in literary exertions, partly as a preacher and +especially an organizer in the French church, and partly as a lecturer +on theology. These years were not the least valuable in his experience. +In 1539 he attended Charles V.'s conference on Christian reunion at +Frankfort as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year he +appeared at Hagenau and Worms, as the delegate from the city of +Strassburg. He was present also at the diet at Regensburg, where he +deepened his acquaintance with Melanchthon, and formed with him a +friendship which lasted through life. He also did something to relieve +the persecuted Protestants of France. It is to this period of his life +that we owe a revised and enlarged form of his _Institutes_, his +_Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_, and his _Tract on the Lord's +Supper_. Notwithstanding his manifold engagements, he found time to +attend to the tenderer affections; for it was during his residence at +Strassburg that he married, in August 1540, Idelette de Bure, the widow +of one Jean Stordeur of Liége, whom he had converted from Anabaptism. In +her Calvin found, to use his own words, "the excellent companion of his +life," a "precious help" to him amid his manifold labours and frequent +infirmities. She died in 1549, to the great grief of her husband, who +never ceased to mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the +28th of July 1542, lived only a few days. + +During Calvin's absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed in Geneva. +An attempt was made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547), bishop of +Carpentras, to take advantage of this so as to restore the papal +supremacy in that district; but this design Calvin, at the request of +the Bernese authorities, who had been consulted by those of Geneva, +completely frustrated, by writing such a reply to the letter which the +bishop had addressed to the Genevese, as constrained him to desist from +all further efforts. The letter had more than a local or temporary +reference. It was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole +Protestant position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that +was ever written. He seems also to have kept up his connexion with +Geneva by addressing letters of counsel and comfort to the faithful +there who continued to regard him with affection. It was whilst he was +still at Strassburg that there appeared at Geneva a translation of the +Bible into French, bearing Calvin's name, but in reality only revised +and corrected by him from the version of Olivétan. Meanwhile the way was +opening for his return. Those who had driven him from the city gradually +lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. After +much hesitation, for Strassburg had strong claims, he yielded and +returned to Geneva, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm +(September 13, 1541). He entered upon his work with a firm determination +to carry out those reforms which he had originally purposed, and to set +up in all its integrity that form of church polity which he had +carefully matured during his residence at Strassburg. He now became the +sole directive spirit in the church at Geneva. Farel was retained by the +Neuchâtelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin's return, removed to +Lausanne. His duties were thus rendered exceedingly onerous, and his +labour became excessive. Besides preaching every day in each alternate +week, he taught theology three days in the week, attended weekly +meetings of his consistory, read the Scriptures once a week in the +congregation, carried on an extensive correspondence on a multiplicity +of subjects, prepared commentaries on the books of Scripture, and was +engaged repeatedly in controversy with the opponents of his opinions. "I +have not time," he writes to a friend, "to look out of my house at the +blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall forget what sort of +appearance it has. When I have settled my usual business, I have so many +letters to write, so many questions to answer, that many a night is +spent without any offering of sleep being brought to nature." + +It is only necessary here to sketch the leading events of Calvin's life +after his return to Geneva. He recodified the Genevan laws and +constitution, and was the leading spirit in the negotiations with Bern +that issued in the treaty of February 1544. Of the controversies in +which he embarked, one of the most important was that in which he +defended his doctrine concerning predestination and election. His first +antagonist on this head was Albert Pighius, a Romanist, who, resuming +the controversy between Erasmus and Luther on the freedom of the will, +violently attacked Calvin for the views he had expressed on that +subject. Calvin replied to him in a work published in 1543, in which he +defends his own opinions at length, both by general reasonings and by an +appeal to both Scripture and the Fathers, especially Augustine. So +potent were his reasonings that Pighius, though owing nothing to the +gentleness or courtesy of Calvin, was led to embrace his views. A still +more vexatious and protracted controversy on the same subject arose in +1551. Jerome Hermes Bolsec, a Carmelite friar, having renounced +Romanism, had fled from France to Veigy, a village near Geneva, where he +practised as a physician. Being a zealous opponent of predestinarian +views, he expressed his criticisms of Calvin's teaching on the subject +in one of the public conferences held each Friday. Calvin replied with +much vehemence, and brought the matter before the civil authorities. The +council were at a loss which course to take; not that they doubted which +of the disputants was right, for they all held by the views of Calvin, +but they were unable to determine to what extent and in which way Bolsec +should be punished for his heresy. The question was submitted to the +churches at Basel, Bern, Zürich and Neuchâtel, but they also, to +Calvin's disappointment, were divided in their judgment, some +counselling severity, others gentle measures. In the end Bolsec was +banished from Geneva; he ultimately rejoined the Roman communion and in +1577 avenged himself by a particularly slanderous biography of Calvin. +Another painful controversy was that with Sébastien Castellio +(1515-1563), a teacher in the Genevan school and a scholar of real +distinction. He wished to enter the preaching ministry but was excluded +by Calvin's influence because he had criticized the inspiration of the +Song of Solomon and the Genevan interpretation of the clause "he +descended into hell." The bitterness thus aroused developed into +life-long enmity. During all this time also the less strict party in the +city and in the council did not cease to harry the reformer. + +But the most memorable of all the controversies in which Calvin was +engaged was that into which he was brought in 1553 with Michael Servetus +(q.v.). After many wanderings, and after having been condemned to death +for heresy at Vienne, whence he was fortunate enough to make his escape, +Servetus arrived in August 1553 at Geneva on his way to Naples. He was +recognized in church and soon after, at Calvin's instigation, arrested. +The charge of blasphemy was founded on certain statements in a book +published by him in 1553, entitled _Christianismi Restitutio_, in which +he animadverted on the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, and advanced +sentiments strongly savouring of Pantheism. The story of his trial is +told elsewhere (see art. SERVETUS), but it must be noted here that the +struggle was something more than a doctrinal one. The cause of Servetus +was taken up by Calvin's Genevan foes headed by Philibert Berthelier, +and became a test of the relative strength of the rival forces and of +the permanence of Calvin's control. That Calvin was actuated by personal +spite and animosity against Servetus himself may be open to discussion; +we have his own express declaration that, after Servetus was convicted, +he used no urgency that he should be put to death, and at their last +interview he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries, +and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault if all +the pious did not give him their hands.[10] There is the fact also that +Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which had been pronounced +against Servetus mitigated, death by burning being regarded by him as an +"atrocity," for which he sought to substitute death by the sword.[11] It +can be justly charged against Calvin in this matter that he took the +initiative in bringing on the trial of Servetus, that as his accuser he +prosecuted the suit against him with undue severity, and that he +approved the sentence which condemned Servetus to death. When, however, +it is remembered that the unanimous decision of the Swiss churches and +of the Swiss state governments was that Servetus deserved to die; that +the general voice of Christendom was in favour of this; that even such a +man as Melanchthon affirmed the justice of the sentence;[12] that an +eminent English divine of the next age should declare the process +against him "just and honourable,"[13] and that only a few voices here +and there were at the time raised against it, many will be ready to +accept the judgment of Coleridge, that the death of Servetus was not +"Calvin's guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of all European +Christendom."[14] + +Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing dispute +with the Lutherans respecting the Lord's Supper, which ended in the +separation of the evangelical party into the two great sections of +Lutherans and Reformed,--the former holding that in the eucharist the +body and blood of Christ are objectively and consubstantially present, +and so are actually partaken of by the communicants, and the latter that +there is only a virtual presence of the body and blood of Christ, and +consequently only a spiritual participation thereof through faith. In +addition to these controversies on points of faith, he was for many +years greatly disquieted, and sometimes even endangered, by the +opposition offered by the libertine party in Geneva to the +ecclesiastical discipline which he had established there. His system of +church polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member +of the state was also under the discipline of the church; and he +asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested +exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders. His +attempts to carry out these views brought him into collision both with +the authorities and with the populace,--the latter being not unnaturally +restive under the restraints imposed upon their liberty by the vigorous +system of church discipline, and the former being inclined to retain in +their own hands a portion of that power in things spiritual which Calvin +was bent on placing exclusively in the hands of the church rulers. His +dauntless courage, his perseverance, and his earnestness at length +prevailed, and he had the satisfaction, before he died, of seeing his +favourite system of church polity firmly established, not only at +Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, and of knowing that it had +been adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland. The +men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into almost every +country in Europe, and in varying degree these principles did much for +the cause of civil liberty.[15] Nor was it only in religious matters +that Calvin busied himself; nothing was indifferent to him that +concerned the welfare and good order of the state or the advantage of +its citizens. His work embraced everything; he was consulted on every +affair, great and small, that came before the council,--on questions of +law, police, economy, trade, and manufactures, no less than on questions +of doctrine and church polity. To him the city owed her trade in cloths +and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her citizens; +sanitary regulations were introduced by him which made Geneva the +admiration of all visitors; and in him she reverences the founder of her +university. This institution was in a sense Calvin's crowning work. It +added religious education to the evangelical preaching and the thorough +discipline already established, and so completed the reformer's ideal of +a Christian commonwealth. + +Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin found time to +write a number of works besides those provoked by the various +controversies in which he was engaged. The most numerous of these were +of an exegetical character. Including discourses taken down from his +lips by faithful auditors, we have from him expository comments or +homilies on nearly all the books of Scripture, written partly in Latin +and partly in French. Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern +idea of a progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration, and +tact in eliciting his author's meaning, his precision, condensation, and +concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the closeness +of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all unite to confer a +high value on his exegetical works. The series began with _Romans_ in +1540 and ended with _Joshua_ in 1564. In 1558-1559 also, though in very +ill health, he finally perfected the Institutes. + +The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave himself could +not but tell on his fragile constitution. Amid many sufferings, however, +and frequent attacks of sickness, he manfully pursued his course; nor +was it till his frail body, torn by many and painful diseases--fever, +asthma, stone, and gout, the fruits for the most part of his sedentary +habits and unceasing activity--had, as it were, fallen to pieces around +him, that his indomitable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early +part of the year 1564 his sufferings became so severe that it was +manifest his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On the 6th +of February of that year he preached his last sermon, having with great +difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He was several +times after this carried to church, but never again was able to take any +part in the service. With his usual disinterestedness he refused to +receive his stipend, now that he was no longer able to discharge the +duties of his office. In the midst of his sufferings, however, his zeal +and energy kept him in continual occupation; when expostulated with for +such unseasonable toil, he replied, "Would you that the Lord should find +me idle when He comes?" After he had retired from public labours he +lingered for some months, enduring the severest agony without a murmur, +and cheerfully attending to all the duties of a private kind which his +diseases left him strength to discharge. On the 25th of April he made +his will, on the 27th he received the Little Council, and on the 28th +the Genevan ministers, in his sick-room; on the 2nd of May he wrote his +last letter--to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neuchâtel to +see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died quietly, in +the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the evening of the +27th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The next day he was +buried without pomp "in the common cemetery called Plain-palais" in a +spot not now to be identified. + +Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat pallid and +dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, bespoke the acumen of +his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple in his dress; he took +but little sleep, and was capable of extraordinary efforts of +intellectual toil. He had a most retentive memory and a very keen power +of observation. He spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with +great weight. He had many acquaintances but few close friends. His +private character was in harmony with his public reputation and +position. If somewhat severe and irritable, he was at the same time +scrupulously just, truthful, and steadfast; he never deserted a friend +or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on befitting occasions +he could be cheerful and even facetious among his intimates. "God gave +him," said the Little Council after his death, "a character of great +majesty." "I have been a witness of him for sixteen years," says Beza, +"and I think I am fully entitled to say that in this man there was +exhibited to all an example of the life and death of the Christian, +such as it will not be easy to depreciate, such as it will be difficult +to emulate." + + Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by earlier + reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar gifts of + learning, of logic and of style made him pre-eminently the theologian + of the new religion. The following may be regarded as his + characteristic tenets, though not all are peculiar to him. + + The dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty of + God, to know whom is the supreme end of human endeavour. God is made + known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose writers were "sure + and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit." To the Spirit speaking + therein the Spirit-illumined soul of man makes response. While God is + the source of all good, man as a sinner is guilty and corrupt. The + first man was made in the image and likeness of God, which not only + implies man's superiority to all other creatures, but indicates his + original purity, integrity and sanctity. From this state Adam fell, + and in his fall involved the whole human race descended from him. + Hence depravity and corruption, diffused through all parts of the + soul, attach to all men, and this first makes them obnoxious to the + anger of God, and then comes forth in works which the Scripture calls + works of the flesh (Gal. v. 19). Thus all are held vitiated and + perverted in all parts of their nature, and on account of such + corruption deservedly condemned before God, by whom nothing is + accepted save righteousness innocence, and purity. Nor is that a being + bound for another's offence; for when it is said that we through + Adam's sin have become obnoxious to the divine judgment, it is not to + be taken as if we, being ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the + fault of his offence, but that, we having been brought under a curse + through his transgression, he is said to have bound us. From him, + however, not only has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence + instilled from him resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. + Thus even infants, whilst they bring their own condemnation with them + from their mother's womb, are bound not by another's but by their own + fault. For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their + iniquity, they have the seed shut up in them; nay, their whole nature + is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful and + abominable to God (_Instit._ bk. ii, ch. i. sect. 8). + + To redeem man from this state of guilt, and to recover him from + corruption, the Son of God became incarnate, assuming man's nature + into union with His own, so that in Him were two natures in one + person. Thus incarnate He took on Him the offices of prophet, priest + and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto death, + followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He has perfected + His work and fulfilled all that was required in a redeemer of men, so + that it is truly affirmed that He has merited for man the grace of + salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17). But until a man is in some way really + united to Christ so as to partake of Him, the benefits of Christ's + work cannot be attained by him. Now it is by the secret and special + operation of the Holy Spirit that men are united to Christ and made + members of His body. Through faith, which is a firm and certain + cognition of the divine benevolence towards us founded on the truth of + the gracious promise in Christ, men are by the operation of the Spirit + united to Christ and are made partakers of His death and resurrection, + so that the old man is crucified with Him and they are raised to a new + life, a life of righteousness and holiness. Thus joined to Christ the + believer has life in Him and knows that he is saved, having the + witness of the Spirit that he is a child of God, and having the + promises, the certitude of which the Spirit had before impressed on + the mind, sealed by the same Spirit on the heart (bk. iii. ch. 33-36). + From faith proceeds repentance, which is the turning of our life to + God, proceeding from a sincere and earnest fear of God, and consisting + in the mortification of the flesh and the old man within us and a + vivification of the Spirit. Through faith also the believer receives + justification, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is + held by Him as righteous, the righteousness of Christ being imputed to + him, and faith being the instrument by which the man lays hold on + Christ, so that with His righteousness the man appears in God's sight + as righteous. This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined + from real personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification + come to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the two + blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be + disjoined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation he + receives from the operation and witness of the Holy Spirit; but this + again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and this + falls back on God's eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has + predestined some to eternal life while the rest of mankind are + predestined to condemnation and eternal death. Those whom God has + chosen to life He effectually calls to salvation, and they are kept by + Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end (bk. iii. + _passim_). The external means or aids by which God unites men into the + fellowship of Christ, and sustains and advances those who believe, are + the church and its ordinances, especially the sacraments. The church + universal is the multitude gathered from diverse nations, which though + divided by distance of time and place, agree in one common faith, and + it is bound by the tie of the same religion; and wherever the word of + God is sincerely preached, and the sacraments are duly administered, + according to Christ's institute, there beyond doubt is a church of + the living God (bk. iv. ch. 1, sect. 7-11). The permanent officers in + the church are pastors and teachers, to the former of whom it belongs + to preside over the discipline of the church, to administer the + sacraments, and to admonish and exhort the members; while the latter + occupy themselves with the exposition of Scripture, so that pure and + wholesome doctrine may be retained. With them are to be joined for the + government of the church certain pious, grave and holy men as a senate + in each church; and to others, as deacons, is to be entrusted the care + of the poor. The election of the officers in a church is to be with + the people, and those duly chosen and called are to be ordained by the + laying on of the hands of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The + sacraments are two--Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is the sign + of initiation whereby men are admitted into the society of the church + and, being grafted into Christ, are reckoned among the sons of God; it + serves both for the confirmation of faith and as a confession before + men. The Lord's Supper is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that + He is the life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed unto true and + blessed immortality. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood + whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, even as if it penetrated + into our bones and marrow, He in the Supper attests and seals; and + that not by a vain or empty sign set before us but there He puts forth + the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what He promises. In the + mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited to us by the symbols + of bread and wine; and so His body and blood, in which He fulfilled + all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness for us, are + presented. There is no such presence of Christ in the Supper as that + He is affixed to the bread or included in it or in any way + circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and substantial + communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which is exhibited to + believers under the said symbols of the Supper, is to be received, and + that not as perceived by the imagination only or mental intelligence, + but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life (bk. iv. ch. 15, + 17). + + The course of time has substantially modified many of these positions. + Even the churches which trace their descent from Calvin's work and + faith no longer hold in their entirety his views on the magistrate as + the preserver of church purity, the utter depravity of human nature, + the non-human character of the Bible, the dealing of God with man. But + his system had an immense value in the history of Christian thought. + It appealed to and evoked a high order of intelligence, and its + insistence on personal individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So + also its insistence on the chief end of man "to know and do the will + of God" made for the strenuous morality that helped to build up the + modern world. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in + Puritan England and in the New England states, but its influence was + and is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be + called Calvinist. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard edition of Calvin's works is that + undertaken by the Strassburg scholars, J.W. Bauin, E. Cunitz, E. + Reuss, P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last of + these contains an elaborate bibliography which was also published + separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published + in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, + 1843-1855); the _Institutes_ have often been translated. The early + lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions. Among + modern biographies are those by P. Henry, _Das Leben J. Calvins_ (3 + vols., Hamburg, 1835-1844; Eng. trans, by H. Stebbing, London and New + York, 1849); V. Audin, _Histoire de la vie, des ouvrages, et des + doctrines de Calvin_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841; Eng. trans, by J. McGill, + London, 1843 and 1850) unfairly antagonistic; T.H. Dyer, _Life of John + Calvin_ (London, 1850); E. Stähelin,_ Joh. Calvin, Leben und + ausgewählte Schriften_ (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F.W. Kampschulte, + _Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf_ (2 vols., 1869, + 1899, unfinished); Abel Lefranc, _La Jeunesse de Calvin_ (Paris, + 1888); E. Choisy, _La Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, + 1897); E. Doumergue, _Jean Calvin; les hommes et les choses de son + temps_ (5 vols., 1899-1908). See also A.M. Fairbairn, "Calvin and the + Reformed Church" in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ii. (1904); + P. Schaff's, _History of the Christian Church_, vol. vii. (1892), and + R. Stähelin's article in Hauck-Herzog's _Real-encyk. für prot. + Theologie und Kirche._ Each of these contains a useful bibliography, + as also does the excellent life by Professor Williston Walker, _John + Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protestantism_, "Heroes of the + Reformation" series (1906). See also C.S. Horne in _Mansfield Coll. + Essays_ (1909). (W. L. A.; A. J. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The family name of Calvin seems to have been written + indifferently Cauvin, Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the + contemporary notices of Gerard and his family, in the capitular + registers of the cathedral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. + The anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this in its Latinized form + Alcuinus appears in two editions of his _Instltutio_ as that of the + author (Audin, _Vie de Calvin,_ i. 520). The syndics of Geneva + address him in a letter written in 1540, and still preserved, as + "Docteur Caulvin." In his letters written in French he usually signs + himself "Jean Calvin." He affected the title of "Maitre," for what + reason is not known. + + [2] Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus + and Ignatius Loyola also studied here. + + [3] Calv. _Praef. ad Comment. in Psalmos._ + + [4] _Jo. Calvini Vita, sub init._ + + [5] _Epist. Ded., Comment in Ep. II. ad Corinthios praefix._ + + [6] This edition forms a small 8vo of 514 pages, and 6 pages of + index. It appeared at Basel from the press of Thomas Platter and + Balthasar Lasius in March 1536, and was published by Johann Oporin. + The dedicatory preface is dated 23rd August 1535. It is a masterpiece + of apologetic literature. See W. Walker, _John Calvin,_ 132 f., and + for an outline of the contents of the treatise, ib. 137-149. + + [7] _Praef. ad Psalmos._ + + [8] _Ibid._ + + [9] Beza, _Vit. Calv. an. 1536._ + + [10] Fidelis Expositio Errorum Serveti, _sub init._ Calvini, _Opp_. + t. ix. + + [11] Calvin to Farel, 20th Aug. 1553. + + [12] Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam vestros magistratus + juste fecisse quod hominem blasphemum, re ordine judicata, + interfecerunt.--Melanchthon to Calvin, 14th Oct. 1554. + + [13] Field _On the Church_, bk. iii. c. 27, vol. i. p. 288 (ed. + Cambridge, 1847). + + [14] _Notes on English Divines_, vol. i. p. 49. See also _Table + Talk_, vol. ii. p. 282 (ed. 1835). + + [15] W. Walker, _John Calvin_, pp. 403-8. + + + + +CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, a body of Christians forming a church of the +Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only denomination in Wales +which is of purely Welsh origin. Its beginnings may be traced to the +labours of the Rev. Griffith Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, +Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a +system of circulating charity schools for the education of children. In +striking contrast to the general apathy of the clergy of the period, +Griffith Jones's zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his +powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence, many travelling +long distances in order to attend his ministry. There was thus a +considerable number of earnest people dispersed throughout the country +waiting for the rousing of the parish clergy. An impressive announcement +of the Easter Communion Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Davies, vicar of +Talgarth, on the 30th of March 1735, was the means of awakening Howell +Harris (1714-1773) of Trevecca, and he immediately began to hold +services in his own house. He was soon invited to do the same at the +houses of others, and ended by becoming a fiery itinerant preacher, +stirring to the depths every neighbourhood he visited. Griffith Jones, +preaching at Llanddewi Brefi, Cardiganshire--the place at which the +Welsh Patron Saint, David, first became famous--found Daniel Rowland +(1713-1790), curate of Llangeitho, in his audience, and his patronizing +attitude in listening drew from the preacher a personal supplication on +his behalf, in the middle of the discourse. Rowland was deeply moved, +and became an ardent apostle of the new movement. Naturally a fine +orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his eloquence, and his fame +spread abroad. Rowland and Harris had been at work fully eighteen months +before they met, at a service in Devynock church, in the upper part of +Breconshire. The acquaintance then formed lasted to the end of Harris's +life--an interval of ten years excepted. Harris had been sent to Oxford +in the autumn of 1735 to "cure him of his fanaticism," but he left in +the following February. Rowland had never been to a university, but, +like Harris, he had been well grounded in general knowledge. About 1739 +another prominent figure appeared. This was Howell Davies of +Pembrokeshire, whose ministry was modelled on that of his master, +Griffith Jones, but with rather more clatter in his thunder. + +In 1736, on returning home, Harris opened a school, Griffith Jones +supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up societies, in +accordance with the recommendations in Josiah Wedgwood's little book on +the subject; and these exercised a great influence on the religious life +of the people. By far the most notable of Harris's converts was William +Williams (1717-1791), Pant y Celyn, the great hymn-writer of Wales, who +while listening to the revivalist preaching on a tombstone in the +graveyard of Talgarth, heard the "voice of heaven," and was "apprehended +as by a warrant from on high." He was ordained deacon in the Church of +England, 1740, but Whitefield recommended him to leave his curacies and +go into the highways and hedges. On Wednesday and Thursday, January 5th +and 6th, 1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at +Wadford, near Caerphilly, Glam., in order to organize their societies. +George Whitefield was in the chair. Rowland, Williams and John +Powell--afterwards of Llanmartin--(clergymen), Harris, John Humphreys +and John Cennick (laymen) were present. Seven lay exhorters were also at +the meetings; they were questioned as to their spiritual experience and +allotted their several spheres; other matters pertaining to the new +conditions created by the revival were arranged. This is known as the +first Methodist Association--held eighteen months before Johm Wesley's +first conference (June 25th, 1744). Monthly meetings covering smaller +districts, were organized to consider local matters, the transactions of +which were to be reported to the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, +modified, or rejected. Exhorters were divided into two classes--public, +who were allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number of +societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or two +societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be part of the +established church, as Wedgwood's were, and every attempt at estranging +them therefrom was sharply reproved; but persecution made their position +anomalous. They did not accept the discipline of the Church of England, +so the plea of conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out +licenses, so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris's +ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals to ordain +him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from persecutors, were +the only things that prevented separation. + +A controversy on a doctrinal point--"Did God die on Calvary?"--raged for +some time, the principal disputants being Rowland and Harris; and in +1751 it ended in an open rupture, which threw the Connexion first into +confusion and then into a state of coma. The societies split up into +Harrisites and Rowlandites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 +that the breach was fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the +history of the Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just published a +little volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed the people. This +led the bishop of St David's to suspend Rowland's license, and Rowland +had to confine himself to a meeting-house at Llangeitho. Having been +turned out of other churches, he had leased a plot of land in 1759, +anticipating the final withdrawal of his license, in 1763, and a +spacious building was erected to which the people crowded from all parts +on Sacrament Sunday. Llangeitho became the Jerusalem of Wales; and +Rowland's popularity never waned until his physical powers gave way. A +notable event in the history of Welsh Methodism was the publication in +1770, of a 4to annotated Welsh Bible by the Rev. Peter Williams, a +forceful preacher, and an indefatigable worker, who had joined the +Methodists in 1746, after being driven from several curacies. It gave +birth to a new interest in the Scriptures, being the first definite +commentary in the language. A powerful revival broke out at Llangeitho +in the spring of 1780, and spread to the south, but not to the north of +Wales. The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult +for Methodism to benefit from these manifestations, until the advent of +the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, having spent five years in +Somersetshire as curate of several parishes, returned to his native land +to marry Sarah Jones of Bala. Failing to find employment in the +established church, he joined the Methodists in 1784. His circulating +charity schools and then his Sunday schools gradually made the North a +new country. In 1791 a revival began at Bala; and this, strange to say, +a few months after the Bala Association had been ruffled by the +proceedings which led to the expulsion of Peter Williams from the +Connexion, in order to prevent him from selling John Canne's Bible among +the Methodists, because of some Sabellian marginal notes. + +In 1790, the Bala Association passed "Rules regarding the proper mode of +conducting the Quarterly Association," drawn up by Charles; in 1801, +Charles and Thomas Jones of Mold, published (for the association) the +"Rules and Objects of the Private Societies among the People called +Methodists." About 1795, persecution led the Methodists to take the +first step towards separation from the Church of England. Heavy fines +made it impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to continue +without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act, and the +meeting-houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels. In a large +number of cases this had only been delayed by so constructing the houses +that they were used both as dwellings and as chapels at one and the same +time. Until 1811 the Calvinistic Methodists had no ministers ordained by +themselves; their enormous growth in numbers and the scarcity of +ministers to administer the Sacrament--only three in North Wales, two of +whom had joined only at the dawn of the century--made the question of +ordination a matter of urgency. The South Wales clergy who regularly +itinerated were dying out; the majority of those remaining itinerated +but irregularly, and were most of them against the change. The lay +element, with the help of Charles and a few other stalwarts, carried the +matter through--ordaining nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo +in August. In 1823, the _Confession of Faith_ was published; it is based +on the _Westminster Confession_ as "Calvinistically construed," and +contains 44 articles. The Connexion's _Constitutional Deed_ was formally +completed in 1826. + +Thomas Charles had tried to arrange for taking over Trevecca College +when the trustees of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion removed +their seminary to Cheshunt in 1791; but the Bala revival broke out just +at the time, and, when things grew quieter, other matters pressed for +attention. A college had been mooted in 1816, but the intended tutor +died suddenly, and the matter was for the time dropped. Candidates for +the Connexional ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until +1837, when Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) and David Charles (1812-1878) +opened a school for young men at Bala. North and South alike adopted it +as their college, the associations contributing a hundred guineas each +towards the education of their students. In 1842, the South Wales +Association opened a college at Trevecca, leaving Bala to the North; the +Rev. David Charles became principal of the former, and the Rev. Lewis +Edwards of the latter. After the death of Dr Lewis Edwards, Dr. T.C. +Edwards resigned the principalship of the University College at +Aberystwyth to become head of Bala (1891), now a purely theological +college, the students of which were sent to the university colleges for +their classical training. In 1905 Mr David Davies of Llandinam--one of +the leading laymen in the Connexion--offered a large building at +Aberystwyth as a gift to the denomination for the purpose of uniting +North and South in one theological college; but in the event of either +association declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take +possession, giving the association that should decline the option of +joining at a later time. The Association of the South accepted, and that +of the North declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into a +preparatory school on the lines of a similar institution set up at Bala +in 1891. + +The missionary collections of the denomination were given to the London +Missionary Society from 1798 to 1840, when a Connexional Society was +formed; and no better instances of missionary enterprise are known than +those of the Khasia and Jaintia Hills, and the Plains of Sylhet in N. +India. There has also been a mission in Brittany since 1842. + +The constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, "Hen Gorph," i.e. +the Old Body) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and Congregationalism; +each church manages its own affairs and reports (1) to the district +meeting, (2) to the monthly meeting, the nature of each report +determining its destination. The monthly meetings are made up of all the +officers of the churches comprised in each, and are split up into +districts for the purpose of a more local co-operation of the churches. +The monthly meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly Associations, of +which all officers are members. The Associations of North and South are +distinct institutions, deliberating and determining matters pertaining +to them in their separate quarterly gatherings. For the purpose of a +fuller co-operation in matters common to both, a general assembly +(meeting once a year) was established in 1864. This is a purely +deliberative conclave, worked by committees, and all its legislation has +to be confirmed by the two Associations before it can have any force or +be legal. The annual conference of the English churches of the +denomination has no legislative standing, and is meant for social and +spiritual intercourse and discussions. + +In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far from +being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical, and, in +general, distinctly cultured. The London degree largely figures on the +Connexional Diary; and now the Welsh degrees, in arts and divinity, are +being increasingly achieved. It is a remarkable fact that every Welsh +revival, since 1735, has broken out among the Calvinistic Methodists. +Those of 1735, 1762, 1780 and 1791 have been mentioned; those of 1817, +1832, 1859 and 1904-1905 were no less powerful, and their history is +interwoven with Calvinistic Methodism, the system of which is so +admirably adapted for the passing on of the torch. The ministerial +system is quite anomalous. It started in pure itineracy; the pastorate +came in very gradually, and is not yet in universal acceptance. The +authority of the pulpit of any individual church is in the hands of the +deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so many Sundays a year--from +twelve to forty, as the case may be--and they then fill the remainder +with any preacher they choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral work, +and receives his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his Sundays from +home he fills up at the request of deacons of other churches, and it is +a breach of Connexional etiquette for a minister to apply for +engagements, no matter how many unfilled Sundays he may have. Deacons +and preachers make engagements seven or eight years in advance. The +Connexion provides for English residents wherever required, and the +English ministers are oftener in their own pulpits than their Welsh +brethren. + +The Calvinistic Methodists form in some respects the strongest church in +Wales, and its forward movement, headed by Dr. John Pugh of Cardiff, has +brought thousands into its fold since its establishment in 1891. Its +Connexional Book Room, opened in 1891, yields an annual profit of from +£1600 to £2000, the profits being devoted to help the colleges and to +establish Sunday school libraries, etc. Its chapels in 1907 numbered +1641 (with accommodation for 488,080), manses 229; its churches[1] +numbered 1428, ministers 921, unordained preachers 318, deacons 6179; +its Sunday Schools 1731, teachers 27,895, scholars 193,460, communicants +189,164, total collections for religious purposes £300,912. The +statistics of the Indian Mission are equally good: communicants 8027, +adherents 26,787, missionaries 23, native ministers (ordained) 15, +preachers (not ordained) 60. + +The Calvinistic Methodists are intensely national in sentiment and +aspirations, beyond all suspicion loyalists. They take a great interest +in social, political and educational matters, and are prominent on +public bodies. They support the Eisteddfod as the promoter and inspirer +of arts, letters and music, and are conspicuous among the annual prize +winners. They thus form a living, democratic body, flexible and +progressive in its movements, yet with a sufficient proportion of +conservatism both in religion and theology to keep it sane and safe. + (D. E. J.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending + different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one + society or church. + + + + +CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German chronologer, was born of a peasant +family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the 21st of February 1556. By the +exercise of his musical talents he earned money enough for the start, at +Helmstadt, of an university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron +enabled him to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the +music-school at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same +capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the 24th of +November 1615, despite the offers successively made to him of +mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg. In his _Opus +Chronologicum_ (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he expounded a system based +on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. An ingenious, though ineffective, +proposal for the reform of the calendar was put forward in his _Elenchus +Calendarii Gregoriani_ (Frankfort, 1612); and he published a book on +music, _Melodiae condendae ratio_ (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading. + + For details see V. Schmuck's _Leichenrede_ (1615); J. Bertuch's + _Chronicon Portense_ (1739); F.W.E. Rost's _Oratio ad renovendam S. + Calvisii memoriam_ (1805); J G. Stallbaum's _Nachrichten über die + Cantoren an der Thomasschule_ (1842); _Allgemeine Deutsche + Biographie_; Poggendorff's _Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch._ + + + + +CALVO, CARLOS (1824-1906), Argentine publicist and historian, was born +at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February 1824, and devoted himself to the +study of the law. In 1860 he was sent by the Paraguayan government on a +special mission to London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published +in 1863 his _Derecho international teorico y practice de Europay +America_, in two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French +version. The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern +authorities on the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition had +become enlarged to six volumes. Señor Calvo's next publications were of +a semi-historical character. Between 1862 and 1869 he published in +Spanish and French his great collection in fifteen volumes of the +treaties and other diplomatic acts of the South American republics, and +between 1864 and 1875 his _Annales historiques de la revolution de +l'Amerique latine_, in five volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders +at the Ghent congress of the _Institut de Droit International._ In the +following year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his +_Dictionnaire du droit international public et privé_ in that city. +Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris. + + + + +CALW or KALW, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the +Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains +a Protestant and a Roman Catholic Church, two schools, missionary +institution, and a fine public library. The industries include spinning +and weaving operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather +are also manufactured. The timber trade, chiefly with the Netherlands, +is important. The place is in favour as a health resort. + +The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages the town was +under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, whose possessions +finally passed to Württemberg in 1345. In 1634 the town was taken by the +Bavarians, and in 1692 by the French. + + + + +CALYDON ([Greek: Kalydon]), an ancient town of Aetolia, according to +Pliny, 7½ Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was said to +have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have been the scene of +the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of the famous Calydonian +boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the fields; and to have taken part in +the Trojan war. In historical times it is first mentioned (391 B.C.) as +in the possession of the Achaeans, who retained it for twenty years, by +the assistance of the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the +attacks of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) it +was restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of Pompey it +was a town of importance; but Augustus removed its inhabitants to +Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate his victory at Actium (31 +B.C.). The walls of Calydon are almost certainly to be recognized in the +Kastro of Kurtagá. These comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large +gate and five smaller ones, and are situated on a hill on the right or +west bank of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town +probably indicate the position of the temple of Artemis Laphria, whose +gold and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together probably with +her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all kinds of beasts, wild +and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre and consumed. + + See W.M. Leake, _Travels in N. Greece_, i. p. 109, iii. pp. 533 sqq.; + W.J. Woodhouse, _Aetolia_, pp. 95 ssq. (E. Gr.) + + + + +CALYPSO, in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus, or Nereus), +queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When Odysseus was shipwrecked on +her shores, Calypso entertained the hero with great hospitality, and +prevailed on him to remain with her seven years. Odysseus was then +seized with a longing to return to his wife and home; Calypso's promise +of eternal youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by +Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of grief. +(Homer, _Odyssey_, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.) + + + + +CAM (CÃO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, the first +European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to explore the West +African coast between Cape St Catherine (2°S.) and Cape Cross (21° 50' +S.) almost from the equator to Walfish Bay. When King John II. of +Portugal revived the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam (about +midsummer (?) 1482) to open up the African coast still further beyond +the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps in +August 1482), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only in +fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was also ascended for +a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives. Cam then +coasted down along the present Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and +erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this +voyage, at Cape Santa Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in +13° 26' S. He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April +1484, when John II. ennobled him, made him a _cavalleiro_ of his +household (he was already an _escudeiro_ or esquire in the same), and +granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and 14th of April 1484). +That Cam, on his second voyage of 1483-1486, was accompanied by Martin +Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very +doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected +two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first +at another "Monte Negro" in 15° 41' S., the second at Cape Cross in 21° +50', this last probably marking the end of his progress southward. +According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 map of Henricus +Martellus Germanus), Cam died off Cape Cross; but João de Barros and +others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a native envoy to +Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cam on his two voyages have all +been discovered _in situ_, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape +Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are still +to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padrão is now at Kiel +(replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile); those from the Congo +estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in the Museum of the +Lisbon Geographical Society. + + See Barros, _Decadas da Asia_, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy de + Pina, _Chronica d' el Rei D. João II._; Garcia de Resende, _Chronica_; + Luciano Cordeiro, "Diogo Cão" in _Boletim_ of the _Lisbon Geog. + Soc._, 1892; E.G. Ravenstein, "Voyages of Diogo Cão," &c., in _Geog. + Jnl._ vol. xvi. (1900); also _Geog. Jnl._ xxxi. (1908). (C. R. B.) + + + + +CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO (1824-1896), Spanish statesman and financier, +was born in Cadiz in 1824. The first part of his life was devoted to +mercantile and financial pursuits at Cadiz and then in Madrid, where he +managed the affairs of and liquidated a mercantile and industrial +society to the satisfaction and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he +became a captain in the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in +the Cortes for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards +elected ten times deputy, twice senator and life senator in 1877. +Camacho took a prominent part in all financial debates and committees, +was offered a seat in the Mon cabinet of 1864, and was appointed +under-secretary of state finances in 1866 under Canovas and O'Donnell. +After the revolution of 1868 he declined the post of minister of finance +offered by Marshal Serrano, but served in that capacity in 1872 and 1874 +in Sagasta's cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in +the Cortes among the dynastic Liberals with Sagasta as leader, and +became finance minister in 1881 at a critical moment when Spain had to +convert, reduce, and consolidate her treasury and other debts with a +view to resuming payment of coupons. Camacho drew up an excellent budget +and collected taxation with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years +later Sagasta again made him finance minister under the regency of Queen +Christina, but had to sacrifice him when public opinion very clearly +pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and his severity in +collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons unsuccessful as a +governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company. He then seceded from the +Liberals, and during the last years of his life he affected to vote with +the Conservatives, who made him governor of the Bank of Spain. He died +in Madrid on the 23rd of January 1896. (A. E. H.) + + + + +CAMALDULIANS, or CAMALDOLESE, a religious order founded by St Romuald. +Born of a noble family at Ravenna _c._ 950, he retired at the age of +twenty to the Benedictine monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe; but +being strongly drawn to the eremitical life, he went to live with a +hermit in the neighbourhood of Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here +a colony of hermits grew up around him and he became the superior. As +soon as they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to +another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, only +to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other colonies of +hermits or "deserts" as they were called. In this way during the course +of his life Romuald formed a great number of "deserts" throughout +central Italy. His chief foundation was at Camaldoli on the heights of +the Tuscan Apennines not far from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during +half the year. Romuald's idea was to reintroduce into the West the +primitive eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first +Egyptian and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the +oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain days +for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to food, +clothing, silence and general observance. Besides the hermits there were +lay brothers to help in carrying out the field work and rougher +occupations. St Romuald and the early Camaldolese exercised considerable +influence on the religious movements of their time; the emperors Otto +III. and Henry II. esteemed him highly and sought his advice on +religious questions. Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the +still heathen parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them +suffered martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five +of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary, but he was +unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. After his death +mitigations were gradually introduced into the rule and manner of life; +and in the monastery of St Michael in Murano, Venice, the life became +cenobitical. From that time to the present day there have always been +both eremitical and cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to +ordinary Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and +into Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a "desert," +the primitive observance of the institute being strictly maintained. +There are a few other "deserts," all in Italy, except one in Poland; and +there are about 90 hermits. The chief monastery of the cenobitical +Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less +than forty. Since the 11th century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at +present there are five nunneries with 150 nuns, all belonging to the +cenobitical branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white. + + See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max + Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896) i. § 29; and the art. + "Camaldulenser" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), and + Herzog, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.) + + + + +CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE (1710-1770), French dancer, of Spanish +descent, was born in Brussels on the 15th of April 1710. Her father, +Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis, earned a scanty living as violinist and +dancing-master, and from childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten +years of age she was given lessons by Mlle Françoise Prévost +(1680-1741), then the first dancer at the Paris Opéra, and at once +obtained an engagement as _première danseuse_, first at Brussels and +then at Rouen. Under her grandmother's family name of Camargo she made +her Paris _début_ in 1726, and at once became the rage. Every new +fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair was copied by all at +court; her shoemaker--she had a tiny foot--made his fortune. She had +many titled adorers whom she nearly ruined by her extravagances, among +others Louis de Bourbon, comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from +the stage from 1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight +ballets or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the +first ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the +regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by Nicolas +Lancret in the Wallace collection, London. + + + + +CAMARGUE (_Insula Camaria_), a thinly-populated region of southern +France contained wholly in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, and +comprising the delta of the Rhone. The Camargue is a marshy plain of +alluvial formation enclosed between the two branches of the river, the +Grand Rhône to the east and the Petit Rhône to the west. Its average +elevation is from 6½ to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30 m. +in length and an area of 290 sq. m., of which about a quarter consists +of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the banks of +the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by the black bulls +and white horses of the region and by large flocks of sheep, or of +marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated with salt. The region +is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes, bustards, partridge, and by +sea-birds of various kinds. The Étang de Vaccarès, the largest of the +numerous lagoons and pools, covers about 23 sq. m.; it receives three +main canals constructed to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is +protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of the +rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of the +lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river-water is used for +irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The climate is characterized +by hard winters and scorching summers. Rain falls in torrents, but at +considerable intervals. The mistral, blowing from the north and +north-west, is the prevailing wind. The south-eastern portion of the +Camargue is known as the Ile du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the +west of the Petit Rhône goes by the name of Petite Camargue. + + + + +CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south coast, about +17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by Syracuse in 599 B.C., +but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for attempting to assert its +independence. Hippocrates of Gela received its territory from Syracuse +and restored the town in 492, but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the +Geloans, however, founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in +general hostile to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it +gave some slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the +Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its abandonment +by Dionysius's order, but in 258 fell into the hands of the Romans. Its +complete destruction dates from A.D. 853. The site of the ancient city +is among rapidly shifting sandhills, and the lack of stone in the +neighbourhood has led to its buildings being used as a quarry even by +the inhabitants of Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above +ground but a small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few +foundations of houses; portions of the city wall have been traced by +excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see J. +Schubring in _Philologus_, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in _Monumenti dei +Lincei_, ix. 201, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north lay the lake to +which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred, [Greek: mhae kinei +Kamarinan], when the citizens inquired as to the advisability of +draining it. + + + + +CAMBACÉRÈS, JEAN JACQUES RÉGIS DE, duke of Parma (1753-1824), French +statesman, was born at Montpellier on the 18th of October 1753. He was +descended from a well-known family of the legal nobility (_noblesse de +la robe_). He was designed for the magistracy of his province; and in +1771, when for a time the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the +others, by the chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal +tribunal substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with +ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the court of +accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing the principles of +the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned by the _noblesse_ of the +province to draw up the _cahier_ (statement of principles and +grievances); and the _sénéchaussée_ of Montpellier elected him deputy to +the states-general of Versailles; but the election was annulled on a +technical point. Nevertheless in 1792 the new department of Hérault, in +which Montpellier is situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the +Convention which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September +1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins and the +Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself mainly with the +legal and legislative work which went on almost without intermission +even during the Terror. The action of Cambacérès at the time of the +trial of Louis XVI. (December 25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was +characteristic of his habits of thought. At first he protested against +the erection of the Convention into a tribunal in these words: "The +people has chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as +judges." He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for +his defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with the +majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended that the +penalty should be postponed until the cessation of hostilities, and that +the sentence should then be ratified by the Convention or by some other +legislative body. It is therefore inexact to count him among the +regicides, as was done by the royalists after 1815. Early in 1793 he +became a member of the Committee of General Defence, but he did not take +part in the work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public +Safety, until the close of the year 1794. In the meantime he had done +much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly with Merlin +of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of the revolutionary +epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 he also used his tact and +eloquence on behalf of the restoration of the surviving Girondins to the +Convention, from which they had been driven by the _coup d'état_ of the +31st of May 1793. In the course of the year 1795, as president of the +Committee of Public Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign +affairs, he was largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain. +Nevertheless, not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of +the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was entrusted +after the _coup d'état_ of Vendémiaire 1795; but, as before, his powers +of judgment and of tactful debating soon carried him to the front in the +council of Five Hundred. The moderation of his views brought him into +opposition to the Directors after the _coup d'état_ of Fructidor +(September 1797), and for a time he retired into private life. Owing, +however, to the influence of Sieyès, he became minister of justice in +July 1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieyès in their +enterprise of overthrowing the Directory (_coup d'état_ of Brumaire +1799). + +After a short interval Cambacérès was, by the constitution of December +1799, appointed second consul of France--a position which he owed +largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the conviction which Sieyès +entertained of his value as a manipulator of public assemblies. It is +impossible here to describe in detail his relations to Napoleon, and the +part which he played in the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on +called the Code Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful +intervention of Cambacérès helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon +the consulship for life (August 1, 1802); but the second consul is known +to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, notably the +execution of the duc d'Enghien, the rupture with England, and the +proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1804). This last occurrence ended +his title of second consul; it was replaced by that of arch-chancellor +of the Empire. To him was decreed the presidence of the Senate in +perpetuity. He also became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808 +the title duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in +helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambacérès did the +state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to curb the +impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises so fatal as the +intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the invasion of Russia (1812) +proved to be. At the close of the campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph +Bonaparte the responsibility for some of the actions which zealous +Bonapartists have deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In +1815, during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at the +bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his master, he +felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time exiled from +France. A decree of 13th May 1818 restored him to his civil rights as a +citizen of France; but the last six years of his life he spent in +retirement. He was a member of the Academy till the 31st of March 1816, +when a decree of exclusion was passed. In demeanour he was quiet, +reserved and tactful, but when occasion called for it he proved himself +a brilliant orator. He was a celebrated _gourmet_, and his dinners were +utilized by Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft. + + See A. Aubriet, _Vie de Cambacérès_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1825). + (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +CAMBALUC, the name by which, under sundry modifications, the royal city +of the great khan in China became known to Europe during the middle +ages, that city being in fact the same that we now know as Peking. The +word itself represents the Mongol Khan-Balik, "the city of the khan," or +emperor, the title by which Peking continues, more or less, to be known +to the Mongols and other northern Asiatics. + +A city occupying approximately the same site had been the capital of one +of the principalities into which China was divided some centuries before +the Christian era; and during the reigns of the two Tatar dynasties that +immediately preceded the Mongols in northern China, viz. that of the +Khitans, and of the Kin or "Golden" khans, it had been one of their +royal residences. Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the +Khitan, and of Chung-tu, which it had from the Kin, it holds a +conspicuous place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter +dynasty. He captured it in 1215, but it was not till 1284 that it was +adopted as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol +steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position a few +hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu or Yenking, +where he founded the new city of Ta-tu ("great capital"), called by the +Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan-Balik; and from this time dates +the use of the latter name as applied to this site. + +The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud rampart, the +longer sides of which ran north and south. These were each about 5-1/3 +English m. in length, the shorter sides 3¾ m., so that the circuit was +upwards of 18 m. The palace of the khan, with its gardens and lake, +itself formed an inner enclosure fronting the south. There were eleven +city gates, viz. three on the south side, always the formal front with +the Tatars, and two on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide +and straight from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by +the palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan. + +Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the fall of the +Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming) which supplanted them +established their residence at Nan-king ("South Court"), but this proved +so inconvenient that Yunglo, the third sovereign of the dynasty, +reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it then, for the first time, the name of +Pe-king ("North Court"). This was the name in common use when the +Jesuits entered China towards the end of the 16th century, and began to +send home accurate information about China. But it is not so now; the +names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both signifying +"capital." The restoration of Cambaluc was commenced in 1409. The size +of the city was diminished by the retrenchment of nearly one-third at +the northern end, which brought the enceinte more nearly to a square +form. And this constitutes the modern (so-called) "Tatar city" of +Peking, the south front of which is identical with the south front of +the city of Kublai. The walls were completed in 1437. Population +gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of the +old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in 1544, +enclosed by a wall and called the "outer city." It is the same that is +usually called by Europeans "the Chinese city." The ruins of the +retrenched northern portion of Kublai's great rampart are still +prominent along their whole extent, so that there is no room for +question as to the position or true dimensions of the Cambaluc of the +middle ages; and it is most probable, indeed it is almost a necessity, +that the present palace stands on the lines of Kublai's palace. + +The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an +archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the +missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (d. 1330); but though some +successors were nominated it seems probable that no second metropolitan +ever actually occupied the seat. + +Maps of the 16th and 17th centuries often show Cambaluc in an imaginary +region to the north of China, a part of the misconception that has +prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is often in popular literature +written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow accented in verse _Cámbalú_. But +this spelling originates in an accidental error in Ramusio's Italian +version, which was the chief channel through which Marco Polo's book was +popularly known. The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology +in calling it Cambaluc, which should be accented _Cambáluc_. + + + + +CAMBAY, a native state of India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. +It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225, showing a decrease of +16% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900. The estimated gross +revenue is £27,189; the tribute, £1460. In physical character Cambay is +entirely an alluvial plain. As a separate state it dates only from about +1730, the time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present +chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the governors of +Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law, Nizam Khan, governor +of Cambay, and established himself there. + +The town of CAMBAY had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It is supposed to +be the _Camanes_ of Ptolemy, and was formerly a very flourishing city, +the seat of an extensive trade, and celebrated for its manufactures of +silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but owing principally to the gradually +increasing difficulty of access by water, owing to the silting up of the +gulf, its commerce has long since fallen away, and the town has become +poor and dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a +channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The trade +is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is celebrated for +its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, of reputation +principally in China. The houses in many instances are built of stone (a +circumstance which indicates the former wealth of the city, as the +material had to be brought from a very considerable distance); and +remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in circumference, which formerly +surrounded the town, enclose four large reservoirs of good water and +three bazaars. To the south-east there are very extensive ruins of +subterranean temples and other buildings half-buried in the sand by +which the ancient town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the +Jains, and contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black, +the other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates, is +Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the emperor Akbar; +the black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. In 1780 Cambay was taken +by the army of General Goddard, was restored to the Mahrattas in 1783, +and was afterwards ceded to the British by the peshwa under the treaty +of 1803. It was provided with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the 11 +m. required to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda's line through Petlad. + + + + +CAMBAY, GULF OF, an inlet in the coast of India, in the Gujarat division +of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but is shallow and abounds in +shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed that the depth of water in this +gulf has been decreasing for more than two centuries past. The tides, +which are very high, run into it with amazing velocity, but at low water +the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of +the town of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the +channel by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the British +districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the railway from +Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay, has for some time past been +attracting the trade to itself. + + + + +CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _camera_, vault), in +architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and provided for the +depression or sagging, which it is liable to, before it has settled down +to its bearings. A "camber arch" is a slight rise given to the +straight-arch to correct an apparent sinking in the centre (see ARCH). + + + + +CAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), French operatic composer, was born in Paris +in 1628. He was a pupil of Chambonnières. In 1655, after he had obtained +the post of organist at the church of St Honoré, he married Marie du +Moustier. He was musical superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother +of Louis XIV., and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac. +His earlier works, the words of which were furnished by Pierre Perrin, +continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes till the death +of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin received a patent for the +founding of the _Académie Nationale de musique_, the germ of the Grand +Opéra, and Cambert had a share in the administration until both he and +Perrin were discarded in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his +subsequent neglect, and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was +musical superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where +soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to Charles +II. One at least of his operas, _Pomone_, was performed in London under +his direction, but it did not suit the popular taste, and he is supposed +to have killed himself in London in 1677. His other principal operas +were _Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus_ and _Les Peines et les plaisirs +de l'amour_. + + + + +CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded +N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by Deptford and Lewisham, W. by +Lambeth, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop, +(1901) 259,339. Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the +derivation of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham +and Nunhead, and Dulwich (q.v.) with its park, picture-gallery and +schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are many good +houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and southward towards the high +ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park (72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and +Park (113 acres) are the largest of several public grounds, and +Camberwell Green was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside +the southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation, the Crystal +Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the Camberwell school of +arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a +university settlement, founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier +Trinity settlement. The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three +divisions, North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member: but is +not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the Dulwich division +extending to include Penge, outside the county of London. The borough +council consists of a mayor, ten aldermen, and sixty councillors. + + + + +CAMBIASI, LUCA (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly known as +Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also Cambiaso or Cangiagio), +was born at Moneglia in the Genoese state, the son of a painter named +Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to drawing at a very early age, imitating his +father, and developed great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of +fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's +_Metamorphoses_ on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in +conjunction with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of +execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friendship with +Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together, with so much +similarity of style that their works could hardly be told apart; from +this friend Cambiasi learned much in the way of perspective and +architecture. Luchetto's best artistic period lasted for twelve years +after his first successes; from that time he declined in power, though +not at once in reputation, owing to the agitations and vexations brought +upon him by a passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife +having died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and +children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for marrying +her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he accepted an invitation +from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial a series of frescoes which +had been begun by Castello, now deceased; and it is said that one +principal reason for his closing with this offer was that he hoped to +bring the royal influence to bear upon the pope, but in this again he +failed. Worn out with his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the +second year of his sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold +designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the +Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day with +pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting a head of a +laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh +changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The +artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty +equalling or transcending that even of Tintoret. He made a vast number +of drawings, and was also something of a sculptor, executing in this +branch of art a figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the +ablest artists of his day. In personal character, notwithstanding his +executive energy, he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His +son Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto. + + The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the church of + S. Giorgio--the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo Imperiali + Terralba, a Genoese suburb--a fresco of the "Rape of the Sabines"; in + S. Maria da Carignano--a "Pietà," containing his own portrait and + (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law. In the + Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise on the + vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture + he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to + that time, ever been given for a single work. + + + + +CAMBODIA[1] (called by the inhabitants _Sroc Khmer_ and by the French +_Cambodge_), a country of south-eastern Asia and a protectorate of +France, forming part of French Indo-China. + +_Geography_.--It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by Annam, S.E. and +S. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by Siam. Its area +is estimated at approximately 65,000 sq. m.; its population at +1,500,000, of whom some three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese, +Annamese, Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia +lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering this territory on +the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines south-west as +far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and resumes a southerly +course. The salient feature of Cambodian geography is the large lake +Tonlé-Sap, in a depression 68 m. long from south-east to north-west and +15 m. wide. It is fed by several rivers and innumerable torrents, and +at flood-time serves as a reservoir for the Mekong, with which it is +connected by a channel some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and +joining the river at Pnom-Penh. In June the waters of the Mekong, +swollen by the rains and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a +height of 40 to 45 ft. and flow through the Bras du Lac towards the +lake, which then covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river +inundates the marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season +the current reverses and the depression empties so that the lake shrinks +to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. to a +maximum of 5 ft. Tonlé-Sap probably represents the chief wealth of +Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over 30,000, most of whom +are Annamese; the fish, which are taken by means of large nets at the +end of the inundation, are either dried or fermented for the production +of the sauce known as _nuoc-mam_. The northern and western provinces of +Cambodia which fall outside the densely populated zone of inundation are +thinly peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly wooded +and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does not exceed 5000 +ft. The region to the east of the Mekong is traversed by spurs of the +mountains of Annam and by affluents of the Mekong, the most important of +these being the Se-khong and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into +the Mekong at Stung-treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing +population, fringe the west coast. + +_Climate, Fauna and Flora._--The climate of Cambodia, like that of +Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the monsoons. +During the north-east monsoon, from the middle of October to the middle +of April, dry weather prevails and the thermometer averages from 77° to +80° F. During the south-west monsoon, from the middle of April to the +middle of October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies between +85° and 95°. The wild animals of Cambodia include the elephant, which is +also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and some species of wild ox; +also the tiger, panther, leopard and honey-bear. Wild boars, monkeys and +rats abound and are the chief enemies of the cultivator. The crocodile +is found in the Mekong, and there are many varieties of reptiles, some +of them venomous. The horse of Cambodia is only from 11 to 12 hands in +height, but is strong and capable of great endurance; the buffalo is the +chief draught animal. Swine are reared in large numbers. Nux vomica, +gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and other valuable woods and gums +are among the natural products. + +_People_.--The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity with their +Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The race is probably the +result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of Indo-China with the Aryan +and Mongolian invaders of the country. The men are taller and more +muscular than the Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and +inclined to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the +mouth large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown, +the hair black and, while in childhood the head is shaved with the +exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed so as +to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the langouti or loin-cloth, which +the men supplement with a short jacket, the women with a long scarf +draped round the figure or with a long clinging robe. Morose, +superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling, the Cambodians are at +the same time clean, fairly intelligent, proud and courageous. The wife +enjoys a respected position and divorce may be demanded by either party. +Polygamy is almost confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to +work, the Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them live on +the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts built upon piles or +floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is Buddhism, and involves great +respect towards the dead; the worship of spirits or local genii is also +wide-spread, and Brahmanism is still maintained at the court. Monks or +_bonzes_ are very numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach +the young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals and +the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of the +Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no hereditary +nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood-relationship--the +members of the royal family within the fifth degree (the _Brah-Vansa_) +those beyond the fifth degree (_Brah-Van_), and the _Bakou_, who, as +descendants of the ancient Brahmans, exercise certain official functions +at the court. These castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by +themselves, are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are +nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, and +are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the administration. +Under the native régime the common people attached themselves to one or +other of the mandarins, who in return granted them the protection of his +influence. Under French rule, which has modified the old usages in many +respects, local government of the Annamese type tends to supplant this +feudal system. Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897. + +Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal dialects of +south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and rich in +vowel-sounds. The king's language and the royal writing, and also +religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan origin and akin to +Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and complicated. The books +(manuscripts) are generally formed of palm-leaves upon which the +characters are traced by means of a style. + +_Industry and Commerce._--Iron, worked by the tribe of the Kouis, is +found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians show skill in working +gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats, fans and silk and cotton +fabrics, are also produced to some small extent, but fishing and the +cultivation of rice and in a minor degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton, +pepper, indigo, maize, tea and sugar are the only industries worthy of +the name. Factories exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of +cotton-seeds. The Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so +far as his own needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and +oxen are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which is +in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in commerce. + +Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China, Kampot, the +only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to coasting vessels. With +the exception of the highway from Pnom-Penh (q.v.) the capital, to +Kampot, the roads of Cambodia are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh +communicates regularly by the steamers of the "Messageries Fluviales" by +way of the Mekong with Saigon. + +_Administration_.--At the head of the government is the king (_raj_). +His successor is either nominated by himself, in which case he sometimes +abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the five chief mandarins +from among the Brah Vansa. The _upayuvraj_ (_obbaioureach_) or king who +has abdicated, the heir-presumptive (_uparaj, obbareach_) and the first +princess of the blood are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The +king is advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of +the class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about fifty +provinces administered by members of that body. France is represented by +a resident superior, who presides over the ministerial council and is +the real ruler of the country, and by residents exercising supervision +in the districts into which the country is split up for the purposes of +the French administration. In each residential district there is a +council, composed of natives and presided over by the resident, which +deliberates on questions affecting the district. The resident superior +is assisted by the protectorate council, consisting of heads of French +administrative departments (chief of the judicial service, of public +works. &c.) and one native "notable," and the royal orders must receive +its sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign policy, +public works, the customs and the exchequer are in French hands, while +the management of police, the collection of the direct taxes and the +administration of justice between natives remain with the native +government. A French tribunal alone is competent to settle disputes +where one of the parties is not a native. + +The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia for 1899 and +1904:-- + + Receipts. Expenditure. + 1899 £235,329 £188,654 + 1904 250,753 229,880 + +The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including the +poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which together +amounted to £172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of expenditure are the +civil list, comprising the personal allowance to the king and the royal +family (£46,018 in 1904), public works (£39,593) and government house +and residences (£29,977). + +_History_.--The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, are +conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between the +autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now represented by +the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading race from the +plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th century B.C., Chinese +chronicles, which are almost the only source for the history of Cambodia +till the 5th century A.D., mention a region called Fou-nan, in later +times appearing under the name of Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the +Menam, it extended eastwards to the Mekong and may be considered +approximately coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before +the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to +exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they introduced +Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hinduizing process became +more marked about the 5th century A.D., when, under S'rutavarman, the +Khmers as a nation rose into prominence. The name _Kambuja_, whence the +European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu _Kambu_, the name of +the mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been officially +adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country about this period. +At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of S'rutavarman ceased to rule +over the whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was divided +into two portions ruled over by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have +been re-established about the beginning of the 9th century, when with +Jayavarman III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of +Khmer greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monuments +were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see ANGKOR) was completed +under Yasovarman about A.D. 900. In the 10th century Buddhism, which had +existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival +Brahmanism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of +Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and +appears to have been carried out under the direction of the Brahman +Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the monarchs of this period. +The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern +Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later 15th century was +absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the 12th +century, in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. +War was also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and +the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have been the +immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. From the last decade +of the 13th century there dates a valuable description of Tchin-la[2] +written by a member of a Chinese embassy thereto. The same period +probably also witnessed the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of +Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been +subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of +the Menam. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of +which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the 14th +century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive and were able +repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn. These aggressions were +continued in the 15th century, in the course of which the capital was +finally abandoned by the Khmer kings, the ruin of the country being +hastened by internal revolts and by feuds between members of the royal +family. At the end of the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded +Angkor-Thorn as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During +that century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the +country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle +of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the +arrival of the French. At the beginning of the 17th century the Nguyen, +rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of +Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the 18th century, Cambodia, +governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a +field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of +the 18th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed +by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were concluded after a last and +indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a result of which Ang-Duong, +the protégé of Siam, was placed on the throne at the capital of Oudong, +and the Annamese evacuated the country. In 1863, in order to counteract +Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagrée was sent by Admiral la +Grandière to the court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and +as a result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate +of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-Penh. In 1867 +a treaty between France and Siam was signed, whereby Siam renounced its +right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in +return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos +territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the +king, confirming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal +authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by it, its +provisions were not put in force till several years later. In 1904 the +territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese +provinces of Melupré and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the +latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 +exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By +the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right +bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded by his brother +Sisowath. + + See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); L. Moura, + _Le royaume de Cambodge_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883); A. Leclère, _Les + codes cambodgiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on + Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ + (Paris, 1873). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH + + [2] Translated by Abel Rémusat, _Noveaux Mélanges Asiatiques_ (1829). + + + + +CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman, was the son of a +wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In 1785 his father retired, +leaving the direction of the business to Pierre and his two brothers, +but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to politics, and was sent by his +fellow-citizens as deputy _suppléant_ to Versailles, where he was little +more than a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was +elected a member of the municipality, was one of the founders of the +Jacobin club in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he +drew up a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a +republic,--the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the +Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence, his +honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active member of the +committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the +treasury. Nothing could be more false than the common opinion that as a +financier his sole expedient was to multiply the emissions of +_assignats_. His remarkable speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a +convincing proof of his sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from +the clubs, and even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new +institutions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a law +passed sequestrating the possessions of the _emigrés_, and demanded, +though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to French Guiana. +He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly. Re-elected to the +Convention, he opposed the pretensions of the Commune and the proposed +grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced +Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an +account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing of +military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, in spite of +the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred the hatred of +Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which +would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew +steadily. On the 15th of December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a +proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the +trial of Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or +postponement. He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public Safety he +worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On the 3rd of +February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800 millions of +_assignats_, for the expenses of the war. His courageous intervention in +favour of the Girondists on the and of June 1793 served Robespierre as a +pretext to prevent his re-election to the Committee of Public Safety. +But Cambon soon came to the conclusion that the security of France +depended upon the triumph of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to +accord his active co-operation to the second committee. He took an active +share in the various expedients of the government for stopping the +depreciation of the _assignats_. He was responsible, especially, for the +great operation known as the opening of the _Grand Livre_ (August 24), +which was designed to consolidate the public debt by cancelling the +stock issued under various conditions prior to the Revolution, and +issuing new stock of a uniform character, so that all fund-holders +should hold stock of the revolutionary government and thus be interested +in its stability. Each fund-holder was to be entered in the Great Book, +or register of the public debt, for the amount due to him every year. +The result of this measure was a rise in the face value of the +_assignats_ from 27% to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of +finance Cambon was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of +dictatorship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on the 8th +Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-revolutionary and an +aristocrat. Cambon's proud and vehement reply was the signal of the +resistance to Robespierre's tyranny and the prelude to his fall. Cambon +soon had reason to repent of that event, for he became one of those most +violently attacked by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets +and the journals of J.L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former +_Montagnard_. He was charged with being responsible for the discredit of +the _assignats_, and even accused of malversations. On the 21st of +February 1795 the project which he presented to withdraw four milliards +of _assignats_ from circulation, was rejected, and on the 3rd of April +he was excluded from the committee of finance. On the 16th Germinal, +Tallien procured a decree of accusation against him, but he was already +in safety, taking refuge probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not +seem to have remained in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial +some of the insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th +Brumaire of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to +return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near +Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow escape from +an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to find in Bonaparte the +saviour of the republic, but, deceived by the 18th Brumaire, he lived +throughout the whole of the empire in peaceful seclusion. During the +Hundred Days he was deputy for Hérault in the chamber of +representatives, and pronounced himself strongly against the return of +the Bourbons, and for religious freedom. Under the Restoration the +"amnesty" law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he +withdrew to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died +on the 15th of February 1820. (R. A.*) + + See Bornarel, _Cambon_ (Paris). + + + + +CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist, was born on the 20th +of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private +secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years +of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as +prefect successively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), +Nord (1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being +nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became +French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890, +and in 1898 to London. He was decorated with the grand cross of the +Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. + +His brother, JULES MARTIN CAMBON (1845- ), was called to the bar in +1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service +in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the +Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see +Guyot, _L'oeuvre de M. Jules Cambon_, Paris, 1897), where he had served +in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at +Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of +peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United +States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin. + + + + +CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary division of +Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, 13 m. E.N.E. of +Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. It lies on the +northward slope of the central elevation of the county, and is in the +neighbourhood of some of the most productive tin and copper mines. These +and the manufacture of mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. +The parish church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient +stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art and +mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine, +the school attracting a large number of students. It was developed from +classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners' Association, and a three years' +course of instruction is provided. + +Camborne (_Cambron, Camron_) formed a portion of the extensive manor of +Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by the earl of +Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. Its +interests were economically insignificant until the beginning of the +18th century when the rich deposits of copper and tin began to be +vigorously worked at Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this +mine alone had produced ore worth £2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth +£5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other mines in +the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double that of 1830, six +times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of 1660. Camborne was the +scene of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the +engineer, born in the neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William +Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three +fairs on the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 25th of February +were granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been +transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the subject of +a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the 19th century it +has been held on Saturdays. + + + + +CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the main line of the +Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai is situated on the right +and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of which traverse the west of the +town) and at one extremity of the canal of St Quentin. The +fortifications with which it was formerly surrounded have been for the +most part demolished. The fosses have been filled up and the ramparts in +part levelled to make way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues +stretching out on all sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are +the huge square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the +chateau de Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the +13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a stone and +brick structure of the early 17th century. Handsome boulevards now skirt +the town, the streets of which are clean and well-ordered, and a large +public garden extends at the foot of the citadel, with a statue of +Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. The former cathedral of Cambrai +was destroyed after the Revolution. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame +is a church of the 19th century built on the site of the old abbey +church of St Sépulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of +Fénelon, archbishop from 1695 to 1715, by David d'Angers. The church of +St Géry (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a marble +rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place d'Armes, a large +square in the centre of the town, is bordered on the north by a handsome +hôtel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt in the 19th century. The Tour +St Martin is an old church-tower of the 15th and 18th centuries +transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance +to the former archiepiscopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance +period. The present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral, +occupies the site of an old Benedictine convent. + +Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of +France. Its educational institutions include communal colleges, +ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and music. The library +has over 40,000 volumes and there is a museum of antiquities and objects +of art. The chief industry of Cambrai is the weaving of muslin +(_batiste_) and other fine fabrics (see CAMBRIC); wool-spinning and +weaving, bleaching and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the +manufacture of chicory, oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are +also large beet-sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in +cattle, grain, coal, hops, seed, &c. + +Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of _Camaracum_, which is mentioned +in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was the capital of the +Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, it was captured +and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the +Hungarians in 953. During the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries it was the +scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on +the one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately +effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained +possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, duke of +Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 16th century Charles +V. caused it to be fortified with a strong citadel, for the erection of +which the castles of Cavillers, Escaudoeuvres and many others were +demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which +assigned it to France, it frequently passed from hand to hand by capture +or treaty. In 1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League +of Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis +XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians in +1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is also called, the Ladies' +Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of +Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of +these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and +was raised in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till +the Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received the +title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in 1510 were +raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including the town +itself and its territory, called Cambrésis. + + See E. Bouly, _Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambrésis_ (Cambria, 1843). + + + + +CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western +Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land +round the Solway (now Cumberland and adjacent regions), and the former +came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were +sometimes interchanged by early medieval writers. + + + + +CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally employed to +designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks which possesses a +connected suite of fossils. The strata of this system rest upon the +Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the Ordovician system. Until the +fourth decade of the 19th century all stratified rocks older than the +Carboniferous had been grouped by geologists into a huge and indefinite +"Transition Series." In 1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison +began the herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of +rocks as it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England. +Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where the rocks +are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are comparatively +difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, began to work at the +upper end of the series where the stratigraphy is simple and the fossils +are abundant. Murchison naturally made the most of the fossils +collected, and was soon able to show that the transition series could be +recognized by them, just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to +themselves; as he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous +rocks further afield and continually lower in the series. This +fossil-bearing set of strata he first styled the "fossiliferous +greywacke series," changing it in 1835 to "Silurian system." + +In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name "Cambrian series" for the +older and lower members. Murchison published his Silurian system in +1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to include the barren slates +and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the Long Mynd. So far, the two +workers had been in agreement; but in his presidential address to the +Geological Society of London in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that +the Cambrian contained no fossils that differed from those of the Lower +Silurian. Whereupon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh +rocks with the assistance of J.W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in +1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the Upper +Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his _Siluria_, in which +he treated the Cambrian system as a mere local facies of the Silurian +system, and he included in the latter, under J. Barrande's term +"Primordial zone," all the lower rocks, although they had a distinctive +fauna. + +Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected from +similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of "Cambrian" +was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, it was taken to +apply only to a group of rocks without a characteristic fauna and +therefore impossible to recognize. Most of the Cambrian rocks were +coloured as Silurian on the British official geological maps. + +Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on the +British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of the +Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his Silurian system +downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick adhered to the original +grouping of his Cambrian system, and even proposed to limit the Silurian +to the Ludlow and Wenlock beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. +This attitude he maintained until the year of his death (1873), when +there appeared his introduction to Salter's _Catalogue of Cambrian and +Silurian Fossils._ + +It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was +necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was left for +the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove that the rocks +below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison did indeed possess a +characteristic fauna, and their work was confirmed by researches going +on in other countries. To-day the recognition of the earliest +fossil-bearing recks, below the Llandeilo formation of Murchison, as +belonging to the Cambrian system, and the threefold subdivision of the +system according to palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly +established. + +It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian as the +lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages being +Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use _Silurique_ to +cover the same period with the Cambrian as the lowest series, but these +differences of treatment are merely nominal. Jules Marcou and others +have used _Taconic_ (Taconian) as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C. +Lapworth proposed to apply the same term to the lowest subdivision +only; he had also used "Annelidian" in the same sense. These names are +of historical interest alone. + +_Cambrian Rocks._--The lithological characters of the Cambrian rocks +possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the globe. Muds, +sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant types. In Scotland, +North America and Canada important deposits of limestone occur and +subordinate limestones are found in the Cambrian of central Europe. + +In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the +United States, the rocks still retain their original horizontality of +deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the sands are still +incoherent; but in most parts of the world they bear abundant evidence +of the many movements and stresses to which they have been exposed +through so enormous a period of time. Thus, we find them more +frequently, folded, tilted and cleaved; the muds have become shales, +slates, phyllites or schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates +have become quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very +generally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more +recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized material +are not wanting. + +[Illustration: Distribution of Cambrian Rocks.] + +Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they form an +important feature and occur in considerable thickness; they are +represented by lavas of olivine-diabase and by contemporaneous tuffs +which are traversed by later granite and quartz felsite. In the Cambrian +of Brittany there are acid lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and +diorite appear in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada +igneous rocks have been observed. + +In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found full of +boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner that is +typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the Gaisa beds +near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These formations lie at the base of +the lowest Cambrian strata and may possibly be included in the +pre-Cambrian, though in Norway they are clearly resting upon a striated +floor of crystalline rocks. + +_Cambrian Life._--In a general survey of the life of this period, as it +is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are apparent: (1) +the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna and that of the present +day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage differs in no marked manner from +that of the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian periods; there is a +certain family likeness which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary +complexity and diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but +within certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian +strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks--if we leave out of +account the very few and very obscure organic remains hitherto recorded +from the pre-Cambrian--yet we appear to enter suddenly into the presence +of a world richly peopled with a suite of organisms already far advanced +in differentiation; the Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from +what must have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this +remote period are distant from the creatures of to-day. + +With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great classes of +animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple protozoa appear in the +form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges are represented by such forms as +_Archaeoscyphia_, Hexactinellid sponges by _Protospongia_; Graptolites +(_Dictyograptus (Dictyonema_)) come on in the higher parts of the +system. Medusa-like casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of +Scandinavia (_Medusina_) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama +(_Brooksella_). Corals, _Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus_, &c., lived in +the Cambrian seas along with starfishes (_Palaeasterina_), Cystideans, +_Protocystites, Trochocystites_ and possibly Crinoids, _Dendrocrinus_. +Annelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor +(_Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus_, &c.). Crustacea occupied an +extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as +_Hymenocaris_, and Ostracods like _Entomidella_; but by far the most +important in numbers and development were the Trilobites, now extinct, +but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the Cambrian period trilobites +had already attained their maximum size; some species of _Paradoxides_ +were nearly 2 ft. long, but in company with these monsters were tiny +forms like _Agnostus_ and _Microdiscus_. Many of the Cambrian trilobites +appear to have been blind, and they had not at this period developed +that flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later. + +Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-articulated forms +(_Obolus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis,_ &c.); amongst the +articulate genera are _Kutorgina, Orthis, Khynchonella._ It is a +striking fact that certain of these non-articulate "lamp-shells" are +familiar inhabitants of our present seas. Each of the principal groups +of true mollusca was represented: Pelecypods (_Modioloides_); +Gasteropods (_Scenella, Pleurotomaria, Trochonema_); Pteropods +(_Hyohthellus, Hyolithes, Salleretta_); Cephalopods (_Orthoceras, +Cystoceras_). Of land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain +markings on slates and sandstones, such as the "fucoids" of Scandinavia +and Scotland, the _Phycoides_ of the Fichtelgebirge, _Eophyton_ and +other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be the casts of fucoid +plants; but it is by no means sure that many of them are not mere +inorganic imitative markings or the tracks or casts of worms. +_Oldhamia_, a delicate branching body, abundant in the Cambrian of the +south-east of Ireland, is probably a calcareous alga, but its precise +nature has not been satisfactorily determined. + +_Cambrian Stratigraphy._--Wherever the Cambrian strata have been +carefully studied it has now been found possible and convenient to +arrange them into three series, each of which is characterized by a +distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a Lower Cambrian with +_Olenellus_, a middle series with _Paradoxides_ and an Upper Cambrian +with _Olenus_. It is true that these fossils are not invariably present +in every occurrence of Cambrian strata, but this fact notwithstanding, +the threefold division holds with sufficient constancy. An uppermost +series lies above the _Olenus_ fauna in some areas; it is represented by +the Tremadoc beds in Britain or by the _Dictyonema_ beds or +_Euloma-Niobe_ fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: +(1) Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first +differentiated from the old "Transition Series"; (2) North America, on +account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the abundance and +perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, made classic by the great +labours of J. Barrande. + + _Great Britain and Ireland._--The table on p. 88 contains the names + that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata in + the areas of outcrop in Wales and England; at the same time it + indicates approximately their relative position in the system. + + In _Scotland_ the upper and middle series are represented by a thick + mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone (1500 ft.). In + the lower series are, in descending order, the "Serpulite grits" or + "Salterella beds," the "Fucoid beds" and the "Eriboll quartzite," + which is divided into an upper "Pipe rock" and lower "Basal + quartzite." + + The Cambrian rocks of _Ireland_, a great series of purple and green + shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded + sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh + rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in the + future to the overlying Ordovician. + + _North America._--On the North American continent, as in Europe, the + Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the lower or + "Georgian," with _Olenellus_ fauna; (2) the middle or "Acadian," with + _Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus_ fauna; (3) the upper or "Potsdam," + with _Olenus_ fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms for + Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland and Labrador + coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-west of those + points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain valley into Alabama, a + distance of some 2000 m.; and the rocks are brought up again on the + western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, western Montana and British + Columbia. The middle division covers approximately the same region as + the lower one, and in addition it is found in the states of Texas, + Oklahoma, and Arizona, in western Montana, and possibly in western + Wisconsin. The lower division, in addition to covering the areas + already indicated, spreads over the interior of the United States. + + _Bohemia_.--The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized by + J.F. Pompesk; to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian groups. + They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. The Cambrian + system is covered by his stages "B" and "C"; the former a barren + series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter a series of grey + and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, greywackes + and conglomerates. + + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | Midland and West of England. | + | | North Wales. | South Wales. +--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | | | | Shropshire. | Malvern Hills. | Nuneaton. | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Upper Cambrian,| Tremadoc slates | Tremadoc beds | Shineton shales | Bronsil shales, | Upper Stockingford | + | _Olenus_ fauna | (_Euloma-Niobe_ | | and shales with | gray (_Niobe_ | shale | + | | fauna) | | _Dictyonema_ | fauna) | (Merivaleshales) | + | | Lingula flags | Lingula flags | | Malvern black | | + | | | | | shales | | + | | | | | (White-leaved-oak | | + | | | | | shales) | | + | | (1) Dolgelly beds | | | | | + | | (2) Ffestinieg beds| | | | Middle Stockingford | + | | | | | | shales (Oldbury | + | | | | | | shales) | + | | (3) Maentwrog beds | | | | | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Middle Cambrian| Menevian beds | Menevian beds | | | | + | _Paradoxides_ | | | | | | + | fauna | | Solva group | Comley or Hollybush| Hollybush sandstone | Lower Stockingford | + | | | | sandstone with | | shales (Purley | + | | | | upper Comley | | shales) | + | | | | limestone | | | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Lower Cambrian | Harlech grits and | Caerfai group | Lower Comley | Hollybush sandstone | Upper Hartshill | + | _Olenellus_ | Llanberis slates | | limestone | with Malvern | quarzite. | + | fauna | | | | quarzite and | _Hyolithes_ shales | + | | | | | conglomerate at | and limestone | + | | | | | the base | | + | | | | Wrekin quarzite | | Middle and lower | + | | | | | | Hartshill quarzite | + | | | | | | and the quarzite of| + | | | | | | the Lickey Hills | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + + _Scandinavia_.--Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished clearly + on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found in a thin + series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing shales + play an important part. Limestones and shales with the _Euloma-Niobe_ + fauna come at the top. The upper series (_Olenus_) has been minutely + zoned by W.C. Brögger, S.A. Tullberg and J.C. Moberg. In the middle + series (_Paradoxides_) three thin limestone bands have been + distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans-Kalk and the + Andrarums-Kalk. + + On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by the Röros + schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystalline + schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian rocks. + + _Baltic Province._--The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all + soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of + Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called "blue clay" + (really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a fucoidal + sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent of the Lower + Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an important break appears in + the system, for the _Paradoxides_ and _Olenus_ divisions are absent. + The upper members are the "Ungulite grit" and about 20 ft. of + Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been traced into Siberia (lat. + 71°) and on the island of Vaigatch. + + _Central Europe._--Besides the Bohemian region previously mentioned, + Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of France, in + Spain and the Thüringer Wald. In the Ardennes the system is + represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and quartz + schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. A. + Dumont has arranged the whole series (_Terrain ardennais_) into three + systems, an upper "Salmien," a middle "Revinien" and a lower + "Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to unite the + two lower groups in one. + + _France_.---In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple + conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability upon + pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern Poitou. In the + Rennes basin limestones--often dolomitic--are associated with + quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones also occur in the + Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old lands of Languedoc, + equivalents of the two upper divisions of the Cambrian have been + recorded; and the uppermost members of the system appear in Herault. + Patches of Cambrian rocks are found in the Pyrenees. + + In _Spain_ slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than + 9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega, + thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian rocks + occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper Cambrian + strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal. + + In _Russian Poland_ is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and + shales; Some of the beds yield a _Paradoxides_ fauna. + + In the _Thüringer Wald_ are certain strata, presumably Cambrian since + the uppermost beds contain the _Euloma-Niobe_ fauna. + + _Sardinia_ contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cambrian + system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neobolus or + Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle subdivision. + The same group is probably represented in Corea and the Liao-tung by + the thick "Sinisian" formation of F. von Richthofen. + + In _South America_ upper Cambrian rocks have been recorded from north + Argentina. + + The Lower Cambrian has been found at various places in _South + Australia_; and in _Tasmania_ a thick series of strata appears to be + in part at least of Upper Cambrian age. + +_General Physical Conditions in the Cambrian Period._--The Cambrian +rocks previously described are all such as would result from deposition, +in comparatively shallow seas, of the products of degradation of land +surfaces by the ordinary agents of denudation. Evidences of shallow +water conditions are abundant; very frequently on the bedding surfaces +of sandstones and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and +pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, and +these records of the weather of this remote period are preserved as +sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our tidal reaches. +Ripple marks and current bedding further point, to the shallowness of +the water at the places where the rocks were made. + +No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses of the +sea--although the absence of well-developed eyes in the trilobites has +led some to assume that this condition was an indication that the +creatures lived in abyssal depths. + +At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of that period +must have been elevated into regions of fairly high ground; this we may +assume from the nature of the Cambrian deposits which are mainly the +product of the denudation of such ground. Over the land areas thus +formed, the seas in Cambrian time gradually spread, laying down first +the series known as Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the +land the wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits--in Europe, the middle +series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are usually +unconformable on older rocks. + +During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the crust may +have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake conditions. The common +occurrence of red strata has been cited in support of this view. + +Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free from extensive +volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in Brittany the earlier portions +of this period were marked by voluminous outpourings; a condition that +was feebly reflected in central and southern Europe. + +No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the climatic +peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red rocks may in some +cases suggest desert conditions; and there is good reason to suppose +that in what are now Norway and China a glacial cold prevailed early in +the period. + +Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian deposits, +which may generally be explained by the greater rapidity of deposition +in some areas than in others. Nothing could be more striking than the +difference between the thicknesses in western and eastern Europe; in +Brittany the deposits are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least +12,000 ft., in western England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern +Scotland 2000 ft., while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete +Cambrian succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North +America, the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous +regions on the west and on the east--reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter +and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British +Columbia)--while over the interior of the continent it is seldom more +than 1000 ft. thick. + +Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the Cambrian +period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was pointed out by +Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there appeared two marine +provinces--a northern one extending from Russia to the British Isles +through Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a southern one comprising +France, Bohemia, the Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that +some kind of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there +is a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and eastern +America; many fossils of this period are common to Britain, Sweden and +eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a north Atlantic basin +existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there was also a Pacific basin more +extensive than at present; this is borne out by the similarity between +the Cambrian faunas of China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author +postulates an Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, +Greenland and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the +present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between Australia and +India, where the faunas have much in common. + + REFERENCES.--The literature devoted to the Cambrian period is very + voluminous, important contributions having been made by A. Sedgwick, + Sir R.I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. Groom, J.W. Salter, J.E. + Marr, C.D. Walcott, G.F. Matthew, E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande, + F. Schmidt, W.C. Brögger, S.A. Tullberg, S.L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson + and many others. A good general account of the period will be found in + Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with + references), and from an American point of view, in T.C. Chamberlin + and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American + sources). See also J.E. Marr, _The Classification of the Cambrian and + Silurian Rocks_, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of + publication); A. Geikie _Q.J. Geol. Sac.,_ 1891, xlvii., Ann. address, + p. 90; F. Frech, "Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des + Cambrium," _Compte Rendu. Congrès Géol. Internal. 1897, + St-Pétersbourg_ (1899); _Geological Literature added to the Geological + Society's Library,_ published annually since 1893. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CAMBRIC, a word derived from _Kameryk_ or _Kamerijk_, the Flemish name +of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, France, where the cloth of +this name is said to have been first made. It was originally made of +fine linen. There is a record of a privy purse expenditure in 1530 for +cambric for Henry VIII.'s shirts. Cambric has been used for many years +in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine +underclothing; also for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The +yarns for this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads +and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. Embroidery +cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, said to be called +after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a kind of cambric +frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are largely copied in +cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, and in many cases cotton +alone, taking the place of the original flax line yarns. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. Under the Norman and early Plantagenet +kings of England the earldom of Cambridge was united with that of +Huntingdon, which was held among others by David I., king of Scotland, +as the husband of earl Waltheof's daughter, Matilda. As a separate +dignity the earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count +(afterwards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King +Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death) Edward created +his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cambridge, the title being +afterwards merged in that of duke of York, which was bestowed upon +Edmund in 1385. Edmund's elder son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who +succeeded his father as duke of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, +appears to have resigned the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in +this year his younger brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In +the following year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry +V., and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, +Richard, who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle +Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held by Richard, +and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, afterwards King Edward +IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the Yorkist dynasty. + +In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon James +Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created him earl of +Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor James, 3rd +marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In 1651 when William, 2nd +duke of Hamilton, died, his English title became extinct. + +Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of earl of +Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his brother Henry, duke +of Gloucester, only to become extinct on Henry's death in the following +year. In 1661 Charles, the infant son of James, duke of York, afterwards +King James II., was designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but +the child died before the necessary formalities were completed. However, +two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were actually +created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died in childhood. +After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 it was proposed to +grant an English title to George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, +who, after his grandmother, the electress Sophia, and his father, the +elector George Louis, was heir to the throne of England; and to give +effect to this proposal George Augustus was created marquess and duke of +Cambridge in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of +Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in favour +of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He and his son are +dealt with below. + +ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was born in London on +the 24th of February 1774. Having studied at the university of +Göttingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the Hanoverian and British +armies, and, in November 1801, was created earl of Tipperary and duke of +Cambridge, becoming a member of the privy council in the following year. +The duke is chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on +the conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to the +rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was appointed +viceroy. He held this position until the separation of Great Britain and +Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and moderation, appears to have +ruled the country with great success during a difficult period. +Returning to England the duke became very popular, and was active in +supporting many learned and benevolent societies. He died in London on +the 8th of July 1850. In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter +of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his +successor, George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick +William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide +(1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck. + +GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLES, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), was +born at Hanover on the 26th of March 1819. He was thus about two months +older than his cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the +line of succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover by +the Rev. J.R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November 1837, after he had +served for a short time in the Hanoverian army, the rank of colonel in +the British army was conferred upon him, and he was attached to the +staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in +Ireland with the 12th Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 +colonel of the 17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he +was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then promoted +major-general. In October 1846 he took command of the Limerick district, +and shortly afterwards of the Dublin district. In 1850 his father died, +and he succeeded to the dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry +in 1852, he held that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the +Crimean War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and +Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June of the same +year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was present at the battles +of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, and at the siege of Sevastopol. On +the 15th of July 1856 he was appointed general commanding-in-chief, on +the 9th of November 1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, +commander-in-chief. The long period during which he held the command of +the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War brought to light +great administrative defects, and led to a regrouping of the +departments, which, with the whole personnel of the army, were brought +under the authority of the secretary of state for war. The +constitutional changes involved did not, however, affect seriously the +organization of the military forces. Only in 1870, after the successes +of Prussia had created a profound impression, were drastic changes +introduced by Cardwell into the entire fabric of the army. The objects +of the reformers of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods +adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by the duke of +Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority of officers. Further +changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again the duke found much to +criticize. His opinions stand recorded in the voluminous evidence taken +by the numerous bodies appointed to inquire into the condition of the +army. They show a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations +as such, a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this +judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally supposed +is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout the period of +change, while protesting, the duke invariably accepted and loyally +endeavoured to carry out the measures on which the government decided. +In a memorandum addressed to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude +as follows:--"Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state +policy it is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, I +am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability." This attitude +he consistently maintained in all cases in which his training and +associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate changes the need +for which was not apparent to him. His judgment was especially +vindicated in the case of an ill-advised reduction of the artillery +carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under the order in council of February +1888, the whole responsibility for military duties of every kind was for +the first time centred upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out +by the Hartington commission in 1890, involved "an excessive +centralization" which "must necessarily tend to weaken the sense of +responsibility of the other heads of departments, and thus to diminish +their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose position entailed many +duties apart from those strictly appertaining to a commander-in-chief, +could not give personal attention to the vast range of matters for which +he was made nominally responsible. On the other hand, the +adjutant-general could act in his name, and the secretary of state could +obtain military advice from officials charged with no direct +responsibility. The effect was to place the duke in a false position in +the eyes of the army and of the country. If the administration of the +army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which violated +principles. His active control of its training during the whole period +of his command was less hampered, and more directly productive of good +results. + +Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge evinced a warm +interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great experience combined +with a retentive memory made him a master of detail. He was famous for +plain, and strong, language; but while quick to condemn deviations from +the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great precision +in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural kindliness made him +ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the older generation of soldiers, +he could not easily adapt himself to the new conditions, and in +dispensing patronage he was somewhat distrustful of originality, while +his position as a member of the royal family tended to narrow his scope +for selection. He was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations +of pure seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The +army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge it had a +commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly anxious amid +many difficulties to promote its well-being. The duke resigned the +commandership-in-chief on the 1st of November 1895, and was succeeded by +Lord Wolseley, the duties of the office being considerably modified. He +was at the same time gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces. +He was made ranger of Hyde Park and St James's Park in 1852, and of +Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military Academy in 1862, +and its president in 1870, and personal aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria +in 1882. He died on the 17th of March 1904 at Gloucester House, London. +The chief honours conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835; +G.C.M.G., 1845; G.C.B., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he was +president of Christ's hospital. The duke of Cambridge was married to +Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge after her marriage. +She died in 1890. + + See Rev. E. Sheppard, _George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir of his + Private Life_ (London, 1906); and Willoughby Verner, _Military Life of + the Duke of Cambridge_ (1905). + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802), English poet, was born in London on +the 14th of February 1717. He was educated at Eton and at St John's +College, Oxford. Leaving the university without taking a degree, he took +up residence at Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and +went to live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In +1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society of many +notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes many jesting +allusions to Cambridge in the character of newsmonger. He died at +Twickenham on the 17th of September 1802. His chief work is the +_Scribleriad_ (1751), a mock epic poem, the hero of which is the +Martinus Scriblerus of Pope, Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded +by a dissertation on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his +master. The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read by +literary people; but it never became popular, and the allusions, always +obscure, have little interest for the present-day reader. He made a +valuable contribution to history in his _Account of the War in +India...on the Coast of Coromandel from the year 1750 to 1760..._ +(1761). He had intended to write a history of the rise and progress of +British power in India, but this enterprise went no further than the +work just named, as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the +use of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan. + + _The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq., including several Pieces + never before published, with an Account of his Life and Character by + his Son, George Owen Cambridge_ (1803), includes, besides the + _Scribleriad_, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty + papers originally published in Edward Moore's paper called _The + World_. His poems are included in A. Chalmers's _English Poets_ + (1816). + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough, the seat of a +university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, 56 m. N. by +E. of London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the Great +Northern, London & North-Western and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379. +It lies in a flat plain at the southern border of the low Fen country, +at an elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part +of the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a tributary +of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To the south and west +the slight hills bordering the fenland rise gently. The parliamentary +borough of Cambridge returns one member. The municipal borough is under +a mayor, 12 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres. + + + History + +Cambridge University[1] shares with that of Oxford the first place among +such institutions in the British empire. It is the dominating factor in +the modern importance of the town, and it is therefore necessary to +outline the historical conditions which led to its establishment. The +geographical situation of Cambridge, in its present appearance +possessing little attraction or advantage, calls nevertheless for first +consideration. Cambridge, in fact, owed its growth to its position on a +natural line of communication between the east and the midlands of +England, flanked on the one hand by the deep forests which covered the +uplands, on the other by the unreclaimed fens, then desolate and in +great part impenetrable. The importance of this highway may be judged +from the number of early earthworks in the vicinity of Cambridge; and +the Castle Hill, at the north side of the present town (near the west +bank of the river), is perhaps a British work. Roman remains discovered +in the same locality give evidence of the existence of a small town or +village at the junction of roads; the name of _Camboritum_ is usually +attached to it, but without certainty. The modern name of Cambridge has +no connexion with this. The present form of the name has usually been +derived from a corruption of the original name Grantebrycge or +Grantabridge (Skeat); but Mr Arthur Gray points out that there is no +documentary evidence for this corruption in the shape of such probable +intermediate forms as Grantebrig or Crantebrig. On the other hand, he +brings evidence to show that the name Cantebrig, though not applied to +the whole town, was very early given to that quarter of it near the +Cante brig, i.e. the bridge over the Cante (the ward beyond the Great +Bridge was called "Parcelle of Cambridge" as late as 1340); in this +quarter, close to the bridge, Cambridge castle was built by the +Conqueror, and from the castle and the castle-quarter the name spread +within sixty years to the whole town, the similarity between the names +Grantebrig and Cantebrig playing some part in this extension (_The Dual +Origin of the Town of Cambridge_, p. 31). Granta is the earlier and +still an alternative name of the river Cam, this more common modern form +having been adopted in sympathy with the modern name of the town. +Cambridge had a further importance from its position at the head of +river navigation, and a charter of Henry I., in which the town is +already referred to as a borough, grants it exclusive rights as a +river-port, and regulates traffic and tolls. The wharves lay principally +along that part of the river where are now the celebrated "backs" of +some of the colleges, whose exquisite grounds slope down to the water. +The great Sturbridge or Stourbridge Fair at Barnwell, formerly one of +the most important in England, is a further illustration of the ancient +commercial importance of Cambridge; the oldest known charter concerning +it dates from the opening of the 13th century, though its initiation may +perhaps be placed a century before. + +Concerning the early municipal history of Cambridge little is known, but +at the time of the Domesday survey its citizens felt themselves strong +enough to protest against the exactions of the Norman sheriff, Roger +Picot; and the town had attained a considerable degree of importance +when, in 1068, William the Conqueror built a castle on the site known as +Castle Hill, and used it as a base of operations against Hereward the +Wake and the insurgents of the fenland. Cambridge, however, has +practically no further military history. From the 14th century onward +materials were taken from the castle by the builders of colleges, while +the gatehouse, the last surviving portion, was removed in 1842. + +The medieval spirit of emulation between the universities of Cambridge +and Oxford resulted in a series of remarkable fables to account for the +foundation of both. That of Cambridge was assigned to a Spanish prince, +Cantaber, in the 4321st year after the Creation. A charter from King +Arthur dated 531, and the transference of students from Cambridge to +Oxford by King Alfred, were also claimed as historical facts. The true +germ of the university is to be sought in the religious foundations in +the town. The earliest to be noticed is the Augustinian house of St +Giles, founded by Hugoline, wife of Roger Picot the sheriff, in 1092; +this was removed in 1112 to Barnwell, where the chapel dedicated to St +Andrew the Less is practically the sole remnant of its buildings. In +1224 the Franciscans came to Cambridge, and later in the same century a +number of other religious orders settled here, such as the Dominicans, +the Gilbertines and the Carmelites, who had before been established at +Newnham. Students were gradually attracted to these several religious +houses, and Cambridge was already recognized as a centre of learning +when, in 1231, Henry III. issued a writ for its governance as such, +among other provisions conferring certain disciplinary powers on the +bishop of Ely. It soon became evident that the influence of the +religious orders on those who came to them for instruction was too +narrow. This was recognized elsewhere, for it was in order to counteract +that influence that Walter de Merton drew up the statute of governance +for his foundation of Merton College, Oxford, a statute which was soon +afterwards used as a model by Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely, when, in +1281-1284 he founded the first Cambridge college, Peterhouse. + +The friction between town and university, due in the main to the +conflict of their jurisdictions, the tradition of which, as in the +sister university, died hard in the annual efforts of some +undergraduates to revive the "town and gown" riots, culminated during +the rebellion of Wat Tyler (1381) in an episode which is alone worthy of +record and may serve to illustrate the whole. This was an attack by the +rabble, instigated, it is said, by the more reputable townspeople, on +the colleges, several of which were sacked. The attack was ultimately +defeated by the courage and resource of Henry Spenser or Le Dispencer, +bishop of Norwich. The relations of the university of Cambridge with the +crown were never so intimate as those of Oxford. Henry III. fortified +the town with two gates, but these were burnt by the rebellious barons; +and in much later times the two first of the Stuart kings, and the two +first of the Georges, cultivated friendly personal relations with the +university. During the civil war the colleges even melted down their +plate for the war chest of King Charles; but Cambridge showed little of +the stubborn royalism of Oxford, and submitted to the Commonwealth +without serious resistance. + + + Colleges. + +The history of collegiate foundation in Cambridge after that of +Peterhouse may be followed through the ensuing description of the +colleges, but for ease of reference these are dealt with in alphabetical +order. The main street which traverses the town from south to north, +parallel to, and at a short distance from the river, is known +successively as Trumpington Street, King's Parade, Trinity Street, St +John's Street and Bridge Street. The majority of the colleges lie on +either side of this street, and chiefly between it and the river. Those +of St John's, Trinity, Trinity Hall, Clare, King's and Queens' present +the famous "backs" towards the river, which is crossed by a series of +picturesque bridges leading to the gardens and grounds on the opposite +bank. + +_Christ's College_ is not among the group indicated above; it stands +farther to the east, in St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1505 by +the Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII. It incorporated God's +House, which had been founded by William Bingham, a cleric of London, in +1439, had been removed when the site was required for part of King's +College, and had been refounded with the countenance of Henry VI. in +1448. This was a small house, but the Lady Margaret's endowment provided +for a master, twelve fellows and forty-seven scholars. Edward VI. added +another fellowship and three scholarships and the present number of +fellows is fifteen. There are certain exhibitions in election to which +preference is given to schools in the north of England--Giggleswick, +Kirkby Lonsdale, Skipton and Sedbergh. The buildings of Lady Margaret's +foundation were in great part faced in classical style in the 17th +century; a building east of the old quadrangle is also of this period, +and is ascribed to Inigo Jones. The rooms occupied by the foundress +herself are preserved, though in an altered condition, as are those of +the poet Milton, who was educated here, and with whom the college has +many associations. In the fine gardens is an ancient mulberry tree +believed to have been planted by him. Among illustrious names connected +with this college are John Leland the antiquary, Archdeacon Paley, +author of the _Evidences_, and Charles Darwin, while Henry More and +others of the school of Cambridge Platonists in the 17th century were +educated here. + +_Clare College_ lies close to the river, south of Trinity Hall. In 1326 +the university erected a hall, known as University Hall, to accommodate +a number of students, and in 1338 Elizabeth de Burgh, countess of +Clare, re-endowed the hall, which took the name of Clare Hall, and only +became known as college in 1856. There was a strong ecclesiastical +tendency in this foundation; six out of the twenty fellows were to be +priests when elected. The foundation now consists of a master and +fifteen fellows, besides scholars, of whom three receive emoluments from +the endowment of Lady Clare. The old college buildings were in great +part destroyed by fire in 1521; the present buildings date from 1638 to +1715, and are admirable examples of their period. They surround a very +beautiful quadrangle, and the back towards the river is also fine. +Unconfirmed tradition indicates the poet Chaucer as an _alumnus_ of this +college; other famous men associated with it were Hugh Latimer the +martyr, Ralph Cudworth, one of the "Platonists," and Archbishop +Tillotson. + +_Corpus Christi College_ (commonly called Corpus) stands on the east +side of Trumpington Street. The influence of medieval gilds in +Cambridge, the character of which was primarily religious, was +exceedingly strong. About the beginning of the 14th century there is +first mentioned the gild of St Mary, which was connected with Great St +Mary's church. The gild was at this time prosperous, but about 1350, +when the idea of the foundation of a college by the gilds was matured, +the fraternity of St Mary lacked the means to proceed save by +amalgamating with another gild, that of Corpus Christi. The age of this +institution, whose church was St Benedict's or St Bene't's, is not +known. By the two gilds, therefore, the "House of Scholars of Corpus +Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary" was founded in 1352, the foundation +being the only instance of its kind. In early times it was commonly +known as St Bene't's from the church connected with the Corpus gild +which stands over against the college, and served as its chapel for +nearly three centuries. The foundation consists of a master and twelve +fellows, with scholars of the old and later foundations. The ancient +small quadrangle remains, and is of historical rather than architectural +interest. The great quadrangle dates from 1823-1825. The library +contains the famous collection of MSS. bequeathed by Archbishop Matthew +Parker, _alumnus_ of the college, in the 16th century. + +_Downing College_ is in the southern part of the town, to the east of +Trumpington Street. Sir George Downing, baronet, of Gamlingay Park, who +died in 1749, left estates to various relations, who died without issue. +In this event, Downing's will provided for the foundation of a college, +but the heirs contested the will with the university, and in spite of a +decision against them in 1769, continued to hold the estates for many +years, so that it was not until 1800 that the charter for the college +was obtained. The foundation-stone was laid in 1807, and the two ranges +of buildings, in classical style, represent all that was completed of an +intended quadrangle. The foundation consists of a master, professors of +English law and of medicine, six fellows and six scholars. + +_Emmanuel College_ overlooks St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1584 +by Sir Walter Mildmay (_c_. 1520-1589), chancellor of the exchequer and +privy councillor under Queen Elizabeth. The foundation, considerably +enlarged from the original, consists of a master, sixteen fellows and +thirty scholars. There are further scholarships on other foundations +which are awarded by preference to pupils of Uppingham and other schools +in the midlands. Emmanuel was noted from the outset as a stronghold of +Puritanism; it is indeed recorded that Elizabeth rallied the founder on +his intention that this should be so. Mildmay assuredly had the welfare +of the church primarily at heart, and he attempted to provide against +the life residence of fellows, which he considered an unhealthy feature +in some colleges. The site of Emmanuel was previously occupied by a +Dominican friary, and some of its buildings were adapted to collegiate +uses. There is only a little of the earliest building remaining; the +greater part of the present college dates from the second half of the +18th century. The chapel, however, is by Sir Christopher Wren (1677). +Richard Holdsworth, Gresham professor, and William Sancroft, archbishop +of Canterbury, were masters of this college; Bishops Joseph Hall and +Thomas Percy were among its _alumni_, as was John Harvard, principal +founder of the great American college which bears his name. + +_Gonville and Caius College_ (commonly called Caius, pronounced Kees), +stands mainly on the west side of Trinity Street. It arose out of an +earlier foundation. In 1348 Edmund Gonvile or Gonevill founded the hall +of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which was commonly called +Gonville Hall, for the education of twenty scholars in dialectic and +other sciences, with endowment for a master and three fellows. This hall +stood on part of the present site of Corpus, but on the death of its +founder in 1351 it was moved to the north-west corner of the site of the +present Caius, by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of +Trinity Hall. The famous physician John Caius (q.v.), who was educated +at this small institution, later conceived the idea of refounding and +enlarging it, obtained a charter to do so in 1557, and became master of +the new foundation of Gonville and Caius College. The foundation +consists of a master and not less than twenty-two fellows, exclusive of +the provision under the will of William Henry Drosier (d. 1889), doctor +of medicine and fellow of the college, for the endowment of seven +additional fellowships. Since its refoundation by Caius, the college has +had a peculiar connexion with the study of medicine, while, besides many +eminent physicians, Sir Thomas Gresham, Judge Jeffreys, Robert Hare, +Jeremy Taylor, Henry Wharton and Lord Thurlow are among its noted names. +Three sides of the main quadrangle, Tree Court, including the frontage +towards Trinity Street, are modern (1870). The interior of this court is +picturesque, and the design of the smaller Caius Court was inspired by +Caius himself. He also designed the gates of Honour, Virtue and +Humility, of which the two first stand _in situ_; the gate of Honour is +a peculiarly good example of early Renaissance work. Caius is buried in +the chapel. + +_Jesus College_ lies apart from and to the north-east of the majority of +the colleges. It was founded in 1406 by John Alcock, bishop of Ely. The +site was previously occupied by a Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St +Radigund, which was already in existence in the first half of the 12th +century and was claimed by Alcock to have been founded from Ely, to the +bishops of which it certainly owed much. The name given to Alcock's +college was that of "the most Blessed Virgin Mary, St John the +Evangelist, and the glorious Virgin Saint Radigund," but it appears that +the founder himself intended the name to be Jesus College. He provided +for a master and six fellows, but the foundation now consists of a +master and sixteen fellows, with twenty scholars or more. There are +several further scholarships confined to the sons of clergymen of the +Church of England. Architecturally Jesus is one of the most interesting +colleges in Cambridge, for Alcock retained, and there still remains, a +considerable part of the old buildings of the nunnery. The most +important of these is the church, which Alcock, by removing most of the +nave and other portions, converted into the usual form of a college +chapel. The tower, however, is retained. The bulk of the building is an +admirable example of Early English work, but there are traces of Norman; +and Alcock added certain Perpendicular features. Of the rest of the +college buildings, the hall is Alcock's work, the brick gatehouse is a +fine structure of the close of the 15th century, while the cloister is a +little later, and stands on the site of the nuns' cloister. Another +court dates from the 17th and early 18th centuries, and there is a +considerable amount of modern building. The most famous name connected +with Jesus College is that of Cranmer. Among many others are Sir Thomas +Elyot, John Bale, John Pearson, bishop of Chester, Hugh Peters, Gilbert +Wakefield, Thomas Malthus, Laurence Sterne and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. + +_King's College_ has its fine frontage upon the western side of King's +Parade. It was founded by King Henry VI. in 1441. The first site was +small and circumscribed, and in 1443 the existing site was with +difficulty cleared of dwellings. The king designed a close connexion +between this college and his other foundation at Eton; he provided for a +provost and for seventy scholars, all of whom should be Etonians. In +1861 open scholarships were instituted, and the foundation now consists +of a provost, forty-six fellows and forty-eight scholars. Half the +scholarships are still appropriated to Eton. An administrative +arrangement peculiar to King's College is that by which the provost has +absolute authority within its walls, to the exclusion of officers of the +University. The chief architectural ornament of the college, and one of +the most notable in the town, is the magnificent Perpendicular chapel, +comparable with those of St George at Windsor and Henry VII. at +Westminster Abbey. The building was begun in 1446, and extended (apart +from the interior fittings) over nearly seventy years. Within, the most +splendid features are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout the +chapel, the noble range of stained-glass windows, which date for the +most part from the early part of the 16th century, and the wooden organ +screen, which, with part of the stalls, is of the time of Henry VIII. +The college services are celebrated for the beauty of their music. The +bulk of the other collegiate buildings are of the 18th century or +modern. The old court of King's College is occupied by the modern +university library, north of the chapel; the gateway, a good example +(1444), is preserved. John Frith the Martyr, Richard Croke, Giles +Fletcher, Richard Mulcaster, Sir William Temple, William Oughtred, the +poet Waller, and Horace Walpole and others of his family are among many +illustrious _alumni_ of the college. + +_Magdalene College_ (pronounced Maudlin) stands on the west bank of the +Cam, near the Great Bridge. In 1428 the Benedictines of Crowland Abbey +founded a home for student monks on this site, and in 1519 Edward, duke +of Buckingham, partly secularized this institution by founding +Buckingham College in connexion with it. After the dissolution of the +monastery, Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden, erected Magdalene in place of +the former house in 1542. The foundation consists of a master and seven +fellows, besides scholars. There are some valuable exhibitions +appropriated to Wisbech school. The appointment of the master is +peculiar, the office being in the gift of the occupant of Audley End, an +estate near Saffron Walden, Essex. Some parts of the original building +are preserved, but the most notable portion of the college is the +Pepysian library, dating _c_. 1700. It contains the very valuable +collection of books bequeathed by Samuel Pepys to the college, at which +he was a student. Buckingham College had Archbishop Cranmer as a +lecturer; Charles Kingsley and Charles Stewart Parnell were educated at +Magdalene. + +_Pembroke College_ stands to the east of Trumpington Street. It was +founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, widow of Aylmer de Valence, earl of +Pembroke. Henry VI. made notable benefactions to it. The foundation +consists of a master and thirteen fellows, and there are six +scholarships on the original foundation, besides others of later +institution. The older existing buildings are mainly of the 18th +century, but much of the original fabric was removed and rebuilt in +1874. The chapel is of the middle of the 17th century, and is ascribed +to Sir Christopher Wren. The poets Spenser and Gray, Nicholas Ridley the +martyr, Archbishop Whitgift and William Pitt were associated with this +college; and from the number of bishops whose names are associated with +it the college has obtained the style of _collegium episcopale_. + +_Peterhouse_ or St Peter's College is on the west side of Trumpington +Street, almost opposite Pembroke. It has already been indicated as the +oldest Cambridge college (1284). Hugh de Balsham, the founder, had +settled some secular scholars in the ancient Augustinian Hospital of St +John in 1280, but the experiment was not a success. Nor did he carry out +his full intentions as regards Peterhouse, the foundation of which +followed on the failure of the fusion of his scholars with the hospital; +but Simon Montagu, his successor in the bishopric of Ely, carried on his +work, and in 1344 gave the college a code of statutes in which the +influence of the Merton code is plainly visible. A master and fourteen +fellows formed the original foundation, but the present consists of a +master, and not less than eleven fellows and twenty-three scholars. The +hall retains some original work; it was first built out of a legacy from +the founder. The library building (_c_. 1590) is due to a legacy from Dr +Andrew Perne (master 1554-1580); and Dr Matthew Wren (master +1625-1634), uncle of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, directed +the building of the chapel and cloisters. The most famous name connected +with the college is that of Cardinal Beaufort. + +_Queens' College_ stands at the south of the riverside group, and one of +its ranges of buildings rises immediately from the river. A college of +St Bernard had been established in 1445 by Andrew Docket or Dokett, +rector of St Botolph's church, who had also been principal of a hostel, +or students' lodge, of St Bernard. He sought and obtained the patronage +of Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., who undertook the foundation of +a new house on another site in 1448, to bear the name of Queens'. Docket +became the first master. In 1465 Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward +IV., became the college's second foundress. The foundation consists of a +president and eleven fellows. The buildings are exceedingly picturesque. +The main quadrangle, of red brick, was completed very soon after the +foundation. The smaller cloister court, towards the river, retains +building of the same period, and the beautiful wooden gallery of the +president's lodge deserves notice. Another court is called Erasmus's; +the rooms which he is said to have occupied remain, and a walk in the +college garden across the river bears his name. + +_St Catharine's College_, on the west side of Trumpington Street, was +founded by Dr Robert Woodlark or Wodelarke, chancellor of the university +and (1452) provost of King's College. It was opened in 1473, but the +charter of incorporation dates from 1475. The foundation provided for a +master (Woodlark being the first) and three fellows; there are now six +fellows, and twenty-six scholars. The principal buildings, surrounding a +court on three sides, date mainly from a complete reconstruction of the +college at the close of the 17th century. + +_St John's College_, at the north of the riverside group of colleges, +was founded in 1511 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, also foundress of +Christ's College. It replaced the Hospital of St John, which dated from +the early years of the 13th century, and has been mentioned already in +connexion with Peterhouse. The Lady Margaret died before the college was +firmly established, and her designs were not carried out without many +difficulties, which were overcome chiefly by the exertions of John +Fisher, bishop of Rochester, one of her executors. Thirty-two +fellowships were endowed, but subsequent endowments allowed extension, +and the foundation now consists of a master, fifty-six fellows, sixty +scholars and nine sizars. A large number of exhibitions are appropriated +to special schools. Of the four courts of St John's, the easternmost is +the original, and has a very fine Tudor gateway of brick. The chapel is +modern (1863-1869), an ornate example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. +The second court, practically unaltered, dates from 1508-1602. In this +there is a beautiful Masters' gallery, panelled, with a richly-moulded +ceiling; it is now used as a combination room or fellows' common-room. +The third court, which contains the library (1624), backs on to the +river, and the fourth, which is on the opposite bank, was built _c_. +1830. A covered bridge connects the two, and is commonly called the +Bridge of Sighs from a certain resemblance to the bridge of that name at +Venice. Among the notable names connected with this college are Cecil, +Lord Burghley, Thomas Cartwright, Wentworth, earl of Strafford, Roger +Ascham, Richard Bentley, John Cleveland, the satirist, Thomas Baker, the +historian, Lord Palmerston, Professor Adams, Sir John Herschel, Bishop +Colenso, Dr Benjamin Kennedy, Dean Merivale, Horne Tooke, Samuel Parr +and William Wilberforce, and the poets Herrick (afterwards of Trinity +Hall) and Wordsworth. + +_Selwyn College_, standing west of the river (Sidgwick Avenue), was +founded in 1882 by public subscription in memory of George Augustus +Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand and afterwards of Lichfield, for the +purpose of giving university education with economy "combined," +according to the charter, "with Christian training, based upon the +principles of the Church of England." + +_Sidney Sussex College_ faces Sidney Street. It was founded under the +will (1588) of the Lady Frances Sidney, dowager countess of Sussex (d. +1589), and received its charter in 1596. The foundress provided for a +master, ten fellows and twenty scholars, but thirty-six scholarships +are now provided. The original buildings were of brick, but they were +plastered over and greatly altered by Wyatville about 1830. The Grey +Friars had occupied the site, and part of their buildings remained in +the chapel until 1777. A beautiful block of new buildings, with a +cloister, was erected in 1890. The most famous name associated with the +college is that of Oliver Cromwell, who was a fellow commoner, as also +was Thomas Fuller, author of the _Worthies of England_. + +_Trinity College_, the front of which is on Trinity Street, is the +largest collegiate foundation in Cambridge, and larger than any in +Oxford. It was founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. and absorbed several +earlier institutions--King's Hall (founded by Edward III. in 1336), St +Michael's or Michaelhouse (founded by Hervey de Stanton, chancellor of +the exchequer under Edward II., in 1323), Fyswick or Physick's Hostel, +belonging to Gonville Hall, and other hostels. Henry's original +foundation was for a master and sixty fellows and scholars, but Queen +Mary and other later benefactors enabled extensions to be made, and the +foundation now consists of a master (appointed by the crown), at least +sixty fellows, seventy-four scholars and sixteen sizars, with minor +scholars, chaplains librarian and the regius professors of Divinity, +Hebrew and Greek. Major scholarships are open to undergraduates, not +being of standing to take the degree of bachelor of arts, as well as to +non-members of the university under nineteen years of age, while minor +scholarships and exhibitions are open only to the latter. There are +valuable exhibitions appropriated to certain schools, of which the most +important are those confined to Westminster school. Trinity College is +entered from Trinity Street by the King's Gateway (1518-1535) preserved +from King's Hall, but subsequently altered. The principal or Great Court +is the largest in Cambridge and very fine. Its buildings are of +different dates. In the centre is a picturesque fountain, erected by +Thomas Neville, master (1593-1615), under whose direction much of the +building was carried out. The chapel on the north side of the court was +begun in the reign of Mary. The carved oak fittings within date from the +mastership of Richard Bentley (1700-1742). The organ is particularly +fine. A statue of Sir Isaac Newton by Roubiliac stands in the +antechapel, and Richard Porson and William Whewell are buried here. The +hall on the west of the court is Neville's work (1605), and very +beautiful. The second court is also his foundation and bears his name. +The library on the west side is the work of Sir Christopher Wren. Its +interior is excellent, and besides busts of some of the vast number of +famous men connected with Trinity, it contains a statue of Lord Byron by +the Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen. The New Court, Gothic in style, was +begun in 1823. The beautiful grounds and walks of the college extend +down to and beyond the river. The college has extended its buildings to +the opposite side of Trinity Street, where the two courts known as +Whewell's Hostel were built (c. 1860) at the charge of Dr William +Whewell during his mastership. The eminent _alumni_ of this great +college are too numerous to admit of selection. + +_Trinity Hall,_ which lies near the river, south of Trinity, was founded +by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich, in 1350. On the site there had +been, for about twenty years before the foundation, a house of monastic +students from Ely. The present college is alone in preserving the term +Hall in its title. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen +fellows, and the study of law, which the founder had especially in mind, +is provided for by lectureships, and not less than three studentships +tenable by graduates of the college. The buildings are for the most part +modern or modernized, but the interior of the library well preserves its +character of the early part of the 17th century. + + + University buildings. + +Of the churches of Cambridge one has long been recognized as the church +of the university, namely Great St Mary's, which stands in the centre of +the town, between King's Parade and Market Hill. It is a fine +Perpendicular structure, founded in 1478; but the tower was not +completed until 1608. Some Decorated details are preserved from a former +building. The university preachers deliver their sermons in this +church, but it was formerly the meeting-place of the university for the +transaction of business, for learned disputations and for secular +festivals. The "Cambridge chimes" struck by the clock are famous, and a +curfew is rung each evening on the great bell. The Senate House, +standing opposite Great St Mary's, dates from 1730 and is classical in +style. The buildings of the university library, in the immediate +vicinity, enclose two quadrangles, and in part occupy the site of the +old court of King's College. One of the quadrangles was formerly +occupied by the schools or lecture rooms, but as the library grew it +usurped their place. Important modern additions date from 1842, 1864 and +1888. The facade of the old schools is an excellent work of 1758. The +library is one of those which is entitled to receive, under the +Copyright Act, a copy of every book published in the United Kingdom. The +Fitzwilliam Museum, a massive classical building, was begun in 1837 to +contain the bibliographical and art collection bequeathed by Richard, +Viscount Fitzwilliam, in 1816. The museum of archaeology (classical, +general and local, 1884), is connected with the Fitzwilliam Museum. The +Pitt Press (1833), housing the university printing establishment, was +begun out of the residue of a fund for erecting the statues of William +Pitt in Hanover Square, London, and Westminster Abbey. It stands near +Pembroke, Pitt's college. The Selwyn Divinity School (1879), opposite St +John's College, was built largely at the charge of Dr William Selwyn, +Lady Margaret professor of divinity. The museums and lecture rooms +(begun in 1863) are extensive buildings on each side of Downing Street. +Included in these are the museum of zoology, which had its origin in +collections made by Sir Busick Harwood, professor of anatomy in +1785-1814, and contains the collection of fishes made by Charles Darwin +in the ship "Beagle"; the medical school, botanical museum and +herbarium, mineralogical museum, engineering laboratory (1894), optical +and astronomical lecture room, chemical laboratory (1887), and the +Cavendish laboratory for physical research (1874), the gift of William +Cavendish, 7th duke of Devonshire and chancellor of the university. The +Sedgwick Geological Museum, opened by King Edward VII. in 1904, +commemorates Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian professor of geology, and +originated in the collections of Dr John Woodward (d. 1728). Adjoining +this building, in Downing Street is the law library, founded on a +bequest from Miss Rebecca Flower Squire (d. 1898) with the law school. +The observatory (1824) is on the outskirts of the town in Madingley +Road, and the botanic garden (founded 1762, and removed to its present +site in 1831) borders Trumpington Road. The club-rooms and debating hall +of the Cambridge Union Society are adjacent to the Holy Sepulchre +church. + +The non-collegiate students of the university (i.e. those who receive +the university education and possess the same status as collegiate +students without belonging to any college) have lecture and other rooms +and a library in Fitzwilliam Hall. This body was created in 1869. The +students reside in lodgings. There are two women's colleges--Girton, +established in 1873 on the north-western outskirts of the town, having +been previously opened at Hitchin in 1869, and Newnham (1875), +originally (1873) a hall of residence for students attending special +lectures for women. Among other educational establishments mention must +be made of the Leys school, founded in 1875 by prominent Wesleyans for +non-sectarian education, and the Perse School, an ancient foundation +remodelled in 1902. + + + Non-university buildings. + +Out of a number of ancient churches in Cambridge, two, besides Great St +Mary's, deserve special notice. In St Benedict's or Benet's, which has +been already mentioned in connexion with Corpus College, the tower is of +great interest, being the oldest surviving building in Cambridge, of +pre-Norman workmanship, having rude ornamentation on the exterior and +the tower arch within. The church of the Holy Sepulchre in Bridge Street +is one of the four ancient round churches in England. Its supposed date +is 1120-1140, but although it is doubtless to be associated with the +Knights Templars, the circumstances of its foundation are not known. +The chancel is practically a modern reconstruction, and an extensive +restoration, which has been adversely criticized, was applied by the +Cambridge Camden Society to the whole fabric in 1841. At several of the +villages neighbouring or suburban to Cambridge there are churches of +interest, as at Chesterton, Trumpington, Grantchester (where the name +indicates a Roman station, borne out by the discovery of remains), Fen +Ditton and Barnwell, near which is the Norman Sturbridge chapel. In +Cambridge itself there is a Norman house, much altered, which by a +tradition of unknown origin bears the name of the School of Pythagoras. + + + University constitution and administration. + +The university is a corporate body, including all the colleges. These, +however, are also corporations in themselves, and have their own +statutes, but they are further subject to the paramount laws of the +university. The university statutes of Queen Elizabeth were only +replaced in 1858. The statutes as revised by a commission in that year +were soon found to require emendation; in 1872 another commission was +appointed, and in 1882 new statutes received the approval of the queen +in council. The head of the university is the chancellor. He is a member +of the university, of high rank and position, elected by the senate. +Being generally non-resident, he delegates his administrative duties to +the vice-chancellor, who is the head of a college, and is elected for +one year by the senate. The principal executive officers under the +vice-chancellor are as follows. The two proctors have as their main duty +that of disciplinary officers over the members of the university _in +statu pupillari_. In each year two colleges nominate one proctor each, +according to a fixed rotation which gives the larger colleges a more +frequent choice than the smaller. The proctors are assisted by four +pro-proctors. The public orator is the spokesman of the senate upon such +public occasions as the conferring of honorary degrees. The librarian +has charge of the university library. The registrary, with his +assistant, records the proceedings of the senate, &c., and has charge of +documents. The university returns two members to parliament, elected by +the members of the senate. The chancellor and _sex viri_ (elected by the +senate) form a court for offences against the university statutes by +members not _in statu pupillari_. The chancellor and six heads of +colleges, appointed by the senate, form a court of discipline for +members _in statu pupillari_. + + + Senate. + +The senate in congregation is the legislative body. Those who have votes +in it are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of divinity, law, +medicine, science, letters and music, and masters of art, law, surgery +and music. The council of the senate, consisting of the chancellor, +vice-chancellor, four heads of colleges, four professors and eight other +members of the senate chosen by the vice-chancellor, brings all +proposals (called Graces) before the senate. The revenues of the +university are derived chiefly from fees at matriculation, for certain +examinations, and for degrees, from a tax upon all members of the +university, and from contributions by the colleges, together with the +profits of the University Press. A financial board, consisting of the +vice-chancellor _ex officio_ and certain elected members, administers +the finances of the university. There are boards for each of the various +faculties, and a General Board of Studies, with the vice-chancellor at +the head. There are university professors, readers or lecturers in a +large number of subjects. The oldest professorship is the Lady Margaret +professorship of divinity, instituted by the founders of Christ's and St +John's Colleges in 1502. In 1540 Henry VIII. founded the regius +professorships of divinity, civil law, physic, Hebrew and Greek. + + + College organization--undergraduates. + +The head of a college generally bears the title of master, as indicated +above in the account of the several colleges. It has also seen that the +foundation of each college includes a certain number of fellows and +scholars. The affairs of the college are managed by the head and the +fellows, or a committee of fellows. The scholars and other members _in +statu pupillari_ are generally termed collectively undergraduates. Those +who receive no emoluments (and therefore pay the full fees) are +technically called pensioners, and form the bulk of the undergraduates. +Another group of students receiving emoluments are termed sizars; the +primary object of sizarships is to open the university course to men of +limited means. The title of fellow-commoners belongs to wealthy students +who pay special fees and have the right of dining at the fellows' +tables. This class has virtually ceased to exist. As regards his work, +the undergraduate in college is under the intimate direction of his +tutor; the disciplinary officer in college is the dean. Besides the +foundation scholarships in each college there are generally certain +scholarships and exhibitions founded by private or special benefactions; +these are frequently awarded for the encouragement of specific branches +of study, or are confined wholly, or by preference, to students from +certain schools. + + + Residence and examinations. + +The total number of students is about 3000. The colleges cannot +accommodate this number, so that a student commonly spends some part of +his residence in lodgings, which are licensed by, and under the control +of, the university authorities. Such residence implies no sacrifice of +membership of a college. There are three terms--Michaelmas (October), +Lent and Easter (summer). They include together not less than 227 days, +though the actual period of residence for undergraduates is about 24 +weeks annually. Undergraduates usually begin residence in Michaelmas +term. An elementary examination or other evidence of qualification is +required for admission to a college. After nine terms' (three years') +residence an undergraduate can take the first degree, that of bachelor +of arts (B.A.). The examinations required for the ordinary B.A. degree +are--(1) Previous examination or Little-go (usually taken in the first +term of residence or at least in the first year), including classics, +mathematics and a gospel in Greek and Paley's _Evidences of +Christianity_, or an additional Greek or Latin classic and logic. (2) +General examination in classics and mathematics, with a portion of +English history, &c. (3) Special examination in a subject other than +classical or mathematical. Candidates for honours are required to pass +the Previous examination with certain additional subjects; they then +have only a "tripos" examination in one of the following +subjects--mathematics, classics, moral sciences, natural sciences, +theology, law, history, oriental languages, medieval and modern +languages, mechanical sciences, economics. The mathematical tripos is +divided into two parts, in the first of which, down to 1909, the +candidates were classed in the result as Wranglers, Senior Optimes and +Junior Optimes. There was also an individual order of merit, the most +proficient candidate being placed at the head of the list as Senior +Wrangler. But in 1906 a number of important reforms of this tripos were +proposed by the Mathematical Board, and among these the abolition of the +individual order of merit was recommended and passed by the senate. It +is not employed in any other tripos. The classical tripos is also in two +parts, to the second of which certain kindred subjects are added +(ancient philosophy, history, &c.). Individual order of merit is not +observed in either part, the candidates being grouped in classes. There +are a large number of university prizes and scholarships on special +foundations. Such are the Smith's prizes for mathematics and natural +philosophy, on the foundation (1768) of Robert Smith, master of Trinity, +awarded up to 1883 after examination, but since then for an essay on +some branch of each subject, and the Chancellor's medals, of which two +have been awarded annually in classics since the foundation of the +prizes in 1751 by Thomas Holles, duke of Newcastle. + + + Affiliated colleges. + +The university may adopt as affiliated colleges institutions in the +United Kingdom or in any part of the British empire which fulfil certain +conditions as to the education of adult students. Attendance at these +institutions is counted as equivalent to a certain period of residence +at Cambridge University in the event of a student wishing to pursue his +work here. There are over twenty such affiliated colleges. There are +also, in England, certain "affiliated centres." These are towns in which +there is no affiliated college, but students who have there attended a +course of education managed in connexion with the university by a +committee may enter the university with privileges similar to those +enjoyed by students from affiliated colleges. + + + May week. + +The principal social function of the university is the "May Week" at the +close of the Easter term. It actually takes place in June and lasts +longer than a week. There is a great influx of visitors into Cambridge +for this occasion. The first four days are occupied by the college +boat-races on the Cam, and on subsequent days there are college balls, +concerts, theatrical performances and other entertainments. On the +Tuesday after the races there is a Congregation, at which prize +exercises are recited, and usually, but not invariably, a number of +honorary degrees are conferred on eminent men by invitation. This final +period of the academic year is called Commencement, or in Latin _Comitia +Maxim_. + + AUTHORITIES.--For details of the administration of the university and + colleges, regulations as to studies, prizes, scholarships, &c., see + the annual _Cambridge University Calendar_ and _The Students' Handbook + to the University and Colleges of Cambridge_; see also R. Willis and + J.W. Clark, _Architectural History of the University of Cambridge_ (3 + vols., Cambridge, 1886); J. Bass Mullinger, _History of the University + of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to the Accession of Charles I._ + (2 vols., 1873-1884; third vol., 1909); and smaller _History of + Cambridge_, in Longman's "Epoch" Series (1888); J.W. Clark, + _Cambridge, Historical and Picturesque_ (London, 1890); T.D. Atkinson, + _Cambridge Described and Illustrated_, with introduction by J.W. Clark + (London, 1897); F.W. Maitland, _Township and Borough_ (Cambridge, + 1898); C.W. Stubbs, _Cambridge_, in "Mediaeval Towns" series (London, + 1905); Arthur Gray, _The Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge_ + (publications of the Cambridge Antiquarian Soc., new ser. No. I, + Cambridge, 1908); J.W. Clark, _Liber memorandorum ecclesie de + Bernewelle_ (Cambridge, 1907), with an introduction by F.W. Maitland. + For the individual colleges, see the series of _College Histories_, by + various authors (London, 1899 et seq.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See also UNIVERSITIES. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Dorchester county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on the Choptank river, near Chesapeake Bay, about 60 m. S.E. of +Baltimore. Pop. (1890) 4192; (1900) 5747 (1958 being negroes); (1910) +6407. It is served by the Cambridge branch of the Philadelphia, +Baltimore & Washington railway (Pennsylvania railway), which connects +with the main line at Seaford, 30 m. distant, and with the Baltimore, +Chesapeake & Atlantic at Hurlock, 16 m. distant; and by steamers of the +Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway company. It is a business +centre for the prosperous farming region by which it is surrounded, and +is a shipping point for oysters and fish; among its manufactures are +canned fruits and vegetables, flour, hominy, phosphates, underwear and +lumber. Cambridge was founded in 1684, received its present name in +1686, and was chartered as a city in 1900. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and one of the county-seats of Middlesex county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Charles river, in the outskirts +of Boston, of which it is in effect a part, although under separate +government. Pop. (1880) 52,669; (1890) 70,028; (1900) 91,886; (1910 +census) 104,839. Of the total population in 1900, 30,446 were +foreign-born, including 11,235 Irish, 9613 English Canadians, 1944 +English, 1483 French Canadians and 1584 Swedish; and 54,200 were of +foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 24,961 of Irish +parentage, 9829 of English-Canadian parentage, 2587 of English +parentage, and 2288 of French-Canadian parentage. Cambridge is entered +directly by only one railway, the Boston & Maine. The township, now +practically built over by the city, contained originally several +separate villages, the names of which are still used as a convenience in +designating corresponding sections of the municipality: Old Cambridge, +North Cambridge, Cambridgeport and East Cambridge, the last two being +manufacturing and commercial districts. + +Old Cambridge is noted as the seat of Harvard University (q.v.) and as a +literary and scientific centre. Radcliffe College (1879), for women, +practically a part of Harvard; an Episcopal Theological School (1867), +and the New Church (Swedenborgian or New Jerusalem) Theological School +(1866) are other educational institutions of importance. To Cambridge +also, in 1908, was removed Andover Theological Seminary, a +Congregational institution chartered in 1807, opened in Andover, +Massachusetts, in 1808 (re-incorporated under separate trustees in +1907). This seminary is one of the oldest and most famous theological +institutions in the United States; it grew out of the theological +teaching previously given in Phillips Academy, and was founded by the +widow of Lt.-Governor Samuel Phillips, her son John Phillips and Samuel +Abbot (1732-1812). The instruction was strongly Calvinistic in the +earlier period, but the seminary has always been "equally open to +Protestants of every denomination." Very liberal aid is given to +students, and there is no charge for tuition. The _Bibliotheca Sacra_, +founded in 1843 by Edward Robinson and in 1844 taken over by Professors +Bela B. Edwards and Edwards A. Park, and the _Andover Review_ +(1884-1893), have been the organs of the seminary. In 1886 some of its +professors published _Progressive Orthodoxy_, a book which made a great +stir by its liberal tone, its opposition to supernaturalism and its +evident trend toward the methods of German "higher criticism." Legal +proceedings for the removal of five professors, after the publication of +this book, failed; and their successful defence helped to secure greater +freedom in thought and in instruction in American Presbyterian and +Congregational theological seminaries. The seminary is now affiliated +with Harvard University, though it remains independent and autonomous. + +Cambridge is a typical New England city, built up in detached +residences, with irregular streets pleasantly shaded, and a considerable +wealth of historic and literary associations. There are many reminders +of the long history of Harvard, and of the War of Independence. +Cambridge was the site of the camp of the first American army, at the +outbreak of the war, and from it went the detachment which intrenched on +Bunker's Hill. Here are the Apthorp House (built in 1760), in which +General Burgoyne and his officers were lodged as prisoners of war in +1777; the elm under which, according to tradition, Washington took +command of the Continental Army on the 3rd of July 1775; the old Vassall +or Craigie House (1759), where Washington lived in 1775-1776, and which +was later the home of Edward Everett, Joseph E. Worcester, Jared Sparks +and (1837-1882) Henry W. Longfellow. Elbridge Gerry lived and James +Russell Lowell was born, lived and died in "Elmwood" (built in 1767); +Oliver Wendell Holmes was born in Cambridge also; John Fiske, the +historian, lived here; and there are many other literary associations, +attractive and important for those interested in American letters. In Mt +Auburn Cemetery are buried many artists, poets, scholars and other men +and women of fame. Cambridge is one of the few American cities +possessing a crematorium (1900). The municipal water-works are +excellent. A handsome bridge joining Cambridgeport to Boston (cost about +$2,250,000) was opened late in 1906. Four other bridges span the Charles +river between the two cities. A dam between East Cambridge and Boston, +traversed by a roadway 150 ft. wide, was in the process of construction +in 1907; and an extension of the Boston subway into Cambridge to the +grounds of Harvard University, a distance of about 3 m., was projected. +The city government is administered almost entirely under the state +civil-service laws, Cambridge having been a leader in the adoption of +its provisions. A non-partisan association for political reform did +excellent work from 1890 to 1900, when it was superseded by a +non-partisan party. Since 1887 the city has declared yearly by +increasing majorities for prohibition of the liquor traffic. The high +schools enjoy a notable reputation. A handsome city hall (cost $235,000) +and public library (as well as a manual training school) were given to +the city by Frederick H. Rindge, a one-time resident, whose benefactions +to Cambridge aggregated in value $650,000. Cambridge has many +manufacturing establishments, and in 1905 the city's factory products +were valued at $42,407,064, an increase of 45.8% over their value in +1900. The principal manufactures are slaughtering and meat-packing +products, foundry and machine-shop products, rubber boots and shoes, +rubber belting and hose, printing and publishing products, carpentering, +pianos and organs, confectionery and furniture. Cambridge is one of the +chief publishing centres of the country. The tax valuation of property +in 1906 ($105,153,235) was more than $1000 per inhabitant. + +Cambridge is "one of the few American towns that may be said to have +owed their very name and existence to the pursuit of letters" (T.W. +Higginson). Its site was selected in 1630 by Governor Winthrop and +others as suitable for fortifications and defence, and it was intended +to make it the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; but as Boston's +peninsular position gave it the advantage in commerce and in defence +against the Indians, the plan fell through, although up to 1638 various +sessions of the general court and particular courts were held here. The +township records (published) are continuous since 1632. A direct tax for +the wooden "pallysadoe" about Cambridge led the township of Watertown in +1632 to make the first protest in America against taxation without +representation. The settlement was first known as the "New Towne," but +in 1638 was named Cambridge in honour of the English Cambridge, where +several score of the first immigrants to the colony were educated. The +oldest college in America (Harvard) was founded here in 1636. In 1639 +there was set up in Cambridge the first printing press of British North +America (Boston having none until 1676). Other notable dates in history +are 1637 and 1647, when general synods of New England churches met at +Cambridge to settle disputed doctrine and define orthodoxy; the +departure for Connecticut of Thomas Hooker's congregation in 1636; the +meeting of the convention that framed the present constitution of the +commonwealth, 1779-1780; the separation of the Congregationalists and +Unitarians of the first parish church, in 1829; and the grant of a city +charter in 1846. The original township of Cambridge was very large, and +there have been successively detached from it, Newton (1691), Lexington +(1713), Brighton (1837) and Arlington (1867). + + See Lucius R. Paige, _History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630-1877_ + (Boston, Mass., 1877); T.W. Higginson, _Old Cambridge_ (New York, + 1899); Arthur Gilman (ed.), _The Cambridge of Eighteen Hundred and + Ninety-Six_ (Cambridge, 1896); and _Historic Guide to Cambridge_ + (Cambridge, 1907.) + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Guernsey county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on Wills Creek, about 75 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4361; +(1900) 8241, of whom 407 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,327. It is +served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and is +connected by an electric line with Byesville (pop. in 1910, 3156), about +7 m. S. Cambridge is built on a hill about 800 ft. above sea-level. +There is a public library. Coal, oil, natural gas, clay and iron are +found in the vicinity, and among the city's manufactures are iron, +steel, glass, furniture and pottery. The value of its factory products +in 1905 was $2,440,917. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works. Cambridge was first settled in 1798 by emigrants from the +island of Guernsey (whence the name of the county); was laid out as a +town in 1806; was incorporated as a village in 1837; and was chartered +as a city in 1893. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS, a school of philosophico-religious thinkers which +flourished mainly at Cambridge University in the second half of the 17th +century. The founder was Benjamin Whichcote and the chief members were +Ralph Cudworth, Richard Cumberland, Joseph Glanvill, Henry More and John +Norris (see separate articles). Other less important members were +Nathanael Culverwel (d. 1651?), Theophilus Gale (1628-1678), John +Pordage (1607-1681), George Rust (d. 1670), John Smith (1618-1652) and +John Worthington (1618-1671). They represented liberal thought at the +time and were generally known as Latitudinarians. Their views were due +to a reaction against three main tendencies in contemporary English +thought: the sacerdotalism of Laud and his followers, the obscurantist +sectaries and, most important of all, the doctrines of Hobbes. They +consist chiefly of a reconciliation between reason and religion, +resulting in a generally tolerant spirit. They tend always to mysticism +and the contemplation of things transcendental. In spite of inaccuracy +and the lack of critical capacity in dealing with their authorities both +ancient and modern, the Cambridge Platonists exercised a valuable +influence on English theology and thought in general. Their chief +contributions to thought were Cudworth's theory of the "plastic nature" +of God, More's elaborate mysticism, Norris's appreciation of +Malebranche, Glanvill's conception of scepticism as an aid to Faith, +and, in a less degree, the harmony of Faith and Reason elaborated by +Culverwel. The one doctrine on which they all combined to lay especial +emphasis was the absolute existence of right and wrong quite apart from +the theory of divine authority. Their chief authorities were Plato and +the Neo-platonists (between whom they made no adequate distinction), and +among modern philosophers, Descartes, Malebranche and Boehme. From these +sources they attempted to evolve a philosophy of religion, which would +not only refute the views of Hobbes, but would also free theology +finally from the errors of scholasticism, without plunging it in the +newer dangers of unfettered rationalism (see ETHICS). + + See Tulloch, _Rational Theology in England in the 17th Century_; + Hallam, _Literature of Europe_ (chap, on Philosophy from 1650 to + 1700); Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_; von Stein, _Sieben Bucher + zur Geschichte des Platonismus_ (1862), and works on individual + philosophers appended to biographies. + + + + +CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by +Lincolnshire, E. by Norfolk and Suffolk, S. by Essex and Hertfordshire, +and W. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire. The area +is 858.9 sq. m. The greater part of the county falls within the district +of the Fens, and is flat, elevated only a few feet above sea-level, and +intersected with innumerable drainage channels. The physical +characteristics of this district, and the history of its reclamation +from a marshy and in great part uninhabitable condition, fall for +consideration under the heading FENS. Except in the south of the county +the scenery of the flat land is hardly ever varied by rising ground or +wood, and owes the attraction it possesses rather to individuality than +to beauty. At the south-eastern and southern boundaries, and to the west +of Cambridge, bordering the valley of the Cam on the north, the land +rises in gentle undulations; but for the rest, such elevations as the +Gog Magog Hills, S.E. of Cambridge, and the gentle hillock on which the +city of Ely stands, are isolated and conspicuous from afar. The +principal rivers are the Ouse and its tributaries in the south and +centre, and the Nene in the north; the greater part of the waters of +both these rivers within Cambridgeshire flow in artificial channels, of +which those for the Ouse, two great parallel cuts between Earith and +Denver Sluice, in Norfolk, called the Bedford Rivers, form the most +remarkable feature in the drainage of the county. The old main channel +of the Ouse, from Ely downward to Denver (below which are tidal waters), +is filled chiefly by the waters of the Cam or Granta, which joins the +Ouse 3 m. above Ely, the Lark (which with its feeder, the Kennett, forms +the boundary of the county with Suffolk for a considerable distance) and +the Little Ouse, forming part of the boundary with Norfolk. + +_Geology_.--By its geological features, Cambridgeshire is divisible into +three well-marked regions; in the south and south-east are the low +uplands formed by the Chalk; north of this, but best developed in the +south-west, is a clay and greensand area; all the remaining portion is +alluvial Fenland. The general strike of the rocks is along a south-west +and north-east line, the dip is south-easterly. The oldest rock is the +Jurassic Oxford Clay, which appears as an irregular strip of elevated +flat ground reaching from Croxton by Conington and Fenny Drayton to +Willingham and Rampton. Eastward and northward it no doubt forms the +floor of the Fen country, and at Thorney and Whittlesea small patches +rise like islands, through the level fen alluvium. The Coralline Oolite, +with the Els worth or St Ives rock at the base, occurs as a small patch, +covered by Greensand, at Upware, whence many fossils have been obtained; +elsewhere its place is taken by the Ampthill Clays, which are passage +beds between the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. The latter clay lies in a +narrow strip by Papworth St Agnes, Oakington and Cottenham; a large +irregular outcrop surrounds Haddenham and Ely, and similar occurrences +are at March, Chatteris and Manea. Above the Kimmeridge Clay comes the +Lower Greensand, sandy for the greater part, but here and there +hardened into the condition known as "Carstone," which has been used as +an inferior building-stone. This formation is thickest in the +south-west; it extends from the border by Gamlingay, Cuxton and +Cottenham, and appears again in outliers at Upware, Ely and Haddenham. +The Gault forms a strip of flat ground, 4 to 6 m. wide, running roughly +parallel with the course of the river Cam, from Guilden Morden through +Cambridge to Soham; it is a stiff blue clay 200 ft. thick in the +south-west, but is thinner eastward. At the bottom of the chalk is the +Chalk Marl, 10 to 20 ft. thick, with a glauconitic and phosphatic +nodule-bearing layer at its base, known as the Cambridge Greensand. This +bed has been largely worked for the nodules and for cement; it contains +many fossils derived from the Gault below. Several outliers of Chalk +Marl lie upon the Gault west of the Cam. The Chalk comprises all the +main divisions of the formation, including the Totternhoe stone, +Melbourn rock and Chalk rock. Much glacial boulder clay covers all the +higher ground of the county; it is a stiff brownish clay with many chalk +fragments of travelled rocks. Near Ely there is a remarkable mass of +chalk, evidently transported by ice, resting on and surrounded by +boulder clay. Plateau gravel caps some of the chalk hills, and old river +gravels occur at lower levels with the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros and +other extinct mammals. The low-lying Fen beds are marly silt with +abundant peat beds and buried forests; at the bottom is a gravel layer +of marine origin. + +_Industries_.--The climate is as a whole healthy, the fens being so +carefully drained that diseases to which dwellers in marshy districts +are commonly liable are practically eliminated. The land is very +fertile, and although some decrease is generally apparent in the acreage +under grain crops, Cambridgeshire is one of the principal +grain-producing counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total +area is under cultivation, and an unusually small proportion is under +permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop, but large quantities +of barley and oats are also grown. Among green crops potatoes occupy a +large and increasing area. Dairy-farming is especially practised in the +south-west, where the district of the Cam valley has long been known as +the Dairies; and much butter and cheese are sent to the London markets. +Sheep are pastured extensively on the higher ground, but the number of +these and of cattle for the county as a whole is not large. Beans occupy +a considerable acreage, and fruit-growing and market-gardening are +important in many parts. There is no large manufacturing industry common +to the county in general; among minor trades brewing is carried on at +several places, and brick-making and lime-burning may also be mentioned. + +_Communications_.--The principal railway serving the county is the Great +Eastern, of which system numerous branch lines centre chiefly upon +Cambridge, Ely and March. Cambridge is also served by branches of the +Great Northern line from Hitchin, of the London & North-Western from +Bletchley and Bedford, and of the Midland from Kettering. A trunk line +connecting the eastern counties with the north and north-west of England +runs northward from March under the joint working of the Great Northern +and Great Eastern companies. The artificial waterways provide the county +with an extensive system of inland navigation; and a considerable +proportion of the industrial population is employed on these. In this +connexion the building of boats and barges is carried on at several +towns. + +_Population and Administration_.--The area of the ancient county is +549,723 acres, with a population in 1891 of 188,961, and in 1901 of +190,682. The ancient county includes the two administrative counties of +Cambridge in the south and the Isle of Ely in the north. The liberty of +the Isle of Ely was formerly of the independent nature of a county +palatine, but ceased to be so under acts of 1836 and 1837. Its area is +238,048 acres, and that of the administrative county of Cambridge +315,171 acres. Cambridgeshire contains seventeen hundreds. The municipal +boroughs are Cambridge, the county town (pop. 38,379), in the +administrative county of Cambridge, and Wisbech (9381) in the Isle of +Ely. The other urban districts are--in the administrative county of +Cambridge, Chesterton (9591), and in the Isle of Ely, Chatteris (4711), +Ely (7713), March (7565) and Whittlesey (3909). Among other considerable +towns Soham (4230) and Littleport (4181), both in the neighbourhood of +Ely, may be mentioned. The town of Newmarket, which, although wholly +within the administrative county of West Suffolk, is mainly in the +ancient county of Cambridgeshire, is famous for its race-meetings. The +county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at +Cambridge. Each administrative county has a court of quarter sessions, +and the two are divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The borough +of Cambridge has a separate court of quarter sessions, and this borough +and Wisbech have separate commissions of the peace. The university of +Cambridge exercises disciplinary jurisdiction over its members. There +are 168 entire civil parishes in the two administrative counties. +Cambridgeshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Ely and the +archdeaconries of Ely and Sudbury, but small portions are within the +dioceses of St Albans and Norwich. There are 194 ecclesiastical parishes +or districts wholly or in part within the county. The parliamentary +divisions are three, namely, Northern or Wisbech, Western or Chesterton, +and Eastern or Newmarket, each returning one member. The county also +contains the parliamentary borough of Cambridge, returning one member; +and the university of Cambridge returns two members. + +_History_.--The earliest English settlements in what is now +Cambridgeshire were made about the 6th century by bands of Engles, who +pushed their way up the Ouse and the Cam, and established themselves in +the fen-district, where they became known as the Gyrwas, the districts +corresponding to the modern counties of Huntingdonshire and +Cambridgeshire being distinguished as the lands of the North Gyrwas and +the South Gyrwas respectively. At this period the fen-district stretched +southward as far as Cambridge, and the essential unity which it +preserved is illustrated later by its inclusion under one sheriff, +chosen in successive years from Cambridgeshire proper, the Isle of Ely +and Huntingdonshire. In 656 numerous lands in the neighbourhood of +Wisbech were included in the endowment of the abbey of Peterborough, and +in the same century religious houses were established at Ely and +Thorney, both of which, however, were destroyed during the Danish +invasions of the 9th century. After the treaty of Wedmore the district +became part of the Danelaw. On the expulsion of the Danes by Edward in +the 10th century it was included in East Anglia, but in the 11th century +was again overrun by the Danes, who in the course of their devastations +burnt Cambridge. The first mention of the shire in the Saxon Chronicle +records the valiant resistance which it opposed to the invaders in 1010 +when the rest of East Anglia had taken ignominious flight. The +shire-system of East Anglia was in all probability not definitely +settled before the Conquest, but during the Danish occupation of the 9th +century the district possessed a certain military and political +organization round Cambridge, its chief town, whence probably originated +the constitution and demarcation of the later shire. At the time of the +Domesday Survey the county was divided as now, except that the Isle of +Ely, which then formed two hundreds having their meeting-place at +Witchford, is now divided into the four hundreds of Ely, Wisbech, North +Witchford and South Witchford, while Cambridge formed a hundred by +itself. The hundred of Flendish was then known as Flamingdike. +Cambridgeshire was formerly included in the diocese of Lincoln, until, +on the erection of Ely to a bishop's see in 1109, almost the whole +county was placed in that diocese. In 1291 the whole county, with the +exception of parishes in the deanery of Fordham and diocese of Norwich, +constituted the archdeaconry of Ely, comprising the deaneries of Ely, +Wisbech, Chesterton, Cambridge, Shingay, Bourn, Barton and Camps. The +Isle of Ely formerly constituted an independent franchise in which the +bishops exercised quasi-palatinate rights, and offences were held to be +committed against the bishop's peace. These privileges were considerably +abridged in the reign of Henry VIII., but the Isle still had separate +civil officers, appointed by the bishop, chief among whom were the +chief justice, chief bailiff, deputy bailiff and two coroners. The +bishop is still _custos rotulorum_ of the Isle. Cambridgeshire has +always been remarkable for its lack of county families, and for the +frequent changes in the ownership of estates. No Englishmen retained +lands of any importance after the Conquest, and at the time of the +Domesday Survey the chief lay proprietors were Alan, earl of Brittany, +whose descendants the Zouches retained estates in the county until the +15th century; Picot the sheriff, whose estates passed to the families of +Peverell and Peche; Aubrey de Vere, whose descendants retained their +estates till the 16th century; and Hardwinus de Scalariis, ancestor of +the Scales of Whaddon. + +From the time of Hereward's famous resistance to the Conqueror in the +fen-district, the Isle of Ely was intimately concerned with the great +political struggles of the country. It was defended against Stephen by +Bishop Nigellus of Ely, who fortified Ely and Aldreth, and the latter in +1144 was held for the empress Maud by Geoffrey de Mandeville. During the +struggles between John and his barons, Faukes de Breauté was made +governor of Cambridge Castle, which, however, surrendered to the barons +in the same year. The Isle of Ely was seized by the followers of Simon +de Montfort in 1266, but in 1267 was taken by Prince Edward. At the +Reformation period the county showed much sympathy with the Reformers, +and in 1642 the knights, gentry and commoners of Cambridgeshire +petitioned for the removal of all unwarrantable orders and dignities, +and the banishment of popish clergy. In the civil war of the 17th +century Cambridgeshire was one of the associated counties in which the +king had no visible party, though the university assisted him with +contributions of plate and money. + +Cambridgeshire has always been mainly an agricultural county. The +Domesday Survey mentions over ninety mills and numerous valuable +fisheries, especially eel-fisheries, and contains frequent references to +wheat, malt and honey. The county had a flourishing wool-industry in the +14th century, and became noted for its worsted cloths. The Black Death +of 1349 and the ravages committed during the Wars of the Roses were +followed by periods of severe depression, and in 1439 several +Cambridgeshire towns obtained a remission of taxation on the plea of +poverty. In the 16th century barley for malt was grown in large +quantities in the south, and the manufacture of willow-baskets was +carried on in the fen-districts. Saffron was extensively cultivated in +the 18th century, and paper was manufactured near Sturbridge. Sturbridge +fair was at this period reckoned the largest in Europe, the chief +articles of merchandise being wool, hops and leather; and the Newmarket +races and horse-trade were already famous. Large waste areas were +brought under cultivation in the 17th century through the drainage of +the fen-district, which was brought to completion about 1652 through the +labours of Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman. The coprolite industry was +very profitable for a short period from 1850 to 1880, and its decline +was accompanied by a general industrial and agricultural depression. +Cambridgeshire returned three members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 +the county returned two members, the borough of Cambridge two members, +and the city of Ely two members, this being the sole return for Ely. The +university was summoned to return members in 1300 and again in 1603, but +no returns are recorded before 1614, after which it continued to return +two members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned three +members. + +_Antiquities_.--In ecclesiastical architecture Cambridgeshire would be +rich only in the possession of the magnificent cathedral at Ely and the +round church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jesus College and King's College +chapels, and many other examples in Cambridge. But there are many fine +churches elsewhere. At Thorney, a small town in the north of the county, +which owes much in appearance to the 8th duke of Bedford (d. 1872), the +parish church is actually a portion of the church of an abbey said to +date originally from the 7th century, and refounded in 972 by Ethelwold, +bishop of Winchester, as a Benedictine monastery. The church is partly +fine Norman. Another Norman building of special interest is Sturbridge +chapel near Cambridge, which belonged to a lepers' hospital. To this +foundation King John granted a fair, which became, and continued until +the 18th century, one of the most important in England. It is still held +in September. At Swaffham Prior there are remains of two churches in one +churchyard, the tower of one being good Transitional Norman, while that +of the other is Perpendicular, the upper part octagonal. Among many +Early English examples the church of Cherry Hinton near Cambridge may be +mentioned. The churches of Trumpington and Bottisham are fine specimens +of the Decorated style; in the first is a famous brass to Sir Roger de +Trumpington (1289). As Perpendicular examples the tower and spire of St +Mary's, Whittlesey, and the rich wooden roof of Outwell church, may be +selected. Monastic remains are scanty. Excluding the town of Cambridge +there are no domestic buildings, either ancient or modern, of special +note, with the exception of Sawston Hall, in the south of the county, a +quadrangular mansion dated 1557-1584. + + AUTHORITIES.--See D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_, vol. ii. part + i. (London, 1808); C.C. Babington, _Ancient Cambridgeshire_ + (Cambridge, 1883); R. Bowes, _Catalogue of Books printed at or + relating to Cambridge_ (Cambridge, 1891 et seq.); E. Conybeare, + _History of Cambridgeshire_ (London, 1897); _Victoria County History, + Cambridgeshire_. + + + + +CAMBUSLANG, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is situated near the +Clyde, 4½ m. S.E. of Glasgow (of which it is a residential suburb) by +the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891) 8323; (1901) 12,252. Its leading +industries include coal-mining, turkey-red dyeing and brick-making. It +contains one of the largest steel works in the United Kingdom. Among the +chief edifices are a public hall, institute and library. It was the +birthplace of John Claudius London (1783-1843), the landscape gardener +and writer on horticulture, whose _Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum_ +still ranks as an authority. + + + + +CAMBYSES (Pers. _Kambujiya_), the name borne by the father and the son +of Cyrus the Great. When Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 he was employed +in leading religious ceremonies (_Chronicle of Nabonidus_), and in the +cylinder which contains Cyrus's proclamation to the Babylonians his name +is joined to that of his father in the prayers to Marduk. On a tablet +dated from the first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babel. +But his authority seems to have been quite ephemeral; it was only in +530, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, that he +associated Cambyses on the throne, and numerous Babylonian tablets of +this time are dated from the accession and the first year of Cambyses, +when Cyrus was "king of the countries" (i.e. of the world). After the +death of his father in the spring of 528 Cambyses became sole king. The +tablets dated from his reign in Babylonia go down to the end of his +eighth year, i.e. March 521 B.C.[1] Herodotus (iii. 66), who dates his +reign from the death of Cyrus, gives him seven years five months, i.e. +from 528 to the summer of 521. For these dates cf. Ed. Meyer, +_Forschungen zur alien Geschichte_, ii. 470 ff. + +The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek authors, come from +two different sources. The first, which forms the main part of the +account of Herodotus (iii. 2; 4; 10-37), is of Egyptian origin. Here +Cambyses is made the legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries +(Herod, iii. 2, Dinon fr. 11, Polyaen. viii. 29), whose death he avenges +on the successor of the usurper Amasis. (In Herod, iii. 1 and Ctesias +_ap_. Athen. xiii. 560 D, this tradition is corrected by the Persians: +Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends him a daughter +of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by her Cambyses is induced to +begin the war.) His great crime is the killing of the Apis, for which he +is punished by madness, in which he commits many other crimes, kills his +brother and his sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a +wound in the hip, at the same place where he had wounded the sacred +animal. Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek +mercenaries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who +betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the crime of +Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further accused of +drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and thus accelerates his +ruin. These traditions are found in different passages of Herodotus, and +in a later form, but with some trustworthy detail about his household, +in the fragments of Ctesias. With the exception of Babylonian dated +tablets and some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary +evidence about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of Darius in +the Behistun inscription. It is impossible from these sources to form a +correct picture of Cambyses' character; but it seems certain that he was +a wild despot and that he was led by drunkenness to many atrocious +deeds. + +It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered Asia, Cambyses +should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only remaining independent +state of the Eastern world. Before he set out on his expedition he +killed his brother Bardiya (Smerdis), whom Cyrus had appointed governor +of the eastern provinces. The date is given by Darius, whereas the Greek +authors narrate the murder after the conquest of Egypt. The war took +place in 525, when Amasis had just been succeeded by his son +Psammetichus III. Cambyses had prepared for the march through the desert +by an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a large supply of +water to the stations. King Amasis had hoped that Egypt would be able to +withstand the threatened Persian attack by an alliance with the Greeks. +But this hope failed; the Cyprian towns and the tyrant Polycrates of +Samos, who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, +and the commander of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus, went +over to them. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the Egyptians were +beaten, and shortly afterwards Memphis was taken. The captive king +Psammetichus was executed, having attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian +inscriptions show that Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the +costume of the Pharaohs, although we may very well believe that he did +not conceal his contempt for the customs and the religion of the +Egyptians. From Egypt Cambyses attempted the conquest of Ethiopia +(Cush), i.e. the kingdom of Napata and Meroe, the modern Nubia. But his +army was not able to cross the deserts; after heavy losses he was forced +to return. In an inscription from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the +Ethiopian king Nastesen relates that he had beaten the troops of +Kembasuden, i.e. Cambyses, and taken all his ships (H. Schäfer, _Die +Aethiopische Königsinschrift des Berliner Museums_, 1901). Another +expedition against the great oasis failed likewise, and the plan of +attacking Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians to +operate against their kindred. Meanwhile in Persia a usurper, the Magian +Gaumata, arose in the spring of 522, who pretended to be the murdered +Bardiya (Smerdis). He was acknowledged throughout Asia. Cambyses +attempted to march against him, but, seeing probably that success was +impossible, died by his own hand (March 521). This is the account of +Darius, which certainly must be preferred to the traditions of Herodotus +and Ctesias, which ascribe his death to an accident. According to +Herodotus (iii. 64) he died in the Syrian Ecbatana, i.e. Hamath; +Josephus (_Ant._ xi. 2. 2) names Damascus; Ctesias, Babylon, which is +absolutely impossible. + + See A. Lincke, _Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und Kunst des + Mittelalters_, in _Aegyptiaca: Festschrift für Georg Ebers_ (Leipzig + 1897), pp. 41-61; also PERSIA: _Ancient History._ (Ed. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the much discussed tablet, which is said to date from his 11th + year, the writer had at first written "10th year of Cyrus," and then + corrected this date into "1st year of Cambyses"; see Strassmaier, + _Inschriften von Cambyses_, No. 97. + + + + +CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, 1ST EARL (1714-1794), lord chancellor of England, +was born in Kensington in 1714. He was a descendant of an old Devonshire +family of high standing, the third son of Sir John Pratt, chief-justice +of the king's bench in the reign of George I. He received his early +education at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. In 1734 he became a +fellow of his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of +B.A. Having adopted his father's profession, he had entered the Middle +Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the bar. He +practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling also the +western circuit. For some years his practice was so limited, and he +became so much discouraged, that he seriously thought of turning his +back on the law and entering the church. He listened, however, to the +advice of his friend Sir Robert Henley, a brother barrister, afterwards +known as Lord Chancellor Northington, and persevered, working on and +waiting for success. The first case which brought him prominently into +notice and gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government +prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen, for a libel on the +House of Commons. + +His speech for the defence contributed much to the verdict for the +defendant. In 1757, through the influence of William Pitt (afterwards +earl of Chatham), with whom he had formed an intimate friendship while +at Eton, he received the appointment of attorney-general. The same year +he entered the House of Commons as member for the borough of Downton in +Wiltshire. He sat in parliament four years, but did not distinguish +himself as a debater. His professional practice now largely increased. +One of the most noticeable incidents of his tenure of office as +attorney-general was the prosecution of Dr. J. Shebbeare (1709-1788), a +violent party writer of the day, for a libel against the government +contained in his notorious _Letters to the People of England_, which +were published in the years 1756-1758. As a proof of Pratt's moderation +in a period of passionate party warfare and frequent state trials, it is +noted that this was the only official prosecution for libel which he set +on foot. In January 1762 Pratt was raised to the bench as chief-justice +of the common pleas. He was at the same time knighted. Soon after his +elevation the nation was thrown into great excitement about the +prosecution of John Wilkes, and the question involved in it of the +legality of "general warrants." Chief-Justice Pratt pronounced, with +decisive and almost passionate energy, against their legality, thus +giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation and winning for himself +an extraordinary degree of popularity as one of the "maintainers of +English constitutional liberty." Honours fell thick upon him in the form +of addresses from the city of London and many large towns, and of +presentations of freedom from various corporate bodies. In July 1765 he +was raised to the peerage as Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in the +county of Kent; and in the following year he was removed from the court +of common pleas to take his seat as lord chancellor (July 30, 1766). +This seat he retained less than four years; for although he discharged +its duties in so efficient a manner that, with one exception, his +decisions were never reversed on appeal, he took up a position of such +uncompromising hostility to the governments of the day, the Grafton and +North administrations, on the greatest and most exciting matters, the +treatment of the American colonies and the proceedings against John +Wilkes, that the government had no choice but to require of him the +surrender of the great seal. He retired from the court of chancery in +January 1770, but he continued to take a warm interest in the political +affairs and discussions of the time. He continued steadfastly to oppose +the taxation of the American colonists, and signed, in 1778, the protest +of the Lords in favour of an address to the king on the subject of the +manifesto of the commissioners to America. In 1782 he was appointed +president of the council under the Rockingham administration, but +retired in the following year. Within a few months he was reinstated in +this office under the Pitt administration, and held it till his death. +Lord Camden was a strenuous opponent of Fox's India Bill, took an +animated part in the debates on important public matters till within two +years of his death, introduced in 1786 the scheme of a regency on +occasion of the king's insanity, and to the last zealously defended his +early views on the functions of juries, especially of their right to +decide on all questions of libel. He was raised to the dignity of an +earl in May 1786, and was at the same time created Viscount Bayham. Earl +Camden died in London on the 18th of April 1794. His remains were +interred in Seale church in Kent. + + + + +CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT, 2ND EARL and 1ST MARQUESS (1759-1840), only +son of the 1st earl, was born on the 11th of February 1750, and was +educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1780 he was chosen member of +parliament for Bath, and he obtained the lucrative position of teller of +the exchequer, an office which he kept until his death, although after +1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it. In the +ministry of William Pitt, Pratt was successively a lord of the admiralty +and a lord of the treasury; then, having succeeded his father in the +earldom in 1794, he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1795. +Disliked in Ireland as an opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation and as +the exponent of an unpopular policy, Camden's term of office was one of +commotion and alarm, culminating in the rebellion of 1798. Immediately +after the suppression of the rising he resigned, and in 1804 became +secretary for war and the colonies under Pitt, and in 1805 lord +president of the council. He was again lord president from 1807 to 1812, +after which date he remained for some time in the cabinet without +office. In 1812 he was created earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden. He +died on the 8th of October 1840, and was succeeded by his only son, +George Charles, 2nd marquess (1799-1866). The present marquess is his +descendant. Camden was chancellor of the university of Cambridge and a +knight of the Garter. + + + + +CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623), English antiquary and historian, was born +in London on the 2nd of May 1551. His father, Sampson Camden, a native +of Lichfield, had settled in London, and, as a painter, had become a +member of the company of painter-stainers. His mother, Elizabeth, +belonged to the old Cumberland family of Curwen. Young Camden received +his early education at Christ's Hospital and St Paul's school, and in +1566 went to Magdalen College, Oxford, probably as a servitor or +chorister. Failing to obtain a demyship at Magdalen he removed to +Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College, and later to Christ +Church, where he was supported by his friend, Dr Thomas Thornton, canon +of Christ Church. As a defender of the established religion he was soon +engaged in controversy, and his failure to secure a fellowship at All +Souls' College is attributed to the hostility of the Roman Catholics. In +1570 he supplicated in vain for the degree of B.A., and although a +renewed application was granted in 1573 it is doubtful if he ever took a +degree; and in 1571 he went to London and devoted himself to antiquarian +studies, for which he had already acquired a taste. + +Camden spent some time in travelling in various parts of England +collecting materials for his _Britannia_, a work which was first +published in 1586. Owing to his friendship with Dr Gabriel Goodman, dean +of Westminster, Camden was made second master of Westminster school in +1575; and when Dr Edward Grant resigned the headmastership in 1593 he +was appointed as his successor. The vacations which he enjoyed as a +schoolmaster left him time for study and travel, and during these years +he supervised the publication of three further editions of the +_Britannia_. Although a layman he was granted the prebend of Ilfracombe +in 1589, and in 1597 he resigned his position at Westminster on being +made Clarencieux king-at-arms, an appointment which caused some +ill-feeling, and the York herald, Ralph Brooke, led an attack on the +genealogical accuracy of the _Britannia_, and accused its author of +plagiarism. Camden replied to Brooke in an appendix to the fifth edition +of the _Britannia_, published in 1600, and his reputation came through +the ordeal untarnished. Having brought out an enlarged and improved +edition of the _Britannia_ in 1607, he began to work on a history of the +reign of Queen Elizabeth, to which he had been urged by Lord Burghley in +1597. The first part of this history dealing with the reign down to 1588 +was published in 1615 under the title _Annales rerum Anglicarum et +Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha_. With regard to this work some +controversy at once arose over the author's treatment of Mary, queen of +Scots. It was asserted that Camden altered his original narrative in +order to please James I., and, moreover, that the account which he is +said to have given to his friend, the French historian, Jacques de Thou, +differed substantially from his own. It seems doubtful if there is any +truth in either of these charges. The second part of this work, finished +in 1617, was published, after the author's death, at Leiden in 1625 and +in London in 1627. In 1622 Camden carried out a plan to found a history +lectureship at Oxford. He provided an endowment from some lands at +Bexley, and appointed as the first lecturer, his friend, Degory Wheare. +The present occupant of the position is known as the Camden professor of +ancient history. His concluding years were mainly spent at Chislehurst, +where he had taken up his residence in 1609, and in spite of recurring +illnesses he continued to work at material for the improvement of the +_Britannia_ and kindred subjects. He died at Chislehurst on the 9th of +November 1623, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument now +stands to his memory. + +The _Britannia_, the first edition of which is dedicated to Burghley, is +a survey of the British islands written in elegant Latin. It was first +translated into English in 1610, probably under the author's direction, +and other translations have subsequently appeared, the best of which is +an edition edited by Richard Gough and published in three volumes in +1789, and in four volumes in 1806. The _Annales_ has been translated +into French, and English translations appeared in 1635, 1675 and 1688. +The Latin version was published at Leiden in 1639 and 1677, and under +the editorship of T. Hearne at Oxford in 1717. In addition to these +works Camden compiled a Greek grammar, _Institutio Graecae Grammatices +Compendiaria_, which became very popular, and he published an edition of +the writings of Asser, Giraldus Cambrensis, Thomas Walsingham and +others, under the title, _Anglica, Hibernica, Normannica, Cambrica, a +veteribus scripta_, published at Frankfort in 1602, and again in 1603. +He also drew up a list of the epitaphs in Westminster Abbey, which was +issued as _Reges, Reginae, Nobiles et alii in ecclesia collegiata Beati +Petri Westmonasterii sepulti_. This was enlarged and published again in +1603 and 1606. In 1605 he published his _Remains concerning Britain_, a +book of collections from the _Britannia_, which quickly passed through +seven editions; and he wrote an official account of the trial of the +Gunpowder Plot conspirators as _Actio in Henricum Garnetum, Societatis +Jesuiticae in Anglia superiorem et caeteros_. + +Camden, who refused a knighthood, was a man of enormous industry, and +possessed a modest and friendly disposition. He had a large number of +influential friends, among whom were Archbishop Ussher, Sir Robert +Cotton, John Selden, the French jurist Brisson, and Isaac Casaubon. His +correspondence was published in London in 1691 by Dr Thomas Smith under +the title, _Vita Gulielmi Camdeni et Illustrium virorum ad G. Camdenum +Epistolae_. This-volume also contains his _Memorabilia de seipso_; his +notes of the reign of James I.; and other interesting matter. In 1838 +the Camden Society was founded in his honour, and much valuable work has +been done under its auspices. + + + + +CAMDEN, a city and the county-seat of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., +on the Delaware river, directly opposite Philadelphia, Pa. Pop. (1880) +41,659; (1890) 58,313; (1900) 75,935, of whom 10,097 were foreign-born +and 5576 were negroes; (1910) 94,538. It is a terminus of the Atlantic +City, the West Jersey & Sea Shore, and the Pennsylvania (Amboy division) +railways, and is also served by river and coasting steamboat lines. +Camden is practically a suburb of Philadelphia, with which it is +connected by ferries. It has several pleasant residential sections, and +among its public buildings are the city hall, the Camden county court +house, the post office, the free public library, the Cooper hospital and +the West Jersey homeopathic hospital. The high school has a thoroughly +equipped manual training department. The city owns and operates its +water-works system, and is an important manufacturing and ship-building +centre, among its manufactories being chemical works; asbestos, +wall-paper, oil-cloth and morocco-leather factories; woollen, worsted +and yarn mills; preserving factories; iron and steel mills; boot and +shoe factories; and ship-yards. In 1900 the total value of the city's +manufactured products was $20,451,874 (of which $17,969,954 was the +value of factory products, which in 1905 had increased 86.5% to +$33,587,273), several of the largest items being worsted goods +($2,090,991 in 1900, and $2,528,040 in 1905); leather, tanned, curried +and finished ($1,515,935 in 1900, and $6,364,928 in 1905); oil-cloth +($1,638,556 in 1900); pickles, preserves and sauces ($685,358 in 1900), +and wooden ships and boats ($409,500 in 1900, and $361,089 in 1905, when +the value of the iron and steel ship-building industry was $4,673,504). +The first settlers on the site of Camden came in 1679, but for a century +the settlement consisted of isolated farms and a small group of houses +about the ferry by which travellers from the east crossed to +Philadelphia. The early settlers were largely Quakers. About 1773 Jacob +Cooper laid out a town near the ferry, and gave it the name Camden in +honour of Lord Chancellor Camden, who had been one of the strongest +opponents of the Stamp Act. The settlement, however, was known variously +as "Pluckemin," "The Ferry" and "Cooper's Ferry" until about the time of +the War of 1812. Until 1828 it was administratively a part of the town +of Newton, Gloucester county, but in that year, with more than a +thousand inhabitants, it was chartered as a city under its present name. +During the British occupation of Philadelphia in the War of +Independence, a British force was stationed here, and Camden was the +scene of several skirmishes between the British troops and the New +Jersey irregular militia. Camden was the home of Walt Whitman from 1873 +until his death. + + + + +CAMDEN, a town and the county-seat of Kershaw county, South Carolina, +U.S.A., near the Wateree river, 33 m. N.E. of Columbia. Pop. (1890) +3533; (1900) 2441; this decrease was due to the separation from Camden +during the decade of its suburb "Kirkwood," re-annexed in 1905; (1910) +3569. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and +the Southern railways. Camden is situated about 100 ft. above the river, +which is navigable to this point. The town is a winter resort, chiefly +for Northerners. Cotton, grain and rice are produced in the vicinity, +and there are some manufactories, including cotton mills, a cotton-seed +oil mill and planing mills. Camden, first known as Pine Tree Hill, is +one of the oldest interior towns of the state, having been settled in +1758; in 1768 the present name was adopted in honour of Lord Chancellor +Camden. The town was first incorporated in 1791; its present charter +dates from 1890. For a year following the capture of Charleston by the +British in May 1780, during the War of Independence, Camden was the +centre of important military operations. It was occupied by the British +under Cornwallis in June 1780, was well fortified and was garrisoned by +a force under Lord Rawdon. On the 16th of August Gen. Horatio Gates, +with an American force of about 3600, including some Virginia militia +under Charles Porterfield (1750-1780) and Gen. Edward Stevens +(1745-1820), and North Carolina militia under Gen. Richard Caswell +(1729-1789), was defeated here by the British, about 2000 strong, under +Lord Cornwallis, who had joined Rawdon in anticipation of an attack by +Gates. Soon after the engagement began a large part of the Americans, +mostly North Carolina and Virginia militia, fled precipitately, carrying +Gates with them; but Baron De Kalb and the Maryland troops fought +bravely until overwhelmed by numbers, De Kalb himself being mortally +wounded. A monument was erected to his memory in 1825, Lafayette laying +the corner-stone. The British loss in killed, wounded and missing was +324; the American loss was about 800 or 900 killed and 1000 prisoners, +besides arms and baggage. On the 3rd of December Gates was superseded by +Gen. Nathanael Greene, who after Cornwallis had left the Carolinas, +advanced on Camden and arrived in the neighbourhood on the 19th of April +1781. Considering his force (about 1450) insufficient for an attack on +the fortifications, he withdrew a short distance north of Camden to an +advantageous position on Hobkirk's Hill, where on the 25th of April +Rawdon, with a force of only 950, took him somewhat by surprise and +drove him from the field. The casualties on each side were nearly equal: +American 271; British 258. On the 8th of May Rawdon evacuated the town, +after burning most of it. On the 24th of February 1865, during the Civil +War, a part of Gen. W.T. Sherman's army entered Camden and burned +stores of tobacco and cotton, and several buildings. (See AMERICAN WAR +OF INDEPENDENCE.) + + See also T.J. Kirkland and R.M. Kennedy, _Historic Camden_ (Columbia, + S.C., 1905). + + + + +CAMEL (from the Arabic _Djemal_ or the Heb. _Gamal_), the name of the +single-humped Arabian _Camelus dromedarius_, but also applied to the +two-humped central Asian _C. bactrianus_ and to the extinct relatives of +both. The characteristics of camels and their systematic position are +discussed under the headings TYLOPODA and ARTIODACTYLA. The two living +species are distinguishable at a glance. It may be mentioned that the +Bactrian camel, which is a shorter-legged and more ponderous animal than +the Arabian species, grows an enormously long and thick winter coat, +which is shed in blanket-like masses in spring. The Arabian camel, which +is used not only in the country from which it takes its name, but also +in North Africa and India, and has been introduced into Australia and +North America, is known only as a domesticated animal. On the other +hand, the Bactrian species, which is employed throughout a large tract +of central Asia in the domesticated condition, appears, according to +recent researches, to exist in the wild state in some of the central +Asian deserts. From the examination of specimens collected by Dr Sven +Hedin, Professor W. Leche shows that the wild Bactrian camel differs +from the domesticated breed of central Asia in the following external +characters: the humps are smaller; the long hair does not occupy nearly +so much of the body; the colour is much more rufous; and the ears and +muzzle are shorter. Many important differences are also recorded between +the skulls of the two animals, and it is especially noteworthy that the +last lower molar is smaller in the wild than in the tame race. In +connexion with this point it should be noticed that, unlike what occurs +in the yak, the wild animal is not larger than the tame one, although it +is incorrect to say that the former is decidedly the inferior of the +latter in point of stature. Dr Leche also institutes a comparison +between the skeletons of the wild and the tame Bactrian camel with the +remains of certain fossil Asiatic camels, namely, _Camelus knoblochi_ +from Sarepta, Russia, and _C. alutensis_ from the Aluta valley, Rumania. +This comparison leads to the important conclusion that the wild Bactrian +_Camelus bactrianus ferus_ comes much nearer to the fossil species than +it does to the domesticated breed, the resemblance being specially +noticeable in the absolutely and relatively small size of the last +molar. In view of these differences from the domesticated breed, and the +resemblance of the skull or lower jaw to that of the extinct European +species, it becomes practically impossible to regard the wild camels as +the offspring of animals that have escaped from captivity. + +On the latter hypothesis it has been generally assumed that the wild +camels are the descendants of droves of the domesticated breed which +escaped when certain central Asian cities were overwhelmed by +sand-storms. This theory, according to Professor Leche, is rendered +improbable by Dr Sven Hedin's observations on the habits and mode of +life of the wild camel. The habitat of the latter extends from the lower +course of the Keria river to the desert at the termination of that +river, and thence to the neighbourhood of the Achik, the ancient bed of +the Tarim river. These animals also occur in the desert district south +of the Tarim; but are most abundant in the deserts and mountains to the +southward of Kuruktagh, where there are a few brackish-water pools, and +are also common in the barren mountains between Kuruktagh and Choetagh. +Large herds have also been observed in the deserts near Altyntagh. The +capacity of camels for travelling long distances without water--owing to +special structural modifications in the stomach--is familiar to all. +That the Arabian species was one of the earliest animals to be +domesticated is evident from the record of Scripture, where six thousand +camels are said to have formed part of the wealth of the patriarch Job. +Camels also formed part of the present which Pharaoh gave to Abraham, +and it was to a company of Ishmaelites travelling from Gilead to Egypt +on camels, laden with spices, much as their Arabian descendants do at +the present day, that Joseph was sold by his brothers. + +The hump (or humps) varies in size according to the condition of the +animal, becoming small and flaccid after hard work and poor diet. + +During the rutting-season male camels become exceedingly savage and +dangerous, uttering a loud bubbling roar and engaging in fierce contests +with their fellows. The female carries her young for fully eleven +months, and produces only one calf at a time, which she suckles for a +year. Eight days after birth the young Arabian camel stands 3 ft. high, +but does not reach its full growth till its sixteenth or seventeenth +year; it lives from forty to fifty years. The flesh of the young camel +resembles veal, and is a favourite food of the Arabs, while camel's milk +forms an excellent and highly nutritious beverage, although it does not +furnish butter. The long hair is shorn every summer, and woven into a +variety of stuffs used by the Arab for clothing himself and his family, +and covering his tent. It was in raiment of camel's hair that John the +Baptist appeared as a preacher. The hair imported into Europe is chiefly +used in the manufacture of small brushes used by painters, while the +thick hide is formed into a very durable leather. The droppings are used +as fuel, and from the incinerated remains of these sal-ammoniac is +extracted, which was at one time largely exported from Egypt. + +The Bactrian camel is, if possible, of still more importance to many of +the central Asian Mongol races, supplying them alike with food and +raiment. It is, however, as "the ship of the desert," without which vast +tracts of the earth's surface could scarcely be explored, that the camel +is specially valuable. In its fourth year its training as a beast of +burden begins, when it is taught to kneel and to rise at a given signal, +and is gradually accustomed to bear increasing loads. These vary in +weight from 500 to 1000 lb., according to the variety of camel employed, +for of the Arabian camel there are almost as many breeds as there are of +the horse. When crossing a desert camels are expected to carry their +loads 25 m. a day for three days without drink, getting a supply of +water, however, on the fourth; but the fleeter breeds will carry their +rider and a bag of water 50 m. a day for five days without drinking. +When too heavily laden the camel refuses to rise, but on the march it is +exceedingly patient under its burden, only yielding beneath it to die. +Relieved from its load it does not, like other animals, seek the shade, +even when that is to be found, but prefers to kneel beside its burden in +the broad glare of the sun, seeming to luxuriate in the burning sand. +When overtaken by a dust-storm it falls on its knees, and stretching its +neck along the sand, closes its nostrils and remains thus motionless +till the atmosphere clears; and in this position it affords some shelter +to its driver, who, wrapping his face in his mantle, crouches behind his +beast. + +The food of the camel consists chiefly of the leaves of trees, shrubs +and dry hard vegetables, which it is enabled to tear down and masticate +by means of its powerful front teeth. As regards temperament, if, writes +Sir F. Palgrave, "docile means stupid, well and good; in such a case the +camel is the very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to +designate an animal that takes an interest in its rider so far as a +beast can, that in some way understands his intentions, or shares them +in a subordinate fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or +half-fellow-feeling with his master, like the horse or elephant, then I +say that the camel is by no means docile--very much the contrary. He +takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention whether he be on his back +or not, walks straight on when once set agoing, merely because he is too +stupid to turn aside, and then should some tempting thorn or green +branch allure him out of the path, continues to walk on in the new +direction simply because he is too dull to turn back into the right +road. In a word, he is from first to last an undomesticated and savage +animal rendered serviceable by stupidity alone, without much skill on +his master's part, or any co-operation on his own, save that of an +extreme passiveness. Neither attachment nor even habit impresses him; +never tame, though not wide-awake enough to be exactly wild." + +For extinct camels see TYLOPODA. (R. L.*) + + The Biblical expression (Matt. xix. 24, &c.), "it is easier for a + camel to go through a needle's eye," &c., is sometimes explained by + saying that the "needle's eye" means the small gate which is opened in + the great gate of a city, when the latter is closed for the night; but + recent criticism (e.g. Post in _Hastings' Dict._, under "Camel") + throws doubt on this explanation, and assumes that the more violent + hyperbole is intended. There is a various reading [Greek: Khamilos] + (cable) for [Greek: Khamaelos] (camel), but Cheyne, in the _Ency. + Biblica_, rejects this (see CABLE). + + + + +CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT, 1ST BARON (1737-1793), English politician and +art patron, was a nephew of the 1st earl of Chatham. He sat in +parliament from 1761 till 1784, siding against his uncle and following +George Grenville, who was also a relative; and in 1784 he was raised to +the peerage. He dabbled in architecture and the arts generally, and was +a prominent figure in the artistic circles of his day. His son THOMAS +PITT, 2nd Baron Camelford (1775-1804), who succeeded him in 1793, had an +adventurous and misspent career in the navy, but is principally +remembered for his death in a duel with Mr Best on the 10th of March +1804, the title becoming extinct. + + + + +CAMELLIA, a genus or subgenus of evergreen trees or shrubs belonging to +the natural order Ternstroemiaceae, with thick dark shining leaves and +handsome white or rose-coloured flowers. The name _Camellia_ was given +by Linnaeus in honour of George Joseph Camellus or Kamel, a Moravian +Jesuit who travelled in Asia and wrote an account of the plants of the +Philippine Island, Luzon, which is included in the third volume of John +Ray's _Historia Plantarum_ (1704). Modern botanists are agreed that the +tea-plant, placed by Linnaeus in a separate genus, _Thea_, is too nearly +allied to _Camellia_ to admit of the two being regarded as distinct +genera. _Thea_ and _Camellia_ are therefore now considered to represent +one genus, which has been generally called _Camellia_, but more +correctly _Thea_, as this name was the earlier of the two. Under the +latter view _Camellia_ is regarded as a subgenus or section of _Thea_. +It contains about eight species, natives of India, China and Japan. Most +of the numerous cultivated forms are horticultural products of _C. +japonica_, a native of China and Japan, which was introduced into Europe +by Lord Petre in 1739. The wild plant has red flowers, recalling those +of the wild rose, but most of the cultivated forms are double. In the +variety _anemonaeflora_ nearly all the stamens have become transformed +into small petaloid structures which give the flower the appearance of a +double anemone. + +Another species, _C. reticulata_, a native of Hongkong, is also prized +for its handsome flowers, larger than those of _C. japonica_, which are +of a bright rose colour and as known in cultivation semi-double or +double. + +Both _C. sasanqua_ and _C. drupifera_, the former inhabiting Japan and +China, the latter Cochin-China and the mountains of India, are +oil-yielding plants. The oil of _C. sasanqua_ (of which sasankwa is the +native Japanese name) has an agreeable odour and is used for many +domestic purposes. It is obtained from the seeds by subjecting them to +pressure sufficient to reduce them to a coarse powder, and then boiling +and again pressing the crushed material. The leaves are also used in the +form of a decoction by the Japanese women for washing their hair; and in +a dried state they are mixed with tea on account of their pleasant +flavour. The oil of _C. drupifera_, which is closely allied to _C. +sasanqua_, is used medicinally in Cochin-China. The flowers of these two +species, unlike those of _C. japonica_ and _C. reticulata_, are +odoriferous. + +Camellias, though generally grown in the cool greenhouse, are hardy in +the south of England and the south-west of Scotland and Ireland. They +grow best in a rich compost of sandy peat and loam, and should not be +allowed to get too dry at the roots; a liberal supply of water is +especially necessary during the flowering period. The best +position--when grown out of doors--is one facing north or north-west, +with a wall or hedge behind for protection from cold winds. July is the +best time for planting; care must be taken that the roots are evenly +spread, not matted into a ball. + +The plants are propagated by layers or cuttings, and the single-flowered +ones also by seeds. Cuttings are taken in August and placed in sandy +peat or loam in a cold shaded frame. In the following spring those which +have struck are placed in a gentle heat, and in September or October the +rooted plants are potted off. Camellias are also propagated by grafting +or inarching in early spring on stocks of the common variety of _C. +japonica._ + +The scale insect sometimes attacks the camellia. To remove the white +scale, the plants are washed with a sponge and solution of soft soap as +soon as their growth is completed, and again before the buds begin to +swell. The brown scale may be got rid of by repeated washings with one +of the many insecticides, but it should be applied at a temperature of +90°. + + + + +CAMEO, a term of doubtful origin, applied in the first instance to +engraved work executed in relief on hard or precious stones. It is also +applied to imitations of such stones in glass, called "pastes," or on +the shells of molluscous animals. A cameo is therefore the converse of +an intaglio, which consists of an incised or sunk engraving in the same +class of materials. For the history of this branch of art, and for an +account of some of its most remarkable examples, see GEM. + +The origin of the word is doubtful and has been a matter of copious +controversy. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes its use in a Sarum +inventory of 1222, _"lapis unus cameu"_ and _"magnus camehu."_ The word +is in current use in the 13th century. Thus Matthew Paris, in his Life +of Abbot Leofric of St Albans, in the _Abbatum S. Albani Vitae,_ says: +_"retentis quibusdam nobilibus lapidibus insculptis, quos camaeos +vulgariter appellamus."_ In variant forms the word has found its way +into most languages, e.g. Latin, _camahutus, camahelus, camaynus_; +Italian, _chammeo, chameo_; French, _camahieu, chemahou, camaut, +camaieu_. The following may be mentioned among the derivations that have +been proposed:--von Hammer: _camaut_, the hump of a camel; Littré and +others: _camateum_, an assumed Low Latin form from [Greek: kamateuein] +and [Greek: kamaton]; Chabouillet and Babelon: [Greek: keimaelia], +treasures, connecting the word in particular with the dispersion of +treasures from Constantinople, in 1204; King: Arabic _camea_, an amulet. + + For a bibliography of the question, see Babelon, _Cat. des Camées ... + de la Bibliothèque Nationale_, p. iv. + + + + +CAMERA (a Latin adaptation of Gr. [Greek: kamara], an arched chamber), +in law, a word applied at one time to the English judges' chambers in +Serjeants' Inn, as distinct from their bench in Westminster Hall. It was +afterwards applied to the judges' private room behind the court, and, +hence, in the phrase _in camera_, to cases heard in private, i.e. in +chambers. So far as criminal cases are concerned, the courts have no +power to hear them in private, nor have they any power to order adults +(men or women) out of court during the hearing. In civil proceedings at +common law, it may also be laid down that the public cannot be excluded +from the court; in _Malan_ v. _Young_, 1889, 6 T.L.R. 68, Mr Justice +Denman held that he had power to hear the case _in camera_, but he +afterwards stated that there was considerable doubt among the judges as +to the power to hear cases _in camera_, even by consent, and the case +was, by consent of the parties, finally proceeded with before the judge +_as arbitrator_. In the court of chancery it is the practice to hear in +private cases affecting wards of the court and lunatics, family disputes +(by consent), and cases where a public trial would defeat the object of +the action (_Andrew_ v. _Raeburn_, 1874, L.R. 9 Ch. 522). In an action +for infringement of a patent for a chemical process the defendant was +allowed to state a secret process _in camera (Badische Anilin und Soda +Fabrik_ v. _Gillman_, 1883, 24 Ch. D. 156). The Court of Appeal has +decided that it has power to sit in private; in _Mellor_ v. _Thompson_, +1885, 31 Ch. D. 55, it was stated that a public hearing would defeat the +object of the action, and render the respondent's success in the appeal +useless. In matrimonial causes, the divorce court, following the +practice of the ecclesiastical courts under the provisions of the +Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 22, hears suits for nullity of marriage +on physical grounds _in camera_, but not petitions for dissolution of +marriage, which must be heard in open court. It was also decided in +_Druce_ v. _Druce_, 1903, 19 T.L.R. 387, that, in cases for judicial +separation the court has jurisdiction to hear the case _in camera_, +where it is satisfied that justice cannot be done by hearing the case in +public. + + + + +CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument invented by Dr William Hyde +Wollaston for drawing in perspective. Closing one eye and looking +vertically downwards with the other through a slip of plain glass, e.g. +a microscope cover-glass, held close to the eye and inclined at an angle +of 45° to the horizon, one can see the images of objects in front, +formed by reflection from the surface of the glass, and at the same +time one can also see through the transparent glass. The virtual images +of the objects appear projected on the surface of a sheet of paper +placed beneath the slip of glass, and their outline can be accurately +traced with a pencil. This is the simplest form of the camera lucida. +The image (see fig. 1) is, however, inverted and perverted, and it is +not very bright owing to the poor reflecting power of unsilvered glass. +The brightness of the image is sometimes increased by silvering the +glass; and on removing a small portion of the silver the observer can +see the image with part of the pupil while he sees the paper through the +unsilvered aperture with the remaining part. This form of the instrument +is often used in conjunction with the microscope, the mirror being +attached to the eye-piece and the tube of the microscope being placed +horizontally. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +About the beginning of the 19th century Dr Wollaston invented a simple +form of the camera lucida which gives bright and erect images. A +four-sided prism of glass is constructed having one angle of 90°, the +opposite angle of 135°, and the two remaining angles each of 67½°. This +is represented in cross-section and in position in fig. 2. When the +pupil of the eye is held half over the edge of the prism a, one sees the +image of the object with one half of the pupil and the paper with the +other half. The image is formed by successive total reflection at the +surfaces b c and a b. In the first place an inverted image (first image) +is formed in the face b c, and then an image of this image is formed in +a b, and it is the outline of this second image seen projected on the +paper that is traced by the pencil. It is desirable for two reasons that +the image should lie in the plane of the paper, and this can be secured +by placing a suitable lens between the object and the prism. If the +image does not lie in the plane of the paper, it is impossible to see it +and the pencil-point clearly at the same time. Moreover, any slight +movement of the head will cause the image to appear to move relatively +to the paper, and will render it difficult to obtain an accurate +drawing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Before the application of photography, the camera lucida was of +considerable importance to draughtsmen. The advantages claimed for it +were its cheapness, smallness and portability; that there was no +appreciable distortion, and that its field was much larger than that of +the camera obscura. It was used largely for copying, for reducing or for +enlarging existing drawings. It will readily be understood, for example, +that a copy will be half-size if the distance of the object from the +instrument is double the distance of the instrument from the copy. + (C. J. J.) + + + + +CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical apparatus consisting of a darkened chamber +(for which its name is the Latin rendering) at the top of which is +placed a box or lantern containing a convex lens and sloping mirror, or +a prism combining the lens and mirror. If we hold a common reading lens +(a magnifying lens) in front of a lamp or some other bright object and +at some distance from it, and if we hold a sheet of paper vertically at +a suitable distance behind the lens, we see depicted on the paper an +image of the lamp. This image is inverted and perverted. If now we place +a plane mirror (e.g. a lady's hand glass) behind the lens and inclined +at an angle of 45° to the horizon so as to reflect the rays of light +vertically downwards, we can produce on a horizontal sheet of paper an +unperverted image of the bright object (fig. 1), i.e. the image has the +same appearance as the object and is not perverted as when the +reflection of a printed page is viewed in a mirror. This is the +principle of the camera obscura, which was extensively used in +sketching from nature before the introduction of photography, although +it is now scarcely to be seen except as an interesting side-show at +places of popular resort. The image formed on the paper may be traced +out by a pencil, and it will be noticed that in this case the image is +real--not virtual as in the case of the camera lucida. Generally the +mirror and lens are combined into a single piece of worked glass +represented in section in fig. 2. Rays from external objects are first +refracted at the convex surface _a b,_ then totally reflected at the +plane surface _a c,_ and finally refracted at the concave surface _b c_ +(fig. 2) so as to form an image on the sheet of paper _d e_. The curved +surfaces take the place of the lens in fig. 1, and the plane surface +performs the function of the mirror. The prism _a b c_ is fixed at the +top of a small tent furnished with opaque curtains so as to prevent the +diffused daylight from overpowering the image on the paper, and in the +darkened tent the images of external objects are seen very distinctly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Quite recently, the camera obscura has come into use with submarine +vessels, the _periscope_ being simply a camera obscura under a new name. + (C. J. J.) + +_History_.--The invention of this instrument has generally been +ascribed, as in the ninth edition of this work, to the famous Neapolitan +savant of the 16th century, Giovanni Battista della Porta, but as a +matter of fact the principle of the simple camera obscura, or darkened +chamber with a small aperture in a window or shutter, was well known and +in practical use for observing eclipses long before his time. He was +anticipated in the improvements he claimed to have made in it, and all +he seems really to have done was to popularize it. The increasing +importance of the camera obscura as a photographic instrument makes it +desirable to bring together what is known of its early history, which is +far more extensive than is usually recognized. In southern climes, where +during the summer heat it is usual to close the rooms from the glare of +the sunshine outside, we may often see depicted on the walls vivid +inverted images of outside objects formed by the light reflected from +them passing through chinks or small apertures in doors or +window-shutters. From the opening passage of Euclid's _Optics_ (_c._ 300 +B.C.), which formed the foundation for some of the earlier middle age +treatises on geometrical perspective, it would appear that the above +phenomena of the simple darkened room were used by him to demonstrate +the rectilinear propagation of light by the passage of sunbeams or the +projection of the images of objects through small openings in windows, +&c. In the book known as Aristotle's _Problems_ (sect. xv. cap. 5) we +find the correlated problem of the image of the sun passing through a +quadrilateral aperture always appearing round, and he further notes the +lunated image of the eclipsed sun projected in the same way through the +interstices of foliage or lattice-work. + +There are, however, very few allusions to these phenomena in the later +classical Greek and Roman writers, and we find the first scientific +investigation of them in the great optical treatise of the Arabian +philosopher Alhazen (q.v.), who died at Cairo in A.D. 1038. He seems +to have been well acquainted with the projection of images of objects +through small apertures, and to have been the first to show that the +arrival of the image of an object at the concave surface of the common +nerve--or the retina--corresponds with the passage of light from an +object through an aperture in a darkened place, from which it falls upon +a surface facing the aperture. He also had some knowledge of the +properties of concave and convex lenses and mirrors in forming images. +Some two hundred years later, between A.D. 1266 and 1279, these problems +were taken up by three almost contemporaneous writers on optics, two of +whom, Roger Bacon and John Peckham, were Englishmen, and Vitello or +Witelo, a Pole. + +That Roger Bacon was acquainted with the principle of the camera obscura +is shown by his attempt at solving Aristotle's problem stated above, in +the treatise _De Speculis,_ and also from his references to Alhazen's +experiments of the same kind, but although Dr John Freind, in his +_History of Physick,_ has given him the credit of the invention on the +strength of a passage in the _Perspectiva_, there is nothing to show +that he constructed any instrument of the kind. His arrangement of +concave and plane mirrors, by which the realistic images of objects +inside the house or in the street could be rendered visible though +intangible, there alluded to, may apply to a camera on Cardan's +principle or to a method of aerial projection by means of concave +mirrors, which Bacon was quite familiar with, and indeed was known long +before his time. On the strength of similar arrangements of lenses and +mirrors the invention of the camera obscura has also been claimed for +Leonard Digges, the author of _Pantometria_ (1571), who is said to have +constructed a telescope from information given in a book of Bacon's +experiments. + +Archbishop Peckham, or Pisanus, in his _Perspectiva Communis_ (1279), +and Vitello, in his _Optics_ (1270), also attempted the solution of +Aristotle's problem, but unsuccessfully. Vitello's work is to a very +great extent based upon Alhazen and some of the earlier writers, and was +first published in 1535. A later edition was published, together with a +translation of Alhazen, by F. Risner in 1572. + +The first practical step towards the development of the camera obscura +seems to have been made by the famous painter and architect, Leon +Battista Alberti, in 1437, contemporaneously with the invention of +printing. It is not clear, however, whether his invention was a camera +obscura or a show box, but in a fragment of an anonymous biography of +him, published in Muratori's _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_ (xxv. 296), +quoted by Vasari, it is stated that he produced wonderfully painted +pictures, which were exhibited by him in some sort of small closed box +through a very small aperture, with great verisimilitude. These +demonstrations were of two kinds, one nocturnal, showing the moon and +bright stars, the other diurnal, for day scenes. This description seems +to refer to an arrangement of a transparent painting illuminated either +from the back or the front and the image projected through a hole on to +a white screen in a darkened room, as described by Porta (_Mag. Nat._ +xvii. cap. 7) and figured by A. Kircher (_Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae_), +who notes elsewhere that Porta had taken some arrangement of projecting +images from an Albertus, whom he distinguished from Albertus Magnus, and +who was probably L.B. Alberti, to whom Porta also refers, but not in +this connexion. + +G.B.I.T. Libri-Carucci dalla Sommaja (1803-1869), in his account of the +invention of the camera obscura in Italy (_Histoire des sciences +mathématiques en Italic,_ iv. 303), makes no mention of Alberti, but +draws attention to an unpublished MS. of Leonardo da Vinci, which was +first noticed by Venturi in 1797, and has since been published in +facsimile in vol. ii. of J.G.F. Ravaisson-Mollien's reproductions of the +MSS. in the Institut de France at Paris (MS. _D_, fol. 8 _recto_). After +discussing the structure of the eye he gives an experiment in which the +appearance of the reversed images of outside objects on a piece of paper +held in front of a small hole in a darkened room, with their forms and +colours, is quite clearly described and explained with a diagram, as an +illustration of the phenomena of vision. Another similar passage is +quoted by Richter from folio 404b of the reproduction of the _Codice +Atlantico,_ in Milan, published by the Italian government. These are +probably the earliest distinct accounts of the natural phenomena of the +camera obscura, but remained unpublished for some three centuries. +Leonardo also discussed the old Aristotelian problem of the rotundity of +the sun's image after passing through an angular aperture, but not so +successfully as Maurolycus. He has also given methods of measuring the +sun's distance by means of images thrown on screens through small +apertures. He was well acquainted with the use of magnifying glasses and +suggested a kind of telescope for viewing the moon, but does not seem to +have thought of applying a lens to the camera. + +The first published account of the simple camera obscura was discovered +by Libri in a translation of the _Architecture_ of Vitruvius, with +commentary by Cesare Caesariano, one of the architects of Milan +cathedral, published at Conio in 1521, shortly after the death of +Leonardo, and some twenty years before Porta was born. He describes an +experiment made by a Benedictine monk and architect, Dom Papnutio or +Panuce, of the same kind as Leonardo's but without the demonstration. + +About the same time Francesco Maurolico, or Maurolycus, the eminent +mathematician of Messina, in his _Theoremata de Lumine et Umbra_, +written in 1521, fully investigated the optical problems connected with +vision and the passage of rays of light through small apertures with and +without lenses, and made great advances in this direction over his +predecessors. He was the first correctly to solve Aristotle's problem, +stated above, and to apply it practically to solar observations in a +darkened room (_Cosmographia_, 1535). Erasmus Reinhold has described the +method in his edition of G. Purbach's _Theoricae Novae Planetarum_ +(1542), and probably got it from Maurolycus. He says it can also be +applied to terrestrial objects, though he only used it for the sun. His +pupil, Rainer Gemma-Frisius, used it for the observation of the solar +eclipse of January 1544 at Louvain, and fully described the methods he +adopted for making measurements and drawings of the eclipsed sun, in his +_De Radio Astronomico et Geometrico_ (1545). He says they can be used +for observation of the moon and stars and also for longitudes. The same +arrangement was used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, by M. Moestlin and his +pupil Kepler--the latter applying it in 1607 to the observation of a +transit of Mercury--also by Johann Fabricius, in 1611, for the first +observations of sun-spots. It is interesting to note this early +employment of the camera obscura in the field of astronomical research, +in which its latest achievements have been of such pre-eminent value. + +The addition of optical appliances to the simple dark chamber for the +purpose of seeing what was going on outside, was first described by +Girolamo Cardan in his _De Subtilitate_ (1550), as noted by Libri. The +sun shining, he fixed a round glass speculum (_orbem e vitro_) in a +window-shutter, and then closing it the images of outside objects would +be seen transmitted through the aperture on to the opposite wall, or +better, a white paper screen suitably placed. The account is not very +clear, but seems to imply the use of a concave mirror rather than a +lens, which might be suggested by the word _orbem_. He refers to +Maurolycus' work with concave specula. + +We now come to Giovanni Battista della Porta, whose account of the +camera obscura in the first edition of the _Magia Naturalis,_ in four +books (1558, lib. iv. cap. 2), is very similar to Caesariano's--a +darkened room, a pyramidal aperture towards the sun, and a whitened wall +or white paper screens, but no lens. He discloses as a great secret the +use of a concave speculum in front of the aperture, to collect the rays +passing through it, when the images will be seen reversed, but by +prolonging them beyond the centre they would be seen larger and +unreversed. This is much the same as Cardan's method published eight +years earlier, but though more detailed is not very clear. He then notes +the application to portraiture and to painting by laying colours on the +projected images. Nothing is said about the use of a lens or of solar +observations. The second edition, in which he in the same words +discloses the use of a convex lens in the aperture as a secret he had +intended to keep, was not published till 1589, thirty-one years after +the first. In this interval the use of the lens was discovered and +clearly described by Daniello Barbaro, a Venetian noble, patriarch of +Aquileia, in his work _La Pratica della perspettiva_ (p. 192), published +in 1568, or twenty-one years before Porta's mention of it. The lens used +by Barbaro was an ordinary convex or old man's spectacle-glass; concave, +he says, will not do. He shows how the paper must be moved till it is +brought into the focus of the lens, the use of a diaphragm to make the +image clearer, and also the application of the method for drawing in +true perspective. That Barbaro was really the first to apply the lens to +the camera obscura is supported by Marius Bettinus in his _Apiaria_ +(1645), and by Kaspar Schott in his _Magia Universalis_ (1657), the +former taunting Porta with the appropriation. + +In an Italian translation of Euclid's _Optica_, with commentary, +Egnacio Danti (1573), after discussing the effects of plane, convex and +concave reflectors, fully describes the method of showing reversed +images passing through an aperture in a darkened room, and shows how, by +placing a mirror behind the aperture, unreversed images might be +obtained, both effects being illustrated by diagrams. F. Risner, who +died in 1580, also in his _Opticae_ (1606) very clearly explained the +reversal of the images of the simple camera obscura. He notes the +convenience of the method for solar observations and its previous use by +some of the observers already mentioned, as well as its advantages for +easily and accurately copying on an enlarged or reduced scale, +especially for chorographical or topographical documents. This is +probably the first notice of the application of the camera to +cartography and the reproduction of drawings, which is one of its +principal uses at the present time. In the _Diversarum Speculationum +Mathematicarum el Physicarum_ (1585), by the Venetian Giovanni Battista +Benedetti, there is a letter in which he discusses the simple camera +obscura and mentions the improvement some one had made in it by the use +of a double convex lens in the aperture; he also says that the images +could be made erect by reflection from any plane mirror. + +Thus the use of the camera and of the lens with it was well known before +Porta published his second edition of the _Magia Naturalis_ in 1589. In +this the description of the camera obscura is in lib. xvii. cap. 6. The +use of the convex lens, which is given as a great secret, in place of +the concave speculum of the first edition, is not so clearly described +as by Barbaro; the addition of the concave speculum is proposed for +making the images larger and clearer, and also for making them erect, +but no details are given. He describes some entertaining peep-show +arrangements, possibly similar to Alberti's, and indicates how the dark +chamber with a concave speculum can be used for observing eclipses. +There is no mention whatever of a portable box or construction beyond +the darkened room, nor is there in his later work, _De Refractione +Optices Parte_ (1593), in which he discusses the analogy between vision +and the simple dark room with an aperture, but incorrectly. Though +Porta's merits were undoubtedly great, he did not invent or improve the +camera obscura. His only novelty was the use of it as a peep-show; his +descriptions of it are vague, but being published in a book of general +reference, which became popular, he acquired credit for the invention. + +The first to take up the camera obscura after Porta was Kepler, who used +it in the old way for solar observations in 1600, and in his _Ad +Vitellionem Paralipomena_ (1604) discusses the early problems of the +passages of light through small apertures, and the rationale of the +simple dark chamber. He was the first to describe an instrument fitted +with a sight and paper screen for observing the diameters of the sun and +moon in a dark room. In his later book, _Dioptrice_ (1611), he fully +discusses refraction and the use of lenses, showing the action of the +double convex lens in the camera obscura, with the principles which +regulate its use and the reason of the reversal of the image. He also +demonstrates how enlarged images can be produced and projected on paper +by using a concave lens at a suitable distance behind the convex, as in +modern telephotographic lenses. He was the first to use the term _camera +obscura_, and in a letter from Sir H. Wotton written to Lord Bacon in +1620 we learn that Kepler had made himself a portable dark tent fitted +with a telescope lens and used for sketching landscapes. Further, he +extended the work of Maurolycus, and demonstrated the exact analogy +between the eye and the camera and the arrangement by which an inverted +image is produced on the retina. + +In 1609 the telescope came into use, and the danger of observing the sun +with it was soon discovered. In 1611 Johann Fabricius published his +observations of sun-spots and describes how he and his father fell back +upon the old method of projecting the sun's image in a darkened room, +finding that they could observe the spots just as well as with the +telescope. They do not seem to have used a lens, or thought of using the +telescope for projecting an enlarged imase on Kepler's principle. This +was done in 1612 by Christoph Schemer, who fully described his method +of solar observation in the _Rosa Ursina_ (1630), demonstrating very +clearly and practically the advantages and disadvantages of using the +camera, without a lens, with a single convex lens, and with a telescopic +combination of convex object-glass and concave enlarging lens, the last +arrangement being mounted with an adjustable screen or tablet on an +equatorial stand. Most of the earlier astronomical work was done in a +darkened room, but here we first find the dark chamber constructed of +wooden rods covered with cloth or paper, and used separately to screen +the observing-tablet. + +Various writers on optics in the 17th century discussed the principle of +the simple dark chamber alone and with single or compound lenses, among +them Jean Tarde (_Les Astres de Borbon_, 1623); Descartes, the pupil of +Kepler (_Dioptrique_, 1637); Bettinus (_Apiaria_, 1645); A. Kircher +(_Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae_, 1646); J. Hevelius (_Selenographia_, +1647); Schott (_Magia Universalis Naturae et Artis_, 1674); C.F.M. +Deschales (_Cursus, seu Mundus Mathematicus_, 1674); Z. Traber (_Nervus +Opticus_, 1675), but their accounts are generally more interesting +theoretically than as recording progress in the practical use and +development of the instrument. + +The earliest mention of the camera obscura in England is probably in +Francis Bacon's _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, but it is only as an +illustration of the projected images showing better on a white screen +than on a black one. Sir H. Wotton's letter of 1620, already noted, was +not published till 1651 (_Reliquiae Wottonianae_, p. 141), but in 1658 a +description of Kepler's portable tent camera for sketching, taken from +it, was published in a work called _Graphice, or the most excellent Art +of Painting_, but no mention is made of Kepler. In W. Oughtred's English +edition (1633) of the _Récréations mathématiques_ (1627) of Jean +Leurechon ("Henry van Etten") there is a quaint description, with +figures, of the simple dark chamber with aperture, and also of a sort of +tent with a lens in it and the projection on an inner wall of the face +of a man standing outside. The English translation of Porta's _Natural +Magick_ was published in 1658. + +Robert Boyle seems to have been the first to construct a box camera with +lens for viewing landscapes. It is mentioned in his essay _On the +Systematic or Cosmical Qualities of Things_ (ch. vi.), written about +1570, as having been made several years before and since imitated and +improved. It could be extended or shortened like a telescope. At one end +of it paper was stretched, and at the other a convex lens was fitted in +a hole, the image being viewed through an aperture at the top of the +box. Robert Hooke, who was some time Boyle's assistant, described +(_Phil. Trans._, 1668, 3, p. 741) a camera lucida on the principle of +the magic lantern, in which the images of illuminated and inverted +objects were projected on any desired scale by means of a broad convex +lens through an aperture into a room where they were viewed by the +spectators. If the objects could not be inverted, another lens was used +for erecting the images. From Hooke's _Posthumous Works_ (1705), p. 127, +we find that in one of the Cutlerian lectures on Light delivered in +1680, he illustrated the phenomena of vision by a darkened room, or +perspective box, of a peculiar pattern, the back part, with a concave +white screen at the end of it, being cylindrical and capable of being +moved in and out, while the fore part was conical, a double convex lens +being fixed in a hole in front. The image was viewed through a large +hole in the side. It was between 4 and 5 ft. long. + +Johann Zahn, in his _Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus_ (1685-1686), +described and figured two forms of portable box cameras with lenses. One +was a wooden box with a projecting tube in which a combination of a +concave with a convex lens was fitted, for throwing an enlarged image +upon the focusing screen, which in its proportions and application is +very similar to our modern telephotographic objectives. The image was +first thrown upon an inclined mirror and then reflected upwards to a +paper screen on the top of the box. In an earlier form the image is +thrown upon a vertical thin paper screen and viewed through a hole in +the back of the camera. There is a great deal of practical information +on lenses in connexion with the camera and other optical instruments, +and the book is valuable as a repertory of early practical optics, also +for the numerous references to and extracts from previous writers. An +improved edition was published in 1702. + +Most of the writers already noticed worked out the problems connected +with the projection of images in the camera obscura more by actual +practice than by calculation, but William Molyneux, of Dublin, seems to +have been the first to treat them mathematically in his _Dioptrica Nova_ +(1692), which was also the first work in English on the subject, and is +otherwise an interesting book. He has fully discussed the optical theory +of the dark chamber, with and without a lens, and its analogy to the +eye, also several optical problems relating to lenses of various forms +and their combinations for telescopic projection, rules for finding +foci, &c. He does not, however, mention the camera obscura as an +instrument in use, but in John Harris's _Lexicon Technicum_ (1704) we +find that the camera obscura with the arrangement called the "scioptric +ball," and known as _scioptricks_, was on sale in London, and after this +must have been in common use as a sketching instrument or as a show. + +Sir Isaac Newton, in his _Opticks_ (1704), explains the principle of the +camera obscura with single convex lens and its analogy with vision in +illustration of his seventh axiom, which aptly embodies the correct +solution of Aristotle's old problem. He also made great use of the +simple dark chamber for his optical experiments with prisms, &c. Joseph +Priestley (1772) mentions the application of the solar microscope, both +to the small and portable and the large camera obscura. Many patterns of +these two forms for sketching and for viewing surrounding scenes are +described in W.J.'s Gravesande's _Essai de perspective_ (1711), Robert +Smith's _Compleat System of Optics_ (1738), Joseph Harris's _Treatise on +Optics_ (1775), Charles Hutton's _Philosophical and Mathematical +Dictionary_, and other books on optics and physics of that period. The +camera obscura was first applied to photography (q.v.) probably about +1794, by Thomas Wedgwood. His experiments with Sir Humphrey Davy in +endeavouring to fix the images of natural objects as seen in the camera +were published in 1802 (_Journ. Roy. Inst._). (J. Wa.) + + + + +CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1500-1574), German classical scholar, was born at +Bamberg on the 12th of April 1500. His family name was Liebhard, but he +was generally called Kammermeister, previous members of his family +having held the office of chamberlain (_camerarius_) to the bishops of +Bamberg. He studied at Leipzig, Erfurt and Wittenberg, where he became +intimate with Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher of history and +Greek at the gymnasium, Nuremberg. In 1530 he was sent as deputy for +Nuremberg to the diet of Augsburg, where he rendered important +assistance to Melanchthon in drawing up the Confession of Augsburg. Five +years later he was commissioned by Duke Ulrich of Württemberg to +reorganize the university of Tübingen; and in 1541 he rendered a similar +service at Leipzig, where the remainder of his life was chiefly spent. +He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes, Xenophon, Homer, +Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoretus, Nicephorus and other Greek +writers. He published upwards of 150 works, including a _Catalogue of +the Bishops of the Principal Sees_; _Greek Epistles_; _Accounts of his +Journeys_, in Latin verse; a Commentary on Plautus; a treatise on +Numismatics; _Euclid_ in Latin; and the Lives of Helius Eobanus Hessus, +George of Anhalt and Philip Melanchthon. His _Epistolae Familiares_ +(published after his death) are a valuable contribution to the history +of his time. He played an important part in the Reformation movement, +and his advice was frequently sought by leading men. In 1535 he entered +into a correspondence with Francis I. as to the possibility of a +reconciliation between the Catholic and Protestant creeds; and in 1568 +Maximilian II. sent for him to Vienna to consult him on the same +subject. He died at Leipzig on the 17th of April 1574. + + See article by A. Horawitz in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; C. + Bursian, _Die Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ + (1883); J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ (ed. 1908), ii. 266. + + + + +CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1534-1598), German botanist and physician, son of +the classical scholar of the same name, was born at Nuremberg on the 6th +of November 1534. After finishing his studies in Germany he visited +Italy, where he graduated as doctor of medicine. On his return he was +invited to reside at the courts of several princes, but preferred to +settle in his native town of Nuremberg, where he had a botanical garden +and formed extensive collections. He wrote a _Hortus Medicus_ (1588) and +several other works. He died at Nuremberg on the 11th of October 1598. + + + + +CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB (1665-1721), German botanist and physician, was +born at Tübingen on the 12th of February 1665, and became professor of +medicine and director of the botanical gardens at Tübingen in 1687. He +died at Tübingen on the 11th of September 1721. He is chiefly known for +his investigations on the reproductive organs of plants (_De sexu +plantarum epistola_, 1694). + + + + +CAMERINO (anc. _Camerinum_), a city and episcopal see (since 465, if not +sooner; Treia is now combined with it) of the Marches, Italy, in the +province of Macerata, 6 m. S. of the railway station of Castelraimondo +(to which there is an electric tramway) which is 24 m. W. of Macerata; +2148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4005; of commune, 12,083. +The cathedral is modern, the older building having fallen in 1799; the +church of S. Venanzio suffered similarly, but preserves a portal of the +15th century. The citadel, perhaps constructed from the plans of +Leonardo da Vinci, dates from 1503. Camerino occupies the site of the +ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which (_Camertes Umbri_) became +allies of the Romans in 310 B.C. (at the time of the attack on the +Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest). On the other hand, the [Greek: +Kamertioi] referred to in the history of the year 295 B.C. are probably +the inhabitants of Clusium. Later it appears as a dependent autonomous +community with the _foedus aequum_ (Mommsen, _Röm. Staatsrecht_, iii. +664). Two cohorts of Camertes fought with distinction under Marius +against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of Catiline, +and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under the empire it was a +_municipium_. It belonged to ancient Umbria, but was on the borders of +Picenum. No ancient buildings are visible, the Roman level lying as much +as 30 ft. below the modern. + + See P. Savini, _Storia delta Città di Camerino_ (2nd ed., Camerino, + 1895); M. Mariani, _Intorno agli antichi Camerti Umbri_ (Camerino, + 1900). (T. As.) + + + + +CAMERON, JOHN (1579-1623), Scottish theologian, was born at Glasgow +about 1579, and received his early education in his native city. After +having taught Greek in the university for twelve months, he removed to +Bordeaux, where he was soon appointed a regent in the college of +Bergerac. He did not remain long at Bordeaux, but accepted the offer of +a chair of philosophy at Sedan, where he passed two years. He then +returned to Bordeaux, and in the beginning of 1604 he was nominated one +of the students of divinity who were maintained at the expense of the +church, and who for the period of four years were at liberty to +prosecute their studies in any Protestant seminary. During this period +he acted as tutor to the two sons of Calignon, chancellor of Navarre. +They spent one year at Paris, and two at Geneva, whence they removed to +Heidelberg. In this university, on the 4th of April 1608, he gave a +public proof of his ability by maintaining a series of theses, _De +triplici Dei cum Homine Foedere_, which were printed among his works. +The same year he was recalled to Bordeaux, where he was appointed the +colleague of Dr Primrose; and when Francis Gomarus was removed to +Leiden, Cameron, in 1618, was appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, +the principal seminary of the French Protestants. + +In 1620 the progress of the civil troubles in France obliged Cameron to +seek refuge for himself and family in England. For a short time he read +private lectures on divinity in London; and in 1622 the king appointed +him principal of the university of Glasgow in the room of Robert Boyd, +who had been removed from his office in consequence of his adherence to +Presbyterianism. Cameron was prepared to accept Episcopacy, and was +cordially disliked for his adherence to the doctrine of passive +obedience. He resigned his office in less than a year. + +He returned to France, and lived at Saumur. After an interval of a year +he was appointed professor of divinity at Montauban. The country was +still torn by civil and religious dissensions; and Cameron excited the +indignation of the more strenuous adherents of his own party. He +withdrew to the neighbouring town of Moissac; but he soon returned to +Montauban, and a few days afterwards he died at the age of about +forty-six. Cameron left by his first wife several children, whose +maintenance was undertaken by the Protestant churches in France. All his +works were published after his death. + +His name has a distinct place in the development of Calvinistic theology +in Europe. He and his followers maintained that the will of man is +determined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of +men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses +into them; and that God does not move the will physically, but only +morally, by virtue of its dependence on the judgment of the mind. This +peculiar doctrine of grace and free-will was adopted by Amyraut, Cappel, +Bochart, Daillé and others of the more learned among the Reformed +ministers, who dissented from Calvin's. The Cameronites (not to be +confused with the Scottish sect called Cameronians) are moderate +Calvinists, and approach to the opinion of the Arminians. They are also +called Universalists, as holding the universal reference of Christ's +death, and sometimes Amyraldists. The rigid adherents to the synod of +Dort accused them of Pelagianism, and even of Manichaeism, and the +controversy between the parties was carried on with great zeal; yet the +whole question between them was only, whether the will of man is +determined by the immediate action of God upon it, or by the +intervention of a knowledge which God impresses on the mind. + + + + +CAMERON, RICHARD (1648?-1680), founder of a Scottish religious sect of +Cameronians, which formed the nucleus of the regiment of this name in +the British army, was born at Falkland in the county of Fife. He was +educated at the village school, and his success was so great that, while +still a youth, he was appointed schoolmaster. In this situation he +became acquainted with some of the more enthusiastic field-preachers. +Persuaded by them he resigned his post and entered the family of Sir +Walter Scott of Harden as chaplain and tutor. Refusing to acknowledge +the Indulgence, he joined the ranks of the non-conforming ministers, and +incited the inhabitants of the southern counties of Scotland to protest +openly against the new edict. So formidable was the agitation that the +government pronounced illegal all armed assemblages for religious +purposes. Cameron took refuge in Holland, where he resided for some +time; but in the autumn of 1679 (probably) he returned to Scotland, and +once more made himself formidable to the government. Shortly after the +defeat of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge in that year, Cameron was +slain in a skirmish at the Aird's, or Airs, Moss, fighting bravely at +the head of the few troops which he had been able to collect. His prayer +before going into battle became a tradition--"Lord spare the green and +take the ripe." After the accession of William III. the survivors were +amnestied, and the Cameronian regiment was formed from them. + + See Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iii. (1907); + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (1897), s.v. "Cameronianer"; A. + Smellie, _Men of the Covenant_; Herkless, _Richard Cameron_; P. + Walker, _Six Saints of the Covenant._ + + + + +CAMERON, SIMON (1799-1889), American politician, was born in Lancaster +county, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of March 1799. Left an orphan at the +age of nine, he early entered journalism, and, in banking and railway +enterprises, accumulated a considerable fortune. He became influential +in Pennsylvania politics, and in 1845-1849 served in the United States +Senate, being elected by a combination of Democratic, Whig and +"American" votes to succeed James Buchanan. In 1854, having failed to +secure the nomination for senator from the "Know-Nothing" Party, which +he had recently joined, he became a leader of the "People's Party," as +the Republican Party was at first called in Pennsylvania. In 1857 he +was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican, despite a +Democratic majority in the state legislature, a fact that gave rise to +charges of bribery. His prominence as a candidate first for the +presidential and then for the vice-presidential nomination in the +Republican national convention of 1860 led to his being selected by +President Lincoln as secretary of war. His administration of this office +at a critical time was marked by his accustomed energy, but +unfortunately also by partiality in the letting of government contracts, +which brought about his resignation at Lincoln's request in January 1862 +and his subsequent censure by the House of Representatives. Lincoln sent +him as minister to Russia, but he returned in November 1862. He again +served in the Senate (after 1872, being chairman of the committee on +foreign relations) from 1867 until 1877, when he resigned to make room +for his son, whose election he dictated. Cameron was one of the ablest +political organizers the United States has ever known, and his long +undisputed control of Pennsylvania politics was one of the most striking +examples of "boss rule" in American history. The definition of an honest +politician as "one who when he is bought will stay bought" has been +attributed to him. He died on the 26th of June 1889. + +His son JAMES DONALD CAMERON (1833- ) was born at Middletown, +Pennsylvania, on the 14th of May 1833, graduated at Princeton in 1852, +became actively interested in his father's banking and railway +enterprises, and from 1863 to 1874 was president of the Northern Central +railway. Trained in the political school of his father, he developed +into an astute politician. From June 1876 to March 1877 he was secretary +of war in President Grant's cabinet. In the Republican national +convention of 1876 he took an influential part in preventing the +nomination of James G. Elaine, and later was one of those who directed +the policy of the Republicans in the struggle for the presidency between +Tilden and Hayes. From 1877 until 1897 he was a member of the United +States Senate, having been elected originally to succeed his father, who +resigned in order to create the vacancy. He was chairman of the +Republican national committee during the campaign of 1880. + + + + +CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT (1844-1894), English traveller in Central Africa, +was born at Radipole, near Weymouth, Dorsetshire, on the 1st of July +1844. He entered the navy in 1857, served in the Abyssinian campaign of +1868, and was employed for a considerable time in the suppression of the +East African slave trade. The experience thus obtained led to his being +selected to command an expedition sent by the Royal Geographical Society +in 1873, to succour Dr. Livingstone. He was also instructed to make +independent explorations, guided by Livingstone's advice. Soon after the +departure of the expedition from Zanzibar, Livingstone's servants were +met bearing the dead body of their master. Cameron's two European +companions turned back, but he continued his march and reached Ujiji, on +Lake Tanganyika, in February 1874, where he found and sent to England +Livingstone's papers. Cameron spent some time determining the true form +of the south part of the lake, and solved the question of its outlet by +the discovery of the Lukuga river. From Tanganyika he struck westward to +Nyangwe, the Arab town on the Lualaba previously visited by Livingstone. +This river Cameron rightly believed to be the main stream of the Congo, +and he endeavoured to procure canoes to follow it down. In this he was +unsuccessful, owing to his refusal to countenance slavery, and he +therefore turned south-west. After tracing the Congo-Zambezi watershed +for hundreds of miles he reached Bihe and finally arrived at the coast +on the 28th of November 1875, being the first European to cress +Equatorial Africa from sea to sea. His travels, which were published in +1877 under the title _Across Africa_, contain valuable suggestions for +the opening up of the continent, including the utilization of the great +lakes as a "Cape to Cairo" connexion. In recognition of his work he was +promoted to the rank of commander, made a Companion of the Bath and +given the gold medal of the Geographical Society. The remainder of +Cameron's life was chiefly devoted to projects for the commercial +development of Africa, and to writing tales for the young. He visited +the Euphrates valley in 1878-1879 in connexion with a proposed railway +to the Persian Gulf, and accompanied Sir Richard Burton in his West +African journey of 1882. At the Gold Coast Cameron surveyed the Tarkwa +region, and he was joint author with Burton of _To the Gold Coast for +Gold_ (1883). He was killed, near Leighton Buzzard, by a fall from +horseback when returning from hunting, on the 24th of March 1894. + + A second edition of _Across Africa_, with new matter and corrected + maps, appeared in 1885. A summary of Cameron's great journey, from his + own pen, appears in Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. ii. + pp. 266-279 (London, 1893). + + + + +CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN (1629-1719), Scottish Highland chieftain, +was the eldest son of John Cameron and the grandson of Alan Cameron, the +head of the clan Cameron. Having lost his father in infancy he passed +part of his youth with the marquess of Argyll at Inveraray, leaving his +guardian about 1647 to take up his duties as chief of the clan Cameron, +a position in which he succeeded his grandfather. In 1653 Lochiel joined +the earl of Glencairn in his rising on behalf of Charles II., and after +the defeat of this attempt he served the Royalist cause by harassing +General Monk. In 1681 he was knighted by Charles II., and in July 1689 +he was with Viscount Dundee at Killiecrankie. He was too old to share +personally in the Jacobite rising of 1715, but his sympathies were with +the Stuarts, and his son led the Camerons at Sheriffmuir. Lochiel, who +died in February 1719, is called by Macaulay the "Ulysses of the +Highlands." He was a man of enormous strength and size, and one who met +him in 1716 says "he wrung some blood from the point of my fingers with +a grasp of his hand." An incident showing his strength and ferocity in +single combat is used by Sir Walter Scott in _The Lady of the Lake_ +(canto v.). Lochiel's son and successor, John, who was attainted for +sharing in the rebellion of 1715, died in Flanders in 1748. John's son +Donald, sometimes called "gentle Lochiel," joined Charles Edward, the +Young Pretender, in 1745, was wounded at Culloden, and escaped to +France, dying in the same year as his father. The 79th regiment, or +Cameron Highlanders, was raised from among the members of the clan in +1793 by Sir Alan Cameron (1753-1828). + + See _Memoirs of Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel_ (Bannatyne Club, 1842). + + + + +CAMERONIANS, the name given to that section of the Scottish Covenanters +(q.v.) who followed Richard Cameron (q.v.), and who were chiefly found +among those who signed the Sanquhar Declaration in 1680. Known also as +"Society Men," "Sanquharians" and "Hillmen," they became a separate +church after the religious settlement of 1690, taking the official title +of Reformed Presbyterians in 1743. Societies of Cameronians for the +maintenance of the Presbyterian form of worship were formed about 1681; +their testimony, "The Informatory Vindication," is dated 1687; and they +quickly became the most pronounced and active adherents of the +covenanting faith. Holding fast to the two covenants, the National +Covenant of 1580 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, they wished +to restore the ecclesiastical order which had existed between 1638 and +1649, and were dissatisfied with the moderate character of the religious +settlement of 1690. Refusing to take the oaths of allegiance to an +"uncovenanted" ruler, or to exercise any civil function, they passed +through a period of trial and found some difficulty in maintaining a +regular ministry; but in 1706 they were reinforced by some converts from +the established church. They objected strongly to the proposal for the +union of England and Scotland, and were suspected of abetting a rising +which took place in the west of Scotland in 1706; but there appears to +be no foundation for the statement that they intrigued with the +Jacobites, and they gave no trouble to the government either in 1715 or +in 1745. In 1712 they publicly renewed the covenants at Auchensauch Hill +in Lanarkshire, and in 1743 their first presbytery was constituted at +Braehead, while a presbytery was formed in North America in 1774. In +1863 the Cameronians, or Reformed Presbyterians, decided to inflict no +penalties upon those members who had taken the oaths, or had exercised +civil functions, and consequently a few congregations seceded. In 1876 +the general body of the Reformed Presbyterians united with the Free +Church of Scotland, leaving the few seceding congregations as the +representatives of the principles of the Cameronians. In the British +army the first battalion of the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) is +directly descended from the "Cameronian guard," which, composed of +Cameronians, was embodied by the convention parliament in 1689, and was +afterwards employed to restore order in the Highlands. + + See J.H. Burton, _History of Scotland_, vols. vii. and viii. + (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iv. + (Edinburgh, 1907). + + + + +CAMEROON[1] (Ger. _Kamerun_), a German protectorate in West Africa, +bounded W. by the Atlantic, N.W. by British Nigeria, N. by Lake Chad, E. +and S. by French Congo, save for a short distance on the south where it +is conterminous with the Spanish Muni river settlement. + +[Illustration: CAMEROON] + +_Boundaries and Area._--The sea frontier extends from the Rio del Rey, +just where the great bend of the coast-line east to south begins, +forming the Bight of Biafra, to the Campo river, a distance of 200 m. +The north-western boundary, laid down in an agreement between Germany +and Great Britain on the 15th of November 1893, runs from the mouth of +the Rio del Rey to the "rapids" of the Cross river in 8° 48' E. Thence +it is continued in a north-east line towards Yola, as far as the +confines of that town. The boundary is then deflected south so as to +leave Yola in British territory, turning north again to cross the Benue +river at a spot 3 m. west of where the Faro joins the Benue. From this +point the frontier goes north-east to the border of Lake Chad, 35 m. +east of the meridian of the town of Kuka. The southern shores of Lake +Chad for a distance of some 40 m. belong to the protectorate. The south +and east boundaries were laid down by agreements between Germany and +France on the 24th of December 1885, the 15th of March 1894 and the 18th +of April 1908. The south boundary runs in a fairly direct line from the +mouth of the Campo river to the river Dscha (or Ngoko), which it follows +to its confluence with the Sanga. The eastern boundary runs from the +Sanga irregularly north to 10° N., where it approaches the British +frontier at Yola, so that at its narrowest part the protectorate is +little more than 50 m. across. From 10° N. the frontier turns eastwards +to the Logone, thence going north-east to the Shari river, which it +follows to Lake Chad. The protectorate has an area of about 190,000 sq. +m. Estimated population (1908) 3,500,000, of whom 1128 were whites. + +_Origin of the Name._--The name Camarões was first given by the +Portuguese discoverers of the 15th and 16th centuries to a large bay or +estuary, lying south-east of a great mountain close to the sea, met with +after passing the Niger delta. This estuary they called the Rio dos +Camarões (the river of Prawns), from the abundance of the crustacea +found therein. The name Camarões was also used to designate the +neighbouring mountains. The English usage until nearly the end of the +19th century was to confine the term "the Cameroons" to the mountain +range, and to speak of the estuary as the Cameroons river. Locally it +was often called "the Bay." On their acquisition of the country in 1884 +the Germans extended the use of the name in its Teutonic +form--Kamerun--to the whole protectorate. + +_Physical Features._--Cameroon forms the north-west corner of the great +Central African plateau. This becomes evident in its eastern section, +where are wide-spreading plains, which farther west assume an undulating +character, and gradually merge into a picturesque mountain range. This +range, running from north to south, is flanked by a parallel and lower +range in the west, with a wide valley between. In the north-west the +Upper Guinea mountains send their eastern spurs across the boundary, and +from a volcanic rift, which runs south-west to north-east, the Cameroon +peak towers up, its summit 13,370 ft. high. This mountain, whose +south-western base is washed by the Atlantic, is the highest point on +the western side of Africa, and it alone of the great mountains of the +continent lies close to the coast. From any vantage point, but +especially from the sea, it presents a magnificent spectacle, while some +30 m. westward rises Clarence peak, the culminating point of Fernando +Po. With an area, on an isolated base, of 700 to 800 sq. m., Cameroon +mountain has but two distinct peaks, Great Cameroon and Little Cameroon +(5820 ft.), which is from foot to top covered with dense forest. The +native designation of the highest peak is Mongo-ma-Loba, or the Mountain +of Thunder, and the whole upper region is usually called Mongo-mo-Ndemi, +or the Mountain of Greatness. On the principal summit there are a group +of craters. In 1909 the mountain was in eruption and huge streams of +lava were ejected. Inland the Chebchi and Mandara mountains indicate the +direction and extent of the rift. + +The mountains of the plateau sweep grandly round to the east on +reaching the eighth degree of N. lat. Here they give rise to a number of +small rivers, which collect in the rift and form the Benue, the great +eastern affluent of the Niger. This part of the protectorate is known as +Adamawa (q.v.). Farther north, beyond the Mandara mountains, the +country, here part of the ancient sultanate of Bornu, slopes to the +shores of Lake Chad, and has a general level of 800 to 1000 ft. The +greater part of Cameroon is thus a mountainous country, with, on the +coast, a strip of low land. In the south this is very narrow; it widens +towards the north savewhere the Cameroon peak reaches to the sea. + +At the foot of the Cameroon peak a number of estuaries cut deep bays +which form excellent harbours. The small rivers which empty into them +can be ascended for some miles by steam launches. The principal estuary, +which is over 20 m. wide, is called, as already noted, the Cameroon +river or bay. The term river is more particularly confined to a +ramification of the estuary which receives the waters of the Mungo river +(a considerable stream which flows south from the Cameroon mountains), +the Wuri, a river coming from the north-east, and various smaller +rivers. Under the shadow of Cameroon peak lies the bay of Ambas, with +the islands of Ndami (Ambas) and Mondola. It forms a tolerable harbour, +capable of receiving large vessels. + +Traversing the central portion of the country is a large river known in +its upper course as the Lom, and in its lower as the Sanaga, which +enters the ocean just to the south of the Cameroon estuary. Both the Lom +and the Nyong (a more southerly stream) rise in the central plateau, +from which they descend in splendid cascades, breaking through the +parallel coast range in rapids, which indicate the extent of their +navigability. The Lokunja and Kribi are smaller rivers with courses +parallel to and south of the Nyong. In the south-east of the colony the +streams--of which the chief are the Dscha and Bumba--are tributaries of +the Sanga, itself an affluent of the Congo (q.v.). About 100 m. of the +right bank of the Sanga, from the confluence of the Dscha upwards, are +in German territory. In the north the country drains into Lake Chad +through the Logone and Shari (q.v.). Including the headwaters of the +Benue the colony has four distinct river-systems, one connecting with +the Niger, another with the Congo, and a third with Lake Chad, the +fourth being the rivers which run direct to the sea. The Niger and Shari +systems communicate, with, at high water, but one obstruction to +navigation. The connecting link is a marshy lake named Tuburi. From it +issues the Kebbi (Mao Kebi) a tributary of the Benue, and through it +flows a tributary of the Logone, the chief affluent of the Shari. The +one obstruction in the waterway is a fall of 165 ft. in the Kebbi. + +_Geology._--The oldest rocks, forming the greater mass of the +hinterland, are gneisses, schists and granites of Archaean age. Along +the Benue river a sandstone (Benue sandstone) forms the banks to 14° E. +Cretaceous rocks occur around the basalt platform of the Cameroon +mountain and generally along the coastal belt. Basalt and tuff, probably +of Tertiary age, form the great mass of the Cameroon mountain, also the +island of Fernando Po. Extensive areas in the interior, more especially +towards Lake Chad, are covered with black earth of alluvial or +lacustrine origin. + +_Climate._--The country lies wholly within the tropics and has a +characteristic tropical climate. In the interior four seasons can be +distinguished; a comparatively dry and a wet one alternating. July to +October are the coldest months, and also bring most rain, but there is +hardly a month without rain. On the coast the temperature is high all +the year round, but on the plateau it is cooler. Malarial fever is +frequent, and even the Africans, especially those coming from other +countries, suffer from it. The middle zone of the Cameroon mountain has, +however, a temperate climate and affords excellent sites for sanatoria. + +_Flora and Fauna._--The southern part of the low coast is chiefly grass +land, while the river mouths and arms of the bays are lined with +mangroves. The mountainous region is covered with primeval forest, in +which timber and valuable woods for cabinet-making are plentiful. Most +important are the _Elaeis guineensis, Sterculia acuminata_ and the wild +coffee tree. On Cameroon peak the forest ascends to 8000 ft.; above it +is grass land. Towards the east the forest gradually grows thinner, +assumes a park-like appearance, and finally disappears, wide grass +uplands taking its place. The country north of the Benue is rich and +well cultivated. Cotton and rubber are found in considerable quantities, +and fields of maize, corn, rice and sugarcane bear witness to the +fertility of the soil. + +Animals are plentiful, including the great pachyderms and carnivora. The +latter prey on the various kinds of antelopes which swarm on the grass +lands. Two kinds of buffaloes are found in the forests, which are the +home of the gorilla and chimpanzee. Large rodents, like the porcupine +and cane rat, are numerous. Of birds there are 316 species, and several +of venomous snakes. + +_Inhabitants._--The north of Cameroon is inhabited by Fula (q.v.) and +Hausa (q.v.) and allied tribes, the south by Bantu-speaking races. The +Fula came from the north and north-east, gradually driving the +Bantu-negroes before them. They brought horses and horned cattle, +unknown in these regions until then, and they founded well-organized +states, like that of Adamawa, now divided between Cameroon and the +British protectorate of Nigeria. In the vicinity of the rivers Benue, +Faro and Kebbi, the people, who are good agriculturists, raise cereals +and other crops, while on the plateaus stock-raising forms the chief +pursuit of the inhabitants. In this northern region villages are built +in the Sudanese zeriba style, surrounded with thorn fences; more +important places are enclosed by a well-built wall and strongly +fortified. Of martial disposition, the people often waged war with their +neighbours, and also amongst themselves until the pacification of the +hinterland by Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. + +The Bantu-negroes inhabit the country south of about 7° N. Chief among +the tribes are the Dualla (q.v.), the Ba-kwiri (q.v.), the Ba-Long, the +Ba-Farami, the Wuri, the Abo and the Ba-Kundu. They build square houses, +are active traders and are ruled by independent chiefs, having no +political cohesion. Among the Dualla a curious system of drum signals is +noteworthy. In the coast towns are numbers of Krumen, who, however, +rarely settle permanently in the country. The Fula, as also most of the +Hausa, are Moslems, the other tribes are pagans. Missionary societies, +both Protestant and Roman Catholic, are represented in the colony, and +their schools are well attended, as are the schools belonging to the +government. In all the schools German is taught, but pidgin-English is +largely spoken at the coast towns. + +_Chief Towns._--Duala, the chief town in the protectorate, is situated +on the Cameroon estuary at the mouth of the Wuri river in 4° 2' N. 9° +42' E. It consists of various trading stations and native towns close to +one another on the south bank of the river and known, before the German +occupation, as Cameroon, Bell town, Akwa town, &c. Hickory, on the north +side of the stream and the starting point of the railway to the +interior, is also part of Duala, which has a total population of 22,000, +including about 170 Europeans. Duala is the headquarters of the +merchants and missionaries. The principal streets are wide and tree +lined, the sanitation is good. The government offices are placed in a +fine park in which are statues of Gustav Nachtigal and others. The port +is provided with a floating dock. The seat of government is Buea, a post +3000 ft. above the sea on the slopes of the Cameroon mountain. Victoria +is a flourishing town in Ambas Bay, founded by the British Baptist +missionaries expelled from Fernando Po in 1858 (see below). Batanga and +Campo are trading stations in the southern portion of the colony. On the +route from Duala to Lake Chad is the large commercial town of Ngaundere, +inhabited chiefly by Hausas and occupied by the Germans in 1901. Another +large town is Garua on the Benue river. Farther north and within 30 m. +of Lake Chad is Dikwa (Dikoa), in Bornu, the town chosen by Rabah (q.v.) +as his capital after his conquest of Bornu. Gulfei on the lower Shari +and Kusseri on the Logone are also towns of some note. Ngoko is a +trading station on the Dscha, in the south-east of the protectorate, +near the confluence of that river with the Sanga. + +_Products and Industry._--Cameroon is rich in natural products, one of +the most important being the oil-palm. Cocoa cultivation was introduced +by the Germans and proved remarkably successful. Rubber is collected +from the Landolphia and various species of Ficus. Palm-oil, palm +kernels, cocoa, copal, copra, Calabar beans, kola-nuts and ivory are the +principal exports. There are several kinds of finely-grained wood, +amongst which a very dark ebony is specially remarkable. Cotton, indigo +and various fibres of plants deserve notice. The natives grow several +kinds of bananas, yams and batatas, maize, pea-nuts, sugar-cane, sorghum +and pepper. Minerals have not been found in paying quantities. Iron is +smelted by the natives, who, especially amongst the Hausas, are very +clever smiths, and manufacture fine lances and arrow heads, knives and +swords, and also hoes. Dikwa is the centre of an important trade of +which the chief articles are coffee, sugar, velvet, silk and weapons, as +well as gold and silver objects brought by caravans from Tripoli. The +natives round the Cameroon estuary are clever carvers of wood, and make +highly ornamental figure heads for their canoes, which also sometimes +show very fine workmanship. In the interior the people use the +wild-growing cotton and fibres of plants to manufacture coarse drapery +and plait-work. Plantations founded by German industry are fairly +successful. Large reserves are set apart for the natives by government +when marking off the land granted to plantation companies. The +best-known of these companies, the _Süd-Kamerun,_ holds a concession +over a large tract of country by the Sanga river, exporting its rubber, +ivory and other produce via the Congo. The principal imports are cotton +goods, spirits, building material, firearms, hardware and salt. The +annual value of the external trade in the period 1900-1905 averaged +about £800,000. In 1907 the value of the trade had increased to +£1,700,000. Some 70% of the import and export trade was with Germany, +the remainder being almost entirely with Great Britain. The percentage +of the trade with Germany was increasing, that with Britain decreasing. + +_Communications._--There is regular steamship communication with Europe +by German and British boats. On the rivers which run into the Cameroon +estuary small steam launches ply. The protectorate belongs to the Postal +Union, and is connected by cable with the British telegraph station at +Bonny in the Niger delta. + +An imperial guarantee of interest was obtained in 1905 for the +construction of a railway from Hickory to Bayong, a place 100 m. to the +north, the district traversed being fertile and populous. From Victoria +a line runs to Soppo (22 m.) near Buea and is continued thence +northward. Another line, sanctioned in 1908, runs S.E. from Duala to the +upper waters of the Nyong. In the neighbourhood of government stations +excellent roads have been built. The chief towns in the coast region are +connected by telegraph and telephone. + +_Government Revenue, &c._--The administration is under the direction of +a governor appointed by and responsible to the imperial authorities. The +governor is assisted by a chancellor and other officials and an advisory +council whose members are merchants resident in the protectorate. +Decrees having the force of law are issued by the imperial chancellor on +the advice of the governor. In Adamawa and German Bornu are various +Mahommedan sultanates controlled by residents stationed at Garua and +Kusseri. Revenue is raised chiefly by customs dues on spirits and +tobacco and a general 10% _ad valorem_ duty on most goods. A poll tax is +imposed on the natives. The local revenue (£131,000 in 1905) is +supplemented by an imperial grant, the protectorate in the first +twenty-one years of its existence never having raised sufficient revenue +to meet its expenditure, which in 1905 exceeded £230,000. Order is +maintained by a native force officered by Germans. + +_History._--Cameroon and the neighbouring coast were discovered by the +Portuguese navigator, Fernando Po, towards the close of the 15th +century. They were formerly regarded as within the Oil Rivers district, +sometimes spoken of as the Oil Coast. Trading settlements were +established by Europeans as early as the 17th century. The trade was +confined to the coast, the Dualla and other tribes being recognized +intermediaries between the coast "factories" and the tribes in the +interior, whither they allowed no strange trader to proceed. They took a +quantity of goods on trust, visited the tribes in the forest, and +bartered for ivory, rubber and other produce. This method of trade, +called the trust system, worked well, but when the country came under +the administration of Germany, the system broke down, as inland traders +were allowed to visit the coast. Before this happened the "kings" of the +chief trading stations--Akwa and Bell--were wealthy merchant princes. +From the beginning until near the end of the 19th century they were very +largely under British influence. In 1837 the king of Bimbia, a district +on the mainland on the north of the estuary, made over a large part of +the country round the bay to Great Britain. In 1845, at which time there +was a flourishing trade in slaves between Cameroon and America, the +Baptist Missionary Society made its first settlement on the mainland of +Africa, Alfred Saker (1814-1880) obtaining from the Akwa family the site +for a mission station. In 1848 another mission station was established +at Bimbia, the king agreeing to abolish human sacrifices at the funerals +of his great men. Into the Cameroon country Saker and his colleagues +introduced the elements of civilization, and with the help of British +men-of-war the oversea slave trade was finally stopped (_c._ 1875). The +struggles between the Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa families were also largely +composed. In 1858, on the expulsion of the Baptists from Fernando Po +(q.v.), Saker founded at Ambas Bay a colony of the freed negroes who +then left the island, the settlement being known as Victoria. Two years +after this event the first German factory was established in the estuary +by Messrs Woermann of Hamburg. In 1870 the station at Bimbia was given +up by the missionaries, but that at Akwa town continued to flourish, the +Dualla showing themselves eager to acquire education, while Saker +reduced their language to writing. He left Cameroon in 1876, the year +before George Grenfell, afterwards famous for his work on the Congo, +came to the country, where he remained three years. Like the earlier +missionaries he explored the adjacent districts, discovering the Sanaga +in its lower course. Although British influence was powerful and the +British consul for the Oil Rivers during this period exercised +considerable authority over the native chiefs, requests made by them--in +particular by the Dualla chiefs in 1882--for annexation by Great +Britain, were refused or neglected, with the result that when Germany +started on her quest to pick up unappropriated parts of the African +coast she was enabled to secure Cameroon. A treaty with King Bell was +negotiated by Dr Gustav Nachtigal, the signature of the king and the +other chiefs being obtained at midnight on the 15th of July 1884. Five +days later Mr E.H. Hewett, British consul, arrived with a mission to +annex the country to Great Britain.[2] Though too late to secure King +Bell's territory, Mr Hewett concluded treaties with all the neighbouring +chiefs, but the British government decided to recognize the German claim +not only to Bell town, but to the whole Cameroon region. Some of the +tribes, disappointed at not being taken over by Great Britain, refused +to acknowledge German sovereignty. Their villages were bombarded and +they were reduced to submission. The settlement of the English Baptists +at Victoria, Ambas Bay, was at first excluded from the German +protectorate, but in March 1887 an arrangement was made by which, while +the private rights of the missionaries were maintained, the sovereignty +of the settlement passed to Germany. The Baptist Society thereafter made +over its missions, both at Ambas Bay and in the estuary, to the Basel +Society. + +The extension of German influence in the interior was gradually +accomplished, though not without considerable bloodshed. That part of +Adamawa recognized as outside the British frontier was occupied in 1901 +after somewhat severe fighting. In 1902 the imperial troops first +penetrated into that part of Bornu reserved to Germany by agreements +with Great Britain and France. They found the country in the military +occupation of France. The French officers, who stated that their +presence was due to the measures rendered necessary by the ravages of +Rabah and his sons, withdrew their troops into French territory. The +shores of Lake Chad were first reached by a German military force on the +2nd of May 1902. In 1904 and again in 1905 there were native risings in +various parts of the protectorate. These disturbances were followed, +early in 1906, by the recall of the governor, Herr von Puttkamer, who +was called upon to answer charges of maladministration. He was succeeded +in 1907 by Dr T. Seitz. Collisions on the southern border of the +protectorate between French and German troops led in 1905-1906 to an +accurate survey of the south and east frontier regions and to a new +convention (1908) whereby for the straight lines marking the frontier in +former agreements natural features were largely substituted. Germany +gained a better outlet to the Sanga river. + +The ascent of the Cameroon mountain was first attempted by Joseph +Merrick of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1847; but it was not till +1861 that the summit was gained, when the ascent was made by Sir Richard +Burton, Gustav Mann, a noted botanist, and Señor Calvo. The +starting-point was Babundi, a place on the seashore west of the +mountain. From the south-east the summit was reached by Mary Kingsley in +1895. + + See Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); Sir R. + Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_ (2 vols., London, + 1863); E.B. Underhill, _Alfred Saker ... A Biography_ (London, 1884); + Sir H.H. Johnston, _George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on the + Cameroons ..._ (London, 1908); Max Buchner, _Kamerun Skizzen und + Betrachtungen_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Passarge, _Adamaua_ (Berlin, 1895); + E. Zintgraph, _Nord-Kamerun_ (Berlin, 1895); F. Hutter, _Wanderungen + und Forschungen im Nord-Hinterland von Kamerun_ (Brunswick, 1902); F. + Bauer, _Die deutsche Niger-Benue-Tsadsee-Expedition_, 1902-1903 + (Berlin, 1904); C. René, _Kamerun und die deutsche Tsâdsee Eisenbahn_ + (Berlin, 1905); O. Zimmermann, _Durch Busch und Steppe vom Campo bis + zum Schari, 1892-1902_ (Berlin, 1909); also British Foreign Office + Reports. For special study of particular sciences see F. Wohltmann, + _Der Plantagenbau in Kamerun und seine Zukunft_ (Berlin, 1896); F. + Plehn, _Die Kamerunküste, Studien zur Klimatologie, Physiologie und + Pathologie in den Tropen_ (Berlin, 1898); E. Esch, F. Solger, M. + Oppenheim and 0. Jaekel, _Beiträge zur Geologie von Kamerun_ + (Stuttgart, 1904). For geology the following works may also be + consulted: Stromer von Reichenbach, _Geologie der deutschen + Schutzgebiete in Afrika_ (Berlin, 1896); A. von Koenen, "Über + Fossilien der unteren Kreide am Ufer des Mungo in Kamerun," _Abh. k. + Wiss._, Göttingen, 1897; E. Cohen, "Lava vom Camerun-Gebirge," _Neues + Jahrb. f. Min._, 1887. (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This English form of the name, adopted in the 10th ed. of the + _Ency. Brit._, from the German, appears preferable both to the + un-English Kamerun and to the older and clumsy "the Cameroons." + + [2] On the 26th of July a French gunboat also entered the estuary on + a belated annexation mission. + + + + +CAMILING, a town of the province of Tarlac, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on the Camiling river, about 80 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 25,243. +In 1903 after the census had been taken, the adjacent towns of Santa +Ignacia (pop. 1911) and San Clemente (pop. 1822) were annexed to +Camiling. Its products are rice, Indian corn and sugar. Fine timber +grows in the vicinity. The principal language is Ilocano; Pangasinan, +too, is spoken. Being in an isolated position, very difficult of access +during the rainy season, Camiling has always been infested with thieves +and bands of outlaws, who come here for concealment. + + + + +CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, Roman soldier and statesman, of patrician +descent, censor in 403 B.C. He triumphed four times, was five times +dictator, and was honoured with the title of Second Founder of Rome. +When accused of having unfairly distributed the spoil taken at Veii, +which was captured by him after a ten years' siege, he went into +voluntary exile at Ardea. The real cause of complaint against him was no +doubt his patrician haughtiness and his triumphal entry into Rome in a +chariot drawn by white horses. Subsequently the Romans, when besieged in +the Capitol by the Gauls, created him dictator; he completely defeated +the enemy (but see BRENNUS and ROME: _History_, ii., "The Republic") and +drove them from Roman territory. He dissuaded the Romans, disheartened +by the devastation wrought by the Gauls, from migrating to Veii, and +induced them to rebuild the city. He afterwards fought successfully +against the Aequi, Volsci and Etruscans, and repelled a fresh invasion +of the Gauls in 367. Though patrician in sympathy, he saw the necessity +of making concessions to the plebeians and was instrumental in passing +the Licinian laws. He died of the plague in the eighty-first year of his +age (365). The story of Camillus is no doubt largely traditional. To +this element probably belongs the story of the schoolmaster who, when +Camillas was attacking Falerii (q.v.), attempted to betray the town by +bringing into his camp the sons of some of the principal inhabitants of +the place. Camillus, it is said, had him whipped back into the town by +his pupils, and the Faliscans were so affected by this generosity that +they at once surrendered. + + See Livy v. 10, vi. 4; Plutarch, _Camillus_. For the Gallic retreat, + see Polybius ii. 18; T. Mommsen, _Römische Forschungen_, ii. pp. + 113-152 (1879). + + + + +CAMILLUS and CAMILLA, in Roman antiquity, originally terms used for +freeborn children. Later, they were used to denote the attendants on +certain priests and priestesses, especially the flamen dialis and +flaminica and the curiones. It was necessary that they should be +freeborn and the children of parents still alive (Dion. Halic. ii. 21). +The name Camillus has been connected with the Cadmilus or Casmilus of +the Samothracian mysteries, identified with Hermes (see CABEIRI). + + + + +CAMISARDS (from _camisade_, obsolete Fr. for "a night attack," from the +Ital. _camiciata_, formed from _camicia_--Fr. _chemise_--a shirt, from +the fact of a shirt being worn over the armour in order to distinguish +friends from foes), the name given to the peasantry of the Cévennes who, +from 1702 to 1705 and for some years afterwards, carried on an organized +military resistance to the _dragonnades_, or conversion by torture, +death and confiscation of property, by which, in the Huguenot districts +of France, the revocation of the edict of Nantes was attempted to be +enforced. The Camisards were also called Barbets ("water-dogs," a term +also applied to the Waldenses), Vagabonds, Assemblers (_assemblée_ was +the name given to the meeting or conventicle of Huguenots), Fanatics and +the Children of God. They belonged to that romance-speaking people of +Gothic descent whose mystic imagination and independent character made +the south of France the most fertile nursing-ground of medieval heresy +(see CATHARS and ALBIGENSES). At the time of the Reformation the same +causes produced like results. Calvin was warmly welcomed when he +preached at Nîmes; Montpellier became the chief centre for the +instruction of the Huguenot youth. It was, however, in the great +triangular plateau of mountain called the Cévennes that, among the small +farmers, the cloth and silk weavers and vine dressers, Protestantism was +most intense and universal. These people were (and still are) very poor, +but intelligent and pious, and of a character at once grave and fervent. +From the lists of Huguenots sent from Languedoc to the galleys (1684 to +1762), we gather that the common type of _physique_ is "belle taille, +cheveux bruns, visage ovale." The chief theatre of the revolt comprised +that region of the Cévennes bounded by the towns of Florac, +Pont-de-Montvert, Alais and Lasalle, thus embracing the southern portion +of the department of Lozère (the Bas-Gévaudan) and the neighbouring +district in the east of the department of Gard. + +In order to understand the War of the Cévennes it is necessary to recall +the persecutions which preceded and followed the revocation of the edict +of Nantes. It is also necessary to remember the extraordinary religious +movement which had for a great number of years agitated the Protestants +of France. Faced by the violation of that most solemn of treaties, a +treaty which had been declared perpetual and irrevocable by Henry IV., +Louis XIII. and even Louis XIV. himself, they could not, in the +enthusiasm of their faith, believe that such a crime would be left +unpunished. But being convinced that no human power could give them +liberty of conscience, they went to the Bible to find when their +deliverance would come. As far back as 1686 Pierre Jurieu published his +work _L'Accomplissement des prophéties_, in which, speaking of the +Apocalypse, he predicted the end of the persecution and the fall of +Babylon--that is to say of Roman Catholicism--for 1689. The Revolution +in England seemed to provide a striking corroboration of his prophecies, +and the apocalyptic enthusiasm took so strong a hold on people's minds +that Bossuet felt compelled to refute Jurieu's arguments in his +_Apocalypse expliquée_, published in 1689. The _Lettres pastorales_ of +Jurieu (Rotterdam, 1686-1687), a series of brief tracts which were +secretly circulated in France, continued to narrate events and +prodigies in which the author saw the intervention of God, and thus +strengthened the courage of his adherents. This religious enthusiasm, +under the influence of Du Serre, was manifested for the first time in +the Dauphiné. Du Serre, who was a pupil of Jurieu, communicated his +mystic faith to young children who were called the "petits prophètes," +the most famous of whom was a girl named "La belle Isabeau." Brought up +on the study of the prophets and the Apocalypse, these children went +from village to village quoting and requoting the most obscure and +terrible passages from these ancient prophecies (see ANTICHRIST). It is +necessary to remember that at this time the Protestants were without +ministers, all being in exile, and were thus deprived of all real +religious instruction. They listened with enthusiasm to this strange +preaching, and thousands of those who were called New Catholics were +seen to be giving up attendance at Mass. The movement advanced in +Languedoc with such rapidity that at one time there were more than three +hundred children shut up in the prisons of Uzès on the charge of +prophesying, and the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier, which was +entrusted with their examination, went so far in their ignorance as to +pronounce these irresponsible infants guilty of fanaticism. After the +peace of Ryswick, 1697, the fierceness of the persecution was redoubled +in the South. "I will show no mercy to the preachers," wrote the +terrible Baville, the so-called "king of Languedoc," and he kept his +word. The people of the Cévennes were in despair, for their loyalty to +the king had been remarkable. In 1683 on the 6th of September an +assembly composed of fifty pastors, sixty-four noblemen and thirty-four +notables, held at Colognac, had drawn up a statement of its unalterable +loyalty to Louis XIV. It is important to notice that the revolt of the +Cévennes was essentially a popular movement. Among its leaders there was +not a single nobleman, but only men of the people, a baker, a +blacksmith, some ex-soldiers; but by far the most extraordinary +characterisic is the presence, no longer of children, but of men and +women who declared themselves inspired, who fell into religious +ecstasies and roused in their comrades the most heroic bravery in battle +and at the stake. + +The assassination of the abbé du Chayla marks the beginning of the war +of the Cévennes. The abbé, a veteran Catholic missionary from Siam, had +been appointed inspector of missions in the Cévennes. There he +introduced the "squeezers" (which resembled the Scottish "boot"), and +his systematic and refined cruelty at last broke the patience of his +victims. His murder, on the 23rd of July 1702, at Pont de Monvert, was +the first blow in the war. It was planned by Esprit Séguier, who at once +began to carry out his idea of a general massacre of the Catholic +priests. He soon fell, and was succeeded by Laporte, an old soldier, +who, as his troop increased, assumed the title of "the Colonel of the +Children of God," and named his camp the "Camp of the Eternal." He used +to lead his followers to the fight, singing Clement Marot's grand +version of the 68th Psalm, "Que Dieu se montre seulement," to the music +of Goudimel. Besides Laporte, the forest-ranger Castanet, the +wool-carders Conderc and Mazel, the soldiers Catinat, Joany and Ravenel +were selected as captains--all men whom the _théomanie_ or prophetic +malady had visited. But the most important figures are those of Roland, +who afterwards issued the following extraordinary despatch to the +inhabitants of St André:--"Nous, comte et seigneur Roland, généralissime +des Protestants de France, nous ordonnons que vous ayez à congédier dans +trois jours tous les prêtres et missionnaires qui sont chez vous, sous +peine d'être brûlés tout vifs, vous et eux" (Court, i.p. 219); and Jean +Cavalier, the baker's boy, who, at the age of seventeen, commanded the +southern army of the Camisards, and who, after defeating successively +the comte de Broglie and three French marshals, Montrevel, Berwick and +Villars, made an honourable peace. (See CAVALIER, JEAN.) + +Cavalier for nearly two years continued to direct the war. Regular taxes +were raised, arsenals were formed in the great limestone caves of the +district, the Catholic churches and their decorations were burned and +the clergy driven away. Occasionally routed in regular engagements, the +Camisards, through their desperate valour and the rapidity of their +movements, were constantly successful in skirmishes, night attacks and +ambuscades. A force of 60,000 was now in the field against them; among +others, the Irish Brigade which had just returned from the persecutions +of the Waldenses. The rising was far from being general, and never +extended to more than three or four thousand men, but it was rendered +dangerous by the secret and even in many places the open support of the +people in general. On the other hand their knowledge of a mountainous +country clothed in forests and without roads, gave the insurgents an +enormous advantage over the royal troops. The rebellion was not finally +suppressed until Baville had constructed roads throughout this almost +savage country. + +Montrevel adopted a policy of extermination, and 466 villages were +burned in the Upper Cévennes alone, the population being for the most +part put to the sword. Pope Clement XI. assisted in this work by issuing +a bull against the "execrable race of the ancient Albigenses," and +promising remission of sins to the holy militia which was now formed +among the Catholic population, and was called the Florentines, Cadets of +the Cross or White Camisards. Villars, the victor of Hochstädt and +Friedlingen, saw that conciliation was necessary; he took advantage of +the feeling of horror with which the quiet Protestants of Nimes and +other towns now regarded the war, and published an amnesty. In May 1704 +a formal meeting between Cavalier and Villars took place at Nimes. The +result of the interview was that a document entitled _Trés humble +requête des réformés du Languedoc au Roi_ was despatched to the court. +The three leading requests for liberty of conscience and the right of +assembly outside walled towns, for the liberation of those sentenced to +prison or the galleys under the revocation, and for the restitution to +the emigrants of their property and civil rights, were all granted,--the +first on condition of no churches being built, and the third on +condition of an oath of allegiance being taken. The greater part of the +Camisard army under Roland, Ravenel and Joany would not accept the terms +which Cavalier had arranged. They insisted that the edict of Nantes must +be restored,--"_point de paix, que nous n'ayons nos temples_." They +continued the war till January 1705, by which time all their leaders +were either killed or dispersed. + +In 1709 Mazel and Claris, with the aid of two preaching women, Marie +Desubas and Elizabeth Catalon, made a serious effort to rekindle revolt +in the Vivarais. In 1711 all opposition and all signs of the reformed +religion had disappeared. On the 8th of March 1715, by medals and a +proclamation, Louis XIV. announced the entire extinction of heresy. + +What we know of the spiritual manifestations in the Cévennes (which much +resembled those of the Swedish Raestars of Smaland in 1844) is chiefly +derived from _Le Théâtre sacré des Cévennes_, London, 1707, reprinted at +Paris in 1847; _A Cry From the Desert_, &c., by John Lacy, London, 1707; +_La Clef des prophéties de M. Marion_, London, 1707; _Avertissements +prophétiques d'Élie Marion_, &c., London, 1707. About the date of these +publications the three prophets of the Cévennes, Marion, Durand-Fage and +Cavalier (a cousin of the famous Jean Cavalier) were in London and were +objects of lively curiosity. The consistory of the French church in the +Savoy sent a protest to the lord mayor against "cette secte impie et +extravagante" and the matter was tried at the Guildhall. Misson, author +of the _Théâtre sacré_, declared in defence of the accused, that the +same spirit which had caused Balaam's ass to speak could speak through +the mouths of these prophets from the Cévennes. Marion and his two +friends Fatio, a member of the Royal Society of London, and Daudé, a +leading savant, who acted as his secretaries, were condemned to the +pillory and to the stocks. Voltaire relates (_Siécle de Louis XIV._ c. +36) that Marion wished to prove his inspiration by attempting to raise a +dead body (Thomas Ernes) from St Paul's churchyard. He was at last +compelled to leave England.[1] + +The inspiration (of which there were four degrees, _avertissement, +souffle, prophetie, dons_) was sometimes communicated by a kiss at the +assembly. The patient, who had gone through several fasts three days in +length, became pale and fell insensible to the ground. Then came violent +agitations of the limbs and head, as Voltaire remarks, "quite according +to the ancient custom of all nations, and the rules of madness +transmitted from age to age." Finally the patient (who might be a little +child, a woman, a half-witted person) began to speak in the good French +of the Huguenot Bible words such as these: "Mes frères, amendez-vous, +faites pénitence, la fin du monde approche; le jugement général sera +dans trois mois; répentez-vous du grand péché que vous avez commis +d'aller à la messe; c'est le Saint-Esprit qui parle par ma bouche" +(Brueys, _Histoire du fanatisme de notre temps_, Utrecht, 1737, vol. i. +p. 153). The discourse might go on for two hours; after which the +patient could only express himself in his native patois,--a Romance +idiom,--and had no recollection of his "ecstasy." All kinds of miracles +attended on the Camisards. Lights in the sky guided them to places of +safety, voices sang encouragement to them, shots and wounds were often +harmless. Those entranced fell from trees without hurting themselves; +they shed tears of blood; and they subsisted without food or speech for +nine days. The supernatural was part of their life. Much literature has +been devoted to the discussion of these marvels. The Catholics Fléchier +(in his _Lettres choisies_) and Brueys consider them the product of +fasting and vanity, nourished on apocalyptic literature. The doctors +Bertrand (_Du magnétisme animal_, Paris, 1826) and Calmeil (_De la +folie_, Paris, 1845) speak of magnetism, hysteria and epilepsy, a +prophetic monomania based on belief in divine possession. The +Protestants especially emphasized the spirituality of the inspiration of +the Camisards; Peyral, _Histoire des pasteurs du désert_, ii. 280, +wrote: "Il fallait à cet effort gigantesque un ressort prodigieux, +l'enthousiasme ordinaire n'y eût pas suffi." Dubois, who has made a +careful study of the problem, says: "L'inspiration cévenole nous +apparait comme un phénomène purement spirituel." Conservative Catholics, +such as Hippolyte Blanc in his book on _L'inspiration des Camisards_ +(1859), regard the whole thing as the work of the devil. The publication +of J.F.K. Hecker's work, _Die Volkskrankheiten des Mittelalters_, made +it possible to consider the subject in its true relation. This was +translated into English in 1844 by B.G. Babington as _The Epidemics of +the Middle Ages_. + +Although the Camisards were guilty of great cruelties in the prosecution +of the war, there does not seem to be sufficient ground for the charge +made by Marshal de Villars: "Le plupart de leurs chefs ont leurs +demoiselles" (letter of 9th August 1704, in the _War Archives_, vol. +1797). Court replied to these unjust charges: "Their enemies have +accused them of leading a life of licence because there were women in +their camps. These were their wives, their daughters, their mothers, who +were there to prepare their food and to nurse the wounded" (_Histoire_, +vol. i. p. 71). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The works devoted to the history of the Camisards are + very numerous. Nevertheless there exists no work specifically devoted + to this extremely interesting period in French history, for in none of + the published works has proper use been made of the valuable documents + preserved in the archives of the ministry of war. Among the chief + works are:--Père Louvreleuil (priest, former curé of St. Germain de + Calberte), _Histoire du fanatisme renouvelé où l'on raconte les + sacrilèges, les maladies et les meurtres commis dans les Cévennes_ + (Toulouse, 1704); M. de Brueys, _Suite de l'histoire du fanatisme de + notre temps où l'on voit les derniers troubles des Cévennes_ (Paris, + 1709); _Lettres choisies de M. Fléchier évêque de Nîmes avec une + relation des fanatiques du Vivarez_ (Paris, 1715); Madame de Merez de + l'Incarnation, _Memoires et journal très fidèle de ce qui s'est passé + le 11 de may 1703 jusqu'au 1 juin 1705 à Nîmes touchant les + phanatiques_, published by E. de Barthélemy (Montpellier, 1874). These + works are written by Catholic writers immediately after the war of the + Cévennes, and, despite their partiality, include some valuable + documents. _Mémoires du marquis de Guiscard_ (Delft, 1705); Maximilien + Misson, _Le Théâtre sacré des Cévennes ou Récit de diverses merveilles + nouvellement opérées dans cette partie de la province de Languedoc_ + (London, 1707); Misson, the author of the _Voyages en Italie_, which + met with such a great success, gave prominence to the facts relating + to the inspiration of the Camisards; the _Théâtre_ also contains + important extracts from the works of Benoit, Brueys, Guiscard and + Boyer, and several original letters from Camisards; _Histoire des + Camisards, &c._ (London, 1740), the anonymous work of a distinguished + writer, which was eventually condemned by the parlement of Toulouse + to be torn up and burnt in 1759; Antoine Court, _Histoire des troubles + des Cévennes_ (3 vols., 1760), the best work of this period, compiled + from numerous manuscript references. The war of the Cévennes has been + treated in several English works, e.g. _A Compleat History of the + Cevennes, giving a Particular Account of the Situation, &c._, by a + doctor of civil law (London, 1703). This work includes a dedication to + the queen, an historical account of the people of the Cévennes, the + bull of Pope Clement against the Camisards, and the bishop of Nîmes's + mandate publishing the bull, and a discourse on the obligations of the + English to help the Camisards, and a form of prayer used in the + Camisard assembly, printed in London in 1703 under the title + _Formulaire de prières des Cévennois dans leurs assemblées. The + History of the Rise and Downfal of the Camisards, &c._ (London, 1709), + dealt with the prophets of the Cévennes in London, and is only an + abridged translation of Père Louvreleuil's work. Among modern works + are, Ernest Moret, _Quinze ans du règne de Louis XIV_ (3 vols., 1859), + a work which gives a remarkable history of the war of the Cévennes; + _Les Insurgés protestants sous Louis XIV._, studies and unedited + documents published by G. Frosterus (1868); _Mémoires de Bonbonnoux,_ + chief Camisard and pastor of the desert, published by Vielles (1883); + Bonnemère, _Histoire de la guerre des Camisards_ (1859). Two popular + works are--F. Puaux, _Histoire populaire de la guerre des Camisards_ + (1875); Anna E. Bray, _The Revolt of the Protestants of the Cévennes + with some Account of the Huguenots of the Seventeenth Century_ + (London, 1870). (F. Px.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This curious affair provoked a lengthy controversy, which is + described in "La Relation historique de ce qui s'est passe a Londres + au sujet des prophètes camisards" (_Republique des Lettres_, 1708), + in the study of M. Vesson, _Les Prophètes camisards à Londres_ + (1893), and also in the book _Les Prophètes cévenols_, ch. iii. + (1861) by Alfred Dubois. + + + + +CAMOENS [CAMOES], LUIS VAZ DE (1524-1580), the prince of Portuguese +poets, sprang from an illustrious and wealthy family of Galician origin, +whose seat, called the castle of Camoens, lay near Cape Finisterre. His +ancestor, the poet Vasco Pires de Camoens, followed the party of Peter +the Cruel of Castile against Henry II., and on the defeat of the former +had to take refuge along with other Galician nobles in Portugal, where +he founded the Portuguese family of his name. King Fernando received him +well, and gave him posts of honour and estates, and though the master of +Aviz sequestered some of these and Vasco lost others after the battle of +Aljubarrota, where he fought on the Spanish side, considerable +possessions still remained to him. Antão Vaz, the grandfather of Luis, +married one of the Algarve Gamas, so that Vasco da Gama and Camoens, the +discoverer of the sea route to India and the poet who immortalized the +voyage in his _Lusiads_, were kinsmen. Antão's eldest son Simão Vaz was +born in Coimbra at the close of the 15th century, and married Anna de Sá +e Macedo, who bore him an only son, Luis Vaz de Camoens; thus the poet, +like his father and grandfather, was a _cavalleiro fidalgo_, that is, an +untitled noble. + +Four cities dispute the honour of being his birthplace, though Lisbon +has the better title; and there is a like dispute about the year, which, +however, was almost certainly 1524. The poet spent his childhood in +Coimbra, where his father owned a property, and made his first studies +at the college of All Saints, designed for "honourable poor students," +and there contracted friendships with noblemen like D. Gonçalo da +Silveira and his brother D. Alvaro, who were inmates of the nobles' +college of St Michael. These colleges were offshoots from and attached +to the Augustinian monastery of Santa Cruz, an important religious and +scholastic establishment, where the poet's uncle D. Bento de Camoens, a +virtuous and very learned man, was professed. The Renaissance, though +late in penetrating into Portugal, had by this time definitely +triumphed, and the university of Coimbra, after its reform in 1537 under +the auspices of King John III., boasted the best teachers drawn from +every country, among them George Buchanan. The possession of classical +culture was regarded as the mark of a gentleman; the colleges of Santa +Cruz required conversation within the walls to be in Greek or Latin, and +the university, when it absorbed the colleges, adopted the same rule. In +these surroundings, aided by a retentive memory, Camoens steeped himself +in the literature and mythology of the ancients, as his works show, and +he was thus able in after years to perfect the Portuguese language and +to enrich it with many neologisms of classical origin. It is fortunate, +however, for his country and his fame that he never followed the fashion +of writing in Latin; on the contrary, except for his Spanish poems, he +always employed his native tongue. After completing his grammar and +rhetoric the poet entered on his university course for the degree of +bachelor of arts, which lasted for three years, from 1539 to 1542, and +during this period he met Jorge de Montemayor, the author of _Dianá_, +who was then studying music. He seems to have imbibed much of that +encyclopaedic instruction to which the humanists aspired, for his +writings show a very extensive reading, and his scientific knowledge and +faculty of observation compelled the admiration of the great Humboldt. +The thoroughness of his teaching is apparent when we remember that he +wrote his epic in the fortresses of Africa and Asia, far from books, and +yet gave proof of acquaintance with universal history, geography, +astronomy, Greek and Latin literature, and the modern poetry of Italy +and Spain. Much of the credit for this learning must be attributed to +the encouragement of D. Bento, now prior of Santa Cruz, who became +chancellor of the university the very year when Camoens entered it. +There is a tradition that this uncle destined him for the church and +caused him to study theology. The poet's knowledge of dogma and the +Bible, his friendly intercourse with the Lisbon Dominicans at the end of +his life, and the share he is said to have taken in their disputations, +make the hypothesis a likely one, but he made his own choice and +preferred a lay life. We have very little verse of his Coimbra time, but +it seems that he began in the Italian manner, following the new +classical school of Sá de Miranda (q.v.), and that, though attached to +the popular muse and well acquainted with the national songs and +romances, legends and lore, his poetry in the old style (_medida velha_) +is mostly of later date. An exception may perhaps be found in his _Auto_ +after the manner of Gil Vicente (q.v.), _The Amphitryons_, a Portuguese +adaptation from Plautus which was very well received. At the age of +eighteen Camoens left Coimbra, bidding adieu to the old city in verses +breathing the most tender _saudade_. Lisbon, which impressed Cervantes +so much as to draw from him a classic description in the novel _Persiles +y Sigismunda_, made an even greater impression on the youthful Camoens, +and the _Lusiads_ are full of eulogistic epithets on the city and the +Tagus. + +Arriving in 1543, it has been conjectured that he became tutor to D. +Antonio de Noronha, son of the great noble D. Francisco de Noronha, +count of Linhares, who had lately returned from a French embassy to his +palace at Xabregas. The poet's birth and talents admitted him to the +society of men like D. Constantine de Braganza, the duke of Aveiro, the +marquis of Cascaes, the count of Redondo, D. Manoel de Portugal and D. +Gonçalo da Silveira, son of the count of Sortelha, who died a Christian +martyr in Monomotapa. At Xabregas Camoens must have met Francisco de +Moraes (q.v.), who had served as secretary to the count of Linhares on +his embassy, and there he probably read the MS. of _Palmeirim_; this +would explain the origin of two of his roundels which are clearly +founded on passages in the romance. Camoens had had a youthful love +affair in Coimbra, but on Good Friday of the year 1544 he experienced +the passion of his life. On that day in some Lisbon church he caught +sight of D. Catherina de Ataide (daughter of D. Antonio de Lima, high +chamberlain to the infant D. Duarte), who had recently become a +lady-in-waiting to the queen. This young girl, the Nathercia of his +after songs, counted then some thirteen years, and was destined to be +his Beatrice. To see more of her, he persuaded the count of Linhares to +introduce him to the court, where his poetical gifts and culture ensured +him a ready welcome, and his fifth idyll, addressed to his patron on +this occasion, paved the way for his entrance. Though inferior to his +later compositions, it excels in harmony any verse previously written in +Portuguese. At first his suit probably met with few difficulties, and if +Catherina's family regarded it seriously, their poverty, combined with +the fact that the poet came of a good stock and had the future in his +hands, may have prevented any real opposition. It was his own imprudence +that marred his fortunes, and his consciousness of this fact gave his +muse that moving expression, truth and _saudade_, which are lacking in +the somewhat artificial productions of the sentimental Petrarch. But +while Camoens gained protectors and admirers, his temperament and +conduct ensured him envious foes, and the secret of his love got out and +became the subject of gossip. All was not smooth with the lady, who +showed herself coy; now yielding to her heart, she was kind; and then +listening to her friends, who would have preferred a better match for +her, she repelled her lover. Jealousy then seized him, and sick of court +life for the moment, he gladly accompanied his patron to the latter's +country house; but once there he recognized that Lisbon was the centre +of attraction for him and that he could not be happy at a distance. His +verses at this time reveal his parlous condition. He oscillates between +joy and depression. He passes from tender regrets to violent outbursts, +which are followed by calm and peace, while expressions of passionate +love alternate with bold desires and lofty ambitions. It is clear that +there was an understanding between him and Catherina and that they +looked forward to a happy ending, and this encouraged him in his weary +waiting and his search for a lucrative post which would enable him to +approach her family and ask for her hand. From this period date the +greater part of his roundels and sonnets, some of the odes and nearly +all the eclogues. + +His fifth eclogue shows that he was seriously thinking of his patriotic +poem in 1544; and from the fourth it seems likely that the _Lusiads_ +were in course of composition, and that cantos 3 and 4 were practically +completed. He had by now established his fame and was known as the +Lusitanian Virgil, but presently he had a rude awakening from his dreams +of love and glory. He had shown his affection too openly, and some +infraction of court etiquette, about which the queen was strict, caused +the tongue of scandal to wag; perhaps it was an affair with one of +Catherina's brothers, even a duel, that led to the decree which exiled +him from Lisbon. + +Camoens's rashness, self-confidence and want of respect for the +authorities all contributed to the penalty, and the composition of the +play _El Rei Seleuco_ would aggravate his offence in the eyes of John +III. Produced in 1545 and derived from Plutarch, the plot was calculated +to draw attention to the relations between the king and his stepmother, +and to recall the action of D. Manoel in robbing his son John III. of +his intended bride. Camoens composed it for a wedding festivity in the +house of Estacio da Fonseca, and some of the verses refer so openly to +his passion, that if, as is likely, he spoke them himself, emphasizing +them with voice and gesture so as to publish his love to the world, this +new boldness, combined with the subject of the piece, must have rendered +his exile a certainty. All we know definitely, however, is that the +court was henceforth closed to him, and in 1546 he had to leave Lisbon, +the abode of his love and the scene of his triumph. Tradition says that +he went to the Ribatejo and spent seven or eight months with his +mother's relatives in or near Santarem, whence he poured out a number of +his finest poems, including his _Elegy of Exile_ and some magnificent +sonnets, which, in vigour of ideas and beauty of expression, exceeded +anything he had hitherto produced. Poets cannot live on bays, however, +and pressed by necessity he determined to become a soldier. + +One of his best modern biographers thinks that he petitioned the king +for liberty to commute his penalty into military service in Africa; but +whether this be so, or whether he merely went there to gain his spurs, +certain it is that in the autumn of 1547 he proceeded to Ceuta. For the +next two years, the usual period of service there, he lived the routine +life of a common soldier in this famous trade emporium and outpost-town, +and he lost his right eye in a skirmish with the Moroccans, though some +writers make the incident occur on the voyage across the straits when +his ship was attacked by Sallee rovers. Elegy ii. and a couple of odes +date from his stay in Ceuta. He is full of sadness and almost in +despair, but is saved from suicide by love and memory of the past. He +has intervals of calm and resignation, even of satirical humour, and +these become more frequent as the term of his exile draws near, and in +one of them he wrote his prose letter to a "Lisbon friend." The octaves +on the _Discontent of the World_, which breathe a philosophic equanimity +and lift the reader out of the tumult of daily life, go to show that his +restless heart had found peace at last and that he had accustomed +himself to solitude. + +In November 1549 the aged governor of Ceuta, D. Affonso de Noronha, was +summoned to court and created viceroy of India, and Camoens accompanied +him to Lisbon, intending to follow him to the East in the armada which +was due to sail in the spring of 1550. Reaching the capital in December, +the poet almost immediately enlisted, but when the time came for +departure he had changed his mind. His affection for Catherina and +dreams of literary glory detained him, and he lived on in the +expectation of obtaining a post on the strength of his services and +wound. But month after month passed by without result, and in his +disappointment he allied himself with a group of hot-blooded youths, +including the ex-friar Antonio Ribeiro, nicknamed "the Chiado", after +whom the main street of Lisbon takes its name, and endeavoured to forget +his troubles in their society. He took part in their extravagances and +gained the name of "Trinca-fortes" ("Crack-braves") from his bohemian +companions, while there were ladies who mocked at his disfigurement, +dubbing him "devil" and "eyeless face". In the course of his adventures +he had often to draw his sword, either as attacker or attacked, and he +boasted that he had seen the soles of the feet of many but none had seen +his. When the reply to his application came from the palace it was a +negative one, and he had now nothing further to expect. His stock of +money brought from Ceuta was certainly exhausted, and misery stared him +in the face, making him desperate. On the feast of Corpus Christi, the +16th of June 1552, he found two masked friends of his engaged in a +street fight near St Dominic's convent, and joining in the fray he +wounded one Gonçalo Borges, a palace servant, with the result that he +was apprehended and lodged in gaol. This unprovoked attack upon a royal +servant on so holy a day constituted a serious offence and cost him +eight months' imprisonment. In a pathetic sonnet he describes his +terrible experiences, which made such an impression on him that years +afterwards he recurred to them in his great autobiographical Canzon 10. +When Borges' wound was completely healed, the poet's friends intervened +to assist him, and it was arranged that on his formally imploring pardon +Borges should grant it and desist from proceeding with the case. This +was effected on the 13th of February 1553, and on the 7th of March the +king, taking into consideration that Camoens was "a youth and poor and +decided to serve this year in India", confirmed the pardon. He had been +obliged to humble his pride and enlist again, but while he complained of +his troubles he recognized, in his frank, honest way, that his own +mistakes were in part the causes of them. + +After bidding good-bye to Catherina for the last time, Camoens set sail +on Palm Sunday, the 24th of March 1553, in the "S. Bento", the flagship +of a fleet of four vessels, under Fernaõ Alvares Cabral. His last words, +he says in a letter, were those of Scipio Africanus, "Ingrata patria, +non possidebis ossa mea". + +He relates some of his experiences on board and the events of the voyage +in various sonnets in Elegy iii. and in the _Lusiads_. In those days the +sailors navigated the ships, while the men-at-arms kept the day and +night watches, helped in the cleaning and, in case of necessity, at the +pumps, but the rank of Camoens doubtless saved him from manual work. He +had much time to himself in his six months' voyage and was able to lay +in a store of nautical knowledge, while tempestuous weather off the Cape +of Good Hope led him to conceive the dramatic episode of Adamastor +(_Lusiads_, canto 5). The "S. Bento", the best ship of the fleet, +weathered the Cape safely, and without touching at Mozambique, the +watering-place of ships bound for India, anchored at Goa in September. +It seems probable that the idea of the _Lusiads_ took further shape on +the voyage out, and that Camoens modified his plan; cantos 3 and 4 were +already written, but from an historical he now made it a maritime epic. +The discovery of India became the main theme, while the history of +Portugal was interlaced with it, and the poem ended with the espousals +between Portugal and the ocean, and a prophecy of the future greatness +of the fatherland. + +At the time of his arrival Goa boasted 100,000 inhabitants, and with its +magnificent harbour was the commercial capital of the west of India. The +first viceroy had been content with a sea dominion, but the great +Affonso de Albuquerque saw that this was not enough to secure the +supremacy of the Portuguese; recognizing the strategic value of Goa, he +seized it and made it the capital of a land empire, and built fortresses +in every important point through the East. Since his death a succession +of remarkable victories had made the flag of Portugal predominant, but +the enervating climate, the pleasures and the plunder of Asia, began to +tell on the conquerors. Corruption was rife from the governor downwards, +because the ruling ambition was to get rich and return home, and the +hero of one day was a pirate the next. After all, it was only human +nature, for a governorship lasted but three years and Portugal was far +away, so the saying went round--"They are installed the first year, they +rob the second, and then pack up in the third to sail away." Camoens was +well received at first, owing to his talents and bravery, and he found +the life cheap and merry, but having left his country with high ideals, +the injustice and demoralization of manners he found in India soon +disgusted him. He compared Goa to Babylon, and called it "the mother of +villains and the stepmother of honest men." + +His first military service in the East took place in November 1553, when +he went with a force led by the viceroy to chastise a petty king on the +Malabar coast. The expedition only lasted two or three months, and after +some trivial combats it returned to Goa. In February of the following +year Camoens accompanied the viceroy's son, D. Fernando de Menezes, who +led an armada to the mouth of the Red Sea and thence up the Arabian +coast to snap up hostile merchantmen and suppress piracy. Next the fleet +went on to Ormuz, as was the custom with these annual cruises, and then +to Bassora, where the poet helped to make some valuable prizes, and +wrote a sonnet--it was ever, with him, "in one hand the sword, in the +other the pen"! Returning to Goa in November he learnt of the deaths of +Prince John, and of his friend and pupil the young D. Antonio de +Noronha, and paid his tribute in a feeling sonnet and eclogue. In +February 1555 he sailed on another pirate hunt and spent six weary +months off Cape Guardafui, varied by a visit to Mombasa and by further +work on his epic, and only got back to Goa in the following September. +His experiences are recorded in the profound and sad 10th Canzon. + +Meanwhile Francisco Barreto, an honourable and generous man, had become +governor-general of India in the June of 1555, and, his appointment +being popular, a reign of festivities began in Golden Goa to welcome his +succession, in the course of which Camoens produced his _Filodemo_, a +dramatized novel written in his court days. The same occasion probably +gave birth to the _Disparates na India_ ("Follies of India"), and +certainly to the _Satyra do Torneio_ ("Satire of the Tourney"), which +confirmed the poet's reputation as a sayer of sharp things and gave +considerable umbrage to those whom the cap fitted. However, it was not +the enmities thus aroused but military duty which compelled him to quit +Goa once more in the spring of 1556. He had enlisted in Lisbon for five +years, the usual term, and in compliance with the orders of the governor +he sailed for the Moluccas in April and there fought and versified for +two years, though nearly all is guesswork at this period of his life. He +appears to have spent the time between September 1556 and February 1557 +in the island of Ternate, where he wrote Canzon 6, revealing a state of +moral depression similar to that of Canzon 10, and he perhaps visited +Banda and Amboina. In the following year he took part in the military +occupation of Macao, which the emperor of China had presented to the +Portuguese in return for their destruction of a pirate fleet which had +besieged Canton. The poet's five years' term of service was now over, +and he remained at Macao many months waiting for a ship to carry him +back to India. He had made some profit out of the _Mercî de Viagem_, +granted by the governor Barreto to free him from the poverty in which he +habitually lived, and he spent his money royally. At the same time he +continued his epic, working in the grotto which still bears his name. + +All seemed to be going smoothly with him until suddenly his fortunes +took a serious turn for the worse. As the result of an intrigue the +captain of the yearly ship from China to India, who acted as governor of +Macao during his stay in port, imprisoned Camoens, and took him on +board with a view of bringing him to trial in India. The ship, however, +was wrecked in October 1559 at the mouth of the Mekong river, and the +poet had to save his life and his _Lusiads_ by swimming to shore, and +though he preserved the six or seven finished cantos of the poem, he +lost everything else. While wandering about on the Cambodian coast +awaiting the monsoon and a vessel to take him to Malacca, he composed +those magnificent stanzas "By the Waters of Babylon," called by Lope de +Vega "the pearl of all poetry," in which he recalls the happy days of +his youth, sighs for Lisbon (Sion) and his love, and mourns his long +exile from home. He got somehow to Malacca, and after a short stay there +reached Goa, still as prisoner, in June 1561. He was straightway lodged +in gaol, where he heard for the first time of the death of Catherina, +and he poured out his grief in the great sonnet, _Alma Minha Gentil_. +The viceroy, D. Constantius de Bragança, had recently returned from +Jafanapatam, bringing as prize a tooth of Buddha, and Camoens approached +him with a splendid epistle in twenty octaves, after the manner of +Horace's ode to Augustus. It failed, however, to hasten the +consideration of his case, but in September the Conde de Redondo, a good +friend, came into office and immediately ordered his release from +prison. His troubles were not yet at an end, however, for one Miguel +Rodriguez Coutinho, a well-known soldier and citizen of Goa who lent +money at usurious rates, thought the opportunity a good one to obtain +repayment of a debt, and had Camoens lodged once more in gaol. As soon +as he came out the poet composed a burlesque roundel satirizing his +persecutor under the nickname of Fios Seccos ("dry threads"). + +Though very poor he now led an easier, even a pleasant life for a time. +He was able to see his friends D. Vasco de Ataide, D. Francisco de +Almeida, Heitor da Silveira, João Lopes Leitaõ and Francisco de Mello, +all men of family and note. One day he invited them to a banquet, at +which, instead of the usual dishes, each guest was served with a set of +witty verses, and after these had been read out and chaff had gone +round, the food came and they formed a merry party. The poet used his +interest with the viceroy to recommend to him the naturalist Garcia da +Orta, whose _Colloquies_ on the simples and drugs of the East, the first +product of the press in India, appeared in April 1563 with an ode by +Camoens. His life for the next three years is almost a blank, but we +know that he was hard at work finishing his epic, assisted by the advice +of the historian Diogo do Couto, who became its commentator, and further +that the new viceroy, his friend D. Antão de Noronha, nominated him to a +reversion of the factory of Chaul, which, however, never fell into +possession. It is clear from his writings that fourteen years in the +East had told on Camoens. His best friends were dead or scattered, and +he was overwhelmed with _saudade_. His sole ambition was to go home and +print his poem, but he had no money to pay his passage. In September +1567, however, Pedro Barreto was named captain of Mozambique, and +insisted on the poet accompanying him to Sofala, at the same time +lending him two hundred cruzades. It was part of the way home, so +Camoens accepted, but after they reached Mozambique Barreto called in +this money, and his debtor, being unable to pay, was detained there for +two whole years. Here Diogo do Couto found him "so poor that he ate at +the cost of friends, and in order that he might embark for the Kingdom +we friends collected for him the clothes he needed and some gave him to +eat, and that winter he finished perfecting the _Lusiads_ for the press +and wrote much in a book he was making, which he called _Parnaso of Luiz +de Camoes_, a book of much learning, doctrine and philosophy, which was +stolen from him." Thanks to Couto and others, Camoens was able to +liquidate his debt and set sail in November 1569 in the "Santa Clara," +and he reached Portugal on the 7th of April 1570, after an absence of +seventeen years. + +The only wealth he brought with him from India was the MS. of his great +poem, a _"Tesoro del Luso"_ in the words of Cervantes. Moreover, he +returned at an unfortunate moment--one of pest and famine. The great +plague which had killed a quarter, or, as some say, half of the +population of the capital, was declining, but a rigid quarantine +prevailed, and the ship had to lie off Cascaes until the sanitary +authorities allowed her to enter the Tagus. Camoens was welcomed by his +mother, whom he found "very old and very poor"--his father had died at +Goa about 1555--and after a visit to Catherina's tomb, which inspired +the poignant sonnet 337, he set about obtaining the royal licence to +print the _Lusiads_. This was dated the 24th of September 1571 and gave +him a ten years' copyright, and as soon as the book appeared some +friendly and influential hand, perhaps D. Manoel de Portugal, perhaps D. +Francisca de Aragão for whom he had rhymed in the happy days of his +youth, presented the national epic to King Sebastian. Shortly +afterwards, on the 28th of July 1572, the king gave the poet a pension +of fifteen milreis for the term of three years, as a reward for his +services in India and for his poem. It was relatively a considerable +sum, seeing that he had no great military record, and it seems even +generous when we remember that Magellan had only received twelve, and +had left Portugal because King Manoel would not give him a slight +increase. Many functionaries with families had less to live on, and +Camoens's subsistence was secure for the time being, and he could afford +an attendant, so that the legend of the slave Antonio may well be true. +Moreover, he was in the enjoyment of the fame his poem brought him. +Philip II. is said to have read and admired it, and the powerful +minister, Pedro de Alcaçova Carneiro, echoed the general opinion when he +remarked that it had only one defect, in not being short enough to learn +by heart or long enough to have no ending. Tributes came from abroad +too. Tasso wrote and sent Camoens a sonnet in his praise, Fernando de +Herrera celebrated him, and the year 1580 saw the publication of two +Spanish versions, one at Alcalá, the other at Salamanca. His pension +lapsed in 1575, but on the 2nd of August it was renewed for a further +term; owing, however, to a mistake of the treasury officials, Camoens +drew nothing for about a year and a half and fell into dire distress. +This explains the story of Ruy da Camara, who had engaged him to +translate the penitential psalms, and not receiving the version, called +on the poet, who said in excuse that he had no spirit for such work now +that he wanted for everything, and that his slave had asked him for a +penny for fuel and he could not give it. + +On the 2nd of June 1578, just before his start for the expedition to +Africa which cost him his life and Portugal her independence, King +Sebastian had renewed the poet's pension for a further period. Though +Camoens had neither the health nor the means to accompany the splendid +train of nobles and courtiers who followed the last crusading monarch to +his doom, he began an epic to celebrate the enterprise, but burnt it +when he heard the news of the battle of Alcacer. Instead, he mourned the +death of his royal benefactor in a magnificent sonnet, and in Elegy x. +reproached the cowardly soldiery who contributed to the rout. On the +31st of January 1580 the cardinal king Henry died, and, foreseeing the +Spanish invasion, Camoens wrote in March to his old friend D. Francisco +de Almeida: "All will see that I so loved my country that I was content +not only to die in her but with her." A great plague had been raging in +Lisbon since the previous year, and the poet, who lay ill in his poor +cottage in the rua de Santa Anna, depressed by the calamities of his +country, fell a victim to it. He was removed to a hospital and there +passed away, unmarried and the last of his line, on the 10th of June +1580. A Carmelite, Frei José Indio, attended him in his last moments and +received the only recognition Camoens could give, his copy of the +_Lusiads_. He wrote afterwards: "What more grievous thing than to see so +great a genius thus unfortunate. I saw him die in a hospital in Lisbon, +without a sheet to cover him, after having triumphed in the East Indies +and sailed 5000 leagues by sea." The house of Vimioso supplied the +winding-sheet, and Camoens was buried with other victims of the plague +in a common grave in the cemetery of Santa Anna. Years later D. Gonçalo +Coutinho erected in the church of that invocation an _in memoriam_ slab +of marble with an inscription, and subsequently epitaphs were added by +other admirers, but the earthquake of 1755 damaged the building, and all +traces of these last acts of homage to genius have disappeared. The +third centenary of the poet's death was made the occasion of a national +apotheosis, and on the 8th of June 1880 some remains, piously believed +to be his, were borne with those of Vasco da Gama to the national +pantheon, the Jeronymos at Belem. + +The masterpiece of Camoens, the _Lusiads_, is the _epos_ of discovery. +It is written in hendecasyllabic _ottava rima_, and is divided into ten +cantos containing in all 1102 stanzas. Its argument is briefly as +follows. After an exordium proposing the subject, invoking the Tagus +muses and addressing King Sebastian, Vasco da Gama's ships are shown +sailing up the East African coast on their way to India. At a council of +the gods the fate of the fleet is discussed, and Bacchus promises to +thwart the voyage, while Venus and Mars favour the navigators. They +arrive at Mozambique, where the governor endeavours to destroy them by +stratagem, and, this failing, Bacchus tries other plots against them at +Quiloa and Mombasa which are foiled by Venus. In answer to her appeal, +Jupiter foretells the glorious feats of the Portuguese in the East, and +sends Mercury to direct the voyagers to Melinde, where they are +hospitably received and get a pilot to guide them to India. The local +ruler visits the fleet and asks Gama about his country and its history, +and in response the latter gives an account of the origin of the kingdom +of Portugal, its kings and principal achievements, ending with the +incidents of the voyage out. This recital occupies cantos 3, 4 and 5, +and includes some of the most admired and most powerful episodes in the +poem, e.g. those of Ignez de Castro, King Manoel's dream of the rivers +Ganges and Indus, the speech of the old man of Belem and the apparition +of Adamastor off the Cape of Good Hope. Canto 6 describes the crossing +of the Indian Ocean from Melinde to Calicut and a fresh hostile attempt +on the part of Bacchus. He descends to Neptune's palace, and at a +council of the sea-gods it is resolved to order Aeolus to loose the +winds against the Portuguese, but the tempest is quelled by Venus and +her nymphs in answer to Gama's prayer, and the morning light reveals the +Ghats of India. Just before the storm, occurs the night scene in which +Velloso entertains his shipmates with the story of the Twelve of +England, another of the famous episodes. Canto 7 is taken up with the +arrival at Calicut, a description of the country and the details of +Gama's reception by the raja. The governor of the city visits the fleet +and inquires about the pictures on their banners, whereupon Paulo da +Gama, Vasco's brother, tells him of the deeds of the early Portuguese +kings. Meanwhile Bacchus, not to be baulked, appears to a priest in the +guise of Mahomet, and stirs up the Moslems against the Christian +adventurers, with the result that the raja charges Gama with being a +leader of convicts and pirates. To this the captain makes a spirited +reply and gets his despatch, but he has new snares to avoid and further +difficulties to overcome before he is finally able to set sail on the +return voyage. Pitying their toils, Venus determines to give the +voyagers repose and pleasure on their way home, and directs their course +to an enchanted island, which is described in canto 9, in the longest +and perhaps the most beautiful episode in the poem. On landing they are +received by the goddess and her nymphs, and general joy ensues, +heightened by banquets and amorous play. In a prophetic song, the siren +tells of the exploits of the Portuguese viceroys, governors and captains +in India until the time of D John de Castro, after which Tethys ascends +a mountain with Gama, shows him the spheres after the system of Ptolemy +and the globe of Asia and Africa, and describes the Indian life of St +Thomas the apostle. Finally the navigators quit the island and reach +Lisbon, and an epilogue contains a patriotic exhortation to King +Sebastian and visions of glory, which ended so disastrously at the +battle of Alcacer. + +Though the influence of Camoens on Portuguese has been exaggerated, it +was very considerable, and he so far fixed the written language that at +the present day it is commonly and not inaccurately called "the language +of Camoens." The _Lusiads_ is the most successful modern epic cast in +the ancient mould, and it has done much to preserve the corporate life +of the Portuguese people and to keep alive the spirit of nationality in +times of adversity like the "Spanish Captivity" and the Napoleonic +invasion. Even now it forms a powerful bond between the mother-country +and her potentially mighty daughter-nation across the Atlantic, the +United States of Brazil. The men of the Renaissance saw nothing +incongruous in that mixture of paganism and Christianity which is found +in the _Lusiads_ as in Ariosto, though some modern critics, like +Voltaire, consider it a grave artistic defect in the poem. The fact that +the _Lusiads_ is written in a little-known language, and its intensely +national and almost exclusively historical character, undoubtedly +militate against a right estimate of its value, now that Portugal, once +a world power, has long ceased to hold the East in fee or to guide the +destinies of Europe. But though political changes may and do react on +literary appreciations, the _Lusiads_ remains none the less a great +poem, breathing the purest religious fervour, love of country and spirit +of chivalry, with splendid imaginative and descriptive passages full of +the truest and deepest poetry. The structure is Virgilian, but the whole +conception is the author's own, while the style is natural and noble, +the diction nearly always correct and elegant, and the verse, as a rule, +sonorous and full of harmony. + +In addition to his epic, Camoens wrote sonnets, canzons, odes, sextines, +eclogues, elegies, octaves, roundels, letters and comedies. The roundels +include _cartas, motes, voltas, cantigas, trovas, pastorals_ and +_endechas_. In the opinion of many competent judges Camoens only attains +his true stature in his lyrics; and a score of his sonnets, two or three +of the canzons, eclogues and elegies, and the Babylonian roundels will +bear comparison with any composition of the same kind that other +literatures can show. Referring to the _Lusiads_, A. von Humboldt calls +Camoens a "great maritime painter," but in his best lyrics he is a +thinker as well as a poet, and when free from the trammels of the epic +and inherited respect for classical traditions, he reveals a personality +so virile and deep, a philosophy so broad and human, a vision so wide, +and a form and style so nearly perfect, as not only to make him the +foremost of Peninsular bards but to entitle him to a place in that small +company of universal poets of the first rank. + +The oldest and most authentic portrait of Camoens appeared in 1624 with +his life, by Manoel Severim de Faria. It is a kitcat and shows the poet +in armour wearing a laurel crown; his right hand holds a pen, his left +rests on a copy of the _Lusiads_, while a shield above shows the family +arms, a dragon rising from between rocks. The likeness exhibits a Gothic +or northern type, and the tradition of his red beard and blue eyes +confirms it. Except for an ode, sonnet and elegy, all Camoens's lyrics +were published posthumously. + + AUTHORITIES.--The most modern and most critical biographies are those + of Dr Theophilo Braga, _Camões, epoca e Vide_ (Oporto, 1907), and of + Dr Wilhelm Storck, _Luis de Camões Leben_ (Paderborn, 1890), while the + most satisfactory edition of the complete works is due to the Visconde + de Juromenha (6 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1869), though it contains some + spurious matter. While rejecting without good reason many of the + traditions accepted by Juromenha in his life of the poet, Storck + embroiders on his own account, and Braga must be preferred to him. Two + volumes of Innocencio da Silva's _Diccionario Bibliographico + Portuguez_ (14 and 15) are entirely devoted to Camoens and Camoniana, + the second of them dealing fully with the tercentenary celebrations. + Among modern Portuguese studies of the national epic the most + important are perhaps _Camões e a Renascença em Portugal_, by Oliveira + Martins, and _Camões e o Sentimento Nacional_, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, + 1891). The latter volume contains useful information on the various + editions of Camoens, with an account of the texts and remarks on his + plagiarists. Very few poets have been so often translated, and a list + and estimate of the English translations of the _Lusiads_ from the + time of Sir Richard Fanshawe (1655) downwards, will be found in Sir + Richard Burton's _Camoens: His Life and His Lusiads_, which, + notwithstanding some errors, is a most informing book, and the result + of a curious similarity of temperament and experience between master + and disciple. Burton translated the _Lusiads_ (2 vols., London, 1880) + and the _Lyricks_ (sonnets, canzons, odes and sextines; 2 vols., + London, 1884), and left a version of all the minor works in MS. The + accurate and readable version of the epic by Mr J.J. Aubertin, with + the Portuguese text opposite, has gone through two editions (2nd ed., + 2 vols., London, 1884), and there is a version of seventy of the + sonnets, accompanied by the Portuguese text, by the same author + (London, 1881). (E. Pr.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1 + "Calhoun" to "Camoens" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 25, 2010 [EBook #32975] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME V SLICE I<br /><br /> +Calhoun to Camoens</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CALW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CALI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CALYDON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CALIBRATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CALYPSO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CALICO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CAM (CÃO), DIOGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CALICUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CALIFORNIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CAMALDULIANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CALIFORNIA, LOWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CAMARGUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CALIPASH and CALIPEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CAMARINA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CALIPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CAMBACÉRÈS, JEAN JACQUES RÉGIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CALIPHATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CAMBALUC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CALIVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CAMBAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CALIXTUS</a> (popes)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CAMBAY, GULF OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CALIXTUS, GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CAMBER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CAMBERT, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CALLANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CAMBERWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CALLAO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CAMBIASI, LUCA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CAMBODIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CALLIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CAMBORNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CALLIMACHUS</a> (Athenian sculptor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CAMBRAI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CALLIMACHUS</a> (Greek poet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CAMBRIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CALLINUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CAMBRIAN SYSTEM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CALLIOPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CAMBRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CALLIRRHOE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CALLISTHENES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CALLISTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CAMBRIDGE</a> (of England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CALLISTRATUS</a> (Alexandrian grammarian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CAMBRIDGE</a> (Maryland, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CALLISTRATUS</a> (Athenian poet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CAMBRIDGE</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CALLISTRATUS</a> (Greek sophist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CAMBRIDGE</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CALLISTRATUS</a> (of Aphidnae)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CALLOT, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CAMBRIDGESHIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CALLOVIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CAMBUSLANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CALM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CAMBYSES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CALNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CALOMEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CAMDEN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CAMDEN</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CALORESCENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CAMDEN</a> (South Carolina, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CALORIMETRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CAMEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CALPURNIUS, TITUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CAMELLIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CALTAGIRONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CAMEO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CALTANISETTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CAMERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CALTROP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CAMERA LUCIDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CAMERA OBSCURA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CALUMET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM</a> (German classical scholar)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CALUMPIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM</a> (German botanist)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CALVADOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CALVART, DENIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CAMERINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CALVARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CAMERON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CALVÉ EMMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CAMERON, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CAMERON, SIMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CALVERT</a> (English artists)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CAMERONIANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CALVES' HEAD CLUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CAMEROON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CALVI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CAMILING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CALVIN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CALVINISTIC METHODISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CAMILLUS and CAMILLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CALVISIUS, SETHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CAMISARDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CALVO, CARLOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CAMOENS, LUIS VAZ DE</a></td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1782-1850), American statesman +and parliamentarian, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, +in Abbeville District, South Carolina, on the 18th of March 1782. +His father, Patrick Calhoun, is said to have been born in Donegal, +in North Ireland, but to have left Ireland when a mere child. +The family seems to have emigrated first to Pennsylvania, +whence they removed, after Braddock’s defeat, to Western +Virginia. From Virginia they removed in 1756 to South Carolina +and settled on Long Cane Creek, in Granville (now Abbeville) +county. Patrick Calhoun attained some prominence in the +colony, serving in the colonial legislature, and afterwards in the +state legislature, and taking part in the War of Independence. +In 1770 he had married Martha Caldwell, the daughter of +another Scottish-Irish settler.</p> + +<p>The opportunities for obtaining a liberal education in the +remote districts of South Carolina at that time were scanty. +Fortunately, young Calhoun had the opportunity, although late, +of studying under his brother-in-law, the Rev. Moses Waddell +(1770-1840), a Presbyterian minister, who afterwards, from +1819 to 1829, was president of the University of Georgia. In +1802 Calhoun entered the junior class in Yale College, and +graduated with distinction in 1804. He then studied first at +the famous law school in Litchfield, Conn., and afterwards in a +law office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was admitted to the +bar. He began practice in his native Abbeville District, and +soon took a leading place in his profession. In 1808 and 1809 +he was a member of the South Carolina legislature, and from +1811 to 1817 was a member of the national House of Representatives.</p> + +<p>When he entered the latter body the strained relations +between Great Britain and the United States formed the most +important question for the deliberation of Congress. Henry +Clay, the Speaker of the House, being eager for war and knowing +Calhoun’s hostility to Great Britain, gave him the second place +on the committee of foreign affairs, of which he soon became +the actual head. In less than three weeks the committee +reported resolutions, evidently written by Calhoun, recommending +preparations for a struggle with Great Britain; and in the +following June Calhoun submitted a second report urging a +formal declaration of war. Both sets of resolutions the House +adopted. Clay and Calhoun did more, probably, than any other +two men in Congress to force the reluctant president into +beginning hostilities.</p> + +<p>In 1816 Calhoun delivered in favour of a protective tariff a +speech that was ever after held up by his opponents as evidence +of his inconsistency in the tariff controversy. The embargo and +the war had crippled American commerce, but had stimulated +manufactures. With the end of the Napoleonic wars in Europe +the industries of the old world revived, and Americans began to +feel their competition. In the consequent distress in the new +industrial centres there arose a cry for protection. Calhoun, +believing that there was a natural tendency in the United States +towards the development of manufactures, supported the Tariff +Bill of 1816, which laid on certain foreign commodities duties +higher than were necessary for the purposes of revenue. He +believed that the South would share in the general industrial +development, not having perceived as yet that slavery was an +insuperable obstacle. His opposition to protection in later years +resulted from an honest change of convictions. He always +denied that in supporting this bill he had been inconsistent, +and insisted that it was one for revenue.</p> + +<p>From 1817 to 1825 Calhoun was secretary of war under +President Monroe. To him is due the fostering and the reformation +of the National Military Academy at West Point, which he +found in disorder, but left in a most efficient state. Calhoun was +vice-president of the United States from 1825 to 1832, during +the administration of John Quincy Adams, and during most of +the first administration of Andrew Jackson. This period was +for Calhoun a time of reflection. His faith in a strong nationalistic +policy was gradually undermined, and he finally became +the foremost champion of particularism and the recognized +leader of what is generally known as the “States Rights” or +“Strict Construction” party.</p> + +<p>In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties. +In 1828 a still higher tariff act, the so-called “Bill of Abominations,” +was passed, avowedly for the purpose of protection. +The passage of these acts caused great discontent, especially +among the Southern states, which were strictly agricultural. +They felt that the great burden of this increased tariff fell on +them, as they consumed, but did not produce, manufactured +articles. Under such conditions the Southern states questioned +the constitutionality of the imposition. Calhoun himself now +perceived that the North and the South represented diverse +tendencies. The North was outstripping the South in population +and wealth, and already by the tariff acts was, as he believed, +selfishly levying taxes for its sole benefit. The minority must, +he insisted, be protected from “the tyranny of the majority.” +In his first important political essay, “The South Carolina +Exposition,” prepared by him in the summer of 1828, he showed +how this should be done. To him it was clear that the Federal +Constitution was a limited instrument, by which the sovereign +states had delegated to the Federal government certain general +powers. The states could not, without violating the constitutional +compact, interfere with the activities of the Federal +government so long as the government confined itself to its +proper sphere; but the attempt of Congress, or any other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span> +department of the Federal government, to exercise any power +which might alter the nature of the instrument would be an act +of usurpation. The right of judging such an infraction belonged +to the state, being an attribute of sovereignty of which the state +could not be deprived without being reduced to a wholly subordinate +condition. As a remedy for such a breach of compact +the state might resort to nullification (<i>q.v.</i>), or, as a last resort, +to secession from the Union. Such doctrines were not original +with Calhoun, but had been held in various parts of the Union +from time to time. It remained for him, however, to submit +them to a rigid analysis and reduce them to a logical form.</p> + +<p>Meantime the friendship between Calhoun and Jackson had +come to an end. While a member of President Monroe’s cabinet, +Calhoun had favoured the reprimanding of General Jackson (<i>q.v.</i>) +for his high-handed course in Florida in 1818, during the first +Seminole War. In 1831 W.H. Crawford, who had been a member +of this cabinet, desiring to ruin Calhoun politically by turning +Jackson’s hostility against him, revealed to Jackson what had +taken place thirteen years before. Jackson could brook no +criticism from one whom he had considered a friend; Calhoun, +moreover, angered the president still further by his evident +sanction of the social proscription of Mrs Eaton (<i>q.v.</i>); the political +views of the two men, furthermore, were becoming more and more +divergent, and the rupture between the two became complete.</p> + +<p>The failure of the Jackson administration to reduce the Tariff +of 1828 drew from Calhoun his “Address to the People of South +Carolina” in 1831, in which he elaborated his views of the nature +of the Union as given in the “Exposition.” In 1832 a new tariff +act was passed, which removed the “abominations” of 1828 but +left the principle of protection intact. The people of South +Carolina were not satisfied, and Calhoun in a third political tract, +in the form of a letter to Governor James Hamilton (1786-1857) +of South Carolina, gave his doctrines their final form, but without +altering the fundamental principles that have already been stated.</p> + +<p>In 1832 South Carolina, acting in substantial accordance with +Calhoun’s theories, “nullified” the tariff acts passed by Congress +in 1828 and 1832 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nullification</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Carolina</a></span>; and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>). On the 28th of December 1832 Calhoun +resigned as vice-president, and on the 4th of January 1833 took +his seat in the Senate. President Jackson had, in a special +message, taken strong ground against the action of South +Carolina, and a bill was introduced to extend the jurisdiction of +the courts of the United States and clothe the president with +additional powers, with the avowed object of meeting the situation +in South Carolina. Calhoun, in turn, introduced resolutions +upholding the doctrine held by South Carolina, and it was +in the debate on the first-named measure, termed the “Force +Bill,” and on these resolutions, that the first intellectual duel +took place between Daniel Webster and Calhoun. Webster +declared that the Federal government through the Supreme +Court was the ultimate expounder and interpreter of its own +powers, while Calhoun championed the rights of the individual +state under a written contract which reserved to each state its +sovereignty.</p> + +<p>The practical result of the conflict over the tariff was a compromise. +Congress passed an act gradually reducing the duties +to a revenue basis, and South Carolina repealed her nullification +measures. As the result of the conflict, Calhoun was greatly +strengthened in his position as the leader of his party in the South. +Southern leaders generally were now beginning to perceive, as +Calhoun had already seen, that there was a permanent conflict +between the North and the South, not only a divergence of +interests between manufacturing and agricultural sections, but an +inevitable struggle between free and slave labour. Should enough +free states be admitted into the Union to destroy the balance of +power, the North would naturally gain a preponderance in the +Senate, as it had in the House, and might, within constitutional +limits, legislate as it pleased. The Southern minority recognized, +therefore, that they must henceforth direct the policy of the +government in all questions affecting their peculiar interests, or +their section would undergo a social and economic revolution. +The Constitution, if strictly interpreted according to Calhoun’s +views, would secure this control to the minority, and prevent an +industrial upheaval.</p> + +<p>An element of bitterness was now injected into the struggle. +The Northern Abolitionists, to whom no contract or agreement +was sacred that involved the continuance of slavery, regarded the +clauses in the Federal Constitution which maintained the property +rights of the slave-owners as treaties with evil, binding on no one, +and bitterly attacked the slave-holders and the South generally. +Their attacks may be said to have destroyed the moderate party +in that section. Any criticism of their peculiar institution now +came to be highly offensive to Southern leaders, and Calhoun, who +always took the most advanced stand in behalf of Southern rights, +urged (but in vain) that the Senate refuse to receive abolitionist +petitions. He also advocated the exclusion of abolitionist +literature from the mails.</p> + +<p>Indeed from 1832 until his death Calhoun may be said to have +devoted his life to the protection of Southern interests. He +became the exponent, the very embodiment, of an idea. It is a +mistake, however, to characterize him as an enemy to the Union. +His contention was that its preservation depended on the recognition +of the rights guaranteed to the states by the Constitution, +and that aggression by one section could only end in disruption. +Secession, he contended, was the only final remedy left to the +weaker. Calhoun was re-elected to the Senate in 1834 and in 1840, +serving until 1843. From 1832 to 1837 he was a man without +a party. He attacked the “spoils system” inaugurated by +President Jackson, opposed the removal of the government +deposits from the Bank of the United States, and in general was +a severe critic of Jackson’s administration. In this period he +usually voted with the Whigs, but in 1837 he went over to the +Democrats and supported the “independent treasury” scheme +of President Van Buren. He was spoken of for the presidency in +1844, but declined to become a candidate, and was appointed as +secretary of state in the cabinet of President Tyler, serving from +the 1st of April 1844, throughout the remainder of the term, until +the 10th of March 1845. While holding this office he devoted his +energies chiefly to the acquisition of Texas, in order to preserve +the equilibrium between the South and the constantly growing +North. One of his last acts as secretary of state was to send a +despatch, on the 3rd of March 1845, inviting Texas to accept the +terms proposed by Congress. Calhoun was once more elected to +the Senate in 1845. The period of his subsequent service covered +the settlement of the Oregon dispute with Great Britain and the +Mexican War. On the 19th of February 1847 he introduced in +the Senate a series of resolutions concerning the territory about to +be acquired from Mexico, which marked the most advanced stand +as yet taken by the pro-slavery party. The purport of these +resolutions was to deny to Congress the power to prohibit slavery +in the territories and to declare all previous enactments to this +effect unconstitutional.</p> + +<p>In 1850 the Union seemed in imminent danger of dissolution. +California was applying for admission to the Union as a state +under a constitution which did not permit slavery. Her admission +with two Senators would have placed the slave-holding +states in the minority. In the midst of the debate on this application +Calhoun died, on the 31st of March 1850, in Washington.</p> + +<p>Calhoun is most often compared with Webster and Clay. The +three constitute the trio upon whom the attention of students at +this period naturally rests. Calhoun possessed neither Webster’s +brilliant rhetoric nor his easy versatility, but he surpassed him in +the ordered method and logical sequence of his mind. He never +equalled Clay in the latter’s magnetism of impulse and inspiration +of affection, but he far surpassed him in clearness and directness +and in tenacity of will. He surpassed them both in the distinctness +with which he saw results, and in the boldness with which he +formulated and followed his conclusions.</p> + +<p>Calhoun in person was tall and slender, and in his later years +was emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh, +but with a striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue. +To his slaves he was just and kind. He lived the modest, +unassuming life of a country planter when at his home, and at +Washington lived as unostentatiously as possible, consistent with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span> +his public duties and position. His character in other respects +was always of stainless integrity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—A collected edition of Calhoun’s <i>Works</i> (6 vols., +New York, 1853-1855) has been edited by Richard K. Crallé. The +most important speeches and papers are:—<i>The South Carolina +Exposition</i> (1828); <i>Speech on the Force Bill</i> (1833); <i>Reply to Webster</i> +(1833); <i>Speech on the Reception of Abolitionist Petitions</i> (1836), <i>and +on the Veto Power</i> (1842); a <i>Disquisition on Government</i>, and a +<i>Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States</i> +(1849-1850)—the last two, written a short time before his death, +defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a government +such as that of the United States. Calhoun’s <i>Correspondence</i>, +edited by J. Franklin Jameson, has been published by the American +Historical Association (see <i>Report</i> for 1899, vol. ii.). The biography +of Calhoun by Dr Hermann von Holst in the “American Statesmen +Series” (Boston, 1882) is a condensed study of the political +questions of Calhoun’s time. Gustavus M. Pinckney’s <i>Life of John +C. Calhoun</i> (Charleston, 1903) gives a sympathetic Southern view. +Gaillard Hunt’s <i>John C. Calhoun</i> (Philadelphia, 1908) is a valuable +work.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. A. M. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALI,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> an inland town of the department of Cauca, Colombia, +South America, about 180 m. S.W. of Bogotá and 50 m. S.E. of +the port of Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch of the +Cauca. Pop. (1906 estimate) 16,000. Cali stands 3327 ft. +above sea-level on the western side of the Cauca valley, one of +the healthiest regions of Colombia. The land-locked character +of this region greatly restricts the city’s trade and development; +but it is considered the most important town in the department. +It has a bridge across the Cali, and a number of religious and +public edifices. A railway from Buenaventura will give Cali and +the valley behind it, with which it is connected by over 200 m. +of river navigation, a good outlet on the Pacific coast. Coal +deposits exist in the immediate vicinity of the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIBRATION,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a term primarily signifying the determination +of the “calibre” or bore of a gun. The word <i>calibre</i> was introduced +through the French from the Italian <i>calibro</i>, together with +other terms of gunnery and warfare, about the 16th century. The +origin of the Italian equivalent appears to be uncertain. It will +readily be understood that the calibre of a gun requires accurate +adjustment to the standard size, and further, that the bore must +be straight and of uniform diameter throughout. The term was +subsequently applied to the accurate measurement and testing of +the bore of any kind of tube, especially those of thermometers.</p> + +<p>In modern scientific language, by a natural process of transition, +the term “calibration” has come to denote the accurate +comparison of any measuring instrument with a standard, and +more particularly the determination of the errors of its scale. +It is seldom possible in the process of manufacture to make an +instrument so perfect that no error can be discovered by the +most delicate tests, and it would rarely be worth while to attempt +to do so even if it were possible. The cost of manufacture would +in many cases be greatly increased without adding materially +to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in all +cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correction +of errors, is to economize time and labour in production by +taking pains in the subsequent verification or calibration. +This process of calibration is particularly important in laboratory +research, where the observer has frequently to make his own +apparatus, and cannot afford the time or outlay required to make +special tools for fine work, but is already provided with apparatus +and methods of accurate testing. For non-scientific purposes +it is generally possible to construct instruments to measure with +sufficient precision without further correction. The present +article will therefore be restricted to the scientific use and +application of methods of accurate testing.</p> + +<p><i>General Methods and Principles.</i>—The process of calibration +of any measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two +parts, which differ greatly in importance in different cases, and +of which one or the other may often be omitted. (1) The determination +of the value of the unit to which the measurements are +referred by comparison with a standard unit of the same kind. +This is often described as the <i>Standardization</i> of the instrument, +or the determination of the <i>Reduction factor</i>. (2) The verification +of the accuracy of the subdivision of the scale of the instrument. +This may be termed calibration of the scale, and does not +necessarily involve the comparison of the instrument with any +independent standard, but merely the verification of the accuracy +of the relative values of its indications. In many cases the +process of calibration adopted consists in the comparison of the +instrument to be tested with a standard over the whole range of +its indications, the relative values of the subdivisions of the +standard itself having been previously tested. In this case the +distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, and the +term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to include +both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part only, +but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall +restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The methods of standardization or calibration employed have +much in common even in the cases that appear most diverse. They +are all founded on the axiom that “things which are equal to the +same thing are equal to one another.” Whether it is a question of +comparing a scale with a standard, or of testing the equality of two +parts of the same scale, the process is essentially one of interchanging +or substituting one for the other, the two things to be compared. In +addition to the things to be tested there is usually required some +form of balance, or comparator, or gauge, by which the equality +may be tested. The simplest of such comparators is the instrument +known as the <i>callipers</i>, from the same root as calibre, which is in +constant use in the workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions, +or uniformity of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated +forms of optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and +screw adjustments are essentially similar in principle, being finely +adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can be successively +fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison is +that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the gauge +or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most accurate +and most important methods of calibration. The common +balance for testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate and so +easily tested that the process of calibration may frequently with +advantage be reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the +calibration of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities +of mercury required to fill it to different marks. The balance may, +however, be regarded more broadly as the type of a general method +capable of the widest application in accurate testing. It is possible, +for instance, to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical +resistances against each other, or to measure the refractivity of a +gas by balancing it against a column of air adjusted to produce the +same retardation in a beam of light. These “equilibrium,” or +“null,” or “balance” methods of comparison afford the most +accurate measurements, and are generally selected if possible as +the basis of any process of calibration. In spite of the great diversity +in the nature of things to be compared, the fundamental principles +of the methods employed are so essentially similar that it is possible, +for instance, to describe the testing of a set of weights, or the calibration +of an electrical resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and +to represent the calibration correction of a mercury thermometer +or of an ammeter by precisely similar curves.</p> + +<p><i>Method of Substitution.</i>—In comparing two units of the same +kind and of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general +method of substitution is invariably adopted. The same method +in a more elaborate form is employed in the calibration of a series +of multiples or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method +depend on the system of subdivision adopted, which is to some +extent a matter of taste. The simplest method of subdivision is +that on the binary scale, proceeding by multiples of 2. With a +pair of submultiples of the smallest denomination and one of each +of the rest, thus 1, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &amp;c., each weight or multiple is equal +to the sum of all the smaller weights, which may be substituted for +it, and the small difference, if any, observed. If we call the weights +A, B, C, &c., where each is approximately double the following +weight, and if we write a for observed excess of A over the rest of +the weights, b for that of B over C + D + &c., and so on, the observations +by the method of substitution give the series of equations,</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">A − rest = a, B − rest = b, C − rest = c, &c.   (1)</p> + +<p class="noind">Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second, +and so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of +the preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest, +which is most conveniently taken as the standard</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">B = A/2 + (b − a)/2, C = B/2 + (c − b)2, &c.   (2)</p> + +<p>The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in +addition to its extreme simplicity, are (1) that there is only one +possible combination to represent any given weight within the +range of the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights +is required to cover any given range; (3) that the smallest number +of substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These +advantages are important in cases where the accuracy of calibration +is limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in +the case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the +case when it is a question of accuracy of estimation by an observer.</p> + +<p>In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded +by familiarity with the decimal system is the most important +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span> +consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal +system for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens, +hundreds, &c., arranged in groups of four adjusted in the proportion +of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4. The relative values of the weights in +each group of four can then be determined by substitution independently +of the others, and the total of each group of four, making +ten times the unit of the group, can be compared with the smallest +weight in the group above. This gives a sufficient number of +equations to determine the errors of all the weights by the method +of substitution in a very simple manner. A number of other equations +can be obtained by combining the different groups in other +ways, and the whole system of equations may then be solved by the +method of least squares; but the equations so obtained are not all +of equal value, and it may be doubted whether any real advantage +is gained in many cases by the multiplication of comparisons, since +it is not possible in this manner to eliminate constant errors or +personal equation, which are generally aggravated by prolonging +the observations. A common arrangement of the weights in each +group on the decimal system is 5, 2, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1. These do not +admit of the independent calibration of each group by substitution. +The arrangement 5, 2, 1, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1, 1, permits independent +calibration, but involves a larger number of weights and observations +than the 1, 2, 3, 4, grouping. The arrangement of ten equal weights +in each group, which is adopted in “dial” resistance-boxes, and in +some forms of chemical balances where the weights are mechanically +applied by turning a handle, presents great advantages in point of +quickness of manipulation and ease of numeration, but the complete +calibration of such an arrangement is tedious, and in the case of a +resistance-box it is difficult to make the necessary connexions. In +all cases where the same total can be made up in a variety of ways, +it is necessary in accurate work to make sure that the same weights +are always used for a given combination, or else to record the actual +weights used on each occasion. In many investigations where time +enters as one of the factors, this is a serious drawback, and it is better +to avoid the more complicated arrangements. The accurate adjustment +of a set of weights is so simple a matter that it is often possible +to neglect the errors of a well-made set, and no calibration is of +any value without the most +scrupulous attention to details +of manipulation, and +particularly to the correction +for the air displaced in comparing +weights of different +materials. Electrical resistances +are much more difficult +to adjust owing to the change +of resistance with temperature, +and the calibration of a +resistance-box can seldom be +neglected on account of the +changes of resistance which +are liable to occur after +adjustment from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to +remember that the order of accuracy required, and the actual +values of the smaller resistances, depend to some extent on the +method of connexion, and that the box must be calibrated with +due regard to the conditions under which it is to be used. Otherwise +the method of procedure is much the same as in the case of a box +of weights, but it is necessary to pay more attention to the constancy +and uniformity of the temperature conditions of the observing-room.</p> + +<p><i>Method of Equal Steps</i>.—In calibrating a continuous scale divided +into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale +divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees +of temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by +a method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the +method of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers +or tubes of small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution +employing a column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge +for comparing the capacities of different parts of the tube. A precisely +similar method, employing a pair of microscopes at a fixed +distance apart as a standard of length, is applicable to the calibration +of a divided scale. The interval to be calibrated is divided into a +whole number of equal steps or sections, the points of division at +which the corrections are to be determined are called <i>points of +calibration.</i></p> + +<p><i>Calibration of a Mercury Thermometer</i>.—To facilitate description, +we will take the case of a fine-bore tube, such as that of a thermometer, +to be calibrated with a thread of mercury. The bore of +such a tube will generally vary considerably even in the best standard +instruments, the tubes of which have been specially drawn +and selected. The correction for inequality of bore may amount +to a quarter or half a degree, and is seldom less than a tenth. In +ordinary chemical thermometers it is usual to make allowance for +variations of bore in graduating the scale, but such instruments +present discontinuities of division, and cannot be used for accurate +work, in which a finely-divided scale of equal parts is essential. +The calibration of a mercury thermometer intended for work of +precision is best effected after it has been sealed. A thread of mercury +of the desired length is separated from the column. The exact +adjustment of the length of the thread requires a little manipulation. +The thermometer is inverted and tapped to make the mercury run +down to the top of the tube, thus collecting a trace of residual gas +at the end of the bulb. By quickly reversing the thermometer the +bubble passes to the neck of the bulb. If the instrument is again +inverted and tapped, the thread will probably break off at the neck +of the bulb, which should be previously cooled or warmed so as to +obtain in this manner, if possible, a thread of the desired length. +If the thread so obtained is too long or not accurate enough, it is +removed to the other end of the tube, and the bulb further warmed +till the mercury reaches some easily recognized division. At this +point the broken thread is rejoined to the mercury column from the +bulb, and a microscopic bubble of gas is condensed which generally +suffices to determine the subsequent breaking of the mercury column +at the same point of the tube. The bulb is then allowed to cool till +the length of the thread above the point of separation is equal to the +desired length, when a slight tap suffices to separate the thread. This +method is difficult to work with short threads owing to deficient +inertia, especially if the tube is very perfectly evacuated. A thread +can always be separated by local heating with a small flame, but +this is dangerous to the thermometer, it is difficult to adjust the +thread exactly to the required length, and the mercury does not run +easily past a point of the tube which has been locally heated in this +manner.</p> + +<p>Having separated a thread of the required length, the thermometer +is mounted in a horizontal position on a suitable support, +preferably with a screw adjustment in the direction of its length. +By tilting or tapping the instrument the thread is brought into +position corresponding to the steps of the calibration successively, +and its length in each position is carefully observed with a pair of +reading microscopes fixed at a suitable distance apart. Assuming +that the temperature remains constant, the variations of length +of the thread are inversely as the variations of cross-section of the +tube. If the length of the thread is very nearly equal to one step, +and if the tube is nearly uniform, the average of the observed lengths +of the thread, taking all the steps throughout the interval, is equal +to the length which the thread should have occupied in each position +had the bore been uniform throughout and all the divisions equal. +The error of each step is therefore found by subtracting the average +length from the observed length in each position. Assuming that +the ends of the interval itself are correct, the correction to be applied +at any point of calibration to reduce the readings to a uniform tube +and scale, is found by taking the sum of the errors of the steps up +to the point considered with the sign reversed.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.—<i>Calibration by Method of Gay Lussac</i>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr> <td class="tcc allb">No. of Step.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb">2</td> <td class="tcc allb">3</td> <td class="tcc allb">4</td> <td class="tcc allb">5</td> <td class="tcc allb">6</td> <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">8</td> <td class="tcc allb">9</td> <td class="tcc allb">10</td></tr> + +<tr> <td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="2">Ends of thread.<span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">{</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">+.010</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.016</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.020</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.031</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.016</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.008</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.013</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.017</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.004</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.088</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcc rb">+.038</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.017</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.003</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.022</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.010</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.005</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.033</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.018</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.013</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.003</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Excess-Length</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.028</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.033</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.017</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.009</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.006</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.003</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.020</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.001</td> <td class="tcc rb">−.004</td> <td class="tcc rb">+.005</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Error of step.</td> <td class="tcc rb">−17.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">−22.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 6.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 1.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+16.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 7.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 9.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 9.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 6.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+15.4</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb bb">Correction.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+17.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+40.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+46.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+45.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+29.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+21.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+31.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+21.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+15.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the preceding example of the method an interval of ten degrees +is taken, divided into ten steps of 1° each. The distances of the ends +of the thread from the nearest degree divisions are estimated by the +aid of micrometers to the thousandth of a degree. The error of any +one of these readings probably does not exceed half a thousandth, +but they are given to the nearest thousandth only. The excess +length of the thread in each position over the corresponding degree +is obtained by subtracting the second reading from the first. Taking +the average of the numbers in this line, the mean excess-length is +-10.4 thousandths. The error of each step is found by subtracting +this mean from each of the numbers in the previous line. Finally, +the corrections at each degree are obtained by adding up the errors +of the steps and changing the sign. The errors and corrections +are given in thousandths of 1°.</p> + +<p><i>Complete Calibration.</i>—The simple method of Gay Lussac does +very well for short intervals when the number of steps is not excessive, +but it would not be satisfactory for a large range owing to +the accumulation of small errors of estimation, and the variation +of the personal equation. The observer might, for instance, consistently +over-estimate the length of the thread in one half of the +tube, and under-estimate it in the other. The errors near the middle +of the range would probably be large. It is evident that the correction +at the middle point of the interval could be much more accurately +determined by using a thread equal to half the length of the +interval. To minimize the effect of these errors of estimation, it +is usual to employ threads of different lengths in calibrating the +same interval, and to divide up the fundamental interval of the +thermometer into a number of subsidiary sections for the purpose +of calibration, each of these sections being treated as a step in the +calibration of the fundamental interval. The most symmetrical +method of calibrating a section, called by C.E. Guillaume a “Complete +Calibration,” is to use threads of all possible lengths which are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span> +integral multiples of the calibration step. In the example already +given nine different threads were used, and the length of each was +observed in as many positions as possible. Proceeding in this +manner the following numbers were obtained for the excess-length +of each thread in thousandths of a degree in different positions, +starting in each case with the beginning of the thread at 0°, and +moving it on by steps of 1°. The observations in the first column +are the excess-lengths of the thread of 1° already given in +illustration of the method of Gay Lussac. The other columns +give the corresponding observations with the longer threads. +The simplest and most symmetrical method of solving these +observations, so as to find the errors of each step in +terms of the whole interval, is to obtain the differences of +the steps in pairs by subtracting each observation from the one +above it. This method eliminates the unknown lengths of the +threads, and gives each observation approximately its due weight. +Subtracting the observations in the second line from those in the +first, we obtain a series of numbers, entered in column 1 of the next +table, representing the excess of step (1) over each of the other steps. +The sum of these differences is ten times the error of the first step, +since by hypothesis the sum of the errors of all the steps is zero in +terms of the whole interval. The numbers in the second column +of Table III. are similarly obtained by subtracting the third line +from the second in Table II., each difference being inserted in its +appropriate place in the table. Proceeding in this way we find the +excess of each interval over those which follow it. The table is +completed by a diagonal row of zeros representing the difference of +each step from itself, and by repeating the numbers already found in +symmetrical positions with their signs changed, since the excess of +any step, say 6 over 3, is evidently equal to that of 3 over 6 with the +sign changed. The errors of each step having been found by adding +the columns, and dividing by 10, the corrections at each point of +the calibration are deduced as before.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.—<i>Complete Calibration of Interval of 10° in 10 Steps.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Lengths of Threads.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1°</td> <td class="tcc allb">2°</td> <td class="tcc allb">3°</td> <td class="tcc allb">4°</td> <td class="tcc allb">5°</td> <td class="tcc allb">6°</td> <td class="tcc allb">7°</td> <td class="tcc allb">8°</td> <td class="tcc allb">9°</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Observed excess-lengths</td> <td class="tcc rb">0°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−28</td> <td class="tcc rb">−32</td> <td class="tcc rb">−47</td> <td class="tcc rb">−62</td> <td class="tcc rb">−11</td> <td class="tcc rb">−15</td> <td class="tcc rb">−48</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> of threads, in various</td> <td class="tcc rb">1°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−33</td> <td class="tcc rb">−21</td> <td class="tcc rb">−47</td> <td class="tcc rb">−28</td> <td class="tcc rb">+14</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">−22</td> <td class="tcc rb">+21</td> <td class="tcc rb">+24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> positions, the beginning</td> <td class="tcc rb">2°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−17</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">+26</td> <td class="tcc rb">+23</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">+58</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> of the thread being set</td> <td class="tcc rb">3°</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">+26</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">+41</td> <td class="tcc rb">+36</td> <td class="tcc rb">+28</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> near the points.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4°</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">+31</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+45</td> <td class="tcc rb">+49</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">5°</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 3</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcc rb">−15</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 6</td> <td class="tcc rb">+43</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">6°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−20</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">−16</td> <td class="tcc rb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">7°</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">+23</td> <td class="tcc rb">+10</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">8°</td> <td class="tcc rb">− 4</td> <td class="tcc rb">+29</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">9°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.—<i>Solution of Complete Calibration.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Step No.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb">2</td> <td class="tcc allb">3</td> <td class="tcc allb">4</td> <td class="tcc allb">5</td> <td class="tcc allb">6</td> <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">8</td> <td class="tcc allb">9</td> <td class="tcc allb">10</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 5</td> <td class="tcr rb">+11</td> <td class="tcr rb">+20</td> <td class="tcr rb">+34</td> <td class="tcr rb">+25</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">+26</td> <td class="tcr rb">+23</td> <td class="tcr rb">+32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">+16</td> <td class="tcr rb">+23</td> <td class="tcr rb">+39</td> <td class="tcr rb">+29</td> <td class="tcr rb">+12</td> <td class="tcr rb">+31</td> <td class="tcr rb">+28</td> <td class="tcr rb">+37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">−11</td> <td class="tcr rb">−16</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">+24</td> <td class="tcr rb">+13</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 4</td> <td class="tcr rb">+15</td> <td class="tcr rb">+13</td> <td class="tcr rb">+22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">−20</td> <td class="tcr rb">−23</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">+15</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 5</td> <td class="tcr rb">−12</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 4</td> <td class="tcr rb">+13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">−34</td> <td class="tcr rb">−39</td> <td class="tcr rb">−24</td> <td class="tcr rb">−15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 9</td> <td class="tcr rb">−26</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">−10</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">−25</td> <td class="tcr rb">−29</td> <td class="tcr rb">−13</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 5</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">−17</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 1</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">−12</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 4</td> <td class="tcr rb">+12</td> <td class="tcr rb">+26</td> <td class="tcr rb">+17</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">+19</td> <td class="tcr rb">+16</td> <td class="tcr rb">+26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">−26</td> <td class="tcr rb">−31</td> <td class="tcr rb">−15</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 2</td> <td class="tcr rb">−19</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 3</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">−23</td> <td class="tcr rb">−28</td> <td class="tcr rb">−13</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 4</td> <td class="tcr rb">+10</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 1</td> <td class="tcr rb">−16</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">−32</td> <td class="tcr rb">−37</td> <td class="tcr rb">−22</td> <td class="tcr rb">−13</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">−26</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 6</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Error of step.</td> <td class="tcr allb">−17.3</td> <td class="tcr allb">−22.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">− 6.4</td> <td class="tcr allb">+ 1.9</td> <td class="tcr allb">+16.7</td> <td class="tcr allb">+ 7.1</td> <td class="tcr allb">−10.1</td> <td class="tcr allb">+ 8.9</td> <td class="tcr allb">+ 6.1</td> <td class="tcr allb">+15.1</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Corrections.</td> <td class="tcr allb">+17.3</td> <td class="tcr allb">+39.3</td> <td class="tcr allb">+45.7</td> <td class="tcr allb">+43.8</td> <td class="tcr allb">+27.1</td> <td class="tcr allb">+20.0</td> <td class="tcr allb">+30.1</td> <td class="tcr allb">+21.2</td> <td class="tcr allb">+15.1</td> <td class="tcr allb">0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The advantages of this method are the simplicity and symmetry +of the work of reduction, and the accuracy of the result, which +exceeds that of the Gay Lussac method in consequence of the much +larger number of independent observations. It may be noticed, +for instance, that the correction at point 5 is 27.1 thousandths by +the complete calibration, which is 2 thousandths less than the value +29 obtained by the Gay Lussac method, but agrees well with the +value 27 thousandths obtained by taking only the first and last +observations with the thread of 5°. The disadvantage of the method +lies in the great number of observations required, and in the labour +of adjusting so many different threads to suitable lengths. It is +probable that sufficiently good results may be obtained with much +less trouble by using fewer threads, especially if more care is taken +in the micrometric determination of their errors.</p> + +<p>The method adopted for dividing up the fundamental interval +of any thermometer into sections and steps for calibration may be +widely varied, and is necessarily modified in cases where auxiliary +bulbs or “ampoules” are employed. The Paris mercury-standards, +which read continuously from 0° to 100° C., without intermediate +ampoules, were calibrated by Chappuis in five sections of 20° each, +to determine the corrections at the points 20°, 40°, 60°, 80°, which +may be called the “principal points” of the calibration, in terms of +the fundamental interval. Each section of 20° was subsequently +calibrated in steps of 2°, the corrections being at first referred, as in +the example already given, to the mean degree of the section itself, +and being afterwards expressed, by a simple transformation, in terms +of the fundamental interval, by means of the corrections already +found for the ends of the section. Supposing, for instance, that the +corrections at the points 0° and 10° of Table III. are not zero, but +C° and C′ respectively, the correction C<span class="su">n</span> at any intermediate point +n will evidently be given by the formula,</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">C<span class="su">n</span> = C° + c<span class="su">n</span> + (C′ − C°)n/10  (3)</p> + +<p class="noind">where c<span class="su">n</span> is the correction already given in the table.</p> + +<p>If the corrections are required to the thousandth +of a degree, it is necessary to tabulate +the results of the calibration at much more +frequent intervals than 2°, since the correction, +even of a good thermometer, may change by +as much as 20 or 30 thousandths in 2°. To +save the labour and difficulty of calibrating +with shorter threads, the corrections at intermediate +points are usually calculated by a +formula of interpolation. This leaves much to +be desired, as the section of a tube often changes +very suddenly and capriciously. It is probable +that the graphic method gives equally good +results with less labour.</p> + +<p><i>Slide-Wire.</i>—The calibration of an electrical +slide-wire into parts of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that +of a capillary tube into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster +method, employing short steps of equal resistance, effected by transferring +a suitable small resistance from one side of the slide-wire to +the other, is exactly analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers +from the same defect of the accumulation of small errors unless steps +of several different lengths are used. The calibration of a slide-wire, +however, is much less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube +for several reasons. It is easy to obtain a wire uniform to one part in +500 or even less, and the section is not liable to capricious variations. +In all work of precision the slide-wire is supplemented by auxiliary +resistances by which the scale may be indefinitely extended. In +accurate electrical thermometry, for example, the slide-wire itself +would correspond to only 1°, or less, of the whole scale, which is less +than a single step in the calibration of a mercury thermometer, +so that an accuracy of a thousandth of a degree can generally be +obtained without any calibration of the slide-wire. In the rare +cases in which it is necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as +the cylinder potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best +effected by comparison with a standard, +such as a Thomson-Varley slide-box.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Graphic Representation of Results.</i>—The +results of a calibration are often +best represented by means of a correction +curve, such as that illustrated in +the diagram, which is plotted to represent +the corrections found in Table III. +The abscissa of such a curve is the reading +of the instrument to be corrected. +The ordinate is the correction to be +added to the observed reading to reduce +to a uniform scale. The corrections +are plotted in the figure in terms of the +whole section, taking the correction to +be zero at the beginning and end. As +a matter of fact the corrections at these +points in terms of the fundamental interval +were found to be −29 and −9 thousandths respectively. +The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in terms +of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the +points +29 and +9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates +from this line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may +be replotted with the new ordinates thus obtained. In drawing +the curve from the corrections obtained at the points of +calibration, the exact form of the curve is to some extent a +matter of taste, but the curve should generally be drawn as +smoothly as possible on the assumption that the changes are +gradual and continuous.</p> + +<p>The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the +corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to +the first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under +the term “Standardization.” It effects the reduction of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span> +readings to a common standard, and may be neglected if relative +values only are required. A precisely analogous correction occurs +in the case of electrical instruments. A potentiometer, for +instance, if correctly graduated or calibrated in parts of equal +resistance, will give correct relative values of any differences of +potential within its range if connected to a constant cell to supply +the steady current through the slide-wire. But to determine at +any time the actual value of its readings in volts, it is necessary +to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or reduction-factor, +by comparison with a standard cell.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:263px" src="images/img6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Calibration Curve.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by +Professor W.A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of dividing +machines or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as +applied by Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect +in point of uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced +by the method of mounting. In the production of divided scales, +and more particularly in the case of optical gratings, it is most important +that the errors should be as small as possible, and should be +automatically corrected during the process of ruling. With this +object a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the uncorrected +screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal +template may then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correction +curve on a suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut +which feeds the carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour +of the template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each +point of the travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the +screw. A small periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each +revolution, may be similarly corrected by means of a suitable cam +or eccentric revolving with the screw and actuating the template. +This kind of error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to +determine and correct.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Calibration by Comparison with a Standard.</i>—The commonest +and most generally useful process of calibration is the direct +comparison of the instrument with a standard over the whole +range of its scale. It is necessary that the standard itself should +have been already calibrated, or else that the law of its indications +should be known. A continuous current ammeter, for instance, +can be calibrated, so far as the relative values of its readings are +concerned, by comparison with a tangent galvanometer, since +it is known that the current in this instrument is proportional +to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an alternating +current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an +electrodynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the +current. But in either case it is neccessary, in order to obtain +the readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some +particular value of the current by comparison with a voltameter, +or in some equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters +and voltmeters are calibrated by comparison of their readings +with those of a potentiometer, the calibration of which can be +reduced to the comparison and adjustment of resistances, which +is the most accurate of electrical measurements. The commoner +kinds of mercury thermometers are generally calibrated and +graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases this +is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A +mercury thermometer of limited scale reading between 250° and +400° C., with gas under high pressure to prevent the separation +of the mercury column, cannot be calibrated on itself, or by +comparison with a mercury standard possessing a fundamental +interval, on account of difficulties of stem exposure and scale. +The only practical method is to compare its readings every few +degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under the conditions +for which it is to be used. This method has the advantage +of combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, &c., +with the calibration correction in a single curve, except the +correction for variation of zero which must be tested occasionally +at some point of the scale.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Mercurial Thermometers: Guillaume, <i>Thermométrie +de Précision</i> (Paris, 1889), gives several examples and references +to original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and +testing of standards are generally to be found in publications of +Standards Offices, such as those of the Bureau International des +Poids et Mésures at Paris. Dial Resistance-Box: Griffiths, <i>Phil. +Trans.</i> A, 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box: J.A. Harker and +P. Chappuis, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> A, 1900; Thomson-Varley Potentiometer +and Binary Scale Box: Callendar and Barnes, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> A, +1901.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. L. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALICO<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, a general name given to plain cotton cloth. The +word was spelt in various forms, including “calicut,” which +shows its derivation from the Indian city of Calicut or Kolikod, +a seaport in the presidency of Madras, and one of the chief ports +of intercourse with Europe in the 16th century, where cotton +cloths were made. The name seems to have been applied to +all kinds of cotton cloths imported from the East. In England +it is now applied particularly to grey or bleached cotton cloth +used for domestic purposes, and, generally, to any fairly heavy +cotton cloth without a pattern. In the United States there is a +special application to printed cloth “of a coarser quality than +muslin.” In England “printed calico” is a comprehensive term.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALICUT<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>, a city of British India, in the Malabar district of +Madras; on the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypur. In 1901 the population +was 76,981, showing an increase of 14% in the decade. +The weaving of cotton, for which the place was at one time so +famous that its name became identified with its <i>calico</i>, is no +longer of any importance. Calicut is of considerable antiquity; +and about the 7th century it had its population largely increased +by the immigration of the Moplahs, a fanatical race of Mahommedans +from Arabia, who entered enthusiastically into commercial +life. The Portuguese traveller Pero de Covilham +(<i>q.v.</i>) visited Calicut in 1487 and described its possibilities for +European trade; and in May 1498 Vasco da Gama, the first +European navigator to reach India, arrived at Calicut. At +that time it was a very flourishing city, and contained several +stately buildings, among which was especially mentioned a +Brahminical temple, not inferior to the largest monastery in +Portugal. Vasco da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he +met with persistent hostility from the local chief (<i>zamorin</i>), and a +similar attempt made by Cabral two years later ended in the +destruction of the factory by the Moplahs. In revenge the +Portuguese bombarded the town, but no further attempt was +made for some years to establish a trading settlement there. +In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an unsuccessful +attack on the city; and in the following year it was +again assailed by Albuquerque with 3000 troops. On this +occasion the palace was plundered and the town burnt; but +the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships after +heavy loss. In the following year they concluded a peace with +the zamorin and were allowed to build a fortified factory on the +north bank of the Kallayi river, which was however again, and +finally, abandoned in 1525. In 1615 the town was visited by +an English expedition under Captain Keeling, who concluded +a treaty with the zamorin; but it was not until 1664 that an +English trading settlement was established by the East India +Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was +founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali, +who expelled all the merchants and factors, and destroyed the +cocoa-nut trees, sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country +reduced to ruin might present no temptation to the cupidity of +Europeans. In 1782 the troops of Hyder were driven from +Calicut by the British; but in 1788 it was taken and destroyed +by his son Tippoo, who carried off the inhabitants to Beypur +and treated them with great cruelty. In the latter part of 1790 +the country was occupied by the British; and under the treaty +concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his +dominions, Calicut fell to the British. After this event the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span> +inhabitants returned and rebuilt the town, which in 1800 consisted +of 5000 houses.</p> + +<p>As the administrative headquarters of the district, Calicut +maintains its historical importance. It is served by the Madras +railway, and is the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, and the +principal exports are coffee, timber and coco-nut products. +There are factories for coffee-cleaning, employing several hundred +hands; for coir-pressing and timber-cutting. The town has a +cotton-mill, a saw-mill, and tile, coffee and oil works. A detachment +of European troops is generally stationed here to overawe +the fanatical Moplahs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIFORNIA<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, one of the Pacific Coast states of the United +States of America, physically one of the most remarkable, +economically one of the more independent, and in history and +social life one of the most interesting of the Union. It is bounded +N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and Arizona, from which last it +is separated by the Colorado river, and S. by the Mexican +province of Lower California. The length of its medial line +N. and S. is about 780 m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350 m., +and its total area is 158,207 sq. m., of which 2205 are water +surface. In size it ranks second among the states of the +Union. The coast is bold and rugged and with very few good +harbours; San Diego and San Francisco bays being exceptions. +The coast line is more than 1000 m. long. There are eight coast +islands, all of inconsiderable size, and none of them as yet in +any way important.</p> + +<p><i>Physiography.</i>—The physiography of the state is simple; +its main features are few and bold: a mountain fringe along +the ocean, another mountain system along the east border, +between them—closed in at both ends by their junction—a +splendid valley of imperial extent, and outside all this a great +area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to the Great Basin +and partly to the Open Basin region.</p> + +<p>Along the Pacific, and some 20-40 m. in width, runs the mass +of the Coast Range, made up of numerous indistinct chains—most +of which have localized individual names—that are broken +down into innumerable ridges and spurs, and small valleys +drained by short streams of rapid fall. The range is cut by +numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of recent +activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause +the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of +which seem to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast Range +vary from about 2000 to 8000 ft.; in the neighbourhood of San +Francisco Bay the culminating peaks are about 4000 ft. in height +(Mount Diablo, 3856 ft.; Mount St Helena, 4343 ft.), and to +the north and south the elevation of the ranges increases. In +the east part of the state is the magnificent Sierra Nevada, +a great block of the earth’s crust, faulted along its eastern side +and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west and +a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system +of the United States. The Sierra proper, from Lassen’s Peak to +Tehachapi Pass in Kern county, is about 430 m. long (from +Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside +county, more than 600 m.). It narrows to the north and the +altitude declines in the same direction. Far higher and grander +than the Coast Range, the Sierra is much less complicated, +being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of structure. +It is only here and there that a double line of principal summits +exists. The slope is everywhere long and gradual on the west, +averaging about 200 ft. to the mile. Precipitous gorges or +canyons often from 2000 to 5000 ft. in depth become a more +and more marked feature of the range as one proceeds northward; +over great portions of it they average probably not more +than 20 m. apart. Where the volcanic formations were spread +uniformly over the flanks of the mountains, the contrast between +the canyons and the plain-like region of gentle slope in which +they have been excavated is especially marked and characteristic. +The eastern slope is very precipitous, due to a great fault which +drops the rocks of the Great Basin region abruptly downward +several thousand feet. Rare passes cross the chain, opening +at the foot of the mountains on the east and the west high on their +flanks, 7000-10,000 ft. above the sea. Between 36° 20′ and 38° +the lowest gap of any kind is above 9000 ft., and the average +height of those actually used is probably not less than 11,000 ft. +The Kearsarge, most used of all, is still higher. Very few in +the entire Sierra are passable by vehicles. Some forty peaks +are catalogued between 5000 and 8000 ft., and there are eleven +above 14,000. The highest portion of the system is between +the parallels of 36° 30′ and 37° 30′; here the passes are about +12,000 ft. in elevation, and the peaks range from 13,000 ft. +upward, Mount Whitney, 14,502 ft., being the highest summit +of the United States, excluding Alaska. From this peak northward +there is a gradual decline, until at the point where the +Central Pacific crosses in lat. 39° 20′ the elevation is only 7000 ft.</p> + +<p>Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of +the highest Sierra opposite Owen’s Lake, where there is a drop +eastward into the valley of about 10,000 ft. in 10 m.; the snowy +volcanic cone of Mt Shasta, rising 10,000 ft. above the adjacent +plains; and the lovely valleys of the Coast Range, and the +south fork of the King river—all these have their charms; +but most beautiful of all is the unique scenery of the Yosemite +Valley (<i>q.v.</i>). Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the +mountains is due to the erosive action of many alpine glaciers +that once existed on the higher summits, and which have left +behind their evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with +towering walls, polished rock-expanses, glacial lakes and meadows +and tumbling waterfalls. Remnants of these glaciers are still +to be seen,—as notably on Mt. Shasta,—though shrunk to small +dimensions. Glacial action may be studied well as far south as +36°. The canyons are largely the work of rivers, modified by +glaciers that ran through them after the rivers had formed them. +All of the Sierra lakes and ponds are of glacial origin and there +are some thousands of them. The lower lake line is about 8000 +ft.; it is lower to the north than to the south, owing to the different +climate, and the different period of glacial retrogression. Of +these lakes some are fresh, and some—as those of the north-east +counties—alkali. The finest of all is Tahoe, 6225 ft. above the +sea, lying between the true Sierras and the Basin Ranges, with +peaks on several sides rising 4000-5000 ft. above it. It is 1500 +ft. deep and its waters are of extraordinary purity (containing +only three grains of solid matter to the gallon). Clear Lake, +in the Coast Range, is another beautiful sheet of water. It is +estimated by John Muir that on an average “perhaps more than +a mile” of degradation took place in the last glacial period; +but with regard to the whole subject of glacial action in California +as in other fields, there is considerable difference of opinion. +The same authority counted 65 small residual glaciers between +36° 30′ and 39°; two-thirds of them lie between 37° and 38°, +on some of the highest peaks in the district of the San Joaquin, +Merced, Tuolumne and Owen’s rivers. They do not descend, +on an average, below 11,000 ft.; the largest of all, on Mt. Shasta, +descends to 9500 ft. above the sea.</p> + +<p>Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, especially +in the northern half of the range, whereas the evidences of +glacial action are most perfect (though not most abundant) +in the south. Lava covers most of the northern half of the +range, and there are many craters and ash-cones, some recent and +of perfect form. Of these the most remarkable is Mt. Shasta. +In Owen’s Valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant volcanoes.</p> + +<p>Among the other indications of great geological disturbances +on the Pacific Coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes +to which California like the rest of the coast is liable. From 1850 +to 1887 almost 800 were catalogued by Professor E.H. Holden +for California, Oregon and Washington. They occur in all +seasons, scores of slight tremors being recorded every year by +the Weather Bureau; but they are of no importance, and even +of these the number affecting any particular locality is small. +From 1769 to 1887 there were 10 “destructive” and 24 other +“extremely severe” shocks according to the Rossi Forel nomenclatural +scale of intensity. In 1812 great destruction was +wrought by an earthquake that affected all the southern part +of the state; in 1865 the region about San Francisco was violently +disturbed; in 1872 the whole Sierra and the state of Nevada +were violently shaken; and in 1906 San Francisco (<i>q.v.</i>) was in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span> +large part destroyed by a shock that caused great damage elsewhere +in the state.</p> + +<p>North of 40° N. lat. the Coast Range and Sierra systems unite, +forming a country extremely rough. The eastern half of this +area is covered chiefly with volcanic plains, very dry and barren, +lying between precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges; +the western half is magnificently timbered, and toward the coast +excessively wet. Between 35° and 36° N. lat. the Sierra at its +southern end turns westward toward the coast as the Tehachapi +Range. The valley is thus closed to the north and south, and +is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is broken down in but +a single place, the gap behind the Golden Gate at San Francisco. +Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The +length of the valley is about 450 m., its breadth averages about +40 m. if the lower foothills be included, so that the entire area +is about 18,000 sq. m. The drainage basin measured from +the water-partings of the enclosing mountains is some three +times as great. From the mouth of the Sacramento to Redding, +at the northern head of the valley, the rise is 552 ft. in 192 m., +and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to Kern +lake it is 282 ft. in 260 m.</p> + +<p>Two great rivers drain this central basin,—the San Joaquin, +whose valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire +basin, and the Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder. +The San Joaquin is a very crooked stream flowing through a low +mud-plain, with tule banks; the Sacramento is much less +meandering, and its immediate basin, which is of sandy loam, +is higher and more attractive than that of the San Joaquin. +The eastward flanks of the Coast Range are very scantily forested, +and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach +either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season. +On the eastern side of both rivers are various important tributaries, +fed by the more abundant rains and melting snows of the +western flank of the Sierra; but these streams also shrink +greatly in the dry season. The Feather, emptying into the +Sacramento river about 20 m. N. of the city of Sacramento, +is the most important tributary of the Sacramento river. A +striking feature of the Sacramento system is that for 200 m. +north of the Feather it does not receive a single tributary of +any importance, though walled in by high mountains. Another +peculiar and very general feature of the drainage system of the +state is the presence of numerous so-called river “sinks,” where +the waters disappear, either directly by evaporation or (as in +Death Valley) after flowing for a time beneath the surface. +These “sinks” are therefore not the true sinks of limestone +regions. The popular name is applied to Owen’s lake, at the +end of Owen’s river; to Mono lake, into which flow various +streams rising in the Sierra between Mount Dana and Castle +Peak; and to Death Valley, which contains the “sink” of the +Amargosa river, and evidently was once an extensive lake, +although now only a mud-flat in ordinary winters, and a dry, +alkaline, desert plain in summer. All these lakes, and the other +mountain lakes before referred to, show by the terraces about +them that the water stood during the glacial period much higher +than it does now. Tulare lake, which with Buena Vista lake +and Kern lake receives the drainage of the southern Sierra, +shows extreme local variations of shore-line, and is generally +believed to have shrunk extremely since 1850, though of this +no adequate proof yet exists. In 1900 it was about 200 sq. m. +in area. In wet seasons it overflows its banks and becomes +greatly extended in area, discharging its surplus waters into the +San Joaquin; but in dry seasons the evaporation is so great +that there is no such discharge. The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou +and Modoc counties has no outlet to the sea and is collected +in a number of great alkaline lakes.</p> + +<p>Finally along the sea below Pt. Conception are fertile coastal +plains of considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts +by various mountain ranges from 5000 to 7000 ft. high, and +with peaks much higher (San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto, +10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). Unlike the northern Sierra, +the ranges of Southern California are broken down in a number +of places. It is over these passes—Soledad, 2822 ft., Cajon, +San Gorgonio, 2560 ft.—that the railways cross to the coast. +That part of California which lies to the south and east of the +southern inosculation of the Coast Range and the Sierra comprises +an area of fully 50,000 sq. m., and belongs to the Basin +Range region. For the most part it is excessively dry and +barren. The Mohave desert—embracing Kern, Los Angeles +and San Bernardino, as also a large part of San Diego, Imperial +and Riverside counties—belong to the “Great Basin,” while a +narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the “Open Basin +Region.” They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for +slight areas through the Colorado river. The Mohave desert is +about 2000 ft. above the sea in general altitude. The southern +part of the Great Basin region is vaguely designated the Colorado +desert. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside counties a number +of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are normally dry, +flow centrally toward the desert of Salton Sink or “Sea”; +this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the +level of the sea,—at Salton 263 ft., and 287 ft. at the lowest point. +In 1900 the Colorado river (<i>q.v.</i>) was tapped south of the Mexican +boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial +Valley along the Southern Pacific railway, adjoining Salton Sea. +The river enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than +that to its mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding +Salton Sea;<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and when the break in this river was closed for +the second time in February 1907, though much of its water +still escaped through minor channels and by seepage, a lake +more than 400 sq. m. in area was left. A permanent 60 ft. +masonry dam was completed in July 1907. The region to the +east of the Sierra, likewise in the Great Basin province, between +the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very mountainous. +Owen’s river runs through it from north to south for +some 180 m. Near Owen’s lake the scenery is extremely grand. +The valley here is very narrow, and on either side the mountains +rise from 7000 to 10,000 ft. above the lake and river. The Inyo +range, on the east, is quite bare of timber, and its summits are +only occasionally whitened with snow for a few days during the +winter, as almost all precipitation is cut off by the higher ranges +to the westward. Still further to the east some 40 m. from the +lake is Death Valley (including Lost or Mesquite Valley)—the +name a reminder of the fate of a party of “forty-niners” who +perished here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death +Valley, some 50 m. long and on an average 20-25 m. broad from +the crests of the inclosing mountain ranges (or 5-10 m. at their +base), constitutes an independent drainage basin. It is below +sea level (about 276 ft. according to recent surveys), and altogether +is one of the most remarkable physical features of California. +The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant with +varied colours. The Amargosa river, entering the valley from +Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities +of borax, already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known +to be present in the surrounding country, the former as almost +pure borate of lime in Tertiary lake sediments.</p> + +<p>The physiography of the state is the evident determinant of +its climate, fauna and flora. California has the highest land +and the lowest land of the United States, the greatest variety +of temperature and rainfall, and of products of the soil.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:652px" src="images/img8a.jpg" alt="" /> +<img style="width:850px; height:577px" src="images/img8b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img8a1.jpg">(Click to enlarge top section.)</a><br /> +<a href="images/img8b1.jpg">(Click to enlarge bottom section.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Climate.</i>—The climate is very different from that of the +Atlantic coast; and indeed very different from that of any part +of the country save that bordering California. Amid great +variations of local weather there are some peculiar features that +obtain all over the state. In the first place, the climate of the +entire Pacific Coast is milder and more uniform in temperature +than that of the states in corresponding latitude east of the +mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57° N. +lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of Halifax, +Nova Scotia, in latitude 44° 39′. And going south along the +coast, we find the mean temperature of San Diego 6° or 7° less +than that of Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. The quantity +of total annual heat supply at Puget Sound exceeds that at +Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cleveland or Omaha, all more than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span> +500 m. farther south; Cape Flattery, exposed the year round +to cold ocean fogs, receives more heat than Eastport, Maine, +which is 3° farther south and has a warmer summer. In the +second place, the means of winter and summer are much nearer +the mean of the year in California than in the east. This condition +of things is not so marked as one goes inward from the +coast; yet everywhere save in the high mountains the winters +are comparatively mild. In the third place, the division of the +year into two seasons—a wet one and a dry (and extremely +dusty) one—marks this portion of the Pacific Coast in the most +decided manner, and this natural climatic area coincides almost +exactly in its extension with that of California; being truly +characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part +of Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally, +in the fourth place, except on the coast the disagreeableness of +the heat of summer is greatly lessened by the dryness of the air +and the consequent rapidity of evaporation. Among the +peculiarities of Californian climate it is not one of the least +striking that as one leaves the Sacramento or San Joaquin plains +and travels into the mountains it becomes warmer, at least for +the first 2000 or 3000 ft. of ascent.</p> + +<p>Along both the Coast Range and the Sierra considerable +rainfall is certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumulations +of the former, its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy +rain-belt, with a normal fall of more than 40 in., covers all the +northern half of the Sierra and the north-west counties; shading +off from this is the region of 10-20 in. fall, which covers all the +rest of the state save Inyo, Kern and San Bernardino counties, +Imperial county and the eastern portion of Riverside county; +the precipitation of this belt is from 0 to 10 in. In excessively +dry years the limits of this last division may include all of the +state below Fresno and the entire Central Valley as well. In +the mountains the precipitation increases with the altitude; +above 6000 or 7000 ft. it is almost wholly in the form of snow; +and this snow, melting in summer, is of immense importance to +the state, supplying water once for placer mining and now for +irrigation. The north-west counties are extremely wet; many +localities here have normal rainfalls of 60-70 in. and even higher +annually, while in extreme seasons as much as 125 in. falls. +Along the entire Pacific Coast, but particularly N. of San Francisco, +there is a night fog from May to September. It extends +but a few miles inland, but within this belt is virtually a +prolongation of the rainy season and has a marked effect on +vegetation. Below San Francisco the precipitation decreases +along the coast, until at San Diego it is only about 10 in. The +south-east counties are the driest portions of the United States. +At Ogilby, Volcano, Indio and other stations on the Southern +Pacific line the normal annual precipitation is from 1.5 to 2.5 in.; +and there are localities near Owen’s lake, even on its very edge, +that are almost dry. For days in succession when it storms +along the Southern California coasts and dense rain clouds blow +landwards to the mountains, leaving snow or rain on their +summits, it has been observed that within a few miles beyond +the ridge the contact of the desert air dissipates the remaining +moisture of the clouds into light misty masses, like a steam +escape in cold air. The extreme heat of the south-east is tempered +by the extremely low humidity characteristic of the Great Basin, +which in the interior of the two southernmost counties is very +low. The humidity of places such as Fresno, Sacramento and +Red Bluff in the valley varies from 48 to 58. Many places in +northern, southern, central, mountain and southern coastal +California normally have more than 200 perfectly clear days in a +year; and many in the mountains and in the south, even on the +coast, have more than 250. The extreme variability in the +amount of rainfall is remarkable.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The effects of a season of +drought on the dry portions of the state need not be adverted +to; and as there is no rain or snow of any consequence +on the mountains during summer, a succession of dry +seasons may almost bare the ranges of the accumulated stock +of previous winter snows, thus making worse what is already bad.</p> + +<p>The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila Valley +of Arizona) is the hottest part of the United States. Along the +line of the Southern Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently +from 124° to 129° F. (<i>i.e.</i> in the shade, which is almost if not +quite the greatest heat ever actually recorded in any part of the +world). At the other extreme, temperatures of -20° to -36° +are recorded yearly on the Central (Southern) Pacific line near +Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the coldest localities +of the state are from 37° to 44° F.; the monthly means from +20° to 65° F. The normal annual means on Indio, Mammoth +Tanks, Salton and Volcano Springs are from 73.9° to 78.4 F.; the +monthly means from 52.8° to 101.3° (frequently 95° to 98°). +The normal trend of the annual isotherms of the state is very +simple: a low line of about 40° circles the angle in the Nevada +boundary line; 50° normally follows the northern Sierra across +the Oregon border; lines of higher temperature enclose the +Great Valley; and lines of still higher temperature—usually +60° to 70°, in hotter years 60° to 75°—run transversely across +the southern quarter of the state.</p> + +<p>Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely +regular in their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes, +and seasonal trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an +on-shore breeze blows every summer day; in the evening it is +replaced by a night-fog, and the cooler air draws down the +mountain sides in opposition to its movement during the day. +In the upper air a dry off-shore wind from the Rocky Mountain +plateau prevails throughout the summer; and in winter an on-shore +rain wind. The last is the counter-trade, the all-year +wind of Alaska and Oregon; it prevails in winter even off +Southern California.</p> + +<p>There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates. +At Truckee, for example, lying about 5800 ft. above the sea near +Lake Tahoe, the lowest temperature of the year may be -25° F. +or colder, when 70 m. westward at Rocklin, which lies in the +foothills about 250 ft. above the sea, the mercury does not +fall below 28°. Snow never falls at Rocklin, but falls in large +quantity at Truckee; ice is the crop of the one, oranges of the +other, at the same time. There are points in Southern California +where one may actually look from sea to desert and from snow +to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, situation with +reference to the mountain ranges, and altitude are all important +determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the +last seems to be most important. At any rate it may be said +that generally speaking the maximum, minimum and mean +temperatures of points of approximately equal altitude are +respectively but slightly different in northern or southern +California.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>Death Valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any +meteorological stations on earth where regular observations +are taken, although for extremes of heat it is exceeded by places +in the Colorado desert. The minimum daily temperature in +summer is rarely below 70° F. and often above 90° F. (in the +shade), while the maximum may for days in succession be +as high as 120° F. A record of 6 months (1891) showed an +average daily relative humidity of 30.6 in the morning and 15.6 +in the evening, and the humidity sometimes falls to 5. Yet +the surrounding country is not devoid of vegetation. The hills +are very fertile when irrigated, and the wet season develops +a variety of perennial herbs, shrubs and annuals.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—California embraces areas of every life-zone of +North America: of the boreal, the Hudsonian and Canadian +subzones; of the transition, the humid Pacific subzone; of +the upper austral, the arid or upper Sonoran subzone; of the +lower austral, the arid or lower Sonoran; of the tropical, the +“dilute arid” subzone. As will be inferred from the above +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span> +account of temperature, summer is longer in the north, and +localities in the Valley have more hours of heat than do those +of south California. Hence that climatic characteristic of +the entire Pacific Coast—already referred to and which is of +extreme importance in determining the life-zones of California—the +great amount of total annual heat supply at comparatively +high latitudes. A low summer temperature enables northern +species to push far southward, while the high heat total of the +year enables southern species to push far north. The resultant +intermingling of forms is very marked and characteristic of +the Pacific Coast states. The distribution of life-zones is +primarily a matter of altitude and corresponds to that of the +isotherms. The mountain goat and mountain sheep live in +the Sierran upper-land, though long ago well-nigh exterminated. +The Douglas red squirrel is ubiquitous in the Sierran forests +and their most conspicuous inhabitant. White-tailed deer +and especially black-tails are found on the high Sierra; the +mule deer, too, although its habitat is now mainly east of the +range, on the plateau, is also met with. Grizzly, black, cinnamon +and brown bears are all Californian species once common and +to-day rare. When Americans began to rule in California elk +and antelope herded in great numbers in the Great Valley; +the former may to-day sometimes be seen, possibly, in the +northern forests, and the latter occasionally cross into the state +from Nevada. The sage-hen is abundant on the eastern flank +of the Sierra. Grouse, quail, crows and woodpeckers (<i>Melanerpes +formicivorus</i>) furnish species characteristic of the state. There +are various species of ground-squirrels and gophers, which are +very abundant. Noteworthy in the animal life of the lower +Sonoran and tropic region are a variety of snakes and lizards, +desert rats and mice; and, among birds, the cactus wren, desert +thrasher, desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk, mocking-bird +and ground cuckoo or road runner (<i>Geococcyx Californianus</i>). +The California vulture, the largest flying bird in North America +and fully as large as the Andean condor, is not limited to California +but is fairly common there. In the zoology and botany +of California as of the rest of the Pacific Coast, the distinctions +between the upper austral and humid transition zones are largely +obliterated; and as one passes southward into the arid lands, +life forms of both these zones intermingle with those of the +arid transition.</p> + +<p>Fish are abundant. The United States fish commission, and an +active state commission established in 1869, have done much to +preserve and increase this source of food. In 1904 the yield of +the fisheries of the three Pacific Coast states was 168,600,000 +lbs, valued at $6,681,000,—nearly half that of the New England +states, more than one-third that of the Middle Atlantic states and +more than that of the South Atlantic and Gulf states combined. +Of the total, California yielded between a quarter and a third. +A third of her fish comes from the Sacramento river. Some 230—more +or less—marine food fishes are to be found in the market at +San Francisco. The exports of fish from that port from 1892-1899 +were valued at from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000 annually. +Native oysters are small and of peculiar flavour; eastern +varieties also are fattened, but not bred in California waters. +Shrimp are abundant; the shrimp fishers are Chinese and four-fifths +of the catch is exported to China. Sturgeon were once the +cheapest fish after salmon; to-day, despite all efforts to increase +the supply, they are the dearest. Salmon, once threatened with +extinction, have been saved, maintained in good supply, and +indeed have probably regained their pristine abundance. Shad +and striped bass are both very abundant and cheap. Black bass, +flounders, terrapin, sea-turtles, perch, turbot, sole and catfish are +also common. Great herds of seals once lay like toll-gatherers off +the Golden Gate and other bays of the coast, taking a large share +of the salmon and other fish; but they are no longer common. +The sea-lions sometimes raid the rivers for 100 m. inland. They +have greatly increased since hunting them for their hides and oil +ceased to be profitable, and thousands sometimes gather on the +Farallones, off the Golden Gate.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—Inclusiveness of range in the distribution of vegetable +life is perhaps more suggestive than the distribution of animal +species. The variation is from dwarf mountain pine to giant +cactus and dates. The humid transition belt is the habitat of +California’s magnificent forests. Nut pine, juniper and true +sage-brush (<i>Artemisia tridentata</i>) characterize the upper +Sonoran,—although the latter grows equally in the transition zone. +Cereals, orchard fruits and alfalfa are of primary importance in +the upper and of secondary importance in the lower Sonoran. In +the arid portions of this and the tropic areas the indigenous plants +are creosote, mesquite and alfileria bushes, desert acacias, +paloverdes, alkali-heath, salt grass, agaves, yuccas (especially the +Spanish-bayonet and Joshua tree) and cactuses. Among exotics +the Australian saltbush spreads successfully over the worst alkali +land. The introduction of other exotics into these zones,—made +humid by irrigation, which converts them, the one into true +austro-riparian the other into true humid tropical,—has +revolutionized the agricultural, and indeed the whole, economy of +California. At the two ends of Cajon Pass, only four or five +kilometres apart, are the two utterly distinct floras of the Mohave +desert and the San Bernardino valley. Despite the presence of +the pass, plants do not spread, so great is the difference of climatic +conditions. On the desert the same plant will vary in different +years from 4 in. to 10 ft. in height when equally mature, according +to the rainfall and other conditions of growth. Many mature +plants are not taller than 0.4 to 0.8 in. The tree yucca often +attains a height of 20 to 25 ft., and a diameter of 1.5 ft. About +600 species of plants were catalogued in desert California in 1891 +by a government botanical party. The flora of the coast islands +of California is very interesting. On Santa Cruz Professor Joseph +Le Conte found 248 species, nearly all of which are distinctively +Californian, 48 being peculiar to the surrounding islands and 28 +peculiar to Southern California. Various other things indicate a +separation of the islands from the mainland in quaternary times; +since which, owing to the later southward movement on the +continent of northern forms in glacial times, there has been a +struggle for existence on the mainland from which the islands +have largely escaped.</p> + +<p><i>Forests.</i>—The forests and agricultural crops of the state +demand particular notice. In 1900 the woodland was estimated +by the United States census at 22% of the state’s area, and the +total stand at 200,000 million ft. of timber. The variety of forest +trees is not great, but some of the California trees are unique, and +the forests of the state are, with those of Oregon and Washington, +perhaps the most magnificent of the world. At least the coniferous +forests which make up nine-tenths of California’s woodland +surpass all others known in number of species and in the size and +beauty of the trees. Forty-six species occur, namely, 32 species +of pitch trees (18 pines), 12 species of the cypresses and their +allies (2 sequoia), and 2 species of yews or their allies. Peculiar +to California are the two species of sequoia (<i>q.v.</i>),—the redwood +(<i>S. sempervirens</i>), and the big-tree (<i>S. gigantea</i>), remnants +of an earlier age when they were common in other parts of the world. +The redwood grows only in a narrow strip on the Coast Range +from Southern Oregon (where there are not more than 1000 acres) +down nearly to the Golden Gate, in a habitat of heavy rains and +heavy fogs. They cover an area of about 2000 sq. m. almost +unmixed with other species. One fine grove stands S. of San +Francisco near Santa Cruz. These noble trees attain very often +a height of more than 300 ft., frequently of 350 and even more, +and a butt diameter of more than 15 to 20 ft., with clean, straight +fluted trunks rising 200 ft. below the lowest branches. They grow +in a very dense timber stand; single acres have yielded +1,500,000 ft. B.M. of lumber, and single trees have cut as high as +100,000 ft. The total stand in 1900 was estimated by the United +States census as 75,000,000,000 ft., and the ordinary stand per +acre varies from 25,000 to 150,000 ft., averaging probably 60,000 +ft. The redwood is being rapidly used for lumber. There is +nowhere any considerable young growth from seed, although this +mode of reproduction is not (as often stated) unknown; the tree +will reproduce itself more than once from the stump (hence its +name). In thirty years a tree has been known to grow to a height +of 80 ft. and a diameter of 16 in. The wood contains no pitch and +much water, and in a green condition will not burn. To this fact +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span> +it owes its immunity from the forest fires which wreak frightful +havoc among the surrounding forests. As the redwood is limited +to the Coast Range, so the big tree is limited wholly to the Sierra +Nevada. Unlike the redwood the big tree occurs in scattered +groves (ten in all) among other species. Its habitat extends +some 200 m., from latitude 36° to 39°, nowhere descending much +below an altitude of 5000 ft., nor rising above 8000 ft. The most +northerly grove and the nearest to San Francisco is the Calaveras +Grove near Stockton; the Mariposa Grove just south of the Yosemite +National Park, is a state reservation and easily accessible +to tourists. The noblest groves are near Visalia, and are held as +a national park. The average height is about 275 ft., and the +diameter near the ground 20 ft.; various individuals stand over +300 ft., and a diameter of 25 ft. is not rare. One tree measures +35.7 ft. inside the bark 4 ft. above the ground, 10 ft. at 200 ft. +above the ground, and is 325 ft. tall. Specimens have been cut +down that were estimated to be 1300 and even 2200 years old; +many trees standing are presumably 2500 years old. It is the +opinion of John Muir that the big tree would normally live 5000 +years or more; that the California groves are still in their prime; +that, contrary to general ideas, the big tree was never more widely +distributed than now, at least not within the past 8000 or 10,000 +years; that it is not a decaying species, but that on the contrary +“no tree of all the forest is more enduringly established in concord +with climate and soil,” growing like the mountain pine even +on granite, and in little danger save from the greed of the lumberman; +but other excellent authorities consider it as hardly holding +its own, especially in the north. Three main wood belts cover +the flanks of the Sierra: the lower or main pine belt, the silver fir +belt, and the upper pine belt. The sugar pine, the yellow or silver +pine and the Douglas spruce (considerably smaller than in Oregon +and Washington), are rivals in stature and nobility, all attaining +200 ft. or more when full grown; and the incense cedar reaches a +height of 150 ft. In this belt and the following one of firs the big +tree also grows. The white silver fir (<i>abies concolor</i>) and the silver +or red fir (<i>ab. magnifica</i>), standing 200 to 250 ft., make up almost +wholly the main forest belt from 5000 to 9000 ft. for some 450 m. +Above the firs come the tamarack, constituting the bulk of the +lower Alpine forest; the hardy long-lived mountain pine; the +red cedar or juniper, growing even on the baldest rocks; the +beautiful hemlock spruce; the still higher white pine, nut pine, +needle pine; and finally, at 10,000 to 12,000 ft., the dwarf pine, +which grows in a tangle on the earth over which one walks, and +may not show for a century’s growth more than a foot of height +or an inch of girth. The Nevada slope of the mountains below 7500 +ft. is covered with the nut pine down to the sage plains. Its nuts +are gathered in enormous amounts by the Indians for food; and +it is estimated that the yearly harvest of these nuts exceeds in +bulk that of all the cereals of California (John Muir). On the +Sierra the underbrush is characterized by the pungent manzanita, +the California buckeye and the chamiso; the last two growing +equally abundantly on the Coast Range. The chamiso and the +manzanita, with a variety of shrubby oaks and thorny plants, +often grow together in a dense and sometimes quite impenetrable +undergrowth, forming what is known as “chaparral”; if the +chamiso occurs alone the thicket is a “chamisal.” The elm, the +hickory, the beech, the chestnut, and many others of the most +characteristic and useful trees of the eastern states were originally +entirely wanting in California. Oaks are abundant; they are +especially characteristic of the Great Valley, where they grow in +magnificent groves. Up to 1910 national forest reserves amounted +to 27,968,510 acres. In 1909 Congress created a national forest +to include the big tree groves in Calaveras and Tuolumne counties. +One of the noblest redwood areas (that of Santa Cruz county) is +a state reservation (created in 1901). Even within reservations +almost all the merchantable timber is owned by private individuals. +In addition to native trees many others—especially +ornamental species—have been successfully introduced from +various parts of the world.</p> + +<p><i>Soil.</i>—Sand and loams in great variety, grading from mere +sand to adobe, make up the soils of the state. The plains of +the north-east counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east +sandy. It is impossible to say with accuracy what part of the +state may properly be classed as tillable. The total farm acreage +in 1900 was 28,828,951 acres, of which 41.5% were improved; +since 1880 the absolute amount of improved land has remained +practically constant, despite the extraordinary progress of the +state in these years. Much land is too rough, too elevated +or too arid ever to be made agriculturally available; but irrigation, +and the work of the state and national agricultural bureaus +in introducing new plants and promoting scientific farming, +have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. The +peculiarities of the climate, especially its division into two +seasons, make Californian (and Southern Arizona) agriculture +very different from that of the rest of the country. During the +winter no shelter is necessary for live-stock, nor, during summer, +for the grains that are harvested in June and July, and may lie +for weeks or months in the field. The mild, wet winter is the +season of planting and growth, and so throughout the year there +is a succession of crops. The dangers of drought in the long dry +seasons particularly increase the uncertainties of agriculture in +regions naturally arid. Irrigation was introduced in Southern +California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its spread +slow till after 1850. In 1900 almost 1,500,000 acres were irrigated—an +increase of 46% since 1890. About half of this total was +in San Joaquin Valley. California has the greatest area of +irrigated land of any state in the Union, and offers the most +complete utilization of resources. In the south artesian wells, +and in the Great Valley the rivers of the Sierra slope, are the +main source of water-supply. On nearly all lands irrigated +some crops will grow in ordinary seasons without irrigation, but +it is this that makes possible selection of crops; practically +indispensable for all field and orchard culture in the south, +save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases the +yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the state. +Of the acreage devoted to alfalfa in 1899, 76.2% was irrigated; +of that devoted to subtropical fruits, 71.7%. Small fruits, +orchard fruits, hay, garden products and grains are decreasingly +dependent on irrigation; wheat, which was once California’s +great staple, is (for good, but not for best results) comparatively +independent of it,—hence its early predominance in Californian +agriculture, due to this success on arid lands since taken over +for more remunerative irrigated crops.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The spread of irrigation and of intensive cultivation, +and the increase of small farms during the last quarter of +the 19th century, have made California what it is to-day. Agriculture +had its beginning in wheat-raising on great ranches, +from 50,000 even to several hundred thousand acres in extent. +A few of these, particularly in the Great Valley, are still worked, +but only a few. The average size of farms in 1850 (when the +large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, and these +unbroken) was 4466 acres; in 1860 it was 466.4, and in 1900 +only 397.4 acres. Stock ranches, tobacco plantations, and hay +and grain farms, average from 800 to 530 acres, and counteract +the tendency of dairy farms, beet plantations, orchards, vegetable +gardens and nurseries to lower the size of the farm unit still +further. The renting of large holdings prevails to a greater +extent than in any other state except Texas. From 1880 to +1900 the number of farms above 500 and below 1000 acres +doubled; half of the total in 1900 were smaller than 100 acres. +The most remunerative and most characteristic farming to-day +is diversified and intensive and on small holdings. The essential +character of California’s economic life has been determined +by the successive predominance of grass, gold, grain and fruits. +Omitting the second it may be truly said that the order of +agricultural development has been mainly one of blind experiment +or fortuitous circumstances. Staple products have changed +with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, of life-zones +and of the fitness of crops; first hides and tallow, then wool, +wheat, grapes (which in the early eighteen-nineties were the +leading fruit), deciduous orchard fruits, and semi-tropical citrus +fruits successively. Prunes were introduced in 1854, but their +possibilities were only slightly appreciated for some thirty years. +Of various other crops much the same is true. Of late years +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span> +progress has been very intelligent; in earlier years it was gained +through a multitude of experiments and failures, and great +pecuniary loss, and progress was a testimonial chiefly to courage +and perseverance. The possibilities of the lower Sonoran and +tropical areas are still imperfectly known. Nature has been +niggard of rain but lavish in soil and sun. Irrigation has shown +that with water, arid and barren plains, veritable deserts may +be made to bloom with immense wealth of semi-tropical fruits; +and irrigation in the tropical area along the Colorado river, +which is so arid that it naturally bears only desert vegetation, +has made it a true humid-tropical region like Southern Florida, +growing true tropical fruits.</p> + +<p>In 1900 California ranked eleventh among the states in total +value of farm property ($796,527,955) and in 1899 fourteenth +in the value of farm products ($131,690,606). The growth of +the former from 1890 to 1900 was only 2.5%, one of the +smallest increases among all the states.</p> + +<p>The pastoral period extended from 1769 to 1848. The live-stock +industry was introduced by the Franciscans and flourished +exceedingly. In 1834, when the missions had already passed +their best days, there were some 486,000 cattle, horses, mules +and asses on the ranges, and 325,000 small animals, principally +sheep. Throughout the pre-American period stock-raising +was the leading industry; it built up the prosperity of the +missions, largely supported the government and almost exclusively +sustained foreign commerce. Hides and tallow were +the sum and substance of Californian economy. Horses were +slaughtered wholesale at times to make way for cattle on the +ranges. There was almost no dairying; olive oil took the place +of butter, and wine of milk, at the missions; and in general +indeed the Mexicans were content with water. In the development +of the state under the American regime the live-stock +industry has been subordinate. A fearful drought in 1862-1864 +greatly depressed it, and especially discouraged cattle ranching. +Sheep then became of primary importance, until the increase +of the flocks threatened ranges and forests with destruction. +As late as 1876 there were some 7,000,000 sheep, in 1900 only +2,581,000, and in 1906 only 1,750,000. In the total value of +all live stock (5,402,297 head) in 1900 ($65,000,000) the rank of +the state was 15th in the Union, and in value of dairy products +in 1899 (12.84 million dollars) 12th. The live-stock industry +showed a tendency to decline after 1890, and the dairy industry +also, despite various things—notably irrigation and alfalfa +culture—that have favoured them.</p> + +<p>Cereals replaced hides and tallow in importance after 1848. +Wheat was long California’s greatest crop. Its production +steadily increased till about 1884, the production in 1880, the +banner year, being more than 54 million bushels (32,537,360 +centals). Since 1884 its production has markedly fallen off; +in 1905 the wheat crop was 17,542,013 bushels, and in 1906, +26,883,662 bushels (valued at $20,162,746). There has been a +general parallelism between the amount of rain and the amount +of wheat produced; but as yet irrigation is little used for this +crop. In the eighth decade of the 19th century, the value of the +wheat product had come to exceed that of the annual output +of gold. Barley has always been very important. The acreage +given to it in 1899 was one-fourth the total cereal acreage, and +San Francisco in 1902-1904 was the shipping point of the larger +part of American exported barley, of (roughly) three-quarters +in 1902, seven-eighths in 1903 and four-fifths in 1904. In 1906 +California produced 38,760,000 bushels of barley, valued at +$20,930,400. The great increase in the acreage of barley, which +was 22.5% of the country’s barley acreage in 1906, and 24.2% +in 1905, is one reason for the decreased production of wheat. +The level nature of the great grain farms of the valley led to the +utilization of machinery of remarkable character. Combined +harvesters (which enter a field of standing grain and leave this +grain piled in sacks ready for shipment), steam gang-ploughs, +and other farm machinery are of truly extraordinary size and +efficiency. In 1899 cereals represented more than a third of the +total crop acreage and crop product ($93,641,334) of the state. +Wheat and other cereals are in part cut for hay, and the hay crop +of 1906 was 1,133,465 tons, valued at $12,751,481. California +is one of the leading hop-producing states of the Union, the +average annual production since 1901 being more than 10,000,000 +lb. The product of sugar beets increased between 1888 and +1902 from 1910 to 73,761 tons (according to the state board of +trade), and in 1909 (according to the department of agriculture) +it was 882,084 tons, from which 254,544,000 lb of sugar was +manufactured. In this industry California in 1909 ranked +second to Colorado. Truck gardening for export is an +assured industry, especially in the north. Great quantities of +vegetables, fresh and canned, are shipped yearly, and the same +is true on a far larger scale of fruit. Vegetable exports more +than doubled between 1894 and 1903. In 1899 hay and grain +represented slightly more than a third of the farm acreage +and capital and also of the value of all farm products; +live-stock and dairy farms represented slightly more than +half the acreage, and slightly under 30% of the capital and +produce; fruit farms absorbed 6.2% of the acreage and 27% +of the capital, and returned 22.5% of the value of farm +produce.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit-growing.</i>—Horticulture is now the principal industry, +and in this field California has no rival in the United States, +although ranking after Florida in the growth of some tropical +or semi-tropical fruits,—pineapples, guava, limes, pomeloes or +grape-fruit and Japanese persimmons. In 1899 California’s +output of fruit was more than a fifth of that of the whole Union. +The supremacy of the state is established in the growth of oranges, +lemons, citrons, olives, figs, almonds, Persian (or English) +walnuts, plums and prunes, grapes and raisins, nectarines, +apricots and pomegranates; it also leads in pears, and peaches, +but here its primacy is not so assured. Southern California +by no means monopolizes the warm-zone fruits. Oranges, +lemons and walnuts come chiefly from that section, but citrus +fruits grow splendidly in the Sierra foothills of the Sacramento +Valley, and indeed ripen earlier there than in the southern +district. Almonds, as well as peaches, pears, plums, cherries +and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over half of the +prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the +raisin output from Fresno county. Olives thrive as far north +as the head of the Great Valley, growing in all the valleys and +foothills up to 1500 or 2000 ft. They were introduced by the +Franciscans (as were various other subtropical fruits, pears and +grapes), but their scientific betterment and commercial importance +date from about 1885. They grow very abundantly and of +the finest quality; for many years poor methods of preparation +prejudiced the market against the Californian product, but this +has ceased to be the case. The modern orange industry practically +began with the introduction into Southern California in 1873 +of two seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have +been developed by budding millions of trees bearing a seedless +fruit known as the “Washington navel,” which now holds first +rank in American markets; other varieties, mainly seedlings, +are of great but secondary importance. Shipments continue +the year round. There has been more than one horticultural +excitement in California, but especially in orange culture, which +was for a time almost as epidemic a fever as gold seeking once +was. By reason of the co-operative effort demanded for the +large problems of irrigation, packing and marketing, the citrus +industry has done much for the permanent development of the +state, and its extraordinary growth made it, towards the close +of the 19th century, the most striking and most potent single +influence in the growth of agriculture. State legislation has +advanced the fruit interest in all possible ways. Between 1872 +and 1903 exports of canned fruits increased from 91 to 94,205 +short tons; between 1880 and 1903 the increase of dried fruit exports +was from 295 to 149,531 tons; of fresh deciduous fruits, from +2590 to 101,199; of raisins, from 400 to 39,963; of citrus fruits, +from 458 to 299,623; of wines and brandies between 1891 and +1903, from 47,651 to 97,332 tons. Of the shipments in 1903 +some 44% were from Southern California,—<i>i.e.</i> from the seven +southernmost counties.</p> + +<p>Grape culture has a great future in California. Vines were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span> +first introduced by the Franciscans in 1771 from Spain, and +until after 1860 “Mission” grapes were practically the only stock +in California. Afterwards many hundreds of European varieties +were introduced with great success. “The state has such a +variety of soil, slope, elevation, temperature and climatic +conditions as to reproduce, somewhere within its borders, any +wine now manufactured” (United States Census, 1900); but +experience has not as yet divided the state into districts of +specialized produce, nor determined just how far indigenous +American vines may profitably be used, either as base or graftings, +with European varieties. Grapes are grown very largely over +the state. Raisins do well as far north as Yolo county, but do +best in Madera, Fresno, Kings, Tulare and San Diego counties. +The product is more than sufficient for the markets of the +United States. Dry wine grapes do best in the counties around +San Francisco Bay, on unirrigated lands; while sweet wine +stocks do best in Yolo, San Joaquin and the counties of the +raisin grape, and on irrigated lands. In 1900 California produced +about three-fifths in value ($3,937,871) and in 1905 the same +proportion ($6,688,620) of the wine output of the United +States. The value of product more than sextupled from 1880 +to 1900. In quantity the product was more than four times the +combined product of all other states. The better California +wines are largely sold under French labels. Brandies are an +important product. They are made chiefly from grapes, and +are used to fortify wines. It was officially estimated that in the +spring of 1904 there were some 227,000 acres of vineyards in +the state, of which exactly five-tenths were in wine grapes and +four-tenths in raisin grapes.</p> + +<p><i>Gold.</i>—Between the pastoral period and the era of wheat was +the golden epoch of Californian history. The existence of gold +had long been suspected, and possibly known, in California before +1848, and there had been desultory washings in parts where +there was very little to reward prospectors. The first perfectly +authenticated discovery was made near Los Angeles in 1842. +The discovery of real historical importance was made in January +1848 (the 24th is the correct date) at John A. Sutter’s mill, on +the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman, +James W. Marshall (1810-1885). His monument now marks +the spot. From 1848 to the 1st of January 1903, according to +the state mining bureau, California produced $1,379,275,408 +in gold. There were two periods of intense excitement. The +first ended in 1854, at which time there was a decided reaction +throughout the United States in regard to mining matters. +The Californian discoveries had given rise to a general search +for metalliferous deposits in the Atlantic states, and this bad +been followed by wild speculations. At the time of their greatest +productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of the +washings was probably not less than $65,000,000 a year; according +to the state mining bureau the average production from +1851-1854 was $73,570,087 ($81,294,270 in 1852, the banner +year), and from 1850-1861 $55,882,861, never falling below +$50,000,000. The estimates of other competent authorities +differ considerably, and generally are somewhat less generous +than these figures.</p> + +<p>At first the diggings were chiefly along the rivers. These +were “flumed,”—that is, the water was diverted by wooden +flumes from the natural channel and the sand and gravel +in the bed were washed. All the “gulches” or ravines leading +down into the canyons were also worked over, with or +without water. These were the richest “placers,” but in them +the gold was very unequally distributed. Those who first got +possession of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, Feather, +Stanislaus and the other smaller streams in the heart of the +gold region, made sometimes from $1000 to $5000 a day; but +after one rich spot was worked out it might be days or weeks +before another was found. In 1848 $500-700 a day was not +unusual luck; but, on the other hand, the income of the great +majority of miners was certainly far less than that of men who +seriously devoted themselves to trade or even to common +labour. Many extraordinary nuggets were found, varying +from $1000 to $20,000 in value. The economic stimulus given by +such times may be imagined. For several years gold-dust was +a regular circulating medium in the cities as well as in the mining +districts of the state. An ounce of dust in 1848 frequently went +for $4 instead of $17; for a number of years traders in dust +were sure of a margin of several dollars, as for example in private +coinage, mints for which were common by 1851. From the +record of actual exports and a comparison of the most authoritative +estimates of total production, it may be said that from +1848 to 1856 the yield was almost certainly not less than +$450,000,000, and that about 1870 the billion dollar mark had +been passed. Just at this time came the highest point and the +sudden fall of the second great mining fever of the state. This +was a stock speculation based on the remarkable output +($300,000,000 in 20 years) of the silver “bonanzas” of the +Comstock lode at Virginia City, Nevada, which were opened +and financed by San Francisco capitalists. The craze pervaded +all classes. Shares that at first represented so many dollars +per foot in a tangible mine were multiplied and remultiplied +until they came to represent paper thicknesses or almost nothing, +yet still their prices mounted upward. In April 1872 came the +revulsion; there was a shrinkage of $60,000,000 in ten days; +then in 1873 a tremendous advance, and in 1875 a final and +disastrous collapse; in ten years thereafter the stock of the +Comstock lode shrank from $3,000,000 to $2,000,000. This +Comstock fever belongs to Californian rather than to Nevadan +history, and is one of the most extraordinary in mining +annals.</p> + +<p>First the “rocker,” then the “tom,” the “flume,” and the +hydraulic stream were the tools of the miner. Into the “rocker” +and the “tom” the miner shovelled dirt, rocking it as he poured +in water, catching the gold on riffles set across the bottom of his +box; thus imitating in a wooden box the work of nature in the +rivers. The “flume” enabled him to dry the bed of a stream +while he worked over its gravels. The hydraulic stream came +into use as early as 1852 (or 1853) when prospecting of the +higher ground made it certain that the “deep” or “high” +gravels—<i>i.e.</i> the detrital deposits of tertiary age—contained +gold, though in too small quantities to be profitably worked in +the ordinary way. The hydraulic process received an immense +development through successive improvements of method and +machinery. In this method tremendous blasts of powder, +sometimes twenty-five or even fifty tons, were used to loosen the +gravel, which was then acted on by the jet of water thrown from +the “pipes.” To give an idea of the force of the agent thus +employed it may be stated that when an eight-inch nozzle is +used under a heavy head, more than 3000 ft. may be discharged +in a minute with a velocity of 150 ft. per second. The water as +it thus issues from the nozzle feels to the touch like metal, and +the strongest man cannot sensibly affect it with a crowbar. +A gravel bank acted on by such tremendous force crumbled +rapidly, and the disintegrated material could be run readily +through sluices to the “dumps.” Hydraulic mining is no longer +practised on the scale of early days. The results were wonderful +but disastrous, for the “dumps” were usually river-beds. +From 1870-1879 the bed of Bear river was raised in places in its +lower course 97 ft. by the detritus wash of the hydraulic mines, +and that of Sleepy Hollow Creek 136 ft. The total filling up to +that time on the streams in this vicinity had been from 100 to +250 ft., and many thousand acres of fine farming land were +buried under gravel,—some 16,000 on the lower Yuba alone. +For many years the mining interests were supreme, and agriculture, +even after it had become of great importance, was +invariably worsted when the two clashed; but in 1884 the long +and bitter “anti-débris” or “anti-slickins” fight ended in favour +of the farmers. In 1893 the United States government created +a California Débris Commission, which has acted in unison with +the state authorities. Permits for hydraulic mining are granted +by the commission only when all gravel is satisfactorily +impounded and no harm is done to the streams; and the +improvement of these, which was impossible so long as limits +were not set to hydraulic mining, can now be effectively advanced. +Quartz mining began as early as 1851. In 1908 about five-eighths +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span> +of the gold output was from such mines. Quartz veins are +very often as good at a depth of 3000 ft. as at the surface. +A remarkable feature of recent years (especially since 1900) is +gold “dredging.” Thousands of acres even of orchard, vineyard +and farming land have been thus treated in recent years. +Gold was being produced in 1906 in more than thirty counties. +The annual output since 1875 has been about $15,000,000 +to $17,000,000; in 1905, according to the Mines Report, it +was $18,898,545. Colorado now excels California as a gold +producer.</p> + +<p><i>Mineral Products.</i>—California produces more than forty +mineral substances that are of commercial significance. Gold, +petroleum, copper, borax and its products, clays, quicksilver +and silver lead, in order of importance, representing some four-fifths +of the total. From 1894 to 1902 the aggregate production +increased from 20.2 to 35.1 million dollars; in 1908 it was +$65,137,636. Metallic products long represented three-fourths of +the total, but the feature of recent years has been the rising +importance of hydrocarbons and gases, and of structural materials, +and indeed of non-metallic products generally. The production +of crude petroleum has grown very rapidly since about 1895. +Oil is found from north to south over some 600 m., but especially +in Southern California. The high cost of coal, which has always +been a hindrance to the development of manufactures, makes +the petroleum deposits of peculiar value. Their total output +increased from 4,250,000 to 44,854,737 barrels between 1900 +and 1908, and the value of the product in 1908 was $23,433,502. +The Kern river field is the most important in the state and one +of the greatest in the world. Those of Coalinga, Santa Maria +and Lompoc, and Los Angeles are next in importance. Both +in 1900 and in 1905 California ranked fifth among the states of +the United States in the petroleum refining industry. Copper +has risen in importance in very recent years; it is mined mainly +in Shasta county; the value of the state’s total product in 1908 +was $5,232,986. Gold mining still centres in the mountainous +counties north of Tuolumne. This is the region of quartz mining. +In borax (of which California’s output in 1904 was 45,647 tons) +and structural materials San Bernardino has a long lead. More +than nine-tenths of the borax product of the country comes from +about Death Valley. San Bernardino marbles have a very high +repute. California was the fourth state of the Union in 1908 in +the production of granite. It furnishes about two-fifths of the +quicksilver of the world. This has been mined since 1824; the +output was greatest from 1875-1883, when it averaged about +43,000,000 pounds. The New Almaden mine (opened in 1824) in +Santa Clara county produced from 1850 to 1896 some 73,000,000 +pounds. The centre of production is north and south of San +Francisco Bay. Californian coal is almost wholly inferior brown +lignite, together with a small quantity of bituminous coals of +poor quality; the state does not produce a tenth part of the +coal it consumes. Of growing importance are the gems found +in California: a few diamonds in Butte county; rock crystal +in Calaveras county; and tourmalines, kunzite, the rare +pink beryl and bright blue topazes in San Diego county. +Chrysoprase, mined near Porterville and near Visalia (Tulare +county), is used partly for gems, but more largely (like the +vesuvianite found near Exeter, in the same county) for mosaic +work; and there are ledges of fine rose quartz in the Coahuila +mountains of Riverside county and near Lemon Cove, Tulare +county.</p> + +<p>A vivid realization of the industrial revolution in the state +is to be gained from the reflection that in 1875 California was +pre-eminent only for gold and sheep; that the aggregate mineral +output thirty years later was more than a third greater than then, +and that nevertheless the value of farm produce at the opening +of the 20th century exceeded by more than $100,000,000 the +value of mineral produce, and exceeded by $50,000,000 the +most generous estimate of the largest annual gold output in the +annals of the state.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—Previous to 1860 almost every manufactured +article used in the state was imported from the east or from +Europe. Dairy products, for example, for whose production +good facilities always existed, were long greatly neglected, and +not for two decades at least after 1848 was the state independent +in this respect. The high cost of coal, the speculative attractions +of mining, and the high wages of labour, handicapped the +development of manufactures in early years. The first continued +to be a drag on such industries, until after 1895 the increasing +use of crude petroleum obviated the difficulty. Several remarkable +electric power and lighting plants utilize the water power +of the mountains.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Geographic isolation has somewhat fostered +state industries. The value of gross manufactured products +increased 41.9% from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year California +ranked 12th among the states in the gross value of all manufactures +($302,874,761); the per-capita value of manufactured and +agricultural products being $293,—$89 of the latter, $204 of the +former. Of the wage-earners 61% were engaged in manufacturing. +Fourteen industries represented from 41% to 45% of the +employees, wages, capital and product of the aggregate manufacturers +of the state. The leading ones in order of importance +and the value of product in millions of dollars were: the manufacture +of railway, foundry, and machine shop products (19.6 +million dollars), lumber and timber industries (18.57), sugar and +molasses refining (15.91), beef slaughtering (15.72), canning and +preserving (13.08), flour and grist milling (13.10), the manufacture +of malt, vinous and distilled liquors (9.26), leather industries +(7.40), printing and publishing (6.86). In the second, third and +fifth of these industries the state ranked respectively fifth, +fourth and first in the Union.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The canning and preserving of +fruits and vegetables is in the main an industry of the northern +and central counties. In 1890 the state board of forestry +estimated that the redwood forests were in danger of exhaustion +by 1930. The redwood is a general utility lumber second only +to the common white pine, and the drain on the woods has been +continuous since 1850. The wood has a fine, straight and even +grain; and though light and soft, is firm and extremely durable, +lying, it is authoritatively asserted, for centuries in the forest +without appreciable decay. It takes a beautiful polish. The +colour varies from cedar colour to mahogany. A small southern +belt in San Mateo, Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties is not +being commercially exploited. The annual lumber cut from +1898-1903 averaged more than 663,348,000 ft.; of the +852,638,000 ft. cut in 1903, 465,460,000 were of redwood, and +264,890,000 of yellow pine; fir and sugar pines contributing +another 104,600,000, and spruce and cedar 17,670,000 ft. In +1900 California ranked 16th among the states in value of product +($13,764,647, out of a total of $566,852,984). The total cut was +under ½ of 1% of the estimated stand. In Humboldt county, +in the redwood belt near Eureka, are probably the most modern +and remarkable lumber mills of the world. In 1900 it was +estimated that lumbermen controlled somewhat less than a fifth +of the timber of the state, and the same part of the redwood. +After 1890 important shipyards were established near San +Francisco. The most important naval station of the United +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span> +States on the Pacific coast is at Mare Island at the northern end +of San Francisco Bay, and the private Union Iron Works, on the +peninsula near San Francisco, is one of the largest shipyards of +the country. In 1905 more than one-half of the factory product +was the output of four cities: San Francisco ($137,788,233), +Los Angeles ($34,814,475), Sacramento ($10,319,416) and Fresno +($9,849,001); next ranked Oakland, Stockton, and San José.</p> + +<p>The transportation facilities in California increased rapidly +after 1870. The building of the Central Pacific and Union +Pacific lines are among the romances of American railway +history. They joined tracks near Ogden, Utah, in May 1869. +The New Orleans line of the Southern Pacific was opened in +January 1883; the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé completed its +line to San Diego in 1885, and to San Francisco Bay in 1900. +The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, with trans-continental +connexions at the eastern terminus, was chartered in 1901 and +fully opened in March 1903. Railway mileage increased 137.3% +from 1870 to 1880, and 154.6% from 1880 to 1900. At the +close of 1908 the total mileage was 7039.36 m., practically all +of which is either owned or controlled by the two great +trans-continental systems of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, +Topeka & Santa Fé. From 1869 to 1875 registered mail exchanges +were opened with China, Japan, Hawaii and Australia. +There are now frequent mail connexions from San Francisco with +Hawaii, Australasia, and eastern Asia, as well as with American +ports north and south. The commerce of San Francisco amounts +to some $80,000,000 or $90,000,000 yearly, about equally +divided between imports and exports, until after 1905—in 1907 +the imports were valued at $54,207,011, and the exports at +$30,378,355 (less than any year since 1896). San Diego has a +very good harbour, and the harbours of San Pedro (Los Angeles) +and Eureka are fairly good and of growing importance. Grains, +lumber, fish, fruits and fruit products, petroleum, vegetables and +sugar are the leading items in the commerce of San Francisco. +Other ports are of very secondary importance. Navigation on +the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers was very important in +early days, but is to-day of relatively slight importance in +comparison with railway traffic.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of California increased in +successive decades from 1850 to 1910 respectively by 310.3, 47.3, +54.3, 40.3, 22.4 and 60.1%. (The percentage of increase in +1900-1910 was exceeded in Washington, Oklahoma, Idaho, Nevada, +North Dakota and Oregon.) In 1910 the total population +was 2,377,549, or 15.2 per sq. m. In 1900 there were 116 incorporated +towns and cities; and of the total population 43.3% was urban,—<i>i.e.</i> +resident in cities (11 in number) of 8000 or more inhabitants. +These 11 cities were: San Francisco (pop. 342,782), Los Angeles +(102,479), Oakland (66,960), Alameda (16,464), Berkeley +(13,214),—the last three being suburbs of San Francisco, and the +last the seat of the state university,—Sacramento, the state capital +(29,282), San José (21,500), San Diego (17,700), Stockton +(17,506), Fresno (12,470), and Pasadena (9117). Eight other +cities had populations of more than 5000—Riverside City +(7973), Vallejo (7965), Eureka (7327), Santa Rosa (6673), Santa +Barbara (6587), San Bernardino (6156), Santa Cruz (5659), +and Pomona (5526).</p> + +<p>Of the entire population in 1900 persons of foreign birth or +parentage (one or both parents being foreign) constituted 54.2 +and those of native birth were 75.3%. Of the latter six-tenths +were born in California. The foreign element included 45,753 +Chinese (a falling off of 25,313 since 1890), and 10,151 Japanese +(an increase of 9004 in the same decade). Twenty-two foreign +countries contributed over 1000 residents each, the leading ones +being the United Kingdom (91,638), Germany (72,449), Canada +(29,618; 27,408 being English Canadians), Italy (22,777), Sweden +(14,549), France (12,256), Portugal (12,068), Switzerland +(10,974), Japan, Denmark, and Mexico, in the order named. +Persons of negro descent numbered 11,045. Almost all the Indians +of the state are taxed as citizens. In 1906 of 611,464 members +of religious denominations 354,408 were Roman Catholics, +64,528 Methodist Episcopalians, 37,682 Presbyterians, 26,390 +Congregationalists, 24,801 Baptists, 21,317 Protestant Episcopalians, +11,371 Lutherans, and 9,110 members of Eastern Orthodox +churches. A peculiar feature in the population statistics of +California is the predominance of males, which in 1900 was +156,009; the Asiatic element accounts for a third of this number. +Since 1885 the eight counties south of the Tehachapi Range, +which are known collectively and specifically as Southern California +have greatly advanced in population. In 1880 their population +was 7.3, in 1890 17.2, and in 1900 20.1% of the total population of +the state. The initial impulse to this increase was the beginning +of the “fruit epoch” in these counties, combined with a railway +“rate-war” following the completion to the coast in 1885 of the +Santa Fe, and an extraordinary land boom prevailing from +1886 to 1888. The conjuncture of circumstances, and the +immigration it induced, were unusual. The growth of the South, +as of the rest of the state, has been continuous and steady.</p> + +<p>The Indians were prominent in early Californian history, but +their progress toward their present insignificance began far back +in the Spanish period. It proceeded much more rapidly after +the restraining influence of the missions was removed, leaving +them free to revert to savagery; and the downward progress +of the race was fearfully accelerated during the mining period, +when they were abused, depraved, and in large numbers killed. +There have been no Indian wars in California’s annals, but many +butcheries. The natives have declined exceedingly in number +since 1830, in 1900 numbering 15,377. They have always been +mild-tempered, low, and unintelligent, and are to-day a poor +and miserable race. They are all called “Digger Indians” +indiscriminately, although divided by a multiplicity of tongues.</p> + +<p><i>Government and Institutions.</i>—In the matter of +constitution-making +California has been conservative, having had only two +between 1849 and 1910. The first was framed by a convention +at Monterey in 1849, and ratified by the people and proclaimed +by the United States military governor in the same year. The +present constitution, framed by a convention in 1878-1879, came +into full effect in 1880, and was subsequently amended. It was +the work of the labour party, passed at a time of high discontent, +and goes at great length into the details of government, as was +demanded by the state of public opinion. The qualifications +required for the suffrage are in no way different from those +common throughout the Union, except that by a constitutional +amendment of 1894 it is necessary for a voter to be able to read +the state constitution and write his name. As compared with +the earlier constitution it showed many radical advances toward +popular control, the power of the legislature being everywhere +curtailed. The power of legislation was taken from it by specific +inhibition in thirty-one subjects before within its power; its +control of the public domain, its powers in taxation, and its use +of the state credit were carefully safe-guarded. “Lobbying” +was made a felony; provisions were inserted against lotteries +and stock-exchange gambling, to tax and control common +carriers and great corporations, and to regulate telegraph, +telephone, storage and wharfage charges. The powers of the +executive department were also somewhat curtailed. For the +judiciary, provisions were made for expediting trials and decisions. +Notable was the innovation that agreement by three-fourths +of a jury should be sufficient in civil cases and that a jury +might be waived in minor criminal cases, a provision which of +course was based on experience under the Mexican law. All +these changes in the organic law reflect bitter experience after +1850; and, read with the history of those years as a commentary, +few American constitutions are more instructive. The constitution +of 1879 corresponds very closely to the ordinary state +constitution of to-day. The incorporation of banks issuing +circulating notes is forbidden. Marriage is not only declared +a civil contract, but the laws expressly recognize that the mere +consent of the parties is adequate to constitute a binding +marriage. The union of whites with persons of African descent +is forbidden. Felons twice convicted may not be pardoned +except on the recommendation of a majority of the judges of the +supreme court. Judges and state executive officers are elected +for terms longer than is usual in the different states (supreme +judges 12 years, executive officers 4 years). These few provisions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span> +are mentioned, not as of particular importance in themselves, +but as exceptions of some moment to the usual type of state +Constitutions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>). The Australian ballot was +introduced in 1891. In local government there are no deviations +from the usual types that demand notice. In the matter of +liquor-laws there is local option, and a considerable proportion +of the towns and smaller cities, particularly in the south, adopt +prohibition. In most of the rest high licence is more or less +strictly enforced.</p> + +<p>The total assessed valuation of property grew from +$666,399,985 in 1880 to $1,217,648,683 in 1900 and +$1,879,728,763 in 1907. In 1904, when the U.S. Census Report +showed California to be the twenty-first state of the Union in +population but the sixth in wealth, the total estimated true +value of all property was $4,115,491,106, of which $2,664,472,025 +was the value of real property and improvements thereon. +The per capita wealth of the state was then reported as $2582.32, +being exceeded only by the three sparsely settled states of +Montana, Wyoming and Nevada. In 1898 California had the +largest savings-bank deposit per depositor ($637.75) of any +state in the Union; the <i>per caput</i> deposit was $110 in 1902, and +about one person in seven was a depositor. The state bonded debt +in 1907 amounted to three and a half million dollars, of which all +but $767,529.03 was represented by bonds purchased by the state +and held for the school and university funds; for the common +school fund on the 1st of July 1907 there were held bonds for +$4,890,950, and $800,000 in cash available for investment; for +the university fund there were held $751,000 in state bonds, +and a large amount in other securities. The total bonded county +indebtedness was $4,879,600 in 1906 (not including that of San +Francisco, a consolidated city and county, which was $4,568,600). +A homestead, entered upon record and limited to a value of +$5000 if held by the head of a family and to a value of $1000 +if held by one not the head of a family, is exempt from liability for +debts, except for a mortgage, a lien before it was claimed as a homestead +or a lien afterward for improvements. A homestead held by +a married man cannot be mortgaged without consent of his wife.</p> + +<p>Under an act approved on the 25th of March 1903 a state +board of charities and corrections,—consisting of six members, +not more than three being of the same political party, appointed +by the governor, with the advice and consent of the senate, +and holding office for twelve years, two retiring at the end of each +quadrennium,—investigates, examines, and makes “reports +upon the charitable, correctional and penal institutions of the +state,” excepting the Veterans’ Home at Yountville, Napa +county, and the Woman’s Relief Corps Home at Evergreen, +Santa Clara county. There are state prisons with convicts +working under the public account system, at San Quentin, +Marin county, and Folsom, Sacramento county. The Preston +(Sonoma county) School of Industry, for older boys, and the +Whittier (Los Angeles county) State School, for girls and for +boys under sixteen, are the state reformatories, each having +good industrial and manual training departments. There are +state hospitals for the insane at Agnew, Santa Clara county; +at Stockton, San Joaquin county; at Napa, Napa county; at +Patton, San Bernardino county; and, with a colony of tubercular +patients, at Ukiah, Mendocino county. In 1906 the ratio of +insane confined to institutions, to the total population, was +1 to every 270. Also under state control are the home for care +and training of feeble-minded children, at Eldridge, Sonoma +county; the institution for the deaf and the blind at Berkeley, +and the home of mechanical trades for the adult blind at Oakland. +A Juvenile Court Law was enacted in 1903 and modified in 1905.</p> + +<p>The educational system of California is one of the best in the +country. The state board of education is composed of the +governor of the state, who is its president; the superintendent of +public instruction, who is its secretary; the presidents of the +five normal schools and of the University of California, and the +professor of pedagogy in the university. Sessions are long in +primary schools, and attendance was made compulsory in 1874 +(and must not be less than two-thirds of all school days). The +state controlled the actual preparation and sale of text-books +for the common schools from 1885 to 1903, when the Perry +amendment to the constitution (ratified by popular vote in 1884) +was declared to mean that such text-books must be manufactured +within the state, but that the texts need not be prepared in +California. The experiment of state-prepared text-books was +expensive, and its effect was bad on the public school system, +as such text-books were almost without exception poorly written +and poorly printed. After 1903 copyrights were leased by the +state. Secondary schools are closely affiliated with, and closely +inspected by, the state university. All schools are generously +supported, salaries are unusually good, and pension funds in all +cities are authorized by state laws. The value of school +property in 1900 was $19,135,722, and the expenditure for +the public schools $6,195,000; in 1906 the value of school +property was $29,013,150, and the expenditure for public +schools $10,815,857. The average school attendance for all +minors of school age (5-20 years) was 59.9%; of those native-born +61.5, of those foreign-born 34.6; of coloured children, including +Asiatics and Indians, 35.8, and of white, 60.8%. In 1900, 6.2% +of the males of voting age, and 2.4% of the native-born males of +voting age, were illiterate (could not write). Some 3% of the +total population could not speak English; Chinese and Japanese +constituting almost half of the number, foreign-born whites +somewhat less, and Indians and native-born whites of foreign +parentage together less than a tenth of the total. Of the higher +educational institutions of the state the most important are the +state university at Berkeley and Leland Stanford Jr. University +at Palo Alto. The former is supported with very great liberality +by the state; and the latter, the endowment of which is private +(the state, however, exempting it from taxation), is one of the +richest educational institutions of America. In 1906 there were +also five state normal schools (at Chico, Los Angeles, San Diego, +San Francisco, and San José), and a considerable number of +denominational colleges. There is also a state polytechnic +school at San Luis Obispo (1903).</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The name “California” was taken from Ordoñez de +Montalvo’s romance of chivalry <i>Las Sergas de Esplandian</i> +(Madrid, 1510), in which is told of black Amazons ruling an island +of this name “to the right of the Indies, very near the quarter +of the terrestrial paradise.” The name was given to the unknown +north-west before 1540. It does not show that the namers were +prophets or wise judges, for the Spaniards really knew California +not at all for more than two centuries, and then only as a genial +but rather barren land; but it shows that the <i>conquistadores</i> +mixed poetry with business and illustrates the glamour thrown +about the “Northern Mystery.” Necessarily the name had for +a long time no definite geographical meaning. The lower +Colorado river was discovered in 1540, but the explorers did not +penetrate California; in 1542-1543 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo +explored at least the southern coast; in 1579 Sir Francis Drake +repaired his ships in some Californian port (almost certainly not +San Francisco Bay), and named the land New Albion; two +Philippine ships visited the coast in 1584 and 1595, and in 1602 +and 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino discovered the sites of San Diego +and Monterey. There was apparently no increase of knowledge +thereafter for 150 years. Most of this time California was +generally supposed to be an island or a group of islands. Jesuit +missionaries entered Lower California as early as 1697, maintaining +themselves there until Charles III.’s expulsion in 1767 of all +Jesuits from his dominions; but not until Russian explorations +in Alaska from 1745-1765 did the Spanish government show +interest in Upper California. Because of these explorations, and +also the long-felt need of a refitting point on the California coast +for the galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 +and Monterey in 1770 as a result of urgent orders from Charles +III. San Francisco Bay was discovered in the former year. Meanwhile +the Jesuit property in the Peninsula had been turned over +to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the Dominicans took over the +missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly withdrew to Upper +California, where they were to thrive remarkably for some fifty +years.</p> + +<p>This is the mission period—or from an economic standpoint, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span> +the pastoral period—of Californian history. In all, twenty-one +missions were established between 1769 and 1823. The +<span class="sidenote">The rule of the missions.</span> +leader in this movement was a really remarkable man, +Miguel José Serra (known as Junipero Serra, 1713-1784), +a friar of very great ability, purest piety, and +tireless zeal. He possessed great influence in Mexico and Madrid. +“The theory of the mission system,” says H.H. Bancroft, “was +to make the savages work out their own salvation and that of +the priests also.” The last phrase scarcely does justice to the +truly humane and devout intentions of the missionaries; but in +truth the mission system was a complete failure save in the +accumulation of material wealth. Economically the missions +were the blood and life of the province. At them the neophytes +worked up wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cultivated hemp +and wheat, raised a few oranges, made soap, some iron and +leather articles, mission furniture, and a very little wine and olive +oil. Such as it was, this was about the only manufacturing or +handicraft in California. Besides, the hides and tallow yielded +by the great herds of cattle at the missions were the support of +foreign trade and did much toward paying the expenses of the +government. The Franciscans had no sympathy for profane +knowledge, even among the Mexicans,—sometimes publicly +burning quantities of books of a scientific or miscellaneous +nature; and the reading of Fénelon’s <i>Télémaque</i> brought excommunication +on a layman. As for the intellectual development +of the neophytes the mission system accomplished nothing; +save the care of their souls they received no instruction, they +were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal dependence, +so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once into +barbarism. It cannot be said, however, that Anglo-Americans +have done much better for them.</p> + +<p>The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808 +made little stir in this far-off province. Joseph was never +recognized, and allegiance was sworn to Ferdinand (1809). +When revolution broke out in Mexico (1811), California remained +loyal, suffering much by the cessation of supplies from Mexico, +the resulting deficits falling as an added burden upon the missions. +The occupation of Monterey for a few hours by a Buenos Aires +privateer (1818) was the only incident of actual war that California +saw in all these years; and it, in truth, was a ridiculous +episode, fit introduction to the bloodless play-wars, soon to be +inaugurated in Californian politics. In 1820 the Spanish constitution +was duly sworn to in California, and in 1822 allegiance +was given to Mexico. Under the Mexican Federal constitution +of 1824 Upper California, first alone (it was made a distinct +province in 1804) and then with Lower California, received +representation in the Mexican congress.</p> + +<p>The following years before American occupation may be divided +into two periods of quite distinct interest. From about 1840 to +1848 foreign relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to +1840 there is a complicated and not uninteresting movement of +local politics and a preparation for the future,—the missions fall, +republicanism grows, the sentiment of local patriotism becomes a +political force, there is a succession of sectional controversies and +personal struggles among provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign +commerce, of foreign immigration and of foreign influence.</p> + +<p>The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in +sympathies. They viewed with displeasure and foreboding the +fall of Iturbide’s empire and the creation of the republic. They +were not treasonable, but talked much, refusing allegiance to +the new government; and as they controlled the resources of +the colony and the good will of the Indians, they felt their +strength against the local authority; besides, they were its +constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with +the growth of republican ideas. There was talk in California of +the rights of man and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The +missions were never intended to be permanent. The missionaries +were only the field workers sent out to convert and civilize +the Indians, who were to be turned over then to the regular +clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new fields. This +was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the Spanish +Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America that +were ten years old, but this decree was not published in California +until 1821. After that secularization was the burning question +in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made +in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough +secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 +it was consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and +by 1840 at all. At some of the missions the monks acted later +as temporary curates for the civil authorities, until in 1845-1846 +all the missions were sold by the government. Unfortunately +the manner of carrying it out discredited a policy neither unjust +nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in the political +struggles of the time. The friars were in no way mistreated: +Californians did not share Mexican resentments against Spaniards, +and the national laws directed against these were in the main +quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question +led to a rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor +Manuel Victoria. He was driven out of the province.</p> + +<p>This was the first of the opéra bouffe wars. The causes +underlying them were serious enough. In the first place, there +was a growing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accomplished +nothing tangible for good in California,—although its +plans were as excellent as could be asked had there only been +peace and means to realize them; however, it made the mistake +of sending convicts as soldiers. Californians were enthusiastic +republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow in +coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of +these and other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of +foreign residents, and the ambitions of leading Californian +families united to foment and propagate discontent. The +feeling against Mexicans—those “de la otra banda” as they +were significantly termed—invaded political and even social +life. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between +northern towns and southern towns, northern families and +southern families. These entered into disputes over the location +of the capital and the custom-house, in the Franciscan question +also (because the friars came some from a northern and some +from a southern college), and in the question of the distribution +of commands in the army and offices in the civil government. +Then there was the mission question; this became acuter about +1833 when the friars began to destroy, or sell and realize on, the +mission property. The next decade was one of plunder and ruin +in mission history. Finally there was a real growth of republicanism, +and some rulers—notably Victoria—were wholly out of +sympathy with anything but personal, military rule. From all +these causes sprang much unrest and considerable agitation.</p> + +<p>In 1828-1829 there was a revolution of unpaid soldiers aided +by natives, against alleged but not serious abuses, that really +aimed at the establishment of an independent native government. +In 1831 Governor Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Governor +Mariano Chico was frightened out of the province; in 1836 +Governor Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1844-1845 Governor Manuel +Micheltorena were driven out of office. The leading natives +headed this last rising. There was talk of independence, +but sectional and personal jealousies could not be overcome. +In all these wars there was not enough blood shed to +discolour a sword. The rising of 1836 against Gutierrez seems +to-day most interesting, for it was in part a protest against the +growth of federalism in Mexico. California was even deferred +to as (declared to be seems much too strong a statement) an +Estado Libre y Soberano; and from 1836 to 1838, when the +revolutionary governor, Juan B. Alvarado, was recognized by +the Mexican government, which had again inclined to federalism +and, besides, did not take the matter very seriously, the local +government rested simply on local sentiment. The satisfaction +of this ended all difficulties.</p> + +<p>By this time foreign influence was showing itself of importance. +Foreign commerce, which of course was contraband, being +contrary to all Spanish laws, was active by the beginning +of the 19th century. It was greatly stimulated +<span class="sidenote">American immigration.</span> +during the Spanish-American revolutions (the Lima +and Panama trade dating from about 1813), for, as the +Californian authorities practically ignored the law, smuggling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span> +was unnecessary; this was, indeed, much greater after 1822 +under the high duties (in 1836-1840 generally about 100%) of +the Mexican tariffs. In the early ’forties some three-fourths of +the imports, even at Monterey itself, are said to have paid no +duties, being landed by agreement with the officials. Wholesale +and retail trade flourished all along the coast in defiance of prohibitory +laws. American trade was by far most important. The +Boston traders—whose direct trade began in 1822, but the indirect +ventures long before that—were men of decided influence +in California. The trade supplied almost all the clothing, +merchandise and manufactures used in the province; hides and +furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade was not to be +received, still less were foreign travellers, under the Spanish laws. +However, the Russians came in 1805, and in 1812 founded on +Bodega Bay a post they held till 1841, whence they traded and +hunted (even in San Francisco Bay) for furs. From the day of +the earliest foreign commerce sailors and traders of divers +nationalities began to settle in the province. In 1826 American +hunters first crossed to the coast; in 1830 the Hudson’s Bay +Company began operations in northern California. By this time +the foreign element was considerable in number, and it doubled +in the next six years, although the true overland immigration from +the United States began only about 1840. As a class foreigners +were respected, and they were influential beyond proportion to +their numbers. They controlled commerce, and were more +energetic, generally, than were the natives; many were naturalized, +held generous grants of land, and had married into Californian +families, not excluding the most select and influential. +Most prominent of Americans in the interior was John A. Sutter +(1803-1880), who held a grant of eleven square leagues around +the present site of Sacramento, whereon he built a fort. His +position as a Mexican official, and the location of his fortified +post on the border, commanding the interior country and lying +on the route of the overland immigrants, made him of great importance +in the years preceding and immediately following +American occupation; although he was a man of slight abilities +and wasted his great opportunities. Other settlers in the +coast towns were also of high standing and importance. In +short, Americans were hospitably received and very well treated +by the government and the people; despite some formalities +and ostensible surveillance there was no oppression whatever. +There was, however, some jealousy of the ease with which +Americans secured land grants, and an entirely just dislike of +“bad” Americans. The sources from which all the immigrants +were recruited made inevitable an element of lawlessness and +truculence. The Americans happened to predominate. Along +with a full share of border individuality and restlessness they +had the usual boisterous boastfulness and a racial contempt, +which was arrogantly proclaimed, for Mexicans,—often too for +Mexican legal formalities. The early comers were a conservative +<span class="sidenote">American and European intriques.</span> +force in politics, but many of the later comers wanted +to make California a second Texas. As early as 1805 +(at the time of James Monroe’s negotiations for +Florida), there are traces of Spain’s fear of American +ambitions even in this far-away province. It was a fear she felt +for all her American possessions. Spain’s fears passed on to +Mexico, the Russians being feared only less than Americans. An +offer was made by President Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern +part of California, including San Francisco Bay, but was refused. +In 1836 and 1844 Americans were prominent in the incidents of +revolution; divided in opinion in both years they were neutral +in the actual “hostilities” of the latter, but some gave active +support to the governor in 1836. From 1836 on, foreign interference +was much talked about. Americans supposed that +Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; +France also was thought to be watching for an opening for +gratifying supposed ambitions; and all parties saw that even +without overt act by the United States the progress of American +settlement seemed likely to gain them the province, whose +connexion with Mexico had long been a notoriously loose one. A +considerable literature written by travellers of all the countries +named had before this discussed all interests. In 1840 for too +active interest in politics some Americans and Englishmen were +temporarily expelled.</p> + +<p>In 1842 Commodore T.A.C. Jones (1789-1858) of the United +States navy, believing that war had broken out between his +country and Mexico and that a British force was about to seize +California, raised the American flag over Monterey (October 21st), +but finding that he had acted on misinformation he lowered the +flag next day with due ceremony and warm apology. In California +this incident served only to open up agreeable personal +relations and social courtesies, but it did not tend to clarify the +diplomatic atmosphere. It showed the ease of seizing the +country, the indifference of the natives, and the resolution of the +United States government. Mexico sought to prevent American +immigration, but the local authorities would not enforce such +orders, however positive. Between 1843 and 1845, Great +Britain, the United States, and France opened consulates. By +1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among all +American residents (then not 700 in number) as regards the future +of the country. The policy of France and Great Britain in these +years is unknown. That of the United States is fully known. +In 1845 the American consul at Monterey, Thomas O. Larkin +(1802-1858), was instructed to work for the secession of California +from Mexico, without overt aid from the United States, but with +their good-will and sympathy. He very soon gained from leading +officers assurances of such a movement before 1848. At the same +time American naval officers were instructed to occupy the ports +in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the +good-will of the natives. In 1845 Captain J.C. Frémont,—whose +doings in California in the next two years were among the +main assets in a life-long reputation and an unsuccessful presidential +campaign,—while engaged in a government surveying +expedition, aroused the apprehensions of the Californian +authorities by suspicious and very possibly intentionally +provocative movements, and there was a show of military force +by both parties. Frémont had information beyond that of +ordinary men that made him believe early hostilities between the +United States and Mexico to be inevitable; he was also officially +informed of Larkin’s secret task and in no way authorized to +hamper it. Resentment, however, incited him to personal +revenge on the Californian government, and an ambition that +clearly saw the gravity of the crisis prompted him to improve it +<span class="sidenote">The “Bear Flag.”</span> +unscrupulously for his own advancement, leaving his +government to support or disavow him according as +war should come or not. In violation therefore of +international amities, and practically in disobedience of orders, +he broke the peace, caused a band of Mexican cavalry mounts +to be seized, and prompted some American settlers to occupy +Sonoma (14th June 1846). This episode is known as the “Bear +Flag War,” inasmuch as there was short-lived talk of making +California an independent state, and a flag with a bear as an +emblem (California is still popularly known as the Bear Flag +State) flew for a few days at Sonoma. It was a very small, very +disingenuous, inevitably an anomalous, and in the vanity of +proclamations and other concomitant incidents rather a ridiculous +affair; and fortunately for the dignity of history—and for +Frémont—it was quickly merged in a larger question, when +Commodore John Drake Sloat (1780-1867) on the 7th of July +raised the flag of the United States over Monterey, proclaiming +California a part of the United States. The opening hostilities +of the Mexican War had occurred on the Rio Grande. The +excuses and explanations later given by Frémont—military +preparations by the Californian authorities, the imminence of their +attack, ripening British schemes for the seizure of the province, +etc.—made up the stock account of historians until the whole +truth came out in 1886 (in Royce’s <i>California</i>). Californians had +been very friendly to Americans, but Larkin’s intimates thought +they had been tricked, and the people resented the stealthy and +unprovoked breaking of peace, and unfortunately the Americans +did not known how to treat them except inconsiderately and +somewhat contemptuously. The result was a feeble rising in the +south. The country was fully pacified by January 1847. The +aftermath of Frémont’s filibustering acts, followed as they were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span> +by wholly needless hostilities and by some injustice then and +later in the attitude of Americans toward the natives, was a +growing misunderstanding and estrangement, regrettable in +Californian history. Thus there was an end to the “lotos-land +society” of California. Another society, less hospitable, less +happy, less contented, but also less mild, better tempered for +building states, and more “progressive,” took the place of +the old.</p> + +<p>By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 Mexico ceded +California to the United States. It was just at this time that +gold was discovered, and the new territory took on +great national importance. The discussion as to what +<span class="sidenote">California ceded to the United States.</span> +should be done with it began in Congress in 1846, +immediately involving the question of slavery. A +furious conflict developed, so that nothing was accomplished in +two successive sessions; even at the end of a third, in March +1849, the only progress made toward creating a government for +the territory was that the national revenue laws had been +extended over it and San Francisco had been made a port of +entry. Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabitants. +Before the end of the war Mexican laws not incompatible +with United States laws were by international law supposed to +be in force; but nobody knew what they were, and the uncertainties +of vague and variable alcalde jurisdictions were increased +when Americans began to be alcaldes and grafted English +common-law principles, like the jury, on Californian practice. +Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the +motley Californian people of 1848-1849, yet they had none when, +with peace, military rule and Mexican law technically ended. +There was a curious extra-legal fusion of laws, a half-breed legal +system, and no definite basis for either law or government. Even +the acts and theories of the officials were very inconsistent. +Early in 1849 temporary local governments were set up in +various towns, and in September a convention framed a free-state +constitution and applied for admission to the Union. On +the 7th of September 1850 a bill finally passed Congress admitting +California as a free state. This was one of the bargains in +the “Compromise Measures of 1850” that were intended to +dispose of the question of slavery in the Territories. Meanwhile +the gold discoveries culminated and surpassed “three centuries +of wild talk about gold in California.” For three months there +was little excitement, then a wild rush. Settlements were +completely deserted; homes, farms and stores abandoned. +Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San Francisco—there +were 500 of them in July 1850; soldiers deserted wholesale, +churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit, +merchants, clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody, +flocked to the foothills. Soon, from Hawaii, Oregon and Sonora, +from the Eastern states, the South Seas, Australia, South America +<span class="sidenote">The rush for gold.</span> +and China came an extraordinary flow of the hopeful +and adventurous. In the winter of ’48 the rush began +from the states to Panama, and in the spring across +the plains. It is estimated that 80,000 men reached the coast +in 1849, about half of them coming overland; three-fourths +were Americans. Rapid settlement, excessive prices, reckless +waste of money, and wild commercial ventures that glutted San +Francisco with all objects usable and unusable made the following +years astounding from an economic point of view; but not less +bizarre was the social development, nor less extraordinary the +problems of state-building in a society “morally and socially +tried as no other American community ever has been tried” +(Royce). There was of course no home life in early California. +In 1850 women numbered 8% of the population, but only 2% +in the mining counties. The miners were an energetic, covetous, +wandering, abnormally excitable body of men. Occasionally a +kind of frenzy even would seem to seize on them, and lured by +the hope of new deposits of unheard-of richness thousands +would flock on unfounded rumours to new and perhaps distant +localities, where many might perish from disease and starvation, +the rest returning in poverty and rags. Such were the Kern +River fever of 1855 and the greater “Fraser River rush” of +1858, the latter, which took perhaps 20,000 men out of the state, +causing a terrible amount of suffering. Many interior towns +lost half their population and some virtually all their population +as a result of this emigration; and it precipitated a real estate +crash in San Francisco that threatened temporary ruin. Mining +times in California brought out some of the most ignoble and +some of the best traits of American character. Professor Josiah +Royce has pictured the social-moral process by which society +finally impressed its “claims on wayward and blind individuals” +who “sought wealth and not a social order,” and so long as +possible shirked all social obligations. Through varied instruments—lynch +law, popular courts, vigilance committees—order +was, however, enforced, better as times went on, until there was +a stable condition of things. In the economic life and social +character of California to-day the legacies of 1848 are plain.</p> + +<p>The slavery question was not settled for California in 1850. +Until the Civil War the division between the Whig and Democratic +parties, whose organization in California preceded statehood, +was essentially based on slavery. The struggle fused with +the personal contests of two men, rivals for the United States +Senate, William McKendree Gwin (1805-85, U.S. senator, +1850-55 and 1857-61), the leader of the pro-slavery party, and +David Colbreth Broderick (1819-1859), formerly a leader of +Tammany in New York, and after 1857 a member from California +of the United States Senate, the champion of free labour, who +declared in 1860 for the policy of the Republican party. +Broderick’s undoing was resolved upon by the slavery party, +and he was killed in a duel. The Gwin party hoped to divide +California into two states and hand the southern over to slavery; +on the eve of the Civil War it considered the scheme of a Pacific +coast republic. The decade 1850-1860 was also marked by the +activity of filibusters against Sonora and Central America. Two +of these—a French adventurer, one Gaston Raoux, comte de +Raousset-Boulbon (1817-1854), and William Walker, had very +picturesque careers. The state was thoroughly loyal when war +came. The later ’fifties are characterized by H.H. Bancroft as +a period of “moral, political and financial night.” National +politics were put first, to the complete ignoring of excessive +taxation, financial extravagance, ignorant legislation and +corruption in California. The public was exploited for many +years with impunity for the benefit of private interests. One +<span class="sidenote">Disputed land grants.</span> +legacy that ought to be briefly noted here is that of +disputed land grants. Under the Mexican régime such +grants were generous and common, and the complicated +formalities theoretically essential to their validity +were very often, if not usually, only in part attended to. Titles +thus gained would never have been questioned under continued +Mexican government, but Americans were unaccustomed to such +riches in land and to such laxity. From the very first hundreds +“squatted” on large claims, contesting the title. Instead of +confirming all claims existing when the country passed to the +United States, and so ensuring an immediate settlement of the +matter, which was really the most important thing for the peace +and purse of the community, the United States government +undertook through a land commission and courts to sift the +valid from the fraudulent. Claims of enormous aggregate value +were thus considered and a large part of those dating from the +last years of Mexican dominion (many probably artfully concocted +and fraudulently antedated after the commission was at +work) were finally rejected. This litigation filled the state and +federal courts for many years. The high value of realty in +San Francisco naturally offered extraordinary inducements to +fraud, and the largest part of the city was for years involved in +fraudulent claims, and its peace broken by “squatter”-troubles. +Twenty or thirty years of the state’s life were disturbed by these +controversies. Land monopoly is an evil of large proportions +in California to-day, but it is due to the laxness of the United +States government in enabling speculators to accumulate holdings +and not to the original extent of Mexican grants.</p> + +<p>In state gubernatorial elections after the Civil War the +Democrats won in 1867, 1875, 1882, 1886, 1894; the Republicans +in 1871, 1879, 1890, 1898, 1902, 1906, 1910. Features of political +life and of legislation after 1876 were a strong labour agitation, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span> +the struggle for the exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of +hydraulic mining, irrigation, and the advancement by state-aid +of the fruit interests; the last three of which have already been +referred to above. Labour conditions were peculiar in the +decade following 1870. Mining, war times and the building of +the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices and prosperity. +Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather that +money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there +was any over-supply of labour. The turning off of some 15,000 +Chinese (principally in 1869-1870) from the Central Pacific lines +who flocked to San Francisco, augmented the discontent of +incompetents, of disappointed late immigrants, and the reaction +from flush times. Labour unions became strong and demonstrative. +In 1877-1878 Denis Kearney (1847-1907), an Irish +drayman and demagogue of considerable force and daring, +headed the discontented. This is called the “sand-lots agitation” +from the favourite meeting-place (in San Francisco) of +the agitators.</p> + +<p>The outcome of these years was the Constitution of 1879, +already described, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law. +In 1879 California voted against further immigration of Chinese +by 154,638 to 883. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in +1902. All authorities agree that the Chinese in early years were +often abused in the mining country and their rights most unjustly +neglected by the law and its officers. Men among the +most respected in California (Joaquin Miller, H.H. Bancroft +and others) have said most in praise and defence of the Chinaman. +From railroad making to cooking he has proved his abilities +and trustworthiness. He is found to-day in the mines and +fisheries, in various lines of manufacture, in small farming, and +in all branches of domestic service. The question of the economic +development of the state, and of trade to the Orient, the views +of the mercenary labour-contractor and of the philanthropist, +the factor of “upper-race” repugnance, the “economic-leech” +argument, the “rat-rice-filth-and-opium” argument, have all +entered into the problem. Certain it is that though the unprejudiced +must admit that exclusion has not been at all an unmixed +blessing, yet the consensus of opinion is that a large population, +non-citizen and non-assimilable, sending—it is said—most of +their earnings to China, living in the main meanly at best, and +practically without wives, children or homes, is socially and +economically a menace outweighing the undoubted convenience +of cheaper (and frequently more trustworthy) menial labour +than the other population affords. The exclusion had much to +do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable and in +leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops. +Many of the Chinese now in the state are wealthy. Race feeling +against them has become much less marked.</p> + +<p>One outcome of early mission history, the “Pious Fund of +the Californias,” claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague +Tribunal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">International</a></span>, Hague cases +section.) In 1906-1907 there was throughout the state a remarkable +anti-Japanese agitation, centring in San Francisco +(<i>q.v.</i>) and affecting international relations and national politics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Governors of California</span> (State)<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">I. Spanish</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Gasper de Portolá</td> <td class="tcl">served 1767-1770</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Filipe de Barri</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1771-1774</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Felipe de Neve</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1774-1782</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pedro Pages</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1782-1791</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jose Antonio Romeu</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1791-1792</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*José Joaquin de Arillaga</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1792-1794</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Diego de Borica</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1794-1800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*José Joaquin de Arillaga</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1800-1804</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">José Joaquin de Arillaga</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1804-1814</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*José Diario Arguello</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1814-1815</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pablo Vicente de Sola</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1815-1822</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">II. Mexican</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Pablo Vicente de Sola</td> <td class="tcl">served 1822</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*Luis Antonio Arguello</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1822-1825</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">José Maria Echeandía</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1825-1831</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Manuel Victoria</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1831</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">José Maria Echeandía<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1831-1832</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pio Pico<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a></td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1832</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">José Figueroa</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1832-1835</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*José Castro</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1835-1836</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*Nicolas Gutierrez</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1836</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mariano Chico</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1836</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nicolas Gutierrez</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1836</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Juan Bautista Alvarado<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1836-1842</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carlos Antonio Carrillo<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1837-1838</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Manuel Micheltorena</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1842-1845</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pio Pico</td> <td class="tcl"> ”  1845-1846</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc sc" colspan="2">III American</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">(a) <i>Military</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">John D. Sloat</td> <td class="tcl">appointed 1846</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Richard F. Stockton</td> <td class="tcl">  ”   1846-1847</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Stephen W. Kearny</td> <td class="tcl">  ”   1847</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">R.B. Mason</td> <td class="tcl">  ”   1847-1849</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bennett Riley</td> <td class="tcl">  ”   1849</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3">(b) <i>State</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Peter H. Burnett</td> <td class="tcl">1849-1851</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*John H. McDougall</td> <td class="tcl">1851-1852</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Bigler</td> <td class="tcl">1852-1856</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John M. Johnson</td> <td class="tcl">1856-1858</td> <td class="tcl">Know Nothing</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John B. Weller</td> <td class="tcl">1858-1860</td> <td class="tcl">Lecompton Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Milton S. Latham</td> <td class="tcl">1869    (6 days)</td> <td class="tcl">  ”   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*John G. Downey</td> <td class="tcl">1860-1862</td> <td class="tcl">  ”   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Leland Stanford</td> <td class="tcl">1862-1863</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Frederick F. Low</td> <td class="tcl">1863-1867</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry H. Haight</td> <td class="tcl">1867-1871</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Newton Booth</td> <td class="tcl">1871-1875</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*Romualdo Pacheco</td> <td class="tcl">1875</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Irwin</td> <td class="tcl">1875-1880</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George G. Perkins</td> <td class="tcl">1880-1883</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George C. Stoneman</td> <td class="tcl">1883-1887</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Washington Bartlett</td> <td class="tcl">1887</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">*Robert W. Waterman</td> <td class="tcl">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry H. Markham</td> <td class="tcl">1891-1895</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James H. Budd</td> <td class="tcl">1895-1899</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry T. Gage</td> <td class="tcl">1899-1903</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George C. Pardee</td> <td class="tcl">1903-1907</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James N. Gillett</td> <td class="tcl">1907-1911</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hiram W. Johnson</td> <td class="tcl">1911-</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors +indicates that he acted only <i>ad interim</i>, and, in the case of governors +since 1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor +and succeeded to the office of governor.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For list of works on California, see University +of California <i>Library Bulletin</i>, No. 9, 1887, “List of Printed Maps +of California”; catalogue of state official publications by State +Library (Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on +different aspects:—</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Topography</span>.—J. Muir, <i>Mountains of California</i> (New York, +1894); H. Gannett, “Dictionary of Elevations” (1898), and “River +Profiles,” publications of <i>United States Geological Survey</i>; G.W. +James, <i>The Wonders of the Colorado Desert</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1906).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Climate</span>, &c.—<i>U.S. Department of Agriculture, California +Climate and Crop Service</i>, monthly reports; E.S. Holden, <i>Recorded, +Earthquakes in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington +Territory</i> (California State University, 1887); <i>United States Department +Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins,</i> Alexander G. McAdie, +“Climatology of California” (Washington, 1903). There is a +great mass of general descriptive literature, especially on Southern +California, such as Charles Dudley Warner, <i>Our Italy</i> (New York, +1891); Kate Sanborn, <i>A Truthful Woman in Southern California</i> +(New York, 1893); W. Lindley and J.P. Widney, <i>California of the +South</i> (New York, 1896); J.W. Hanson, <i>American Italy</i> (Chicago, +1896); T.S. Van Dyke, <i>Southern California</i> (New York, 1886), &c.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fauna, Flora</span>.—Muir, <i>op. cit.</i>; <i>United States Geological Survey, +19th Annual Report</i>, pt. v., H. Gannett, “Forests of the United +States”; idem, <i>20th Annual Report,</i> pt. v., “United States Forest +Reserves”; <i>United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin</i> No. 28, +“A Short Account of the Big Trees of California” (1900), No. 38, +“The Redwood” (a volume, 1903), also <i>Professional Papers, e.g.</i> +No. 8, J.B. Leiberg, “Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra +Nevada” (1902); <i>California Board of Forestry, Reports</i> (1885-  ); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span> +<i>United States Censuses,</i> reports on forests; <i>United States Biological +Survey, North American Fauna,</i> No. 16, 1899, C.H. Merriam, +“Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta”; <i>United States Department +Agriculture, Contributions from United States National Herbarium,</i> +iv., 1893, F.V. Coville, “Botany of Death Valley Expedition”; +<i>State Board of Fish Commissioners, Reports,</i> from 1877; <i>United +States Fish Commissioners, Annual Reports,</i> from 1871, and <i>Bulletins</i> +from 1882; J. le Conte, “Flora of the Coast Islands” (1887), being +<i>Bulletin</i> No. 8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its +<i>Proceedings</i>, <i>Memoirs</i>, and <i>Occasional Papers;</i> G.J. Peirce, <i>Studies +on the Coast Redwood</i> (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University, +1901).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Agriculture</span>.—<i>California Agricultural Experiment Station, +Bulletins</i> from 1884; <i>Reports of the State Dairy Bureau,</i> from 1898; +<i>State Board of Horticulture, Reports,</i> 1889-1894; <i>United States +Censuses,</i> 1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Industries</span>.—J.S. Hittell, <i>Resources of California</i> (7th ed., +San Francisco, 1879); J.S. Hittell, <i>Commerce and Industries of the +Pacific Coast</i> (San Francisco, 1882); T.F. Cronise, <i>Natural Wealth +of California</i> (San Francisco, 1868); E.W. Maslin, <i>Resources of +California,</i> prepared by order of Governor H.H. Markham (Sacramento, +1893); <i>United States Treasury, Bureau of Statistics,</i> report +by T.J. Vivian on “Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Transportation +and Other Industries of California” (Washington 1890, +valuable for whole period before 1890); <i>United States Censuses,</i> +1890 and 1900, reports on agriculture, manufactures, mines and +fisheries; <i>California State Board of Trade</i> (San Francisco), <i>Annual +Report</i> from 1890. On Mineral Industries:—J.R. Browne, Report +on “Mineral Resources of the States and Territories west of the +Rocky Mountains” (<i>United States Treasury,</i> 2 vols., Washington, +1867-1868); <i>United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports, +Mineral Resources;</i> consult also the bibliographies of publications +of the <i>Survey</i>, issued as <i>Bulletins; California State Mining Bureau, +Bulletins</i> from 1888, note especially No. 30, 1904, by A.W. Vodges, +“Bibliography relating to the Geology, Palaeontology and Mineral +Resources of California” (2nd ed., the 1st being <i>Bulletin</i> No. 10, +1896); <i>California Débris Commission</i>, <i>Reports</i> (in <i>Annual Reports +Chief of Engineers, United States Army,</i> from 1893).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Government</span>.—E.F. Treadwell, <i>The Constitution of the State of +California ... Annotated</i> (San Francisco, 1902); <i>Johns Hopkins +University, Studies in History and Political Science,</i> xiii., R.D. Hunt, +“Genesis of California’s First Constitution”; <i>Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science,</i> xii., R.D. Hunt, +“Legal Status of California, 1846-1849”; Reports of the various +officers, departments and administrative boards of the state government +(Sacramento), and also the <i>Appendix to the Journals of the +Senate and Assembly,</i> which contains, especially in the earlier decades +of the state’s history, many of these state official reports along +with valuable legislative reports of varied character.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">History</span>.—Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by +Z.E. Eldridge in <i>California Genealogical Society</i> (1901); elaborate +bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many +works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work +of two men, Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The +former has published a <i>History of California, 1542-1890</i> (7 vols., +San Francisco, 1884-1890), also <i>California Pastoral, 1769-1848</i> +(San Francisco, 1888), <i>California Inter-Pocula, 1848-1856</i> (San +Francisco, 1888), and <i>Popular Tribunals</i> (2 vols., San Francisco, +1887). These volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft’s +direction and control by an office staff, and are of very unequal +value; they are a vast storehouse of detailed material which is of +great usefulness, although their judgments of men are often inadequate +and prejudiced. As regards events the histories are of +substantial accuracy and adequacy. Written by one hand and +more uniform in treatment and good judgment, is T.H. Hittell’s +<i>History of California</i> (4 vols., San Francisco, 1885-1897). The older +historian of the state was Francisco Palou, a Franciscan, the friend +and biographer of Serra; his “Noticias de la Nueva California” +(Mexico, 1857, in the <i>Doc. Hist. Mex.,</i> ser. iv., tom, vi.-viii.; also +San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer of importance save for its +historical interest. Of the contemporary material on the period +of Mexican domination the best is afforded by R.H. Dana’s <i>Two +Years Before the Mast</i> (New York, 1840, many later and foreign +editions); also A. Robinson, <i>Life in California</i> (New York, 1846); +and Alexander Forbes, <i>California: A History of Upper and Lower +California from their First Discovery to the Present Time</i> (London, +1839); see also F.W. Blackmar, “Spanish Institutions of the +Southwest” (<i>Johns Hopkins University Studies,</i> 1891). A beautiful, +vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is +given in Helen Hunt Jackson’s novel, <i>Ramona</i> (New York, 1884). +There is no really scientific separate account of mission history; +there are books by Father Z. Engelhart, <i>The Franciscans in California</i> +(Harbor Springs, Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan +standpoint; C.F. Carter, <i>Missions of Nueva California</i> (San Francisco, +1900); Bryan J. Clinch, <i>California and its Missions: Their +History to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</i> (2 vols., San Francisco, +1904); Francisco Palou, <i>Relacion Historica de la Vida ... del Fray +Junipero Serra</i> (Mexico, 1787), the standard contemporary source; +the <i>Craftsman</i> (Syracuse, N.Y., vol. v.), a series of articles on +“Mission Buildings,” by G.W. James. On the case of the Pious +Fund of the missions see J.F. Doyle, <i>History of the Pious Fund</i> +(San Francisco, 1887); <i>United States Department of State,</i> “United +States <i>v.</i> Mexico. Report of J.H. Ralston, agent of the United +States and of counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Californias” +(Washington, 1902). On the “flush” mining years the +best books of the time are J.Q. Thornton’s <i>Oregon and California</i> +(2 vols., New York, 1849); Edward Bryant’s <i>What I Saw in California</i> +(New York, 1848); W. Shaw’s <i>Golden Dreams</i> (London, 1851); +Bayard Taylor’s <i>Eldorado</i> (2 vols., New York, 1850); W. Colton’s +<i>Three Years in California</i> (New York, 1850); E.G. Buffum’s <i>Six +Months in the Gold Mines; from a Journal of Three Years’ Residence +in Upper and Lower California</i> (London, 1850); J.T. Brooks’ +<i>Four Months among the Gold Finders</i> (London, 1849); G.G. Foster, +<i>Gold Regions of California</i> (New York, 1884). On this same period +consult Bancroft’s <i>Popular Tribunals</i>; D.Y. Thomas, “A History +of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory of the United +States,” in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of <i>Columbia University +Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law</i>; C.H. Shinn’s +<i>Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government</i> (New +York, 1885); J. Royce, <i>California ... A Study of American Character, +1846-1856</i> (Boston, 1886); and, for varied pictures of mining +and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret Harte. +See also P.H. Burnet, <i>Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer</i> +(New York, 1880); S.J. Field, <i>Personal Reminiscences of Early +Days in California</i> (privately published, copyright 1893).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was +occupied by a lake 60 m. long.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at +San Francisco ranged from 11.37 to 49.27 in.; from 1850 to 1904 the +average was 22.74, and the probable annual variation 4 in.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and +Fresno, of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey +and Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them +lie between 56° and 63° F. The places mentioned are scattered over +3½° of longitude and 6½° of latitude.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use +of turbines are important features of such plants. One on the +North Yuba river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves +Oakland, San Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in +San Francisco (220 m. away) 75% of its power. Other plants are +one at Electra (154 m. from San Francisco), and one on the San +Joaquin, which delivers to Fresno 62 m. distant.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments +under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for +1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows:—total value of products, +1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of +42.7%; leading industries, with value of product in millions of +dollars—canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23.8 millions, +third in 1900 with 13.4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing, +second in 1905 with 21.79 millions, first in 1900 with 15.71 millions; +flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20.2 millions, fourth +in 1900 with 13.04 millions; lumber and timber, fourth in 1905 with +18.27 millions, second in 1900 with 13.71 millions; printing and +publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17.4 millions, sixth in 1900 with +9.6 millions; foundry and machine shop products, sixdth in 1905 +with 15.7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12.04 millions; planing mill +products, seventh in 1905 with 13.9 millions, twelfth in 1900 with +4.8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in 1905 with +10.6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4.87 millions.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> As months and even years often elapsed between the date when +early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual +service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of +service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at +Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto +in Lower California. All the Spanish and Mexican governors were +appointed by the national government, except in the case of the +semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose +title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national statute +regarding gubernatorial vacancies.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Acting political chief, revolutionary title.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Briefly recognized in South.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Revolutionary title, 1836-1838.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIFORNIA, LOWER<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<i>Baja California</i>), a long narrow +peninsula between the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, +forming a territory of the republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), +42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California is a southward extension +of the State of California, United States, and is touched +by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E. The +peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and +has an area of 58,328 sq. m. It is traversed throughout its entire +length by an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes +toward the Pacific in a succession of low hills, but breaks down +abruptly toward the Gulf. The coast has two or three good +sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the Gulf side and of Magdalena +on the Pacific side being best known. The coast is bordered +by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. The general +appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly because of +the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty rainfall, +which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of the +desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern +part is hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern +part receives more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild +and pleasant climate. The principal natural product in this +region is <i>orchil</i>, or Spanish moss, but by means of irrigation the +soil produces a considerable variety of products, including sugar +cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, tobacco and grapes. Horses, +sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile valleys, but only to a +limited extent. The territory is rich in minerals, among which +are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and salt. The silver +mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early as 1700. +There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz being +the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W. +coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of +mining and other industries in the territory has led to an extension +of the California railway system southward into the peninsula, +with the Mexican government’s permission, the first section of +37 m. from the northern frontier being completed and opened to +traffic in 1907. The territory is divided into two districts, the +northern having its capital at the insignificant little village of La +Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and the southern having its +capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay opening into the Gulf. +La Paz is a port of call for steamships running between Mazatlan +and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in 1900. La +Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San +Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory, +and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m. +inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures +and exports flour and leather.</p> + +<p>By orders of Cortés the coast of Lower California was explored +in 1539 by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It +was called California, the name (according to E.E. Hale) being +derived from a popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled +<i>Sergas de Esplandian</i>, in which an island named California was +mentioned and situated “on the right hand of the Indies, very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span> +near the terrestrial paradise.” The name must have been given +derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower California could not +have suggested the proximity of a “terrestrial paradise.” The +exploration of the coast did not extend above the peninsula +until 1842. The name California was at first applied exclusively +to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait connected +the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the +name Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous +theory was held as late as 1721. The first settlement was made +in 1597, but was abandoned. From 1633 to 1683 five unsuccessful +attempts were made to establish a settlement at La Paz. Finally +the Jesuits succeeded in founding a mission at Loreto on the +Gulf coast, in about 26° N. lat., in 1697, and at La Paz in 1720. +At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had sixteen missions +which were either self-supporting or were maintained by funds +invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper +California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were +distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, +the seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. +The two provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one +governor residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then reunited +in a single department through the political changes of +1836, which lasted no later than 1847. Lower California was +only slightly disturbed by the struggle for independence among +the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822 Admiral Lord +Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean revolutionists, +appeared on the coast and plundered San José del Cabo, Todos +Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United +States La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small +detachments from California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition +against Sonora under William Walker took possession of La Paz +and proclaimed a republic consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. +Fearing an attack from the mainland, the filibusters first withdrew +to La Ensenada, near the American frontier, and then in +the following year broke up altogether during an attempt to +invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the leadership of +Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, but +died for want of material support in 1880. The development +of mining and other industries since that time, together with +vigorous efforts to found colonies in the more favoured localities, +have greatly improved the situation in the territory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the two volumes of H.H. Bancroft’s <i>North Mexican States and +Texas</i>, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his <i>Works</i>; also Arthur Walbridge +North, <i>The Mother of California</i> (San Francisco, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> one of the largest and most +important of state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, +California, on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place +of the College of California (founded in 1855), received California’s +portion of the Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered +as a state institution by the legislature in 1868, and opened its +doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it was removed to its present +site. In the revised state constitution of 1879 provision is +made for it as the head of the state’s educational system. The +grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes (299-900 +ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above the +university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the +Golden Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings +have gradually been provided. In 1896 an international architectural +competition was opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. +Hearst (made a regent of the university in 1898) for plans for a +group of buildings harmonizing with the university’s beautiful +site, and ignoring all buildings already existing. The first +prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Bénard, of Paris. The +first building begun under the new plans was that for the +college of mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, +providing worthily for the important school of mining, from +1885 directed by Prof. S.B. Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, +built by state appropriation, had been completed in 1906. The +Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium seating 7500 +spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering eucalypts, was +the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used +regularly for concerts by the university’s symphony orchestra, +under the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), +who originated the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free +public concerts are given on Sunday afternoons; and there +have been some remarkable dramatic performances here, notably +Sudraka’s <i>Mricchakattika</i> in English, and Aeschylus’s <i>Eumenides</i> +in Greek, in April 1907. There are no dormitories. Student +self-government works through the “Undergraduate Students’ +Affairs Committee” of the Associated Students. The faculty of +the university has its own social club, with a handsome building +on the grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the +colleges of letters, social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, +agriculture, mechanical, mining and civil engineering, and +chemistry, and the first two years’ course of the college of +medicine—the Toland Medical College having been absorbed by +the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of the +Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of +dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post +graduate or clinical) years of the medical course—the San +Francisco Polyclinic having become a part of the university in +1892. Three of the San Francisco departments occupy a group +of three handsome buildings in the western part of the city, +overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick astronomical department +(Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San José, +occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by +James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with +$700,000, $610,000 of this being used for the original buildings +and equipments, which were formally transferred to the university +in 1888. The art department (San Francisco Institute +of art) was until 1906 housed in the former home of Mark Hopkins, +a San Francisco “railroad king”; it dated from 1893, under +the name “Mark Hopkins Institute of Art.” The building was +destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under +its present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the +old site. At the university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davisville, +Yolo county, instruction is given in practical agriculture, +horticulture, dairying, &c.; courses in irrigation are given at +Berkeley; a laboratory of plant pathology, established in 1907 +at Whittier, Riverside county, and an experiment station on +20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study of plant and +tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine biological +laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and +another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; +the Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. +The university has excellent anthropological and archaeological +collections, mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by +Mrs Hearst, to Peru and to Egypt. In 1907 the university +library contained 160,000 volumes, ranking, after the destruction +of most of the San Francisco libraries in 1906, as the largest +collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe library +(given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of +the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has +also the valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and +countless pamphlets and manuscripts, dealing principally with +the history of the Pacific Coast from Alaska through Central +America, and of the Rocky Mountain region, including Montana, +Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Western +Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe +Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr +Bancroft contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the +newly organized Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library +of Karl Weinhold (1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich +in Germanic linguistics and “culture history,” was presented to +the university in 1903 by John D. Spreckels. The university +publishes <i>The University of California Chronicle</i>, an official +record; and there are important departmental publications, +especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, edited +by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of +various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physiology, +edited by Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited +by William Albert Setchell (b. 1864); in zoology, edited by +William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in astronomy, the +publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William Wallace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span> +Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry +Morse Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of +history, a department of university extension was organized; +lecture courses, especially on history and literature, were delivered +in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension “centres,” at most of +which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the university, +but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley +Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological +Seminary (Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary +and a Unitarian school.</p> + +<p>The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From +1890 to 1900 the number of students increased fourfold. In +the latter year the university of California was second to Harvard +only in the number of academic graduate and undergraduate +students, and fifth among the educational institutions of the +country in total enrolment. In July 1907 there were 519 +officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 were in +the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there +were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for +1906-1907 thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. +The university conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in +1905. The affairs of the university are administered by a board +of twenty-three regents, seven state officials and heads of +educational institutions, being members <i>ex officio</i>, and sixteen +other members being appointed by the governor and senate of +the state; its instruction is governed by the faculties of the +different colleges, and an academic senate in which these are +joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was +$1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from investments, +state and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder +was gifts and endowments. There is a permanent endowment of +more than $3,000,000, partly from munificent private gifts, +especially from Mrs Hearst and from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The +financial support of the state has always been generous. No +tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to students +resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students from +without the state. The university maintains about 90 undergraduate +scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellowships. +All able-bodied male students are required to take the +courses in military science, under instruction by an officer of the +United States army detailed for the purpose. Physical culture +and hygiene are prescribed for all men and women. A state law +forbids the sale of liquor within one mile of the university +grounds. To realize the ideal of the university as the head of the +educational system of the state, a system of inspection of high +schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching the prescribed +standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for +admission to the university without examination. It was +anticipated at one time that the foundation of the Leland +Stanford Junior University at Palo Alto would injure the state +institution at Berkeley; but in practice this was not found to +be the case; on the contrary, the competition resulted in giving +new vigour and enterprise to the older university. Joseph Le +Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. Oilman +(president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly +connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler +(b. 1854) became president. He had been a graduate (1875) +of Brown University, and was professor first of comparative +philology and then of Greek at Cornell University; his chief +publications are <i>Der griechische Nominalaccent</i> (1885); <i>Analogy, +and the Scope of its Application in Language</i> (1887); <i>Principles of +Language Growth</i> (1891); <i>The Organization of Higher Education +in the United States</i> (1897); <i>Dionysos and Immortality</i> (1899); +and <i>Life of Alexander the Great</i> (1900).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIPASH<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> and <b>CALIPEE</b> (possibly connected with <i>carapace,</i> +the upper shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper +and lower shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being +of a dull greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIPH<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Calif</span>, or <span class="sc">Khalif</span> (Arab, <i>khălīfa</i>; the lengthening +of the a is strictly incorrect), literally “successor,” “representative,” +a title borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the +death of Mahomet, became the civil and religious head of the +Mahommedan state. In the same sense the term is used in the +Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of God. +Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known +as the “perfect” caliphs; after them the title was borne by the +thirteen Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by +the thirty-seven Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell +before the Turks in 1258. By some rigid Moslems these rulers +were regarded as only amirs, not caliphs. There were titular +caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from that date till 1517 +when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the fall of the +Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the +Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova +(755-1031), and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended +to descent from Ali, and Fatima, Mahomet’s daughter, also +assumed the name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fatimites</a></span>).</p> + +<p>According to the Shi‘ite Moslems, who call the office the +“imamate” or leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is +a lineal descendant of the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the +office belongs to the tribe of Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet +himself belonged, but this condition would vitiate the claim of +the Turkish sultans, who have held the office since its transference +by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a tradition +falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a +time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he “is +a rebel.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIPHATE.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span><a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the +East who bore the title of caliph (<i>q.v.</i>) falls naturally into three +main divisions:—(<i>a</i>) The first four caliphs, the immediate +successors of Mahomet; (<i>b</i>) The Omayyad caliphs; (<i>c</i>) The +Abbasid caliphs. To these three groups the present article is confined; +for the Western caliphs, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>: <i>History</i> (and minor +articles such as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Almohades</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Almoravides</a></span>); for the Egyptian +caliphs see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i> (§ Mahommedan) and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fatimites</a></span>. +The history of Arabia proper will be found under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabia</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">A.—The First Four Caliphs</p> + +<p>After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be +his “representative.” The choice lay with the community of +Medina; so much was understood; but whom were they to +choose? The natives of Medina believed themselves to be now +once more masters in their own house, and wished to promote +one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>) asserted +their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into +the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to +terrorize the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into +two parties. The Emigrants’ leading spirit was Omar; he did +not, however, cause homage to be paid to himself, but to Abu +Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the Prophet.</p> + +<p>The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the +opportune defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward +schism which threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once +more limited to the community of Medina; only Mecca and +Tāif (Tāyef) remained true. The Bedouins were willing enough +to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay taxes; their defection, +as might have been expected, was a political movement.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> None +the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the political society +and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment to +Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion +in the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as +prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam’s success.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Reign of Abu Bekr</i>.—Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal +to the perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the +expedition against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, +quietly to set out, limiting himself for the time to the defence +of Medina. On the return of the army he proceeded to attack +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span> +the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam kept the men of Medina +together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing zeal for the +faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and no +better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was +to be expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns +of the Moslems, sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell +the revolt. Those who submitted were forthwith received back +into favour; those who persevered in rebellion were punished +with death. The majority accordingly converted, the obstinate +were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was there a +severe struggle; the Banū Hanīfa under their prophet Mosailima +fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed.</p> + +<p>The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to +say, brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war +against the border countries which Mahomet had already +inaugurated, was the best means for making the new religion +popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at the same +time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was +organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by +quite other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means +the first occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; +once and again in former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins +had settled on the borders of the wilderness. This had last +happened in consequence of the events which destroyed the +prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time the small +Arabian kingdoms of Ghassān and Hira had arisen in the western +and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented +to Moslem conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch +as Hira was subject to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to +the Greeks, the annexation of the Arabians involved the extension +of the war beyond the limits of Arabia to a struggle with +the two great powers (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabia</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, +Khālid b. al-Walīd proceeded by order of the caliph to the +conquest of the districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he +was summoned to Syria, where hostilities had also broken out. +Damascus fell late in the summer of 635, and on the 20th of +August 636 was fought the great decisive battle on the Hieromax +(Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (<i>q.v.</i>) finally to +abandon Syria.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Left to themselves, the Christians henceforward +defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified +cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of +the Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was +also carried on against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at +first, until the tide turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, +Qādisīya) (end of 637). In consequence of the defeat which +they here sustained, the Persians were forced to abandon the +western portion of their empire and limit themselves to Iran +proper. The Moslems made themselves masters of Ctesiphon +(Madāin), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and +conquered in the immediately following years the country of +the two rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face +to face in Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from +the Aryans all the principal old Semitic lands—Palestine, Syria, +Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. To these was soon added +Egypt, which was overrun with little difficulty by ‘Amr ibn-el-Ass +(<i>q.v.</i>) in 640. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § Mahommedan.) +This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the wilderness +of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and +natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously occurred. +The kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts +hitherto, now became the headquarters of the Arabs; the new +empire had its centres on the one hand at Damascus, on the +other hand at Kufa and Baṣra, the two newly-founded cities in +the region of old Babylonia. The capital of Islam continued +indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz (Hijaz) and +the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of affairs.</p> + +<p>The ease with which the native populations of the conquered +districts, exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted +themselves to the new rule is very striking. Their nationality had +been broken long ago, but intrinsically it was more closely allied +to the Arabian than to the Greek or Persian. Their religious +sympathy with the West was seriously impaired by dogmatic +controversies; from Islam they might at any rate hope for +toleration, even though their views were not in accordance +with the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the +masses from Christianity to Islam, however, which took place +during the first century after the conquest, is to be accounted +for only by the fact that in reality they had no inward relation +to the gospel at all. They changed their creed merely to acquire +the rights and privileges of Moslem citizens. In no case were +they compelled to do so; indeed the Omayyad caliphs saw +with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the poll-tax derived +from their Christian subjects (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>).</p> + +<p>It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the +Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those +old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the +Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest; +they did not rest until the Moslems had subjugated the whole +of the Sassanid empire. The most important event in the +protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the battle +of Nehāwend in 641;<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> the most obstinate resistance was offered +by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr (Persepolis). +In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous +provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into +the hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III. +(<i>q.v.</i>), was compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, +where he came to a miserable end.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> But it was long before the +Iranians learned to accept the situation. Unlike the Christians +of western Asia, they had a vigorous feeling of national pride, +based upon glorious memories and especially upon a church +having a connexion of the closest kind with the state. Internal +disturbances of a religious and political character and external +disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids +indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They +were fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, +in defence of their holiest possessions, their nationality and +their faith. Their subjection was only external, nor did Islam +ever succeed in assimilating them as the Syrian Christians were +assimilated. Even when in process of time they did accept the +religion of the prophet, they leavened it thoroughly with their +own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it of the practical +political and national character which it had assumed after the +flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a +thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its +internal order, and it was from them also that it at last received +its outward death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their +work, and with the Omayyads fell the Arabian empire.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Reign of Omar</i>.—Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the +22nd of August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by +Omar. To Omar’s ten years’ Caliphate belong for the most part +the great conquests. He himself did not take the field, but +remained in Medina with the exception of his visit to Syria in +638; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his +grasp, so powerful was the influence of his personality and the +Moslem community of feeling. His political insight is shown +by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite extension +of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national +Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam,<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and especially +to promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying +with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated: +“by Allah, he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight +the strongest, until I have vindicated for him his rights; but +him that is strongest will I treat as the weakest, until he complies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span> +with the laws.” After the administration of justice he directed +his organizing activity, as the circumstances demanded, chiefly +towards financial questions—the incidence of taxation in the +conquered territories,<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and the application of the vast resources +which poured into the treasury at Medina. It must not be brought +against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with these +he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the chartered +plunderers of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone by +his death for the fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina +he was stabbed by a Kufan workman and died in November 644.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Reign of Othman.</i>—Before his death Omar had nominated +six of the leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the +caliph from among themselves—Othman, Ali, Zobair, Ṭalḥa, +Sa‘d b. Abi Waqqāṣ, and Abdarraḥmān b. Auf. The last-named +declined to be a candidate, and decided the election in favour +of Othman. Under this weak sovereign the government of +Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish nobility. We +have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for +this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the +Emigrants were unanimous among themselves in thinking that +the precedence and leadership belonged to them as of right. +Thanks to the energy of Omar, they were successful in +appropriating to themselves the succession to the Prophet. They +indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority of their +services to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood +relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right +to the inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with +the Koreish in general. In point of fact they felt a closer +connexion with these than, for example, with the natives of Medina; +nature had not been expelled by faith.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The supremacy of the +Emigrants naturally furnished the means of transition to the +supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all in his +power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged +to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he +should favour his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every +possible way, seemed to him a matter of course. Every position +of influence and emolument was assigned to them; they themselves +boastingly called the important province of Irak the garden +of Koreish. In truth, the entire empire had become that garden. +Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization of Islam +the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew +the world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca, +and after them those of Tāif, people like Khālid b. al-Walīd, +Amr-ibn-el-Ass, ‘Abdallāh b. abī Sarḥ, Moghīra b. Sho’ba, and, +above all, old Abu Sofiān with his son Moawiya.</p> + +<p>Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, +now began to appear. It was led by what may be called the +spiritual noblesse of Islam, which, as distinguished from the +hereditary nobility of Mecca, might also be designated as the +nobility of merit, consisting of the “Defenders” (<i>Ansar</i>), and +especially of the Emigrants who had lent themselves to the +elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the intention +of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition +was headed by Ali, Zobair, Ṭalḥa, both as leading men among +the Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate. +Their motives were purely selfish; not God’s cause but their +own, not religion but power and preferment, were what they +sought.<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Their party was a mixed one. To it belonged the men +of real piety, who saw with displeasure the promotion to the +first places in the commonwealth of the great lords who had +actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined themselves to +it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a band +of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system, +but of persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the provinces +there was agitation against the caliph and his governors, +except in Syria, where Othman’s cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu +Sofiān (see below), carried on a wise and strong administration. +The movement was most energetic in Irak and in Egypt. Its +ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of Ali, +whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet +seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then +there were enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah.</p> + +<p>The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands +they came from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions +from Othman, who, though his armies were spreading terror +from the Indus and Oxus to the Atlantic, had no troops at hand +in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers by concessions, but as +soon as they had gone, he let matters resume their old course. +Thus things went on from bad to worse. In the following year +(656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt and +Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph +again tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend +to keep. But the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his +word,<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and now demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own +house, where he was defended by a few faithful subjects. As he +would not yield, they at last took the building by storm and put +him to death, an old man of eighty. His death in the act of +maintaining his rights was of the greatest service to his house and +of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Reign of Ali.</i>—Controversy as to the inheritance at once +arose among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the +mutineers summoned Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even +Ṭalḥa and Zobair to do him homage. But soon these two, +along with Ayesha, the mother of the faithful, who had an old +grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their escape to Irak, +where at Baṣra they raised the standard of rebellion. Ali in +point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover +was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the +desire of power, so that men of penetration, even although they +condemned Othman’s method of government, yet refused to +recognize his successor. The new caliph, however, found means +of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the Camel, +fought at Baṣra in November 656, Ṭalḥa and Zobair were slain, +and Ayesha was taken prisoner.</p> + +<p>But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of +Othman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a +legitimate cry—that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired +caliph and a distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya, +whose position in Syria was impregnable. The kernel of his +subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, not only recent immigrants +along with Islam, but also old settlers who, through contact +with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had become to +some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter +had become habituated to monarchical government and loyal +obedience, and for a long time much better order had prevailed +amongst them than elsewhere in Arabia. Syria was the proper +soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, and Moawiya was just +the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited Othman’s +blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited +his Syrians to vengeance.</p> + +<p>Ali’s position in Kufa was much less advantageous. The +population of Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it +fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. +Islam had its headquarters here; Kufa and Baṣra were the home +of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and +political movement. This movement it was that had raised Ali +to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal +interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and +more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular +feeling of Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either +act or refrain from acting as he chose, secure in either case +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span> +of the obedience of his subjects. Ali, on the other hand, was +unable to convert enthusiasm for the principle inscribed on his +banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was necessary that +he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his supporters, +which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him +suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently +on the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians +fastened copies of the Koran to their lances to denote that not +the sword, but the word of God should decide the contest (see +further below, B.1; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ali</a></span>). But in yielding to the will of the +majority he excited the displeasure of the minority, the genuine +zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the enemy of Islam, +and regarded Ali’s entering into negotiations with him as a +denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was +resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali’s army, and he had +to turn his armies in the first instance against them. He +succeeded in disposing of them without difficulty at the battle of +Nahrawān, but in his success he lost the soul of his following. +For they were the true champions of the theocratic principle; +through their elimination it became clear that the struggle had in +no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali’s defeat was +a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed him; +the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far +superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January +661), thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes +of a large part of the Mahommedan world (Shī‘a) which he had +never possessed during his life.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">B.—The Omayyad Dynasty</p> + +<p><i>Summary of Preceding Movements.</i>—The conquest of Mecca had +been of the greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because +Islam thus obtained possession of this important city with its +famous sanctuary, but above all because his late adversaries +were at last compelled to acknowledge him as the Envoy of God. +Among these there were many men of great ability and influence, +and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the Arabic expression +has it, “to mellow their hearts” by concessions and +gifts, that his loyal helpers (<i>Ansar</i>) at Medina became dissatisfied +and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it. +Mahomet was a practical man; he realized that the growing +state needed skilful administrators, and that such were found in +much greater number among the antagonists of yesterday than +among the honest citizens of Medina. The most important +positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and Yemen, were +entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the Makhzūm +and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet’s +example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the +death of Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the +Moslems, the principal generals belonged to them. Omar did +not deviate from that line of conduct. It was he who appointed +Yazīd, the son of Abu Sofiān, and after his death, his brother +Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned the province of Egypt +to Amr-ibn-el-Ass (‘Amr b. Āṣ). It is even surprising to find +among the leading men so few of the house of Hāshim, the nearest +family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain +this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too +noble to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they +could not be spared at Medina, where their counsel was required +in all important affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which +Ali himself calls the Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar +lived opposition was silent. But Othman had not the strong +personality of his predecessor, and, although he practically +adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of favouring the +members of his own family—the caliph belonged himself to the +house of Omayya—at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar. +The jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the +governorship and military commands had become not only much +more important, but also much more lucrative, while power and +money again procured many adherents. The truly devout +Moslems on the other hand were scandalized by the growing +luxury which relaxed the austere morals of the first Moslems, +and this also was imputed to Othman.</p> + +<p>We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya developed +itself, and how there arose against it an opposition, which led in +the first place to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali, +and furthermore, during the whole period of the Omayyad +caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous outbreaks, culminating in the +great catastrophe which placed the Abbasids on the throne. +The elements of this opposition were of very various kinds:—(1) +The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the <i>Ansar</i> and <i>Mohājir</i>, +who had been Mahomet’s first companions and supporters, and +could not bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the +Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed <i>ṭolaqā</i> (freedmen), +should be in control of the imamate, which carried with it the +management of affairs both civil and religious. This party was +in the foreground, chiefly in the first period. (2) The partisans +of Ali, the Shi‘a (Shi‘ites), who in proportion as their influence +with the Arabs declined, contrived to strengthen it by obtaining +the support of the non-Arabic Moslems, aided thereto, especially +in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the decisive +moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves. +(3) The Kharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sustained +at the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining +new adherents from among those austere Moslems, who held both +Omayyads and Alids as usurpers, and have often been called, not +unjustly, the Puritans of Islam. (4) The non-Arabic Moslems, +who on their conversion to Islam, had put themselves under the +patronage of Arabic families, and were therefore called maula’s +(clients). These were not only the most numerous, but also, in +virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the most dangerous. +The largest and strongest group of these were the Persians, who, +before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the ruling class +of that country, so that Persian was the dominant language. +With them all malcontents, in particular the Shi‘ites, found +support; by them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the +supremacy of the Arabs was finally overthrown. To these +elements of discord we must add:—(1) That the Arabs, notwithstanding +the bond of Islam that united them, maintained their +old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds and factions; +(2) that the old antagonism between Ma‘adites<a name="fa11b" id="fa11b" href="#ft11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a> (original +northern tribes) and Yemenites (original southern tribes), +accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged +to the former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter +division, gave rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one +dangerous pretender—some of them of the reigning family +itself—contended with the caliph for the sovereignty, and must +be crushed <i>coûte que coûte</i>. It is only by the detailed enumeration +of these opposing forces that we can form an idea of the +heavy task that lay before the Prince of the Believers, and of the +amount of tact and ability which his position demanded.</p> + +<p>The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely +difficult. Never perhaps has the system of undermining +authority by continual slandering been applied on such a scale as +by the Alids and the Abbasids. The Omayyads were accused by +their numerous missionaries of every imaginable vice; in their +hands Islam was not safe; it would be a godly work to extirpate +them from the earth. When the Abbasids had occupied the +throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion. But +not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves, +they carried their hostility to a further point. The official +history of the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is +coloured by Abbasid feeling to such an extent that we can +scarcely distinguish the true from the false. An example of this +occurs at the outset in the assertion that Moawiya deliberately +refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and indeed that +it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of the plot. +The facts seem to contradict this view. When, ten weeks before +the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt +and Irak, pretending that they were on their pilgrimage to Mecca, +but wanted to bring before the caliph their complaints against +his vicegerents, nobody could have the slightest suspicion that +the life of the caliph was in danger; indeed it was only during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span> +the few days that Othman was besieged in his house that the +danger became obvious. If the caliph then, as the chroniclers +tell, sent a message to Moawiya for help, his messenger could not +have accomplished half the journey to Damascus when the +catastrophe took place. There is no real reason to doubt that +the painful news fell on Moawiya unexpectedly, and that he, as +mightiest representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his +own the duty of avenging the crime. He could not but view Ali +in the light of an accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did +not abet the murderers, yet he took them under his protection. An +acknowledgment of Ali as caliph by Moawiya before he had +cleared himself from suspicion was therefore quite impossible.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Reign of Moawiya.</i>—Moawiya, son of the well-known +Meccan chief Abu Sofiān, embraced Islam together with his father +and his brother Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and +was, like them, treated with the greatest distinction. He was even +chosen to be one of the secretaries of Mahomet. When Abu Bekr +sent his troops for the conquest of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of +Abu Sofiān, held one of the chief commands, with Moawiya as +his lieutenant. In the year 639 Omar named him governor of +Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the +north of Syria and Mesopotamia. To him was committed the +conduct of the war against the Byzantine emperor, which he +continued with energy, at first only on land, but later, when the +caliph had at last given in to his urgent representations, at sea +also. In the year 34 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 655) was fought off the coast of Lycia +the great naval battle, which because of the great number of +masts has been called “the mast fight,” in which the Greek<a name="fa12b" id="fa12b" href="#ft12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans II. in person, was +utterly defeated. Moawiya himself was not present, as he was +conducting an attack (the result of which we do not know) on +Caesarea in Cappadocia. The Arabic historians are so entirely +preoccupied with the internal events that they have no eye for +the war at the frontier. The contention which Moawiya had +with Ali checked his progress in the north.</p> + +<p>Moawiya was a born ruler, and Syria was, as we have seen, the +best administered province of the whole empire. He was so +loved and honoured by his Syrians that, when he invited them +to avenge the blood of Othman, they replied unanimously, “It is +your part to command, ours to obey.” Ali was a valiant man, +but had no great talent as a ruler. His army numbered a great +many enthusiastic partisans, but among them not a few wise-acres; +there were also others of doubtful loyalty. The battle at +Siffin (657), near the Euphrates, which lasted two months and +consisted principally in, sometimes bloody, skirmishes, with +alternate success, ended by the well-known appeal to the decision +of the Koran on the part of Moawiya. This appeal has been called +by a European scholar “one of the unworthiest comedies of the +whole world’s history,” accepting the report of very partial +Arabic writers that it happened when the Syrians were on the +point of losing the battle. He forgot that Ali himself, before the +Battle of the Camel, appealed likewise to the decision of the +Koran, and began the fight only when this had been rejected. +There is in reality no room for suspecting Moawiya of not having +been in earnest when making this appeal; he might well regret +that internecine strife should drain the forces which were so +much wanted for the spread of Islam. That the Book of God +could give a solution, even of this arduous case, was doubtless the +firm belief of both parties. But even if the appeal to the Koran +had been a stratagem, as Ali himself thought, it would have been +perfectly legitimate, according to the general views of that time, +which had been also those of the Prophet. It is not unlikely +that the chief leader of the Yemenites in Ali’s army, Ash‘ath b. +Qais, knew beforehand that this appeal would be made. Certainty +is not to be obtained in the whole matter.</p> + +<p>On each side an umpire was appointed, Abu Mūsāa al-Ash‘arī, +the candidate of Ash‘ath, on that of Ali, Amr-ibn-el-Ass (<i>q.v.</i>) on +that of Moawiya. The arbitrators met in the year 37 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 658) +at Adhroh, in the south-east of Syria, where are the ruins of +the Roman Castra described by Brünnow and Domaszewsky +(<i>Die Provincio Arabia,</i> i. 433-463). Instead of this place, the +historians generally put Dūmat-al-Jandal, the biblical Duma, +now called Jauf, but this rests on feeble authority. The various +accounts about what happened in this interview are without +exception untrustworthy. J. Wellhausen, in his excellent book +<i>Das arabische Reich und sein Sturz,</i> has made it very probable that +the decision of the umpires was that the choice of Ali as caliph +should be cancelled, and that the task of nominating a successor +to Othman should be referred to the council of notable men +(<i>shūrā</i>), as representing the whole community. Ali refusing to +submit to this decision, Moawiya became the champion of the +law, and thereby gained at once considerable support for the +conquest of Egypt, to which above all he directed his efforts. As +soon as Amr returned from Adhroh, Moawiya sent him with an +army of four or five thousand men against Egypt. About the +same time the constitutional party rose against Ali’s vicegerent +Mahommed, son of Abu Bekr, who had been the leader of the +murderous attack on Othman. Mahommed was beaten, taken +in his flight, and, according to some reports, sewn in the skin of an +ass and burned.</p> + +<p>Moawiya, realizing that Ali would take all possible means to +crush him, took his measures accordingly. He concluded with +the Greeks a treaty, by which he pledged himself to pay a large +sum of money annually on condition that the emperor should give +him hostages as a pledge for the maintenance of peace. Ali, +however, had first to deal with the insurrection of the Kharijites, +who condemned the arbitration which followed the battle of Siffin +as a deed of infidelity, and demanded that Ali should break the +compact (see above, A.4). Freed from this difficulty, Ali prepared +to direct his march against Moawiya, but his soldiers declined to +move. One of his men, Khirrīt b. Rāshid, renounced him +altogether, because he had not submitted to the decision of the +umpires, and persuaded many others to refuse the payment of the +poor-rate. Ali was obliged to subdue him, a task which he +effected not without difficulty. Not a few of his former partisans +went over to Moawiya, as already had happened before the days +of Siffin, amongst others Ali’s own brother ‘Aqīl. Lastly, there +were in Kufa, and still more in Basra, many Othmaniya or +legitimists, on whose co-operation he could not rely. Moawiya +from his side made incessant raids into Ali’s dominion, and by his +agents caused a very serious revolt in Basra. The statement that +a treaty was concluded between Moawiya and Ali to maintain the +<i>status quo</i>, in the beginning of the year 40 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 660), is not very +probable, for it is pretty certain that just then Ali had raised an +army of 40,000 men against the Syrians, and also that in the second +or third month of that year Moawiya was proclaimed caliph at +Jerusalem. At the same time Bosr b. Abi Artāt made his +expedition against Medina and Mecca, whose inhabitants were +compelled to acknowledge the caliphate of Moawiya. On the +murder of Ali in 661, his son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he +recoiled before the prospect of a war with Moawiya, having +neither the ambition nor the energy of Ali. Moawiya stood then +with a large army in Maskin, a rich district lying to the north of +the later West Bagdad, watered by the Dojail, or Little Tigris, a +channel from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The army of Trak was +near Madāin, the ancient Ctesiphon. The reports about what +occurred are confused and contradictory; but it seems probable +that Abdallah b. Abbas, the vicegerent of Ali at Basra and +ancestor of the future Abbasid dynasty, was in command. No +battle was fought. Hasan and Ibn Abbas opened, each for +himself, negotiations with Moawiya. The latter made it a +condition of surrender that he should have the free disposal of the +funds in the treasury of Basra. Some say that he had already +before the death of Ali rendered himself master of it. Notwithstanding +the protest of the Basrians, he transported this booty +safely to Mecca. When his descendants had ascended the throne +and he had become a demi-saint, the historians did their best to +excuse his conduct. Hasan demanded, in exchange for the power +which he resigned, the contents of the treasury at Kufa, which +amounted to five millions of dirhems, together with the revenues +of the Persian province of Darābjird (Darab). When these negotiations +became known, a mutiny broke out in Hasan’s camp. +Hasan himself was wounded and retired to Medina, where he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span> +died eight or nine years afterwards. The legend that he was +poisoned by order of Moawiya is without the least foundation. +It seems that he never received the revenues of Darābjird, the +Basrians to whom they belonged refusing to cede them.</p> + +<p>Moawiya now made his entry into Kufa in the summer of <span class="sc">a.h.</span> +41 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 661) and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the +Believers. This year is called the year of union (<i>jamā‘a</i>). +Moghīra b. Sho’ba was appointed governor of Kufa. Homrān b. +Abān had previously assumed the government of Basra. This +is represented commonly as a revolt, but as Homran was a client +of Othman, and remained in favour with the Omayyads, it is +almost certain that he took the management of affairs only to +maintain order.</p> + +<p>One strong antagonist to Moawiya remained, in the person of +Ziyād. This remarkable man was said to be a bastard of Abu +Sofiān, the father of Moawiya, and was, by his mother, the +brother of Abu Bakra, a man of great wealth and position at +Basra. He thus belonged to the tribe of Thaqīf at Tāif, which +produced many very prominent men. At the age of fourteen +years Ziyād was charged with the financial administration of the +Basrian army. He had won the affection of Omar, by his knowledge +of the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet, and by the fact +that he had employed the first money he earned to purchase the +freedom of his mother Somayya. He was a faithful servant of Ali +and put down for him the revolt excited by Moawiya’s partisans +in Basra. Thence he marched into Fārs and Kirman, where he +maintained peace and kept the inhabitants in their allegiance to +Ali. After Ali’s death he fortified himself in his castle near +Istakhr and refused to submit. Moawiya, therefore, sent Bosr +b. Abi Artāt to Basra, with orders to capture Ziyād’s three sons, +and to force Ziyād into submission by threatening to kill them. +Ziyād was obdurate; and it was due to his brother Abu Bakra, +who persuaded Moawiya to cancel the order, that the threat was +not executed. On his return to Damascus, Moawiya charged +Moghīra b. Sho’ba to bring his countryman to reason. Abdallah +b. ‘Āmir was made governor of Basra.</p> + +<p>As soon as Moawiya had his hands free, he directed all his +forces against the Greeks. Immediately after the submission of +Irak, he had denounced the existing treaty, and as early as 662 +had sent his troops against the Alans and the Greeks. Since then, +no year passed without a campaign. Twice he made a serious +effort to conquer Constantinople, in 669 when he besieged it for +three months, and in 674. On the second occasion his fleet +occupied Cyzicus, which it held till shortly after his death in 680, +when a treaty was signed. In Africa also the extension of +Mahommedan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took +place the famous march of ‘Okba (‘Oqba) b. Nāfi’ and the foundation +of Kairawan, where the great mosque still bears his name. +Our information about these events, though very full, is untrustworthy, +while of the events in Asia Minor the accounts are scarce +and short. The Arabic historians are still absorbed by the events +in Irak and Khorasan.</p> + +<p>The talented prefect of Kufa, Moghīra b. Sho’ba, eventually +broke down the resistance of Ziyād, who came to Damascus to +render an account of his administration, which the caliph +ratified. Moawiya seems also to have acknowledged him as the +son of Abu Sofiān, and thus as his brother; in 664 this recognition +was openly declared.<a name="fa13b" id="fa13b" href="#ft13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In the next year Ziyād was appointed +governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to it. As +the austere champion of the precepts of Islam, he soon restored +order in the whole district. Outwardly, this was the case in +Kufa also. A rising of Kharijites in the year 663 had ended in +the death of their chief. But the Shi‘ites were dissatisfied and +even dared to give public utterance to their hostility. Moghīra +contented himself with a warning. He was already aged and had +no mind to enter on a conflict. He died about the year 670, and +his province also was entrusted to Ziyād, who appointed ‘Amr b. +Horaith as his vicegerent. At a Friday service in the great mosque +‘Amr was insulted and pelted with pebbles. Ziyād then came +himself, arrested the leader of the Shi‘ites, and sent fourteen rebels +to Damascus, among them several men of consideration. Seven of +them who refused to pledge themselves to obedience were put to +death; the Shi‘ites considered them as martyrs and accused +Moawiya of committing a great crime. But in Kufa peace was +restored, and this not by military force, but by the headmen of +the tribes. We must not forget that Kufa and Basra were +military colonies, and that each tribe had its own quarter of the +city. A wholesome diversion was provided by the serious resumption +of the policy of eastern expansion, which had been +interrupted by the civil war. For this purpose Irak had to +furnish the largest contingent. The first army sent by Ziyād +into Khorasan recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered +Tokhāristān and advanced as far as the Oxus. In 673 ‘Obaidallah, +the son of Ziyād, crossed the river, occupied Bokhara, and +returned laden with booty taken from the wandering Turkish +tribes of Transoxiana. He brought 2000 Turkish archers with +him to Basra, the first Turkish slaves to enter the Moslem empire. +Sa‘īd, son of the caliph Othman, whom Moawiya made governor +of Khorasan, in 674 marched against Samarkand. Other +generals penetrated as far as the Indus and conquered Kabul, +Sijistan, Makrān and Kandahar.</p> + +<p>Ziyād governed Irak with the greatest vigour, but as long as +discontent did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death +(672-673), order was so generally restored that “nobody had any +more to fear for life or estate, and even the unprotected woman +was safe in her house without having her door bolted.”</p> + +<p>Moawiya was a typical Arab <i>sayyid</i> (gentleman). He governed, +not by force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-control, +his mildness and magnanimity. The following anecdote may +illustrate this. One of Moawiya’s estates bordered on that of +Abdallah b. Zobair, who complained in a somewhat truculent +letter that Moawiya’s slaves had been guilty of trespassing. +Moawiya, disregarding his son Yazid’s advice that he should +exact condign punishment for Zobair’s disrespect, replied in +flattering terms, regretting the trespass and resigning both slaves +and estate to Zobair. In reply Zobair protested his loyalty to +Moawiya, who thereupon pointed a moral for the instruction of +Yazid.</p> + +<p>Moawiya has been accused of having poisoned more than one of +his adversaries, among them Malik Ashtar, Abdarrahmān the +son of the great captain Khālid b. Walīd, and Hasan b. Ali. As +for the latter, European scholars have long been agreed that the +imputation is groundless. As to Abdarrahmān the story is in the +highest degree improbable. Madāinī says that Moawiya was +prompted to it, because when he consulted the Syrians about the +choice of his son Yazid as his successor, they had proposed +Abdarrahmān. The absurdity of this is obvious, for Abdarrahmān +died in the year 666.<a name="fa14b" id="fa14b" href="#ft14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Others say<a name="fa15b" id="fa15b" href="#ft15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a> that Moawiya was afraid +lest Abdarrahmān should become too popular. Now, Abdarrahmān +had not only been a faithful ally of Moawiya in the wars with +Ali, but after the peace devoted all his energy to the Greek war. +It is almost incredible that Moawiya out of petty jealousy would +have deprived himself of one of his best men. The probability is +that Abdarrahmān was ill when returning from the frontier, that +Moawiya sent him his own medical man, the Christian doctor Ibn +Othāl, and that the rumour arose that the doctor had poisoned +him. It is remarkable withal that this rumour circulated, not in +Homs (Emesa), where Abdarrahmān died, but in Medina. There +a young relation of Abdarrahmān was so roused by the taunt +that the death of his kinsman was unavenged, that he killed Ibn +Othal near the mosque of Damascus. Moawiya imprisoned him +and let him pay a high ransom, the law not permitting the talio +against a Moslem for having killed a Christian. The story that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span> +this relative was Khālid, the son of Abdarrahmān, is absurd +inasmuch as Moawiya made this Khālid commander against the +Greeks in succession to his father. In the third case—that of +Malik Ashtar—the evidence is equally inadequate. In fact, since +Moawiya did not turn the weapon of assassination against such +men as Abdallah b. Zobair and Hosain b. Ali, it is unlikely that +he used it against less dangerous persons. These two men were +the chief obstacles to Moawiya’s plan for securing the Caliphate +for his son Yazid. The leadership with the Arabic tribes was as a +rule hereditary, the son succeeding his father, but only if he was +personally fit for the position, and was acknowledged as such by +the principal men of the tribe. The hereditary principle had not +been recognized by Islam in the cases of Abu Bekr, Omar and +Othman; it had had some influence upon the choice of Ali, the +husband of Fatima and the cousin of the Prophet. But it had +been adopted entirely for the election of Hasan. The example of +Abu Bekr proved that the caliph had the right to appoint his +successor. But this appointment must be sanctioned by the +principal men, as representing the community. Moawiya seems +to have done his best to gain that approbation, but the details +given by the historians are altogether unconvincing. This only +seems to be certain, that the succession of Yazid was generally +acknowledged before the death of his father, except in Medina. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Moawiya died in the month of Rajab 60 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 680). His last +words are said to have been: “Fear ye God, the Elevated and +Mighty, for God, Praise be to Him, protects the man that fears +Him; he who does not fear God, has no protection.” Moawiya +was, in fact, a religious man and a strict disciple of the precepts +of Islam. We can scarcely, therefore, credit the charges made by +the adversaries of his chosen successor Yazid, that he was a +drinker of wine, fond of pleasure, careless about religion. All the +evidence shows that, during the reign of the Omayyads, life in +Damascus and the rest of Syria was austere and in striking +contrast to the dissolute manners which prevailed in Medina.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Rule of Yazid.</i>—When Moawiya died, the opposition had +already been organized. On his accession Yazid sent a circular +to all his prefects, officially announcing his father’s death, and +ordering them to administer the oath of allegiance to their +subjects. In that sent to Walīd b. ‘Otba, the governor of +Medina, he enclosed a private note charging him in particular to +administer the oath to Hosain, Abdallah b. Omar and Abdallah +b. Zobair, if necessary, by force. Walid sent a messenger +inviting them to a conference, thus giving them time to assemble +their followers and to escape to Mecca, where the prefect Omar +b. Sa‘īd could do nothing against them. In the month Ramadan +this Omar was made governor of Medina and sent an army against +Ibn Zobair. This army was defeated, and from that time Ibn +Zobair was supreme at Mecca.</p> + +<p>On the news of Yazid’s accession, the numerous partisans of +the family of Ali in Kufa sent addresses to Hosain, inviting him +to take refuge with them, and promising to have him proclaimed +caliph in Irak. Hosain, having learned that the majority of the +inhabitants were apparently ready to support him strenuously, +prepared to take action. Meanwhile Yazid, having been informed +of the riotous behaviour of the Shi‘ites in Kufa, sent +Obaidallah, son of the famous Ziyād and governor of Basra, to +restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used +before, Obaidallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made +them responsible for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of +Dhu’l-Hijja Hosain set out from Mecca with all his family, +expecting to be received with enthusiasm by the citizens of Kufa, +but on his arrival at Kerbela west of the Euphrates, he was +confronted by an army sent by Obaidallah under the command of +Omar, son of the famous Sa‘d b. Abi Waqqās, the founder of +Kufa. Hosain gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid +from Kufa, and fell with almost all his followers on the 10th of +Muharram 61 (10th of October 680).</p> + +<p>No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. +But, as it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of Ali, +and so many members of his family, Hosain’s devout partisans +at Kufa, who by their overtures had been the principal cause of +the disaster, regarded it as a tragedy, and the facts gradually +acquired a wholly romantic colouring. Omar b. Sa‘d and his +officers, Obaidallah and even Yazid came to be regarded as +murderers, and their names have ever since been held accursed +by all Shi‘ites. They observe the 10th of Muharram, the day of +‘Ashūra, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages +are erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted, +representing the misfortunes of the family of Ali.<a name="fa16b" id="fa16b" href="#ft16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a> “Revenge +for Hosain” became the watchword of all Shi‘ites, and the +Meshed Hosain (Tomb of the martyr Hosain) at Kerbela is to +them the holiest place in the world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kerbela</a></span>). Obaidallah +sent the head of Hosain to Damascus, together with the women +and children and Ali b. Hosain, who, being ill, had not taken part +in the fight. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the +prisoners under safe-conduct to Medina. Ali remained faithful +to the caliph, taking no share in the revolt of the Medinians, and +openly condemning the risings of the Shi‘ites.</p> + +<p>Ibn Zobair profited greatly by the distress caused by Hosain’s +death. Though he named himself publicly a refugee of the House +of God, he had himself secretly addressed as caliph, and many of +the citizens of Medina acknowledged him as such. Yazid, when +informed of this, swore in his anger to have him imprisoned. But +remembering the wisdom of his father, he sent messengers with a +chain made of silver coins, and bearing honourable proposals. +At the same time he received a number of the chief men of +Medina, sent by the prefect, with great honour and loaded them +with gifts and presents. But Ibn Zobair refused, and the +Medinians, of whom the majority probably had never before +seen a prince’s court, however simple, were only confirmed in +their rancour against Yazid, and told many horrible tales about +his profligacy, that he hunted and held wild orgies with Bedouin +sheikhs, and had no religion. A characteristically Arabic ceremony +took place in the mosque of Medina. “I cast off the oath +of allegiance to Yazid, as I cast off my turban,” exclaimed the +first, and all others followed, casting off one of their garments, +till a heap of turbans and sandals lay on the floor. Ibn Ḥanẓala +was made commander. The Omayyads, though they with their +clients counted more than 1000 men, were not able to maintain +themselves, and were allowed to depart only on condition of strict +neutrality.</p> + +<p>At last the patience of Yazid was exhausted. An army—the +accounts about the number vary from 4000 to 20,000—was +equipped in all haste and put under the command of Moslim b. +‘Oqba, with orders first to exact submission from the Medinians, +if necessary by force, and then to march against Ibn Zobair. +Moslim, having met the expelled Omayyads at Wādi ‘l-Qorā, +encamped near the city (August 683) and gave the inhabitants +three days in which to return to obedience, wishing to spare the +city of the Prophet and to prevent the shedding of blood. When, +however, after the lapse of three days, a final earnest appeal had +been answered insultingly, he began the battle. The Medinians +fought valiantly, but could not hold out against the well-disciplined +Syrians. Moreover, they were betrayed by the Medinian +family of the Banū Ḥāritha, who introduced Syrian soldiers into +the town. Medina lies between two volcanic hills, called <i>harra</i>. +After one of these the battle has been named “The Day of +Harra.” For three days the city was given up to plunder. It is +said that a thousand bastards (the “children of the Harra”) +were born in consequence of these days. The remaining citizens +were compelled to take the oath of allegiance to Yazid in a +humiliating form; the few who refused were killed. Ali b. +Hosain, who had refused to have anything to do with the revolt, +was treated with all honour. Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, the +son of Ali, and Abdallah b. Omar had likewise abstained, but +they had left Medina for Mecca.</p> + +<p>Moslim then proceeded towards Mecca. He was already ill, and +died about midway between the two cities, after having given the +command, according to the orders of the caliph, to Hosain b. +Nomair. It is quite natural that the man who delivered up the +city of the Prophet to plunder, and at whose hands so many +prominent Moslems fell, should have been an object of detestation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span> +to the devout. Even some European scholars have drawn a +false picture of his personality, as has been clearly shown by +Wellhausen. About Medina also false statements have been +made. The city recovered very soon from the disaster, and +remained the seat not only of holy tradition and jurisdiction, +but also of the Arabic aristocracy. In no city of the empire, +during the reign of the Omayyads, lived more singers and +musicians than in Medina.</p> + +<p>Hosain b. Nomair arrived before Mecca in September 683 and +found Ibn Zobair ready to defend it. A number of the citizens +of Medina had come to the aid of the Holy City, as well as many +Kharijites from Yamāma under Najda b. ‘Ämir. The siege had +lasted 65—others say 40—days, when the news came of the +death of Yazid, which took place presumably on the 14th of +Rabia I, 64 (12th November 683). Eleven days before a fire, +caused by imprudence, had consumed all the woodwork of the +Ka’ba and burst the black stone in three places. The evidence +is quite conclusive; yet the fire has been imputed to the Syrians, +and a tale was invented about ballistas which hurled against the +House of God enormous stones and vessels full of bitumen. In +fact, the siege had been confined to enclosure and skirmishes. It +is said that on the news of the death of Yazid a conference took +place between Hosain and Ibn Zobair, and that the former offered +to proclaim the latter as caliph provided he would accompany +him to Syria and proclaim a general amnesty. Ibn Zobair +refused haughtily, and Hosain, with a contemptuous criticism of +his folly, ordered his army to break up for Syria.</p> + +<p>Hitherto Ibn Zobair had confined himself to an appeal to the +Moslems to renounce Yazid and to have a caliph elected by the +council (<i>shūrā</i>) of the principal leading men. He now openly +assumed the title of caliph and invited men to take the oath of +allegiance. He was soon acknowledged throughout Arabia, in +Egypt and in Irak. The Omayyads, who had returned to Medina, +were again expelled.</p> + +<p>Yazid is described in the <i>Continuatio Isidori Byz.</i> §27, as “iucundissimus +et cunctis nationibus regni eius subditis vir gratissime +habitus, qui nullam unquam, ut omnibus moris est, sibi regalis +fastigii causa gloriam appetivit, sed communis<a name="fa17b" id="fa17b" href="#ft17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a> cum omnibus +civiliter vixit.” This is confirmed by the fact that Moawiya II. +is said to have been a mild ruler, like his father, and goes far to +outweigh the prejudiced account given by his opponents and +coloured still further by tradition. Against the accusation of +being a drinker of wine he himself protested in verses which he +recited when he sent the army against Ibn Zobair. Decisive is +also the testimony of Ibn al-Hanafiya, who declared that all the +accusations brought by the Medinians were false. It may be +true that he was fond of hunting, but he was a peace-loving, +generous prince. It is uncertain at what age he died. Accounts +vary between 33 and 39. The latter finds confirmation in the +statement that he was born in <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 25, though another account +places his birth in 22. As his son Moawiya who succeeded him +was certainly adult (the accounts vary between 17 and 23), the +latter date seems to be preferable.</p> + +<p>3. Moawiya II. had reigned a very short time—how long is +again wholly uncertain—when he fell sick and died. Then +commenced a period of the greatest confusion. The mother of +Yazid, Maisūn, belonged to the most powerful tribe in Syria, the +Kalb, and it seems that this and the cognate tribes of Qodā‘a +(Yemenites) had enjoyed certain prerogatives, which had aroused +the jealousy of the Qais and the cognate tribes of Modar. Immediately +after the death of Yazid, Zofar b. Ḥārith, who had +already fought with Ibn Zobair against Yazid, had induced +northern Syria and Mesopotamia to declare for Ibn Zobair. In +Homs (Emesa) the governor No‘mān b. Bashīr had pledged +himself to the same cause. The prefect of Damascus, Ḍaḥḥāk b. +Qais, seemed to be wavering in his loyalty. Khālid, the brother +of Moawiya II., was still a youth and appears to have had no +strength of character. There was, however, a much more +dangerous candidate, viz. Merwān b. Ḥakam, of another branch +of the Omayyads, who had been Othman’s right-hand man. He +had pledged himself after some hesitation to Yazid, but now his +turn had come. The amir of the Kalb, Ibn Baḥdal, persuaded +probably by Obaidallah b. Ziyād, conceived that only a man of +distinction could win the contest, and proclaimed Merwan +caliph, on condition that his successor should be Khālid b. +Yazid, and after him ‘Amr b. Sa‘īd al-Ashdaq, who belonged to +the third branch of the Omayyads. Meanwhile Ḍaḥḥāk had +declared himself openly for Ibn Zobair. A furious battle (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> +684) ensued at Merj Rāhiṭ, near Damascus, in which Ḍaḥḥāk +and Zofar, though they had the majority of troops, were utterly +defeated. This battle became the subject of a great many +poems and had pernicious consequences, especially as regards +the antagonism between the Qais-Moḍar and Kalb-Yemenite +tribes.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Reign of Merwan I.</i>—Merwan strengthened his position +according to the old oriental fashion by marrying the widow of +Yazid, and soon felt himself strong enough to substitute his own +son Abdalmalik for Khālid b. Yazid as successor-designate. +Khālid contented himself with protesting; he was neither a +politician nor a soldier, but a student of alchemy and astronomy; +translations of Greek books have been ascribed to him (Jāḥiz, +<i>Bayān</i>, i. p. 126). In the year <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 435 there was still in Egypt +a brazen globe attributed to Ptolemy which had belonged to +Khālid (Ibn Qiftī, p. 440, 1.15). He was also consulted about +future events. There were, however, not a few who deplored +the fact that the throne had passed from the descendants of +Abu Sofiān. This feeling gave rise to the prophecy that there +should appear later a Sofianī on the throne, who would reign +with might and wisdom. ‘Amr Ashdaq made no opposition till +the death of Merwan. After the victory at Merj Rāhiṭ, Merwan +conquered Egypt, and installed as governor his second son +Abdalazīz. An army sent to the rescue by Ibn Zobair under the +command of his brother Muṣ‘ab was beaten in Palestine by +‘Amr Ashdaq. But a division sent by Merwan to the Hejaz was +cut to pieces. Obaidallah b. Ziyād set out with the purpose of +subduing Mesopotamia and marching thence against Irak. But +he was detained a whole year in the former country, by a rising +of the Shi‘ites in Kufa, who were still in mourning for Hosain +and had formed an army which called itself “the army of the +penitent.” They were routed at Ras ‘Ain, but Obaidallah had +still to fight Zofar.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Mokhtār (son of that Abu ‘Obaid the Thaqifite who +had commanded the Arabs against the Persians in the unfortunate +battle of the Bridge), a man of great talents and still +greater ambition, after having supported Ibn Zobair in the siege +of Mecca, had gone to Kufa, where he joined the Shi‘ites, mostly +Persians, and acquired great power. He claimed that he was +commissioned by Ali’s son, Mahommed ibn al-Hanafiya, who +after the death of Hosain was recognized by the Shi‘ites as their +Mahdi. A vague message from Mahommed, that it was the duty +of every good Moslem to take part with the family of the Prophet, +was interpreted in favour of Mokhtār, and thenceforward all the +Shi‘ites, among them the powerful Ibrāhīm, son of Ali’s right +hand Malik Ashtar, followed him blindly as their chief. Afterwards +Ibn al-Hanafiya seems to have acknowledged him distinctly +as his vicegerent. Ibn Zobair’s representative in Kufa +was compelled to flee, and all those who had participated in the +battle of Kerbela were put to death. An army despatched +against Obaidallah under Ibrāhīm routed the Syrians near +Mosul (battle of Khāzir); Obaidallah and Hosain b. Nomair +were slain. Mokhtār was now at the zenith of power, but Ibn +Zobair, determined to get rid at all costs of so dangerous an +enemy, named his brother Muṣ‘ab governor of Basra and ordered +him to march against Kufa. Basra was at that time full of +fugitives from Kufa, Arabian chiefs who resented the arrogance of +Mokhtār’s adherents, and desired eagerly to regain their former +position in Kufa. The troops of Basra had been, since the death +of Yazid, at war with the Kharijites, who had supported Ibn +Zobair during the siege of Mecca, but had deserted him later. +Their caliph, Nāfi’ b. Azraq, after whom they were called also +Azraqites, threatened even the city itself, when Mohallab b. Abi +Ṣofra, a very able general, compelled them to retire. Mohallab +then marched with Muṣ‘ab against Kufa. Mokhtār fell, and with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span> +him the ephemeral dominion of the Persian Shi‘ites. This had +been their first attempt to dispute the authority of their Arabian +conquerors, but it was not to be the last. Ibrāhīm b. Ashtar, +Mokhtar’s governor of Mesopotamia, submitted and acknowledged +the Caliphate of Ibn Zobair.</p> + +<p>5. Reign of Abdalmalik.—Merwan died on the 27th of Ramadan +65 (7th May 685); according to tradition, he was suffocated by +his wife, because he had insulted her son Khālid and herself. +The accession of Abdalmalik was attended with no difficulty, +but the first years of his reign were occupied by troubles in +northern Syria, where, instigated by the Greeks, the Mardaites +of the Amanus, called Jarājima by the Arabs, penetrated into +the Lebanon. He was obliged to conclude an unfavourable +treaty first with them, later with the emperor of Constantinople. +Moreover, in the year 68 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 687-688) Syria was afflicted by a +serious famine. Ibn Zobair, however, was occupied at Mecca +with the rebuilding of the Ka’ba, and Muṣ‘ab was harassed not +only by the Kharijites, but also by a noble freebooter, Obaidallah +b. Ḥorr, who had created for himself a principality in the vicinity +of Madāin (Ctesiphon).</p> + +<p>The period of the pilgrimage caused a momentary truce to all +these struggles, and in Dhu ‘l-hijja, <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 68 (January 688), was +seen the curious spectacle of four different standards planted +near Mecca, belonging respectively to four chiefs, each of whom +was a pretender to the empire; the standard of Abdallah b. +Zobair, caliph of Mecca; that of the caliph of Damascus, +Abdalmalik; that of Ali’s son Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, Mahdi +of the Shi‘ites; and that of the Kharijites, who were at that time +under the command of Najda b. ‘Āmir. Such, however, was the +respect inspired by the holy places, that no disorders resulted.</p> + +<p>When, in the year (69 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>) 689 Abdalmalik had at last encamped +at Boṭān Ḥabīb in the vicinity of Kinnesrin (Qinnasrīn),<a name="fa18b" id="fa18b" href="#ft18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +with the purpose of marching against Muṣ‘ab, his cousin ‘Amr +Ashdaq, to whom by the treaty of Jābia, before the battle of +Merj Rāhit, the succession to Merwan had been promised, took +advantage of his absence to lay claim to the supreme power, and +to have himself proclaimed caliph by his partisans. Abdalmalik +was obliged to retrace his steps and to lay siege to his own capital. +The garrison of Damascus took fright, and deserted their posts, +so that ‘Amr Ashdaq was compelled to surrender. The caliph +Abdalmalik summoned him to his palace and slew him with his +own hand. Abdalmalik has every claim to our esteem as one of +the ablest monarchs that ever reigned, but this murder remains +a lasting blot on his career.</p> + +<p>Abdalmalik could now give his whole attention to the projected +expedition against Irak. Muṣ‘ab was encamped at +Bājomairā in the neighbourhood of Takrīt. But Abdalmalik’s +first task was to subdue Zofar and his Qaisites at Kerkesia +(Qarqīsia), and the rest of the partisans of Mokhtār at Nisibis. +Meanwhile, Muṣ‘ab had to curb a violent revolt in Basra, brought +about by agents of Abdalmalik, and called after a place in the +city the revolt of the Jofrites. About the middle of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 691 +Abdalmalik at last encamped at Dair al-Jathalīq (the monastery +of the Catholicus) between Maskin, not far from the site of +Bagdad, and Bājomairā. Muṣ‘ab’s best troops were fighting +under Mohallab against the Kharijites; many Basrians were +secretly favourable to the Omayyads, nor were the Kufian +soldiers to be trusted. The people of Irak had never been +accustomed to discipline, and no improvement had taken place +during the troubles of the last years. Abdalmalik, therefore, +wrote secretly to the chiefs of Muṣ‘ab’s army, and persuaded them +to desert to him, with the exception of Ibrāhīm b. Ashtar, the +brave son of a brave father, who, after the fall of Mokhtār, had +become a faithful supporter of Ibn Zobair. His death, in the +beginning of the battle, decided the fate of Muṣ‘ab, who was +slain sword in hand by a Shi‘ite of Kufa.</p> + +<p>This victory opened the gates of Kufa to Abdalmalik, and all +Irak received him with acclamation. Thence, a few days later, +he sent Hajjāj b. Yusuf at the head of 2000 Syrians against Ibn +Zobair in Mecca, and despatched a messenger to Tāriq b.‘Amr, who +was encamped at Wādi ‘l-Qorā with 5000 men, to make himself +master of Medina and thence to rejoin Hajjāj. Before the +arrival of this reinforcement, Hajjāj confined himself to skirmishes, +in which his soldiers always had the advantage. Then, +in Dhu ‘l Qa‘da 72 (March 25th, 692) Mecca was invested. The +blockade lasted more than six months, during which the city was +a prey to all the horrors of siege and famine. Hajjāj had set up a +balista on the hill of Abu Qobais, whence he poured on the city a +hail of stones, which was suspended only in the days of the +pilgrimage. Ibn Zobair employed against him Abyssinians +armed with Greek-fire-tubes, who, however, quitted him soon +under the pressure of famine. This at length triumphed over his +last adherents. Ten thousand fighting men, and even two of the +sons of the pretender (it is said, on his own advice), left the city +and surrendered. Mecca being thus left without defenders, Ibn +Zobair saw that ruin was inevitable. Hajjāj having promised +him amnesty if he would surrender, he went to his mother Asmā, +the daughter of Abu Bekr, who had reached the age of a hundred +years, and asked her counsel. She answered that, if he was +confident in the justice of his cause, he must die sword in hand. +In embracing him for the last time, she felt the cuirass he wore +and exclaimed that such a precaution was unworthy of a man +resolved to die. He, therefore, took off the cuirass, and, when +the Omayyad troops made their way into the city, attacked them +furiously, notwithstanding his advanced age, and was slain. His +head was cut off, and sent by Hajjāj to Damascus.</p> + +<p>With Ibn Zobair perished the influence which the early +companions of Mahomet had exercised over Islam. Medina and +Mecca, though they continued to be the holy cities, had no longer +their old political importance, which had already been shaken to +its foundations by the murder of Othman and the subsequent +troubles. Henceforward we shall find temporal interests, +represented by Damascus, predominating over those of religion, +and the centre of Islam, now permanently removed beyond the +limits of Arabia, more susceptible to foreign influence, and +assimilating more readily their civilizing elements. Damascus, +Kufa and Basra will attract the flower of all the Moslem provinces, +and thus that great intellectual, literary and scientific +movement, which reached its apogee under the first Abbasid +Caliphs at Bagdad, steadily becomes more marked.</p> + +<p>After the burning of the Ka’ba during the siege of Mecca by +Hosain b. Nomair, Ibn Zobair had rebuilt and enlarged the house +of God. It is said that he thus carried out a design of the +Prophet, which he had not ventured to undertake for fear of +offending the newly converted Koreishites. Hajjāj pulled down +the enlargements and restored the Ka‘ba to its old state. Meanwhile, +the caliph committed to him the government of the Hejaz. +The Medinians, whose loyalty was suspected, were treated by +him with severity; not a few <i>maulas</i> (clients) were obliged to +wear a leaden badge on their neck (Tabarī, ii. p. 854 seq.).</p> + +<p>Thus the protracted war against Ibn Zobair was brought to an +end; hence this year (71) also is called the “year of union” +(<i>jamā‘a</i>). But the storms in Irak and Mesopotamia had not yet +altogether subsided. The Qais could not leave unavenged the +blood shed at Merj Rāhit. For about ten years the Syrian and +Mesopotamian deserts were the scene of a series of raids, often +marked by great cruelty, and which have been the subject of a +great many poems. Abdalmalik had need of all his tact and +energy to pacify ultimately the zealous sectaries, but the +antagonism between Yemenites (Kalb and Azd) and Moḍarites +(Qais and Tamīm) had been increased by these struggles, and +even in the far east and the far west had fatal consequences.</p> + +<p>When Abdalmalik, after a stay of forty days, returned from Irak +to Syria, he left two Omayyad princes as his vicegerents in Kufa +and Basra. Mohallab, who at the time of the battle of Bājomairā +was in the field against the Azraqītes (Kharijites), and had put +himself at the disposal of the caliph, had orders to carry on the +war. But the two princes proved unequal to their task and did +not support Mohallab sufficiently, so that the Kharijites gained +more than one victory. Abdalmalik in alarm made Hajjāj +governor of Irak with the most extensive powers. The troops of +Kufa, who accompanied Mohallab in an expedition against the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span> +Kharijites, had abandoned their general and dispersed to their +homes, and nothing could induce them to return to their duty. +Then, in the year 75 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 694), at the moment when the people +were assembled in the mosque for morning prayers, an unknown +young man of insignificant appearance, with a veil over his face, +ascended the pulpit. It seemed at first that he could not find his +words. One of the audience, with a contemptuous remark, took +a handful of pebbles to pelt him with. But he let them fall when +Hajjāj lifted his veil and began to speak.</p> + +<p>“Men of Kufa,” he said, “I see before me heads ripe for the +sickle, and the reaper—I am he. It seems to me, as if I saw +already the blood between your turbans and your shoulders. I +am not one of those who can be frightened by inflated bags of skin, +nor need any one think to squeeze me like a fig. The Prince of +the Believers has spread before him the arrows of his quiver, and +has tried every one of them by biting its wood. It is my wood +that he has found the hardest and strongest, and I am the arrow +which he shoots against you.”</p> + +<p>At the end of this address he ordered his clerk to read the +letter of the caliph. He began: “From the servant of God, +Abdalmalik, Prince of the Believers, to the Moslems that are in +Kufa, peace be with you.” As nobody uttered a word in reply, +Hajjāj said: “Stop, boy,” and exclaimed: “The Prince of the +Believers salutes you, and you do not answer his greeting! You +have been but poorly taught. I will teach you afresh, unless +you behave better. Read again the letter of the Prince of the +Believers.” Then, as soon as he had read: “peace upon ye,” +there remained not a single man in the mosque who did not +respond, “and upon the Prince of the Believers be peace.” +Thereupon Hajjāj ordered that every man capable of bearing +arms should immediately join Mohallab in Khūzistān (Susiana), +and swore that all who should be found in the town after the third +day should be beheaded. This threat had its effect, and Hajjāj +proceeded to Baṣra, where his presence was followed by the same +results. Mohallab, reinforced by the army of Irak, at last +succeeded, after a struggle of eighteen months, in subjugating +the Kharijites and their caliph Qatara b. Fojā‘a, and was able at +the beginning of the year 78 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 697) to return to Hajjāj at +Baṣra. The latter loaded him with honours and made him +governor of Khorasan, whence he directed several expeditions +into Transoxiana. In the meantime Hajjāj himself had, in 695 +and 696, with great difficulty suppressed Shabīb b. Yazīd at the +head of the powerful tribe of Shaibān, who, himself a Kharijite, +had assumed the title of Prince of the Believers, and had even +succeeded in occupying Kufa. In the east the realm of Islam +had been very much extended under the reign of Moawiya, +when Ziyād was governor of Irak and Khorasan. Balkh and +Tokhāristān, Bokhara, Samarkand and Khwarizm (modern +Khiva), even Kabul and Kandahar had been subdued; but in +the time of the civil war a great deal had been lost again. Now +at last the task of recovering the lost districts could be resumed. +When, in 697, Hajjāj gave the government of Khorasan to +Mohallab, he committed that of Sijistān (Seistan) to Obaidallah +b. Abi Bakra, a cousin of Ziyād. This prefect allowed himself to +be enticed by Zanbīl, prince of Zabulistan, to penetrate into the +country far from his base, and escaped narrowly, not without +severe losses. The command over Sijistān was now given to +Abdarrahman b. Ash‘ath, a descendant of the old royal family of +Kinda, and a numerous army was entrusted to him, so magnificently +equipped that it was called “the peacock army.” Not +long after his arrival in Sijistān, Ibn Ash‘ath, exasperated by the +masterful tone of Hajjāj, the plebeian, towards himself, the +high-born, decided to revolt. The soldiers of Irak, who did not +love the governor, and disliked the prospect of a long and +difficult war far from home, eagerly accepted the proposition of +returning to Irak, and even proclaimed the dethronement of +Abdalmalik, in favour of Ibn Ash‘ath. The new pretender +entered Fārs and Ahwāz (Susiana), and it was in this last province +near Tostar (Shuster) that Hajjāj came up with him, after +receiving from Syria the reinforcements which he had demanded +in all haste from the caliph. Ibn Ash‘ath drove him back to +Baṣra, entered the city, and then turned his arms against Kufa, +of which he took possession with aid from within. Hajjāj, +afraid lest his communications with Syria should be cut off, +pitched his camp at Dair Qorra, eighteen miles west from Kufa +towards the desert, where Mahommed, the brother of the caliph, +and Abdallah, his son, brought him fresh troops. Ibn Ash‘ath +encamped not far from him at Dair al-Jamājim with a far more +numerous army. In great alarm Abdalmalik endeavoured to +stifle the revolt by offering to dismiss Hajjāj from his post. +The insurgents rejected this offer, and hostilities recommenced. +At the end of three months and a half, in July 702, a decisive +action took place. Victory declared for Hajjāj. Ibn Ash‘ath +fled to Baṣra, where he managed to collect fresh troops; but +having been again beaten in a furious battle that took place at +Maskin near the Dojail, he took refuge at Ahwāz, from which he +was soon driven by the troops of Hajjāj under ‘Omāra b. Tamīm. +The rebel then retired to Sijistān, and afterwards sought an +asylum with the king of Kabul. His partisans fled before +‘Omāra’s army and penetrated into Khorasan, where they were +isarmed by the governor Yazīd, son of the celebrated Mohallab, +who had died in the year 701. The pretender was betrayed by +the king of Kabul and killed himself. His head was sent to +Hajjāj and then to Damascus. This happened in the year 703 +or 704. Yazid b. Mohallab was soon after deprived of the +government of Khorasan, <span class="correction" title="amended from Majjaj">Hajjāj</span> accusing him of partiality +towards the rebels of Yemenite extraction. He appointed in his +stead first his brother Mofaḍḍal b. Mohallab, and nine months +after Qotaiba b. Moslim, who was destined in a later period to +extend the sway of Islam in the east as far as China.</p> + +<p>The struggle of Ibn Ash‘ath was primarily a contest for +hegemony between Irak and Syria. The proud Arabic lords +could not acquiesce in paying to a plebeian like Hajjāj, invested +with absolute power by the caliph, the strict obedience he required. +They considered it further as an injustice that the +Syrian soldiers received higher pay than those of Irak. This is +apparent from the fact that one of the conditions of peace +proposed by Abdalmalik before the battle of Dair al-Jamājim +had been that henceforth the Irakian troops should be paid +equally with the Syrian. Moreover, Hajjāj, in order to <span class="correction" title="amended from maintian">maintain</span> +the regular revenue from taxation, had been obliged to introduce +stringent regulations, and had compelled a great many villagers +who had migrated to the cities to return to their villages. +Several of these were <i>faqīhs</i>, students of Koranic science and law, +and all these seconded Ibn Ash‘ath with all their might. But, as +Wellhausen has shown, it is not correct to consider the contest as +a reaction of the <i>maula’s</i> (Persian Moslems) against the Arabic +supremacy.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the victories of Dair al-Jamājim and +Maskin, in 702, Hajjāj, built a new residence on the Tigris, +between Baṣra and Kufa, which he called Wāsit (“Middle”). +There his Syrian soldiers were not in contact with the turbulent +citizens of the two capitals, and were at any moment ready to +suppress any fresh outburst.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of his reign Abdalmalik had replaced the +humble mosque built by Omar on the site of the temple at +Jerusalem by a magnificent dome, which was completed in the +year 691. Eutychius and others pretend that he desired to +substitute Jerusalem for Mecca, because Ibn Zobair had occupied +the latter place, and thus the pilgrimage to the Ka‘ba had become +difficult for the Syrians. This is quite improbable. Abdalmalik +was born and educated in Islam, and distinguished himself in his +youth by piety and continence. He regarded himself as the +champion of Islam and of the communion of the believers, and +had among his intimates men of acknowledged devoutness such +as Rajā b. Ḥaywa. The idea of interfering with the pilgrimage +to the House of God at Mecca, which would have alienated from +him all religious men, and thus from a political point of view +would have been suicidal, cannot have entered his mind for a +moment. But the glorification of Jerusalem, holy alike for +Moslems, Christians and Jews, could not but exalt the glory of +Islam and its rulers within and without.</p> + +<p>As soon as the expedition to Irak against Muṣ‘ab had terminated, +the holy war against the Greeks was renewed. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span> +operations in Asia Minor and Armenia were entrusted to +Mahommed b. Merwan, the caliph’s brother, who was appointed +governor of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 692 beat the +army of Justinian II. near Sebaste in Cilicia. From this time +forth the Moslems made yearly raids, the chief advantage of +which was that they kept the Syrian and Mesopotamian Arabs +in continual military exercise. After the victorious march of +Okba (Oqba) b. Nāfi’ through north Africa and the foundation of +Kairawan, his successor Qais b. Zohair had been obliged to +retreat to Barca (Cyrenaica). In the year 696 Abdalmalik sent +Hassān b. No‘mān into Africa at the head of a numerous army. +He retook Kairawan, swept the coast as far as Carthage, which he +sacked, expelling the Greek garrisons from all the fortified places; +he then turned his arms against the Berbers, who, commanded by +the Kāhina (Diviner), as the Arabs called their queen, beat him +so completely that he was compelled to retreat to Barca. Five +years later he renewed the war, defeated and killed the Kāhina, +and subdued the Berbers, who henceforward remained faithful to +the Arabs. Hassān continued to be governor of Kairawan till +after the death of Abdalmalik.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Abdalmalik reconstituted the administration +of the empire on Arabic principles. Up to the year 693 the +Moslems had no special coinage of their own, and chiefly used +Byzantine and Persian money, either imported or struck by +themselves. Moawiya, indeed, had struck dinars and dirhems +with a Moslem inscription, but his subjects would not accept +them as there was no cross upon them. Abdalmalik instituted +a purely Islamitic coinage. If we may believe Theophanes, who +says that Justinian II. refused to receive these coins in payment +of the tribute and therefore declared the treaty at an end, we +must put the beginning of the coinage at least two years earlier. +Hajjāj coined silver dirhems at Kufa in 694. A still greater +innovation was that Arabic became the official language of the +state. In the conquered countries till then, not only had the +Greek and Persian administration been preserved, but Greek +remained the official language in the western, Persian in the +eastern provinces. All officials were now compelled to know +Arabic and to conduct their administration in that language. +To this change was due in great measure the predominance of +Arabic throughout the empire. Lastly, a regular post service +was instituted from Damascus to the provincial capitals, especially +destined for governmental despatches. The postmasters +were charged with the task of informing the caliph of all important +news in their respective countries.</p> + +<p>All the great rivals of Abdalmalik having now disappeared, +he was no longer like his predecessors <i>primus inter pares</i>, but +<i>dominus</i>. Under his rule the members of the Omayyad house +enjoyed a greater amount of administrative control than had +formerly been the case, but high office was given only to competent +men. He succeeded in reconciling the sons of ‘Amr +Ashdaq, and also Khālid b. Yazid, to whom he gave his own +daughter in marriage. He himself had married ‘Ātika, a daughter +of Yazid, a union which was in all respects a happy one. He +took great care in the education of his sons, whom he destined +as his successors. His brother Abdalazīz, governor of Egypt, +whom Merwan had marked out as his successor, died in the year +703 or 704, and Abdalmalik chose as heirs to the empire first +his son Walīd, and after him his second son Suleimān. He +himself died on the 14th Shawwāl 86 (9th October 705) at the age +of about sixty. His reign was one of the most stormy in the +annals of Islam, but also one of the most glorious. Abdalmalik +not only brought triumph to the cause of the Omayyads, but +also extended and strengthened the Moslem power as a whole. +He was well versed in old Arabic tradition and in the doctrine +of Islam, and was passionately fond of poetry. His court was +crowded with poets, whom he loaded with favours, even if they +were Christians like Akhtal. In his reign flourished also the two +celebrated rivals of Akhtal, Jarīr and Farazdaq.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Reign of Walid I.</i>—This is the most glorious epoch in the +history of Islam. In Asia Minor and Armenia, Maslama, brother +of the caliph, and his generals obtained numerous successes +against the Greeks. Tyana was conquered after a long siege, +and a great expedition against Constantinople was in preparation. +In Armenia Maslama advanced even as far as the Caucasus. In +Africa, Mūsā b. Noṣair, who succeeded Hassān b. No‘mān as +governor, in a short time carried his conquests as far as Fez, +Tangier and Ceuta, and one of his captains even made a descent +on Sicily and plundered Syracuse. When he returned from the +west to Kairawan, he made his client Ṭāriq (or Tarik) governor +of Tangier and of the whole western part of Africa. Under him +the chiefs who had submitted to the Moslem arms retained +their authority. One of them was the Greek exarch of Tangier, +Julian, who, supported by the powerful Berber tribe of Ghomēra, +had long resisted and even asked for aid from Spain, but had +been compelled to surrender and was left governor of Ceuta. +Meanwhile in Spain, after the death of the Gothic king Witiza +in the year 90 (708-709), anarchy arose, which was terminated +by the council of noblemen at Toledo electing Roderic, the powerful +duke of Baetica, to be his successor in the fifth year of Walid. +The eldest son of Witiza then applied to Julian, and asked the aid +of the Arabs for the recovery of his father’s throne. Ṭāriq +forwarded the embassy to Kairawan, and Mūsā asked the +caliph’s permission to send an expedition into Spain. Authorized +by Mūsā, Ṭāriq now sent, in Ramadan 91 (July 710), 500 Berbers +under the command of Ṭārif to reconnoitre the country. This +expedition, seconded by partisans of Witiza, was successful. In +the beginning of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 711 Roderic had been summoned to the +north on account of an invasion of Navarra by the Franks, +caused, it is said, by the conspirators. Ṭāriq, thus certain of +meeting no serious opposition to his landing, passed into Spain +himself with an army composed mainly of Berbers of the Ghomēra +tribe under the guidance of Julian. The spot where he landed +thence acquired the name of Jebel Ṭāriq, “Mountain of Ṭāriq,” +afterwards corrupted into Gibraltar. Having made himself +master of Algeçiras and thereby secured his communication with +Africa, Ṭāriq set out at once in the direction of Cordova. At the +news of the invasion Roderic hastened back and led a numerous +army against the combined forces of Ṭāriq and the partisans of +Witiza. A fierce battle took place in the plain of Barbata on the +little river of Guadaleta (north of Medina Sidonia), in which +Roderic was completely routed. The spoils of the victors were +immense, especially in horses, but the king himself had disappeared. +Fearing lest he should have escaped to Toledo and +should there fit out another army, the partisans of Witiza +insisted that Ṭāriq should march immediately against the capital. +Ṭāriq complied with their wishes, notwithstanding the express +command of Mūsā b. Nosair that he should not venture too far +into the country, and the protests of Julian. Having made +himself master of Ecija and having despatched a detachment +under Moghīth against Cordova, Ṭāriq took Mentesa (Villanueva +de la Fuente) and marched upon Toledo, which he soon conquered. +At the same time Moghīth took Cordova. But, +notwithstanding these successes, Ṭāriq knew that his situation +was most critical. King Roderic, who had escaped to Lusitania, +and the noble Goths, who had fled from Toledo, would certainly +not be slow in making efforts to regain what they had lost. He +therefore sent a message in all haste to Mūsā, entreating him to +come speedily. Mūsā, though angered by the disobedience of +Ṭāriq, hastened to the rescue and embarked in April 712 with +18,000 men, among them many noble Arabs, and began, advised +by Julian, a methodical campaign, with the purpose of establishing +and securing a line of communication between the sea +and Toledo. After having taken Seville, Carmona and Merida, +he marched from the latter place by the Via Romana to Salamanca, +after having ordered Ṭāriq to rejoin him in order to +encounter king Roderic. Not far from Tamames the king was +defeated and killed. King Alphonso the Great found his tombstone +at Viseo with the inscription, “Hic requiescit Rodericus rex +Gothorum.” After this battle Mūsā reconquered Toledo, which, +after the departure of Ṭāriq, had recovered its independence, +and entered the capital in triumph. Already, before the expedition +to Salamanca, he had perceived that the sons of Witiza had +neither military nor political ability. He therefore proclaimed +the caliph of Damascus as sole ruler of the whole peninsula. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span> +The Gothic princes must content themselves with honours and +apanages, in which they readily acquiesced. In the same year +93 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 712) Mūsā struck Moslem coins with Latin inscriptions. +Mūsā then continued the subjugation of Spain, till Walid recalled +him to Damascus. He obeyed after having appointed his son +Abdalazīz governor of Andalos (Andalusia), as the Arabs named +the peninsula, and assigned Seville as his residence. Abdalazīz +consolidated his power by marrying the widow of the late king +Roderic. Mūsā left Spain about August 714, and reached +Damascus shortly before the death of Walid. Notwithstanding +the immense booty he brought, he did not receive his due reward. +Accused of peculation, he was threatened with imprisonment +unless he paid a fine of 100,000 pieces of gold. The old man—he +was born in the year 640—was released by Yazid b. Mohallab, +the then mighty favourite of the caliph Suleiman, but died in +the same year 716 on his way to Mecca. His son Abdalazīz was +an excellent ruler, who did much for the consolidation of the +new conquests, but he reigned only one year and eleven months, +when he was murdered. His death has been falsely imputed by +some historians to the caliph Suleiman.<a name="fa19b" id="fa19b" href="#ft19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> + +<p>In the East the Moslem armies gained the most astonishing +successes. In the course of a few years Qotaiba b. Moslim +conquered Paikend, Bokhara, Samarkand, Khwarizm (mod. +Khiva), Ferghana and Shāsh (Tashkent), and even Kashgar on +the frontiers of China. Meanwhile Mahommed b. Qāsim invaded +Makran, took Daibol, passed the Indus, and marched, after +having beaten the Indian king Daher, through Sind upon Multān, +which he conquered and whence he carried off an immense booty.</p> + +<p>Walid was the first caliph, born and trained as prince, who +felt the majesty of the imamate and wished it to be felt by his +subjects. He desired to augment the splendours of Islam and +its sovereign, as Abdalmalik had already done by building the +dome of Jerusalem. In the time of the conquest of Damascus, +one half of the great church had been made a mosque, while the +remaining half had been left to the Christians. Walid annexed +this part, indemnifying the Christians elsewhere, and restored +the whole building sumptuously and magnificently. In his time +many fine palaces and beautiful villas were built in Syria, and +Becker’s conjecture seems not altogether improbable, that from +this period dates the palace of Mashetta, the façade of which is +now in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin, as perhaps also +the country houses discovered by Musil in the land of Moab. +Walid also caused the mosque of Medina to be enlarged. For +this purpose, the apartments of the Prophet and his wives were +demolished, which at first caused much discontent in Medina, +some crying out that thereby a verse of the Book of God (S. 49, +v. 4) was cancelled. With this exception, the citizens of Medina +had nothing to complain of. The vicegerent of Abdalmalik +had treated them harshly. Walid immediately on his accession +appointed as governor of Hejaz his cousin Omar b. Abdalazīz, +who was received there with joy, his devoutness and gentle +character being well known. But the reputation of Omar +attracted to the two holy cities a great number of the inhabitants +of Irak, who had been deeply involved in the rebellion of Ibn +Ash‘ath. Hajjāj, however, was not the man to allow the formation +of a fresh nucleus of sedition, and persuaded the caliph to +dismiss Omar in the year 712, and appoint Othman b. Ḥayyān +at Medina and Khālid al-Qasrī at Mecca. These two prefects +compelled the refugees to return to Irak, where many of them +were severely treated and even put to death by Hajjāj.</p> + +<p>Few people have been so slandered as this great viceroy of the +Orient. In reality he was a man of extraordinary ability, and +accomplished the task committed to him with vigour and energy. +To his unflagging constancy was due the suppression of the +dangerous rebellion of Ibn Ash‘ath. After the restoration of +peace his capacity for organization was displayed in all directions. +The draining and tilling of submerged or uncultivated land on a +large scale, the promotion of agriculture in every way, in particular +by the digging of channels, and the regulation of the +system of taxation, were carried out on his initiative. He +showed the utmost wisdom in the selection of his lieutenants. +The fear of his name was so great that even in the desert there +was security for life and property, and his brilliant military +successes were unquestionably due in a great measure to the +care which he bestowed on equipment and commissariat. The +heavy expenses entailed thereby were largely met by the booty +which he won. Hajjāj was a sincere Moslem; this, however, +did not prevent him from attacking Ibn Zobair in the Holy +City, nor again from punishing rebels, though they bore the +name of holy men. He enjoyed the entire confidence of Abdalmalīk +with Walid, but Suleiman, the appointed successor, +regarded him with disfavour. Yazid b. Mohallab, whom he had +recalled from Khorasan, and imprisoned, had escaped and put +himself under the protection of Suleiman, who made himself +surety for the fine to which Yazid had been condemned. Hajjāj +foreboded evil, and prayed eagerly that he might die before +Walid. His death took place about the end of Ramadan 95 +(June or July 714).</p> + +<p>7. <i>Reign of Suleiman</i> (<i>Solaiman</i>).—Suleiman had early missed +the throne. Walid wished to have his son Abdalazīz chosen as +his successor, and had offered Suleiman a large sum of money to +induce him to surrender his rights. Walid went still further +and sent letters to the governors of all the provinces, calling on +them to take the oath of allegiance to his son. None, except +Hajjāj and his two generals Qotaiba b. Moslim and Mahommed b. +Qàsim, consented thus to set at naught the order of succession +established by Abdalmalik; and Suleiman succeeded without +difficulty on the death of his brother Jomāda II. 96 (February +715). We can easily conceive the hatred felt by Suleiman for +Hajjāj and for all that belonged to him. Hajjāj himself was +dead; but Suleiman poured out his wrath on his family and his +officers. The governors of Medina and Mecca were dismissed; +Mahommed b. Qasim, the conqueror of India, cousin of Hajjāj, +was dismissed from his post and outlawed. Qotaiba b. Moslim, +the powerful governor of Khorasan, tried to anticipate the caliph +by a revolt, but a conspiracy was formed against him, which +ended in his murder. Some historians say that he was falsely +accused of rebellion.</p> + +<p>Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of <span class="correction" title="amended from Majjaj">Hajjāj</span>, was made governor +of Irak. His arrival was hailed with joy, especially by the +Azd, to whom his family belonged, and the other Yemenite +tribes. Yazid discovered soon that the system of taxation as +regulated by Hajjāj could not be altered without serious danger +to the finances of the empire, and that he could not afford the +expenses which his prodigal manner of life involved. He therefore +asked the caliph to give him the governorship of Khorasan +also, and took his residence in Merv, where he was free from +control. On his return to Khorasan he set on foot a series of +new expeditions against Jorjān and Tabaristān, with only partial +success. He sent, however, to the caliph an exaggerated account +of his victories and the booty he had made. He had cause to +repent this later.</p> + +<p>Walid had, in the last years of his reign, made preparations +for a great expedition against Constantinople. Suleiman carried +them on with energy, and as early as the autumn of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 715 +Maslama invaded Asia Minor at the head of a numerous army, +whilst a well-equipped fleet under Omar b. Hobaira sailed out +to second him. It is said that Suleiman was firmly persuaded +that Constantinople would be conquered during his reign, in +accordance with a Sibylline prophecy which said that the city +would be subdued by a caliph bearing the name of a prophet, +he himself being the first to fulfil this condition.<a name="fa20b" id="fa20b" href="#ft20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Moreover, the +Byzantine empire was in these years disturbed by internal +troubles. The first year of the expedition was not unsuccessful. +The siege of Amorium in Phrygia was broken up, but Pergamum +and Sardis were taken. On the 25th of August 716 the blockade +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span> +of Constantinople began from the land side, and two weeks later +from the sea side. A few months before, Leo the Isaurian had +ascended the throne and prepared the city for the siege. This +lasted about a year. The besieged were hard pressed, but the +besiegers suffered by the severe winter, and were at last obliged +to raise the siege. Maslama brought back the rest of his army +in a pitiful state, while the fleet, on its return, was partly destroyed +by a violent tempest. The Moslems regard this failure +as one of the great evils that have befallen the human race, and +one which retarded the progress of the world for ages,<a name="fa21b" id="fa21b" href="#ft21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a> the other +calamity being the defeat in the battle of Tours by Charles Martel.</p> + +<p>Maslama was still on his way back when Suleiman died at +Dābiq in northern Syria, which was the base of the expeditions +into Asia Minor. He seems not to have had the firmness of +character nor the frugality of Walid; but he was very severe +against the looseness of manners that reigned at Medina, and was +highly religious. Rajā b. Haywa, renowned for his piety, whose +influence began under Abdalmalik and increased under Walid, +was his constant adviser and even determined him to designate +as his successor his devout cousin Omar b. Abdalazīz. Suleiman +was kind towards the Alids and was visited by several of them, +amongst others by Abu Hāshim, the son of Mahommed b. al +Ḥanafīya, who after his father’s death had become the secret +Imam (head) of the Shi‘ites. On his way back to Hejaz this man +visited the family of Abdallah b. ‘Abbās, which resided at +Ḥomaima, a place situated in the vicinity of ‘Ammān, and died +there, after having imparted to Mahommed b. Ali b. Abdallah b. +Abbas the names of the chiefs of the Shi‘a in Irak and Khorasan, +and disclosed his way of corresponding with them. From that +time the Abbasids began their machinations against the +Omayyads in the name of the family of the Prophet, avoiding all +that could cause suspicion to the Shi‘ites, but holding the strings +firmly in their own hands.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Reign of Omar II.</i>—Omar b. Abdalazīz did his best to +imitate his grandfather Omar in all things, and especially in +maintaining the simple manner of life of the early Moslems. He +was, however, born in the midst of wealth; thus frugality +became asceticism, and in so far as he demanded the same rigour +from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused uneasiness and +discontent. By paying the highest regard to integrity in the +choice of his officers, and not to ability, he did not advance the +interests of his subjects, as he earnestly wished to do. In the +matter of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he +did harm to the public revenues. The principle of Islam was, +that no Moslem, whatever might be his nationality, should pay +any tax other than the <i>zakāt</i> or poor-rate (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan +INSTITUTIONS</a></span>). In practice, this privilege was confined to the +Arabic Moslems. Omar wished to maintain the principle. The +original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as +agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for +each district. If one of these adopted Islam, Omar permitted +him to leave his place, which had been strictly forbidden by +Hajjāj in Irak and the eastern provinces, because by it many +hands were withdrawn from the tilling of the ground, and those +who remained were unable to pay the allotted amount. Omar’s +system not only diminished the actual revenue, but largely +increased in the cities the numbers of the <i>maula’s</i> (clients), +mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their +Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. Their +short dominion in Kufa under Mokhtār had been suppressed, but +the discontent continued. In North Africa particularly, and in +Khorasan the effect of Omar’s proclamation was that a great +multitude embraced Islam. When it became necessary to impose +a tribute upon the new converts, great discontent arose, which +largely increased the number of those who followed the Shi‘ite +preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was promoted by the +severe regulations which Omar introduced for the non-believers, +such as Christians and Jews. It was he who issued those humiliating +rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to +Omar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than +one illegal impost. He endeavoured above all to procure justice +for all his subjects. Complaints against oppression found in him +a ready listener, and many unlawfully acquired possessions were +restored to the legal owners, for instance, to the descendants of +Ali and Talḥa. Even to the Kharijites he contrived to give +satisfaction, as far as possible. In all these matters he followed +the guidance of divines and devotees, in whose congenial company +he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that these +men saw in Omar the ideal of a prince, and that in Moslem +history he has acquired the reputation of a saint.</p> + +<p>After the failure of the siege of Constantinople, the advanced +posts in Asia Minor were withdrawn, but the raids were continued +regularly. It has been said that it was Omar’s intention to give +up his Spanish conquests, but the facts argue the contrary. The +governor, named by Omar, Samḥ b. Abdallah, even crossed the +Pyrenees and took possession of Narbonne; but he was beaten +and killed at Toulouse in July 720. But Omar did all he could to +prevent the degradation of the Holy War, which, instead of being +the ultimate expedient for the propagation of Islam, if all other +means had failed, had often degenerated into mere pillaging +expeditions against peaceful nations.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Reign of Yazid II.</i>—Omar’s reign was as short as that of +his predecessor. He died on the 24th of Rajab 101 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 9th +February 720). Yazid II., son of Abdalmalik and, by his mother +‘Ātika, grandson of Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposition. +He had at once, however, to put down a dangerous +rebellion. Yazid b. Mohallab had returned to Irak, after the +conquest of Jorjān, when Suleiman was still alive. Shortly after, +Adī b. Artāt, whom Omar II. had appointed governor, arrived, +arrested Yazid, and sent him to Omar, who called him to account +for the money he had mentioned in his letter to Suleiman, and +imprisoned him when he pretended not to be able to pay the +amount. Yazid II. had personal grounds for ill-will to Yazid b. +Mohallab. One of the wives of the new caliph, the same who +gave birth to that son of Yazid II. who afterwards reigned as +Walid II., was niece to the celebrated Ḥajjāj, whose family had +been ill-treated by the son of Mohallab, when he was governor of +Irak under Suleiman. Aware that Yazid b. Abdalmalik, on +ascending the throne, would spare neither him nor his family, +Yazid b. Mohallab had succeeded in escaping to Basra, the home +of his family, where his own tribe the Azd was predominant. +Meanwhile ‘Adī b. Artāt had all the brothers of Yazid and other +members of the family of Mohallab arrested, and tried to prevent +Yazid from entering the city. But ‘Adi was too scrupulous to +employ the public money for raising the pay of his soldiers, +whilst Yazid promised mountains of gold. Yazid stormed the +castle and took ‘Adī prisoner, the public treasury fell into his +hands, and he employed the money to pay his troops largely and +to raise fresh ones. A pardon obtained for him from the caliph +came too late; he had already gone too far. He now proclaimed +a Holy War against the Syrians, whom he declared to be worse +enemies of Islam than even the Turks and the Dailam. Notwithstanding +the warnings of the aged Hasan al-Basrī, the friend of +Omar II., the religious people, took the part of Yazid, and were +followed by the <i>maulas</i>. Though the number of his adherents +thus increased enormously, their military value was small. +Ahwāz (Khūzistān), Fārs and Kirman were easily subdued, but +in Khorasan the Azd could not prevail over the Tamīm, who were +loyal to the caliph. As the rebellion threatened to spread far and +wide, Yazid II. was obliged to appeal to his brother, the celebrated +Maslama. With the approach of the Syrians, Yazid b. Mohallab +tried to forestall them at Kufa. He took his way over Wāsit, +which he mastered—the Syrian garrison seems to have been +withdrawn in the days of Omar II.—but, before he could get hold +of Kufa, the Syrian troops arrived. The meeting took place at +‘Aqr in the vicinity of Babel, and Yazid was completely defeated +and fell in the battle. His brothers and sons fled to Basra; +thence they went by sea to Kirman and then to Kandabīl in +India; but they were pursued relentlessly and slain with only +two exceptions by the officers of Maslama. The possessions of +the Mohallabites were confiscated.</p> + +<p>Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of Irak and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span> +Khorasan, but was soon replaced by Omar b. Hobaira, who under +Omar II. had been governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to +the tribe of Qais, and was very severe against the Azd and other +Yemenite tribes, who had more or less favoured the part of Yazid +b. Mohallab. In these years the antagonism between Qais +(Moḍar) and Yemenites became more and more acute, especially +in Khorasan. The real cause of the dismissal of Maslama was, +that he did not send the revenue-quota to Damascus. Omar b. +Hobaira, to supply the deficiency, ordered the prefect of +Khorasan, Sa‘īd-al-Ḥarashī, to take tribute from the Sogdians in +Transoxiana, who had embraced Islam on the promise of Omar II. +The Sogdians raised a revolt in Ferghana, but were subdued by +Sa‘īd and obliged to pay. A still more questionable measure of +Ibn Hobaira was his ordering the successor of Sa‘īd Harashī to +extort large sums of money from several of the most respectable +Khorasanians. The discontent roused thereby became one of the +principal causes of the fall of the Omayyads.</p> + +<p>In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause. Yazid b. +Abi Moslim, who had been at the head of the financial department +in Irak under Ḥajjāj, and had been made governor of Africa by +Yazid II., issued orders that the villagers who, having adopted +Islam, were freed from tribute according to the promise of Omar +II., and had left their villages for the towns, should return to +their domiciles and pay the same tribute as before their conversion. +The Berbers rose in revolt, slaughtered the unfortunate +governor, and put in his place the former governor Mahommed b. +Yazid. The caliph at first ratified this choice, but soon after +dismissed Mahommed from his post, and replaced him by Bishr b. +Ṣafwān, who under Hisham made an expedition against Sicily.</p> + +<p>Yazid II. was by natural disposition the opposite of his predecessor. +He did not feel that anxiety for the spiritual welfare of +his subjects which had animated Omar II. Poetry and music, +not beloved by Suleiman and condemned by Omar, were held +by him in great honour. Two court-singers, Sallāma and Ḥabāba, +exercised great influence, tempered only by the austerity of +manners that prevailed in Syria. He was so deeply affected by +the death of Ḥabāba, that Maslama entreated him not to exhibit +his sorrow to the eyes of the public. He died a few days later, on +the 26th of January 724, according to the chroniclers from grief +for her loss. As his successor he had appointed in the first place +his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Reign of Hisham</i>.—Hisham was a wise and able prince +and an enemy of luxury, not an idealist like Omar II., nor a +worldling like Yazid II., but more like his father Abdalmalik, +devoting all his energy to the pacification of the interior, and to +extending and consolidating the empire of Islam. But the discontent, +which had been sown under his predecessors, had now +developed to such an extent that he could not suppress it in +detail. His first care was to put an end to the tyrannical rule +of the Qaisites (Moḍarites) in Irak and Khorasan by dismissing +Omar b. Hobaira and appointing in his place Khālid al-Qasrī. +This very able man, who under Hajjāj had been prefect of +Mecca, belonged properly neither to the Qaisites nor to the +Yemenites, but as he took the place of Ibn Hobaira and dismissed +his partisans from their posts, the former considered him +as their adversary, the latter as their benefactor. After his +death, in particular, the Yemenites celebrated him as their chief, +and assigned as the reason for their revolt the injuries which he +suffered. Khālid himself assuredly did not intend it. He was a +loyal servant of the dynasty, and remained such even after +receiving very harsh treatment from them. For fifteen years +Khālid governed the eastern half of the empire, and continued +to maintain peace with only few exceptions throughout. He +did much for the reclaiming and improving of lands in Irak, in +which the caliph himself and several princes took an active part. +The great revenues obtained thereby naturally caused much +jealousy. Khālid lived on a very rich scale and was extraordinarily +liberal, and he was charged with having carried out all +his improvements for his own interests, and upbraided for +selling the corn of his estates only when the prices were high. +To these charges were added the accusation that he was too +tolerant to Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians. As his mother +professed the Christian religion, he was accused of infidelity. +At last a conspiracy, into which the principal engineer of Khālid, +Hassān the Nabataean, had been drawn, succeeded in inciting +Hisham against Khālid. They told him that Khālid had used +disrespectful terms in speaking of the caliph, and that he had +appropriated revenues belonging to the state. The latter +imputation especially influenced Hisham, who was very parsimonious. +When the dismissal of Khālid had been resolved upon, +Yūsuf b. Omar, his appointed successor, was sent secretly to +Kufa, where he seized on Khālid unawares. For eighteen months +Khālid remained in prison. But when he declined even under +torture to confess that he had been guilty of extensive peculation, +he was finally released. He settled at Damascus and made a +noble return for his injuries by taking an active part in the war +against the Greeks. In the summer of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 740, while he was in +Asia Minor, a great fire broke out in Damascus, the guilt of which +was attributed to Khālid. Though it soon appeared that the +imputation was false, Khālid, on his return, was furious, and +uttered very offensive words against the caliph. Hisham, however, +would not again punish his old servant; on the contrary, +he seems to have regarded his indignation as a proof of innocence.</p> + +<p>The successor of Khālid in Irak had not long been in office +when Zaid b. Ali, grandson of Hosain b. Ali, who had come to +Kufa for a lawsuit, was persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi‘a to +organize a revolt. He succeeded in so far that 15,000 Kufians +swore to fight with him for the maintenance of the commandments +of the Book of God and the <i>Sunna</i> (orthodox tradition) of +his Prophet, the discomfiture of the tyrants, the redress of +injury, and last, not least, the vindication of the family of the +Prophet as the rightful caliphs. The revolt broke out on the +6th of January 740. Unfortunately for Zaid he had to do with +the same Kufians whose fickleness had already been fatal to his +family. He was deserted by his troops and slain. His body was +crucified in Kufa, his head sent to Damascus and thence to +Medina. His son Yahyā, still a youth, fled to Balkh in Khorasan, +but was discovered at last and hunted down, till he fell sword in +hand under Walid II. Abu Moslim, the founder of the Abbasid +dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that occasion +adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive +colour of the dynasty.</p> + +<p>In Khorasan also there were very serious disturbances. The +Sogdians, though subdued by Sa‘īd al Ḥarashī, were not +appeased, but implored the assistance of the Turks, who had +long been contending earnestly against the Arabs for the +dominion of Transoxiana. They found besides a most valuable +ally in Ḥārith b. Soraij, a distinguished captain of the Arabic +tribe of Tamīm, who, with many pious Moslems, was scandalized +by the government’s perfidy in regard to the new converts. +Ḥārith put himself at the head of all the malcontents, and raised +the black flag, in compliance with a Sibylline prophecy, holding +that the man with the black flag (the Prophet’s flag) would put +an end to the tyranny, and be the precursor of the Mahdi.<a name="fa22b" id="fa22b" href="#ft22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> The +government troops suffered more than one defeat, but in the +last month of the year 118 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 736) the governor Asad al-Qasrī, +the brother of Khālid, after having defeated Ḥārith, +gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, which finally caused +them to retreat. Asad died almost simultaneously with the +dismissal of Khālid. Hisham then separated Khorasan from +Irak and chose as governor of the former Naṣr b. Sayyār, a +valiant soldier who had grown grey in war, and who, besides all +his other capacities, was an excellent poet. Naṣr instituted a +system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced earlier, +would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that +which later on was generally adopted, viz. that all possessors +of conquered lands (<i>i.e.</i> nearly the whole empire except Arabia), +whether Moslems or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in +addition to pay a poll-tax, from which they were relieved on +conversion to Islam. During the reign of Hisham, Naṣr made +a successful expedition against Ḥārith and the Turks. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span> +propaganda of the Shi‘a by the Abbasids was continued in these +years with great zeal.</p> + +<p>In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam +under the Caliphate of Omar II. declared themselves independent, +because the promise of equal rights for all Moslems was not kept +under the reign of his successors. This led to the evacuation of +the eastern part of India (called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the +name of the western part), and to the founding of the strong cities +of Maḥfūẓa and Manṣūra for the purpose of controlling the land.</p> + +<p>In the north and north-west of the empire there were no +internal disorders, but the Moslems had hard work to maintain +themselves against the Alans and the Khazars. In the year 112 +(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 730) they suffered a severe defeat, in which the general +Jarrāh perished. But the illustrious Maslama b. Abdalmalik, +and Merwan b. Mahommed (afterwards caliph), governor of +Armenia and Azerbaijan (Adherbaijan), succeeded in repelling +the Khazars, imposing peace on the petty princes of the eastern +Caucasus, and consolidating the Arab power in that quarter. +The war against the Byzantines was continued with energy +during the whole of Hisham’s reign. Moawiya, the son of +Hisham, whose descendants reigned later in Spain, was in command +till 118 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 736), when he met his death accidentally in +Asia Minor by a fall from his horse. After his death, Suleiman, +another son of the caliph, had the supreme command. Both +were eager and valiant warriors. But the hero of all the battles +was Abdallah b. Hosain, surnamed al-Battāl (the brave). He +has been the subject of many romantic tales. Tabarī tells how +he took the emperor Constantine prisoner in the year 114 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> +732; but Constantine V. Copronymus only began to reign in +740 or 741 <span class="sc">a.d.</span>); another Arabic author places this event in +the year 122, adding that al-Battāl, having defeated the Greeks, +was attacked and slain in returning with his captives. The +Greek historians say nothing about Constantine having been +made prisoner. It is probable that the Arabs took another +Greek soldier for the prince.<a name="fa23b" id="fa23b" href="#ft23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a> The victories of the Moslems had +no lasting results. During the troubles that began in the reign +of Walid II., the Greeks reconquered Marash (Germanicia), +Malatia (Malatiyeh) and Erzerum (Theodosiopolis).</p> + +<p>In Spain the attention of the Moslems was principally turned +to avenge the defeat of Samḥ beyond the Pyrenees. As early as +the second year of the reign of Hisham, ‘Anbasa, the governor of +Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations +vigorously. Carcassonne and Nîmes were taken, Autun sacked. +The death of ‘Anbasa in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 725 and internal troubles put a stop +to further hostilities. The Berbers were the chief contingent of +the Moslem troops, but were treated by their Arab masters as +inferior people. They began to resent this, and one of their +chiefs, Munisa (Munuza), made himself independent in the north +and allied himself with Odo, king of Aquitaine, who gave him his +daughter in marriage. In the year 113 Abdarrahman b. Abdallah +subdued Munisa, crossed the mountains and penetrated into +Gascony by the valley of Roncesvalles. The Moslems beat Odo, +gained possession of Bordeaux, and overran the whole of southern +Gaul nearly as far as the Loire. But in October 732 their march +was checked between Tours and Poitiers by Charles Martel and +after some days of skirmishing a fierce but indecisive battle was +fought. Abdarrahman was among the slain and the Moslems +retreated hastily in the night, leaving their camp to the Franks. +They were, however, not yet discouraged. In 739 the new governor +of Spain, Oqba (Aucupa) b. Hajjāj, a man of high qualities, +re-entered Gaul and pushed forward his raids as far as Lyons, +but the Franks again drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne. +Thenceforth the continual revolts of the Berbers in Africa, and +the internal troubles which disturbed Spain until the reign of +Abdarrahman I., effectually checked the ambition of the Moslems.</p> + +<p>In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The +Berbers, though they had pledged themselves to Islam and had +furnished the latest contingents for the Holy War, were treated +as tributary serfs, notwithstanding the promises given by +Omar II. The Kharijites, of whom a great many had emigrated +to Africa, found them eager listeners. Still, they could not +believe that it was according to the will of the caliph that they +<span class="correction" title="amended from here">were</span> thus treated, until a certain number of their chiefs went as a +deputation to Hisham, but failed to obtain an audience. Thereupon +a fierce insurrection broke out, against which the governor +of Africa was powerless. Hisham at once sent an army of more +than 30,000 men, under the command of Kolthum al-Qoshairī, +and Balj b. Bishr. Not far from the river Sabu in Algeria,<a name="fa24b" id="fa24b" href="#ft24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a> the +meeting with the army of the insurgents took place (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 740). +Kolthūm was beaten and killed; Balj b. Bishr led the rest of the +Syrian army to Ceuta, and thence, near the end of 741, to Spain, +where they aided in the suppression of the dangerous revolt of the +peninsular Berbers. Balj died in 742. A year later the governor, +Abu’l-Khaṭṭār, assigned to his troops for settlement divers +countries belonging to the public domain.<a name="fa25b" id="fa25b" href="#ft25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a> An effort of the +African Berbers to make themselves masters of Kairawan failed, +their army being utterly defeated by the governor Ḥanẓala.</p> + +<p>Hisham died in February 743, after a reign of twenty years. +He had not been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins +of the government in his own hands. He was a correct Moslem +and tolerant towards Christians and Jews. His financial administration +was sound and he guarded against any misuse of the +revenues of the state. But he was not popular. His residence +was at Roṣāfa on the border of the desert, and he rarely admitted +visitors into his presence; as a rule they were received by his +chamberlain Abrash. Hisham tried to keep himself free from +and above the rival parties, but as his vicegerents were inexorable +in the exaction of tribute, the Qaisites against the Yemenites, +the Yemenites against the Qaisites, both parties alternately had +reason to complain, whilst the non-Arabic Moslems suffered +under the pressure and were dissatisfied. He caused a large +extent of land to be brought into cultivation, and many public +works to be executed, and he was accused of overburdening his +subjects for these purposes. Therefore, Yazid III. (as also the +Abbasids) on taking office undertook to abstain from spending +money on building and digging. The principle that a well-filled +treasury is the basis of a prosperous government was pushed by +him too far. Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to +the management of affairs, the Moslem power declined rather +than advanced, and signs of the decay of the Omayyad dynasty +began to show themselves. The history of his four successors, +Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim and Merwan II., is but the history +of the fall of the Omayyads.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Reign of Walid II.</i>—Walid II. was a handsome man, +possessed of extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished +poet. But Hisham, to whom he was successor-designate, +foolishly kept him in the background, and even made earnest +efforts to get his own son Maslama acknowledged as his successor. +Walid therefore retired to the country, and passed his time there +in hunting, cultivating poetry, music and the like, waiting with +impatience for the death of Hisham and planning vengeance on +all those whom he suspected of having opposed him. His first +public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10 +dirhems, that of the Syrians by 20. The Omayyads who came to +pay their respects to him received large donations. Many +philanthropic institutions were founded. As to the family of his +predecessor, he contented himself with confiscating their possessions, +with the single exception of Suleiman b. Hisham, whom he +had whipped and put in prison. But the Makhzūmites, who were +related to Hisham by his mother, he deprived of all their power +and had them tortured to death. The vicegerents of Hisham +were replaced by Qaisites; Yusuf b. Omar, the governor of Irak, +being a Qaisite, was not only confirmed in his office, but received +with it the supreme command of Khorasan. He made use of it +immediately by ordering Naṣr b. Sayyār to collect a rich present +of horses, falcons, musical instruments, golden and silver vessels +and to offer it to the caliph in person, but before the present was +ready the news came that Walid had been murdered.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span></p> + +<p>It is not certain that Walid also suspected Khālid al-Qasrī of +having intrigued against him. But Yusuf b. Omar did not rest +until he had his old enemy in his power. It is said that he +guaranteed Walid a large sum of money, which he hoped to +extort from Khālid. This unfortunate man died under torture, +which he bore with fortitude, in Muharram 126 (November +743).</p> + +<p>Walid designated his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate. +These were still under age and were not the children of a freeborn, +noble mother. Both circumstances, according to the then +prevailing notions, made them unfit for the imamate. Moreover, +it was an affront, in particular, for the sons of Walid I., who +already had considered the nomination of Yazid II. as a slight to +themselves. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. Walid I., +and joined by the majority of the Merwanid princes and many +Kalbites and other Yemenites who regarded the ill-treatment of +Khālid al-Qasrī as an insult to themselves. Various stories were +circulated about the looseness of Walid’s manner of life; Yazid +accused him of irreligion, and, by representing himself as a +devout and God-fearing man, won over the pious Moslems. The +conspirators met with slight opposition. A great many troops +had been detached by Hisham to Africa and other provinces, the +caliph himself was in one of his country places; the prefect of +Damascus also was absent. Without difficulty, Yazid made +himself master of Damascus, and immediately sent his cousin +Abdalazīz with 2000 men against Walid, who had not more than +200 fighting men about him. A few men hastened to the rescue, +among others ‘Abbās b. Walid with his sons and followers. +Abdalazīz interrupted his march, took him prisoner and compelled +him to take the oath of allegiance to his brother Yazid. Walid’s +small body of soldiers was soon overpowered. After a valiant +combat, the caliph retired to one of his apartments and sat +with the Koran on his knee, in order to die just as Othman +had died. He was killed on the 17th of April 744. His head +was taken to Damascus and carried about the city at the end of +a spear.</p> + +<p>On the news of the murder of the caliph, the citizens of Ḥoms +(Emesa) put at their head Abu Mahommed as-Sofiānī, a grandson +of Yazid I., and marched against Damascus. They were beaten +by Suleimān b. Hishām at a place called Solaimānīa, 12 m. from +the capital. Abu Mahommed was taken prisoner and shut up +with several of his brethren and cousins in the Khadrā, the old +palace of Moawiya, together with the two sons of Walid II. One +or two risings in Palestine were easily suppressed. But the +reigning family had committed suicide. Their unity was broken. +The holiness of their Caliphate, their legitimate authority, had +been trifled with; the hatred of the days of Merj Rāhiṭ had been +revived. The orthodox faith also, whose strong representative +and defender had hitherto been the caliph, was shaken by the +fact that Yazid III. belonged to the sect of the Qadaris who +rejected the doctrine of predestination. The disorganization of +the empire was at hand.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Reign of Yazid III.</i>—Yazid III., on his accession, made a +fine speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected +from a good and wise ruler, even offering to make place immediately +for the man whom his subjects should find better +qualified for the Caliphate than himself. He cancelled, however, +the increase of the pay granted by Walid and thus earned the +nickname of the <i>Nāqiṣ</i> (diminisher). As he owed his position to +the aid of the Kalbites, he chose his officers from among them. +The governorship of Irak was confided to a Kalbite, Manṣūr b. +Jomhūr, a hot-headed and unscrupulous man. Yūsuf b. Omar +was unable to offer resistance, and was ultimately taken and +confined in the Khadrā. Manṣūr had hardly been three months +in office when Yazid replaced him by Abdallah, son of Omar II. +The distant provinces, with the exception of Sind and Sijistan, +renounced the authority of the new caliph. In Africa Abdarrahman +b. Habīb, a descendant of the famous ‘Oqba b. Nāfī’, was +almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself +from a suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Naṣr b. +Sayyār, the governor of Khorasan, had not yet decided whether +he ought to take the oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a +reign of only five months and a half, on the 12th of Dhu’l-Ḥijja +<span class="sc">a.h.</span> 126 (25th September <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 744).</p> + +<p>13. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrāhīm as his successor. He +was acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned +no longer than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and +to submit to the authority of Merwan II.</p> + +<p>14. Merwan II., the son of Mahommed b. Merwan and cousin +of Maslama, was a man of energy, and might have revived the +strength of the Omayyad dynasty, but for the general disorder +which pervaded the whole empire. In 732 Hisham had entrusted +to him the government of Armenia and Azerbaijan, which he +held with great success till the death of Walid II. He had great +military capacity and introduced important reforms. On the +murder of Walid he prepared to dispute the supreme power with +the new caliph, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in +alarm, offered him as the price of peace the government of this +province together with Armenia and Azerbaijan. Merwan +resolved to accept those conditions, and sent a deputation to +Damascus, which, however, had just reached Manbij (Hierapolis) +when Yazid died. Leaving his son Abdalmalik with 40,000 +men in Rakka, Merwan entered Syria with 80,000 men. Suleimān +b. Hishām, at the head of 120,000 men, was defeated at ‘Ain +al-Jarr, between Baalbek and Damascus. Merwan made many +prisoners, whom he treated with the greatest mildness, granting +them freedom on condition that they should take the oath of +allegiance to the sons of Walid II. He then marched upon +Damascus. But Suleimān b. Hishām, Yazid, the son of Khālid +al-Qasri, and other chiefs, hastened to the Khadrā and killed the +two princes, together with Yūsuf b. Omar. Suleiman then made +himself master of the treasury and fled with the caliph Ibrāhīm +to Tadmor (Palmyra). Only Abu Mahommed as-Sofiānī escaped +the murderers. When Merwan entered Damascus this man +testified that the sons of Walid II., who had just become adult, +had named Merwan successor to the Caliphate, and was the first +to greet him as Prince of the Believers. All the generals and +officers followed his example and took the oath of allegiance +(7th December <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 744). Merwan did all he could to pacify +Syria, permitting the Arabs of the four provinces to choose +their own prefects, and even acquiescing in the selection as +prefect of Palestine of Thābit b. No‘aim, who had behaved very +treacherously towards him before, but whom he had forgiven. +He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but transplanted +the seat of government to his own town, Harran in +Mesopotamia. Suleiman b. Hisham and Ibrahim tendered +their submission and were pardoned.</p> + +<p>But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Omayyad +princes considered Merwan as an upstart, his mother being a +slave-girl; the Damascenes were angry because he had chosen +Harran for his residence; the Kalbites felt themselves slighted, +as the Qaisites predominated. Thābit b. No‘aim revolted in +Palestine, Emesa (Homs) and Tadmor were turbulent, Damascus +was besieged by Yazid b. Khālid al Qasrī. Merwan, who wanted +to march against Irak, was obliged to return to Syria, where he +put an end to the troubles. This time Thābit b. No‘aim had to +pay for his perfidy with his life. After this new pacification, +Merwan caused the Syrians to acknowledge his two sons as heirs +to the Caliphate, and married them to two daughters of Hishām. +All the Omayyad princes were invited to the wedding, Merwan +hoping still to conciliate them. He then equipped 10,000 +Syrians, and ordered them to rejoin the army of 20,000 men +from Kinnesrin (Qinnasrīn) and Mesopotamia, who, under Yazid +b. Omar b. Hobaira, were already on the march towards Irak. +When these Syrians came to Roṣāfa (Rusafa), Suleimān b. +Hishām persuaded them to proclaim himself caliph, and made +himself master of Kinnesrin. From all sides Syrians flocked to +his aid till he had 70,000 men under his orders. Merwan immediately +ordered Ibn Hobaira to stop his march and to wait for +him at Dūrīn, and marched with the main force against Suleimān, +whom he utterly defeated at Khosāf in the district of Kinnesrin. +Suleiman fled to Homs and thence to Tadmor and on to Kufa, +leaving his brother Sa‘id in Homs. The siege of this place by +Merwan lasted nearly five months. After the victory the walls +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span> +were demolished, and likewise those of Baalbek, Damascus, +Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, and +therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until +the summer of 128 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 746) could Merwan resume his campaign +against Irak.</p> + +<p>The governor of this province, Abdallah, the son of Omar II., +was a man of small energy, whose principal care was his personal +ease and comfort. An ambitious man, Abdallah b. Moawiya, a +great-grandson of Ali’s brother Ja‘far, put himself at the head of +a band of Shi‘ites and <i>maulas</i>, made himself master of Kufa and +marched upon Hira, where, since Yūsuf b. Omar, the governor +and the Syrian troops had resided. The rebels were defeated, +and Kufa surrendered (October 744) under condition of amnesty +for the insurgents and freedom for Abdallah b. Moawiya. This +adventurer now went into Media (Jabal), where a great number +of <i>maulas</i> and Shi‘ites, even members of the reigning dynasty +and of the Abbasid family, such as the future caliph Mansur, +rejoined him. With their help he became master of a vast +empire, which, however, lasted scarcely three years.</p> + +<p>Ibn Omar did not acknowledge Merwan as caliph. For the +moment Merwan could do no more than send a new governor, +Ibn Sa‘īd al Ḥarashī. This officer was supported only by the +Qaisite troops, the Kalbites, who were numerically superior, +maintaining Ibn Omar in his residence at Hira. There were +many skirmishes between them, but a common danger soon +forced them to suspend their hostilities. The general disorder +after the death of Hisham had given to the Khawarij an opportunity +of asserting their claims such as they had never had +before. They belonged for the greater part to the Rabī‘a, who +always stood more or less aloof from the other Arabs, and had a +particular grudge against the Moḍar. Their leading tribe, the +Shaibān, possessed the lands on the Tigris in the province of +Mosul, and here, after the murder of Walid II., their chief +proclaimed himself caliph. Reinforced by many Kharijites out +of the northern provinces, he marched against Kufa. Ibn Omar +and Ibn Sa‘iđ al Ḥarashī tried to defend their province, but +were completely defeated. Ḥarashī fled to Merwan, Ibn Omar +to Hira, which, after a siege of two months, he was obliged to +surrender in Shawwāl 127 (August <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 745). Manṣuř b. Jomhūr +was the first to pass over to the Khawarij; then Ibn Omar +himself took the oath of allegiance. That a noble Koreishite, +a prince of the reigning house, should pledge himself to follow +Ḍaḥḥāk the Shaibānite as his Imam, was an event of which +the Khawarij were very proud. Ibn Omar was rewarded with +the government of eastern Irak, Khūzistān and Fārs.</p> + +<p>Whilst Merwan besieged Homs, Ḍaḥḥāk returned to Mesopotamia +and took Mosul, whence he threatened Nisibis, where +Abdallah, the son of Merwan, maintained himself with difficulty. +Suleimān b. Hishām also had gone over to the Khawarij, who +now numbered 120,000 men. Mesopotamia itself was in danger, +when Merwan at last was able to march against the enemy. In a +furious battle at Kafartūtha (September <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 746) the Khawarij +were defeated; Ḍaḥḥāk and his successor Khaibarī perished; +the survivors were obliged to retire to Mosul, where they crossed +the Tigris. Merwan followed them and encamped on the +western bank. Immediately after the battle of Kafartūtha, +Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira directed his troops towards Irak. He +beat the Kharijites repeatedly and entered Kufa in May or June +747. Ibn Omar was taken prisoner; Manṣūr b. Jomhūr fled to +Ibn Moawiya. Ibn Hobaira was at last free to send Ibn Ḍobāra +with an army to Mesopotamia. At his approach the Kharijites +left their camp and fled to Abdallah b. Moawiya, who was now at +the height of his power. But it was not destined to last. The +two generals of Ibn Hobaira, Ibn Ḍobāra and Nobāta b. Ḥanẓala +defeated his army; Ibn Moawiya fled to Khorasan, where he met +his death; the chief of the Kharijites, Shaibān Yashkori went to +eastern Arabia; Suleimān b. Hishām and Manṣūr b. Johmūr +escaped to India. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern +parts of the empire lay at the feet of Merwan. But in the north-east, +in Khorasan, meanwhile a storm had arisen, against which +his resources and his wisdom were alike of no avail.</p> + +<p>When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khorasan, +Naṣr b. Sayyār did not at once acknowledge the Caliphate of +Yazid III., but induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir +of Khorasan, until a caliph should be universally acknowledged. +Not many months later (Shawwāl 126) he was confirmed in his +post by Yusuf b. Omar, the governor of Irak. But Naṣr had a +personal enemy, the chief of the Azd (Yemenites) Jodai’ al-Kirmānī, +a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose, and in a short +time the Azd under Kirmānī, supported by the Rabī‘a, who +always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection, +which Naṣr tried in vain to put down by concessions.</p> + +<p>So stood matters when Ḥārith b. Soraij, seconded by Yazid III., +reappeared on the scene, crossed the Oxus and came to Merv. +Naṣr received him with the greatest honour, hoping to get his aid +against Kirmānī, but Ḥārith, to whom 3000 men of his tribe, the +Tamīm, had gone over, demanded Naṣr’s abdication and tried to +make himself master of Merv. Having failed in this, he allied +himself with Kirmānī. Naṣr could hold Merv no longer, and +retired to Nishapur. But the Tamīm of Ḥārith could not endure +the supremacy of the Azd. In a moment the allies were divided +into two camps; a battle ensued, in which Ḥārith was defeated +and killed. Originally, Ḥārith seems to have had the highest +aims, but in reality he did more than any one else to weaken the +Arabic dominion. He brought the Turks into the field against +them; he incited the native population of Transoxiana against +their Arab lords, and stirred up discord between the Arabs +themselves. Being a Tamīmite, he belonged to the Moḍar, on +whom the government in Khorasan depended; but he aided the +Yemenites to gain the upper hand of them. Thus he paved the +way for Abu Moslim.</p> + +<p>Since the days of Ali there had been two tendencies among the +Shi‘ites. The moderate party distinguished itself from the other +Moslems only by their doctrine that the imamate belonged +legally to a man of the house of the Prophet. The other party, +that of the ultra-Shi‘ites, named Hāshimīya after Abu Hāshim +the son of Mahommed b. al-Ḥanafīya, preached the equality of all +Moslems, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the same divine +spirit that had animated the Prophet, incorporated itself again +in his heirs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shi'ites</a></span>). After the death of Hosain, they chose +for their Imam Mahommed b. al-Ḥanafīya, and at his decease his +son Abu Hāshim, from whom Mahommed b. Ali, the grandson of +Abdallah b. Abbas, who resided at Ḥomaima in the south-east of +Syria, obtained the secrets of the party and took the lead (<span class="sc">a.h.</span> +98, see above). This Mahommed, the father of the two first +Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability and great ambition. +He directed his energies primarily to Khorasan. The missionaries +were charged with the task of undermining the authority of the +Omayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took +place under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of +the court, as contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects. +God would not suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe +that time could not be far off—He would send a saviour—and +out of the house of the Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore +Islam to its original purity. All who desired to co-operate in +this holy purpose must pledge themselves to unlimited obedience +to the Imam, and place their lives and property at his disposal. As +a proof of their sincerity they were required at once to pay a fixed +sum for the Imam. The missionaries had great success, especially +among the non-Arabic inhabitants of Khorasan and Transoxiana.</p> + +<p>Mahommed b. Ali died <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 126 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 743-744), and his son +Ibrahīm, the Imam, took his place. Ibrahīm had a confidant +about whose antecedents one fact alone seems certain, that he +was a <i>maula</i> (client) of Persian origin. This man, Abu Moslim by +name, was a man of real ability and devoted to his master’s +cause. To him, in 745-746, the management of affairs in Khorasan +was entrusted, with instructions to consult in all weighty matters +the head of the mission, the Arab Suleimān b. Kathīr. At first +the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize +Abu Moslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet. +In the year 129 he judged that the time for open manifestation +had arrived. His partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides +on a fixed day at Sīqadenj in the province of Merv. Then, on the +1st Shawwāl (15th June 747), the first solemn meeting took +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span> +place and the black flags were unfolded. On that occasion +Suleimān b. Kathīr was still leader, but by the end of the year +Abu Moslim, whom the majority believed to belong himself to +the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a strong +army. Meantime, Naṣr had moved from Nishapur to Merv, and +here the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last, +the true significance of Abu Moslim’s work was recognized. Naṣr +warned the Arabs against their common enemy, “who preaches +a religion that does not come from the Envoy of God, and whose +chief aim is the extirpation of the Arabs.” In vain he had +entreated Merwan and Ibn Hobaira to send him troops before it +should be too late. When at last it was possible to them to fulfil +his wish, it was in fact too late. For a moment it seemed as +though the rival Arab factions, realizing their common peril, +would turn their combined forces against the Shi‘ites. But Abu +Moslim contrived to re-awaken their mutual distrust and jealousy, +and, taking advantage of the opportunity, made himself master +of Merv, in Rabia II. <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 130 (December 747). Naṣr escaped only +by a headlong flight to Nishapur. This was the end of the Arabic +dominion in the East. Many Arab chiefs were killed, partly by +order of Abu Moslim, partly by their clients. The latter, however, +was strictly forbidden by Abu Moslim. So severe indeed was the +discipline he exercised, that one of the chief missionaries, who by +a secret warning had rendered possible the escape of Naṣr from +Merv, paid for it with his life.</p> + +<p>As soon as Abu Moslim had consolidated his authority, he sent his +chief general Qaḥṭaba against Nishapur. Naṣr’s son Tamīm +was vanquished and killed, and Naṣr retreated to Kumis (Qūmis) +on the boundary of Jorjān, whither also advanced from the other +side Nobāta at the head of an army sent by Merwan. Qaḥṭaba +detached his son Ḥasan against Naṣr and went himself to meet +Nobāta, whom he beat on the 1st of Dhu’l-ḥijja 130 (6th August +748). Naṣr could not further resist. He reached Sāwā in the +vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of +eighty-five years. Rei and Hamadan were taken without serious +difficulty. Near Nehawend, Ibn Ḍobāra, at the head of a large +army, encountered Qaḥṭaba, but was defeated and killed. In +the month of Dhu’l-qa‘da 131 (June 749) Nehawend (Nehavend) +surrendered, and thereby the way to Irak lay open to Qaḥṭaba. +Ibn Hobaira was overtaken and compelled to retire to Wāsit. +Qaḥṭaba himself perished in the combat, but his son Ḥasan +entered Kufa without any resistance on the 2nd of September 740.</p> + +<p>Merwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the +movement in Khorasan, and had seized upon Ibrahīm the Imam +and imprisoned him at Harran. There he died, probably from +the plague, though Merwan was accused of having killed him. +When the other Abbasids left Ḥomaima is not certain. But they +arrived at Kufa in the latter half of September 749, where in the +meantime the head of the propaganda, Abu Salama, called the +wazir of the family of Mahomet, had previously undertaken the +government. This Abu Salama seems to have had scruples +against recognizing Abu’l-Abbas as the successor of his brother +Ibrahīm, and to have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked +for from Medina, would not be slow in making his appearance, +little thinking that an Abbasid would present himself as such. +But Abu Jahm, on the instructions of Abu Moslim, declared to +the chief officers of the Khorasanian army that the Mahdi was in +their midst, and brought them to Abu’l-Abbas, to whom they +swore allegiance. Abu Salama also was constrained to take the +oath. On Friday, the 12th Rabia II. <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 132 (28th November +749) Abu’l-Abbas was solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal +mosque of Kufa. The trick had been carried out admirably. On +the point of gathering the ripe fruit, the Alids were suddenly +pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched away by the Abbasids. +The latter gained the throne and they took good care never to be +deprived of it.</p> + +<p>After the conquest of Nehawend, Qaḥṭaba had detached one +of his captains, Abu ‘Aun, to Shahrazūr, where he defeated the +Syrian army which was stationed there. Thereupon Abu ‘Aun +occupied the land of Mosul, where he obtained reinforcements +from Kufa, headed by Abdallah b. Ali, an uncle of Abu’l-Abbas, +who was to have the supreme command. Merwan advanced +to meet him, and was completely defeated near the Greater Zab, +an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted eleven days. +Merwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to +Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle towards the end of 132 +(August 750). His head was cut off and sent to Kufa.<a name="fa26b" id="fa26b" href="#ft26b"><span class="sp">26</span></a> Abu +Aun, who had been the real leader of the campaign against +Merwan, remained in Egypt as its governor. Ibn Hobaira, +who had been besieged in Wasit for eleven months, then consented +to a capitulation, which was sanctioned by Abu’l-Abbas. +Immediately after the surrender, Ibn Hobaira and his principal +officers were treacherously murdered. In Syria, the Omayyads +were persecuted with the utmost rigour. Even their graves were +violated, and the bodies crucified and destroyed. In order that +no members of the family should escape, Abdallah b. Ali +pretended to grant an amnesty to all Omayyads who should come +in to him at Abu Fotros (Antipatris) and acknowledge the new +caliph, and even promised them the restitution of all their property. +Ninety men allowed themselves to be entrapped, and Abdallah +invited them to a banquet. When they were all collected, a +body of executioners rushed into the hall and slew them with +clubs. He then ordered leathern covers to be thrown upon the +dying men, and had the banquet served upon them. In Medina +and Mecca Da’ud b. Ali, another uncle of Abu’l-Abbas, conducted +the persecution; in Baṣra, Suleiman b. Ali. Abu’l-Abbas +himself killed those he could lay his hands on in Hira and Kufa, +amongst them Suleimān b. Hishām, who had been the bitterest +enemy of Merwan. Only a few Omayyads escaped the massacre, +several of whom were murdered later. A grandson of Hisham, +Abdarrahmān, son of his most beloved son Moawiya, reached +Africa and founded in Spain the Omayyad dynasty of Cordova.</p> + +<p>With the dynasty of the Omayyads the hegemony passes +finally from Syria to Irak. At the same time the supremacy of +the Arabs came to an end. Thenceforth it is not the contingents +of the Arabic tribes which compose the army, and on whom the +government depends; the new dynasty relies on a standing +army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers. +The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations +begins to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic +language and the Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and +spread more and more over the whole empire.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">C.—The Abbasids</p> + +<p>We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under +which the power of Islam reached its highest point.</p> + +<p>1. Abu’l-Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue +in which he announced the era of concord and happiness which +was to begin now that the House of the Prophet had been +restored to its right. He asserted that the Abbasids were the +real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants of his oldest uncle +Abbas. Addressing the Kufians, he said, “Inhabitants of Kufa, +ye are those whose affection towards us has ever been constant +and true; ye have never changed your mind, nor swerved from +it, notwithstanding all the pressure of the unjust upon you. At +last our time has come, and God has brought you the new era. +Ye are the happiest of men through us, and the dearest to us. +I increase your pensions with 100 dirhems; make now your +preparations, for I am the lavish shedder of blood<a name="fa27b" id="fa27b" href="#ft27b"><span class="sp">27</span></a> and the +avenger of blood.”</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding these fine words, Abu’l-Abbas did not trust +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span> +the Kufians. He resided outside the town with the Khorasanian +troops, and with them went first to Hira, then to Hāshimīya, +which he caused to be built in the neighbourhood of Anbar. +For their real sympathies, he knew, were with the house of Ali, +and Abu Salama their leader, who had reluctantly taken the oath +of allegiance, did not conceal his disappointment. Abu Jahm, +the vizier (<i>q.v.</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>), or “helper,” +of Abu Moslim, advised that Abu Ja‘far, the caliph’s brother, +should be sent to Khorasan to consult Abu Moslim. The result +was that Abu Salama was assassinated, and at the same time +Suleimān b. Kathīr, who had been the head of the propaganda +in Khorasan, and had also expected that the Mahdi would belong +to the house of Ali. It is said that Abu Ja‘far, whilst in Khorasan, +was so impressed by the unlimited power of Abu Moslim, and +saw so clearly that, though he called his brother and himself +his masters, he considered them as his creatures, that he vowed +his death at the first opportunity.</p> + +<p>The ruin of the Omayyad empire and the rise of the new +dynasty did not take place without mighty convulsions. In +Bathanīya and the Ḥaurān, in the north of Syria, in Mesopotamia +and Irak Khorasan insurrections had to be put down +with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the +provinces among the principal members of his family and his +generals. To his brother Abu Ja‘far he gave Mesopotamia, +Azerbaijan and Armenia; to his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, Syria; +to his uncle Da’ud, Hejaz, Yemen and Yamāma (Yemama); +to his cousin ‘Īsā b. Mūsā, the province of Kufa. Another uncle, +Suleimān b. Ali, received the government of Baṣra with Bahrein +and Oman; Ismā ‘īl b. Ali that of Ahwāz; Abu Moslim, Khorasan +and Transoxiana; Mahommed b. Ash‘ath, Fārs; Abu ‘Aun, +Egypt. In Sind the Omayyad governor, Manṣūr b. Jomhūr, +had succeeded in maintaining himself, but was defeated by an +army sent against him under Mūsā b. Ka‘b, and the black +standard of the Abbasids was raised over the city of Manṣūra. +Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the +Abbasids never gained any real footing in Spain, while Africa +remained, at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection +to the new dynasty. In 754 Abu Moslim came to Irak to visit +Abu’l-Abbas and to ask his permission to make the pilgrimage +to Mecca. He was received with great honour, but the caliph +said that he was sorry not to be able to give him the leadership +of the pilgrimage, which he had already purposely entrusted to +his brother, Abu Ja‘far.</p> + +<p>Abu’l-Abbas died on the 13th of Dhu‘l-ḥijja 136 (5th June +754). He seems to have been a man of limited capacity, and +had very little share in the achievements accomplished in his +name. He initiated practically nothing without the consent of +Abu Jahm, who was thus the real ruler. In the few cases where +he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his brother +Abu Ja‘far.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Reign of Mansur.</i>—Abu‘l-Abbas had designated as his +successors first Abu Ja‘far, surnamed al-Manṣūr (the victorious), +and after him his cousin ‘Īsā b. Mūsā. Abu Ja‘far was, according +to the historians, older than Abu‘l-Abbas, but while the mother +of the latter belonged to the powerful Yemenite tribe of al-Ḥārith +b. Ka‘b, the mother of Abu Ja‘far was a Berber slave-girl. +But he was a son of Mahommed b. Ali, and was therefore preferred +by Abu Moslim to his uncles and cousins. Abu‘l-Abbas, +however, had promised the succession to his uncle Abdallah b. +Ali, when he marched against Merwan. When the news of the +death of Abu‘l-Abbas reached Abdallah, who at the head of a +numerous army was on the point of renewing the Byzantine war, +he came to Harran, furious at his exclusion, and proclaimed +himself caliph. Abu Moslim marched against him, and the two +armies met at Nisibis, where, after a number of skirmishes, a +decisive engagement took place (28th November 754). Abdallah +was defeated and escaped to Baṣra, where he found a refuge with +his brother Suleimān. A year later he asked for pardon, and +took the oath of allegiance to Mansur. The caliph spared his +life for a time, but he did not forget. In 764 Abdallah met his +death by the collapse of his house, which had been deliberately +undermined.</p> + +<p>The first care of Mansur was now to get rid of the powerful Abu +Moslim, who had thus by another brilliant service strengthened +his great reputation. On pretence of conferring with him on +important business of state, Mansur induced him, in spite of +the warnings of his best general, Abu Naṣr, to come to Madāin +(Ctesiphon), and in the most perfidious manner caused him to be +murdered by his guards. Thus miserably perished the real +founder of the Abbasid dynasty, the <i>Ṣāḥib addaula</i>, as he is +commonly called, the <i>Amīn</i> (trustee) of the House of the Prophet. +A witty man, being asked his opinion about Abu Ja‘far (Mansur) +and Abu Moslim, said, alluding to the Koran 21, verse 22, “if +there were two Gods, the universe would be ruined.” The +Khorasanian chiefs were bribed into submission, and order was at +last re-established by Mansur’s general Khāzim b. Khozaima in +Mesopotamia, and by Abu Dā’ūd, the governor of Khorasan in +the east.</p> + +<p>About the same time Africa<a name="fa28b" id="fa28b" href="#ft28b"><span class="sp">28</span></a> and Spain escaped from the +dominion of the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season, +the latter permanently. The cause of the revolt of Africa was +as follows. Mansur had written to Abdarrahmān, announcing +the death of Abu‘l-Abbas, and requiring him to take the oath of +allegiance. Abdarrahmān sent in his adhesion, together with a +few presents of little value. The caliph replied by a threatening +letter which angered Abdarrahmān. He called the people together +at the hour of prayer, publicly cursed Mansur from the +pulpit and declared him deposed. He next caused a circular +letter, commanding all Maghribins to refuse obedience to the +caliph, to be read from the pulpit throughout the whole extent +of the Maghrib (western North Africa). A brother of Abdarrahmān, +Ilyās, saw in this revolt an opportunity of obtaining the +government of Africa for himself. Seconded by many of the +inhabitants of Kairawan, who had remained faithful to the cause +of the Abbasids, he attacked his brother, slew him, and proclaimed +himself governor in his stead. This revolution in favour +of the Abbasids was, however, not of long duration. Ḥabīb, +the eldest son of Abdarrahmān, who had fled in the night of his +father’s murder, was captured, but the vessel which was to convey +him to Spain having been detained by stress of weather, his +partisans took arms and rescued him. Ilyās was marching +against them, when the idea occurred to Ḥabīb of challenging +him to single combat. Ilyās hesitated, but his own soldiers +compelled him to accept the challenge. He measured arms +with Ḥabīb, and was slain. The party of independence thus +triumphed, but in the year 144 (761) Mahommed b. Ash‘ath, +the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained possession +of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the year 800, it must +be added, Africa only nominally belonged to the Abbasids; for, under the +reign of Harun al-Rashid, Ibrahīm b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with +the government of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, +that of the Aghlabites.</p> + +<p>At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent Caliphate of +the western Omayyads was founded in Spain. The long dissensions which +had preceded the fall of that dynasty in the East had already prepared +the way for the independence of a province so distant from the centre of +the empire. Every petty amir then tried to seize sovereign power for +himself, and the people groaned under the consequent anarchy. Weary of +these commotions, the Arabs of Spain at last came to an understanding +among themselves for the election of a caliph, and their choice fell +upon one of the last survivors of the Omayyads, Abdarrahmān b. Moawiya, +grandson of the caliph Hishām. This prince was wandering in the deserts +of Africa, pursued by his implacable enemies, but everywhere protected +and concealed by the desert tribes, who pitied his misfortunes and +respected his illustrious origin. A deputation from Spain sought him out +in Africa and offered him the Caliphate, which he accepted with joy. On +the 1st Rabia I. 138 (14th August 755) Abdarrahmān landed in the Iberian +peninsula, where he was universally welcomed, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span> +speedily founded at Cordova the Western Omayyad Caliphate +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>While Mansur was thus losing Africa and Spain, he was trying +to redeem the losses the empire had sustained on the northern +frontier by the Byzantines. In 750-751 the emperor Constantine +V. (Copronymus) had unsuccessfully blockaded Malatia; but +five years later he took it by force and razed its wall to the ground. +Mansur now sent in 757 an army of 70,000 men under the command +of his cousin Abdalwahhāb, the son of Ibrāhīm the Imam, +whom he had made governor of Mesopotamia, the real chief +being Hasan b. Qaḥṭaba. They rebuilt all that the emperor +had destroyed, and made this key of Asia Minor stronger than +ever before. The Moslems then made a raid by the pass of +Ḥadath (Adata) and invaded the land of the Byzantines. Two +aunts of the caliph took part in this expedition, having made a +vow that if the dominion of the Omayyads were ended they +would wage war in the path of God. Constantine advanced +with a numerous army, but was afraid of attacking the invaders. +The Moslems also rebuilt Mopsuestia. But from 758 till 763 +Mansur was so occupied with his own affairs that he could not +think of further raids.</p> + +<p>In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called +Rāwendīs (<i>q.v.</i>), went to Hāshimīya, the residence of the caliph, +not far from Kufa. They believed that the caliph was their +lord, to whom they owed their daily bread, and came to pay him +divine honours. They began by marching in solemn procession +round the palace, as if it had been the Ka‘ba. Mansur being told +of it said: “I would rather they went to hell in obedience to +us, than to heaven in disobedience.” But as they grew tumultuous, +and he saw that this impious homage gave offence to his +men, he caused the principal leaders to be seized and thrown +into prison. The Rāwendīs immediately rose in revolt, broke +the prison doors, rescued their chiefs, and returned to the palace. +The unfortunate fanatics were hunted down and massacred to +the last man, and thereby the ties that bound the Abbasids to +the ultra-Shi‘ites were severed. From that time forward the +Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam, +just as the Omayyads had been. The name of Hāshimīya, which +the reigning family still retained, was henceforward derived +not from Abu Hāshim, but from Hāshim, the grandfather of +Abbas, the great-grandfather of the Prophet.</p> + +<p>A much greater danger now threatened Mansur. In the last +days of the Omayyads, the Shi‘ites had chosen as caliph, +Mahommed b. Abdallah b. Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi +and the “pure soul,” and Mansur had been among those who +pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, the Alids +in Medina were indignant at being supplanted by the Abbasids, +and Mansur’s chief concern was to get Mahommed into his +power. Immediately after his occupying the throne, he named +Ziyād b. Obaidallah governor of Medina, with orders to lay +hands on Mahommed and his brother Ibrāhīm, who, warned +betimes, took refuge in flight. In 758 Mansur, informed that a +revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and ordered +Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or +would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other +relatives were seized and transported to Irak, where Abdallah +and his brother Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned. +Notwithstanding all these precautions, a vast conspiracy was +formed. On the same day Mahommed was to raise the standard +of revolt in Medina, Ibrāhīm in Baṣra. But the Alids, though +not devoid of personal courage, never excelled in politics or in +tactics. In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 762 Mahommed took Medina and had himself +proclaimed caliph. The governor of Kufa, ‘Isā b. Mūsā, received +orders to march against him, entered Arabia, and captured +Medina, which, fortified by Mahommed by the same means as the +Prophet had employed against the besieging Meccans, could not +hold out against the well-trained Khorasanians. Mahommed +was defeated and slain. His head was cut off and sent to Mansur. +When on the point of death, Mahommed gave the famous sword +of the Prophet called Dhu‘l-Fiqār to a merchant to whom he +owed 400 dinars. It came later into the possession of Harun +al-Rashid. In the meanwhile Ibrāhīm had not only gained +possession of Baṣra, Ahwāz and Fārs, but had even occupied +Wāsit. The empire of the Abbasids was in great jeopardy. For +fifty days Mansur stayed in his room, neither changing his +clothes nor allowing himself a moment’s repose. The greater +part of his troops were in Rei with his son al-Mahdi, who had +conquered Tabaristan, in Africa, with Mahommed b. Ash‘ath, +and in Arabia with ‘Īsā b. Mūsā. Had Ibrāhīm marched at once +against Kufa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the +opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Bā-Khamra, +48 m. from Kufa. Ḥomaid b. Qaḥṭaba, the commander +of Mansur’s army, was defeated, only a small division under +‘Īsā b. Mūsā holding its ground. At that moment Salm, +the son of the famous Qotaiba b. Moslim, came to the rescue by +attacking the rear of Ibrāhīm. Ḥomaid rallied his troops, and +Ibrāhīm was overpowered. At last he fell, pierced by an arrow, +and, in spite of the desperate efforts of his followers, his body +remained in the hands of the enemy. His head was cut off and +brought to Mansur.</p> + +<p>Mansur could now give his mind to the founding of the new +capital. When the tumult of the Rāwendīs took place he saw +clearly that his personal safety was not assured in Hāshimīya,<a name="fa29b" id="fa29b" href="#ft29b"><span class="sp">29</span></a> +where a riot of the populace could be very dangerous, and his +troops were continually exposed to the perverting influence of the +fickle and disloyal citizens of Kufa. He had just made choice of +the admirable site of the old market-town of Bagdad when the +tidings came of the rising of Mahommed in Medina. In those +days he saw that he had been very imprudent to denude himself +of troops, and decided to keep henceforth always with him a body +of 30,000 soldiers. So Bagdad, or properly “the round city” of +Mansur, on the western bank of the Tigris, was built as the +capital. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in the centre of which +was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. But around +this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which was +to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate +lasted.<a name="fa30b" id="fa30b" href="#ft30b"><span class="sp">30</span></a> The building lasted three years and was completed in +the year 149 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 766). That year is really the beginning of the +new era. “The Omayyads,” says the Spanish writer Ibn Ḥazm, +“were an Arabic dynasty; they had no fortified residence, nor +citadel; each of them dwelt in his villa, where he lived before +becoming caliph; they did not desire that the Moslems should +speak to them as slaves to their master, nor kiss the ground +before them or their feet; they only gave their care to the +appointment of able governors in the provinces of the empire. +The Abbasids, on the contrary, were a Persian dynasty, under +which the Arab tribal system, as regulated by Omar, fell to +pieces; the Persians of Khorasan were the real rulers, and the +government became despotic as in the days of Chrosroes.” The +reign of Abu‘l-Abbas and the first part of that of Mansur had been +almost a continuation of the former period. But now his equals +in birth and rank, the Omayyads and the Alids, had been crushed; +the principal actors in the great struggle, the leaders of the +propaganda and Abu Moslim were out of the way; the caliph +stood far above all his subjects; and his only possible antagonists +were the members of his own family.</p> + +<p>‘Īsā b. Mūsā had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu‘l-Abbas +as successor to Mansur. The latter having vainly tried +to compel ‘Īsā to renounce his right of succession, in favour of +Mansur’s son Mahommed al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who +swore that he had done so. However unwillingly, ‘Īsā was +obliged at last to yield, but it was understood that, in case of +Mahommed’s death, the succession should return to ‘Īsā. One of +the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khālid b. Barmak, the +head of that celebrated family the Barmecides (<i>q.v.</i>), which +played so important a part in the reign of Harun al-Rashid. +This Khālid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family +in Balkh, and had been one of the trusty supporters of Abu +Moslim, Mansur appointed as minister of finance.</p> + +<p>A son of Mahommed the Alid had escaped to India, where, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span> +with the connivance of the governor Omar b. Hafs Hazarmerd, +he had found refuge with an Indian king. Mansur discovered +his abode, and caused him to be killed. His infant son was sent +to Medina and delivered to his family. Omar Hazarmerd lost +his government and received a command in Africa, where he +died in 770.</p> + +<p>In <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 158 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 775) Mansur undertook a pilgrimage to +Mecca, but succumbed to dysentery at the last station on the +route. He was about sixty-five years of age, and had reigned +for twenty-two years. He was buried at Mecca. He was a man +of rare energy and strength of mind. His ambition was boundless +and no means, however perfidious, were despised by him. But +he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able officers +for all places. He was thrifty and anxious to leave to his son a +full treasury. He seems to have cherished the ideal that this son, +called Mahommed b. Abdallah, after the Prophet, should fulfil +the promises of peace and happiness that had been tendered to +the believers, and therefore to have called him al-Mahdi. For +that purpose it was necessary that he should have the means not +only to meet all state expenses, but also to be bounteous. But +from the report of the historian Haitham b. ‘Adī<a name="fa31b" id="fa31b" href="#ft31b"><span class="sp">31</span></a> about the last +discourse which father and son had together, we gather that the +former had misgivings in regard to the fulfilment of his wishes.</p> + +<p>Khalid b. Barmak took the greatest care of the revenues, but +contrived at the same time to consult his own interests. Mansur +discovered this in the same year in which he died, and threatened +him with death unless he should pay to the treasury three millions +of dirhems within three days. Khalid already had so many +friends that the sum was brought together with the exception of +30,000 dirhems. At that moment tidings came about a rising in +the province of Mosul, and a friend of Khalid said to the caliph +that Khalid was the only man capable of putting it down. +Thereupon Mansur overlooked the deficiency and gave Khalid +the government of Mosul. “And,” said a citizen of that town, +“we had such an awe and reverence for Khalid, that he appeased +the disorders, almost without punishing anybody.”</p> + +<p>3. <i>Reign of Mahdi.</i>—As soon as Mansur was dead, Rabi’, his +client and chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals who +accompanied the caliph, to take the oath of allegiance to his son +Mahommed al-Mahdi, who was then at Bagdad. Isa b. Musa +hesitated, but was compelled to give in. In 776 Mahdi constrained +him for a large bribe to renounce his right of succession in favour +of his sons, Musa and Harun. Mansur wrote in his testament to +his son that he had brought together so much money that, even +if no revenue should come in for ten years, it would suffice for all +the wants of the state. Mahdi, therefore, could afford to be +munificent, and in order to make his accession doubly welcome to +his subjects, he began by granting a general amnesty to political +prisoners. Among these was a certain Ya’qub b. Da’ud, who, +having insinuated himself into the confidence of the caliph, +especially by discovering the hiding places of certain Alids, was +afterwards (in 778) made prime minister. The provincial +governors in whom his father had placed confidence, Mahdi +superseded by creatures of his own.</p> + +<p>In Khorasan many people were discontented. The promises +made to them during the war against the Omayyads had not been +fulfilled, and the new Mahdi did not answer at all to their ideal. +A revolt in 160 under the leadership of a certain Yusuf b. Ibrahïm, +surnamed al-Barm, was suppressed by Yazid b. Mazyad, who, +after a desperate struggle, defeated Yusuf, took him prisoner and +brought him in triumph to Bagdad, where he with several of his +officers was killed and crucified. In the following year, Mahdi was +menaced by a far more dangerous revolt, led by a sectary, known +generally as Mokanna (<i>q.v.</i>), or “the veiled one,” because he +always appeared in public wearing a mask. He took up his abode +in the Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he +gathered around him a great number of adherents. After some +successes, the pretender was ultimately cornered at the castle of +Sanam near Kish, and took poison together with all the members +of his family. His head was cut off and sent to Mahdi in the year +163.</p> + +<p>Mahdi had been scarcely a year on the throne when he resolved +to accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca. The chroniclers relate +that on this occasion for the first time camels loaded with ice for +the use of the caliph came to Mecca. Immediately on his arrival +in the Holy City he applied himself, at the request of the inhabitants, +to the renewal of the curtains which covered the exterior +walls of the Ka‘ba. For a very long time no care had been taken +to remove the old covering when a new one was put on; and the +accumulated weight caused uneasiness respecting the stability of +the walls. Mahdi caused the house to be entirely stripped and +anointed with perfumes, and covered the walls again with a single +cloth of great richness. The temple itself was enlarged and +restored. On this occasion he distributed considerable largesses +among the Meccans. From Mecca Mahdi went to Medina, where +he caused the mosque to be enlarged, and where a similar distribution +of gifts took place. During his stay in that city he formed for +himself a guard of honour, composed of 500 descendants of the +Ansār,<a name="fa32b" id="fa32b" href="#ft32b"><span class="sp">32</span></a> to whom he assigned a quarter in Bagdad, named after +them the Qatī‘a (Fief) of the Ansār. Struck by the difficulties +of every kind which had to be encountered by poor pilgrims to +Mecca from Bagdad and its neighbourhood, he ordered Yaqtīn, +his freedman, to renew the milestones, to repair the old reservoirs, +and to dig wells and construct cisterns at every station of the +road where they were missing. He also had new inns built and +decayed ones repaired. Yaqtīn remained inspector of the road +till 767.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the +Byzantines had taken place almost without intermission, but +the only feat of importance had been the conquest of Laodicea, +called “the burnt” (<span class="grk" title="hae katakekaumenae">ἡ κατακεκαυμένη</span>), by Ma‘yūf b. Yahyā in +the year 770. At first the armies of Mahdi were not successful. +The Greeks even conquered Marash (Germanicia) and annihilated +the Moslem army sent from Dābiq. In 778, however, Hasan b. +Qaḥṭaba made a victorious raid as far as Adhrūliya (Dorylaeum); +it was on his proposition that Mahdi resolved on building the +frontier town called Ḥadath (Adata), which became an outpost. +In 779 the caliph decided on leading his army in person. He +assembled his army in the plains of Baradān north of Bagdad +and began his march in the early spring of 780, taking with him +his second son Hārūn, and leaving his elder son Mūsā as his +lieutenant in Bagdad. Traversing Mesopotamia and Syria, he +entered Cilicia, and established himself on the banks of the Jihan +(Pyramus). Thence he despatched an expeditionary force, nominally +under the command of Hārūn, but in reality under that +of his tutor, the Barmecide Yahyā b. Khālid. Hārūn captured +the fortress Samālu after a siege of thirty-eight days, the inhabitants +surrendering on condition that they should not be killed or +separated from one another. The caliph kept faith with them, +and settled them in Bagdad, where they built a monastery called +after their native place. In consequence of this feat, Mahdi made +Hārūn governor of the whole western part of the empire, including +Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out afresh +between the Moslems and the Greeks. Leo IV., the East +Roman emperor, had recently died, leaving the crown to Constantine +VI. This prince being only ten years old, his mother Irene +acted as regent and assumed the title Augusta. By her orders +an army of 90,000 men, under the command of Michael Lachanodrakon, +entered Asia Minor. The Moslems, on their side, invaded +Cilicia under the orders of Abdalkabīr who, being afraid of +encountering the enemy, retired with his troops. Irritated by +this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Hārūn, accompanied by his +chamberlain Rabī’, with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with +orders to carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. The +patrician Nicetas, count of Opsikion, who sought to oppose his +march, was defeated by Hārūn’s general, Yazid b. Mazyad, and +put to flight. Hārūn then marched against Nicomedia, where he +vanquished the domesticus, the chief commander of the Greek +forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the Bosporus. +Irene took alarm, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for three +years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span> +tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Moslems with guides +and markets on their way home. This brilliant success so +increased Mahdi’s affection for Hārūn that he appointed him +successor-designate after Mūsā and named him <i>al-Rashīd</i> (“the +follower of the right cause”). Three years later, he resolved +even to give to him the precedence in the succession instead of +Mūsā, yielding to the importunity of Khaizorān, the mother of +the two princes, and to his own predilection. It was necessary +first to obtain from Mūsā a renunciation of his rights; and for +that purpose he was recalled from Jorjān, where he was engaged +on an expedition against the rebels of Tabaristān. Mūsā, +informed of his father’s intentions, refused to obey this order, +and Mahdi determined to march in person against him. But, +after his arrival at Māsabadhān, a place in Jabal (Media, the later +Persian Irak), he died suddenly, at the age of only forty-three. +Some attribute his death to an accident met with in hunting; +others believe him to have been poisoned. Some European +scholars have suspected Mūsā of having been concerned in it, but +of this we have no proof whatever.</p> + +<p>The reign of Mahdi was a time of great prosperity. Much was +done for the organization of the huge empire; agriculture and +commerce flourished; the revenues were increasing, whilst the +people fared well. The power of the state was acknowledged even +in the far east: the emperor of China, the king of Tibet, and +many Indian princes concluded treaties with the caliph. He was +an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, repudiating all the +extravagant doctrine preached by the Abbasid missionaries and +formerly professed by his father. In particular he persecuted +mercilessly the Manichaeans and all kinds of freethinkers.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Reign of Hādī</i>.—On the death of Mahdi, Hārūn, following +the advice of Yahyā. b. Khālid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate, +with letters of condolence and congratulation, to Mūsā in Jorjān, +and brought the army which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully +back from Media to Bagdad. Mūsā returned in all haste to the +capital, and assumed the title of <i>al-Hādī</i> (“he who directs”). +The accession of a new caliph doubtless appeared to the partisans +of the house of Ali a favourable opportunity for a rising. Hosain +b. Ali b. Hasan III. raised an insurrection at Medina with the +support of numerous adherents, and proclaimed himself caliph. +Thence he went to Mecca, where on the promise of freedom many +slaves flocked to him, and many pilgrims also acknowledged him. +Suleimān b. Mansur, the caliph’s representative in the pilgrimage +of that year, was entrusted with the command against him. +Hosain was attacked at Fakh, 3 m. from Mecca, and perished in +the combat with many other Alids. His maternal uncle, Idrīs b. +Abdallah, a brother of Mahommed and Ibrāhīm, the rivals of +Mansur, succeeded in escaping, and fled to Egypt, whence by the +help of the postmaster, himself a secret partisan of the Shi‘ites, +he passed into West Africa, where at a later period his son founded +the Idrisite dynasty in Fez (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Morocco</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Hādī, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly +escaped being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for +excluding him from the Caliphate and transmitting the succession +to his own son Ja‘far. To this he obtained the assent +of his ministers and the principal chiefs of his army, with the +exception of Yahyā b. Khālid, Hārūn’s former tutor, who showed +such firmness and boldness that Hādī cast him into prison and +resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already +given orders for his execution, when he himself was killed +(September 14th, 786) by his mother Khaizorān, who had +systematically and successfully intrigued against him with the +object of gaining the real power for herself. Hādī, indignant at +the fact that she was generally regarded as the real source of +authority, had attempted to poison her, and Khaizorān, hoping +to find a more submissive instrument of her will in her second +and favourite son, caused Hādī to be smothered with cushions by +two young slaves whom she had presented to him. She herself +died three years later.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Reign of Hārūn al-Rashīd</i>.—We have now reached the most +celebrated name among the Arabian caliphs, celebrated not only +in the East, but in the West as well, where the stories of the +<i>Thousand and One Nights</i> have made us familiar with that world +which the narrators represent in such brilliant colours. Hārūn +ascended the throne without opposition. His first act was to +choose as prime minister his former tutor, the faithful Yahyā b. +Khālid, and to confide important posts to the two sons of Yahyā, +Faḍl and Ja‘far, of whom the former was his own foster-brother, +the latter his intimate friend. The Barmecide family were +endowed in the highest degree with those qualities of generosity +and liberality which the Arabs prized so highly, and the chronicles +never weary in their praises. Loaded with all the burdens of +government, Yahyā brought the most distinguished abilities to +the exercise of his office. He put the frontiers in a good state of +defence; he filled the public treasury, and carried the splendour +of the throne to the highest point. His sons, especially Faḍl, +were worthy of their father.</p> + +<p>Although the administration of Hãrūn’s states was committed +to skilful hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free +from troubles. Towards the year 176 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 792-793) a man of the +house of Ali, named Yahyā b. Abdallah, another brother of +Mahommed and Ibrāhīm, who had taken refuge in the land of +Dailam on the south-western shores of the Caspian Sea, succeeded +in forming a powerful party, and publicly claimed the Caliphate. +Hãrūn immediately sent against him an army of 50,000 men, +under the command of Faḍl, whom he made governor of all the +Caspian provinces. Reluctant, however, to fight against a +descendant of the Prophet, Faḍl first attempted to induce him +to submit by promising him safety and a brilliant position at the +court of Bagdad. Yahyāaccepted the proposal, but required +that the caliph should send him letters of pardon countersigned +by the highest legal authorities and the principal personages of +the empire. Hārūn consented and Yahyā went to Bagdad, +where he met with a splendid reception. At the end of some +months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy, +and the caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a +possible rival, threw him into prison, where he died, according to +the majority of the historians, of starvation. Others say that +Ja‘far b. Yahyā b. Khālid, to whose care he had been entrusted, +suffered him to escape, and that this was the real cause of Hārūn’s +anger against the Barmecides (<i>q.v.</i>). Dreading fresh insurrections +of the Alids, Hārūn secured the person of another descendant of +Ali, Mūsā b. Ja‘far, surnamed al-Kāzim, who enjoyed great +consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and +released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by +the caliph himself to Bagdad, and there died, apparently by +poison.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Hārūn did not forget the hereditary enemy of +Islam. In the first year of his reign all the strong places of +Kinnesrin and Mesopotamia were formed into a special province, +which received the name of al-‘Awāṣim (“the defending fortresses”), +with Manbij (Hierapolis) as its capital. The building +of the fortress of Hadath having been completed, Hārūn committed +to Faraj the Turk the task of rebuilding and fortifying the +city of Tarsus. Thanks to these and similar measures, the Moslem +armies were able to advance boldly into Asia Minor. Almost +every year successful raids were made, in the year 797 under the +command of the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to +sue for peace. An attack by the Khazars called the caliph’s +attention from his successes in Asia Minor. This people had +made an irruption into Armenia, and their attack had been so +sudden that the Moslems and Christians were unable to defend +themselves, and 100,000 had been reduced to captivity. Two +valiant generals, Khozaima b. Khāzīm and Yazīd b. Mazyad, +marched against the Khazars and drove them out of Armenia.</p> + +<p>In the midst of the cares of war, Hārūn was assiduous in his +religious duties, and few years passed without his making the +pilgrimage. Having determined to fix the order of succession in +so formal a manner as to take away all pretext for future contentions, +he executed a deed by which he appointed his eldest son +Mahommed his immediate heir, and after him the second, +Abdallah, and after Abdallah the third, Qāsim. Mahommed +received the surname of <i>al-Amīn</i> (“the Sure”), Abdallah that +of <i>al-Ma‘mūn</i> (“he in whom men trust”), and Qāsim that of +<i>al-Mo’tamin billāh</i> (“he who trusts in God”). Hārūn further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span> +stipulated that Mamun should have as his share during the lifetime +of his brother the government of the eastern part of the +empire. Each of the parties concerned swore to observe faithfully +every part of this deed, which the caliph caused to be hung up in +the Ka‘ba, imagining that it would be thus guaranteed against all +violation on the part of men, a precaution which was to be rendered +vain by the perfidy of Amīm.</p> + +<p>It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very +moment when the Barmecides thought their position most secure, +that Hārūn brought sudden ruin upon them. The causes of +their disgrace have been differently stated by the annalists (see +BARMECIDES). The principal cause appears to have been that +they abused the sovereign power which they exercised. Not a +few were jealous of their greatness and sought for opportunities +of instilling distrust against them into the mind of Hārūn, and of +making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The secret +dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some +apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the +Alid Yahyā b. Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Hārūn +resolved on their destruction, and Ja‘far b. Yahyā, who had just +taken leave of him after a day’s hunting, was arrested, taken to +the castle of Hārūn, and beheaded. The following day, his father +Yahyā, his brother Fadl, and all the other Barmecides were +arrested and imprisoned; all their property was confiscated. +The only Barmecide who remained unmolested with his family +was Mahommed the brother of Yahyā, who had been the chamberlain +of the caliph till 795, when Fadl b. Rabi’ got his place. +This latter had henceforward the greatest influence at court.</p> + +<p>In the same year a revolution at Constantinople overthrew the +empress Irene. The new emperor Nicephorus, thinking himself +strong enough to refuse the payment of tribute, wrote an insulting +letter to Hārūn, who contented himself with replying: “Thou +shall not hear, but see, my answer.” He entered Asia Minor and +took Heraclea, plundering and burning along his whole line of +march, till Nicephorus, in alarm, sued for peace. Scarcely had +the caliph returned into winter quarters when Nicephorus broke +the treaty. When the news came to Rakka, where Hārūn was +residing, not one of the ministers ventured to tell him, until at +last a poet introduced it in a poem which pleased the monarch. +Notwithstanding the rigour of the season, Hārūn retraced his +steps, and Nicephorus was compelled to observe his engagements. +In 805 the first great ransoming of Moslem prisoners took place +on the banks of the little river Lamus in Cilicia. But Nicephorus, +profiting by serious disturbances in Khorasan, broke the treaty +again, and overran the country as far as Anazarba and Kanīsat +as-saudā (“the black church”) on the frontier, where he took +many prisoners, who were, however, recovered by the garrison of +Mopsuestia. Thus Hārūn was obliged to take the field again. +He entered Asia Minor with an army of 135,000 regulars, beside +volunteers and camp followers. Heraclea was taken, together +with many other places, and Tyana was made a military station. +At the same time his admiral, Homaid b. Ma‘yūf, conquered +Cyprus, which had broken the treaty, and took 16,000 of its +people captive. Nicephorus was now so completely beaten that +he was compelled to submit to very harsh conditions. In the +year 808 the second ransoming between the Moslems and the +Greeks took place near the river Lamus.</p> + +<p>The disturbances in Khorasan were caused by the malversations +of the governor of that province, Ali b. ‘Īsā b. Māhān. +The caliph went in person to Merv, in order to judge of the +reality of the complaints which had reached him. Ali b. ‘Īsā +hastened to meet the caliph on his arrival at Rai (Rhagae), +near the modern Teheran, with a great quantity of costly +presents, which he distributed with such profusion among the +princes and courtiers that no one was anxious to accuse him. +Hārūn confirmed him in his post, and, after having received the +chiefs of Tabaristān who came to tender their submission, +returned through Bagdad to Rakka on the Euphrates, which +city was his habitual residence. In the following year Rāfi’ b. +Laith, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyār, raised the standard of revolt +in Samarkand, and, at the head of a numerous army, defeated +the son of Ali b. ‘Īsā. Thereupon Ali fled from Balkh, leaving +the treasury, which was plundered by the populace after his +departure. The caliph on learning that the revolt was due to +Ali’s tyranny, sent Harthama b. A‘yan with stringent orders +to seize Ali and confiscate his possessions. This order was carried +out, and it is recorded that 1500 camels were required to transport +the confiscated treasures. The caliph’s hope that Rāfi’ would +submit on condition of receiving a free pardon was not fulfilled, +and he resolved to set out himself to Khorasan, taking with him +his second son Mamun. On the journey he was attacked by an +internal malady, which carried him off, ten months after his +departure from Bagdad, <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 193 (March 809), just on his arrival +at the city of Tūs. Hārūn was only forty-five years of age. He +was far from having the high qualifications of his grandfather +Mansur; indeed he did not even possess the qualities of his +father and his brother. When the latter asked him to renounce +his right of succession, he was willing to consent, saying that +a quiet life with his beloved wife, the princess Zobaida, was +his highest wish, but he obeyed his mother and Yahyā b. Khālid. +As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on +their direction. After their disgrace he was led into many +impolitic actions by his violent and often cruel propensities. +But the empire was, especially in the earlier part of his reign, +in a very prosperous state, and was respected widely by foreign +powers. Embassies passed between Charlemagne and Hārūn +in the years 180 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 797) and 184 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 801), by which the +former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, the +latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean +ports. The ambassadors brought presents with them; on one +of these occasions the first elephant reached the land of the +Franks.</p> + +<p>Under the reign of Hārūn, Ibrāhīm b. al-Aghlab, the governor +of Africa, succeeded in making himself independent of the central +government, on condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his +suzerain the caliph. This was, if we do not take Spain into the +account, the first instance of dismemberment, later to be followed +by many others.</p> + +<p>In the days of this caliph the first paper factories were founded +in Bagdad.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Reign of Amīn</i>.—On the death of Hārūn his minister, +Fadl b. Rabī’, with the view of gaining the new caliph’s confidence, +hastened to call together all the troops of the late caliph +and to lead them back to Bagdad, in order to place them in the +hands of the new sovereign, Amīn. He even, in direct violation +of Hārūn’s will, led back the corps which was intended to occupy +Khorasan under the authority of Mamun. Aware, however, +that in thus acting he was making Mamun his irreconcilable +enemy, he persuaded Amīn to exclude Mamun from the succession. +Mamun, on receiving his brother’s invitation to go to +Bagdad, was greatly perplexed; but his tutor and later vizier, +Fadl b. Sahl, a Zoroastrian of great influence, who in 806 had +adopted Islam, reanimated his courage, and pointed out to him +that certain death awaited him at Bagdad. Mamun resolved +to hold out, and found pretexts for remaining in Khorasan. +Amīn, in anger, caused the will of his father, which, as we have +seen, was preserved in the Ka‘ba, to be destroyed, declared on +his own authority that Mamun’s rights of succession were +forfeited, and caused the army to swear allegiance to his own son +Mūsā, a child of five, on whom he bestowed the title of <i>an-Nātiq +bil-Haqq</i> (“he who speaks according to truth”), <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 194 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> +809-810). On hearing the news, Mamun, strong in the rightfulness +of his claim, retaliated by suppressing the caliph’s name in +all public acts. Amīn immediately despatched to Khorasan an +army of 40,000 under the command of Ali b. ‘Īsā, who had regained +his former influence, and told the caliph that, at his +coming to Khorasan, all the leading men would come over to his +side. Zobaida, the mother of the caliph, entreated Ali to treat +Mamun kindly when he should have made him captive. It is +said that Fadl b. Sahl had, through a secret agent, induced +Fadl b. Rabī’ to select Ali, knowing that the dislike felt towards +him by the Khorasanians would double their strength in fighting +against him. Mamun, on his side, sent in all haste an army of +less than 4000 men of his faithful Khorasanians, and entrusted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span> +their command to Ṭāhir b. Hosain, who displayed remarkable +abilities in the war that ensued. The two armies met under the +walls of Rai (Shaaban 195, May 811). By a bold attack, in the +manner of the Kharijites of yore, Ṭāhir penetrated into the centre +of the hostile army and killed Ali. The frightened army fled, +leaving the camp with all its treasures to Ṭāhir, who from that +day was named “the man with the two right hands.” A +courier was despatched immediately to Merv, who performed the +journey, a distance of about 750 miles, in three days. On +the very day of his arrival, Harthama b. A‘yan had left Merv +with reinforcements. Mamun now no longer hesitated to take +the title of caliph.</p> + +<p>When the news of Ali’s defeat came to Bagdad, Amīn sent +Abdarrahmān b. Jabala to Hamadān with 20,000 men. Ṭāhir +defeated him, forced Hamadān to surrender, and occupied all +the strong places in Jabal (Media). The year after, Amīn placed +in the field two new armies commanded respectively by Ahmad +b. Mazyad and Abdallah b. Ḥomaid b. Qaḥṭaba. The skilful +Ṭāhir succeeded in creating divisions among the troops of his +adversaries, and obtained possession, without striking a blow, +of the city of Holwān, an advantage which opened the way to +the very gates of Bagdad. He was here reinforced by troops +sent from Khorasan under the command of Harthama b. A‘yan, +who was appointed leader of the war against Amīn, with orders +to send Ṭāhir to Ahwāz. Ṭāhir continued his victorious march, +conquered Ahwāz, took Wāsit and Madāin, and pitched his camp +near one of the gates of the capital, where he was rejoined by +Harthama. One after the other the provinces fell away from +Amīn, and he soon found himself in possession of Bagdad alone. +The city, though blockaded on every side, made a desperate +defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern part of +the city fell into the hands of Ṭāhir, and Amīn, deserted by his +followers, was compelled to surrender. He resolved to treat with +Harthama, as he was averse to Ṭāhir; but this step caused his +ruin. Ṭāhir succeeded in intercepting him on his way to Harthama, +and immediately ordered him to be put to death. His +head was sent to Mamun (September 813). It was presented to +him by his vizier, Faḍl b. Sahl, surnamed Dhu‘l-Riyāsatain, or +“the man with two governments,” because his master had +committed to him both the ministry of war and the general +administration. Mamun hid his joy beneath a feigned display of +sorrow.</p> + +<p>Amīn was only twenty-eight years old. As a ruler he was +wholly incompetent. He hardly comprehended the importance +of the affairs with which he was called upon to deal. He acted +invariably on the advice of those who for the time had his +confidence, and occupied himself mainly with the affairs of his +harem, with polo, fishing, wine and music. The five years of his +reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular to Bagdad +which never entirely recovered its old splendour.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Reign of Mamun.</i>—On the day following the death of +Amīn Ṭāhir caused Mamun to be proclaimed at Bagdad, and +promised in his name a general amnesty. The accession of this +prince appeared likely to restore to the empire the order necessary +for its prosperity. It was not so, however. The reign of Mamun—that +reign in which art, science and letters, under the patronage +of the caliph, threw so brilliant a lustre—had a very stormy +beginning. Mamun was in no haste to remove to Bagdad, but +continued to reside at Merv. In his gratitude to Faḍl b. Sahl, +to whose service he owed his success, he not only chose him as +prime minister of the empire, but also named his brother, Hasan +b. Sahl, governor of Media, Fārs, Ahwāz, Arabia and Irak. The +two generals to whom he owed still more were not treated as +they deserved. Harthama was ordered to return to Khorasan; +Ṭāhir was made governor of Mesopotamia and Syria, with the +task of subduing Naṣr b. Shabath, who with numerous adherents +refused submission to the caliph. The Alids seized on the elevation +of Mamun as a pretext for fresh revolts. At Kufa a certain +Ibn Ṭabāṭabā placed an army in the field under Abu‘l-Sarāyā, +who had been a captain in the army of Harthama. An army +sent by Hasan b. Sahl was defeated, and Abu‘l-Sarāyā, no longer +content to play a second part, poisoned his chief, Ibn Ṭabāṭabā, +and put in his place another of the family of Ali, Mahommed +b. Mahommed, whom, on account of his extreme youth, he +hoped to govern at his will. Abu‘l-Sarāyā’s success continued, +and several cities of Irak—Basra, Wāsit and Madāin—fell into +his hands. Mecca, Medina and Yemen also were mastered by +the Alids, who committed all kinds of atrocities and sacrilege. +Abu‘l-Sarāyā, who even struck money in Kufa, began to menace +the capital, when Hasan b. Sahl hastily sent a messenger to +Harthama b. A‘yan, who was already at Holwān on his way back +to Merv, entreating him to come to his aid. Harthama, who +was deeply offended by his dismissal, refused at first, but at last +consented, and at once checked the tide of disaster. The troops +of the Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of Irak +fell again into the hands of the Abbasids. Kufa opened its +gates; Basra was taken by assault. Abu‘l-Sarāyā and +Mahommed b. Mahommed fled to Mesopotamia, but were made +prisoners. The former was decapitated, the latter was sent to +Khorasan, the revolt in Arabia was quickly suppressed, and +peace seemed within reach. This, however, was by no means +the case. The disorder of civil war had caused a multitude of +robbers and vagabonds to emerge from the purlieus of Bagdad. +These ruffians proceeded to treat the capital as a conquered city, +and it became necessary for all good citizens to organize themselves +into a regular militia. Harthama, having vanquished +Abu‘l-Sarāyā, did not go to Hasan b. Sahl, but proceeded +towards Merv with the purpose of telling Mamun that the state +of affairs was not as Fadl b. Sahl represented it to him, and +urging him to come to Bagdad, where his presence was necessary. +Fadl, informed of his intentions, filled the caliph’s mind with +distrust against the old general, so that when Harthama arrived +Mamun had him cast into prison, where he died shortly afterwards. +When the tidings of his disgrace came to Bagdad, the +people expelled the lieutenant of Hasan b. Sahl, called by them +the Mājūzī (“the Zoroastrian”), who had chosen Madāin for his +residence, and put at their head Mansūr, a son of Mahdi, who +refused to assume the title of caliph, but consented to be Mamun’s +vicegerent instead of Hasan b. Sahl.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, at Merv, Mamun was adopting a decision which +fell like a thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 201 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 817), +under pretence of putting an end to the continual revolts of the +partisans of Ali, and acting on the advice of his prime minister +Fadl, he publicly designated as his successor in the Caliphate Ali +ar-Ridā, a son of that Mūsā al-Kāzim who perished in the prison +of Mahdi, a direct descendant of Hosain, the son of Ali, and +proscribed black, the colour of the Abbasids, in favour of that of +the house of Ali, green. This step was well calculated to delight +the followers of Ali, but it could not fail to exasperate the +Abbasids and their partisans. The people of Bagdad refused to +take the oath to Ali b. Mūsā, declared Mamun deposed, and +elected his uncle, Ibrāhīm, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate.<a name="fa33b" id="fa33b" href="#ft33b"><span class="sp">33</span></a> It +was only indirectly that the news reached the caliph, who then +saw that Fadl had been treating him as a puppet. His anger +was great, but he kept it carefully to himself. Fadl was one day +found murdered, and Ali b. Mūsā died suddenly. The historians +bring no open accusation against Mamun, but it seems clear +that the opportune removal of these men was not due to chance. +Mamun affected the profoundest grief, and, in order to disarm +suspicion, appointed as his prime minister the brother of Fadl, +Hasan b. Sahl, whose daughter Būrān he afterwards married. +Soon after the news came to him that Hasan b. Sahl had become +insane. Mamun appointed an officer to act as his lieutenant, +and wrote that he was coming to Bagdad in a short time. From +that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrāhīm found himself deserted, +and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His precarious +reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Mamun had found +out also that the general uneasiness was largely due to his treatment +of Harthama and Tāhir, the latter having been put in a +rebellious country without the men and the money to maintain +his authority. The caliph therefore wrote to Tāhir to meet him +at Nahrawān, where he was received with the greatest honour. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span> +Having taken all precautions, Mamun now made his solemn +entry into Bagdad, but, to show that he came as a master, he +still displayed for several days the green colours, though at last, +at the request of Tāhir, he consented to resume the black. From +this time, <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 204 (August 819), the real reign of Mamun began, +freed as he now was from the tutelage of Faḍl.</p> + +<p>When welcoming Tāhir, Mamun bade him ask for any reward +he might desire. Tāhir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to +endure the sight of the murderer of his brother, should change +his mind towards him, contrived to get himself appointed +governor of Khorasan. Like most of the great Moslem generals, +Tāhir, it is said, had conceived the project of creating an independent +kingdom for himself. His death, <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 207 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 822), +prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded him +one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in +reality to have founded a dynasty in Khorasan. His son Abdallah +b. Tāhir was a special favourite of Mamun, He brought Naṣr b. +Shabath to subjection in Mesopotamia, and overcame by great +ability a very dangerous rebellion in Egypt. When he returned +thence, the caliph gave him the choice between the government +of Khorasan and that of the northern provinces, where he would +have to combat Babak the Khorramite. Abdallah chose the +former (see below, § 8).</p> + +<p>The pseudo-caliph, Ibrāhim, who, since Mamun’s entry into +Bagdad, had led a wandering life, was eventually arrested. But +Mamun generously pardoned him, as well as Faḍl b. Rabi’, the +chief promoter of the terrible civil war which had so lately +shaken the empire. After that time, Ibrahim lived peacefully +at the court, cultivating the arts of singing and music.</p> + +<p>Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Mamun +gave himself up to science and literature. He caused works on +mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy to be translated +from the Greek, and founded in Bagdad a kind of academy, +called the “House of Science,” with a library and an observatory. +It was also by his orders that two learned mathematicians +undertook the measurement of a degree of the earth’s circumference. +Mamun interested himself too in questions of religious +dogma. He had embraced the Motazilite doctrine about free will +and predestination, and was in particular shocked at the opinion +which had spread among the Moslem doctors that the Koran +was the uncreated word of God. In the year 212 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 827) he +published an edict by which the Motazilite (Mu’tazilite) doctrine +was declared to be the religion of the state, the orthodox faith +condemned as heretical. At the same time he ordered all his +subjects to honour Ali as the best creature of God after the +Prophet, and forbade the praise of Moawiya. In <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 218 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> +833) a new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors +were summoned to renounce the error of the uncreated word of +God. Several distinguished doctors, and, among others, the +celebrated Ahmad b. Ḥanbal (<i>q.v.</i>), founder of one of the four +orthodox Moslem schools, were obliged to appear before an +inquisitorial tribunal; and as they persisted in their belief +respecting the Koran, they were thrown into prison. Mamun, +being at Tarsus, received from the governor of Bagdad the report +of the tribunal, and ordered that the culprits should be sent off +to him. Happily for these unfortunate doctors, they had +scarcely reached Adana, when news of the caliph’s death +arrived and they were brought back to Bagdad. The two +successors of Mamun maintained the edicts—Ahmad b. Ḥanbal, +who obstinately refused to yield, was flogged in the year 834— +but it seems that Motasim did not himself take much interest in +the question, which perhaps he hardly understood, and that the +prosecution of the inquisition by him was due in great part to +the charge which was left him in Mamun’s will. In the reign of +Motawakkil the orthodox faith was restored, never to be assailed +again.<a name="fa34b" id="fa34b" href="#ft34b"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p> + +<p>In spite of these manifold activities Mamun did not forget the +hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 832 he +made expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theophilus, +the Greek emperor, sued for peace, which Mamun +haughtily refused to grant. Accordingly, he decided on marching +in the following year against Amorium, and thence to Constantinople +itself. Having sent before him his son Abbas to make +Tyana a strong fortress, he set out for Asia Minor to put himself +at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by +bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 40 m. from Tarsus, in Rajab +218 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> August 833), at the age of forty-eight.</p> + +<p>Mamun was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers +of the whole dynasty after Mansur. By him the ascendancy of +the Persian element over the Arabian was completed. Moreover, +he began to attract young Turkish noblemen to his court, an +example which was followed on a much larger scale by his +successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a later period.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Reign of Motasim.</i>—Abu Isḥāk al-Mo’taṣim had for a +long time been preparing himself for the succession. Every year he +had bought Turkish slaves, and had with him in the last expedition +of Mamun a bodyguard of 3000. Backed by this force he +seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph to designate him as his +successor. The chroniclers content themselves with recording +that he himself wrote in the name of the caliph to the chief +authorities in Bagdad and elsewhere that he was to be the +successor. His accession, however, met at first with active +opposition in the army, where a powerful party demanded +that Abbas should take the place of his father. Abbas, however, +publicly renounced all pretension to the Caliphate, and the whole +army accepted Motasim, who immediately had the fortifications +of Tyana demolished and hastened back to Bagdad, where he +made his public entry on the 20th of September 833.</p> + +<p>Motasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately +after his coming to Bagdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves +living there who had distinguished themselves. Among them +were Ashnās, Itākh, Wasīf, Sīmā, all of whom later became +men of great influence. The guard was composed of an undisciplined +body of soldiers, who, moreover, held in open contempt the +religious precepts of Islam. Tired of the excesses committed +by these Turks, the people of Bagdad beat or killed as many of +them as they could lay hands on, and Motasim, not daring to +act with severity against either his guard or the citizens, took the +course of quitting the city. Having bought in 834 territories at +Sāmarrā, a small place situated a few leagues above Bagdad, +he caused a new residence to be built there, whose name, which +could be interpreted “Unhappy is he who sees it,” was changed +by him into Sorra-man-ra‘ā, “Rejoiced is he who sees it.” +Leaving the government of the capital in the hands of his son +Hārūn al-Wāthiq, he established himself at Sāmarrā in 836. +This resolution of Motasim was destined to prove fatal to his +dynasty; for it placed the caliphs at the mercy of their praetorians. +In fact, from the time of Wāthiq, the Caliphate became +the plaything of the Turkish guard, and its decline was continuous.</p> + +<p>In the time of the civil war the marshlands in Irak between +Basra and Wāsit had been occupied by a large population of +Indians, called <i>yat</i>, or, according to the Arabic pronunciation, +<i>Zoṭṭ</i>, who infested the roads and levied a heavy tribute from the +ships ascending and descending the Tigris. From the year 821 +onwards Mamun had tried in vain to bring them to submission. +When Motasim came back to Bagdad, after the death of his +brother, he found the people in great distress, their supply of +dates from Basra having been cut off by the Zoṭṭ, and resolved +to put them down with all means. After seven months of +vigorous resistance, they at last yielded on condition of safety +of life and property. In January 835 the Zoṭṭ in their national +costume and with their own music were conducted on a great +number of boats through Bagdad. Thence they were transported +to Ainzarba (Anazarba) on the frontier of the Greek empire. +Twenty years later they entered Asia Minor, whence in a later +period they came into Europe, under the name of Athinganoi +(Ziganes) and Egyptians (gipsies).<a name="fa35b" id="fa35b" href="#ft35b"><span class="sp">35</span></a></p> + +<p>A far more difficult task lay before Motasim, the subjection of +Bābak al-Khorramī in Azerbaijan. Though the name Khorramī +is often employed by the Moslem writers to designate such +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span> +extravagant Moslem sectaries as the Hāshimīya, the real Khorramī +were not Moslems, but Persian Mazdaqites, or communists. +The name Khorramī, or Khorramdīnī, “adherent of the pleasant +religion,” seems to be a nickname. As they bore red colours, +they were also called Mohammira, or Redmakers. Their object +was to abolish Islam and to restore “the white religion.” We +find the first mention of them in the year 808, when Harun +al-Rashid sent an army against them. During the civil war +their power was steadily increasing, and spread not only over +Azerbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and Khorasan. The +numerous efforts of Mamun to put them down had been all in +vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor. +Therefore, in the year 835, Motasim made Afshīn, a Turkish +prince who had distinguished himself already in the days of +Mamun, governor of Media, with orders to take the lead of the +war against Bābak. After three years’ fighting, Bābak was +taken prisoner. He was carried to Sāmarrā, led through the city +on the back of an elephant, and then delivered to the executioners, +who cut off his arms and legs. His head was sent to +Khorasan, his body was crucified. For long afterwards the place +where this happened bore the name of “Bābak’s Cross.”</p> + +<p>In the hope of creating a diversion in Bābak’s favour, Theophilus +in 837 fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of +Zibatra. There and in several other places he took a great +number of prisoners, whom he mutilated. The news arrived just +after that of the capture of Bābak, and Motasim swore to take +exemplary vengeance. He assembled a formidable army, +penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium, +where he gained rich plunder. During his return the caliph +was informed of a conspiracy in the army in favour of ‘Abbās +the son of Mamun, of which ‘Ojaif b. ‘Anbasa was the ringleader. +The unfortunate prince was arrested and died soon after in prison. +The conspirators were killed, many of them with great cruelty. +(For the campaign see Bury in <i>J.H.S.</i>, 1909, xxix. pt. i.)</p> + +<p>Motasim had just returned to Sāmarrā when a serious revolt +broke out in Tabaristan, Māziyār, one of the hereditary chiefs +of that country, refusing to acknowledge the authority of Abdallah +Ibn Ṭāhir, the governor of Khorasan, of which Tabaristan was +a province. The revolt was suppressed with great difficulty, +and it came out that it was due to the secret instigation of +Afshīn, who hoped thereby to cause the fall of the Ṭāhirids, +and to take their place, with the ulterior object of founding an +independent kingdom in the East. Afshīn, who stood at that +moment in the highest favour of the caliph, was condemned +and died in prison. Motasim died a year later, January 842.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Reign of Wāthiq.</i>—His son Wāthiq, who succeeded, though +not in the least to be compared with Mamun, had yet in common +with him a thirst for knowledge—perhaps curiosity would be a +more appropriate term—which prompted him, as soon as he +became caliph, to send the famous astronomer Mahommed b. +Mūsā into Asia Minor to find out all about the Seven Sleepers +which he discovered in the neighbourhood of Arabissus,<a name="fa36b" id="fa36b" href="#ft36b"><span class="sp">36</span></a> and +Sallām the Interpreter to explore the situation of the famous +wall of Gog and Magog, which he reached at the north-west +frontier of China.<a name="fa37b" id="fa37b" href="#ft37b"><span class="sp">37</span></a> For these and other personal pursuits he +raised money by forcing a number of high functionaries to +disgorge their gains. In so vast an empire the governors and +administrators had necessarily enjoyed an almost unrestricted +power, and this had enabled them to accumulate wealth. Omar +had already compelled them to furnish an account of their riches, +and, when he found that they had abused their trust, to relinquish +half to the state. As time went on, nomination to an office +was more and more generally considered a step to wealth. +During the reign of the Omayyads a few large fortunes were +made thus. But with the increasing luxury after Mansur, the +thirst for money became universal, and the number of honest +officials lessened fast. Confiscation of property had been +employed with success by Hārūn al-Rashīd after the disgrace of +the Barmecides, and occasionally by his successors, but Wāthiq +was the first to imprison high officials and fine them heavily on +the specific charge of peculation.</p> + +<p>The caliph also shared Mamun’s intolerance on the doctrinal +question of the uncreated Koran. He carried his zeal to such a +point that, on the occasion of an exchange of Greek against +Moslem prisoners in 845, he refused to receive those Moslem +captives who would not declare their belief that the Koran was +created. The orthodox in Bagdad prepared to revolt, but were +discovered in time by the governor of the city. The ringleader +Ahmad b. Naṣr al-Khozā‘ī was seized and brought to Sāmarrā, +where Wāthiq beheaded him in person. The only other event +of importance in the reign of Wāthiq was a rising of the Arabian +tribes in the environs of Medina, which the Turkish general +Boghā with difficulty repressed. When he reached Sāmarrā with +his prisoners, Wāthiq had just died (August 846). That the +predominance of the praetorians was already established is clear +from the fact that Wāthiq gave to two Turkish generals, Ashnās +and Itākh respectively, the titular but lucrative supreme government +of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In his days +the soldiery at Sāmarrā was increased by a large division of +Africans (Maghribīs).</p> + +<p>10. <i>Reign of Motawakkil.</i>—As Wāthiq had appointed no +successor the vizier Mahommed Zayyāt had cast his eye on +his son Mahommed, who was still a child, but the generals Wasīf +and Itākh, seconded by the upper cadi Ibn abī Da’ud, refused +their consent, and offered the supreme power to Wāthiq’s +brother Ja‘far, who at his installation adopted the name of +<i>al-Motawakkil ‘alā ‘llāh</i> (“he who trusts in God”). The new +caliph hated the vizier Zayyāt, who had opposed his election, and +had him seized and killed with the same atrocious cruelty which +the vizier himself had inflicted on others. His possessions, and +those of others who had opposed the caliph’s election, were +confiscated. But the arrogance of Itākh, to whom he owed his +Caliphate, became insufferable. So, with the perfidy of his race, +the caliph took him off his guard, and had him imprisoned and +killed at Bagdad. He was succeeded by Wasīf.</p> + +<p>About this time an impostor named Mahmūd b. Faraj had set +himself up as a prophet, claiming to be Dhu‘l-Qarnain (Alexander +the Great) risen from the dead. Asserting that Gabriel brought +him revelations, he had contrived to attract twenty-seven +followers. The caliph had him flogged, and compelled each of +the twenty-seven to give him ten blows on the head with his +fist. The “prophet” expired under the blows (850).</p> + +<p>One of the first acts of Motawakkil was the release of all those +who had been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the +created Koran, and the strict order to abstain from any litigation +about the Book of God. The upper cadi Ibn abī Da’ud, the +leader of the movement against orthodoxy, who had stood in +great esteem with Mamun and had fulfilled his high office under +the reigns of Motasim and Wāthiq, had a stroke of paralysis in +the year 848. His son Mahommed was put in his place till 851, +when all the members of the family were arrested. They released +themselves by paying the enormous sum of 240,000 dinārs and +16,000,000 dirhems, which constituted nearly their whole +fortune, and were then sent to Bagdad, where father and son +died three years later. An orthodox upper cadi was named +instead, and the dogma of the created Koran was declared +heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of +that doctrine and other Motazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed, +never again to lose its place as the state religion. Hand in hand +with these reactionary measures came two others, one against +Jews and Christians, one against the Shi‘ites. The first caliph +who imposed humiliating conditions on the Dhimmis, or Covenanters, +who, on condition of paying a certain not over-heavy +tribute, enjoyed the protection of the state and the free exercise +of their cult, was Omar II., but this policy was not continued. +A proposition by the cadi Abū Yūsuf to Hārūn al-Rashid to +renew it had not been adopted. Motawakkil, in 850, formulated +an edict by which these sectaries were compelled to wear a +distinctive dress and to distinguish their houses by a figure of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span> +the devil nailed to the door, excluding them at the same time +from all public employments, and forbidding them to send their +children to Moslem schools. Nevertheless, he kept his Christian +medical men, some of whom were high in favour. He showed +his hatred for the Shi‘ites by causing the mausoleum erected over +the tomb of Hosain at Kerbela, together with all the buildings +surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be +ploughed up, and by forbidding any one to visit the spot. A year +before, a descendant of Hosain, Yahyā b. Omar, had been arrested +and flogged on his orders. He escaped afterwards, rose in +rebellion at Kufa in 864, and was killed in battle. It is reported +that the caliph even permitted one of his buffoons to turn the +person of Ali into mockery.</p> + +<p>In the year 848-849 Ibn Ba‘īth, who had rendered good service +in the war against Bābak, but had for some cause been arrested, +fled from Sāmarrā to Marand in Azerbaijan and revolted. Not +without great difficulty Boghā, the Turkish general, succeeded +in taking the town and making Ibn Ba‘īth prisoner. He was +brought before Motawakkil and died in prison. In the year 237 +(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 851-852) a revolt broke out in Armenia. Notwithstanding +a vigorous resistance, Boghā subdued and pacified the province +in the following year. In that same year, 852-853, the Byzantines +made a descent on Egypt with 300 vessels. ‘Anbasa the +governor had ordered the garrison of Damietta to parade at the +capital Fostāt. The denuded town was taken, plundered and +burned. The Greeks then destroyed all the fortifications at the +mouth of the Nile near Tinnis, and returned with prisoners and +booty. The annual raids of Moslems and Greeks in the border +districts of Asia Minor were attended with alternate successes, +though on the whole the Greeks had the upper hand. In 856 +they penetrated as far as Amid (Diārbekr), and returned with +10,000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a +heavy defeat with losses of men and cattle, the emperor Michael +himself was in danger, whilst the fleet of the Moslems captured +and sacked Antalia. This was followed by a truce and an +exchange of prisoners in the following year.</p> + +<p>In 855 a revolt broke out in Homs (Emesa), where the harsh +conditions imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews +had caused great discontent. It was repressed after a vigorous +resistance. A great many leading men were flogged to death, +all churches and synagogues were destroyed and all the Christians +banished.</p> + +<p>In the year 851 the Boja (or Beja), a wild people living between +the Red Sea and the Nile of Upper Egypt, the Blemmyes of the +ancients, refused to pay the annual tribute, and invaded the +land of the gold and emerald mines, so that the working of the +mines was stopped. The caliph sent against them Mahommed +al-Qommī, who subdued them in 856 and brought their king +Ali Bābā to Sāmarrā before Motawakkil, on condition that he +should be restored to his kingdom.</p> + +<p>About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy +of the Ṭāhirids. Ya’qūb b. Laith al-Saffār proclaimed himself +amīr of that province in the year 860, and was soon after confirmed +in this dignity by the caliph.</p> + +<p>In 858 Motawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant +patronage of Waṣīf, who had taken the place of Itākh as head +of the Turkish guard, transferred his residence to Damascus. +But the place did not agree with him, and he returned to Sāmarrā, +where he caused a magnificent quarter to be built 3 m. from the +city, which he called after his own name Ja‘farīya, and on which +he spent more than two millions of dinars (about £900,000). +He found the means by following the example of his predecessor +in depriving many officials of their ill-gotten gains. He contrived +to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater part +Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. In the year of his elevation +to the Caliphate, he had regulated the succession to the empire +in his own family by designating as future caliphs his three sons, +<i>al-Montaṣir billāh</i> (“he who seeks help in God”), <i>al-Mo’tazz +billāh</i> (“he whose strength is of God”), and <i>al-Mowayyad billāh</i> +(“he who is assisted by God”). By and by he conceived an +aversion to his eldest son, and wished to supplant him by Motazz, +the son of his favourite wife Qabīha. The day had been fixed on +which Montasir, Waṣīf and several other Turkish generals were +to be assassinated. But Waṣīf and Montasir had been informed, +and resolved to anticipate him. In the night before, Shawwāl +<span class="sc">a.h.</span> 247 (December 861), Motawakkil, after one of his wonted +orgies, was murdered, together with his confidant, Fatḥ b. Khāqān. +The official report, promulgated by his successor, was that Fatḥ +b. Khāqān had murdered his master and had been punished for +it by death. For the administrative system in this reign see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Institutions</a></span>.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Reign of Montasir.</i>—On the very night of his father’s +assassination Montasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was +a man of very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands +of his vizier Ahmad b. Khaṣīb and the Turkish generals. He +was compelled to send Wasif, the personal enemy of Ibn Khaṣīb, +to the frontier for a term of four years, and then to deprive his +two brothers Motazz and Mowayyad, who were not agreeable to +them, of their right of succession. He died six months after, by +poison, it is said.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Reign of Mosta‘īn.</i>—The Turkish soldiery, now the chief +power in the state, chose, by the advice of Ibn Khaṣīb, in succession +to Montasir, his cousin Ahmad, who took the title of +<i>al-Mosta‘īn billāh</i> (“he who looks for help to God”). In the +reign of this feeble prince the Greeks inflicted serious losses on +the Moslems in Asia Minor. A great many volunteers from all +parts, who offered their services, were hunted down as rioters +by the Turkish generals, who were wholly absorbed by their +own interests. The party which had placed Mosta‘īn on the +throne, led by Ibn Khaṣīb and Otāmish, were soon overpowered +by Waṣīf and Boghā. Ibn Khaṣīb was banished to Crete, +Otāmish murdered. The superior party, however, maintained +Mosta‘īn on the throne, because they feared lest Motazz should +take vengeance upon them for the murder of his father Motawakkil. +But in the year 865 Waṣīf and Boghā fled with Mosta‘īn +to Bagdad, and Motazz was proclaimed caliph at Sāmarrā. A +terrible war ensued; Mosta‘īn was obliged to abdicate, and was +killed in the following year.</p> + +<p>In 864 a descendant of Ali, named Hasan b. Zaid, gained +possession of Tabaristan and occupied the great city of Rai +(Rey) near Teheran. A year later the province was reconquered +by the Ṭāhirid governor of Khorasan, so that Hasan was obliged +to retreat for refuge to the land of the Dailam. But he returned +soon, and after many reverses ruled over Tabaristan and Jorjān +for many years.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Reign of Motazz.</i>—Motazz, proclaimed caliph at Bagdad +in the first month of 252 (January 866), devoted himself to the +object of freeing himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals, +especially Waṣīf and Boghā, who had opposed his election. But +such a task demanded an ability and energy which he did not +possess. He was obliged to grant them amnesty and to recall +them to Sāmarrā. He mistrusted also his brothers Mowayyad +and Mowaffaq, who had interceded for them. He put the former +to death and drove the latter into exile to Bagdad. Some time +after he had the satisfaction of seeing Waṣīf killed by his own +troops, and succeeded, a year later, in having Boghā assassinated. +But a more difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish, +Persian and African guards, which was said to have amounted +in <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 252 to 200,000,000 dirhems<a name="fa38b" id="fa38b" href="#ft38b"><span class="sp">38</span></a> (about £6,500,000), or +apparently twice the revenue derived from the land tax. As the +provincial revenues annually decreased, it became impossible +to pay this sum, and Ṣāliḥ the son of Waṣīf, in spite of the +remonstrances of the caliph, confiscated the property of state +officials. Upon a further demand, Motazz, having failed to +procure money from his mother Qabīha, who was enormously +rich, was seized upon and tortured, and died of starvation in +prison (Shaaban 255, July 868).</p> + +<p>The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these +years, and the caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual +independence of the governors Ya’qūb the Saffārid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saffārids</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>, <i>History</i>, § B) in Seistan, and Ahmad +b. Tūlūn in Egypt.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span></p> + +<p>14. <i>Reign of Mohtadī.</i>—Immediately after the seizure of +Motazz, the Turks, led by Ṣāliḥ b. Waṣīf, proclaimed as caliph +one of the sons of Wāthiq with the title of al-Mohtadī billāh +(“the guided by God”), who, however, refused to occupy the +throne until his predecessor had solemnly abdicated. Mohtadī, +who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had no lack of +energy, began by applying the precarious measure of power +which was left him to the reform of the court. He banished the +musicians and singers, and forbade all kinds of games; he +devoted himself to the administration of justice, and gave +public audiences to the people for the redress of their grievances. +At the same time he contrived to elevate the power of the Abnā, +the descendants of those Persian soldiers who had established +the dynasty of the Abbasids, in order to break the supremacy +of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Mohtadī came too +late, and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work.</p> + +<p>On the news of the conspiracy against Motazz, Mūsā, the son +of the famous general Boghā,<a name="fa39b" id="fa39b" href="#ft39b"><span class="sp">39</span></a> then governor of Media (Jabal), +ordered his deputy-general Mofliḥ to return at once from a proposed +invasion of Dailam, and moved with his army towards +Sāmarrā, notwithstanding the peremptory orders of the caliph. +At his approach Ṣāliḥ, who was afraid of Mūsā, hid himself, +but was soon discovered and killed. At that moment a Kharijite, +named Mosāwir, who in 867 had risen in Mesopotamia and +beaten more than one general of the government, took Balad +and menaced Mosūl. Mūsā could not refuse to comply with the +formal command of the caliph to march against him. During +the absence of these troops, Mohtadī seems to have tried to get +rid of the principal Turkish leaders. A brother of Musa and one +of his best generals, Bāyikbeg (Baiekbāk), were killed, but the +soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong enough. +Mohtadī was overwhelmed and killed, Rajab 256 (June 870).</p> + +<p>15. <i>Reign of Motamid.</i>—Whether from weariness or from +repentance, the Turkish soldiery discontinued for a time their +hateful excesses, and their new leader, Mūsā b. Boghā, was +without the greed and ambition of his predecessors. A son of +Motawakkil was brought out of prison to succeed his cousin, and +reigned for twenty-three years under the name of <i>al-Mo’tamid +‘alā‘llāh</i> (“he whose support is God”). He was a feeble, pleasure-loving +monarch, but Mohtadī had regained for the Caliphate +some authority, which was exercised by Obaidallah b. Khāqān, +the able vizier of Mohtadī, and by Motamid’s talented brother +Abū Ahmad al-Mowaffaq; Mūsā b. Boghā himself remained till +his death a staunch servant of the government. During the +reign of Motamid great events took place. The great power long +wielded by the Ṭāhirids, not only in the eastern provinces, but +also at Bagdad itself, had been gradually diminishing, and came +to an end in the year 873, when Ya’qūb the Saffārid occupied +Nīshāpur and imprisoned Mahommed b. Ṭāhir with his whole +family. The power of Ya’qūb then increased to such an extent +that he was not content with the caliph’s offer to recognize him +as supreme in the provinces he had conquered, and military +governor of Bagdad, but marched against Irak. The caliph +himself, wearing the mantle and the staff of the Prophet, then +went out against him, and after a vigorous resistance he was +beaten by Mowaffaq, who had the command of the troops, and +fled to Jondisāpūr in Khūzistān, where he died three years later, +leaving his empire to his brother ‘Amr. This prince maintained +himself in power till the year 900, when he was beaten and taken +prisoner by Ismā‘īl b. Ahmed the Sāmānid. The Sāmānids had +been governors of Transoxiana from the time of Mamun, and +after the fall of the Ṭāhirids, had been confirmed in this office +by the caliph. After 287 (900) they were independent princes, +and under their dominion these districts attained to high +prosperity.</p> + +<p>Motamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves in +the province of Basra, led by one Ali b. Mahommed, who called +himself a descendant of Ali. It lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked +the government to its utmost.<a name="fa40b" id="fa40b" href="#ft40b"><span class="sp">40</span></a></p> + +<p>In the west, Ahmad b. Tūlūn became a mighty prince, whose +sway extended over Syria and a part of Mesopotamia. Motamid, +who wished to free himself from the guardianship of his brother +Mowaffaq, concerted with him a plan to emigrate to Egypt, +Ahmad being himself angered against Mowaffaq on personal +grounds. Motamid’s flight was stopped by his vizier Ibn +Makhlad, and the caliph himself was reconducted to Sāmarrā +as a prisoner in the year 882. From that time there was war +between the Abbasids and the Ṭūlūnids. Ahmad died in 270 +(884). His son Khomārūya succeeded him, and maintained +himself in power till his death in 896, in which year his daughter +was married to the caliph Motadid. Ten years later Egypt was +conquered by a general of the caliph Moktafī.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Motamid the emperor Basil I. conducted +the war against the Moslems with great success, till in the year +270 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 884) his army suffered a terrible defeat near Tarsus, +in which the greater part of the army, the commander Andreas, +and many other patricians perished.</p> + +<p>Motamid had appointed his son al-Mofawwid as successor to +the Caliphate, and after him his brother Mowaffaq. When the +latter died in the year 891, his son Aḅū ‘l-‘Abbās, <i>al-Mo’taḍid</i> +(“he who seeks his support in God”), was put in his place. +Next year Mofawwid was compelled to abdicate in favour of his +cousin. Shortly after Motamid died, Rajab 279 (October 892). +Not long before these events, the seat of the Caliphate had been +restored to Bagdad.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Reign of Motadid</i>.—Motadid may be called, after Mansūr, +the most able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers. He took +good care of the finances, reformed the administration, was an +excellent commander in war, and maintained order as far as +possible. The Kharijites in Mesopotamia, who for many years +had molested the government, were finally crushed with the aid +of their former ally Ḥamdān, who became the founder of the +well-known dynasty of the Ḥamdānites. The mighty house +of Abū Dolaf in the south-west of Media, which had never +ceased to encroach on the Caliphate, was put down. The +governor of Azerbaijan and Armenia, belonging to the powerful +Turkish house of the Sājids or Sājites, whose loyalty was always +doubtful, planned an invasion of Syria and Egypt. Motadid +frustrated it by a quick movement. The citizens of Tarsus who +were involved in the plot were severely punished. The chief +punishment, however, the burning of the fleet, was a very +impolitic measure, as it strengthened the hands of the Byzantines.</p> + +<p>Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves +in Basra there arose in the province of Kūfa the celebrated +sect of the Carmathians (<i>q.v.</i>), Fātimites<a name="fa41b" id="fa41b" href="#ft41b"><span class="sp">41</span></a> or Isma‘ilites. This +powerful sect, which save for a difference of opinion would have +joined the negro rising, remained outwardly quiet during +Motamid’s reign, but under Motadid the government began to +have misgivings about them. Abū Sa‘īd al-Jannābī, who had +founded a Carmathian state in Bahrein, the north-eastern +province of Arabia (actually called Laḥsā), which could become +dangerous for the pilgrim road as well as for the commerce of +Basra, in the year 900 routed an army sent against him by +Motadid, and warned the caliph that it would be safer to let the +Carmathians alone. In the same year the real chief of the sect, +whose abode had been discovered by the caliph, fled from +Salamia in Syria, where he lived, to Africa, and hid himself at +Sijilmāsa (in Tafilalt) in the far west, whence he reappeared +ten years later at Kairawan as the Mahdi, the first caliph of the +Fatimites.<a name="fa42b" id="fa42b" href="#ft42b"><span class="sp">42</span></a></p> + +<p>Motadid died in Rabia II. <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 289 (March 902), leaving the +Caliphate to his son <i>al-Moktāfī billāh</i> (“he who sufficeth himself +in God”).</p> + +<p>17. <i>Reign of Moktafi</i>.—Moktafi inherited his father’s intrepidity, +and seems to have had high personal qualities, but his +reign of six years was a constant struggle against the Carmathians +in Syria, who defeated the Syrian and Egyptian troops, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span> +conquered Damascus and other cities. Moktafi led his troops +in person, and his general, Mahommed b. Suleimān, gained a +signal victory. Three of their chiefs were taken and put to death. +But, to avenge their defeat, they lay in wait for the great pilgrim +caravan on its return from Mecca in the first days of 294 (906), +and massacred 20,000 pilgrims, making an immense booty. +This horrible crime raised the whole Moslem world against +them. Zikrūya their chief was defeated at last and perished.</p> + +<p>After the defeat of the Syrian Carmathians, Mahommed b. +Suleimān was sent by the caliph to Egypt, where he overthrew +the dominion of the Tūlūnids. ‘Īsā b. Mahommed al-Naushari +was made governor in their stead (905).</p> + +<p>The war with the Byzantines was conducted with great energy +during the reign of Moktafi. In the year 905 the Greek general +Andronicus took Marash, and penetrated as far as Haleb +(Aleppo), but the Moslems were successful at sea, and in 907 +captured Iconium, whilst Andronicus went over to the caliph’s +side, so that the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy to Bagdad +to ask for a truce and an exchange of prisoners.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Reign of Moqtadir.</i>—The sudden death of Moktafi, Dhu‘l-qa‘da +295 (August 908), was a fatal blow to the prestige of the +Caliphate, which had revived under the successive governments of +Mowaffaq, Motadid and himself. The new caliph, <i>al-Moqtadir +billāh</i> (“the powerful through God”), a brother of Moktafi, was +only thirteen years of age when he ascended the throne. Owing +to his extreme youth many of the leading men at Bagdad rebelled +and swore allegiance to Abdallah, son of the former caliph +Motazz, a man of excellent character and of great poetical gifts; +but the party of the house of Motadid prevailed, and the rival +caliph was put to death. Moqtadir, though not devoid of noble +qualities, allowed himself to be governed by his mother and her +ladies and eunuchs. He began by squandering the 15,000,000 +dinars which were in the treasury when his brother died in +largesses to his courtiers, who, however, merely increased their +demands. His very able vizier, the noble and disinterested +Ali b. ‘Īsā, tried to check this foolish expenditure, but his efforts +were more than counterbalanced by the vizier Ibn abi‘l-Forāt +and the court. The most shameless bribery and the robbery +of the well-to-do went together with the most extravagant +luxury. The twenty-four years of Moqtadir’s reign are a period +of rapid decay. The most important event in the reign was the +foundation of the Fātimite dynasty, which reigned first in the +Maghrib and then in Egypt for nearly three centuries (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fatimites</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>, “Mahommedan”).</p> + +<p>Far more dangerous, however, for the Caliphate of Bagdad +at the time were the Carmathians of Bahrein, then guided by +Abu Ṭāhir, the son of Abu Sa‘īd Jannābi. In 311 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 923) +they took and ransacked Basra; in the first month of the +following year the great pilgrim caravan on its return from +Mecca was overpowered; 2500 men perished, while an even larger +number were made prisoners and brought to Lahsā, the residence +of the Carmathian princes, together with an immense booty. +The caravan which left Bagdad towards the end of this year +returned in all haste before it had covered a third of the way. +Then Kufa underwent the fate that had befallen Basra. In 313 +(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 926) the caravan was allowed to pass on payment of a large +sum of money. The government of Bagdad resolved to crush +the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated by Abu +Ṭāhir in 315 (927), and Bagdad was seriously threatened. Next +year Mecca was taken and plundered; even the sacred Black +Stone was transported to Lahsā, where it remained till 339 (950), +when by the express order of the Imām, the Fātimite caliph, it +was restored to the Ka‘ba.</p> + +<p>In 317 (929) a conspiracy was formed to dethrone Moqtadir, +to which Mūnis, the chief commander of the army, at first +assented, irritated by false reports. Very soon he withdrew, +and though he could not prevent the plundering of the palace, +and the proclamation as caliph of another son of Motadid with +the title <i>al-Qāhir billāh</i> (“the victorious through God”), he +rescued Moqtadir and his mother, and at the same time his +imprisoned friend Ali b. ‘Īsā, and brought them to his own house. +A few days later, a counter-revolution took place; the leaders +of the revolt were killed, and Moqtadir, against his wish, was +replaced on the throne. In 320 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 932) Mūnis, discovering +a court intrigue against him, set out for Mosul, expecting that +the Hamdānids, who owed to him their power, would join him. +Instead of doing this, they opposed him with a numerous army, +but were defeated. Mūnis took Mosul, and having received +reinforcements from all parts, marched against Bagdad. The +caliph, who wished nothing more than to be reconciled to his old +faithful servant, was forced to take arms against him, and fell in +battle Shawwāl 320 (October 932), at the age of 38 years. His +reign, which lasted almost twenty-five years, was in all respects +injurious to the empire.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Reign of Qāhir</i>.—After the victory Mūnis acted with +great moderation and proclaimed a general amnesty. His own +wish was to call Abu Ahmad, a son of Moktafi, or a son of Moqtadir, +to the Caliphate, but the majority of generals preferring +Qāhir because he was an adult man and had no mother at his +side, he acquiesced, although he had a personal dislike for him, +knowing his selfish and cruel character. Qāhir was a drunkard, +and derived the money for his excesses from promiscuous confiscation. +He ill-treated the sons of Moqtadir and Abu Ahmad, +and ultimately assassinated his patrons Mūnis and Yalbak, +whose guardianship he resented. In Jomada I. 322 (April +934) he was dethroned and blinded, and died in poverty seven +years later.</p> + +<p>During the last years of Moqtadir and the reign of Qāhir a +new dynasty rose. Būya, the chief of a clan of the Dailam, a +warlike people who inhabit the mountainous country south-west +of the Caspian Sea, had served under the Sāmānids, and found a +footing in the south of Media (Jabal), whence his three sons— +well known under the titles they assumed at a later period: +’Imād addaula (“prop of the dynasty”), Rokn addaula (“pillar +of the dynasty”), and Mo‘izz addaula (“strengthener of the +dynasty”)—succeeded in subduing the province of Fārs, at the +time of Qāhir’s dethronement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>20. <i>Reign of Radi</i>.—Moqtadir’s son, who was then proclaimed +caliph under the name of <i>ar-Rādī billāh</i> (“the content through +God”), was pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the +shadow of power. The vizier Ibn Moqla tried to maintain his +authority at least in Irak and Mesopotamia, but without success. +The treasury was exhausted, the troops asked for pay, the people +in Bagdad were riotous. In this extremity the caliph bade +Ibn Rāiq, who had made himself master of Basra and Wāsit, +and had command of money and men, to come to his help. He +created for him the office of Amīr al-Omarā, “Amir of the +Amirs,” which nearly corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace +among the Franks.<a name="fa43b" id="fa43b" href="#ft43b"><span class="sp">43</span></a> Thenceforth the worldly power of the +Caliphate was a mere shadow. The empire was by this time +practically reduced to the province of Bagdad; Khorasan and +Transoxiana were in the hands of the Sāmānids, Fārs in those +of the Būyids; Kirman and Media were under independent +sovereigns; the Hāmdānids possessed Mesopotamia; the Sājids +Armenia and Azerbaijan; the Ikshīdites Egypt; as we have +seen, the Fātimites Africa, the Carmathians Arabia. The Amir +al-Omarā was obliged to purchase from the latter the freedom +of the pilgrimage to Mecca, at the price of a disgraceful treaty.</p> + +<p>During the troubles of the Caliphate the Byzantines had made +great advances; they had even taken Malatia and Samosata +(Samsat). But the great valour of the Hamdanid prince Saif-addaula +checked their march. The Greek army suffered two +severe defeats and sued for peace.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Reign of Mottaqi</i>.—Radi died in Rabia I. <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 329 (December +940). Another son of Moqtadir was then proclaimed caliph +under the name of <i>al-Mottaqī billāh</i> (“he who guards himself by +God”). At the time of his accession the Amīr al-Omarā was the +Turkish general Bajkam, in whose favour Ibn Rāiq had been +obliged to retire. Unfortunately Bajkam died soon after, and +his death was followed by general anarchy. A certain Barīdī, +who had carved out for himself a principality in the province of +Basra, marched against Bagdad and made himself master of +the capital, but was soon driven out by the Dailamite general +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span> +Kūrtakīn. Ibn Rāiq came back and reinstated himself as Amīr +al-Omarā. But Barīdī again laid siege to Bagdad, and Mottaqi +fled to Nāsir addaula the Hamdānid prince of Mosul, who then +marched against Bagdad, and succeeded in repelling Barīdī. +In return he obtained the office of Amīr al-Omarā. But the +Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer him to keep this +office longer than several months. Tūzūn, a former captain of +Bajkam, compelled him to return to Mosul and took his place. +Mottaqi fled again to Mosul and thence to Rakka. The Ikshīd, +sovereign of Egypt and Syria, offered him a refuge, but Tūzūn, +fearing to see the caliph obtain such powerful support, found +means to entice him to his tent, and had his eyes put out, Saphar +333 (October 944).</p> + +<p>22. <i>Reign of Mostakfi.</i>—As successor Tūzūn chose <i>al-Mostakfī +billāh</i> (“he who finds full sufficiency with God”), a son of +Moktafi. This prince, still more than his predecessors, was +a mere puppet in the hands of Tūzūn, who died a few months +later, and his successor Ibn Shīrzād. Such was the weakness +of the caliph that a notorious robber, named Hamdī, obtained +immunity for his depredations by a monthly payment of 25,000 +dinars. One of the Būyid princes, whose power had been +steadily increasing, marched about this time against Bagdad, +which he entered in Jomada I. <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 334 (December 945), and was +acknowledged by the caliph as legal sovereign, under the title +of Sultan. He assumed at this time the name of Mo‘izz addaula. +Mostakfi was soon weary of this new master, and plotted against +him. At least Mo‘izz addaula suspected him and deprived him +of his eyesight, Jomada II. <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 334 (January 946). There were +thus in Bagdad three caliphs who had been dethroned and +blinded, Qāhir, Mottaqi and Mostakfi.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Reign of Moti.</i>—Mo‘izz addaula soon abandoned his +original idea of restoring the title of caliph to one of the descendants +of Ali, fearing a strong opposition of the people, and also +dreading lest this should lead to the recovery by the caliphs of +their former supremacy. His choice fell on a son of Moqtadir, +who took the title of <i>al-Moti’ billāh</i> (“he who obeys God”). +The sultan, reserving to himself all the powers and revenues of +the Caliphate, allowed the caliph merely a secretary and a pension +of 5000 dirhems a day. Though in public prayers and on the +coins the name of the caliph remained as that of the supreme +authority, he had in reality no authority out of the palace, so +that the saying became proverbial, “he contents himself with +sermon and coin.”</p> + +<p>The Hamdānid prince of Mosul, who began to think his +possessions threatened by Mo‘izz addaula, tried without success +to wrest Bagdad from him, and was obliged to submit to the +payment of tribute. He died in 358 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 969), and ten years +later the power of this branch of the Hamdanids came to an end. +The representative of the other branch, Saif addaula, the prince +of Haleb (Aleppo), conducted the war against the Byzantines +with great valour till his death in 356 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 967), but could not +stop the progress of the enemy. His descendants maintained +themselves, but with very limited power, till <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 413 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1022).</p> + +<p>Mo‘izz addaula died in the same year as Saif addaula, leaving +his power to his son Bakhtiyār ‘Izz addaula, who lacked his +father’s energy and loved pleasure more than business.</p> + +<p>While the Abbāsid dynasty was thus dying out in shame and +degradation, the Fātimites, in the person of Mo‘izz li-dīn-allah +(or Mo‘izz Abu Tamin Ma‘add) (“he who makes God’s religion +victorious”), were reaching the highest degree of power and +glory in spite of the opposition of the Carmathians, who left +their old allegiance and entered into negotiations with the court +of Bagdad, offering to drive back the Fātimites, on condition of +being assisted with money and troops, and of being rewarded +with the government of Syria and Egypt. The former condition +was granted, but the caliph emphatically refused the latter +demand, saying: “Both parties are Carmathians, they profess +the same religion and are enemies of Islam.” The Carmathians +drove the Fātimites out of Syria, and threatened Egypt, but, +notwithstanding their intrepidity, they were not able to cope +with their powerful rival, who, however, in his turn could not +bring them to submission. In 978-979 peace was made on +condition that the Carmathians should evacuate Syria for an +annual payment of 70,000 dinars. But the losses sustained by +the Carmathians during that struggle had been enormous. +Their power henceforward declined, and came to an end in <span class="sc">a.h.</span> +474 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1081).</p> + +<p>Mo‘izz addaula, as we have seen, professed a great veneration +for the house of Ali. He not only caused the mourning for the +death of Hosain and other Shi‘ite festivals to be celebrated at +Bagdad, but also allowed imprecations against Moawiya and +even against Mahomet’s wife Ayesha and the caliphs Abu +Bekr, Omar and Othman, to be posted up at the doors of the +mosques. These steps annoyed the people and the Turkish +soldiery, who were Sunnites, and led at last to an insurrection. +Moti was compelled to abdicate, and Bakhtiyār was driven out +of Bagdad Dhu‘l-qa‘da 363 (August 974).</p> + +<p>24. <i>Reign of Tai.</i>—Moti left the empty title of caliph to his son +<i>al-Tā‘i li-amri‘llāh</i> (“the obedient to the command of God”). +The Turks who had placed him on the throne could not maintain +themselves, but so insignificant was the person of the caliph +that ‘Adod addaula, who succeeded his cousin Bakhtiyār in +Bagdad, did not think of replacing him by another. Under this +prince, or king, as he was called, the power of the Būyids reached +its zenith. His empire stretched from the Caspian to the Persian +Sea, and in the west to the eastern frontier of Syria. He did +his best to remedy the misery caused by the intestine Wars, +repaired the ruined mosques and other public edifices, founded +hospitals and libraries—his library in Shirāz was one of the +wonders of the world—and improved irrigation. It was also he +who built the mausoleum of Hosain at Kerbela, and that of Ali +at Kufa. But after his death in the year 372 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 983), his +sons, instead of following the example of their predecessors, +the three sons of Būya, fought one against the other. In 380 +(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 990) the youngest of them, Bahā addaula, had the upper +hand. This prince, who was as avaricious as he was ambitious, +wishing to deprive the caliph Ta‘i of his possessions, compelled +him to abdicate <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 381 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 991).</p> + +<p>25. <i>Reign of Qādir.</i>—A grandson of Moqtadir was then made +caliph under the name of <i>al-Qādir billāh</i> (“the powerful through +God”). The only deed of power, however, that is recorded of +him, is that he opposed himself to the substitution of a Shi‘ite +head cadi for the Sunnite, so that Bahā addaula had to content +himself with giving to the Shi‘ites a special judge, to whom he +gave the title of <i>naqīb</i> (superintendent). During this caliphate +the Būyid princes were in continual war with one another. +Meanwhile events were preparing the fall of their dynasty. In +350 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 961) a Turkish general of the Sāmānids had founded for +himself a principality in Ghazni, arid at his death in 366 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> +976) his successor Sabuktagin had conquered Bost in Sijistān +and Qosdār in Baluchistan, beaten the Indian prince Diaya +Pala, and been acknowledged as master of the lands west of the +Indus. At his death in 387 his son Mahmud conquered the +whole of Khorasan and Sijistān, with a great part of India. He +then attacked the Būyids, and would have destroyed their +dynasty but for his death in the year 421 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1030).</p> + +<p>In 389 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 999) Ilek-khān, the prince of Turkistan, took +Bokhārā and made an end to the glorious state of the Sāmānids, +the last prince of which was murdered in 395 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1005). The +Sāmānids had long been a rampart of the Caliphate against the +Turks, whom they held under firm control. From their fall +dates the invasion of the empire by that people. The greatest +gainer for the moment was Mahmūd of Ghazni. In Mesopotamia +and Irak several petty states arose on the ruins of the dominions +of the Hamdānids and of the Abbasids.</p> + +<p>Qādir died in the last month of <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 422 (November 1031). +He is the author of some theological treatises.</p> + +<p>26. <i>Reign of Qāim</i>.—He was succeeded by his son, who at his +accession took the title of <i>al-Qāim bi-amri‘llāh</i> (“he who maintains +the cause of God”). During the first half of his long reign +took place the development of the power of the Ghūzz, a great +Turkish tribe, who took the name Seljuk from Seljuk their chief in +Transoxiana. Already during the reign of Mahmūd large bodies +had passed the Oxus and spread over Khorasan and the adjacent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span> +countries. In the time of his successor the bulk of the tribe +followed, and in the year 429 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1038) Toghrul Beg, their +chief, beat the army of the Ghaznevids and made his entry into +Nishapur. Thenceforth this progress was rapid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seljuks</a></span>). +The situation in Bagdad had become so desperate that the caliph +called Toghrul to his aid. This prince entered Bagdad in the +month of Ramadan <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 447 (December 1055), and overthrew +finally the dynasty of the Būyids.<a name="fa44b" id="fa44b" href="#ft44b"><span class="sp">44</span></a> In 449 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1058) the caliph +gave him the title of “King of the East and West.” But in the +following year, 450, during his absence, the Shi‘ites made themselves +masters of the metropolis, and proclaimed the Caliphate +of the Fātimite prince Mostansir. They were soon overthrown +by Toghrul, who was now supreme, and compelled the caliph +to give him his daughter in marriage. Before the marriage, +however, he died, and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslān, +who died in 465 (25th December) (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1072). Qāim died two +years later, Shaaban <span class="sc">a.h.</span> 467 (April 1075).</p> + +<p>In the year 440 Mo‘izz b. Bādīs, the Zeirid ruler of the Maghrib, +made himself independent, and substituted in prayer the name +of the Abbasid caliph for that of Mostansir. In order to punish +him, the latter gave permission to the Arab tribes in Egypt to +cross the Nile, and granted them possession of all the lands they +should conquer. This happened in 442 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1050) and was of +the greatest significance for the subsequent fate of Africa.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Reign of Moqtadi</i>.—In the first year of the Caliphate of +<i>al-Moqtadī bi-amri‘llāh</i> (“he who follows the orders of God”), a +grandson of Qāim, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its +zenith. All the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor, +Syria with the exception of a few towns on the shore, the main +part of West Africa acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad as the +Imām. Yemen had been subjected, and at Mecca and Medina +his name was substituted in the public prayers for that of the +Fātimite caliph. But after the death of Malik-Shah a contest +for the sultanate took place. The caliph, who had in 1087 +married the daughter of Malik-Shah, had been compelled two +years after to send her back to her father, as she complained of +being neglected by her husband. Just before his death, the +Sultan had ordered him to transfer his residence from Bagdad to +Basra. After his death he stayed and supported the princess +Turkān Khātūn. This lost him his life. The day after Barki-yāroq’s +triumphant entry into Bagdad, Muharram 487 (February +1094), he died suddenly, apparently by poison.</p> + +<p>28. <i>Reign of Mostazhir</i>.—<i>Al-Mostazhir billāh</i> (“he who seeks +to triumph through God”), son of Moqtadi, was only sixteen +years old when he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable +chiefly for the growing power of the Assassins (<i>q.v.</i>) and for the +first Crusade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>). The Seljuk princes were too much +absorbed by internal strife to concentrate against the new +assailants. After the death of Barkiyāroq in November 1104, +his brother Mahommed reigned till April 1118. His death was +followed about four months later by that of Mostazhir.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Reign of Mostarshid.</i>—<i>Al-Mostarshid billāh</i> (“he who asks +guidance from God”), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512 +(August 1118), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to reestablish +the power of the caliph. Towards the end of the year +529 (October 1134) he was compelled to promise that he would +confine himself to his palace and never again take the field. Not +long after he was assassinated. About the same time Dobais +was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu Mazyad, who had +founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of the ruins +of Babel in 1102.</p> + +<p>30. <i>Reign of Rāshid.</i>—<i>Al-Rāshid billāh</i> (“the just through +God”) tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of +Zengī, the prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas‘ūd beat the army +of the allies, took Bagdad and had Rāshid deposed (August 1136). +Rāshid escaped, but was murdered two years later.</p> + +<p>31. <i>Reign of Moqtafi.</i>—His successor <i>Al-Moqtafi li-amri‘llāh</i> +(“he who follows the orders of God”), son of Mostazhir, had +better success. He was real ruler not only of the district of +Bagdad, but also of the rest of Irak, which he subdued by force. +He died in the month of Rabia II. 555 (March 1160). Under his +reign the central power of the Seljuks was rapidly sinking. In +the west of Atabeg (prince’s guardian) Zengī, the prince of +Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the +north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam +against the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1146), +his noble son, the well-known Nūreddīn, who was called “the +just king,” continued his father’s glorious career. Transoxiana +was conquered by the heathen hordes of Khatā, who towards the +end of 535 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1141) under the king Ghurkhān defeated the +great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the Turkish +tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan.</p> + +<p>32. <i>Reign of Mostanjid.</i>—<i>Al-Mostanjid billāh</i> (“he who +invokes help from God”), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the +dominion of the Caliphate by making an end to the state of the +Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies were the Arabic tribe of the +Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in southern Irak. The +greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was the conquest +of Egypt by the army of Nūreddīn, the overthrow of the Fātimite +dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his majordomo +in Rabia II. 566 (December 1170).</p> + +<p>33. <i>Reign of Mostadi.</i>—His son and successor <i>al-Mostadī’ bi-amri‘llāh</i> +(“he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God “), +though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers +for that of the Fātimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real +authority. By the death of Nūreddīn in 569 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1174) Saladin’s +power became firmly rooted. The dynasty founded by him is +called that of the Ayyūbites, after the name of his father Ayyūb. +Mostadi died in the month of Dhu‘l-qa‘da 575 (March 1180).</p> + +<p>34. <i>Reign of Nāsir.</i>—Quite a different man from his father was his +successor <i>al-Nāsir li-dīni‘llāh</i> (“he who helps the religion of God”). +During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab +583 (October 2nd, 1187). Not long before that event the well-known +Spanish traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin, +and came to Bagdad in 580, where he saw the caliph himself. +Nāsir was very ambitious; he had added Khūzistān to his +dominions, and desired to become also master of Media (Jabal, or +Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the Seljuks). Here, +however, he came into conflict with the then mighty prince of +Khwārizm (Khīva), who, already exasperated because the +caliph refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved +to overthrow the Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a +descendant of Ali on the throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety, +Nāsir took a step which brought the greatest misery upon +western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival.</p> + +<p>In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish +tribes (Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known +under his honorific title Jenghiz Khān, had conquered the +northern provinces of China, and extended its power to the +frontiers of the Transoxianian regions. To this heathen chief the +Imām of the Moslems sent a messenger, inducing him to attack +the prince of Khwārizm, who already had provoked the Mongolian +by a disrespectful treatment of his envoys. Neither he nor +the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they +conjured up. When Nāsir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225), +the eastern provinces of the empire had been trampled down by +the wild hordes, the towns burned, and the inhabitants killed +without mercy.</p> + +<p>35. <i>Reign of Zāhir</i>.—<i>Al-Zāhir bi-amri‘llāh</i> (“the victorious +through the orders of God”) died within a year after his father’s +death, in Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor +are praised as beneficent and just princes.</p> + +<p>36. <i>Reign of Mostansir</i>.—<i>Al-Mostansir billāh</i> (“he who asks +help from God”) was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640 +(December 1242). In the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khān died, +but the Mongol invasion continued to advance with immense +strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes with success, +to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwārizm, but +after his death in 628 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1231) all resistance was paralysed.</p> + +<p>37. <i>Reign of Mostasim</i>.—<i>Al-Mosta‘ṣim billāh</i> (“he who clings +to God for protection”), son of Mostansir, the last caliph of +Bagdad, was a narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span> +by bad counsellors. In the last month of the year 653 (January +1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the brother of the gteat khān of the +Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by destroying all the +strongholds of the Ismā‘īlīs. Then the turn of Bagdad came. +On the 11th of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived +under the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for +peace. Totally devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by +surrendering and imploring mercy from the barbarian victor. +On the 4th of Saphar (February 10th) he came with his retinue into +the camp. The city was then given up to plunder and slaughter; +many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, after having +been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of the +family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. +With him expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, +which had lasted 524 years, from the entry of Abu’I-Abbas into +Kufa.</p> + +<p>In vain, three years later, did Abu’I-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of +the race of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with +Bibars the Mameluke sultan, and who had been proclaimed +caliph under the title <i>al-Mostanṣir billāh</i> (“he who seeks help +from God”), make an effort to restore a dynasty which was now +for ever extinct. At the head of an army he marched against +Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached that city. +Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found an +asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name +of <i>al-Hākim bi-amrillāh</i> (“he who decides according to the +orders of God”). His sons inherited his title, but, like their +father, remained in Egypt without power or influence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: +<i>History</i>, “Mahommedan period”). This shadow of sovereignty +continued to exist till the conquest of Egypt by the Turkish +sultan Selim I., who compelled the last of them, Motawakkil, to +abdicate in his favour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: <i>History</i>). He died at +Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538.</p> + +<p>Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great-grandson +of the caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a +refuge in India, where the sultan of Delhi received him with +the greatest respect, named him Makhdumzādeh, “the Master’s +son,” and treated him as a prince. Ibn Batūta saw him when +he visited India, and says that he was very avaricious. On his +return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young man, son of +this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as imām +in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father. +It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to +Sumatra, where in the old Samūtra the graves of their descendants +have been lately discovered.</p> +<div class="author">(M. J. de G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and +places appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents +or other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles +on these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in +such cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration +adopted, are there given in addition.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Noldeke, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber</i> +(1864), pp. 89 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> De Goeje, <i>Mémoires d’hist. et de géog. orient.</i> No. 2 (2nd ed., +Leiden, 1864); Nöldeke, <i>D.M.Z.</i>, 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Balādhurī 137.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The accounts differ; see Balādhurī 305. The chronology of the +conquests is in many points uncertain.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Balādhurī 315 sq.; Tabarī. i. 1068.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the +Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden +to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was +either made state property or was restored to the old owners subject +to a perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for +the army.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Nöldeke, <i>Tabari</i>, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment +of the Era of the Flight (Hegira).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the +Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, +and distinguished from the men of Medina.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular nobility +that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities +against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the elevation of the +Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting +not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali’s +hostilities against Zobair and Ṭalḥa, as in that of the Abbasids +against the followers af Ali.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to +‘Abdallah b. abī Sarḥ seems to have been a trick played on the +caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11b" id="ft11b" href="#fa11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ma‘ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Moḍar and +the Rab‘īa tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Moḍar.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12b" id="ft12b" href="#fa12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The Arabs always call them Rūm, <i>i.e.</i> Romans.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13b" id="ft13b" href="#fa13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazān, says that he was a legitimate +son of Abu Sofiān, and that his mother was Asmā, daughter +of A’war. But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to +have been a slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofiān, and who +became later also the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out +whether Abu Sofiān acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later +period, the Abbasid caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyād and his +descendants struck off the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, +the persons concerned gained over the chief of the rolls office, and +had their names replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14b" id="ft14b" href="#fa14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Aghāni xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15b" id="ft15b" href="#fa15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Tabari ii. p. 82.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16b" id="ft16b" href="#fa16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See Chodzko, <i>Théâtre persan</i> (Paris, 1878).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17b" id="ft17b" href="#fa17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Dozy took <i>communis</i> for a gloss to <i>civiliter</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft18b" id="ft18b" href="#fa18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; +it lies a day’s march west from Haleb (Aleppo).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19b" id="ft19b" href="#fa19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches +of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in his <i>Estudio sobre la +Invasion de los Arabes en España</i> (Madrid, 1892). Some of the +details, however, <i>e.g.</i> the battle near Tamames and the part played +by the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but +on probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa +and Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir, <i>Caliphate</i> (London, 1891), pp. 368-9.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20b" id="ft20b" href="#fa20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to +be found in the <i>Kitāb al-Oyūn</i>, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21b" id="ft21b" href="#fa21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Seyid Ameer Ali, <i>A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings +of Mahomet</i>, pp. 341-343.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22b" id="ft22b" href="#fa22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Cf. Van Vloten, <i>Recherches sur la domination arabe, le Chiitisme +et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des Omayades</i> (Amsterdam, +1894), p. 63 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23b" id="ft23b" href="#fa23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Cf. Wellhausen, <i>Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der +Zeit der Umaijiden</i> (Göttingen, 1901), p. 31.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24b" id="ft24b" href="#fa24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Bayān i. p. 42; Dozy, <i>Histoire des musulmans d’Espagne</i>, i. +p. 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist +Nauam.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25b" id="ft25b" href="#fa25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Dozy i. p. 268.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26b" id="ft26b" href="#fa26b"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Merwan has been nicknamed <i>al-Ja‘di</i> and <i>al-Ḥimār</i> (the +Ass). As more than one false interpretation of these names has been +given, it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarānī (ed. de Jong, +p. 31), who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja‘d b. Durham, +killed under the reign of Hishām for heretical opinions, had +followers in Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the +Khorasanians called him a Ja‘d, pretending that all’Ja‘d had been +his teacher. As to al-Ḥimār this was substituted also by the +Khorasanians for his usual title, al-Faras, “the race-horse.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft27b" id="ft27b" href="#fa27b"><span class="fn">27</span></a> The Arabic word for “shedder of blood,” <i>as-Saffāh</i>, which by +that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host +who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have +taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it +an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. +At the same time, it was not without much bloodshed that +Abū‘l-Abbas finally established his power.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28b" id="ft28b" href="#fa28b"><span class="fn">28</span></a> The rule of the +caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly established, had +already, in 740, given place to that of independent princes (see +MOROCCO, <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft29b" id="ft29b" href="#fa29b"><span class="fn">29</span></a> This Hāshimīya near Kufa is not to be confused with that +founded by Abu‘l-Abbas near Anbar.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30b" id="ft30b" href="#fa30b"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Cf. G. le Strange, <i>Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate</i> (Oxford, +1900).</p> + +<p><a name="ft31b" id="ft31b" href="#fa31b"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Tabari iii. p. 443 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32b" id="ft32b" href="#fa32b"><span class="fn">32</span></a> The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called +Anṣār (“helpers”).</p> + +<p><a name="ft33b" id="ft33b" href="#fa33b"><span class="fn">33</span></a> On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard +in the <i>Journal Asiatique</i> for March-April, 1869.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34b" id="ft34b" href="#fa34b"><span class="fn">34</span></a> Cf. W.M. Patton, <i>Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna</i> (Leiden, +1897); and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35b" id="ft35b" href="#fa35b"><span class="fn">35</span></a> See M.J. de Goeje, <i>Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes +travers l’Asie</i> (Leiden, 1903); also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gipsies</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36b" id="ft36b" href="#fa36b"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See M.J. de Goeje, “De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze,” +<i>Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk.</i> 4<span class="sp">e</span> Reeks, iii., +1900.</p> + +<p><a name="ft37b" id="ft37b" href="#fa37b"><span class="fn">37</span></a> See M.J. de Goeje, “De muur van Gog en Magog,” <i>Versl. en +Meded.</i> 3<span class="sp">e</span> Reeks, v., 1888.</p> + +<p><a name="ft38b" id="ft38b" href="#fa38b"><span class="fn">38</span></a> “Dinars” in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error +for “dirhems.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft39b" id="ft39b" href="#fa39b"><span class="fn">39</span></a> This Boghā was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Waṣīf, +a man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40b" id="ft40b" href="#fa40b"><span class="fn">40</span></a> See Nöldeke, <i>Orientalische Skizzen</i>, pp. 155 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft41b" id="ft41b" href="#fa41b"><span class="fn">41</span></a> For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under +FATIMITES.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42b" id="ft42b" href="#fa42b"><span class="fn">42</span></a> M.J. de Goeje, <i>Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahraïn et les +Fatimides</i> (Leiden, 1886).</p> + +<p><a name="ft43b" id="ft43b" href="#fa43b"><span class="fn">43</span></a> See Defrémery, <i>Mémoire sur les Emirs al-Omara</i> (Paris, 1848).</p> + +<p><a name="ft44b" id="ft44b" href="#fa44b"><span class="fn">44</span></a> Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the +Seljuk princes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seljuks</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIVER,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is +an English corruption of “calibre,” and arises from the “arquebus +of calibre,” that is, of standard bore, which replaced the +older arquebus. “Caliver,” therefore, is practically synonymous +with “arquebus.” The heavier musket, fired from a rest, replaced +the caliver or arquebus towards the close of the century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIXTUS,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Callistus</span>, the name of three popes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Calixtus I</span>., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before +the discovery of the book of the <i>Philosophumena</i>. From this +work, which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we +learn that Calixtus was originally a slave and engaged in banking. +Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the +Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile +to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope +Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the +government of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus +(217) he was elected in his place and occupied the papal chair +for five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus, the author +of the <i>Philosophumena</i>, accused him of having favoured the +medalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and after his +election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most +prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him +also of certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus +reduced the penitential severities applied until his time to +those guilty of adultery and other analogous sins. Under +Calixtus and his two immediate successors, Hippolytus was +the leader of a schismatic group, organized by way of protest +against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in 222, in circumstances +obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine +the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr +popes.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Calixtus II</span>. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, +a member of a noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop +of Vienne about 1088, and belonged to the party which favoured +reform in the Church. In September 1112, after Pope Paschal II. +had made a surrender to the emperor Henry V., Guido called a +council at Vienne, which declared against lay investiture, and +excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen pope +at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the +anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his +consecration he opened negotiations with the emperor with a +view to settling the dispute over investiture. Terms of peace +were arranged, but at the last moment difficulties arose and the +treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 both emperor and +anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. +The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal +march. He was received with great enthusiasm in the city, +while Gregory, having fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands +and treated with great ignominy. Through the efforts of some +German princes negotiations between pope and emperor were +renewed, and the important Concordat of Worms made in +September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible by +concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, +and was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. +During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of +the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored +several buildings within the city of Rome. During preparations +for a crusade he died in Rome on the 13th or 14th of December +1124.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Maurer, <i>Pabst Calixt II.</i> (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, +<i>Hisloire du pape Calixte II.</i> (Paris, 1891); and A. Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Calixtus III</span>. (<i>c.</i> 1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a +Spaniard named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of +Xativa, he gained a great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor +at Lerida; in 1429 he was made bishop of Valencia, and +in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion mainly to his close +friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily. Chosen +pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a crusade +against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, +succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the +people of Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, +and very little result came from the pope’s exertions. During +his papacy Calixtus became involved in a quarrel with his former +friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now also king of Naples, and after +the king’s death in June 1458 he refused to recognize his illegitimate +son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, asserting that this +kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was notorious for +nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, +Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He +died on the 6th of August 1458.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALIXTUS, GEORG<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born +at Medelby, a village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying +philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstädt, Jena, Giessen, +Tübingen and Heidelberg, he travelled through Holland, France +and England, where he became acquainted with the leading +Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was appointed professor +of theology at Helmstädt by the duke of Brunswick, who had +admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute +with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a +book, <i>Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus</i>, +which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in +1619 he published his <i>Epitome theologiae</i>, and some years later +his <i>Theologia Moralis</i> (1634) and <i>De Arte Nova Nihusii</i>. Roman +Catholics felt them to be aimed at their own system, but they +gave so great offence to Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher +to charge the author with a secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely +had he refuted the accusation of Buscher, when, on account of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span> +his intimacy with the Reformed divines at the conference of +Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a reconciliation between +them and the Lutherans, a new charge was preferred against him, +principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius (1612-1686), of +a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim of his +life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant +differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, +known in the Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted +during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran +church, till a new controversy arose with P.J. Spener and the +Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is a monograph on Calixtus by E.L.T. Henke (2 vols., +1853-1856); see also Isaak Dorner, <i>Gesch. d. protest. Theol.</i> pp. +606-624; and especially Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALL<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (from Anglo-Saxon <i>ceallian</i>, a common Teutonic word, +cf. Dutch <i>kallen</i>, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and +particularly to attract some one’s attention by a loud utterance. +Hence its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the +occupier, to whom the visit was made, was called aloud, in early +times, to indicate the presence of the visitor. It is thus transferred +to a short stay at a place, but usually with the idea of a +specific purpose, as in “port of call,” where ships stop in passing. +Connected with the idea of summoning by name are such uses as +“roll-call” or “call-over,” where names are called over and +answered by those present; similar uses are the “call to the +bar,” the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students +qualified to practise as barristers, and the “call within the bar” +to the appointment of king’s counsel. In the first case the “bar” +is that which separates the benchers from the rest of the body +of members of the Inn, in the other the place in a court of law +within which only king’s counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law, +are allowed to plead. “Call” is also used with a particular +reference to a divine summons, as of the calling of the apostles. +It is thus used in nonconformist churches of the invitation to +serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. It is from +this sense of a <i>vocatio</i> or summons that the word “calling” is +used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man’s ordinary +profession, occupation or business. In card games “call” is +used, in poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest +bettor be exposed or seen, exercised by that player who equals +his bet; in whist or bridge, of a certain method of play, the +“call” for a suit or for trumps on the part of one partner, to +which the other is expected to respond; and in many card +games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is +laid face up on the table, and may be thus “called” for, at +any point the opponent may choose.</p> + +<p>“Call” is also a term on the English and American stock +exchanges for a contract by which, in consideration of a certain +sum, an “option” is given by the person making or signing the +agreement to another named therein or his order or to bearer, +to “call” for a specified amount of stock at a certain day for a +certain price. A “put,” which is the reverse of a “call,” is the +option of selling (putting) stock at a certain day for a certain +price. A combined option of either calling or putting is termed +a “straddle,” and sometimes on the American stock exchange a +“spread-eagle.” (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stock Exchange</a></span>.) The word is also +used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand +for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company +has not been demanded or “called” up at once. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLANDER,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m. +north-west of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) +1458. Situated on the north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a +three-arched bridge, and sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is +in growing repute as a health resort. A mile and a half north-east +are the Falls of Bracklinn (Gaelic, “white-foaming pool”), +formed by the Keltie, which takes a leap of 50 ft. down the red +sandstone gorge on its way to the Teith. Two miles north-west +of Callander is the Pass of Leny, “the gate of the Highlands,” +and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the shores +of which stand the ruins of St Bride’s chapel. Callander owes +much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from +which the Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that +described in Scott’s <i>Lady of the Lake</i>. The ascent of Ben Ledi is +commonly made from the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLAO,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8½ m. +west of Lima, in 12° 04′ S., 77° 13′ W. Pop. (1905) 31,128, of +whom 3349 were foreigners. The department includes the city +and its environs, Bellavista and La Punta, and the neighbouring +islands, San Lorenzo, Fronton, the Palominos, &c., and covers +an area of 14½ sq. m. Callao is the principal port of the republic, +its harbour being a large bay sheltered by a tongue of land on the +south called La Punta, and by the islands of San Lorenzo and +Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and the harbour is +one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. The city +stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a flat point of +land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most +part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly +paved, irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast +is swept by cool ocean breezes, the average temperatures +ranging from 65° to 77° F., but notwithstanding this, Callao +has a bad reputation for fevers and contagious diseases, chiefly +because of its insanitary condition. Its noteworthy public +buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses which occupy +the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish government +between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, the +military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three +Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some +modern commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north +of the site of the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake +and tidal wave in 1746. For a short time the commercial +interests of the stricken city centred at Bellavista, 1¼ m. east, +where wheat granaries were built and still remain, but later the +greater convenience of a waterside site drew the merchants and +population back to the vicinity of the submerged town. The +importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only open +port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political +order, because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss +of its monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked, +and the modern development of the port began, when a railway +was built from Callao into the heart of the Andes, and Callao is +now an important factor in the development of copper-mining. +The port is connected with Lima by two railways and an electric +tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and with Cerro +de Pasco by railway 221 m. A short railway also runs from the +port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with +modern harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete +blocks, two fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels, +and a large floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable +of receiving vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight), +which was built in Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863. +The docks are provided with gas and electric lights, 18 steam +cranes for loading and discharging vessels, a triple line of railway +and a supply of fresh water. Callao was formerly the headquarters +in South America of the Pacific Steam Navigation +Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies +that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of +Lima, few industrial establishments in the city; among them are +a large sugar refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory +for making effervescent drinks, and a number of foundries and +repair shops. Being a port of the first class, Callao is an important +distributing centre for the coasting trade, in which a +large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign steamship +companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific +Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compañia Sud-America +(Chilean), the Kosmos and Roland lines (German), the Merchants +line (New York), and a Japanese line from the ports of Japan +and China. A subsidized Peruvian line is also contemplated to +ply between the Pacific ports of South America with an eventual +extension of the service to Europe. The arrivals from and +clearances for foreign ports in 1907 were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2">Sailing Vessels.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">No.</td> <td class="tcc">Tonnage.</td> <td class="tcc">No.</td> <td class="tcc">Tonnage.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Arrivals</td> <td class="tcc">518</td> <td class="tcc">937,302</td> <td class="tcc">924</td> <td class="tcc">174,165</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clearances</td> <td class="tcc">517</td> <td class="tcc">937,706</td> <td class="tcc">931</td> <td class="tcc">163,365</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span></p> + +<p>The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides, +silver, copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include +timber and other building materials, cotton and other textiles, +general merchandise for personal, household and industrial +uses, railway material, coal, kerosene, wheat, flour and other +food stuffs. The maintenance of peace and order, and the mining +development of the interior, have added to the trade and prosperity +of the port.</p> + +<p>The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was +founded in 1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima. +As the port of that capital and the only open port below Panama +it grew rapidly in importance and wealth. It was raised to the +dignity of a city in 1671. The appearance of Sir Francis Drake +in the bay in 1578 led to the fortification of the port, which +proved strong enough to repel an attack by the Dutch in 1624. +The city was completely destroyed and partly submerged by the +great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which about +6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and +figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also +in the various revolutions which have convulsed the republic. +Its political autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a +coast department. The Callao fortifications were bombarded by +a Spanish fleet under Admiral Mendez Nuñez on the 2nd of May +1866, when there were heavy losses both in lives and material. +Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the Chileans, though +it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession of the +invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before +the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were +sunk, to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1779-1844), English +landscape painter, was born at Kensington in 1779 and died +there in 1844. His first study was music; and he sang for +several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. But at the age +of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had exhibited +his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to +distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an academician +in 1810. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood; +and, seven years later, was appointed surveyor of the royal +pictures. His two principal subject pictures—“Raphael and +the Fornarina,” and “Milton dictating to his Daughters,” are +much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in the highest +class by their refined taste and quiet beauty.</p> + +<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Maria</span>, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married +in 1827, was a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of +Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. (d. 1822). With her first husband +she travelled in India, South Africa and South America, where +she acted for some time as teacher of Donna Maria, who became +queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her second +husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She +published accounts of her visits to India (1812), and to the +environs of Rome (1820); <i>Memoirs of Poussin</i> (1820); a +<i>History of France</i>; a <i>History of Spain</i> (1828); <i>Essays toward a +History of Painting</i> (1836); <i>Little Arthur’s History of England</i> +(1836); and the <i>Scripture Herbal</i> (1842).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1766-1821), English musician, +brother of Sir Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the +20th of November 1766. At the age of seven he was sent to a +neighbouring day-school, where he continued for five years, +studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this time he frequently +went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which his father was +employed, and the impression he received on hearing the organ +of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The +organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott +received his first musical instruction. He did not, however, +choose music as a profession, as he wished to become a surgeon. +But on witnessing a surgical operation he found his nervous +system so seriously affected by the sight, that he determined to +devote himself to music. His intimacy with Dr Arnold and +other leading musicians of the day procured him access to artistic +circles; he was deputy organist at St George the Martyr, Queen +Square, Bloomsbury, from 1783 to 1785, in which year his successful +competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by +the “Catch Club” soon spread his reputation as composer of +glees, catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music. +The compositions with which he won these medals were—the +catch “O beauteous fair,” the canon “Blessed is he,” and the +glee “Dull repining sons of care.” In these and other similar +compositions he displays considerable skill and talent, and some +of his glees retain their popularity at the present day. In 1787 +Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the “Glee Club.” +In 1789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul’s, Covent +Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for +Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never +succeeded, not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But +of far greater importance than his compositions are his theoretical +writings. His <i>Musical Grammar</i>, published in 1806 (3rd ed., +1817), was long considered the standard English work of musical +instruction, and in spite of its being antiquated when compared +with modern standards, it remains a scholarly and lucid treatment +of the rudiments of the art. Callcott was a much-esteemed +teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he took his degree of +Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had received his +degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr Crotch +as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of +his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of +his mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on +the 15th of May 1821. A posthumous collection of his most +favourite vocal pieces was published in 1824 with a memoir of +his life by his son-in-law, William Horsley, himself a composer +of note.</p> + +<p>Callcott’s son, <span class="sc">William Hutchins Callcott</span> (1807-1882), inherited +to a large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song, +“The last man,” and his anthem, “Give peace in our time, O +Lord,” were his best-known compositions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLIAS,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance +of Philip II. of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contemplated +the subjugation of the whole island. But finding that +Philip was unwilling to help him, Callias had recourse to the +Athenians, although he had previously (350 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) been engaged +in hostilities with them. With the support of Demosthenes, he +was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the tribute +formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over +to him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his +rule, with Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up +tyrants chosen by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently, +when Philip’s attention was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians +in conjunction with Callias drove out these tyrants, and Callias +thus became master of the island (Demosthenes, <i>De Pace</i>, p. 58; +<i>Epistola Philippi</i>, p. 159; Diod. Sic. xvi. 74). At the end of his +life he appears to have lived at Athens, and Demosthenes proposed +to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines, <i>Contra +Ctesiphontem</i>, 85, 87).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLIAS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> and <b>HIPPONICUS,</b> two names borne alternately by +the heads of a wealthy and distinguished Athenian family. +During the 5th and 4th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span> the office of <i>daduchus</i> or +torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary +privilege of the family till its extinction. The following members +deserve mention.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Callias</span>, the second of the name, fought at the battle of +Marathon (490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of +Cimon, probably about 445 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, he was sent to Susa to conclude +with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards +misnamed the “peace of Cimon.” Cimon had nothing to do +with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea of peace with +Persia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cimon</a></span>). At all events Callias’s mission does not +seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason +on his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes, <i>De +Falsa Legatione</i>, p. 428; Grote recognizes the treaty as a historical +fact, <i>History of Greece</i>, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii. ch. ii., denies the +conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, <i>Forschungen</i>, +ii.; J.B. Bury in <i>Hermathena</i>, xxiv. (1898).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Hipponicus</span>, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon +he commanded the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian +territory (426 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and was slain at the battle of Delium (424). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span> +His wife, whom he divorced, subsequently became the wife of +Pericles; one of his daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades; +another, the wife of Theodorus, was the mother of the orator +Isocrates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Thucydides iii. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides, <i>Contra +Alcibiadem</i>, 13.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Callias</span>, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was +notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed +by the comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian +(Aristophanes, <i>Frogs</i>, 429, <i>Birds</i>, 283, and schol. Andocides, <i>De +Mysteriis</i>, 110-131). The scene of Xenophon’s <i>Symposium</i> and +Plato’s <i>Protagoras</i> was laid at his house. He was reduced to a +state of absolute poverty and, according to Aelian (<i>Var. Hist.</i> iv. +23), committed suicide, but there is no confirmation of this. In +spite of his dissipated life he played a certain part in public +affairs. In 392 he was in command of the Athenian hoplites at +Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by Iphicrates. In 371 +he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms with Sparta. +The peace which was the result was called after him the “peace +of Callias.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, iv. 5, vi. 3; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLIMACHUS,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the +5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Ancient critics associate him with Calamis, +whose relative he may have been. He is given credit for two +inventions, the Corinthian column and the running borer for +drilling marble. The most certain facts in regard to him are that +he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and made a +golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>); and that he +used to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLIMACHUS,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> Greek poet and grammarian, a native of +Cyrene and a descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae, +flourished about 250 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He opened a school in the suburbs of +Alexandria, and some of the most distinguished grammarians +and poets were his pupils. He was subsequently appointed +by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the Alexandrian +library, which office he held till his death (about 240). His +<i>Pinakes</i> (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically +arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history +of Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800 +works, in verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four +epigrams and some fragments are extant; a considerable +fragment of the <i>Hecale</i>, an idyllic epic, has also been discovered +in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon in <i>Classical Review</i>, November +1893). His <i>Coma Berenices</i> is only known from the celebrated +imitation of Catullus. His <i>Aitia</i> (causes) was a collection of +elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the foundation of +cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According to +Quintilian (<i>Instit.</i> x. i. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac poets; +his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by +Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns +are extremely learned, and written in a laboured and artificial +style. The epigrams, some of the best specimens of their kind, +have been incorporated in the Greek Anthology. Art and learning +are his chief characteristics, unrelieved by any real poetic +genius; in the words of Ovid (<i>Amores</i>, i. 15)—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center ptb1">“Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet.”</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.—Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected +by Bentley) by J.A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) +(with elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by +A. Meineke (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (1897). See <i>Neue +Bruchstücke aus der Hekale des Kallimachus</i>, by T. Gomperz (1893); +also G. Knaack, <i>Callimachea</i> (1896); A. Bertrami, <i>Gl’ Inni di Callimacho +e il Nomo di Terpandro</i> (1896); K. Kuiper, <i>Studia Callimachea</i> +(1896); A. Hamette, <i>Les Épigrammes de Callimaque: étude critique +et litteraire</i> (Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by +W. Dodd (1755) and H.W. Tytler (1793); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). +See also Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. (ed. 1906), p. 122.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLINUS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets +and the creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed +to have flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the +Cimmerii and their expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). During +his lifetime his own countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-death +struggle with the Magnesians. These two events give the +key to his poetry, in which he endeavours to rouse the indolent +Ionians to a sense of patriotism. Only scanty fiagments of his +poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in Stobaeus, +<i>Florilegium</i>, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bergk, <i>Poetae +Lyrici Graeci</i> (1882). On the date of Callinus, see the histories of +Greek literature by Mure and Müller; G.H. Bode, <i>Geschichte der +hellenischen Dichtkunst</i>, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger, <i>De Callini +Aetate</i> (1877), who places him earlier, about 642.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLIOPE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweetness +of her vioce (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kallos">κάλλος</span>, beauty; <span class="grk" title="ops">ὄψ</span>, voice). In Hesiod she +was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over +the others. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muses, The</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLIRRHOE,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-god +Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon (<i>q.v.</i>). At her earnest +request her husband induced Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia, +and the father of his first wife Arsinoë (or Alphesiboea), to hand +over to him the necklace and peplus (robe) of Harmonia (<i>q.v.</i>), +that he might dedicate them at Delphi to complete the cure of +his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were really +meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid +and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102). +Callirrhoe now implored the gods that her two young sons might +grow to manhood at once and avenge their father’s death. +This was granted, and her sons Amphoterus and Acarnan slew +Phegeus with his two sons, and returning with the necklace and +peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> ix. 413).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLISTHENES<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 360-328 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), of Olynthus, Greek historian, +a relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation +he was appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic +expedition. He censured Alexander’s adoption of oriental +customs, inveighing especially against the servile ceremony of +adoration. Having thereby greatly offended the king, he was +accused of being privy to a treasonable conspiracy and thrown +into prison, where he died from torture or disease. His melancholy +end was commemorated in a special treatise (<span class="grk" title="Kallisthenaes +ae peri penthous">Καλλισθένης ἢ περὶ πένθους</span>) by his friend Theophrastus, whose acquaintance +he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote +an account of Alexander’s expedition, a history of Greece from +the peace of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a +history of the Phocian war and other works, all of which have +perished. The romantic life of Alexander, the basis of all the +Alexander legends of the middle ages, originated during the +time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form belongs to the +3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> Its author is usually known as pseudo-Callisthenes, +although, in the Latin translation by Julius Valerius +Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is ascribed +to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and +Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are +also Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to +four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle +ages (see Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i>, +1897, p. 849). Valerius’s translation was completely superseded +by that of Leo, arch-priest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-called +<i>Historia de Preliis</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni</i> (by C.W. Müller, in the +Didot edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments +and the text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduction; +A. Westermann, <i>De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene +Commentatio</i> (1838-1842); J. Zacher, <i>Pseudo-Callisthenes</i> (1867); +W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> (1898), pp. 363, 819; +article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>; +A. Ausfeld, <i>Zur Kritik des griechischen Alexanderromans</i> +(Bruchsal, 1894); Plutarch, <i>Alexander</i>, 52-55; Arrian, <i>Anab</i>. iv. 10-14; +Diog. Laërtius v. I; Quintus Curtius viii. 5-8; Suidas <i>s.v.</i> +See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander The Great</a></span> (<i>ad fin.</i>). For the Latin translations +see Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng, trans.), +§ 399; and M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i>, iv. i., p.43.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLISTO,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> in Greek mythology, an Arcadian nymph, daughter +of Lycaon and companion of Artemis. She was transformed into +a bear as a penalty for having borne to Zeus a son, Arcas, the +ancestor of the Arcadians. Hera, Zeus and Artemis are all +mentioned as the authors of the transformation. Arcas, when +hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot her, +had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where +he placed them as a constellation. In another version, she was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span> +slain by Artemis. Callisto was originally only an epithet of the +Arcadian Artemis herself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> ii. 381-530; R. Franz, <i>De +Callistus fabula</i> (1890), which deals exhaustively with the various +forms of the legend.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLISTRATUS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at the +beginning of the 2nd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was one of the pupils of +Aristophanes of Byzantium, who were distinctively called +Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted himself to the +elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his commentaries +have been preserved in the various collections of +scholia and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscellaneous +work called <span class="grk" title="Summikta">Συμμικτά</span> used by the later lexicographers, +and of a treatise on courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D). +He is not to be confused with Callistratus, the pupil and successor +of Isocrates and author of a history of Heraclea in Pontus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Schmidt, <i>De Callistrato Aristophaneo</i>, appended to +A. Nauck’s <i>Aristophanis Byzantii Fragmenta</i> (1848); also C.W. +Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, iv. p. 353 note.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLISTRATUS,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> an Athenian poet, only known as the author +of a hymn in honour of Harmodius (<i>q.v.</i>) and Aristogeiton. This +ode, which is to be found in Athenaeus (p. 695), has been beautifully +translated by Thomas Moore.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLISTRATUS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> Greek sophist and rhetorician, probably +flourished in the 3rd century. He wrote <span class="grk" title="Ekfraseis">Έκφράσεις</span>, descriptions +of fourteen works of art in stone or brass by distinguished +artists. This little work, which is written in a dry and affected +style, without any real artistic feeling, is usually edited with the +<span class="grk" title="Eikones">Εἰκόνες</span> of Philostratus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edition by Schenkl-Reisch (Teubner series, 1902); see also C.G. +Heyne, <i>Opuscula Academica</i>, v. pp. 196-221, with commentary on the +<i>Descriptiones</i>; F. Jacobs, <i>Animadversiones criticae in Callistrati +statuas</i> (1797).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLISTRATUS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> of Aphidnae, Athenian orator and general in +the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> For many years, as <i>prostates</i>, he supported +Spartan interests at Athens. On account of the refusal of the +Thebans to surrender Oropus, which on his advice they had been +allowed to occupy temporarily, Callistratus, despite his magnificent +defence (which so impressed Demosthenes that he +resolved to study oratory), was condemned to death, 361 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +He fled to Methone in Macedonia, and on his return to Athens +in 355 he was executed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, iii. 3, vi. 2; Lycurgus, <i>In Leocr.</i> 93.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLOT, JACQUES<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1592-1635), French engraver, was born +at Nancy in Lorraine, where his father, Jean Callot, was a herald-at-arms. +He early discovered a very strong predilection for art, +and at the age of twelve quitted home without his father’s +consent, and set out for Rome where he intended to prosecute +his studies. Being utterly destitute of funds he joined a troop of +Bohemians, and arrived in their company at Florence. In this +city he had the good fortune to attract the notice of a gentleman +of the court, who supplied him with the means of study; but he +removed in a short time to Rome, where, however, he was +recognized by some relatives, who immediately compelled him +to return home. Two years after this, and when only fourteen +years old, he again left France contrary to the wishes of his +friends, and reached Turin before he was overtaken by his elder +brother, who had been despatched in quest of him. As his +enthusiasm for art remained undiminished after these disappointments, +he was at last allowed to accompany the duke of Lorraine’s +envoy to the papal court. His first care was to study the art of +design, of which in a short time he became a perfect master. +Philip Thomasin instructed him in the use of the graver, which, +however, he ultimately abandoned, substituting the point as +better adapted for his purposes. From Rome he went to Florence, +where he remained till the death of Cosimo II., the Maecenas of +these times. On returning to his native country he was warmly +received by the then duke of Lorraine, who admired and encouraged +him. As his fame was now spread abroad in various +countries of Europe, many distinguished persons gave him +commissions to execute. By the Infanta Isabella, sovereign of +the Low Countries, he was commissioned to engrave a design of +the siege of Breda; and at the request of Louis XIII. he designed +the siege of Rochelle and the attack on the Isle of Ré. When, +however, in 1631 he was desired by that monarch to execute an +engraving of the siege of Nancy, which he had just taken, Callot +refused, saying, “I would rather cut off my thumb than do +anything against the honour of my prince and of my country”; +to which Louis replied that the duke of Lorraine was happy in +possessing such subjects as Callot. Shortly after this he returned +to his native place, from which the king failed to allure him with +the offer of a handsome pension. He engraved in all about 1600 +pieces, the best of which are those executed in aquafortis. No +one ever possessed in a higher degree the talent for grouping a +large number of figures in a small space, and of representing with +two or three bold strokes the expression, action and peculiar +features of each individual. Freedom, variety and <i>naiveté</i> +characterize all his pieces. His Fairs, his Miseries of War, his +Sieges, his Temptation of St Anthony and his Conversion of St +Paul are the best-known of his plates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Edouard Meaume, <i>Recherches sur la vie de Jacques Callot</i> +(1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALLOVIAN<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from <i>Callovium</i>, the Latinized form of Kellaways, +a village not far from Chippenham in Wiltshire), in geology, the +name introduced by d’Orbigny for the strata which constitute +the base of the Oxfordian or lowermost stage of the Middle +Oolites. The term used by d’Orbigny in 1844 was “Kellovien,” +subsequently altered to “Callovien” in 1849; William Smith +wrote “Kellaways” or “Kelloways Stone” towards the close +of the 18th century. In England it is now usual to speak of the +Kellaways Beds; these comprise (1) the Kellaways Rock, +alternating clays and sands with frequent but irregular concretionary +calcareous sandstones, with abundant fossils; and +(2) a lower division, the Kellaways Clay, which often contains +much selenite but is poor in fossils. The lithological characters +are impersistent, and the sandy phase encroaches sometimes +more, sometimes less, upon the true Oxford Clay. The rocks +may be traced from Wiltshire into Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire +and Yorkshire, where they are well exposed in the cliffs at +Scarborough and Gristhorpe, at Hackness (90 ft.), Newtondale +(80 ft.) and Kepwick (100 ft.). In Yorkshire, however, the +Callovian rocks lie upon a somewhat higher palaeontological +horizon than in Wiltshire. In England, <i>Kepplerites calloviensis</i> +is taken as the zone fossil; other common forms are <i>Cosmoceras +modiolare</i>, <i>C. gowerianum</i>, <i>Belemnites oweni</i>, <i>Ancyloceras calloviense</i>, +<i>Nautilus calloviensis</i>, <i>Avicula ovalis</i>, <i>Gryphaea bilobata</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>On the European continent the “Callovien” stage is used in a +sense that is not exactly synonymous with the English Callovian; +it is employed to embrace beds that lie both higher and lower in +the time-scale. Thus, the continental Callovien includes the +following zones:—</p> + +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tclm" style="white-space: nowrap;">Upper Callovien (Divesien) +<span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">{</span></td> + <td class="tcl">Zone of <i>Peltoceras athleta</i>, <i>Cosmoceras Duncani</i>, +<i>Quenstedtoceras Lamberti</i> and <i>Q. mariae.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm" style="white-space: nowrap;">Lower Callovien +<span style="font-size: 4em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">{</span></td> +<td class="tcl">Zone of <i>Reineckia anceps</i>, <i>Stephanoceras coronatum</i> +and <i>Cosmoceras jason</i> and a lower +zone of <i>C. gowerianum</i> and <i>Macrocephalites +macrocephalus</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Rocks of Callovian age (according to the continental classification) +are widely spread in Europe, which, with the exception of +numerous insular masses, was covered by the Callovian Sea. The +largest of these land areas lay over Scandinavia and Finland, +and extended eastward as far as the 40th meridian. In arctic +regions these rocks have been discovered in Spitzbergen, Franz +Josef Land, the east coast of Greenland, and Siberia. They +occur in the Hebrides and Skye and in England as indicated +above. In France they are well exposed on the coast of Calvados +between Trouville and Dives, where the marls and clays are +200 ft. thick. In the Ardennes clays bearing pyrites and oolitic +limonite are about 30 ft. thick. Around Poitiers the Callovian +is 100 ft. thick, but the formation thins in the direction of the +Jura.</p> + +<p>Clays and shales with ferruginous oolites represent the Callovian +of Germany; while in Russia the deposits of this age are mainly +argillaceous. In North America Callovian fossils are found in +California; in South America in Bolivia. In Africa they have +been found in Algeria and Morocco, in Somaliland and Zanzibar, +and on the west coast of Madagascar. In India they are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span> +represented by the shales and limestones of the Chari series of +Cutch. Callovian rocks are also recorded from New Guinea +and the Moluccas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jurassic</a></span>; also A. de Lapparent, <i>Traité de géologie</i>, vol. ii. +(5th ed., 1906), and H.B. Woodward, “The Jurassic Rocks of +Britain,” <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, vol. v.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALM,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> an adjective meaning peaceful, quiet; particularly +used of the weather, free from wind or storm, or of the sea, +opposed to rough. The word appears in French <i>calme</i>, through +which it came into English, in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian +<i>calma</i>. Most authorities follow Diez (<i>Etym. Wörterbuch der +romanischen Sprachen</i>) in tracing the origin to the Low Latin +<i>cauma</i>, an adaptation of Greek <span class="grk" title="kauma">καῦμα</span>, burning heat, <span class="grk" title="kaiein">καίειν</span>, to burn. +The Portuguese <i>calma</i> has this meaning as well as that of quiet. +The connexion would be heat of the day, rest during that period, +so quiet, rest, peacefulness. The insertion of the <i>l</i>, which in +English pronunciation disappears, is probably due to the Latin +<i>calor</i>, heat, with which the word was associated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1672-1757), French Benedictine, +was born at Mesnil-la-Horgne on the 26th of February +1672. At the age of seventeen he joined the Benedictine order, +and in 1698 was appointed to teach theology and philosophy at +the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was successively prior at Lay, +abbot at Nancy and of Sénones in Lorraine. He died in Paris +on the 25th of October 1757. The erudition of Calmet’s exegetical +writings won him a reputation that was not confined to the +Roman Catholic Church, but they have failed to stand the test +of modern scholarship. The most noteworthy are:—<i>Commentaire +de la Bible</i> (Paris, 23 vols. 1707-1716), and <i>Dictionnaire historique, +géographique, critique, chronologique et littéral de la Bible</i> (Paris, +2 vols., 1720). These and numerous other works and editions of +the Bible are known only to students, but as a pioneer in a branch +of Biblical study which received a wide development in the +19th century, Calmet is worthy of remembrance. As a historical +writer he is best known by his <i>Histoire ecclésiastique et +civile de la Lorraine</i> (Nancy, 1728), founded on original research +and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full list is given +In Vigouroux’s <i>Dictionnaire de la Bible</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Digot, <i>Notice biographique et littéraire sur Dom Augustin +Calmet</i> (Nancy, 1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALNE,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99 m. west +of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3457. +Area, 356 acres. It lies in the valley of the Calne, and is surrounded +by the high table-land of Salisbury Plain and the +Marlborough Downs. The church of St Mark has a nave with +double aisles, and massive late Norman pillars and arches. The +tower, which fell in 1628, was perhaps rebuilt by Inigo Jones. +Other noteworthy buildings are a grammar school, founded by +John Bentley in 1660, and the town-hall. Bacon-curing is the +staple industry, and there are flour, flax and paper mills. The +manufacture of broadcloth, once of great importance, is almost +extinct. Calne is governed by a mayor, four aldermen and +twelve councillors.</p> + +<p>In the 10th century Calne (<i>Canna</i>, <i>Kalne</i>) was the site of a +palace of the West-Saxon kings. Calne was the scene of the +synod of 978 when, during the discussion of the question of +celibacy, the floor suddenly gave way beneath the councillors, +leaving Archbishop Dunstan alone standing upon a beam. +Here also a witenagemot was summoned in 997. In the Domesday +Survey Calne appears as a royal borough; it comprised +forty-seven burgesses and was not assessed in hides. In 1565 +the borough possessed a gild merchant, at the head of which +were two gild stewards. Calne claimed to have received a charter +from Stephen and a confirmation of the same from Henry III., +but no record of these is extant, and the charter actually issued +to the borough by James II. in 1687 apparently never came into +force. The borough returned two members to parliament more +or less irregularly from the first parliament of Edward I. until the +Reform Bill of 1832. From this date the borough returned one +member only until, by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the +privilege was annulled. In 1303 Lodovicus de Bello Monte, +prebendary of Salisbury, obtained a grant of a Saturday market +at the manor of Calne, and a three days’ fair at the feast of +St Mary Magdalene; the latter was only abandoned in the 19th +century. Calne was formerly one of the chief centres of cloth +manufacture in the west of England, but the industry is extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALOMEL<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>, a drug consisting of mercurous chloride, mercury +subchloride, Hg<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">2</span>, which occurs in nature as the mineral +horn-quicksilver, found as translucent crystals belonging to the +tetragonal system, with an adamantine lustre, and a dirty white +grey or brownish colour. The chief localities are Idria, Obermoschel, +Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in Spain. It was +used in medicine as early as the 16th century under the names +<i>Draco mitigatus, Manna metallorum, Aquila alba, Mercurius dulcis</i>; +later it became known as calomel, a name probably derived +from the Greek <span class="grk" title="kalos">καλός</span>, beautiful, and <span class="grk" title="melas">μέλας</span>, black, in allusion +to its blackening by ammonia, or from <span class="grk" title="kalos">καλός</span> and <span class="grk" title="meli">μέλι</span>, honey, +from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by heating mercury in +chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) +with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by heating +a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron +retorts, and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers. +In the wet way it is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt +with hydrochloric acid. Calomel is a white powder which +sublimes at a low red heat; it is insoluble in water, alcohol and +ether. Boiling with stannous chloride solution reduces it to +the metal; digestion with potassium iodide gives mercurous +iodide. Nitric acid oxidizes it to mercuric nitrate, while +potash or soda decomposes it into mercury and oxygen. Long +continued boiling with water gives mercury and mercuric +chloride; dilute hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline +chlorides convert it into mercuric chloride on long boiling.</p> + +<p>The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion +for much discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour +density to be 8.3 (air = 1), corresponding to HgCl. The supporters +of the formula Hg<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">2</span> pointed out that dissociation into mercury +and mercuric chloride would give this value, since mercury is a +monatomic element. After contradictory evidence as to whether +dissociation did or did not occur, it was finally shown by Victor +Meyer and W. Harris (1894) that a rod moistened with potash +and inserted in the vapour was coloured yellow, and so conclusively +proved dissociation. A. Werner determined the molecular +weights of mercurous, cuprous and silver bromides, iodides +and chlorides in pyridine solution, and obtained results pointing +to the formula HgCl, etc. However, the double formula, +Hg<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">2</span>, has been completely established by H.B. Baker (<i>Journ. +Chem. Soc.</i>, 1900, 77, p. 646) by vapour density determinations +of the absolutely dry substance.</p> + +<p>Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in +medicine which are dealt with here as a supplement to the +general discussion of the pharmacology and therapeutics of +mercury (<i>q.v.</i>). Calomel exerts remote actions in the form of +mercuric chloride. The specific value of mercurous chloride is +that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric chloride in the +safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is continuously +and freshly generated in small quantities. Its pharmacopeial +preparations are the “Black wash,” in which calomel and lime +react to form mercurous oxide, a pill still known as “Plummer’s +pill” and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any particular +advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the +existence of the official ointment. Internally the salt is given in +doses—for an adult of from one-half to five grains. It is an +admirable aperient, acting especially on the upper part of the +intestinal canal, and causing a slight increase of intestinal +secretion. The stimulant action occurring high up in the canal +(duodenum and jejunum), it is well to follow a dose of calomel +with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special +value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power +and its stimulation of the liver. The stools are dark green, +containing calomel, mercuric sulphide and bile which, owing to +the antiseptic action, has not been decomposed. The salt is often +used in the treatment of syphilis, but is probably less useful than +certain other mercurial compounds. It is also employed for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span> +fumigation; the patient sits naked with a blanket over him, on a +cane-bottomed chair, under which twenty grains of calomel are +volatilized by a spirit-lamp; in about twenty minutes the +calomel is effectually absorbed by the skin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1734-1803), French +statesman, was born at Douai of a good family. He entered the +profession of the law, and became in succession advocate to the +general council of Artois, <i>procureur</i> to the parlement of Douai, +master of requests, then intendant of Metz (1768) and of Lille +(1774). He seems to have been a man of great business capacity, +gay and careless in temperament, and thoroughly unscrupulous +in political action. In the terrible crisis of affairs preceding the +French Revolution, when minister after minister tried in vain +to replenish the exhausted royal treasury and was dismissed for +want of success, Calonne was summoned to take the general +control of affairs. He assumed office on the 3rd of November +1783. He owed the position to Vergennes, who for three years +and a half continued to support him; but the king was not well +disposed towards him, and, according to the testimony of the +Austrian ambassador, his reputation with the public was extremely +poor. In taking office he found “600 millions to pay +and neither money nor credit.” At first he attempted to +develop the latter, and to carry on the government by means of +loans in such a way as to maintain public confidence in its +solvency. In October 1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he +developed the <i>caisse d’ escompte</i>. But these measures failing, he +proposed to the king the suppression of internal customs, duties +and the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy. Turgot +and Necker had attempted these reforms, and Calonne attributed +their failure to the malevolent criticism of the parlements. +Therefore he had an assembly of “notables” called together in +January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury, +and proposed the establishment of a <i>subvention territoriale</i>, +which should be levied on all property without distinction. This +suppression of privileges was badly received by the privileged +notables. Calonne, angered, printed his reports and so alienated +the court. Louis XVI. dismissed him on the 8th of April 1787 +and exiled him to Lorraine. The joy was general in Paris, where +Calonne, accused of wishing to augment the imposts, was known +as “Monsieur Deficit.” In reality his audacious plan of reforms, +which Necker took up later, might have saved the monarchy had +it been firmly seconded by the king. Calonne soon afterwards +passed over to England, and during his residence there kept up a +polemical correspondence with Necker on the finances. In 1789, +when the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over +to Flanders in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for +election, but he was sternly forbidden to enter France. In +revenge he joined the <i>émigré</i> party at Coblenz, wrote in their +favour, and expended nearly all the fortune brought him by his +wife, a wealthy widow. In 1802, having again taken up his abode +in London, he received permission from Napoleon to return to +France. He died on the 30th of October 1802, about a month +after his arrival in his native country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ch. Gomel, <i>Les Causes financières de la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1893); +R. Stourm, <i>Les Finances de l‘ancien régime et de la Révolution</i> (2 vols., +Paris, 1885); Susane, <i>La Tactique financière de Calonne</i>, with bibliography +(Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALORESCENCE<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>calor</i>, heat), a term invented +by John Tyndall to describe an optical phenomenon, the essential +feature of which is the conversion of rays belonging to the dark +infra-red portion of the spectrum into the more refrangible visible +rays, <i>i.e.</i> heat rays into rays of light. Such a transformation +had not previously been observed, although the converse phenomenon, +<i>i.e.</i> the conversion of short waves of light into longer or +less refrangible waves, had been shown by Sir G.G. Stokes to +occur in fluorescent bodies. Tyndall’s experiments, however, +were carried out on quite different lines, and have nothing to do +with fluorescence (<i>q.v.</i>). His method was to sift out the long +dark waves which are associated with the short visible waves +constituting the light of the sun or of the electric arc and to +concentrate the former to a focus. If the eye was placed at the +focus, no sensation of light was observed, although small pieces +of charcoal or blackened platinum foil were immediately raised +to incandescence, thus giving rise to visible rays.</p> + +<p>The experiment is more easily carried out with the electric +light than with sunlight, as the former contains a smaller proportion +of visible rays. According to Tyndall, 90% of the +radiation from the electric arc is non-luminous. The arc being +struck in the usual way between two carbons, a concave mirror, +placed close behind it, caused a large part of the radiation to be +directed through an aperture in the camera and concentrated to +a focus outside. In front of the aperture were placed a plate of +transparent rock-salt, and a flat cell of thin glass containing a +solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide. Both rock-salt and +carbon bisulphide are extremely transparent to the luminous +and also to the infra-red rays The iodine in the solution, +however, has the property of absorbing the luminous rays, while +transmitting the infra-red rays copiously, so that in sufficient +thicknesses the solution appears nearly black. Owing to the +inflammable nature of carbon bisulphide, the plate of rock-salt +was found to be hardly a sufficient protection, and Tyndall +surrounded the iodine cell with an annular vessel through which +cold water was made to flow. Any small body which was a good +absorber of dark rays was rapidly heated to redness when placed +at the focus. Platinized platinum (platinum foil upon which a +thin film of platinum had been deposited electrolytically) and +charcoal were rendered incandescent, black paper and matches +immediately inflamed, ordinary brown paper pierced and +burned, while thin white blotting-paper, owing to its transparency +to the invisible rays, was scarcely tinged. A simpler arrangement, +also employed by Tyndall, is to cause the rays to be reflected +outwards parallel to one another, and to concentrate them +by means of a small flask, containing the iodine solution and used +as a lens, placed some distance from the camera. The rock-salt +and cold water circulation can then be dispensed with.</p> + +<p>Since the rays used by Tyndall in these experiments are similar +to those emitted by a heated body which is not hot enough to be +luminous, it might be thought that the radiation, say from a hot +kettle, could be concentrated to a focus and employed to render +a small body luminous. It would, however, be impossible by such +means to raise the receiving body to a higher temperature than +the source of radiation. For it is easy to see that if, by means of +lenses of rock-salt or mirrors, we focused all or nearly all the rays +from a small surface on to another surface of equal area, this +would not raise the temperature of the second surface above that +of the first; and we could not obtain a greater concentration of +rays from a large heated surface, since we could not have all parts +of the surface simultaneously in focus. The desired result could +be obtained if it were possible, by reflection or otherwise, to cause +two different rays to unite without loss and pursue a common +path. Such a result must be regarded as impossible of attainment, +as it would imply the possibility of heat passing from one +body to another at a higher temperature, contrary to the second +law of thermodynamics (<i>q.v.</i>). Tyndall used the dark rays from +a luminous source, which are emitted in a highly concentrated +form, so that it was possible to obtain a high temperature, which +was, however, much lower than that of the source.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full account of Tyndall’s experiments will be found in his <i>Heat, +a Mode of Motion</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALORIMETRY<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>, the scientific name for the measurement of +quantities of heat (Lat. <i>calor</i>), to be distinguished from thermometry, +which signifies the measurement of temperature. A +calorimeter is any piece of apparatus in which heat is measured. +This distinction of meaning is purely a matter of convention, but +it is very rigidly observed. Quantities of heat may be measured +indirectly in a variety of ways in terms of the different effects of +heat on material substances. The most important of these +effects are (<i>a</i>) rise of temperature, (<i>b</i>) change of state, (<i>c</i>) transformation +of energy.</p> + +<p>§ 1. The rise of temperature of a body, when heat is imparted +to it, is found to be in general nearly proportional to the quantity +of heat added. The <i>thermal capacity</i> of a body is measured by +the quantity of heat required to raise its temperature one degree, +and is necessarily proportional to the mass of the body for bodies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span> +of the same substance under similar conditions. The <i>specific +heat</i> of a substance is sometimes defined as the thermal capacity +of unit mass, but more often as the ratio of the thermal capacity +of unit mass of the substance to that of unit mass of water at +some standard temperature. The two definitions are identical, +provided that the thermal capacity of unit mass of water, at a +standard temperature, is taken as the unit of heat. But the +specific heat of water is often stated in terms of other units. In +any case it is necessary to specify the temperature, and sometimes +also the pressure, since the specific heat of a substance generally +depends to some extent on the external conditions. The methods +of measurement, founded on rise of temperature, may be classed +as <i>thermometric methods,</i> since they depend on the observation of +change of temperature with a thermometer. The most familiar +of these are the method of mixture and the method of cooling.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>§ 2. The <i>Method of Mixture</i> consists in imparting the quantity +of heat to be measured to a known mass of water, or some other +standard substance, contained in a vessel or calorimeter of known +thermal capacity, and in observing the rise of temperature produced, +from which data the quantity of heat may be found as +explained in all elementary text-books. This method is the most +generally convenient and most readily applicable of calorimetric +methods, but it is not always the most accurate, for various reasons. +Some heat is generally lost in transferring the heated body to the +calorimeter; this loss may be minimized by performing the transference +rapidly, but it cannot be accurately calculated or eliminated. +Some heat is lost when the calorimeter is raised above the temperature +of its enclosure, and before the final temperature is reached. +This can be roughly estimated by observing the rate of change of +temperature before and after the experiment, and assuming that the +loss of heat is directly proportional to the duration of the experiment +and to the average excess of temperature. It can be minimized by +making the mixing as rapid as possible, and by using a large calorimeter, +so that the excess of temperature is always small. The latter +method was generally adopted by J.P. Joule, but the rise of temperature +is then difficult to measure with accuracy, since it is necessarily +reduced in nearly the same proportion as the correction. +There is, however, the advantage that the correction is rendered +much less uncertain by this procedure, since the assumption that +the loss of heat is proportional to the temperature-excess is only +true for small differences of temperature. Rumford proposed to +eliminate this correction by starting with the initial temperature +of the calorimeter as much below that of its enclosure as the final +temperature was expected to be above the same limit. This method +has been very generally recommended, but it is really bad, because, +although it diminishes the absolute magnitude of the correction, +it greatly increases the uncertainty of it and therefore the probable +error of the result. The coefficient of heating of a calorimeter when +it is below the temperature of its surroundings is seldom, if ever, the +same as the coefficient of cooling at the higher temperature, since +the convection currents, which do most of the heating or cooling, are +rarely symmetrical in the two cases, and moreover, the duration +of the two stages is seldom the same. In any case, it is desirable to +diminish the loss of heat as much as possible by polishing the exterior +of the calorimeter to diminish radiation, and by suspending it by +non-conducting supports, inside a polished case, to protect it from +draughts. It is also very important to keep the surrounding conditions +as constant as possible throughout the experiment. This may +be secured by using a large water-bath to surround the apparatus, +but in experiments of long duration it is necessary to use an accurate +temperature regulator. The method of lagging the calorimeter with +cotton-wool or other non-conductors, which is often recommended, +diminishes the loss of heat considerably, but renders it very uncertain +and variable, and should never be used in work of precision. The bad +conductors take so long to reach a steady state that the rate of loss +of heat at any moment depends on the past history more than on +the temperature of the calorimeter at the moment. A more serious +objection to the use of lagging of this kind is the danger of its absorbing +moisture. The least trace of damp in the lagging, or of moisture +condensed on the surface of the calorimeter, may produce serious +loss of heat by evaporation. This is another objection to Rumford’s +method of cooling the calorimeter below the surrounding temperature +before starting. Among minor difficulties of the method may be +mentioned the uncertainty of the thermal capacity of the calorimeter +and stirrer, and of the immersed portion of the thermometer. This +is generally calculated by assuming values for the specific heats of +the materials obtained by experiment between 100° C. and 20° C. +Since the specific heats of most metals increase rapidly with rise of +temperature, the values so obtained are generally too high. It is +best to make this correction as small as possible by using a large +calorimeter, so that the mass of water is large in proportion to that +of metal. Analogous difficulties arise in the application of other +calorimetric methods. The accuracy of the work in each case +depends principally on the skill and ingenuity of the experimentalist +in devising methods of eliminating the various sources of error. +The form of apparatus usually adopted for the method of mixtures +is that of Regnault with slight modifications, and figures and descriptions +are given in all the text-books. Among special methods +which have been subsequently developed there are two which deserve +mention as differing in principle from the common type. These +are (1) the constant temperature method, (2) the continuous flow +method.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:382px; height:395px" src="images/img61a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:539px" src="images/img61b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>constant temperature method of mixtures</i> was proposed by +N. Hesehus (<i>Jour. Phys.</i>, 1888, vii. p. 489). Cold water at a known +temperature is added to the calorimeter, immediately after dropping +in the heated substance, at such a rate as to keep the temperature +of the calorimeter constant, thus eliminating the corrections for +the water equivalent of the calorimeter and the external loss of heat. +The calorimeter is surrounded by an air-jacket connected to a +petroleum gauge which indicates any small change of temperature +in the calorimeter, and enables the manipulator to adjust the supply +of cold water to compensate it. The apparatus as arranged by +F.A. Waterman is shown in fig. 1 (<i>Physical Review,</i> 1896, iv. p. 161). +A is the calorimetric tube, +B the air-jacket and L +the gauge. H is an electric +heater for raising the body +to a suitable temperature, +which can swing into place +directly over the calorimeter. +W is a conical can +containing water cooled +by ice I nearly to 0°, which +is swung over the calorimeter +as soon as the hot +body has been introduced +and the heater removed. +The cold water flow is +regulated by a tap S with +a long handle O, and its +temperature is taken by a +delicate thermometer with +its bulb at G. The method +is interesting, but the +manipulations and observations +involved are more +troublesome than with the +ordinary type of calorimeter, +and it may be +doubted whether any advantage +is gained in +accuracy.</p> + +<p>The <i>continuous flow +method</i> is specially applicable +to the important case +of calorific value of gaseous +fuel, where a large quantity +of heat is continuously +generated at a +nearly uniform rate by combustion. Fig. 2 illustrates a recent +type of gas calorimeter devised by C.V. Boys (<i>Proc. R.S.,</i> 1906, +A. 77, p. 122). The heated products of combustion from the burner +B impinge on a metal box H, through which water is circulating, and +then pass downwards and outwards through a spiral cooler which reduces +them practically to the atmospheric temperature. A steady +stream of water enters the apparatus by the inflow thermometer O, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span> +flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and finally through the box +H, where it is well mixed before passing the outflow thermometer P. +As soon as a steady state is reached, the difference of temperature +between the outflow and inflow thermometers, multiplied by the +current of water in grammes per minute gives the heat per minute +supplied by combustion. The gas current is simultaneously observed +by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary corrections for +pressure, temperature, &c., gives the necessary data for deducing +calorific value.</p> + +<p>A continuous flow calorimeter has been used by the writer for +measuring quantities of heat conveyed by conduction (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction +of Heat</a></span>), and also for determining the variation of the +specific heat of water. In the latter case two steady currents of water +at different temperatures, say 0° and 100° are passed through an +equalizer, and the resulting temperature measured without mixing +the currents, which are then separately determined by weighing. +This is a very good method of comparing the mean specific heats +over two ranges of temperature such as 0-50, and 50-100, or 0-20 +and 20-40, but it is not so suitable as the electric method described +below for obtaining the actual specific heat at any point of the +range.</p> +</div> + +<p>§ 3. <i>Method of Cooling.</i>—A common example of this method +is the determination of the specific heat of a liquid by filling a +small calorimeter with the liquid, raising it to a convenient +temperature, and then setting it to cool in an enclosure at a +steady temperature, and observing the time taken to fall through +a given range when the conditions have become fairly steady. +The same calorimeter is afterwards filled with a known liquid, +such as water, and the time of cooling is observed through the +same range of temperature, in the same enclosure, under the +same conditions. The ratio of the times of cooling is equal to the +ratio of the thermal capacities of the calorimeter and its contents +in the two cases. The advantage of the method is that there is +no transference or mixture; the defect is that the whole measurement +depends on the assumption that the rate of loss of heat is +the same in the two cases, and that any variation in the conditions, +or uncertainty in the rate of loss, produces its full effect +in the result, whereas in the previous case it would only affect a +small correction. Other sources of uncertainty are, that the rate +of loss of heat generally depends to some extent on the rate of +fall of temperature, and that it is difficult to take accurate +observations on a rapidly falling thermometer. As the method +is usually practised, the calorimeter is made very small, and the +surface is highly polished to diminish radiation. It is better to +use a fairly large calorimeter to diminish the rate of cooling and +the uncertainty of the correction for the water equivalent. The +surface of the calorimeter and the enclosure should be permanently +blackened so as to increase the loss of heat by radiation as +much as possible, as compared with the losses by convection and +conduction, which are less regular. For accurate work it is +essential that the liquid in the calorimeter should be continuously +stirred, and also in the enclosure, the lid of which must be water-jacketed, +and kept at the same steady temperature as the sides. +When all these precautions are taken, the method loses most of +the simplicity which is its chief advantage. It cannot be satisfactorily +applied to the case of solids or powders, and is much +less generally useful than the method of mixture.</p> + +<p>§ 4. <i>Method of Fusion.</i>—The methods depending on change of +state are theoretically the simplest, since they do not necessarily +involve any reference to thermometry, and the corrections for +external loss of heat and for the thermal capacity of the containing +vessels can be completely eliminated. They nevertheless +present peculiar difficulties and limitations, which render their +practical application more troublesome and more uncertain than +is usually supposed. They depend on the experimental fact that +the quantity of heat required to produce a given change of state +(<i>e.g.</i> to convert one gramme of ice at 0° C. into water at 0° C., or +one gramme of water at 100° C. into steam at 100° C.) is always +the same, and that there need be no change of temperature during +the process. The difficulties arise in connexion with the determination +of the quantities of ice melted or steam condensed, and +in measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization in terms of +other units for the comparison of observations. The earlier forms +of ice-calorimeter, those of Black, and of Laplace and Lavoisier, +were useless for work of precision, on account of the impossibility +of accurately estimating the quantity of water left adhering to +the ice in each case. This difficulty was overcome by the invention +of the Bunsen calorimeter, in which the quantity of ice +melted is measured by observing the diminution of volume, but +the successful employment of this instrument requires considerable +skill in manipulation. The sheath of ice surrounding the +bulb must be sufficiently continuous to prevent escape of heat, +but it must not be so solid as to produce risk of strain. The +ideal condition is difficult to secure. In the practical use of the +instrument it is not necessary to know both the latent heat of +fusion of ice and the change of volume which occurs on melting; +it is sufficient to determine the change of volume per calorie, or +the quantity of mercury which is drawn into the bulb of the +apparatus per unit of heat added. This can be determined by a +direct calibration, by inserting a known quantity of water at a +known temperature and observing the contraction, or weighing +the mercury drawn into the apparatus. In order to be independent +of the accuracy of the thermometer employed for +observing the initial temperature of the water introduced, it +has been usual to employ water at 100° C., adopting as unit of +heat the “mean calorie,” which is one-hundredth part of the heat +given up by one gramme of water in cooling from 100° to 0° C. +The weight of mercury corresponding to the mean calorie has +been determined with considerable care by a number of observers +well skilled in the use of the instrument. The following are some +of their results:—Bunsen, 15.41 mgm.; Velten, 15.47 mgm.; +Zakrevski, 15.57 mgm.; Staub, 15.26 mgm. The explanation of +these discrepancies in the fundamental constant is not at all +clear, but they may be taken as an illustration of the difficulties +of manipulation attending the use of this instrument, to which +reference has already been made. It is not possible to deduce a +more satisfactory value from the latent heat and the change of +density, because these constants are very difficult to determine. +The following are some of the values deduced by well-known +experimentalists for the latent heat of fusion:—Regnault, 79.06 +to 79.24 calories, corrected by Person to 79.43; Person, 79.99 +calories; Hess, 80.34 calories; Bunsen, 80.025 calories. Regnault, +Person and Hess employed the method of mixture which is +probably the most accurate for the purpose. Person and Hess +avoided the error of water sticking to the ice by using dry ice at +various temperatures below 0° C., and determining the specific +heat of ice as well as the latent heat of fusion. These discrepancies +might, no doubt, be partly explained by differences in the +units employed, which are somewhat uncertain, as the specific +heat of water changes rapidly in the neighbourhood of 0° C; but +making all due allowance for this, it remains evident that the +method of ice-calorimetry, in spite of its theoretical simplicity, +presents grave difficulties in its practical application.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:150px; height:313px" src="images/img62.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 3.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One of the chief difficulties in the practical use of the Bunsen +calorimeter is the continued and often irregular movement of the +mercury column due to slight differences of temperature, or pressure +between the ice in the calorimeter and the ice +bath in which it is immersed. C.V. Boys +(<i>Phil. Mag.</i>, 1887, vol. 24, p. 214) showed that +these effects could be very greatly reduced by +surrounding the calorimeter with an outer tube, +so that the ice inside was separated from the +ice outside by an air space which greatly +reduces the free passage of heat. The present +writer has found that very good results may be +obtained by enclosing the calorimeter in a +vacuum jacket (as illustrated in fig. 3), which +practically eliminates conduction and convection. +If the vacuum jacket is silvered inside, +radiation also is reduced to such an extent +that, if the vacuum is really good, the external +ice bath may be dispensed with for the majority +of purposes. If the inner bulb is filled with +mercury instead of water and ice, the same +arrangement answers admirably as a Favre +and Silbermann calorimeter, for measuring +small quantities of heat by the expansion of +the mercury.</p> + +<p>The question has been raised by E.L. Nichols (<i>Phys. Rev.</i> vol. 8, +January 1899) whether there may not be different modifications of +ice with different densities, and different values of the latent heat +of fusion. He found for natural pond-ice a density 0.9179 and for +artificial ice 0.9161. J. Vincent (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> A. 198, p. 463) also +found a density .9160 for artificial ice, which is probably very nearly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span> +correct. If such variations of density exist, they may introduce +some uncertainty in the absolute values of results obtained with the +ice calorimeter, and may account for some of the discrepancies above +enumerated.</p> +</div> + +<p>§ 5. The <i>Method of Condensation</i> was first successfully applied +by J. Joly in the construction of his steam calorimeter, a full +description of which will be found in text-books. The body to be +tested is placed in a special scale-pan, suspended by a fine wire +from the arm of a balance inside an enclosure which can be filled +with steam at atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the +enclosure is carefully observed before admitting steam. The +weight of steam condensed on the body gives a means of calculating +the quantity of heat required to raise it from the atmospheric +temperature up to 100° C. in terms of the latent heat of vaporization +of steam at 100° C. There can be no appreciable gain or +loss of heat by radiation, if the admission of the steam is +sufficiently rapid, since the walls of the enclosure are maintained +at 100° C., very nearly. The thermal capacity of the scale-pan, +&c., can be determined by a separate experiment, or, still better, +eliminated by the differential method of counterpoising with an +exactly similar arrangement on the other arm of the balance. +The method requires very delicate weighing, as one calorie +corresponds to less than two milligrammes of steam condensed; +but the successful application of the method to the very difficult +problem of measuring the specific heat of a gas at constant +volume, shows that these and other difficulties have been very +skilfully overcome. The application of the method appears to be +practically limited to the measurements of specific heat between +the atmospheric temperature and 100° C. The results depend on +the value assumed for the latent heat of steam, which Joly takes +as 536.7 calories, following Regnault. Joly has himself determined +the mean specific heat of water between 12° and 100° C. +by this method, in terms of the latent heat of steam as above +given, and finds the result .9952. Assuming that the mean +specific heat of water between 12° and 100° is really 1.0011 in +terms of the calorie at 20° C. (see table, p. 66), the value of the +latent heat of steam at 100° C., as determined by Joly, would be +540.2 in terms of the same unit. The calorie employed by +Regnault is to some extent uncertain, but the difference is hardly +beyond the probable errors of experiment, since it appears from +the results of recent experiments that Regnault made an error +of the same order in his determination of the specific heat of +water at 100° C.</p> + +<p>§ 6. <i>Energy Methods.</i>—The third general method of calorimetry, +that based on the transformation of some other kind of energy +into the form of heat, rests on the general principle of the conservation +of energy, and on the experimental fact that all other +forms of energy are readily and completely convertible into the +form of heat. It is therefore often possible to measure quantities +of heat indirectly, by measuring the energy in some other form +and then converting it into heat. In addition to its great +theoretical interest, this method possesses the advantage of +being frequently the most accurate in practical application, since +energy can be more accurately measured in other forms than in +that of heat. The two most important varieties of the method are +(<i>a</i>) mechanical, and (<i>b</i>) electrical. These methods have reached +their highest development in connexion with the determination of +the mechanical equivalent of heat, but they may be applied with +great advantage in connexion with other problems, such as the +measurement of the variation of specific heat, or of latent heats +of fusion or vaporization.</p> + +<p>§ 7. <i>Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.</i>—The phrase “mechanical +equivalent of heat” is somewhat vague, but has been sanctioned +by long usage. It is generally employed to denote the number +of units of mechanical work or energy which, when completely +converted into heat without loss, would be required to produce +one heat unit. The numerical value of the mechanical equivalent +necessarily depends on the particular units of heat and work +employed in the comparison. The British engineer prefers to +state results in terms of foot-pounds of work in any convenient +latitude per pound-degree-Fahrenheit of heat. The continental +engineer prefers kilogrammetres per kilogramme-degree-centigrade. +For scientific use the C.G.S. system of expression in ergs +per gramme-degree-centigrade, or “calorie,” is the most appropriate, +as being independent of the value of gravity. A more +convenient unit of work or energy, in practice, on account of the +smallness of the erg, is the <i>joule,</i> which is equal to 10.7 ergs, or one +<i>watt-second</i> of electrical energy. On account of its practical +convenience, and its close relation to the international electrical +units, the <i>joule</i> has been recommended by the British Association +for adoption as the absolute unit of heat. Other convenient +practical units of the same kind would be the <i>watt-hour,</i> 3600 +joules, which is of the same order of magnitude as the kilo-calorie, +and the <i>kilowatt-hour,</i> which is the ordinary commercial +unit of electrical energy.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:271px; height:384px" src="images/img63.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>§ 8. <i>Joule</i>.—The earlier work of Joule is now chiefly of historical +interest, but his later measurements in 1878, which were undertaken +on a larger scale, adopting G.A. +Hirn’s method of measuring +the work expended in terms of +the torque and the number of +revolutions, still possess +value as experimental evidence. +In these experiments (see fig. 4) +the paddles were revolved by +hand at such a speed as to +produce a constant torque on +the calorimeter <i>h</i>, which was +supported on a float <i>w</i> in a +vessel of water <i>v</i>, but was kept +at rest by the couple due to a +pair of equal weights <i>k</i> suspended +from fine strings passing +round the circumference of +a horizontal wheel attached to +the calorimeter. Each experiment +lasted about forty +minutes, and the rise of temperature +produced was nearly +3° C. The calorimeter contained +about 5 kilogrammes +of water, so that the rate +of heat-supply was about 6 +calories per second. Joule’s +final result was 772.55 foot-pounds at Manchester per pound-degree-Fahrenheit +at a temperature of 62° F., but individual experiments +differed by as much as 1%. This result in C.G.S. measure is equivalent +to 4.177 joules per calorie at 16.5° C., on the scale of Joule’s +mercury thermometer. His thermometers were subsequently corrected +to the Paris scale by A. Schuster in 1895, which had the effect +of reducing the above figure to 4.173.</p> + +<p>§ 9. <i>Rowland</i>.—About the same time H.A. Rowland (<i>Proc. Amer. +Acad.</i> xv. p. 75, 1880) repeated the experiment, employing the same +method, but using a larger calorimeter (about 8400 grammes) and +a petroleum motor, so as to obtain a greater rate of heating (about +84 calories per second), and to reduce the importance of the uncertain +correction for external loss of heat. Rowland’s apparatus +is shown in fig. 5. The calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire, +the torsion of which made the equilibrium stable. The torque was +measured by weights O and P suspended by silk ribbons passing +over the pulleys <i>n</i> and round the disk <i>kl</i>. The power was transmitted +to the paddles by bevel wheels, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, rotating a spindle passing through +a stuffing box in the bottom of the calorimeter. The number of +revolutions and the rise of temperature were recorded on a chronograph +drum. He paid greater attention to the important question +of thermometry, and extended his researches over a much wider +range of temperature, namely 5° to 35° C. His experiments revealed +for the first time a diminution in the specific heat of water with rise +of temperature between 0° and 30° C., amounting to four parts in +10.000 per 1° C. His thermometers were compared with a mercury +thermometer standardized in Paris, and with a platinum thermometer +standardized by Griffiths. The result was to reduce the coefficient +of diminution of specific heat at 15° C. by nearly one half, +but the absolute value at 20° C. is practically unchanged. Thus +corrected his values are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Temperature</td> <td class="tcc">10°</td> <td class="tcc">15°</td> <td class="tcc">20°</td> <td class="tcc">25°</td> <td class="tcc">30°</td> <td class="tcc">35°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joules per cal.</td> <td class="tcc">4.197</td> <td class="tcc">4.188</td> <td class="tcc">4.181</td> <td class="tcc">4.176</td> <td class="tcc">4.175</td> <td class="tcc">4.177</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">These are expressed in terms of the hydrogen scale, but the difference +from the nitrogen scale is so small as to be within the limits of experimental +error in this particular case. Rowland himself considered +his results to be probably correct to one part in 500, and supposed +that the greatest uncertainty lay in the comparison of the scale of +his mercury thermometer with the air thermometer. The subsequent +correction, though not carried out strictly under the conditions of +the experiment, showed that the order of accuracy of his work about +the middle of the range from 15° to 25° was at least 1 in 1000, and +probably 1 in 2000. At 30° he considered that, owing to the increasing +magnitude and uncertainty of the radiation correction, there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span> +“might be a small error in the direction of making the equivalent +too great, and that the specific heat might go on decreasing to even +40° C.” The results considered with reference to the variation of +the specific heat of water are shown in the curve marked Rowland +in Fig. 6.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:538px" src="images/img64a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 5.</td></tr></table> + +<p>§ 10. <i>Osborne Reynolds and W.H. Moorby (Phil. Trans.,</i> 1897, p. 381) +determined the mechanical equivalent of the mean thermal unit +between 0° and 100° C., on a very large scale, with a Froude-Reynolds +hydraulic brake and a steam-engine of 100 h.p. This brake is practically +a Joule calorimeter, ingeniously designed to churn the water +in such a manner as to develop the greatest possible resistance. +The admission of water at 0° C. to the brake was controlled by hand +in such a manner as to keep the outflow nearly at the boiling-point, +the quantity of water in the brake required to produce a constant +torque being regulated automatically, as the speed varied, by a valve +worked by the lifting of the weighted lever attached to the brake.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:259px" src="images/img64b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 6.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The accompanying illustration (fig. 7) shows the brake lagged with +cotton-wool, and the 4-ft. lever to which the weights are suspended. +The power of the brake may be estimated by comparison with the +size of the rope pulley seen behind it on the same shaft. With +300 pounds on a 4-ft. lever at 300 revolutions per minute, the rate of +generation of heat was about 12 kilo-calories per second. In spite +of the large range of temperature, the correction for external loss +of heat amounted to only 5%, with the brake uncovered, and was +reduced to less than 2% by lagging. This is the special advantage +of working on so large a scale with so rapid a generation of heat. +But, for the same reason, the method necessarily presents peculiar +difficulties, which were not overcome without great pains and ingenuity. +The principal troubles arose from damp in the lagging +which necessitated the rejection of several trials, and from dissolved +air in the water, causing loss of heat by the formation of steam. +Next to the radiation loss, the most uncertain correction was that +for conduction of heat along the 4-in. shaft. These losses were as +far as possible eliminated by combining the trials in pairs, with different +loads on the brake, assuming that the heat-loss would be the same +in the heavy and light trials, provided that the external temperature +and the gradient in the shaft, as estimated from the temperature +of the bearings, were the same. The values deduced in this manner +for the equivalent agreed as closely as could be expected considering +the impossibility of regulating the external condition of temperature +and moisture with any certainty in an engine-room. The extreme +variation of results in any one series was only from 776.63 to 779.46 +ft.-pounds, or less than ½%. This variation may have been due +to the state of the lagging, which Moorby distrusted in spite of the +great reduction of the heat-loss, or it may have been partly due to +the difficulty of regulating the speed of the engine and the water-supply +to the brake in such a manner as to maintain a constant +temperature in the outflow, and avoid variations in the heat capacity +of the brake. Since hand regulation is necessarily discontinuous, +the speed and the temperature were constantly varying, so that it +was useless to take readings nearer than the tenth of a degree. The +largest variation recorded in the two trials of which full details are +given, was 4-9° F. in two minutes in the outflow temperature, and +four or five revolutions per minute on the speed. These variations, so +far as they were of a purely accidental nature, would be approximately +eliminated on the mean of a large number of trials, so that +the accuracy of the final result would be of a higher order than might +be inferred from a comparison of separate pairs of trials. Great pains +were taken to discuss and eliminate all the sources of constant error +which could be foreseen. The results of the light trials with 400 ft.-pounds +on the brake differ slightly from those with 600 ft.-pounds. +This might be merely accidental, or it might indicate some constant +difference in the conditions requiring further investigation. It would +have been desirable, if possible, to have tried the effect of a larger +range of variation in the experimental conditions of load and speed, +with a view to detect the existence of constant errors; but owing to +the limitations imposed by the use of a steam-engine, and the +difficulty of securing steady conditions of running, this proved to be +impossible. There can be no doubt, however, that the final result is +the most accurate direct determination of the value of the mean +calorie between 0° and 100° C. in mechanical units. Expressed in +joules per calorie the result is 4.1832, which agrees very closely with +the value found by Rowland as the mean over the range 15° to 20° C. +The value 4.183 is independently confirmed in a remarkable manner +by the results of the electrical method described below, which give +4.185 joules for the mean calorie, if Rowland’s value is assumed as +the starting-point, and taken to be 4.180 joules at 20° C.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:372px" src="images/img64c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 7.</td></tr></table> + +<p>§ 11. <i>Electrical Methods.</i>—The value of the international +electrical units has by this time been so accurately determined in +absolute measure that they afford a very good, though indirect, +method of determining the mechanical equivalent of heat. But, +quite apart from this, electrical methods possess the greatest +value for calorimetry, on account of the facility and accuracy of +regulating and measuring the quantity of heat supplied by an +electric current. The frictional generation of heat in a metallic +wire conveying a current can be measured in various ways, which +correspond to slightly different methods. By Ohm’s law, and by +the definition of difference of electric pressure or potential, we +obtain the following alternative expressions for the quantity of +heat H in joules generated in a time T seconds by a current of +C amperes flowing in a wire of resistance R ohms, the difference +of potential between the ends of the wire being E = CR volts:—</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">H = ECT = C<span class="sp">2</span>RT = E<span class="sp">2</span>T/R  (1).</p> + +<p class="noind">The method corresponding to the expression C<span class="sp">2</span>RT was adopted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span> +by Joule and by most of the early experimentalists. The defects +of the earlier work from an electrical point of view lay chiefly in +the difficulty of measuring the current with sufficient accuracy +owing to the imperfect development of the science of electrical +measurement. These difficulties have been removed by the great +advances since 1880, and in particular by the introduction of +accurate standard cells for measurements of electrical pressure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>§ 12. <i>Griffiths</i>.—The method adopted by E.H. Griffiths (<i>Phil. +Trans.,</i> 1893, p. 361), whose work threw a great deal of light on the +failure of previous observers to secure consistent results, corresponded +to the last expression E<span class="sp">2</span>T/R, and consisted in regulating +the current by a special rheostat, so as to keep the potential difference +E on the terminals of the resistance <i>R</i> balanced against a given +number of standard Clark cells of the Board of Trade pattern. The +resistance <i>R</i> could be deduced from a knowledge of the temperature +of the calorimeter and the coefficient of the wire. But in order to +obtain trustworthy results by this method he found it necessary +to employ very rapid stirring (2000 revolutions per minute), and to +insulate the wire very carefully from the liquid to prevent leakage +of the current. He also made a special experiment to find how much +the temperature of the wire exceeded that of the liquid under the +conditions of the experiment. This correction had been neglected +by previous observers employing similar methods. The resistance +<i>R</i> was about 9 ohms, and the potential difference E was varied from +three to six Clark cells, giving a rate of heat-supply about 2 to 6 +watts. The water equivalent of the calorimeter was about 85 +grammes, and was determined by varying the quantity of water from +140 to 260 or 280 grammes, so that the final results depended on a +difference in the weight of water of 120 to 140 grammes. The range +of temperature in each experiment was 14° to 26° C. The rate of rise +was observed with a mercury thermometer standardized by comparison +with a platinum thermometer under the conditions of the +experiment. The time of passing each division was recorded on an +electric chronograph. The duration of an experiment varied from +about 30 to 70 minutes. Special observations were made to determine +the corrections for the heat supplied by stirring, and that lost +by radiation, each of which amounted to about 10% of the heat-supply. +The calorimeter C, fig. 8, was gilded, and completely +surrounded by a nickel-plated steel enclosure B, forming the bulb +of a mercury thermo-regulator, immersed in a large water-bath +maintained at a constant temperature. In spite of the large corrections +the results were extremely consistent, and the value of the +temperature-coefficient of the diminution of the specific heat of +water, deduced from the observed variation in the rate of rise at +different points of the range 15° to 25°, agreed with the value subsequently +deduced from Rowland’s experiments over the same range, +when his thermometers were reduced to the same scale. Griffiths’ +final result for the average value of the calorie over this range was +4.192 joules, taking the E.M.F. of the Clark cell at 15° C. to be +1.4342 volts. The difference from Rowland’s value, 4.181, could +be explained by supposing the E.M.F. of the Clark cells to have in +reality been 1.4323 volts, or about 2 millivolts less than the value +assumed. Griffiths subsequently applied the same method to the +measurement of the specific heat of aniline, and the latent heat of +vaporization of benzene and water.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:393px; height:303px" src="images/img65a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 8.</td></tr></table> + +<p>§ 13. <i>Schuster and Gannon.</i>—The method employed by A. Schuster +and W. Gannon for the determination of the specific heat of water in +terms of the international electric units (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> A, 1895, p. 415) +corresponded to the expression ECT, and differed in many essential +details from that of Griffiths. The current through a platinoid +resistance of about 31 ohms in a calorimeter containing 1500 grammes +of water was regulated so that the potential difference on its terminals +was equal to that of twenty Board of Trade Clark cells in +series. The duration of an experiment was about ten minutes, and +the product of the mean current and the time, namely CT, was +measured by the weight of silver deposited in a voltameter, which +amounted to about 0.56 gramme. The uncertainty due to the correction +for the water equivalent was minimized by making it small +(about 27 grammes) in comparison with the water weight. The +correction for external loss was reduced by employing a small rise +of temperature (only 2.22°), and making the rate of heat-supply +relatively rapid, nearly 24 watts. The platinoid coil was insulated +from the water by shellac varnish. The wire had a length of 760 cms., +and the potential difference on its terminals was nearly 30 volts. The +rate of stirring adopted was so slow that the heat generated by it +could be neglected. The result found was 4.191 joules per calorie +at 19° C. This agrees very well with Griffiths considering the +difficulty of measuring so small a rise of temperature at 2° with a +mercury thermometer. Admitting that the electro-chemical equivalent +of silver increases with the age of the solution, a fact subsequently +discovered, and that the E.M.F. of the Clark cell is probably +less than 1.4340 volts (the value assumed by Schuster and Gannon), +there is no difficulty in reconciling the result with that of Rowland.</p> + +<p>§ 14. <i>H.L. Callendar and H.T. Barnes</i> (<i>Brit. Assoc. Reports,</i> 1897 +and 1899) adopted an entirely different method of calorimetry, as well +as a different method of electrical measurement. A steady current +of liquid, Q grammes per second, of specific heat, Js joules per degree, +flowing through a fine tube, A B, fig. 9, is heated by a steady electric +current during its passage through the tube, and the difference of +temperature dθ between the inflowing and the outflowing liquid is +measured by a single reading with a delicate pair of differential +platinum thermometers at A and B. The difference of potential +E between the ends of the tube, and the electric current C through +it, are measured on an accurately calibrated potentiometer, in terms +of a Clark cell and a standard resistance. If hdθ is the radiation +loss in watts we have the equation,</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">EC = JsQdθ + hdθ  (2).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:499px; height:218px" src="images/img65b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 9.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The advantage of this method is that all the conditions are steady, +so that the observations can be pushed to the limit of accuracy and +sensitiveness of the apparatus. The water equivalent of the calorimeter +is immaterial, since there is no appreciable change of temperature. +The heat-loss can be reduced to a minimum by enclosing +the flow-tube in a hermetically sealed glass vacuum jacket. Stirring +is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs +of the thermometers and the heating conductor as indicated in the +figure. The conditions can be very easily varied through a wide +range. The heat-loss <i>hdθ</i> is determined and eliminated by varying +the flow of liquid and the electric current simultaneously, in such +a manner as to secure approximately the same rise of temperature +for two or more widely different values of the flow of liquid. An +example taken from the <i>Electrician</i>, September 1897, of one of the +earliest experiments by this method on the specific heat of mercury +will make the method clearer. The flow-tube was about 1 metre +long and 1 millim. in diameter, coiled in a short spiral inside the +vacuum jacket. The outside of the vacuum jacket was immersed +in a water jacket at a steady temperature equal to that of the inflowing +mercury.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Specific Heat of Mercury by Continuous Electric Method</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Flow of Hg.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rise of Temp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Watts.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Heat-loss.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Specific Heat.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb">gm./sec.</td> <td class="tcc rb">dθ</td> <td class="tcc rb">EC</td> <td class="tcc rb">hdθ</td> <td class="tcl rb">Per gm. deg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb">8.753</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.764</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.862</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.655</td> <td class="tcl rb"> .13780 joules</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb lb bb">4.594</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.301</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 7.912</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.865</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> .03297 cals.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It is assumed as a first approximation that the heat-loss is proportional +to the rise of temperature dθ, provided that dθ is nearly the +same in both cases, and that the distribution of temperature in the +apparatus is the same for the same rise of temperature whatever the +flow of liquid. The result calculated on these assumptions is given +in the last column in joules, and also in calories of 20° C. The heat-loss +in this example is large, nearly 4.5% of the total supply, owing +to the small flow and the large rise of temperature, but this correction +was greatly reduced in subsequent observations on the specific heat +of water by the same method. In the case of mercury the liquid +itself can be utilized to conduct the electric current. In the case of +water or other liquids it is necessary to employ a platinum wire +stretched along the tube as heating conductor. This introduces +additional difficulties of construction, but does not otherwise affect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span> +the method. The absolute value of the specific heat deduced necessarily +depends on the absolute values of the electrical standards +employed in the investigation. But for the determination of relative +values of specific heats in terms of a standard liquid, or of the variations +of specific heat of a liquid, the method depends only on the +constancy of the standards, which can be readily and accurately +tested. The absolute value of the E.M.F. of the Clark cells employed +was determined with a special form of electrodynamometer +(Callendar, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> A. 313, p. 81), and found to be 1.4334 volts, +assuming the ohm to be correct. Assuming this value, the result +found by this method for the specific heat of water at 20° C. agrees +with that of Rowland within the probable limits of error.</p> + +<p>§ 15. <i>Variation of Specific Heat of Water.</i>—The question of the +variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest and +importance in connexion with the choice of a thermal unit. Many +of the uncertainties in the reduction of older experiments, such as +those of Regnault, arise from uncertainty in regard to the unit in +terms of which they are expressed, which again depends on the scale +of the particular thermometer employed in the investigation. The +first experiments of any value were those of Regnault in 1847 on the +specific heat of water between 110° C. and 192° C. They were conducted +on a very large scale by the method of mixture, but showed +discrepancies of the order of 0.5%, and the calculated results in many +cases do not agree with the data. This may be due merely to deficient +explanation of details of tabulation. We may probably take +the tabulated values as showing correctly the rate of variation +between 110° and 190° C., but the values in terms of any particular +thermal unit must remain uncertain to at least 0.5% owing to the +uncertainties of the thermometry. Regnault himself adopted the +formula,</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">s = 1 + 0.00004t + 0.0000009t<span class="sp">2</span> (Regnault),   (3)</p> + +<p class="noind">for the specific heat s at any temperature t C. in terms of the specific +heat at 0° C. taken as the standard. This formula has since been +very generally applied over the whole range 0° to 200° C., but the +experiments could not in reality give any information with regard +to the specific heat at temperatures below 100° C. The linear formula +proposed by J. Bosscha from an independent reduction of Regnault’s +experiments is probably within the limits of accuracy between 100° +and 200° C., so far as the mean rate of variation is concerned, but +the absolute values require reduction. It may be written—</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">s = S<span class="su">100</span> + .00023(t − 100)  (Bosscha-Regnault)   (4).</p> + +<p>The work of L. Pfaundler and H. Platter, of G.A. Hirn, of J.C. +Jamin and Amaury, and of many other experimentalists who succeeded +Regnault, appeared to indicate much larger rates of increase +than he had found, but there can be little doubt that the +discrepancies of their results, which often exceeded 5%, were due +to lack of appreciation of the difficulties of calorimetric measurements. +The work of Rowland by the mechanical method was the +first in which due attention was paid to the thermometry and to +the reduction of the results to the absolute scale of temperature. +The agreement of his corrected results with those of Griffiths by +a very different method, left very little doubt with regard to the +rate of diminution of the specific heat of water at 20° C. The work +of A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati by the method of mixture between +0° and 30° C., though their curve is otherwise similar to Rowland’s, +had appeared to indicate a minimum at 20° C., followed by a rapid +rise. This lowering of the minimum was probably due to some +constant errors inherent in their method of experiment. The more +recent work of Lüdin, 1895, under the direction of Prof. J. Pernet, +extended from 0° to 100° C., and appears to have attained as high +a degree of excellence as it is possible to reach by the employment of +mercury thermometers in conjunction with the method of mixture. +His results, exhibited in fig. 6, show a minimum at 25° C., and a +maximum at 87° C., the values being .9935 and 1.0075 respectively +in terms of the mean specific heat between 0° and 100° C. He paid +great attention to the thermometry, and the discrepancies of individual +measurements at any one point nowhere exceed 0.3%, but +he did not vary the conditions of the experiments materially, and it +does not appear that the well-known constant errors of the method +could have been completely eliminated by the devices which he +adopted. The rapid rise from 25° to 75° may be due to radiation +error from the hot water supply, and the subsequent fall of the +curve to the inevitable loss of heat by evaporation of the boiling +water on its way to the calorimeter. It must be observed, however, +that there is another grave difficulty in the accurate determination +of the specific heat of water near 100° C. by this method, namely, that +the quantity actually observed is not the specific heat <i>at</i> the higher +temperature t, but the <i>mean specific heat</i> over the range 18° to t. +The specific heat itself can be deduced only by differentiating the +curve of observation, which greatly increases the uncertainty. The +peculiar advantage of the electric method of Callendar and Barnes, +already referred to, is that the specific heat itself is determined over +a range of 8° to 10° at each point, by adding accurately measured +quantities of heat to the water at the desired temperature in an +isothermal enclosure, under perfectly steady conditions, without +any possibility of evaporation or loss of heat in transference. These +experiments, which have been extended by Barnes over the whole +range 0° to 100°, agree very well with Rowland and Griffiths in the +rate of variation at 20° C., but show a rather flat minimum of specific +heat in the neighbourhood of 38° to 40° C. At higher points the rate +of variation is very similar to that of Regnault’s curve, but taking the +specific heat at 20° as the standard of reference, the actual values +are nearly 0.56% less than Regnault’s. It appears probable that +his values for higher temperatures may be adopted with this reduction, +which is further confirmed by the results of Reynolds and +Moorby, and by those of Lüdin. According to the electric method, +the whole range of variation of the specific heat between 10° and +80° is only 0.5%. Comparatively simple formulae, therefore, suffice +for its expression to 1 in 10,000, which is beyond the limits of accuracy +of the observations. It is more convenient in practice to use a few +simple formulae, than to attempt to represent the whole range by a +single complicated expression:—</p> + +<p class="noind">Below 20° C. s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t − 40)<span class="sp">2</span> − 0.0000005(t − 20)<span class="sp">3</span>.</p> +<p class="noind">From 20° to 60°, s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t − 40)<span class="sp">2</span>   (5).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 100%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">Above 60° to 200°<span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">{</span></td> + <td class="tcl">s = 0.9944 + .00004t + 0.0000009t<span class="sp">2</span>  (Regnault corrd.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">s = 1.000 + 0.00022(t − 60)     (Bosscha corrd.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The addition of the cubic term below 20° is intended to represent +the somewhat more rapid change near the freezing-point. This +effect is probably due, as suggested by Rowland, to the presence of +a certain proportion of ice molecules in the liquid, which is also +no doubt the cause of the anomalous expansion. Above 60° C. +Regnault’s formula is adopted, the absolute values being simply +diminished by a constant quantity 0.0056 to allow for the probable +errors of his thermometry. Above 100° C., and for approximate +work generally, the simpler formula of Bosscha, similarly corrected, +is probably adequate.</p> + +<p>The following table of values, calculated from these formulae, +is taken from the <i>Brit. Assoc. Report,</i> 1899, with a slight modification +to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 20° C. This was +estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the constant +quantity 0.20 to the values of the total heat h of the liquid as +reckoned by the parabolic formula (5). This quantity is now, as the +result of further experiments, added to the values of h, and also represented +in the formula for the specific heat itself by the cubic term.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Specific Heat of Water in Terms of Unit at 20° C. 4.180 Joules</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">t° C.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Joules.</td> <td class="tcc allb">s.</td> <td class="tcc allb">h</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rowland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">0°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.208</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0094</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">5°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.202</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0054</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.037</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.037</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">10°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.191</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0027</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.056</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.058</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">15°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.184</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0011</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.065</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.068</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">20°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.180</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0000</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.068</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.071</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">25°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.177</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9992</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.065</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.067</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">30°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.175</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9987</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.060</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.057</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">35°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.173</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9983</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.052</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.053</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">40°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.173</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9982</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.044</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">50°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.175</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9987</td> <td class="tcr rb">50.028</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">60°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.180</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0000</td> <td class="tcr rb">60.020</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">70°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.187</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0016</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.028</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">80°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.194</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0033</td> <td class="tcr rb">80.052</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">90°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.202</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0053</td> <td class="tcr rb">90.095</td> <td class="tcc rb">Shaw </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">100°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.211</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0074</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.158</td> <td class="tcc rb">Regnault</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">120°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.231</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0121</td> <td class="tcr rb">120.35 </td> <td class="tcr rb">120.73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">140°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.254</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0176</td> <td class="tcr rb">140.65 </td> <td class="tcr rb">140.88</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">160°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.280</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0238</td> <td class="tcr rb">161.07 </td> <td class="tcr rb">161.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">180°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.309</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0308</td> <td class="tcr rb">181.62 </td> <td class="tcr rb">182.14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">200°</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.341</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0384</td> <td class="tcr rb">202.33 </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">220°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.376</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.0467</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">223.20 </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the +specific heat of water at 20° C. for the reasons given below. This +unit is taken as being 4.180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade +on the scale of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute +scale as explained in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>, which has been shown +to be practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4.180 +joules at 20° C. is the mean between Rowland’s corrected result +4.181 and the value 4.179, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds +and Moorby on the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific +heat 0° to 100° to that at 20° is 1.0016, as given by the formulae representing +the results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate +that Rowland’s corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In +any case the value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at +least 1 in 2000.</p> + +<p>The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be +obtained by integrating the formulae between the limits required, +or by taking the difference of the corresponding values of the total +heat <i>h</i>, and dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity +actually observed by Rowland was the total heat. It may be remarked +that starting from the same value at 5°, for the sake of +comparison, Rowland’s values of the total heat agree to 1 in 5000 +with those calculated from the formulae. The values of the total +heat observed by Regnault, as reduced by Shaw, also show a very +fair agreement, considering the uncertainty of the units. It must +be admitted that it is desirable to redetermine the variation of the +specific heat above 100° C. This is very difficult on account of the +steam-pressure, and could not easily be accomplished by the electrical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span> +method. Callendar has, however, devised a continuous method of +mixture, which appears to be peculiarly adapted to the purpose, +and promises to give more certain results. In any case it may be +remarked that formulae such as those of Jamin, Henrichsen, Baumgartner, +Winkelmann or Dieterici, which give far more rapid rates +of increase than that of Regnault, cannot possibly be reconciled +with his observations, or with those of Reynolds and Moorby, or +Callendar and Barnes, and are certainly inapplicable above 100° C.</p> +</div> + +<p>§ 16. <i>On the Choice of the Thermal Unit.</i>—So much uncertainty +still prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed +over without reference. There are three possible kinds of unit, +depending on the three fundamental methods already given: +(1) the thermometric unit, or the thermal capacity of unit mass +of a standard substance under given conditions of temperature +and pressure on the scale of a standard thermometer. (2) The +latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required to melt or +vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given conditions. +This unit has the advantage of being independent of thermometry, +but the applicability of these methods is limited to special cases, +and the relation of the units to other units is difficult to determine. +(3) The absolute or mechanical unit, the quantity of heat +equivalent to a given quantity of mechanical or electrical energy. +This can be very accurately realized, but is not so convenient as +(1) for ordinary purposes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In any case it is necessary to define a thermometric unit of class +(1). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always +selected, although some less volatile liquid, such as aniline or mercury, +would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of temperature, +there is very general agreement that the absolute scale +as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be +adopted as the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen +thermometer is not directly available for the majority of experiments, +it is necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition +of the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum +presents very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury +thermometer in point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability +to the practical conditions of experiment. The conditions of use +of a mercury thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are necessarily +different from those under which its corrections are determined, +and this difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in +practical work. The primary consideration in the definition of a +unit is to select that method which permits the highest order of +accuracy in comparison and verification. For this reason the definition +of the thermal unit will in the end probably be referred to +a scale of temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum +thermometer.</p> + +<p>There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question +of the standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Regnault’s +formula, have selected 0° C. as the standard temperature, but this +cannot be practically realized in the case of water, and his formula +is certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite temperature +to select is 4° C., the temperature of maximum density, since +at this point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that +at constant pressure But this is really of no consequence, since +the specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized. +The specific heat at 4° could be accurately determined at the mean +over the range 0° to 8° keeping the jacket at 0° C. But the change +appears to be rather rapid near 0°, the temperature is inconveniently +low for ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4° would be so +much larger than the specific heat at ordinary temperatures that +nearly all experiments would require reduction. The natural point +to select would be that of minimum specific heat, but if this occurs +at 40° C. it would be inconveniently high for practical realization +except by the continuous electrical method. It was proposed by a +committee of the British Association to select the temperature at +which the specific heat was 4.200 joules, leaving the exact temperature +to be subsequently determined. It was supposed at the time, +from the original reduction of Rowland’s experiments, that this +would be nearly at 10° C., but it now appears that it may be as low +is 5° C., which would be inconvenient. This is really only an +absolute unit in disguise, and evades the essential point, which is +the selection of a standard temperature for the water thermometric +unit. A similar objection applies to selecting the temperature at +which the specific heat is equal to its mean value between 0° and +100°. The mean calorie cannot be accurately realized in practice +in any simple manner, and is therefore unsuitable as a standard of +comparison. Its relation to the calorie at any given temperature, +such as 15° or 20°, cannot be determined with the same degree of +accuracy as the ratio of the specific heat at 15° to that at 20°, if the +scale of temperature is given. The most practical unit is the +calorie at 15° or 20° or some temperature in the range of ordinary +practice. The temperature most generally favoured is 15°, but 20° +would be more suitable for accurate work. These units differ only +by 11 parts in 10,000 according to Callendar and Barnes, or by 13 +in 10,000 according to Rowland and Griffiths, so that the difference +between them is of no great importance for ordinary purposes. +But for purposes of definition it would be necessary to take the +mean value of the specific heat <i>over a given range</i> of temperature, +preferably at least 10°, rather than the specific heat <i>at a point</i> which +necessitates reference to some formula of reduction for the rate of +variation. The specific heat at 15° would be determined with +reference to the mean over the range 10° to 20°, and that at 20° +from the range 15° to 25°. There can be no doubt that the range +10° to 20° is too low for the accurate thermal regulation of the +conditions of the experiment. The range 15° to 25° would be much +more convenient from this point of view, and a mean temperature +of 20° is probably nearest the average of accurate calorimetric work. +For instance 20° is the mean of the range of the experiments of +Griffiths and of Rowland, and is close to that of Schuster and +Gannon. It is readily attainable at any time in a modern laboratory +with adequate heating arrangements, and is probably on the whole +the most suitable temperature to select.</p> +</div> + +<p>§ 17. <i>Specific Heat of Gases.</i>—In the case of solids and liquids +under ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of +expansion is so small that it may generally be neglected; but +with gases or vapours, or with liquids near the critical point, the +external work becomes so large that it is essential to specify the +conditions under which the specific heat is measured. The most +important cases are, the specific heats (1) at constant volume; +(2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure in the case of +a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal capacity +of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the +difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except +in case (2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat +meagre and conflicting, but the question of the relation of the +specific heats of gases is one of great interest in connexion with +the kinetic theory and the constitution of the molecule. The +well-known experiments of Regnault and Wiedemann on the +specific heat of gases at constant pressure agree in showing that +the <i>molecular specific heat,</i> or the thermal capacity of the molecular +weight in grammes, is approximately independent of the +temperature and pressure in case of the more stable diatomic +gases, such as H<span class="su">2</span>, O<span class="su">2</span>, N<span class="su">2</span>, CO, &c., and has nearly the same value +for each gas. They also indicate that it is much larger, and +increases considerably with rise of temperature, in the case of +more condensible vapours, such as Cl<span class="su">2</span>, Br<span class="su">2</span>, or more complicated +molecules, such as CO<span class="su">2</span>, N<span class="su">2</span>O, NH<span class="su">3</span>, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>. The direct determination +of the specific heat at constant volume is extremely difficult, +but has been successfully attempted by Joly with his steam +calorimeter, in the case of air and CO<span class="su">2</span>. Employing pressures +between 7 and 27 atmospheres, he found that the specific heat of +air between 10° and 100° C. increased very slightly with increase +of density, but that of CO<span class="su">2</span> increased nearly 3% between 7 and 21 +atmospheres. The following formulae represent his results for +the specific heat <i>s</i> at constant volume in terms of the density <i>d</i> in +gms. per c. c.:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Air, s = 0.1715 + 0.028d,</p> +<p>CO<span class="su">2</span>, s = 0.165 + 0.213d + 0.34d<span class="sp">2</span>.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>§ 18. <i>Ratio of Specific Heats.</i>—According to the elementary kinetic +theory of an ideal gas, the molecules of which are so small and so +far apart that their mutual actions may be neglected, the kinetic +energy of translation of the molecules is proportional to the absolute +temperature, and is equal to <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span> of pv, the product of the pressure +and the volume, per unit mass. The expansion per degree at +constant pressure is v/θ = R/p. The external work of expansion +per degree is equal to R, being the product of the pressure and the +expansion, and represents the difference of the specific heats S - s, +at constant pressure and volume, assuming as above that the internal +work of expansion is negligible. If the molecules are supposed +to be like smooth, hard, elastic spheres, incapable of receiving any +other kind of energy except that of translation, the specific heat at +constant volume would be the increase per degree of the kinetic +energy namely 3pv/2θ − 3R/2, that at constant pressure would be +5R/2, and the ratio of the specific heats would be <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> or 1.666. This +appears to be actually the case for monatomic gases such as mercury +vapour (Kundt and Warburg, 1876), argon and helium (Ramsay, +1896). For diatomic or compound gases Clerk Maxwell supposed +that the molecule would also possess energy of rotation, and endeavoured +to prove that in this case the energy would be equally +divided between the six degrees of freedom, three of translation +and three of rotation, if the molecule were regarded as a rigid body +incapable of vibration-energy. In this case we should have s = 3R, +S = 4R, S/s = <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> = 1.333. In 1879 Maxwell considered it one of the +greatest difficulties which the kinetic theory had yet encountered, +that in spite of the many other degrees of freedom of vibration +revealed by the spectroscope, the experimental value of the ratio +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span> +<i>S/s</i> was 1.40 for so many gases, instead of being less than <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>. Somewhat +later L. Boltzmann suggested that a diatomic molecule regarded +as a rigid dumb-bell or figure of rotation, might have only five +effective degrees of freedom, since the energy of rotation about the +axis of symmetry could not be altered by collisions between the +molecules. The theoretical value of the ratio S/s in this case would +be the required <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>. For a rigid molecule on this theory the smallest +value possible would be <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>. Since much smaller values are found +for more complex molecules, we may suppose that, in these cases, +the energy of rotation of a polyatomic molecule may be greater +than its energy of translation, or else that heat is expended in +splitting up molecular aggregates, and increasing energy of vibration. +A hypothesis doubtfully attributed to Maxwell is that each additional +atom in the molecule is equivalent to two extra degrees of +freedom. From an m-atomic molecule we should then have +S/s = 1 + 2/(2m + 1). This gives a series of ratios <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>, <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span>, +&c., for 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., atoms in the molecule, values which fall +within the limits of experimental error in many cases. It is not at +all clear, however, that energy of vibration should bear a constant +ratio to that of translation, although this would probably be the +case for rotation. For the simpler gases, which are highly diathermanous +and radiate badly even at high temperature, the energy +of vibration is probably very small, except under the special conditions +which produce luminosity in flames and electric discharges. +For such gases, assuming a constant ratio of rotation to translation, +the specific heat at low pressures would be very nearly constant. +For more complex molecules the radiative and absorptive powers +are known to be much greater. The energy of vibration may be +appreciable at ordinary temperatures, and would probably increase +more rapidly than that of translation with rise of temperature, +especially near a point of dissociation. This would account for +an increase of S, and a diminution of the ratio S/s, with rise of +temperature which apparently occurs in many vapours. The experimental +evidence, however, is somewhat conflicting, and further +investigations are very desirable on the variation of specific heat +with temperature. Given the specific heat as a function of the +temperature, its variation with pressure may be determined from +the characteristic equation of the gas. The direct methods of +measuring the ratio S/s, by the velocity of sound and by adiabatic +expansion, are sufficiently described in many text-books.</p> + +<p>§ 19. <i>Atomic and Molecular Heats.</i>—The ideal atomic heat is the +thermal capacity of a gramme-atom in the ideal state of monatomic +gas at constant volume. This would be nearly three calories. For +a diatomic gas, the molecular heat would be nearly five calories, +or the atomic heat of a gas in the diatomic state would be 2.5. Estimated +at constant pressure the atomic heat would be 3.5. Some +authors adopt 2.5 and some 3.5 for the ideal atomic heat. The +atomic heat of a metal in the solid state is in most cases larger than +six calories at ordinary temperatures. Considering the wide variations +in the physical condition and melting points, the comparatively +close agreement of the atomic heats of the metals at ordinary temperatures, +known as Dulong and Petit’s Law, is very remarkable. +The specific heats as a rule increase with rise of temperature, in some +cases, <i>e.g.</i> iron and nickel, very rapidly. According to W.A. Tilden +(<i>Phil. Trans.,</i> 1900), the atomic heats of pure nickel and cobalt, as +determined from experiments at the boiling-points of O<span class="su">2</span>, and CO<span class="su">2</span>, +diminish so rapidly at temperatures below 0° C. as to suggest that +they would reach the value 2.42 at the absolute zero. This is the +value of the minimum of atomic heat calculated by Perry from +diatomic hydrogen, but the observations themselves might be +equally well represented by taking the imaginary limit 3, since the +quantity actually observed is the mean specific heat between 0° and +−182.5° C. Subsequent experiments on other metals at low temperatures +did not indicate a similar diminution of specific heat, so +that it may be doubted whether the atomic heats really approach +the ideal value at the absolute zero. No doubt there must be +approximate relations between the atomic and molecular heats of +similar elements and compounds, but considering the great variations +of specific heat with temperature and physical state, in alloys, +mixtures or solutions, and in allotropic or other modifications, it +would be idle to expect that the specific heat of a compound could +be accurately deduced by any simple additive process from that of +its constituents.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Joule’s <i>Scientific Papers</i> (London, 1890); Ames +and Griffiths, <i>Reports to the International Congress</i> (Paris, 1900), +“On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat,” and “On the Specific +Heat of Water”; Griffiths, <i>Thermal Measurement of Energy</i> (Cambridge, +1901); Callendar and Barnes, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> A, 1901, “On +the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water”; for combustion +methods, see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermochemistry</a></span>, and treatises by Thomsen, +Pattison-Muir and Berthelot; see also articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. L. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1612-1686), German Lutheran +divine, was born at Mohrungen in east Prussia, on the 16th of +April 1612. After studying at Königsberg, in 1650 he was +appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg, where he afterwards +became general superintendent and primarius. He died +on the 25th of February 1686. Calovius was the most noteworthy +of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century. +He strongly opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians, +attacked in particular the reconciliation policy or “syncretism” +of Georg Calixtus (cf. the <i>Consensus repetitus fidei vere lutheranae,</i> +1665), and as a writer of polemics he had few equals. His chief +dogmatic work, <i>Systema locorum theologicorum</i> (12 vols. 1655-1677), +represents the climax of Lutheran scholasticism. In his +<i>Biblia Illustrata</i> (4 vols.), written from the point of view of a +very strict belief in inspiration, his object is to refute the statements +made by Hugo Grotius in his Commentaries. His <i>Historia +Syncretistica</i> (1682) was suppressed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALPURNIUS, TITUS,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> Roman bucolic poet, surnamed <span class="sc">Siculus</span> +from his birthplace or from his imitation of the style of the +Sicilian Theocritus, most probably flourished during the reign of +Nero. Eleven eclogues have been handed down to us under his +name, of which the last four, from metrical considerations and +express MS. testimony, are now generally attributed to Nemesianus +(<i>q.v.</i>), who lived in the time of the emperor Carus and his +sons (latter half of the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>). Hardly anything is +known of the life of Calpurnius; we gather from the poems +themselves (in which he is obviously represented by “Corydon”) +that he was in poor circumstances and was on the point of +emigrating to Spain, when “Meliboeus” came to his aid. +Through his influence Calpurnius apparently secured a post at +Rome. The time at which Calpurnius lived has been much +discussed, but all the indications seem to point to the time of Nero. +The emperor is described as a handsome youth, like Mars and +Apollo, whose accession marks the beginning of a new golden age, +prognosticated by the appearance of a comet, doubtless the same +that appeared some time before the death of Claudius; he +exhibits splendid games in the amphitheatre (probably the +wooden amphitheatre erected by Nero in 57); and in the words</p> + +<p class="center ptb1">maternis causam qui vicit Iulis<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (i. 45),</p> + +<p class="noind">there is a reference to the speech delivered in Greek by Nero on +behalf of the Ilienses (Suetonius, <i>Nero</i>, 7; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xii. +58), from whom the Julii derived their family.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Meliboeus, the +poet’s patron, has been variously identified with Columella, +Seneca the philosopher, and C. Calpurnius Piso. Although the +sphere of Meliboeus’s literary activity (as indicated in iv. 53) +suits none of these, what is known of Calpurnius Piso fits in well +with what is said of Meliboeus by the poet, who speaks of his +generosity, his intimacy with the emperor, and his interest in +tragic poetry. His claim is further supported by the poem <i>De +Laude Pisonis</i> (ed. C.F. Weber, 1859) which has come down to us +without the name of the author, but which there is considerable +reason for attributing to Calpurnius.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The poem exhibits a +striking similarity with the eclogues in metre, language and +subject-matter. The author of the <i>Laus</i> is young, of respectable +family and desirous of gaining the favour of Piso as his Maecenas. +Further, the similarity between the two names can hardly be +accidental; it is suggested that the poet may have been adopted +by the courtier, or that he was the son of a freedman of Piso. +The attitude of the author of the <i>Laus</i> towards the subject of the +panegyric seems to show less intimacy than the relations between +Corydon and Meliboeus in the eclogues, and there is internal +evidence that the <i>Laus</i> was written during the reign of Claudius +(Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist, of Rom. Lit.</i> § 306, 6).</p> + +<p>Mention may here be made of the fragments of two short +hexameter poems in an Einsiedeln MS., obviously belonging to +the time of Nero, which if not written by Calpurnius, were +imitated from him.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span></p> + +<p>Although there is nothing original in Calpurnius, he is “a +skilful literary craftsman.” Of his models the chief is Virgil, of +whom (under the name of Tityrus) he speaks with great enthusiasm; +he is also indebted to Ovid and Theocritus. Calpurnius +is “a fair scholar, and an apt courtier, and not devoid of +real poetical feeling. The bastard style of pastoral cultivated by +him, in which the description of nature is made the writer’s +pretext, while ingenious flattery is his real purpose, nevertheless +excludes genuine pleasure, and consequently genuine poetical +achievement. He may be fairly compared to the minor poets of +the reign of Anne” (Garnett).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Calpurnius was first printed in 1471, together with Silius Italicus +and has been frequently republished, generally with Gratius +Faliscus and Nemesianus. The separate authorship of the eclogues +of Calpurnius and Nemesianus was established by M. Haupt’s <i>De +Carminibus bucolicis Calpurnii et Nemesiani</i> (1854). Editions by +H. Schenkl (1885), with full introduction and <i>index verborum</i>, and by +C.H. Keene (1887), with introduction, commentary and appendix. +English verse translation by E.J.L. Scott (1891); see H.E. Butler, +<i>Post-Augustan Poetry</i> (Oxford, 1909), pp. 150 foil., and F. Skutsch +in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. 1 (1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Iulis</i> for <i>in ulnis</i> according to the best +MS. tradition.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> According to Dr R. Garnett (and Mr Greswell, as stated in +Conington’s <i>Virgil</i>, i. p. 123, note) the emperor referred to is the +younger Gordian (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 238). His arguments in favour of this will +be found in the article on Calpurnius by him in the 9th edition of +the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> and in the <i>Journal of Philology</i>, xvi., +1888; see in answer J.P. Postgate, “The Comet of Calpurnius +Siculus” in <i>Classical Review</i>, June 1902. Dean Merivale (<i>Hist. of the +Romans under the Empire</i>, ch. 60) and Pompei, “Intorno al Tempo +del Poeta Calpurnio” in <i>Atti del Istituto Veneto</i>, v. 6 (1880), identify +the amphitheatre with the Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) and +assign Calpurnius to the reign of Domitian.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It has been variously ascribed to Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius +and Saleius Bassus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALTAGIRONE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a city and episcopal see of the province of +Catania, Sicily, situated 1999 ft. above sea-level, 36 m. S.W. +of Catania direct (55 m. by rail). Pop. (1881) 25,978; (1901) +town 35,116; commune 45,956. It is well built, and is said to be +the most civilized provincial town in Sicily. Extensive Sicel +cemeteries have been explored to the north of the town (<i>Not. +Scavi</i>, 1904, 65), and a Greek necropolis of the 6th and 5th +centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span> has been found to the south-east (<i>ibid.</i> 132). +Remains of buildings of Roman date have also been discovered; +but the name of the ancient city which stood here is unknown. +The present name is a corruption of the Saracen <i>Kalat-al-Girche</i> +(the castle of Girche, the chieftain who fortified it).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALTANISETTA,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Sicily, the +capital of a province of the same name, 60 m. S.E. of Palermo +direct and 83 m. by rail, situated 1930 ft. above sea-level. +Pop. (1901) 43,303. The town is of Saracenic origin, as its name +<i>Kalat-al-Nisa</i>, the “Ladies’ Castle,” indicates, and some ruins +of the old castle (called <i>Pietrarossa</i>) still exist. Otherwise the +town contains no buildings of artistic or historical interest, but it +commands striking views. It is the centre of the Sicilian sulphur +industry and the seat of a royal school of mines. Two miles east +is the interesting Norman abbey of S. Spirito.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALTROP<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (from the Mid. Eng. <i>calketrappe</i>, probably derived +from the Lat. <i>calx</i>, a heel, and <i>trappa</i>, Late Lat. for a snare), an +iron ball, used as an obstacle against cavalry, with four spikes so +arranged, that however placed in or on the ground, one spike +always points upwards. It is also the botanical name for several +species of thistles.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the +department of Rhone, 2½ m. N. by E. of Lyons by rail. Pop. +(1906) 9255. It has manufactures of coarse earthenware and +hard-ware, copper and bronze foundries and nursery-gardens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALUMET<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (Norm. Fr. form of <i>chalumet</i>, from Lat. <i>calamus</i>, a +reed), the name given by the French in Canada to the “peace-pipe” +of the American Indians. This pipe occupied among the +tribes a position of peculiar symbolic significance, and was the +object of profound veneration. It was smoked on all ceremonial +occasions, even on declarations of war, but its special use was at +the making of treaties of peace. It was usually about 2½ ft. long, +and in the west the bowl was made of red pipes tone (catlinite), a +fine-grained, easily-worked stone of a rich red colour found +chiefly in the Côteau des Prairies west of Big Stone Lake, Dakota. +The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring +Indian tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the +locality and its product (Longfellow, <i>Hiawatha</i>, i.). The pipe +stem was of reed decorated with eagles’ quills or women’s hair. +Native tobacco mixed with willow-bark or sumac leaves was +smoked. The pipe was offered as a supreme proof of hospitality +to distinguished strangers, and its refusal was regarded as a +grievous affront. In the east and south-east, the bowl was of +white stone, sometimes pierced with several stem holes so that +many persons might smoke at once.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Joseph D. Macguire (exhaustive report,640 pages), “Pipes and +Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines” in <i>Smithsonian Report</i> +(American Bureau of Ethnology) for 1897, vol. i.; and authorities +quoted in <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALUMPIT,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a town of the province of Bulacán, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, at the junction of the Quiñgua river with the +Rio Grande de la Pampanga, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. +Pop. (1903) 13,897. It is served by the Manila & Dagupan +railway, and the bridge across the Rio Grande is one of the +longest in the Philippines. The surrounding country is a fertile +plain, producing large quantities of rice, as well as sugar, Indian +corn and a variety of fruits. Calumpit has a large rice-mill +and one of the largest markets in the Philippines. The bridge, +convent and church of the town were fired and completely +destroyed by insurgent troops in 1899. The language is Tagalog.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVADOS,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a department of north-western France, formed +in 1790 out of Bessin, Cinglais, Hiémois, Bocage, the Campagne +de Caen, Auge and the western part of Lieuvin. Pop. (1906) +403,431. Area, 2197 sq. m. It received its name from a ledge +of rocks, stretching along the coast for a distance of about 15 m. +between the mouths of the rivers Orne and Vire. It is bounded N. +by the English Channel, E. by the department of Eure, S. by that +of Orne, W. by that of Manche. The Bocage, or south-western +part of the department, is elevated, being crossed from south-east +to north-west by the hills of Normandy, the highest of which is +1197 ft.; the rest of the surface is gently undulating, and consists +of extensive valleys watered by numerous streams which fall into +the English Channel. The coast, formed by cliffs, sandy beaches +or reefs, is generally inaccessible, except at the mouths of the +principal rivers, such as the Touques, the Dives, the Orne and +the Vire, which are navigable at high tide for several miles inland. +Trouville is the chief of the numerous coast resorts. The climate, +though humid and variable, is healthy. The raising of cattle, +sheep and horses is the mainstay of the agriculture of the department. +Pasture is good and abundant in the east and north-west, +and there is a large export trade in the butter, eggs and +cheese (Camembert, Livarot, Pont l’Evêque) of these districts, +carried on by Honfleur, Isigny and other ports. The plain of +Caen is a great centre for horse breeding. Wheat, oats, barley, +colza and potatoes are the chief crops. The orchards of Auge +and Bessin produce a superior kind of cider, of which upwards of +40,000,000 gallons are made in the department; a large quantity +of cider brandy (eau-de-vie de Calvados) is distilled. Poultry +to a considerable amount is sent to the Paris markets, and there +is a large output of honey and wax. The spinning and weaving +of wool and cotton are the chief industries. Besides these, +paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, +rope-works, dye-works, distilleries and bleach-fields, scattered +throughout the department, give employment to a number of +hands. There are productive iron-mines and building-stone, +slate and lime are plentiful. Fisheries, chiefly of lobster, oyster +(Courseulles), herring and mackerel, are prosecuted. Coal, timber, +grain, salt-fish and cement are among the imports; exports +include iron, dairy products and sand. Caen and Honfleur are +the most important commercial ports. There is a canal 9 m. in +length from Caen to Ouistreham on the coast. The department +is served by the Ouest-Êtat railway. It is divided into the six +arrondissements (38 cantons, 763 communes) of Caen, Falaise, +Bayeux, Vire, Lisieux and Pont l’Evêque. Caen, the capital, is the +seat of a court of appeal and the centre of an <i>académie</i> (educational +division). The department forms the diocese of Bayeux, +in the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, and belongs to the region +of the III. army-corps. The other principal towns are Falaise, +Lisieux, Condé-sur-Noireau, Vire, Honfleur and Trouville (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Amongst the great number of medieval churches which +the department possesses, the fine Gothic church of St. Pierre-sur-Dives +is second in importance only to those of Lisieux and +Bayeux; that of Norrey, a good example of the Norman-Gothic +style, and that of Tour-en-Bessin, in which Romanesque and +Gothic architecture are mingled, are of great interest. Fontaine-Henri +has a fine château of the 15th and 16th centuries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVART, DENIS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1540-1619), Flemish painter, was born at +Antwerp. After studying landscape-painting for some time in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span> +his native city he went to Bologna, where he perfected himself in +the anatomy of the human form under Prospero Fontana, and so +completely lost the mannerism of Flemish art that his paintings +appear to be the work of an Italian. From Bologna he went to +Rome, where he assisted Lorenzo Sabbatini (1533-1577) in his +works for the papal palace, and devoted much of his time to +copying and studying the works of Raphael. He ultimately +returned to Bologna and founded a school, of which the greatest +ornaments are Guido and Domenichino. His works are especially +admired for the power of grouping and colouring which they +display.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVARY,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> the conventional English rendering of the <i>calvaria</i> +of the Vulgate, the Latin version of the Greek <i><span class="grk" title="kranion">κράνιον</span></i>, both +meaning “skull” and representing the Hebrew Golgotha, the +name given to the scene of Christ’s crucifixion. The term “a +Calvary” is applied to a sculptured representation of the +Crucifixion, either inside a church, or adjoining one in the open +air. There are many examples of the latter in France, Italy +and Spain. Among the most important are the Sacro Monte +(1486) at Varallo in Piedmont, and those at Guimiliau (1581), +Plougastel (1602), St Thegonnec (1610), and Pleyben near +Quimper (1670), in Brittany, all in good preservation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVÉ EMMA<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1864-  ), Spanish operatic soprano, was +born at Madrid, and trained in Paris, making her first important +appearance in opera at Brussels in 1882. She sang mainly in +Paris for some years, but in 1892 was first engaged at Covent +Garden, London, and at once became famous as the most vivid +Carmen (in Bizet’s opera) of the day.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1831-1884), English poet +and wit, and the literary father of what may be called the +university school of humour, was born at Martley in Worcestershire +on the 22nd of December 1831. His father, the Rev. Henry +Blayds, resumed in 1852 the old family name of Calverley, which +his grandfather had exchanged for Blayds in 1807. It was as +Charles Stuart Blayds that most of the son’s university distinctions +were attained. He went up to Balliol from Harrow in 1850, +and was soon known in Oxford as the most daring and most +high-spirited undergraduate of his time. He was a universal +favourite, a delightful companion, a brilliant scholar and the +playful enemy of all “dons.” In 1851 he won the Chancellor’s +prize for Latin verse, and it is said that the entire exercise was +written in an afternoon, when his friends had locked him into his +rooms, declining to let him out till he had finished what they were +confident would prove the prize poem. A year later he took his +name off the books, to avoid the consequences of a college +escapade, and migrated to Christ’s College, Cambridge. Here he +was again successful in Latin verse, and remains the unique +example of an undergraduate who has won the Chancellor’s prize +at both universities. In 1856 he took second place in the first +class in the Classical Tripos. He was elected fellow of Christ’s +(1858), published <i>Verses and Translations</i> in 1862, and was called +to the bar in 1865. Owing to an accident while skating he was +prevented from following up a professional career, and during +the last years of his life he was an invalid. His <i>Translations into +English and Latin</i> appeared in 1866; his <i>Theocritus translated into +English Verse</i> in 1869; <i>Fly Leaves</i> in 1872; and <i>Literary Remains</i> +in 1885. He died on the 17th of February 1884. Calverley was +one of the most brilliant men of his day; and, had he enjoyed +health, might have achieved distinction in any career he chose. +Constitutionally indolent, he was endowed with singular gifts in +every department of culture; he was a scholar, a musician, an +athlete and a brilliant talker. What is left us marks only a small +portion of his talent, but his sparkling, dancing verses, which have +had many clever imitators, are still without a rival in their own +line. His humour was illumined by good nature; his satire was +keen but kind; his laughter was of that human sort which is often +on the verge of tears. Imbued with the classical spirit, he introduced +into the making of light verse the polish and elegance of the +great masters, and even in its most whimsical mood his verse is +raised to the level of poetry by the saving excellence of style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Complete Works,</i> with a biographical notice by Sir W.J. +Sendall, appeared in 1901.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Wa.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVERT,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the name of three English artists: Charles (1785-1852), +a well-known landscape-painter; Edward (1803-1883), +an important wood-engraver and follower of Blake; and +Frederick, an excellent topographical draughtsman, whose +work in water-colour is represented at the Victoria and Albert +Museum, and who published a volume of <i>Picturesque Views in +Staffordshire and Shropshire</i> (1830).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1819-1873), English chemist, +was born in London on the 14th of November 1819. From about +1836 till 1846 he lived in France, where, after a course of study at +Paris, he became manager of some chemical works, later acting as +assistant to M.E. Chevreul. On his return to England he settled +in Manchester as a consulting chemist, and was appointed +professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution in that city. +Devoting himself almost entirely to industrial chemistry, he +gave much attention to the manufacture of coal-tar products, +and particularly carbolic acid, for the production of which he +established large works in Manchester in 1865. Besides contributing +extensively to the English and French scientific +journals, he published a work on <i>Dyeing and Calico-Printing.</i> +He died in Manchester on the 24th of October 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1763-1826), British general, +was probably born early in 1763 at Hampton, near London. He +was educated at Harrow, and at the age of fifteen entered the +army. In the following year he served with his regiment in +America, being present at the siege of Charleston, and serving +through the campaign of Lord Cornwallis which ended with the +surrender of Yorktown. From 1781 to 1783 he was a prisoner of +war. Returning to England in 1784, he next saw active service +in 1793-1794 in the Low Countries, where he was aide-de-camp to +the duke of York, and in 1795 was engaged on a confidential +mission to Brunswick and Berlin. In 1799, having already served +as deputy adjutant general, he was made adjutant general, +holding the post till 1818. In this capacity he effected many +improvements in the organization and discipline of the service. +He greatly improved the administration of the army medical and +hospital department, introduced regimental schools, developed +the two existing military colleges (since united at Sandhurst), and +was largely responsible for the founding of the Duke of York’s +school, Chelsea. In recognition of his work as adjutant general +he was made a G.C.B. (1815), and, on retiring from office, received +a baronetcy (1818). In 1820 he was made governor of Chelsea +hospital. He died on the 3rd of September 1826, at Middle +Claydon, Buckinghamshire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVES’ HEAD CLUB,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a club established shortly after his +death in derision of the memory of Charles I. Its chief meeting +was held on the 30th of each January, the anniversary of the +king’s execution, when the dishes served were a cod’s head to +represent the individual, Charles Stuart; a pike representing +tyranny; a boar’s head representing the king preying on his +subjects; and calves’ heads representing Charles as king and his +adherents. On the table an axe held the place of honour. After +the banquet a copy of the king’s <i>Ikon Basilike</i> was burnt, and +the toast was “To those worthy patriots who killed the tyrant.” +After the Restoration the club met secretly. The first mention +of it is in a tract reprinted in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i> entitled +“The Secret History of the Calves’ Head Club.” The club +survived till 1734, when the diners were mobbed owing to the +popular ill-feeling which their outrages on good taste provoked, +and the riot which ensued put a final stop to the meetings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVI,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a sea-port in Corsica, capital of an arrondissement in +the N.W. of the island, 112 m. N. of Ajaccio by road. Pop. +(1906) 1967. It is situated on the Bay of Calvi, in a malarial +region, and is the port in Corsica nearest to France, being 109 m. +from Antibes; the harbour, however, is exposed to the east and +north-east winds. The modern town lies at the foot of a rock, on +which stands the old town with its steep rock-paved streets and +fortified walls, commanded by the Fort Muzello. Fishing is +carried on, and timber, oil, wine, lemons and other sub-tropical +fruits are exported to some extent. The most important buildings +are the old palace of the Genoese governor, used as barracks, and +the church (16th century), with the monument of the Baglioni +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span> +family, which was intimately associated with the history of the +town.</p> + +<p>Calvi was founded in the 13th century and in 1278 passed into +the hands of the Genoese. From that date it was remarkable for +its adherence to their side, especially in 1553 when it repulsed two +attacks of the united forces of the French and Turks. In recognition +thereof the Genoese senate caused the words <i>Civitas Calvi +semper fidelis</i> to be carved on the chief gate of the city, which still +preserves the inscription. In 1794 Calvi was captured by the +English, but it was retaken by the Corsicans in the following +year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVIN, JOHN<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1500-1564), Swiss divine and reformer, was +born at Noyon, in Picardy, on the 10th of July 1509. His father, +Gérard Cauvin or Calvin,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal +for the lordship of Noyon, besides holding certain ecclesiastical +offices in connexion with that diocese. The name of his +mother was Jeanne le Franc; she was the daughter of an innkeeper +at Cambrai, who afterwards came to reside at Noyon. +Gérard Cauvin was esteemed as a man of considerable sagacity +and prudence, and his wife was a godly and attractive lady. She +bore him five sons, of whom John was the second. By a second +wife there were two daughters.</p> + +<p>Of Calvin’s early years only a few notices remain. His father +destined him from the first for an ecclesiastical career, and paid +for his education in the household of the noble family of Hangest +de Montmor. In May 1521 he was appointed to a chaplaincy +attached to the altar of La Gésine in the cathedral of Noyon, and +received the tonsure. The actual duties of the office were in such +cases carried out by ordained and older men for a fraction of the +stipend. The plague having visited Noyon, the young Hangests +were sent to Paris in August 1523, and Calvin accompanied them, +being enabled to do so by the income received from his benefice. +He lived with his uncle and attended as an out-student the +Collège de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin +Cordier, a man of character, learning and repute as a teacher, +who in later days followed his pupil to Switzerland, taught at +Neuchâtel, and died in Geneva in 1564. In dedicating to him his +<i>Commentary on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians,</i> as “eximiae +pietatis et doctrinae viro,” he declares that so had he been aided +by his instruction that whatever subsequent progress he had made +he only regarded as received from him, and “this,” he adds, “I +wish to testify to posterity that if any utility accrue to any from +my writings they may acknowledge it as having in part flowed +from thee.” From the Collège de la Marche he removed to the +Collège de Montaigu,<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> where the atmosphere was more ecclesiastical +and where he had for instructor a Spaniard who is +described as a man of learning and to whom Calvin was indebted +for some sound training in dialectics and the scholastic philosophy. +He speedily outstripped all his competitors in grammatical +studies, and by his skill and acumen as a student of philosophy, +and in the college disputations gave fruitful promise of that +consummate excellence as a reasoner in the department of +speculative truth which he afterwards displayed. Among his +friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and +Michel Cop, sons of the king’s Swiss physician, and his own +kinsman Pierre Robert, better known as Olivétan. Such friendships +testify both to the worth and the attractiveness of his +character, and contradict the old legend that he was an unsociable +misanthrope. Pleased with his success, the canons at Noyon +gave him the curacy of St Martin de Marteville in September +1527. After holding this preferment for nearly two years, he +exchanged it in July 1529 for the cure of Pont L’Évêque, a village +near to Noyon, and the place to which his father originally belonged. He +appears to have been not a little elated by his early promotion, and +although not ordained, he preached several sermons to the people. But +though the career of ecclesiastical preferment was thus early opened to +him, Calvin was destined not to become a priest. A change came over the +mind both of his father and himself respecting his future career. Gérard +Cauvin began to suspect that he had not chosen the most lucrative +profession for his son, and that the law offered to a youth of his +talents and industry a more promising sphere.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He was also now out of +favour with the cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said also that John +himself, on the advice of his relative, Pierre Robert Olivétan, the +first translator of the Bible into French, had begun to study the +Scriptures and to dissent from the Roman worship. At any rate he readily +complied with his father’s suggestion, and removed from Paris to Orleans +(March 1528) in order to study law under Pierre Taisan de l’Etoile, the +most distinguished jurisconsult of his day. The university atmosphere +here was less ascetic than at Paris, but Calvin’s ardour knew no +slackening, and such was his progress in legal knowledge that he was +frequently called upon to lecture, in the absence of one or other of the +regular staff. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him +while in this city, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age he +eagerly developed his classical knowledge. “By protracted vigils,” says +Beza, “he secured indeed a solid erudition and an excellent memory; but +it is probable he at the same time sowed the seeds of that disease +(dyspepsia) which occasioned him various illnesses in after life, and at +last brought upon him premature death.”<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> His friends here were +Melchior Wolmar, a German schoolmaster and a man of exemplary +scholarship and character, François Daniel, Francois de Connam and +Nicolas Duchemin; to these his earliest letters were written.</p> + +<p>From Orleans Calvin went to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to continue +his studies under the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati (1492-1550), +whom Francis I. had invited into France and settled as a professor of +law in that university. His friend Daniel went with him, and Wolmar +followed a year later. By Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced +to the study of the New Testament in the original, a service which he +gratefully acknowledges in one of his printed works.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The conversation +of Wolmar may also have been of use to him in his consideration of the +doctrines of the Reformation, which were now beginning to be widely +diffused through France. Twelve years had elapsed since Luther had +published his theses against indulgences—twelve years of intense +excitement and anxious discussion, not in Germany only, but in almost +all the adjacent countries. In France there had not been as yet any +overt revolt against the Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy +with any attempt to improve the church by education, by purer morals, by +better preaching and by a return to the primitive and uncorrupted faith. +Though we cannot with Beza regard Calvin at this time as a centre of +Protestant activity, he may well have preached at Lignières as a +reformatory Catholic of the school of Erasmus. Calvin’s own record of +his “conversion” is so scanty and devoid of chronological data that it +is extremely difficult to trace his religious development with any +certainty. But it seems probable that at least up to 1532 he was far +more concerned about classical scholarship than about religion.</p> + +<p>His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his father in May +1531. Immediately after this event he went to Paris, where the “new +learning” was now at length ousting the medieval scholasticism from the +university. He lodged in the Collège Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre +Danès and beginning Hebrew with François Vatable. It was at this time +(April 1532) that Calvin issued his first publication, a commentary in +Latin on Seneca’s tract <i>De Clementia</i>. This book he published at his own +cost, and dedicated to Claude Hangest, abbot of St Éloi, a member of the +de Montmor family, with whom Calvin had been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span> +brought up. It was formerly thought that Calvin published this +work with a view to influence the king to put a stop to the attacks +on the Protestants, but there is nothing in the treatise itself or in +the commentary to favour this opinion.</p> + +<p>Soon after the publication of his first book Calvin returned +to Orleans, where he stayed for a year, perhaps again reading +law, and still undecided as to his life’s work. He visited Noyon +in August 1533, and by October of the same year was settled +again in Paris. Here and now his destiny became certain. The +conservative theology was becoming discredited, and humanists +like Jacques Lefèvre of Étaples (Faber Stapulensis) and Gérard +Roussel were favoured by the court under the influence of +Margaret of Angoulême, queen of Navarre and sister of Francis I. +Calvin’s old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected rector of +the university and had to deliver an oration according to custom +in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The +oration (certainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin) +was in effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of +the doctrine of justification by faith alone. It is to the period +between April 1532 and November 1533, and in particular to +the time of his second sojourn at Orleans, that we may most +fittingly assign the great change in Calvin which he describes +(<i>Praef. ad Psalmos</i>; opera xxxi. 21-24) as his “sudden conversion” +and attributes to direct divine agency. It must have +been at least after his <i>Commentary on Seneca’s De Clementia</i> +that his heart was “so subdued and reduced to docility that in +comparison with his zeal for true piety he regarded all other +studies with indifference, though not entirely forsaking them. +Though himself a beginner, many flocked to him to learn the +pure doctrine, and he began to seek some hiding-place and means +of withdrawal from people.” This indeed was forced upon him, +for Cop’s address was more than the conservative party could +bear, and Cop, being summoned to appear before the parlement +of Paris, found it necessary, as he failed to secure the support +either of the king, or of the university, to make his escape to +Basel. An attempt was at the same time made to seize Calvin, +but, being forewarned of the design by his friends, he also made +his escape. His room in the Collège Fortet, however, was +searched, and his books and papers seized, to the imminent +peril of some of his friends, whose letters were found in his +repositories. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him +being dropped, soon returned to Paris. But desiring both +security and solitude for study he left the city again about New +Year of 1534 and became the guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of +the cathedral, at Angoulême, where at the request of his host he +prepared some short discourses, which were circulated in the +surrounding parishes, and read in public to the people. Here, too +in du Tillet’s splendid library, he began the studies which resulted +in his great work, the <i>Institutes</i>, and paid a visit to Nérac, where +the venerable Lefèvre, whose revised translation of the Bible +into French was published about this time, was spending his last +years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre.</p> + +<p>Calvin was now nearly twenty-five years of age, and in the +ordinary way would have been ordained to the priesthood. Up +till this time his work for the evangelical cause was not so much +that of the public preacher or reformer as that of the retiring +but influential scholar and adviser. Now, however, he had to +decide whether, like Roussel and other of his friends, he should +strive to combine the new doctrines with a position in the old +church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome. +His mind was made up, and on the 4th of May he resigned +his chaplaincy at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont l’Évêque. +Towards the end of the same month he was arrested and suffered +two short terms of imprisonment, the charges against him +being not strong enough to be pressed. He seems to have +gone next to Paris, staying perhaps with Étienne de la +Forge, a Protestant merchant who suffered for his faith in +February 1535. To this time belongs the story of the proposed +meeting between Calvin and the Spanish reformer Servetus. +Calvin’s movements at this time are difficult to trace, but he +visited both Orleans and Poitiers, and each visit marked a stage +in his development.</p> + +<p>The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and +were disseminating many wild and fanatical opinions among +those who had seceded from the Church of Rome. Among other +notions which they had imbibed was that of a sleep of the soul +after death. To Calvin this notion appeared so pernicious that +he composed a treatise in refutation of it, under the title of +<i>Psychopannychia</i>. The preface to this treatise is dated Orleans +1534, but it was not printed till 1542. In it he chiefly dwells +upon the evidence from Scripture in favour of the belief that the +soul retains its intelligent consciousness after its separation from +the body—passing by questions of philosophical speculation, as +tending on such a subject only to minister to an idle curiosity. +At Poitiers Calvin gathered round him a company of cultured +and gentle men whom in private intercourse he influenced +considerably. Here too in a grotto near the town he for the first +time celebrated the communion in the Evangelical Church of +France, using a piece of the rock as a table.</p> + +<p>The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time +forward his influence became supreme, and all who had accepted +the reformed doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and +instruction, attracted not only by his power as a teacher, but +still more, perhaps because they saw in him so full a development +of the Christian life according to the evangelical model. +Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him “the most Christian +man of his time,” and attributes to this his success as a reformer. +Certain it is that already he had become conspicuous as a prophet +of the new religion; his life was in danger, and he was obliged to +seek safety in flight. In company with his friend Louis du +Tillet, whom he had again gone to Angoulême to visit, he set out +for Basel. On their way they were robbed by one of their servants, +and it was only by borrowing ten crowns from their other +servant that they were enabled to get to Strassburg, and thence +to Basel. Here Calvin was welcomed by the band of scholars +and theologians who had conspired to make that city the Athens +of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief +pastor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the aupices +and guidance of Sebastian Münster, Calvin now gave himself to +the study of Hebrew.</p> + +<p>Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protestants +but anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to +break with the Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his +ambassador to assure these princes that it was only against +Anabaptists, and other parties who called in question all civil +magistracy, that his severities were exercised. Calvin, indignant +at the calumny which was thus cast upon the reformed party in +France, hastily prepared for the press his <i>Institutes of the Christian +Religion</i>, which he published “first that I might vindicate from +unjust affront my brethren whose death was precious in the sight +of the Lord, and, next, that some sorrow and anxiety should move +foreign peoples, since the same sufferings threatened many.” +The work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it +in Latin that it might find access to the learned in all lands.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +Soon after it appeared he set about translating it into French, as +he himself attests in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at +rest a question, at one time much agitated, whether the book +appeared first in French or in Latin. The earliest French edition +known is that of 1540, and this was after the work had been much +enlarged, and several Latin editions had appeared. In its first +form the work consisted of only six chapters, and was intended +merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrine. The chapters +follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching: (1) The Law, +(as in the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles’ Creed) +(3) Prayer, (4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False +Sacraments, (6) Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil +administration. The closing chapters of the work are more +polemical than the earlier ones. His indebtedness to Luther is +of course great, but his spiritual kinship with Martin Bucer of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span> +Strassburg is even more marked. Something also he owed to +Scotus and other medieval schoolmen. The book appeared +anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in +view beyond furnishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted +Protestants, whom he saw cruelly cut to pieces by impious and +perfidious court parasites.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In this work, though produced when +the author was only twenty-six years of age, we find a complete +outline of the Calvinist theological system. In none of the later +editions, nor in any of his later works do we find reason to believe +that he ever changed his views on any essential point from what +they were at the period of its first publication. Such an instance +of maturity of mind and of opinion at so early an age would be +remarkable under any circumstances; but in Calvin’s case it is +rendered peculiarly so by the shortness of the time which had +elapsed since he gave himself to theological studies. It may be +doubted also if the history of literature presents us with another +instance of a book written at so early an age, which has exercised +such a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both +of contemporaries and of posterity.</p> + +<p>After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renée, duchess +of Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), which at that time +afforded an asylum to several learned and pious fugitives from +persecution, Calvin returned through Basel to France to arrange +his affairs before finally taking farewell of his native country. +His intention was to settle at Strassburg or Basel, and to devote +himself to study. But being unable, in consequence of the war +between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach Strassburg by the +ordinary route, he with his younger brother Antoine and his +half-sister Marie journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making +for Basel. In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution +to pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by +what he calls the “formidable obtestation” of Guillaume Farel.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +After many struggles and no small suffering, this energetic spirit +had succeeded in planting the evangelical standard at Geneva; +and anxious to secure the aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated +him on his arrival to relinquish his design of going farther, and to +devote himself to the work in that city. Calvin at first declined, +alleging as an excuse his need of securing more time for personal +improvement, but ultimately, believing that he was divinely +called to this task and that “God had stretched forth His hand +upon me from on high to arrest me,” he consented to remain at +Geneva. He hurried to Basel, transacted some business, and +returned to Geneva in August 1536. He at once began to expound +the epistles of St Paul in the church of St Pierre, and after +about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with +the consent of the people, an office which he would not accept +until it had been repeatedly pressed upon him. His services +seem to have been rendered for some time gratuitously, for in +February 1537 there is an entry in the city registers to the effect +that six crowns had been voted to him, “since he has as yet +hardly received anything.”</p> + +<p>Calvin was in his twenty-eighth year when he was thus +constrained to settle at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his +life, with the exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post +to which he was thus called was not an easy one. Though the +people of Geneva had cast off the obedience of Rome, it was +largely a political revolt against the duke of Savoy, and they were +still (says Beza) “but very imperfectly enlightened in divine +knowledge; they had as yet hardly emerged from the filth of the +papacy.”<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> This laid them open to the incursions of those +fanatical teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the +Reformation had called forth, and who hung mischievously upon +the rear of the reforming body. To obviate the evils thence +resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew up a condensed +statement of Christian doctrine consisting of twenty-one articles. +This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to +profess and swear to as the confession of their faith—a process +which, though not in accordance with modern notions of the best +way of establishing men in the faith, was gone through, Calvin +tells us, “with much satisfaction.” As the people took this oath +in the capacity of <i>citizens</i>, we may see here the basis laid for that +theocratic system which subsequently became peculiarly characteristic +of the Genevan polity. Deeply convinced of the importance +of education for the young, Calvin and his coadjutors were +solicitous to establish schools throughout the city, and to enforce +on parents the sending of their children to them; and as he had +no faith in education apart from religious training, he drew up a +catechism of Christian doctrine which the children had to learn +whilst they were receiving secular instruction. Of the troubles +which arose from fanatical teachers, the chief proceeded from +the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public disputation was held on +the 16th and 17th of March 1537, and so excited the populace +that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the +Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About +the same time also, the peace of Calvin and his friends was much +disturbed and their work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, another +native of northern France, who, though a man of loose principle +and belief, had been appointed chief pastor at Lausanne and was +discrediting the good work done by Pierre Viret in that city. +Calvin went to Viret’s aid and brought Caroli before the commissioners +of Bern on a charge of advocating prayers for the dead +as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a +counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and +Arianism, because they would not enforce the Athanasian creed, +and had not used the words “Trinity” and “Person” in the +confession they had drawn up. It was a struggle between the +thoroughgoing humanistic reformer who drew his creed solely +from the “word of God” and the merely semi-Protestant +reformer who looked on the old creed as a priceless heritage. In +a synod held at Bern the matter was fully discussed, when a +verdict was given in favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli +deposed from his office and banished. He returned to France, +rejoined the Roman communion and spent the rest of his life in +passing to and from the old faith and the new. Thus ended an +affair which seems to have occasioned Calvin much more uneasiness +than the character of his assailant, and the manifest falsehood +of the charge brought against him, would seem to justify. +Two brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled <i>De fugiendis +impiorum sacris,</i> the other <i>De sacerdotio papali abjiciendo,</i> were +also published early in this year.</p> + +<p>Hardly was the affair of Caroli settled, when new and severer +trials came upon the Genevan Reformers. The austere simplicity +of the ritual which Farel had introduced, and to which +Calvin had conformed; the strictness with which the ministers +sought to enforce not only the laws of morality, but certain +sumptuary regulations respecting the dress and mode of living +of the citizens; and their determination in spiritual matters +and ecclesiastical ceremonies not to submit to the least dictation +from the civil power, led to violent dissensions. Amidst much +party strife Calvin perhaps showed more youthful impetuosity +than experienced skill. He and his colleagues refused to administer +the sacrament in the Bernese form, <i>i.e.</i> with unleavened +bread, and on Easter Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all +because of the popular tumult. For this they were banished +from the city. They went first to Bern, and soon after to +Zürich, where a synod of the Swiss pastors had been convened. +Before this assembly they pleaded their cause, and stated what +were the points on which they were prepared to insist as needful +for the proper discipline of the church. They declared that they +would yield in the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ unleavened +bread in the eucharist, to use fonts in baptism, and to +allow festival days, provided the people might pursue their +ordinary avocations after public service. These Calvin regarded +as matters of indifference, provided the magistrates did +not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them; and +he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped +thereby to meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose +ritual was less simple than that established by Farel at Geneva. +But he and his colleagues insisted, on the other hand that for the +proper maintenance of discipline, there should be a division of +parishes—that excommunications should be permitted, and +should be under the power of elders chosen by the council, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span> +conjunction with the clergy—that order should be observed in +the admission of preachers—and that only the clergy should +officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It was proposed +also, as conducive to the welfare of the church, that the sacrament +of the Lord’s Supper should be administered more frequently, at +least once every month, and that congregational singing of +psalms should be practised in the churches. On these terms the +synod interceded with the Genevese to restore their pastors; +but through the opposition of some of the Bernese (especially +Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) this was frustrated, and a +second edict of banishment was the only response.</p> + +<p>Calvin and Farel betook themselves, under these circumstances, +to Basel, where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neuchâtel +and Calvin to Strassburg. At the latter place Calvin +resided till the autumn of 1541, occupying himself partly in +literary exertions, partly as a preacher and especially an organizer +in the French church, and partly as a lecturer on theology. +These years were not the least valuable in his experience. In +1539 he attended Charles V.’s conference on Christian reunion at +Frankfort as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year +he appeared at Hagenau and Worms, as the delegate from the +city of Strassburg. He was present also at the diet at Regensburg, +where he deepened his acquaintance with Melanchthon, +and formed with him a friendship which lasted through life. He +also did something to relieve the persecuted Protestants of +France. It is to this period of his life that we owe a revised and +enlarged form of his <i>Institutes</i>, his <i>Commentary on the Epistle to +the Romans</i>, and his <i>Tract on the Lord’s Supper</i>. Notwithstanding +his manifold engagements, he found time to attend to the +tenderer affections; for it was during his residence at Strassburg +that he married, in August 1540, Idelette de Bure, the +widow of one Jean Stordeur of Liége, whom he had converted +from Anabaptism. In her Calvin found, to use his own words, +“the excellent companion of his life,” a “precious help” to him +amid his manifold labours and frequent infirmities. She died in +1549, to the great grief of her husband, who never ceased to +mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the 28th of +July 1542, lived only a few days.</p> + +<p>During Calvin’s absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed +in Geneva. An attempt was made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto +(1477-1547), bishop of Carpentras, to take advantage of this so +as to restore the papal supremacy in that district; but this +design Calvin, at the request of the Bernese authorities, who had +been consulted by those of Geneva, completely frustrated, by +writing such a reply to the letter which the bishop had addressed +to the Genevese, as constrained him to desist from all further +efforts. The letter had more than a local or temporary reference. +It was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole Protestant +position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that +was ever written. He seems also to have kept up his connexion +with Geneva by addressing letters of counsel and comfort to the +faithful there who continued to regard him with affection. It +was whilst he was still at Strassburg that there appeared at +Geneva a translation of the Bible into French, bearing Calvin’s +name, but in reality only revised and corrected by him from the +version of Olivétan. Meanwhile the way was opening for his +return. Those who had driven him from the city gradually +lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. +After much hesitation, for Strassburg had strong claims, he +yielded and returned to Geneva, where he was received with +the utmost enthusiasm (September 13, 1541). He entered upon +his work with a firm determination to carry out those reforms +which he had originally purposed, and to set up in all its integrity +that form of church polity which he had carefully matured +during his residence at Strassburg. He now became the sole +directive spirit in the church at Geneva. Farel was retained +by the Neuchâtelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin’s return, removed +to Lausanne. His duties were thus rendered exceedingly +onerous, and his labour became excessive. Besides preaching +every day in each alternate week, he taught theology three days +in the week, attended weekly meetings of his consistory, read +the Scriptures once a week in the congregation, carried on an +extensive correspondence on a multiplicity of subjects, prepared +commentaries on the books of Scripture, and was engaged +repeatedly in controversy with the opponents of his opinions. +“I have not time,” he writes to a friend, “to look out of my +house at the blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall +forget what sort of appearance it has. When I have settled my +usual business, I have so many letters to write, so many questions +to answer, that many a night is spent without any offering of +sleep being brought to nature.”</p> + +<p>It is only necessary here to sketch the leading events of +Calvin’s life after his return to Geneva. He recodified the +Genevan laws and constitution, and was the leading spirit in the +negotiations with Bern that issued in the treaty of February +1544. Of the controversies in which he embarked, one of the +most important was that in which he defended his doctrine +concerning predestination and election. His first antagonist on +this head was Albert Pighius, a Romanist, who, resuming the +controversy between Erasmus and Luther on the freedom of the +will, violently attacked Calvin for the views he had expressed +on that subject. Calvin replied to him in a work published +in 1543, in which he defends his own opinions at length, both +by general reasonings and by an appeal to both Scripture +and the Fathers, especially Augustine. So potent were his +reasonings that Pighius, though owing nothing to the gentleness +or courtesy of Calvin, was led to embrace his views. A still more +vexatious and protracted controversy on the same subject arose +in 1551. Jerome Hermes Bolsec, a Carmelite friar, having +renounced Romanism, had fled from France to Veigy, a village +near Geneva, where he practised as a physician. Being a zealous +opponent of predestinarian views, he expressed his criticisms +of Calvin’s teaching on the subject in one of the public conferences +held each Friday. Calvin replied with much vehemence, +and brought the matter before the civil authorities. The council +were at a loss which course to take; not that they doubted which +of the disputants was right, for they all held by the views of +Calvin, but they were unable to determine to what extent and +in which way Bolsec should be punished for his heresy. The +question was submitted to the churches at Basel, Bern, Zürich +and Neuchâtel, but they also, to Calvin’s disappointment, were +divided in their judgment, some counselling severity, others +gentle measures. In the end Bolsec was banished from Geneva; +he ultimately rejoined the Roman communion and in 1577 +avenged himself by a particularly slanderous biography of +Calvin. Another painful controversy was that with Sébastien +Castellio (1515-1563), a teacher in the Genevan school and a +scholar of real distinction. He wished to enter the preaching +ministry but was excluded by Calvin’s influence because he had +criticized the inspiration of the Song of Solomon and the Genevan +interpretation of the clause “he descended into hell.” The +bitterness thus aroused developed into life-long enmity. During +all this time also the less strict party in the city and in the +council did not cease to harry the reformer.</p> + +<p>But the most memorable of all the controversies in which +Calvin was engaged was that into which he was brought in 1553 +with Michael Servetus (<i>q.v.</i>). After many wanderings, and +after having been condemned to death for heresy at Vienne, +whence he was fortunate enough to make his escape, Servetus +arrived in August 1553 at Geneva on his way to Naples. He was +recognized in church and soon after, at Calvin’s instigation, +arrested. The charge of blasphemy was founded on certain +statements in a book published by him in 1553, entitled <i>Christianismi +Restitutio</i>, in which he animadverted on the Catholic +doctrine of the Trinity, and advanced sentiments strongly +savouring of Pantheism. The story of his trial is told elsewhere +(see art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servetus</a></span>), but it must be noted here that the struggle +was something more than a doctrinal one. The cause of Servetus +was taken up by Calvin’s Genevan foes headed by Philibert +Berthelier, and became a test of the relative strength of the rival +forces and of the permanence of Calvin’s control. That Calvin +was actuated by personal spite and animosity against Servetus +himself may be open to discussion; we have his own express +declaration that, after Servetus was convicted, he used no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> +urgency that he should be put to death, and at their last interview +he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries, +and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault +if all the pious did not give him their hands.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> There is the fact +also that Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which +had been pronounced against Servetus mitigated, death by +burning being regarded by him as an “atrocity,” for which he +sought to substitute death by the sword.<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> It can be justly +charged against Calvin in this matter that he took the initiative +in bringing on the trial of Servetus, that as his accuser he prosecuted +the suit against him with undue severity, and that he +approved the sentence which condemned Servetus to death. +When, however, it is remembered that the unanimous decision of +the Swiss churches and of the Swiss state governments was that +Servetus deserved to die; that the general voice of Christendom +was in favour of this; that even such a man as Melanchthon +affirmed the justice of the sentence;<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> that an eminent English +divine of the next age should declare the process against him +“just and honourable,”<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> and that only a few voices here and +there were at the time raised against it, many will be ready to +accept the judgment of Coleridge, that the death of Servetus was +not “Calvin’s guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of +all European Christendom.”<a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing +dispute with the Lutherans respecting the Lord’s Supper, which +ended in the separation of the evangelical party into the two great +sections of Lutherans and Reformed,—the former holding that in +the eucharist the body and blood of Christ are objectively and +consubstantially present, and so are actually partaken of by the +communicants, and the latter that there is only a virtual presence +of the body and blood of Christ, and consequently only a spiritual +participation thereof through faith. In addition to these +controversies on points of faith, he was for many years greatly +disquieted, and sometimes even endangered, by the opposition +offered by the libertine party in Geneva to the ecclesiastical +discipline which he had established there. His system of church +polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member +of the state was also under the discipline of the church; and he +asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested +exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders. +His attempts to carry out these views brought him into collision +both with the authorities and with the populace,—the latter +being not unnaturally restive under the restraints imposed upon +their liberty by the vigorous system of church discipline, and the +former being inclined to retain in their own hands a portion of +that power in things spiritual which Calvin was bent on placing +exclusively in the hands of the church rulers. His dauntless +courage, his perseverance, and his earnestness at length prevailed, +and he had the satisfaction, before he died, of seeing his favourite +system of church polity firmly established, not only at Geneva, +but in other parts of Switzerland, and of knowing that it had been +adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland. +The men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into +almost every country in Europe, and in varying degree these +principles did much for the cause of civil liberty.<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Nor was it +only in religious matters that Calvin busied himself; nothing +was indifferent to him that concerned the welfare and good order +of the state or the advantage of its citizens. His work embraced +everything; he was consulted on every affair, great and small, +that came before the council,—on questions of law, police, +economy, trade, and manufactures, no less than on questions of +doctrine and church polity. To him the city owed her trade in +cloths and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her +citizens; sanitary regulations were introduced by him which +made Geneva the admiration of all visitors; and in him she +reverences the founder of her university. This institution was in +a sense Calvin’s crowning work. It added religious education to +the evangelical preaching and the thorough discipline already +established, and so completed the reformer’s ideal of a Christian +commonwealth.</p> + +<p>Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin +found time to write a number of works besides those provoked by +the various controversies in which he was engaged. The most +numerous of these were of an exegetical character. Including +discourses taken down from his lips by faithful auditors, we have +from him expository comments or homilies on nearly all the +books of Scripture, written partly in Latin and partly in French. +Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern idea of a +progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration, and tact in +eliciting his author’s meaning, his precision, condensation, and +concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the +closeness of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all unite +to confer a high value on his exegetical works. The series began +with <i>Romans</i> in 1540 and ended with <i>Joshua</i> in 1564. In 1558-1559 +also, though in very ill health, he finally perfected the +Institutes.</p> + +<p>The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave +himself could not but tell on his fragile constitution. Amid +many sufferings, however, and frequent attacks of sickness, he +manfully pursued his course; nor was it till his frail body, torn +by many and painful diseases—fever, asthma, stone, and gout, +the fruits for the most part of his sedentary habits and unceasing +activity—had, as it were, fallen to pieces around him, that his +indomitable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early part of +the year 1564 his sufferings became so severe that it was manifest +his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On the 6th of +February of that year he preached his last sermon, having with +great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He +was several times after this carried to church, but never again +was able to take any part in the service. With his usual disinterestedness +he refused to receive his stipend, now that he was +no longer able to discharge the duties of his office. In the midst +of his sufferings, however, his zeal and energy kept him in +continual occupation; when expostulated with for such unseasonable +toil, he replied, “Would you that the Lord should +find me idle when He comes?” After he had retired from +public labours he lingered for some months, enduring the severest +agony without a murmur, and cheerfully attending to all the +duties of a private kind which his diseases left him strength to +discharge. On the 25th of April he made his will, on the 27th he +received the Little Council, and on the 28th the Genevan +ministers, in his sick-room; on the 2nd of May he wrote his last +letter—to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neuchâtel +to see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died +quietly, in the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the +evening of the 27th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The +next day he was buried without pomp “in the common cemetery +called Plain-palais” in a spot not now to be identified.</p> + +<p>Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat +pallid and dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, +bespoke the acumen of his genius. He was sparing in his food +and simple in his dress; he took but little sleep, and was capable +of extraordinary efforts of intellectual toil. He had a most +retentive memory and a very keen power of observation. He +spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with great weight. +He had many acquaintances but few close friends. His private +character was in harmony with his public reputation and position. +If somewhat severe and irritable, he was at the same time +scrupulously just, truthful, and steadfast; he never deserted a +friend or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on +befitting occasions he could be cheerful and even facetious +among his intimates. “God gave him,” said the Little Council +after his death, “a character of great majesty.” “I have been a +witness of him for sixteen years,” says Beza, “and I think I am +fully entitled to say that in this man there was exhibited to all an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span> +example of the life and death of the Christian, such as it will not +be easy to depreciate, such as it will be difficult to emulate.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by +earlier reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar +gifts of learning, of logic and of style made him pre-eminently the +theologian of the new religion. The following may be regarded as +his characteristic tenets, though not all are peculiar to him.</p> + +<p>The dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty +of God, to know whom is the supreme end of human endeavour. +God is made known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose +writers were “sure and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit.” +To the Spirit speaking therein the Spirit-illumined soul of man +makes response. While God is the source of all good, man as a +sinner is guilty and corrupt. The first man was made in the image +and likeness of God, which not only implies man’s superiority to all +other creatures, but indicates his original purity, integrity and +sanctity. From this state Adam fell, and in his fall involved the +whole human race descended from him. Hence depravity and +corruption, diffused through all parts of the soul, attach to all men, +and this first makes them obnoxious to the anger of God, and then +comes forth in works which the Scripture calls works of the flesh +(Gal. v. 19). Thus all are held vitiated and perverted in all parts +of their nature, and on account of such corruption deservedly condemned +before God, by whom nothing is accepted save righteousness +innocence, and purity. Nor is that a being bound for another’s offence; +for when it is said that we through Adam’s sin have become obnoxious +to the divine judgment, it is not to be taken as if we, being +ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the fault of his offence, but +that, we having been brought under a curse through his transgression, +he is said to have bound us. From him, however, not only +has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence instilled from him +resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. Thus even infants, +whilst they bring their own condemnation with them from their +mother’s womb, are bound not by another’s but by their own fault. +For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their +iniquity, they have the seed shut up in them; nay, their whole nature +is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful and abominable +to God (<i>Instit.</i> bk. ii, ch. i. sect. 8).</p> + +<p>To redeem man from this state of guilt, and to recover him from +corruption, the Son of God became incarnate, assuming man’s nature +into union with His own, so that in Him were two natures in one +person. Thus incarnate He took on Him the offices of prophet, +priest and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto +death, followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He +has perfected His work and fulfilled all that was required in a +redeemer of men, so that it is truly affirmed that He has merited +for man the grace of salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17). But until a man +is in some way really united to Christ so as to partake of Him, the +benefits of Christ’s work cannot be attained by him. Now it is by +the secret and special operation of the Holy Spirit that men are +united to Christ and made members of His body. Through faith, +which is a firm and certain cognition of the divine benevolence +towards us founded on the truth of the gracious promise in Christ, +men are by the operation of the Spirit united to Christ and are made +partakers of His death and resurrection, so that the old man is +crucified with Him and they are raised to a new life, a life of righteousness +and holiness. Thus joined to Christ the believer has life in +Him and knows that he is saved, having the witness of the Spirit +that he is a child of God, and having the promises, the certitude of +which the Spirit had before impressed on the mind, sealed by the +same Spirit on the heart (bk. iii. ch. 33-36). From faith proceeds +repentance, which is the turning of our life to God, proceeding from +a sincere and earnest fear of God, and consisting in the mortification +of the flesh and the old man within us and a vivification of the Spirit. +Through faith also the believer receives justification, his sins are +forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is held by Him as righteous, +the righteousness of Christ being imputed to him, and faith being +the instrument by which the man lays hold on Christ, so that with +His righteousness the man appears in God’s sight as righteous. +This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined from real +personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification come +to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the two +blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be disjoined. +The assurance which the believer has of salvation he +receives from the operation and witness of the Holy Spirit; but +this again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and +this falls back on God’s eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has +predestined some to eternal life while the rest of mankind are +predestined to condemnation and eternal death. Those whom +God has chosen to life He effectually calls to salvation, and they +are kept by Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end +(bk. iii. <i>passim</i>). The external means or aids by which God unites +men into the fellowship of Christ, and sustains and advances those +who believe, are the church and its ordinances, especially the sacraments. +The church universal is the multitude gathered from diverse +nations, which though divided by distance of time and place, agree +in one common faith, and it is bound by the tie of the same religion; +and wherever the word of God is sincerely preached, and the sacraments +are duly administered, according to Christ’s institute, there +beyond doubt is a church of the living God (bk. iv. ch. 1, sect. 7-11). +The permanent officers in the church are pastors and teachers, to the +former of whom it belongs to preside over the discipline of the +church, to administer the sacraments, and to admonish and exhort +the members; while the latter occupy themselves with the exposition +of Scripture, so that pure and wholesome doctrine may be retained. +With them are to be joined for the government of the church certain +pious, grave and holy men as a senate in each church; and to others, +as deacons, is to be entrusted the care of the poor. The election of +the officers in a church is to be with the people, and those duly +chosen and called are to be ordained by the laying on of the hands +of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The sacraments are two—Baptism +and the Lord’s Supper. Baptism is the sign of initiation whereby +men are admitted into the society of the church and, being grafted +into Christ, are reckoned among the sons of God; it serves both +for the confirmation of faith and as a confession before men. The +Lord’s Supper is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that He is the +life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed unto true and blessed +immortality. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood +whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, even as if it penetrated +into our bones and marrow, He in the Supper attests and seals; +and that not by a vain or empty sign set before us but there He +puts forth the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what He +promises. In the mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited +to us by the symbols of bread and wine; and so His body and blood, +in which He fulfilled all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness +for us, are presented. There is no such presence of Christ in the +Supper as that He is affixed to the bread or included in it or in any +way circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and substantial +communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which +is exhibited to believers under the said symbols of the Supper, is to +be received, and that not as perceived by the imagination only or +mental intelligence, but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life +(bk. iv. ch. 15, 17).</p> + +<p>The course of time has substantially modified many of these +positions. Even the churches which trace their descent from +Calvin’s work and faith no longer hold in their entirety his views +on the magistrate as the preserver of church purity, the utter depravity +of human nature, the non-human character of the Bible, +the dealing of God with man. But his system had an immense +value in the history of Christian thought. It appealed to and +evoked a high order of intelligence, and its insistence on personal +individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So also its insistence +on the chief end of man “to know and do the will of God” made +for the strenuous morality that helped to build up the modern +world. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in Puritan +England and in the New England states, but its influence was and +is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be called +Calvinist.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The standard edition of Calvin’s works is that +undertaken by the Strassburg scholars, J.W. Bauin, E. Cunitz, +E. Reuss, P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last +of these contains an elaborate bibliography which was also published +separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published +in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, +1843-1855); the <i>Institutes</i> have often been translated. The early +lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions. +Among modern biographies are those by P. Henry, <i>Das Leben J. +Calvins</i> (3 vols., Hamburg, 1835-1844; Eng. trans, by H. Stebbing, +London and New York, 1849); V. Audin, <i>Histoire de la vie, des +ouvrages, et des doctrines de Calvin</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1841; Eng. trans, +by J. McGill, London, 1843 and 1850) unfairly antagonistic; T.H. +Dyer, <i>Life of John Calvin</i> (London, 1850); E. Stähelin,<i> Joh. Calvin, +Leben und ausgewählte Schriften</i> (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F.W. +Kampschulte, <i>Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf</i> +(2 vols., 1869, 1899, unfinished); Abel Lefranc, <i>La Jeunesse de +Calvin</i> (Paris, 1888); E. Choisy, <i>La Théocratie à Genève au temps +de Calvin</i> (Geneva, 1897); E. Doumergue, <i>Jean Calvin; les hommes +et les choses de son temps</i> (5 vols., 1899-1908). See also A.M. Fairbairn, +“Calvin and the Reformed Church” in the <i>Cambridge Modern +History</i>, vol. ii. (1904); P. Schaff’s, <i>History of the Christian Church</i>, +vol. vii. (1892), and R. Stähelin’s article in Hauck-Herzog’s <i>Real-encyk. +für prot. Theologie und Kirche.</i> Each of these contains a +useful bibliography, as also does the excellent life by Professor +Williston Walker, <i>John Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protestantism</i>, +“Heroes of the Reformation” series (1906). See also C.S. +Horne in <i>Mansfield Coll. Essays</i> (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L. A.; A. J. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The family name of Calvin seems to have been written indifferently +Cauvin, Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the contemporary +notices of Gerard and his family, in the capitular registers +of the cathedral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. The +anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this in its Latinized form Alcuinus +appears in two editions of his <i>Instltutio</i> as that of the author (Audin, +<i>Vie de Calvin,</i> i. 520). The syndics of Geneva address him in a letter +written in 1540, and still preserved, as “Docteur Caulvin.” In his +letters written in French he usually signs himself “Jean Calvin.” +He affected the title of “Maitre,” for what reason is not known.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus +and Ignatius Loyola also studied here.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Calv. <i>Praef. ad Comment. in Psalmos.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Jo. Calvini Vita, sub init.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Epist. Ded., Comment in Ep. II. ad Corinthios praefix.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This edition forms a small 8vo of 514 pages, and 6 pages of index. +It appeared at Basel from the press of Thomas Platter and Balthasar +Lasius in March 1536, and was published by Johann Oporin. The +dedicatory preface is dated 23rd August 1535. It is a masterpiece +of apologetic literature. See W. Walker, <i>John Calvin,</i> 132 f., and +for an outline of the contents of the treatise, ib. 137-149.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Praef. ad Psalmos.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Beza, <i>Vit. Calv. an. 1536.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Fidelis Expositio Errorum Serveti, <i>sub init.</i> Calvini, <i>Opp</i>. t. ix.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Calvin to Farel, 20th Aug. 1553.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam vestros magistratus +juste fecisse quod hominem blasphemum, re ordine judicata, +interfecerunt.—Melanchthon to Calvin, 14th Oct. 1554.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Field <i>On the Church</i>, bk. iii. c. 27, vol. i. p. 288 (ed. Cambridge, +1847).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Notes on English Divines</i>, vol. i. p. 49. See also <i>Table Talk</i>, +vol. ii. p. 282 (ed. 1835).</p> + +<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> W. Walker, <i>John Calvin</i>, pp. 403-8.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVINISTIC METHODISTS,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a body of Christians forming a +church of the Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only +denomination in Wales which is of purely Welsh origin. Its +beginnings may be traced to the labours of the Rev. Griffith +Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, Carmarthenshire, whose +sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a system of circulating +charity schools for the education of children. In striking +contrast to the general apathy of the clergy of the period, +Griffith Jones’s zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his +powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence, many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span> +travelling long distances in order to attend his ministry. There +was thus a considerable number of earnest people dispersed +throughout the country waiting for the rousing of the parish +clergy. An impressive announcement of the Easter Communion +Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Davies, vicar of Talgarth, +on the 30th of March 1735, was the means of awakening +Howell Harris (1714-1773) of Trevecca, and he immediately +began to hold services in his own house. He was soon invited to +do the same at the houses of others, and ended by becoming a +fiery itinerant preacher, stirring to the depths every neighbourhood +he visited. Griffith Jones, preaching at Llanddewi Brefi, +Cardiganshire—the place at which the Welsh Patron Saint, +David, first became famous—found Daniel Rowland (1713-1790), +curate of Llangeitho, in his audience, and his patronizing attitude +in listening drew from the preacher a personal supplication on his +behalf, in the middle of the discourse. Rowland was deeply +moved, and became an ardent apostle of the new movement. +Naturally a fine orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his +eloquence, and his fame spread abroad. Rowland and Harris +had been at work fully eighteen months before they met, at a +service in Devynock church, in the upper part of Breconshire. +The acquaintance then formed lasted to the end of Harris’s life—an +interval of ten years excepted. Harris had been sent to +Oxford in the autumn of 1735 to “cure him of his fanaticism,” +but he left in the following February. Rowland had never been +to a university, but, like Harris, he had been well grounded in +general knowledge. About 1739 another prominent figure +appeared. This was Howell Davies of Pembrokeshire, whose +ministry was modelled on that of his master, Griffith Jones, but +with rather more clatter in his thunder.</p> + +<p>In 1736, on returning home, Harris opened a school, Griffith +Jones supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up +societies, in accordance with the recommendations in Josiah +Wedgwood’s little book on the subject; and these exercised a +great influence on the religious life of the people. By far the +most notable of Harris’s converts was William Williams (1717-1791), +Pant y Celyn, the great hymn-writer of Wales, who while +listening to the revivalist preaching on a tombstone in the +graveyard of Talgarth, heard the “voice of heaven,” and was +“apprehended as by a warrant from on high.” He was ordained +deacon in the Church of England, 1740, but Whitefield recommended +him to leave his curacies and go into the highways and +hedges. On Wednesday and Thursday, January 5th and 6th, +1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at +Wadford, near Caerphilly, Glam., in order to organize their +societies. George Whitefield was in the chair. Rowland, Williams +and John Powell—afterwards of Llanmartin—(clergymen), +Harris, John Humphreys and John Cennick (laymen) were +present. Seven lay exhorters were also at the meetings; they +were questioned as to their spiritual experience and allotted +their several spheres; other matters pertaining to the new +conditions created by the revival were arranged. This is known +as the first Methodist Association—held eighteen months before +Johm Wesley’s first conference (June 25th, 1744). Monthly +meetings covering smaller districts, were organized to consider +local matters, the transactions of which were to be reported to +the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, modified, or rejected. +Exhorters were divided into two classes—public, who were +allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number of +societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or +two societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be +part of the established church, as Wedgwood’s were, and every +attempt at estranging them therefrom was sharply reproved; +but persecution made their position anomalous. They did not +accept the discipline of the Church of England, so the plea of +conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out licenses, +so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris’s +ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals +to ordain him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from +persecutors, were the only things that prevented separation.</p> + +<p>A controversy on a doctrinal point—“Did God die on +Calvary?”—raged for some time, the principal disputants +being Rowland and Harris; and in 1751 it ended in an open +rupture, which threw the Connexion first into confusion and then +into a state of coma. The societies split up into Harrisites and +Rowlandites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 that the +breach was fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the +history of the Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just +published a little volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed +the people. This led the bishop of St David’s to suspend +Rowland’s license, and Rowland had to confine himself to a +meeting-house at Llangeitho. Having been turned out of other +churches, he had leased a plot of land in 1759, anticipating the +final withdrawal of his license, in 1763, and a spacious building +was erected to which the people crowded from all parts on +Sacrament Sunday. Llangeitho became the Jerusalem of Wales; +and Rowland’s popularity never waned until his physical powers +gave way. A notable event in the history of Welsh Methodism +was the publication in 1770, of a 4to annotated Welsh Bible by +the Rev. Peter Williams, a forceful preacher, and an indefatigable +worker, who had joined the Methodists in 1746, after being +driven from several curacies. It gave birth to a new interest in +the Scriptures, being the first definite commentary in the language. +A powerful revival broke out at Llangeitho in the spring of +1780, and spread to the south, but not to the north of Wales. +The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult +for Methodism to benefit from these manifestations, until the +advent of the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, having +spent five years in Somersetshire as curate of several parishes, +returned to his native land to marry Sarah Jones of Bala. +Failing to find employment in the established church, he joined +the Methodists in 1784. His circulating charity schools and +then his Sunday schools gradually made the North a new +country. In 1791 a revival began at Bala; and this, strange to +say, a few months after the Bala Association had been ruffled by +the proceedings which led to the expulsion of Peter Williams +from the Connexion, in order to prevent him from selling John +Canne’s Bible among the Methodists, because of some Sabellian +marginal notes.</p> + +<p>In 1790, the Bala Association passed “Rules regarding the +proper mode of conducting the Quarterly Association,” drawn +up by Charles; in 1801, Charles and Thomas Jones of Mold, +published (for the association) the “Rules and Objects of the +Private Societies among the People called Methodists.” About +1795, persecution led the Methodists to take the first step +towards separation from the Church of England. Heavy fines +made it impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to +continue without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act, +and the meeting-houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels. +In a large number of cases this had only been delayed by so constructing +the houses that they were used both as dwellings and +as chapels at one and the same time. Until 1811 the Calvinistic +Methodists had no ministers ordained by themselves; their +enormous growth in numbers and the scarcity of ministers to +administer the Sacrament—only three in North Wales, two of +whom had joined only at the dawn of the century—made the +question of ordination a matter of urgency. The South Wales +clergy who regularly itinerated were dying out; the majority of +those remaining itinerated but irregularly, and were most of them +against the change. The lay element, with the help of Charles and +a few other stalwarts, carried the matter through—ordaining +nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo in August. In +1823, the <i>Confession of Faith</i> was published; it is based on the +<i>Westminster Confession</i> as “Calvinistically construed,” and +contains 44 articles. The Connexion’s <i>Constitutional Deed</i> was +formally completed in 1826.</p> + +<p>Thomas Charles had tried to arrange for taking over Trevecca +College when the trustees of the Countess of Huntingdon’s +Connexion removed their seminary to Cheshunt in 1791; but the +Bala revival broke out just at the time, and, when things grew +quieter, other matters pressed for attention. A college had been +mooted in 1816, but the intended tutor died suddenly, and the +matter was for the time dropped. Candidates for the Connexional +ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until 1837, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span> +when Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) and David Charles (1812-1878) +opened a school for young men at Bala. North and South +alike adopted it as their college, the associations contributing a +hundred guineas each towards the education of their students. +In 1842, the South Wales Association opened a college at +Trevecca, leaving Bala to the North; the Rev. David Charles +became principal of the former, and the Rev. Lewis Edwards of +the latter. After the death of Dr Lewis Edwards, Dr. T.C. +Edwards resigned the principalship of the University College at +Aberystwyth to become head of Bala (1891), now a purely +theological college, the students of which were sent to the +university colleges for their classical training. In 1905 Mr David +Davies of Llandinam—one of the leading laymen in the Connexion—offered +a large building at Aberystwyth as a gift to the +denomination for the purpose of uniting North and South in one +theological college; but in the event of either association +declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take possession, +giving the association that should decline the option of joining at +a later time. The Association of the South accepted, and that of +the North declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into +a preparatory school on the lines of a similar institution set up at +Bala in 1891.</p> + +<p>The missionary collections of the denomination were given +to the London Missionary Society from 1798 to 1840, when a +Connexional Society was formed; and no better instances of +missionary enterprise are known than those of the Khasia and +Jaintia Hills, and the Plains of Sylhet in N. India. There +has also been a mission in Brittany since 1842.</p> + +<p>The constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, “Hen +Gorph,” <i>i.e.</i> the Old Body) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and +Congregationalism; each church manages its own affairs and +reports (1) to the district meeting, (2) to the monthly meeting, +the nature of each report determining its destination. The +monthly meetings are made up of all the officers of the churches +comprised in each, and are split up into districts for the purpose +of a more local co-operation of the churches. The monthly +meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly Associations, of +which all officers are members. The Associations of North and +South are distinct institutions, deliberating and determining +matters pertaining to them in their separate quarterly gatherings. +For the purpose of a fuller co-operation in matters common to +both, a general assembly (meeting once a year) was established +in 1864. This is a purely deliberative conclave, worked by +committees, and all its legislation has to be confirmed by the two +Associations before it can have any force or be legal. The +annual conference of the English churches of the denomination +has no legislative standing, and is meant for social and spiritual +intercourse and discussions.</p> + +<p>In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far +from being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical, +and, in general, distinctly cultured. The London degree largely +figures on the Connexional Diary; and now the Welsh degrees, +in arts and divinity, are being increasingly achieved. It is a +remarkable fact that every Welsh revival, since 1735, has broken +out among the Calvinistic Methodists. Those of 1735, 1762, +1780 and 1791 have been mentioned; those of 1817, 1832, 1859 +and 1904-1905 were no less powerful, and their history is interwoven +with Calvinistic Methodism, the system of which is so +admirably adapted for the passing on of the torch. The ministerial +system is quite anomalous. It started in pure itineracy; +the pastorate came in very gradually, and is not yet in universal +acceptance. The authority of the pulpit of any individual church +is in the hands of the deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so +many Sundays a year—from twelve to forty, as the case may +be—and they then fill the remainder with any preacher they +choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral work, and receives +his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his Sundays from home +he fills up at the request of deacons of other churches, and it is a +breach of Connexional etiquette for a minister to apply for engagements, +no matter how many unfilled Sundays he may have. +Deacons and preachers make engagements seven or eight years +in advance. The Connexion provides for English residents +wherever required, and the English ministers are oftener in +their own pulpits than their Welsh brethren.</p> + +<p>The Calvinistic Methodists form in some respects the strongest +church in Wales, and its forward movement, headed by Dr. John +Pugh of Cardiff, has brought thousands into its fold since its +establishment in 1891. Its Connexional Book Room, opened in +1891, yields an annual profit of from £1600 to £2000, the profits +being devoted to help the colleges and to establish Sunday +school libraries, etc. Its chapels in 1907 numbered 1641 (with +accommodation for 488,080), manses 229; its churches<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> numbered +1428, ministers 921, unordained preachers 318, deacons +6179; its Sunday Schools 1731, teachers 27,895, scholars 193,460, +communicants 189,164, total collections for religious purposes +£300,912. The statistics of the Indian Mission are equally +good: communicants 8027, adherents 26,787, missionaries 23, +native ministers (ordained) 15, preachers (not ordained) 60.</p> + +<p>The Calvinistic Methodists are intensely national in sentiment +and aspirations, beyond all suspicion loyalists. They take a +great interest in social, political and educational matters, and are +prominent on public bodies. They support the Eisteddfod as the +promoter and inspirer of arts, letters and music, and are conspicuous +among the annual prize winners. They thus form a +living, democratic body, flexible and progressive in its movements, +yet with a sufficient proportion of conservatism both in religion +and theology to keep it sane and safe.</p> +<div class="author">(D. E. J.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending +different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one +society or church.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVISIUS, SETHUS<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1556-1615), German chronologer, was +born of a peasant family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the +21st of February 1556. By the exercise of his musical talents +he earned money enough for the start, at Helmstadt, of an +university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron enabled him +to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the music-school +at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same +capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the +24th of November 1615, despite the offers successively made to +him of mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg. +In his <i>Opus Chronologicum</i> (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he +expounded a system based on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. +An ingenious, though ineffective, proposal for the reform of the +calendar was put forward in his <i>Elenchus Calendarii Gregoriani</i> +(Frankfort, 1612); and he published a book on music, <i>Melodiae +condendae ratio</i> (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For details see V. Schmuck’s <i>Leichenrede</i> (1615); J. Bertuch’s +<i>Chronicon Portense</i> (1739); F.W. E. Rost’s <i>Oratio ad renovendam +S. Calvisii memoriam</i> (1805); J G. Stallbaum’s <i>Nachrichten über +die Cantoren an der Thomasschule</i> (1842); <i>Allgemeine Deutsche +Biographie</i>; Poggendorff’s <i>Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALVO, CARLOS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1824-1906), Argentine publicist and +historian, was born at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February +1824, and devoted himself to the study of the law. In 1860 he +was sent by the Paraguayan government on a special mission to +London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published in 1863 +his <i>Derecho international teorico y practice de Europay America</i>, in +two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French version. +The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern +authorities on the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition +had become enlarged to six volumes. Señor Calvo’s next +publications were of a semi-historical character. Between 1862 +and 1869 he published in Spanish and French his great collection +in fifteen volumes of the treaties and other diplomatic acts of the +South American republics, and between 1864 and 1875 his +<i>Annales historiques de la revolution de l’Amerique latine</i>, in five +volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders at the Ghent +congress of the <i>Institut de Droit International.</i> In the following +year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his +<i>Dictionnaire du droit international public et privé</i> in that city. +Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALW<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kalw</span>, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Württemberg, on the Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail. +Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains a Protestant and a Roman +Catholic Church, two schools, missionary institution, and a fine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span> +public library. The industries include spinning and weaving +operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather are +also manufactured. The timber trade, chiefly with the Netherlands, +is important. The place is in favour as a health resort.</p> + +<p>The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages +the town was under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, +whose possessions finally passed to Württemberg in 1345. In +1634 the town was taken by the Bavarians, and in 1692 by +the French.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALYDON<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Kalydon">Καλυδών</span>), an ancient town of Aetolia, according to +Pliny, 7½ Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was +said to have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have +been the scene of the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of +the famous Calydonian boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the +fields; and to have taken part in the Trojan war. In historical +times it is first mentioned (391 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) as in the possession of the +Achaeans, who retained it for twenty years, by the assistance of +the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the attacks +of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) it was +restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of +Pompey it was a town of importance; but Augustus removed +its inhabitants to Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate +his victory at Actium (31 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). The walls of Calydon are almost +certainly to be recognized in the Kastro of Kurtagá. These +comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large gate and five +smaller ones, and are situated on a hill on the right or west bank +of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town +probably indicate the position of the temple of Artemis Laphria, +whose gold and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together +probably with her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all +kinds of beasts, wild and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre +and consumed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.M. Leake, <i>Travels in N. Greece</i>, i. p. 109, iii. pp. 533 sqq.; +W.J. Woodhouse, <i>Aetolia</i>, pp. 95 ssq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CALYPSO,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus, +or Nereus), queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When +Odysseus was shipwrecked on her shores, Calypso entertained +the hero with great hospitality, and prevailed on him to remain +with her seven years. Odysseus was then seized with a longing +to return to his wife and home; Calypso’s promise of eternal +youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by +Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of +grief. (Homer, <i>Odyssey</i>, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAM (CÃO), DIOGO<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (fl. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, +the first European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to +explore the West African coast between Cape St Catherine (2°S.) +and Cape Cross (21° 50′ S.) almost from the equator to Walfish +Bay. When King John II. of Portugal revived the work of +Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam (about midsummer (?) +1482) to open up the African coast still further beyond the +equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps +in August 1482), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but +only in fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was +also ascended for a short distance, and intercourse was opened +with the natives. Cam then coasted down along the present +Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and erected a second pillar, +probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cape Santa +Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in 13° 26′ S. He +certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April 1484, +when John II. ennobled him, made him a <i>cavalleiro</i> of his household +(he was already an <i>escudeiro</i> or esquire in the same), and +granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and 14th of +April 1484). That Cam, on his second voyage of 1483-1486, was +accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter’s +Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful; but we know that +the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more pillars +beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first at another +“Monte Negro” in 15° 41′ S., the second at Cape Cross in +21° 50′, this last probably marking the end of his progress +southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 +map of Henricus Martellus Germanus), Cam died off Cape Cross; +but João de Barros and others make him return to the Congo, +and take thence a native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars +set up by Cam on his two voyages have all been discovered +<i>in situ</i>, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa +Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are +still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padrão is +now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile); those +from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are +in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Barros, <i>Decadas da Asia</i>, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy +de Pina, <i>Chronica d’ el Rei D. João II.</i>; Garcia de Resende, <i>Chronica</i>; +Luciano Cordeiro, “Diogo Cão” in <i>Boletim</i> of the <i>Lisbon Geog. Soc.</i>, +1892; E.G. Ravenstein, “Voyages of Diogo Cão,” &c., in <i>Geog. +Jnl.</i> vol. xvi. (1900); also <i>Geog. Jnl.</i> xxxi. (1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1824-1896), Spanish statesman +and financier, was born in Cadiz in 1824. The first part of +his life was devoted to mercantile and financial pursuits at +Cadiz and then in Madrid, where he managed the affairs of and +liquidated a mercantile and industrial society to the satisfaction +and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he became a captain in +the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in the Cortes +for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards +elected ten times deputy, twice senator and life senator in +1877. Camacho took a prominent part in all financial debates +and committees, was offered a seat in the Mon cabinet of 1864, +and was appointed under-secretary of state finances in 1866 +under Canovas and O’Donnell. After the revolution of 1868 he +declined the post of minister of finance offered by Marshal +Serrano, but served in that capacity in 1872 and 1874 in Sagasta’s +cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in the +Cortes among the dynastic Liberals with Sagasta as leader, and +became finance minister in 1881 at a critical moment when +Spain had to convert, reduce, and consolidate her treasury +and other debts with a view to resuming payment of coupons. +Camacho drew up an excellent budget and collected taxation +with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years later Sagasta +again made him finance minister under the regency of Queen +Christina, but had to sacrifice him when public opinion very +clearly pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and +his severity in collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons +unsuccessful as a governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company. +He then seceded from the Liberals, and during the last years of +his life he affected to vote with the Conservatives, who made him +governor of the Bank of Spain. He died in Madrid on the 23rd of +January 1896.</p> +<div class="author">(A. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMALDULIANS,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Camaldolese</span>, a religious order founded +by St Romuald. Born of a noble family at Ravenna <i>c.</i> 950, he +retired at the age of twenty to the Benedictine monastery of +S. Apollinare in Classe; but being strongly drawn to the eremitical +life, he went to live with a hermit in the neighbourhood of +Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here a colony of hermits +grew up around him and he became the superior. As soon as +they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to +another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, +only to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other +colonies of hermits or “deserts” as they were called. In this +way during the course of his life Romuald formed a great number +of “deserts” throughout central Italy. His chief foundation +was at Camaldoli on the heights of the Tuscan Apennines not far +from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during half the year. +Romuald’s idea was to reintroduce into the West the primitive +eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first Egyptian +and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the +oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain +days for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to +food, clothing, silence and general observance. Besides the +hermits there were lay brothers to help in carrying out the field +work and rougher occupations. St Romuald and the early +Camaldolese exercised considerable influence on the religious +movements of their time; the emperors Otto III. and Henry II. +esteemed him highly and sought his advice on religious questions. +Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the still heathen +parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them suffered +martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span> +of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary, +but he was unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. +After his death mitigations were gradually introduced into the +rule and manner of life; and in the monastery of St Michael in +Murano, Venice, the life became cenobitical. From that time to +the present day there have always been both eremitical and +cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to ordinary +Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and into +Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a +“desert,” the primitive observance of the institute being strictly +maintained. There are a few other “deserts,” all in Italy, +except one in Poland; and there are about 90 hermits. The chief +monastery of the cenobitical Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the +Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less than forty. Since the +11th century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at present there +are five nunneries with 150 nuns, all belonging to the cenobitical +branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max +Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896) i. § 29; and the art. +“Camaldulenser” in Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed.), +and Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1710-1770), +French dancer, of Spanish descent, was born in Brussels on the +15th of April 1710. Her father, Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis, +earned a scanty living as violinist and dancing-master, and from +childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten years of age she +was given lessons by Mlle Françoise Prévost (1680-1741), then +the first dancer at the Paris Opéra, and at once obtained an +engagement as <i>première danseuse</i>, first at Brussels and then at +Rouen. Under her grandmother’s family name of Camargo she +made her Paris <i>début</i> in 1726, and at once became the rage. +Every new fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair +was copied by all at court; her shoemaker—she had a tiny foot—made +his fortune. She had many titled adorers whom she nearly +ruined by her extravagances, among others Louis de Bourbon, +comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from the stage from +1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight ballets +or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the first +ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the +regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by +Nicolas Lancret in the Wallace collection, London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMARGUE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>Insula Camaria</i>), a thinly-populated region of +southern France contained wholly in the department of +Bouches-du-Rhône, +and comprising the delta of the Rhone. The +Camargue is a marshy plain of alluvial formation enclosed +between the two branches of the river, the Grand Rhône to the +east and the Petit Rhône to the west. Its average elevation is +from 6½ to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30 m. in +length and an area of 290 sq. m., of which about a quarter consists +of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the +banks of the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by +the black bulls and white horses of the region and by large flocks +of sheep, or of marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated +with salt. The region is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes, +bustards, partridge, and by sea-birds of various kinds. The +Étang de Vaccarès, the largest of the numerous lagoons and +pools, covers about 23 sq. m.; it receives three main canals constructed +to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is +protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of +the rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of +the lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river-water is +used for irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The +climate is characterized by hard winters and scorching summers. +Rain falls in torrents, but at considerable intervals. The mistral, +blowing from the north and north-west, is the prevailing wind. +The south-eastern portion of the Camargue is known as the Ile +du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the west of the Petit +Rhône goes by the name of Petite Camargue.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMARINA,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south +coast, about 17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by +Syracuse in 599 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for +attempting to assert its independence. Hippocrates of Gela +received its territory from Syracuse and restored the town in 492, +but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the Geloans, however, +founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in general hostile +to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it gave some +slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the +Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its +abandonment by Dionysius’s order, but in 258 fell into the +hands of the Romans. Its complete destruction dates from +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 853. The site of the ancient city is among rapidly shifting +sandhills, and the lack of stone in the neighbourhood has led to +its buildings being used as a quarry even by the inhabitants of +Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above ground but a +small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few foundations +of houses; portions of the city wall have been traced by +excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see +J. Schubring in <i>Philologus</i>, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in <i>Monumenti +dei Lincei</i>, ix. 201, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north +lay the lake to which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred, +<span class="grk" title="mhae kinei Kamarinan">μὴ κίνει Καμάριναν</span>, when the citizens inquired as to the +advisability of draining it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBACÉRÈS, JEAN JACQUES RÉGIS DE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> duke of Parma +(1753-1824), French statesman, was born at Montpellier on the +18th of October 1753. He was descended from a well-known +family of the legal nobility (<i>noblesse de la robe</i>). He was designed +for the magistracy of his province; and in 1771, when for a time +the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the others, by the +chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal tribunal +substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with +ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the +court of accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing +the principles of the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned +by the <i>noblesse</i> of the province to draw up the <i>cahier</i> (statement of +principles and grievances); and the <i>sénéchaussée</i> of Montpellier +elected him deputy to the states-general of Versailles; but the +election was annulled on a technical point. Nevertheless in +1792 the new department of Hérault, in which Montpellier is +situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the Convention +which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September +1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins +and the Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself +mainly with the legal and legislative work which went on almost +without intermission even during the Terror. The action of +Cambacérès at the time of the trial of Louis XVI. (December +25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was characteristic of his habits of +thought. At first he protested against the erection of the +Convention into a tribunal in these words: “The people has +chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as judges.” +He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for his +defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with +the majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended +that the penalty should be postponed until the cessation of +hostilities, and that the sentence should then be ratified by the +Convention or by some other legislative body. It is therefore +inexact to count him among the regicides, as was done by the +royalists after 1815. Early in 1793 he became a member of the +Committee of General Defence, but he did not take part in the +work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public +Safety, until the close of the year 1794. In the meantime he had +done much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly +with Merlin of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of +the revolutionary epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 +he also used his tact and eloquence on behalf of the restoration of +the surviving Girondins to the Convention, from which they had +been driven by the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 31st of May 1793. In the +course of the year 1795, as president of the Committee of Public +Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign affairs, he was +largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain. Nevertheless, +not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of +the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was +entrusted after the <i>coup d’état</i> of Vendémiaire 1795; but, as +before, his powers of judgment and of tactful debating soon +carried him to the front in the council of Five Hundred. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span> +moderation of his views brought him into opposition to the +Directors after the <i>coup d’état</i> of Fructidor (September 1797), +and for a time he retired into private life. Owing, however, to +the influence of Sieyès, he became minister of justice in July +1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieyès in +their enterprise of overthrowing the Directory (<i>coup d’état</i> of +Brumaire 1799).</p> + +<p>After a short interval Cambacérès was, by the constitution of +December 1799, appointed second consul of France—a position +which he owed largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the +conviction which Sieyès entertained of his value as a manipulator +of public assemblies. It is impossible here to describe in +detail his relations to Napoleon, and the part which he played in +the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on called the Code +Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful intervention of +Cambacérès helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon the +consulship for life (August 1, 1802); but the second consul is +known to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, +notably the execution of the duc d’Enghien, the rupture with +England, and the proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1804). +This last occurrence ended his title of second consul; it was +replaced by that of arch-chancellor of the Empire. To him was +decreed the presidence of the Senate in perpetuity. He also +became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808 the title +duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in +helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambacérès did +the state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to +curb the impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises +so fatal as the intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the +invasion of Russia (1812) proved to be. At the close of the +campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph Bonaparte the responsibility +for some of the actions which zealous Bonapartists have +deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In 1815, +during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at +the bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his +master, he felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time +exiled from France. A decree of 13th May 1818 restored him to +his civil rights as a citizen of France; but the last six years of his +life he spent in retirement. He was a member of the Academy +till the 31st of March 1816, when a decree of exclusion was +passed. In demeanour he was quiet, reserved and tactful, but +when occasion called for it he proved himself a brilliant orator. +He was a celebrated <i>gourmet</i>, and his dinners were utilized by +Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Aubriet, <i>Vie de Cambacérès</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1825).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBALUC,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> the name by which, under sundry modifications, +the royal city of the great khan in China became known to Europe +during the middle ages, that city being in fact the same that we +now know as Peking. The word itself represents the Mongol +Khan-Balik, “the city of the khan,” or emperor, the title by +which Peking continues, more or less, to be known to the Mongols +and other northern Asiatics.</p> + +<p>A city occupying approximately the same site had been the +capital of one of the principalities into which China was divided +some centuries before the Christian era; and during the reigns +of the two Tatar dynasties that immediately preceded the Mongols +in northern China, viz. that of the Khitans, and of the Kin or +“Golden” khans, it had been one of their royal residences. +Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the Khitan, +and of Chung-tu, which it had from the Kin, it holds a conspicuous +place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter dynasty. +He captured it in 1215, but it was not till 1284 that it was adopted +as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol +steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position +a few hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu +or Yenking, where he founded the new city of Ta-tu (“great +capital”), called by the Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan-Balik; +and from this time dates the use of the latter name as +applied to this site.</p> + +<p>The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud +rampart, the longer sides of which ran north and south. These +were each about 5<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> English m. in length, the shorter sides 3¾ m., +so that the circuit was upwards of 18 m. The palace of the +khan, with its gardens and lake, itself formed an inner enclosure +fronting the south. There were eleven city gates, viz. three on +the south side, always the formal front with the Tatars, and two +on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide and straight +from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by the +palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan.</p> + +<p>Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the +fall of the Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming) +which supplanted them established their residence at Nan-king +(“South Court”), but this proved so inconvenient that Yunglo, +the third sovereign of the dynasty, reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it +then, for the first time, the name of Pe-king (“North Court”). +This was the name in common use when the Jesuits entered +China towards the end of the 16th century, and began to send +home accurate information about China. But it is not so now; +the names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both +signifying “capital.” The restoration of Cambaluc was commenced +in 1409. The size of the city was diminished by the +retrenchment of nearly one-third at the northern end, which +brought the enceinte more nearly to a square form. And this +constitutes the modern (so-called) “Tatar city” of Peking, the +south front of which is identical with the south front of the city +of Kublai. The walls were completed in 1437. Population +gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of +the old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in +1544, enclosed by a wall and called the “outer city.” It is the +same that is usually called by Europeans “the Chinese city.” +The ruins of the retrenched northern portion of Kublai’s great +rampart are still prominent along their whole extent, so that +there is no room for question as to the position or true dimensions +of the Cambaluc of the middle ages; and it is most probable, +indeed it is almost a necessity, that the present palace stands on +the lines of Kublai’s palace.</p> + +<p>The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an +archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the +missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (d. 1330); but +though some successors were nominated it seems probable that +no second metropolitan ever actually occupied the seat.</p> + +<p>Maps of the 16th and 17th centuries often show Cambaluc in +an imaginary region to the north of China, a part of the misconception +that has prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is +often in popular literature written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow +accented in verse <i>Cámbălú</i>. But this spelling originates in an +accidental error in Ramusio’s Italian version, which was the chief +channel through which Marco Polo’s book was popularly known. +The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology in calling +it Cambaluc, which should be accented <i>Cămbáluc</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBAY,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a native state of India, within the Gujarat division +of Bombay. It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225, +showing a decrease of 16% in the decade, due to the famine of +1899-1900. The estimated gross revenue is £27,189; the tribute, +£1460. In physical character Cambay is entirely an alluvial +plain. As a separate state it dates only from about 1730, the +time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present +chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the +governors of Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law, +Nizam Khan, governor of Cambay, and established himself there.</p> + +<p>The town of <span class="sc">Cambay</span> had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It +is supposed to be the <i>Camanes</i> of Ptolemy, and was formerly a +very flourishing city, the seat of an extensive trade, and celebrated +for its manufactures of silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but +owing principally to the gradually increasing difficulty of access +by water, owing to the silting up of the gulf, its commerce has +long since fallen away, and the town has become poor and +dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a +channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The +trade is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is +celebrated for its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, +of reputation principally in China. The houses in many instances +are built of stone (a circumstance which indicates the former +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span> +wealth of the city, as the material had to be brought from a very +considerable distance); and remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in +circumference, which formerly surrounded the town, enclose four +large reservoirs of good water and three bazaars. To the south-east +there are very extensive ruins of subterranean temples and +other buildings half-buried in the sand by which the ancient +town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the Jains, and +contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black, the +other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates, +is Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the +emperor Akbar; the black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. +In 1780 Cambay was taken by the army of General Goddard, was +restored to the Mahrattas in 1783, and was afterwards ceded to the +British by the peshwa under the treaty of 1803. It was provided +with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the 11 m. required +to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda’s line through Petlad.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBAY, GULF OF,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> an inlet in the coast of India, in the +Gujarat division of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but +is shallow and abounds in shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed +that the depth of water in this gulf has been decreasing for more +than two centuries past. The tides, which are very high, run +into it with amazing velocity, but at low water the bottom is +left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of the town +of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the channel +by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the +British districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the +railway from Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay, +has for some time past been attracting the trade to itself.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBER<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (derived through the Fr. from Lat. <i>camera</i>, vault), +in architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and +provided for the depression or sagging, which it is liable to, +before it has settled down to its bearings. A “camber arch” is +a slight rise given to the straight-arch to correct an apparent +sinking in the centre (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arch</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBERT, ROBERT<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1628-1677), French operatic composer, +was born in Paris in 1628. He was a pupil of Chambonnières. +In 1655, after he had obtained the post of organist at the church +of St Honoré, he married Marie du Moustier. He was musical +superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV., +and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac. His +earlier works, the words of which were furnished by Pierre +Perrin, continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes +till the death of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin +received a patent for the founding of the <i>Académie Nationale de +musique</i>, the germ of the Grand Opéra, and Cambert had a share +in the administration until both he and Perrin were discarded +in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his subsequent neglect, +and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was musical +superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where +soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to +Charles II. One at least of his operas, <i>Pomone</i>, was performed in +London under his direction, but it did not suit the popular taste, +and he is supposed to have killed himself in London in 1677. +His other principal operas were <i>Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus</i> +and <i>Les Peines et les plaisirs de l‘amour</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBERWELL,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a southern metropolitan borough of London, +England, bounded N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by +Deptford and Lewisham, W. by Lambeth, and extending S. to +the boundary of the county of London. Pop, (1901) 259,339. +Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the derivation +of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham +and Nunhead, and Dulwich (<i>q.v.</i>) with its park, picture-gallery +and schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are +many good houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and southward +towards the high ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park +(72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and Park (113 acres) are +the largest of several public grounds, and Camberwell Green +was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside the +southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation, +the Crystal Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the +Camberwell school of arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In +Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a university settlement, +founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier Trinity settlement. +The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three divisions, +North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member: +but is not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the +Dulwich division extending to include Penge, outside the +county of London. The borough council consists of a mayor, +ten aldermen, and sixty councillors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBIASI, LUCA<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly +known as Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also +Cambiaso or Cangiagio), was born at Moneglia in the Genoese +state, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to +drawing at a very early age, imitating his father, and developed +great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of fifteen he painted, +along with his father, some subjects from Ovid’s <i>Metamorphoses</i> +on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in conjunction +with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of +execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friendship +with Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together, +with so much similarity of style that their works could hardly +be told apart; from this friend Cambiasi learned much in the +way of perspective and architecture. Luchetto’s best artistic +period lasted for twelve years after his first successes; from that +time he declined in power, though not at once in reputation, +owing to the agitations and vexations brought upon him by a +passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife having +died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and +children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for +marrying her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he +accepted an invitation from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial +a series of frescoes which had been begun by Castello, now +deceased; and it is said that one principal reason for his closing +with this offer was that he hoped to bring the royal influence to +bear upon the pope, but in this again he failed. Worn out with +his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the second year of his +sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold designer +in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the +Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day +with pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting +a head of a laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of +seeing the laugh changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a +weeping expression. The artist painted sometimes with a brush +in each hand, and with a certainty equalling or transcending that +even of Tintoret. He made a vast number of drawings, and was +also something of a sculptor, executing in this branch of art a +figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the ablest artists +of his day. In personal character, notwithstanding his executive +energy, he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His son +Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the +church of S. Giorgio—the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo +Imperiali Terralba, a Genoese suburb—a fresco of the “Rape of the +Sabines”; in S. Maria da Carignano—a “Pietà,” containing his own +portrait and (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law. +In the Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise +on the vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this +picture he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, +up to that time, ever been given for a single work.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBODIA<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (called by the inhabitants <i>Sroc Khmer</i> and by the +French <i>Cambodge</i>), a country of south-eastern Asia and a protectorate +of France, forming part of French Indo-China.</p> + +<p><i>Geography</i>.—It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by +Annam, S.E. and S. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam, +and W. by Siam. Its area is estimated at approximately +65,000 sq. m.; its population at 1,500,000, of whom some +three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese, Annamese, +Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia +lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering this +territory on the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines +south-west as far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and +resumes a southerly course. The salient feature of Cambodian +geography is the large lake Tonlé-Sap, in a depression 68 m. long +from south-east to north-west and 15 m. wide. It is fed by several +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span> +rivers and innumerable torrents, and at flood-time serves as a +reservoir for the Mekong, with which it is connected by a channel +some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and joining the river at +Pnom-Penh. In June the waters of the Mekong, swollen by the rains +and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a height of 40 to 45 +ft. and flow through the Bras du Lac towards the lake, which then +covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river inundates the +marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season the +current reverses and the depression empties so that the lake +shrinks to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. +to a maximum of 5 ft. Tonlé-Sap probably represents the chief +wealth of Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over +30,000, most of whom are Annamese; the fish, which are taken by +means of large nets at the end of the inundation, are either dried +or fermented for the production of the sauce known as <i>nuoc-mam</i>. +The northern and western provinces of Cambodia which fall +outside the densely populated zone of inundation are thinly +peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly +wooded and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does +not exceed 5000 ft. The region to the east of the Mekong is +traversed by spurs of the mountains of Annam and by affluents +of the Mekong, the most important of these being the Se-khong +and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into the Mekong at +Stung-treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing population, +fringe the west coast.</p> + +<p><i>Climate, Fauna and Flora.</i>—The climate of Cambodia, like +that of Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the +monsoons. During the north-east monsoon, from the middle of +October to the middle of April, dry weather prevails and the +thermometer averages from 77° to 80° F. During the south-west +monsoon, from the middle of April to the middle of +October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies between +85° and 95°. The wild animals of Cambodia include the +elephant, which is also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and +some species of wild ox; also the tiger, panther, leopard and +honey-bear. Wild boars, monkeys and rats abound and are the +chief enemies of the cultivator. The crocodile is found in the +Mekong, and there are many varieties of reptiles, some of them +venomous. The horse of Cambodia is only from 11 to 12 hands in +height, but is strong and capable of great endurance; the buffalo +is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in large numbers. +Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and other +valuable woods and gums are among the natural products.</p> + +<p><i>People</i>.—The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity +with their Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The +race is probably the result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of +Indo-China with the Aryan and Mongolian invaders of the +country. The men are taller and more muscular than the +Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and inclined +to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the mouth +large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown, +the hair black and, while in childhood the head is shaved with +the exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed +so as to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the langouti or loin-cloth, +which the men supplement with a short jacket, the women +with a long scarf draped round the figure or with a long clinging +robe. Morose, superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling, +the Cambodians are at the same time clean, fairly intelligent, +proud and courageous. The wife enjoys a respected position and +divorce may be demanded by either party. Polygamy is almost +confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to work, the +Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them +live on the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts +built upon piles or floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is +Buddhism, and involves great respect towards the dead; the +worship of spirits or local genii is also wide-spread, and Brahmanism +is still maintained at the court. Monks or <i>bonzes</i> are very +numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach the +young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals +and the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of +the Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no +hereditary nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood-relationship—the +members of the royal family within the fifth +degree (the <i>Brah-Vansa</i>) those beyond the fifth degree (<i>Brah-Van</i>), +and the <i>Bakou</i>, who, as descendants of the ancient Brahmans, +exercise certain official functions at the court. These +castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by themselves, +are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are +nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, +and are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the administration. +Under the native régime the common people attached +themselves to one or other of the mandarins, who in return +granted them the protection of his influence. Under French rule, +which has modified the old usages in many respects, local government +of the Annamese type tends to supplant this feudal system. +Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897.</p> + +<p>Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal +dialects of south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and +rich in vowel-sounds. The king’s language and the royal writing, +and also religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan +origin and akin to Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and complicated. +The books (manuscripts) are generally formed of palm-leaves +upon which the characters are traced by means of a style.</p> + +<p><i>Industry and Commerce.</i>—Iron, worked by the tribe of the +Kouis, is found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians +show skill in working gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats, +fans and silk and cotton fabrics, are also produced to some +small extent, but fishing and the cultivation of rice and in a minor +degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton, pepper, indigo, maize, tea and +sugar are the only industries worthy of the name. Factories +exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of cotton-seeds. The +Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so far as his own +needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and oxen +are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which +is in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in +commerce.</p> + +<p>Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China, +Kampot, the only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to +coasting vessels. With the exception of the highway from +Pnom-Penh (<i>q.v.</i>) the capital, to Kampot, the roads of Cambodia +are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh communicates regularly +by the steamers of the “Messageries Fluviales” by way of the +Mekong with Saigon.</p> + +<p><i>Administration</i>.—At the head of the government is the king +(<i>rāj</i>). His successor is either nominated by himself, in which +case he sometimes abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the +five chief mandarins from among the Brah Vansa. The <i>upayuvrāj</i> +(<i>obbaioureach</i>) or king who has abdicated, the heir-presumptive +(<i>uparāj, obbareach</i>) and the first princess of the blood +are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The king is +advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of the +class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about +fifty provinces administered by members of that body. France +is represented by a resident superior, who presides over the +ministerial council and is the real ruler of the country, and by +residents exercising supervision in the districts into which the +country is split up for the purposes of the French administration. +In each residential district there is a council, composed of natives +and presided over by the resident, which deliberates on questions +affecting the district. The resident superior is assisted by the +protectorate council, consisting of heads of French administrative +departments (chief of the judicial service, of public works. &c.) +and one native “notable,” and the royal orders must receive its +sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign +policy, public works, the customs and the exchequer are in +French hands, while the management of police, the collection of +the direct taxes and the administration of justice between +natives remain with the native government. A French tribunal +alone is competent to settle disputes where one of the parties is +not a native.</p> + +<p>The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia +for 1899 and 1904:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr">Receipts.</td> <td class="tcr">Expenditure.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcr">£235,329</td> <td class="tcr">£188,654 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcr">250,753</td> <td class="tcr">229,880 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span></p> + +<p>The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including +the poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which +together amounted to £172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of +expenditure are the civil list, comprising the personal allowance +to the king and the royal family (£46,018 in 1904), +public works (£39,593) and government house and residences +(£29,977).</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, +are conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between +the autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now +represented by the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading +race from the plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, Chinese chronicles, which are almost the only source +for the history of Cambodia till the 5th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, mention a +region called Fou-nan, in later times appearing under the name of +Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the Menam, it extended eastwards +to the Mekong and may be considered approximately +coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before +the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to +exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they +introduced Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hinduizing +process became more marked about the 5th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, +when, under S’rutavarman, the Khmers as a nation rose into +prominence. The name <i>Kambuja</i>, whence the European form +Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu <i>Kambu</i>, the name of the +mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been +officially adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country +about this period. At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of +S’rutavarman ceased to rule over the whole of Cambodia, which +during the next century was divided into two portions ruled over +by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have been re-established +about the beginning of the 9th century, when with Jayavarman +III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of Khmer +greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monuments +were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angkor</a></span>) +was completed under Yasovarman about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 900. In the +10th century Buddhism, which had existed for centuries in +Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival Brahmanism, +the official religion. The construction of the temple of Angkor +Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and +appears to have been carried out under the direction of the +Brahman Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the +monarchs of this period. The conquest of the rival kingdom of +Champa, which embraced modern Cochin-China and southern +Annam, and in the later 15th century was absorbed by Annam, +may probably be placed at the end of the 12th century, in the +reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. War was +also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and +the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have +been the immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. +From the last decade of the 13th century there dates a valuable +description of Tchin-la<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> written by a member of a Chinese +embassy thereto. The same period probably also witnessed the +liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of Siam from the yoke of +the Khmers, to whom they had for long been subject, and the +expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of the Menam. +The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of +which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the +14th century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive +and were able repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn. +These aggressions were continued in the 15th century, in the +course of which the capital was finally abandoned by the Khmer +kings, the ruin of the country being hastened by internal revolts +and by feuds between members of the royal family. At the end of +the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded Angkor-Thorn as +capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During that +century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the +country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the +middle of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in +Cambodia till the arrival of the French. At the beginning of the +17th century the Nguyen, rulers of southern Annam, began to +encroach on the territory of Cochin-China, and in the course of +that and the 18th century, Cambodia, governed by two kings +supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a field for +the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of the +18th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were +annexed by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were concluded +after a last and indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a +result of which Ang-Duong, the protégé of Siam, was placed on +the throne at the capital of Oudong, and the Annamese evacuated +the country. In 1863, in order to counteract Siamese influence +there, Doudart de Lagrée was sent by Admiral la Grandière to the +court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and as a +result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate +of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-Penh. +In 1867 a treaty between France and Siam was signed, +whereby Siam renounced its right to tribute and recognized the +French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the provinces of +Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos territory as far as the +Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the king, confirming +and extending French influence, and reducing the royal +authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by +it, its provisions were not put in force till several years later. +In 1904 the territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition +to it of the Siamese provinces of Melupré and Bassac, and +the maritime district of Krat, the latter of which, together +with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 exchanged for the +provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By the +same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the +right bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded +by his brother Sisowath.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Aymonier, <i>Le Cambodge</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); +L. Moura, <i>Le royaume de Cambodge</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1883); A. Leclère, +<i>Les codes cambodgiens</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on +Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, <i>Voyage d’exploration en Indo-Chine</i> +(Paris, 1873).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-China, French</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Translated by Abel Rémusat, <i>Noveaux Mélanges Asiatiques</i> +(1829).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1756-1820), French statesman, +was the son of a wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In +1785 his father retired, leaving the direction of the business to +Pierre and his two brothers, but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to +politics, and was sent by his fellow-citizens as deputy <i>suppléant</i> +to Versailles, where he was little more than a spectator. In +January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was elected a member +of the municipality, was one of the founders of the Jacobin club +in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he drew up +a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a +republic,—the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the +Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence, +his honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active +member of the committee of finance and was often charged to +verify the state of the treasury. Nothing could be more false +than the common opinion that as a financier his sole expedient +was to multiply the emissions of <i>assignats</i>. His remarkable +speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a convincing proof of his +sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from the clubs, and +even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new institutions. +On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a +law passed sequestrating the possessions of the <i>emigrés</i>, and demanded, +though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to +French Guiana. He was the last president of the Legislative +Assembly. Re-elected to the Convention, he opposed the pretensions +of the Commune and the proposed grant of money to +the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced Marat’s +placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an +account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing +of military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, +in spite of the general’s great popularity. Cambon then incurred +the hatred of Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the +pay to the clergy, which would have meant the separation of +church and state. His authority grew steadily. On the 15th of +December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a proclamation to +all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the trial of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span> +Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or postponement. +He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public +Safety he worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On +the 3rd of February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800 +millions of <i>assignats</i>, for the expenses of the war. His courageous +intervention in favour of the Girondists on the and of June 1793 +served Robespierre as a pretext to prevent his re-election to the +Committee of Public Safety. But Cambon soon came to the +conclusion that the security of France depended upon the triumph +of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to accord his active co-operation +to the second committee. He took an active share +in the various expedients of the government for stopping the +depreciation of the <i>assignats</i>. He was responsible, especially, +for the great operation known as the opening of the <i>Grand Livre</i> +(August 24), which was designed to consolidate the public debt +by cancelling the stock issued under various conditions prior to +the Revolution, and issuing new stock of a uniform character, so +that all fund-holders should hold stock of the revolutionary government +and thus be interested in its stability. Each fund-holder +was to be entered in the Great Book, or register of the public +debt, for the amount due to him every year. The result of this +measure was a rise in the face value of the <i>assignats</i> from 27% +to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of finance Cambon +was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of dictatorship, +his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, won him Robespierre’s renewed suspicion, and on +the 8th Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-revolutionary +and an aristocrat. Cambon’s proud and vehement +reply was the signal of the resistance to Robespierre’s tyranny +and the prelude to his fall. Cambon soon had reason to repent +of that event, for he became one of those most violently attacked +by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets and the +journals of J.L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former +<i>Montagnard</i>. He was charged with being responsible for the discredit +of the <i>assignats</i>, and even accused of malversations. On +the 21st of February 1795 the project which he presented to withdraw +four milliards of <i>assignats</i> from circulation, was rejected, +and on the 3rd of April he was excluded from the committee of +finance. On the 16th Germinal, Tallien procured a decree of accusation +against him, but he was already in safety, taking refuge +probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not seem to have remained +in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial some of the +insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th Brumaire +of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to +return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near +Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow +escape from an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to +find in Bonaparte the saviour of the republic, but, deceived by +the 18th Brumaire, he lived throughout the whole of the empire +in peaceful seclusion. During the Hundred Days he was deputy +for Hérault in the chamber of representatives, and pronounced +himself strongly against the return of the Bourbons, and for +religious freedom. Under the Restoration the “amnesty” +law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he withdrew +to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died +on the 15th of February 1820.</p> +<div class="author">(R. A.*)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bornarel, <i>Cambon</i> (Paris).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1843-  ), French diplomatist, +was born on the 20th of January 1843. He was called to the +Parisian bar, and became private secretary to Jules Ferry in the +prefecture of the Seine. After ten years of administrative work +in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as prefect successively +of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), Nord +(1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being +nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 +he became French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to +Constantinople in 1890, and in 1898 to London. He was decorated +with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and became a +member of the French Academy of Sciences.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Jules Martin Cambon</span> (1845-  ), was called +to the bar in 1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and +entered the civil service in 1871. He was prefect of the department +of Nord (1882) and of the Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 +became governor-general of Algeria (see Guyot, <i>L’œuvre de +M. Jules Cambon</i>, Paris, 1897), where he had served in a minor +position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at +Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries +of peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the +war with the United States. He was transferred in 1902 to +Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBORNE,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a market town in the Camborne parliamentary +division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, +13 m. E.N.E. of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. +It lies on the northward slope of the central elevation of the +county, and is in the neighbourhood of some of the most productive +tin and copper mines. These and the manufacture of +mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. The parish +church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient +stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art +and mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South +Condurrow mine, the school attracting a large number of students. +It was developed from classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners’ +Association, and a three years’ course of instruction is provided.</p> + +<p>Camborne (<i>Cambron, Camron</i>) formed a portion of the extensive +manor of Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday +Survey was held by the earl of Mortain and subsequently by the +Dunstanville and Basset families. Its interests were economically +insignificant until the beginning of the 18th century when the +rich deposits of copper and tin began to be vigorously worked at +Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this mine alone +had produced ore worth £2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth +£5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other +mines in the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double +that of 1830, six times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of +1660. Camborne was the scene of the scientific labours of +Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the engineer, born in the +neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William Bickford, the +inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three fairs on +the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 25th of February were +granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been +transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the +subject of a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the +19th century it has been held on Saturdays.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRAI,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the +main line of the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai +is situated on the right and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of +which traverse the west of the town) and at one extremity of the +canal of St Quentin. The fortifications with which it was formerly +surrounded have been for the most part demolished. The fosses +have been filled up and the ramparts in part levelled to make +way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues stretching out on all +sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are the huge +square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the chateau de +Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the +13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a +stone and brick structure of the early 17th century. Handsome +boulevards now skirt the town, the streets of which are clean and +well-ordered, and a large public garden extends at the foot of the +citadel, with a statue of Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. +The former cathedral of Cambrai was destroyed after the Revolution. +The present cathedral of Notre-Dame is a church of the +19th century built on the site of the old abbey church of St +Sépulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of Fénelon, +archbishop from 1695 to 1715, by David d’Angers. The church of +St Géry (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a +marble rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place +d’Armes, a large square in the centre of the town, is bordered on +the north by a handsome hôtel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt +in the 19th century. The Tour St Martin is an old church-tower +of the 15th and 18th centuries transformed into a belfry. The +triple stone portal, which gave entrance to the former archiepiscopal +palace, is a work of the Renaissance period. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span> +present archbishop’s palace, adjoining the cathedral, occupies +the site of an old Benedictine convent.</p> + +<p>Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, +a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank +of France. Its educational institutions include communal +colleges, ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and +music. The library has over 40,000 volumes and there is a +museum of antiquities and objects of art. The chief industry of +Cambrai is the weaving of muslin (<i>batiste</i>) and other fine +fabrics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cambric</a></span>); wool-spinning and weaving, bleaching +and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the manufacture of chicory, +oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are also large beet-sugar +works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in cattle, +grain, coal, hops, seed, &c.</p> + +<p>Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of <i>Camaracum</i>, which is +mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was +the capital of the Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by +Charlemagne, it was captured and pillaged by the Normans in +870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Hungarians in 953. +During the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries it was the scene of +frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on the +one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately +effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had +obtained possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, +duke of Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the +16th century Charles V. caused it to be fortified with a strong +citadel, for the erection of which the castles of Cavillers, Escaudoeuvres +and many others were demolished. From that date to +the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which assigned it to France, it +frequently passed from hand to hand by capture or treaty. In +1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League of +Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., +Louis XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against +the Venetians in 1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is +also called, the Ladies’ Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 +by Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., and Margaret of +Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of these monarchs. The +bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and was raised +in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till the +Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received +the title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in +1510 were raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including +the town itself and its territory, called Cambrésis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Bouly, <i>Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambrésis</i> (Cambria, +1843).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIA,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the +end of the western Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a +while both Wales and the land round the Solway (now Cumberland +and adjacent regions), and the former came to be called +Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were sometimes +interchanged by early medieval writers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIAN SYSTEM,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> in geology, the name now universally +employed to designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks +which possesses a connected suite of fossils. The strata of this +system rest upon the Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the +Ordovician system. Until the fourth decade of the 19th century +all stratified rocks older than the Carboniferous had been grouped +by geologists into a huge and indefinite “Transition Series.” In +1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison began the +herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of rocks as +it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England. +Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where +the rocks are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are +comparatively difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, +began to work at the upper end of the series where the stratigraphy +is simple and the fossils are abundant. Murchison +naturally made the most of the fossils collected, and was soon able +to show that the transition series could be recognized by them, +just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to themselves; as +he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous rocks further +afield and continually lower in the series. This fossil-bearing +set of strata he first styled the “fossiliferous greywacke series,” +changing it in 1835 to “Silurian system.”</p> + +<p>In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name “Cambrian +series” for the older and lower members. Murchison published his +Silurian system in 1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to +include the barren slates and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the +Long Mynd. So far, the two workers had been in agreement; +but in his presidential address to the Geological Society of London +in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that the Cambrian contained +no fossils that differed from those of the Lower Silurian. Whereupon +Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh rocks +with the assistance of J.W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in +1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the +Upper Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his +<i>Siluria</i>, in which he treated the Cambrian system as a mere +local facies of the Silurian system, and he included in the latter, +under J. Barrande’s term “Primordial zone,” all the lower rocks, +although they had a distinctive fauna.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected +from similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of +“Cambrian” was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, +it was taken to apply only to a group of rocks without a characteristic +fauna and therefore impossible to recognize. Most of +the Cambrian rocks were coloured as Silurian on the British +official geological maps.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on +the British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of +the Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his +Silurian system downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick +adhered to the original grouping of his Cambrian system, and +even proposed to limit the Silurian to the Ludlow and Wenlock +beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. This attitude he +maintained until the year of his death (1873), when there appeared +his introduction to Salter’s <i>Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian +Fossils.</i></p> + +<p>It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was +necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was +left for the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove +that the rocks below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison +did indeed possess a characteristic fauna, and their work was confirmed +by researches going on in other countries. To-day the +recognition of the earliest fossil-bearing recks, below the Llandeilo +formation of Murchison, as belonging to the Cambrian +system, and the threefold subdivision of the system according to +palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly established.</p> + +<p>It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian +as the lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages +being Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use +<i>Silurique</i> to cover the same period with the Cambrian as the +lowest series, but these differences of treatment are merely +nominal. Jules Marcou and others have used <i>Taconic</i> (Taconian) +as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C. Lapworth proposed to apply +the same term to the lowest sub-division only; he had also used +“Annelidian” in the same sense. These names are of historical +interest alone.</p> + +<p><i>Cambrian Rocks.</i>—The lithological characters of the Cambrian +rocks possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the +globe. Muds, sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant +types. In Scotland, North America and Canada important +deposits of limestone occur and subordinate limestones are +found in the Cambrian of central Europe.</p> + +<p>In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of +the United States, the rocks still retain their original horizontality +of deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the +sands are still incoherent; but in most parts of the world they +bear abundant evidence of the many movements and stresses to +which they have been exposed through so enormous a period of +time. Thus, we find them more frequently, folded, tilted and +cleaved; the muds have become shales, slates, phyllites or +schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates have become +quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very generally +dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span> +recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized +material are not wanting.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:415px" src="images/img87.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they +form an important feature and occur in considerable thickness; +they are represented by lavas of olivine-diabase and by contemporaneous +tuffs which are traversed by later granite and +quartz felsite. In the Cambrian of Brittany there are acid +lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and diorite appear +in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada +igneous rocks have been observed.</p> + +<p>In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found +full of boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner +that is typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the +Gaisa beds near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These formations +lie at the base of the lowest Cambrian strata and may +possibly be included in the pre-Cambrian, though in Norway +they are clearly resting upon a striated floor of crystalline rocks.</p> + +<p><i>Cambrian Life.</i>—In a general survey of the life of this period, +as it is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are apparent: +(1) the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna +and that of the present day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage +differs in no marked manner from that of the succeeding Ordovician +and Silurian periods; there is a certain family likeness +which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary complexity and +diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but within +certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian +strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks—if we leave +out of account the very few and very obscure organic remains +hitherto recorded from the pre-Cambrian—yet we appear to +enter suddenly into the presence of a world richly peopled with a +suite of organisms already far advanced in differentiation; the +Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from what must +have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this remote +period are distant from the creatures of to-day.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great +classes of animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple +protozoa appear in the form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges +are represented by such forms as <i>Archaeoscyphia</i>, Hexactinellid +sponges by <i>Protospongia</i>; Graptolites (<i>Dictyograptus</i> (<i>Dictyonema</i>)) +come on in the higher parts of the system. Medusa-like +casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of Scandinavia +(<i>Medusina</i>) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama (<i>Brooksella</i>). +Corals, <i>Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus</i>, &c., lived in the Cambrian +seas along with starfishes (<i>Palaeasterina</i>), Cystideans, <i>Protocystites, +Trochocystites</i> and possibly Crinoids, <i>Dendrocrinus</i>. Annelids +left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor +(<i>Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus</i>, &c.). Crustacea occupied an +extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as +<i>Hymenocaris</i>, and Ostracods like <i>Entomidella</i>; but by far the +most important in numbers and development were the Trilobites, +now extinct, but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the +Cambrian period trilobites had already attained their maximum +size; some species of <i>Paradoxides</i> were nearly 2 ft. long, but in +company with these monsters were tiny forms like <i>Agnostus</i> and +<i>Microdiscus</i>. Many of the Cambrian trilobites appear to have +been blind, and they had not at this period developed that +flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later.</p> + +<p>Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-articulated +forms (<i>Obolus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis,</i> +&c.); amongst the articulate genera are <i>Kutorgina, Orthis, +Khynchonella.</i> It is a striking fact that certain of these non-articulate +“lamp-shells” are familiar inhabitants of our present +seas. Each of the principal groups of true mollusca was represented: +Pelecypods (<i>Modioloides</i>); Gasteropods (<i>Scenella, +Pleurotomaria, Trochonema</i>); Pteropods (<i>Hyohthellus, Hyolithes, +Salleretta</i>); Cephalopods (<i>Orthoceras, Cystoceras</i>). Of +land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain +markings on slates and sandstones, such as the “fucoids” of +Scandinavia and Scotland, the <i>Phycoides</i> of the Fichtelgebirge, +<i>Eophyton</i> and other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be +the casts of fucoid plants; but it is by no means sure that +many of them are not mere inorganic imitative markings or the +tracks or casts of worms. <i>Oldhamia</i>, a delicate branching body, +abundant in the Cambrian of the south-east of Ireland, is probably +a calcareous alga, but its precise nature has not been satisfactorily +determined.</p> + +<p><i>Cambrian Stratigraphy.</i>—Wherever the Cambrian strata have +been carefully studied it has now been found possible and convenient +to arrange them into three series, each of which is characterized +by a distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a +Lower Cambrian with <i>Olenellus</i>, a middle series with <i>Paradoxides</i> +and an Upper Cambrian with <i>Olenus</i>. It is true that these +fossils are not invariably present in every occurrence of Cambrian +strata, but this fact notwithstanding, the threefold division holds +with sufficient constancy. An uppermost series lies above the +<i>Olenus</i> fauna in some areas; it is represented by the Tremadoc +beds in Britain or by the <i>Dictyonema</i> beds or <i>Euloma-Niobe</i> +fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: (1) +Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first differentiated +from the old “Transition Series”; (2) North America, +on account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the +abundance and perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, +made classic by the great labours of J. Barrande.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Great Britain and Ireland.</i>—The table on p. 88 contains the names +that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata +in the areas of outcrop in Wales and England; at the same time it +indicates approximately their relative position in the system.</p> + +<p>In <i>Scotland</i> the upper and middle series are represented by a +thick mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone +(1500 ft.). In the lower series are, in descending order, the “Serpulite +grits” or “Salterella beds,” the “Fucoid beds” and the +“Eriboll quartzite,” which is divided into an upper “Pipe rock” +and lower “Basal quartzite.”</p> + +<p>The Cambrian rocks of <i>Ireland</i>, a great series of purple and green +shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded +sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh +rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in +the future to the overlying Ordovician.</p> + +<p><i>North America.</i>—On the North American continent, as in Europe, +the Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the lower +or “Georgian,” with <i>Olenellus</i> fauna; (2) the middle or “Acadian,” +with <i>Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus</i> fauna; (3) the upper or “Potsdam,” +with <i>Olenus</i> fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms +for Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland +and Labrador coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-west +of those points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain +valley into Alabama, a distance of some 2000 m.; and the rocks +are brought up again on the western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, +western Montana and British Columbia. The middle division covers +approximately the same region as the lower one, and in addition +it is found in the states of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arizona, in +western Montana, and possibly in western Wisconsin. The lower +division, in addition to covering the areas already indicated, spreads +over the interior of the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Bohemia</i>.—The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized +by J.F. Pompesk; to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian +groups. They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. +The Cambrian system is covered by his stages “B” and “C”; the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span> +former a barren series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter +a series of grey and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, +greywackes and conglomerates.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">North Wales.</td> <td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">South Wales.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Midland and West of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Shropshire.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Malvern Hills.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nuneaton.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Cambrian,<br /> <i>Olenus</i> fauna</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Tremadoc slates<br /> (<i>Euloma-Niobe</i> fauna)</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Tremadoc beds</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Shineton shales and<br /> shales with <i>Dictyonema</i></td> + <td class="tcl rb">Bronsil shales,<br /> gray (<i>Niobe</i> fauna)</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Upper Stockingford<br /> shale (Merivaleshales)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb">Lingula flags</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Lingula flags</td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb">Malvern black shales<br /> (White-leaved-oak<br /> shales)</td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb">(1) Dolgelly beds</td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb">(2) Ffestinieg beds</td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb">Middle Stockingford<br /> shales (Oldbury<br /> shales)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">(3) Maentwrog beds</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Middle Cambrian<br /> <i>Paradoxides</i> fauna</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Menevian beds</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Menevian beds</td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Solva group</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Comley or Hollybush<br /> sandstone with upper<br /> Comley limestone</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Hollybush sandstone</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Lower Stockingford<br /> shales (Purley<br /> shales)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lower Cambrian<br /> <i>Olenellus</i> fauna</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Harlech grits and<br /> Llanberis slates</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Caerfai group</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Lower Comley<br /> limestone</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Hollybush sandstone<br /> with Malvern quarzite<br /> and conglomerate at<br /> the base</td> + <td class="tcl rb">Upper Hartshill<br /> quarzite <i>Hyolithes</i><br /> <i>Hyolithes</i> shales<br /> and limestone</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Wrekin quartzite</td> + <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rb bb">Middle and lower<br /> Hartshill quarzite<br /> and the quarzite of<br /> the Lickey Hills</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Scandinavia</i>.—Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished +clearly on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found +in a thin series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing +shales play an important part. Limestones and shales with the +<i>Euloma-Niobe</i> fauna come at the top. The upper series (<i>Olenus</i>) +has been minutely zoned by W.C. Brögger, S.A. Tullberg and J.C. +Moberg. In the middle series (<i>Paradoxides</i>) three thin limestone +bands have been distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans-Kalk +and the Andrarums-Kalk.</p> + +<p>On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by +the Röros schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystalline +schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian +rocks.</p> + +<p><i>Baltic Province.</i>—The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all +soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of +Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called “blue +clay” (really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a +fucoidal sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent +of the Lower Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an important +break appears in the system, for the <i>Paradoxides</i> and <i>Olenus</i> +divisions are absent. The upper members are the “Ungulite grit” +and about 20 ft. of Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been +traced into Siberia (lat. 71°) and on the island of Vaigatch.</p> + +<p><i>Central Europe.</i>—Besides the Bohemian region previously mentioned, +Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of +France, in Spain and the Thüringer Wald. In the Ardennes the +system is represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and +quartz schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. +A. Dumont has arranged the whole series (<i>Terrain ardennais</i>) into +three systems, an upper “Salmien,” a middle “Revinien” and a +lower “Devillien,” but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to +unite the two lower groups in one.</p> + +<p><i>France</i>.—-In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple +conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability +upon pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern +Poitou. In the Rennes basin limestones—often dolomitic—are +associated with quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones +also occur in the Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old +lands of Languedoc, equivalents of the two upper divisions of the +Cambrian have been recorded; and the uppermost members of the +system appear in Herault. Patches of Cambrian rocks are found +in the Pyrenees.</p> + +<p>In <i>Spain</i> slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than +9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega, +thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian +rocks occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper +Cambrian strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal.</p> + +<p>In <i>Russian Poland</i> is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and +shales; Some of the beds yield a <i>Paradoxides</i> fauna.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Thüringer Wald</i> are certain strata, presumably Cambrian +since the uppermost beds contain the <i>Euloma-Niobe</i> fauna.</p> + +<p><i>Sardinia</i> contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cambrian +system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neobolus +or Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle +subdivision. The same group is probably represented in Corea +and the Liao-tung by +the thick “Sinisian” +formation of F. von +Richthofen.</p> + +<p>In <i>South America</i> +upper Cambrian rocks +have been recorded from +north Argentina.</p> + +<p>The Lower Cambrian +has been found at various +places in <i>South +Australia</i>; and in <i>Tasmania</i> +a thick series of +strata appears to be in +part at least of Upper +Cambrian age.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>General Physical +Conditions in the Cambrian +Period.</i>—The +Cambrian rocks previously +described are all +such as would result +from deposition, in +comparatively shallow +seas, of the products +of degradation of land +surfaces by the ordinary +agents of denudation. +Evidences of shallow +water conditions are +abundant; very frequently +on the bedding +surfaces of sandstones +and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun’s heat and +pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, +and these records of the weather of this remote period are preserved +as sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our +tidal reaches. Ripple marks and current bedding further point, to +the shallowness of the water at the places where the rocks were +made.</p> + +<p>No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses +of the sea—although the absence of well-developed eyes in the +trilobites has led some to assume that this condition was an +indication that the creatures lived in abyssal depths.</p> + +<p>At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of +that period must have been elevated into regions of fairly high +ground; this we may assume from the nature of the Cambrian +deposits which are mainly the product of the denudation of such +ground. Over the land areas thus formed, the seas in Cambrian +time gradually spread, laying down first the series known as +Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the land the +wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits—in Europe, the middle +series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are +usually unconformable on older rocks.</p> + +<p>During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the +crust may have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake conditions. +The common occurrence of red strata has been cited in +support of this view.</p> + +<p>Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free +from extensive volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in +Brittany the earlier portions of this period were marked by +voluminous outpourings; a condition that was feebly reflected +in central and southern Europe.</p> + +<p>No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the +climatic peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red +rocks may in some cases suggest desert conditions; and there is +good reason to suppose that in what are now Norway and China +a glacial cold prevailed early in the period.</p> + +<p>Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian +deposits, which may generally be explained by the greater +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span> +rapidity of deposition in some areas than in others. Nothing +could be more striking than the difference between the thicknesses +in western and eastern Europe; in Brittany the deposits +are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least 12,000 ft., in western +England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern Scotland 2000 ft., +while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete Cambrian +succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North America, +the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous regions +on the west and on the east—reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter +and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British +Columbia)—while over the interior of the continent it is seldom +more than 1000 ft. thick.</p> + +<p>Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the +Cambrian period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was +pointed out by Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there +appeared two marine provinces—a northern one extending from +Russia to the British Isles through Scandinavia and northern +Germany, and a southern one comprising France, Bohemia, the +Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that some kind +of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there is +a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and +eastern America; many fossils of this period are common to +Britain, Sweden and eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a +north Atlantic basin existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there +was also a Pacific basin more extensive than at present; this is +borne out by the similarity between the Cambrian faunas of +China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author postulates an +Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, Greenland +and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the +present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between +Australia and India, where the faunas have much in common.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—The literature devoted to the Cambrian period +is very voluminous, important contributions having been made +by A. Sedgwick, Sir R.I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. +Groom, J.W. Salter, J.E. Marr, C.D. Walcott, G.F. Matthew, +E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande, F. Schmidt, W.C. Brögger, +S.A. Tullberg, S.L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson and many others. +A good general account of the period will be found in Sir A. Geikie’s +<i>Text-Book of Geology</i>, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with references), and +from an American point of view, in T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. +Salisbury’s <i>Geology</i>, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American sources). +See also J.E. Marr, <i>The Classification of the Cambrian and Silurian +Rocks</i>, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of publication); +A. Geikie <i>Q.J. Geol. Sac.,</i> 1891, xlvii., Ann. address, p. 90; F. Frech, +“Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des Cambrium,” +<i>Compte Rendu. Congrès Géol. Internal. 1897, St-Pétersbourg</i> (1899); +<i>Geological Literature added to the Geological Society’s Library,</i> published +annually since 1893.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIC,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a word derived from <i>Kameryk</i> or <i>Kamerijk</i>, the +Flemish name of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, +France, where the cloth of this name is said to have been first +made. It was originally made of fine linen. There is a record +of a privy purse expenditure in 1530 for cambric for Henry VIII.’s +shirts. Cambric has been used for many years in the manufacture +of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine underclothing; also +for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The yarns for +this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads +and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. +Embroidery cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, +said to be called after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a +kind of cambric frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are +largely copied in cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, +and in many cases cotton alone, taking the place of the original +flax line yarns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> Under the Norman +and early Plantagenet kings of England the earldom of Cambridge +was united with that of Huntingdon, which was held +among others by David I., king of Scotland, as the husband of +earl Waltheof’s daughter, Matilda. As a separate dignity the +earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count (afterwards +duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King +Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William’s death) +Edward created his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cambridge, +the title being afterwards merged in that of duke of York, +which was bestowed upon Edmund in 1385. Edmund’s elder +son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who succeeded his father as duke +of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, appears to have resigned +the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in this year his younger +brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In the following +year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry V., +and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, Richard, +who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle +Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held +by Richard, and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, +afterwards King Edward IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the +Yorkist dynasty.</p> + +<p>In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon +James Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created +him earl of Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor +James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In +1651 when William, 2nd duke of Hamilton, died, his English title +became extinct.</p> + +<p>Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of +earl of Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his +brother Henry, duke of Gloucester, only to become extinct on +Henry’s death in the following year. In 1661 Charles, the infant +son of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II., was +designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but the child +died before the necessary formalities were completed. However, +two of James’s sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were +actually created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died +in childhood. After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 +it was proposed to grant an English title to George Augustus, +electoral prince of Hanover, who, after his grandmother, the +electress Sophia, and his father, the elector George Louis, was +heir to the throne of England; and to give effect to this proposal +George Augustus was created marquess and duke of Cambridge +in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of +Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in +favour of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He +and his son are dealt with below.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Adolphus Frederick</span>, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was +born in London on the 24th of February 1774. Having studied +at the university of Göttingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the +Hanoverian and British armies, and, in November 1801, was +created earl of Tipperary and duke of Cambridge, becoming a +member of the privy council in the following year. The duke is +chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on the +conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to +the rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was +appointed viceroy. He held this position until the separation of +Great Britain and Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and +moderation, appears to have ruled the country with great success +during a difficult period. Returning to England the duke became +very popular, and was active in supporting many learned and +benevolent societies. He died in London on the 8th of July 1850. +In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter of Frederick, +landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his successor, +George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick +William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide +(1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">George William Frederick Charles</span>, duke of Cambridge +(1819-1904), was born at Hanover on the 26th of +March 1819. He was thus about two months older than his +cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the line of +succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover +by the Rev. J.R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November +1837, after he had served for a short time in the Hanoverian +army, the rank of colonel in the British army was conferred upon +him, and he was attached to the staff at Gibraltar from October +1838 to April 1839. After serving in Ireland with the 12th +Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 colonel of the +17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he +was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then +promoted major-general. In October 1846 he took command +of the Limerick district, and shortly afterwards of the Dublin +district. In 1850 his father died, and he succeeded to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span> +dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry in 1852, he held +that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the Crimean +War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and +Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June +of the same year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was +present at the battles of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, +and at the siege of Sevastopol. On the 15th of July 1856 he was +appointed general commanding-in-chief, on the 9th of November +1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, commander-in-chief. +The long period during which he held the command +of the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War +brought to light great administrative defects, and led to a regrouping +of the departments, which, with the whole personnel +of the army, were brought under the authority of the secretary +of state for war. The constitutional changes involved did not, +however, affect seriously the organization of the military forces. +Only in 1870, after the successes of Prussia had created a profound +impression, were drastic changes introduced by Cardwell +into the entire fabric of the army. The objects of the reformers +of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods +adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by +the duke of Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority +of officers. Further changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again +the duke found much to criticize. His opinions stand recorded +in the voluminous evidence taken by the numerous bodies +appointed to inquire into the condition of the army. They show +a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations as such, +a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this +judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally +supposed is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout +the period of change, while protesting, the duke invariably +accepted and loyally endeavoured to carry out the measures +on which the government decided. In a memorandum addressed +to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude as follows:— +“Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state policy it +is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, +I am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability.” +This attitude he consistently maintained in all cases in which his +training and associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate +changes the need for which was not apparent to him. His +judgment was especially vindicated in the case of an ill-advised +reduction of the artillery carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under +the order in council of February 1888, the whole responsibility +for military duties of every kind was for the first time centred +upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out by the +Hartington commission in 1890, involved “an excessive +centralization” which “must necessarily tend to weaken the +sense of responsibility of the other heads of departments, and +thus to diminish their efficiency.” The duke of Cambridge, whose +position entailed many duties apart from those strictly appertaining +to a commander-in-chief, could not give personal attention +to the vast range of matters for which he was made nominally +responsible. On the other hand, the adjutant-general could +act in his name, and the secretary of state could obtain military +advice from officials charged with no direct responsibility. +The effect was to place the duke in a false position in the eyes +of the army and of the country. If the administration of +the army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which +violated principles. His active control of its training during +the whole period of his command was less hampered, and more +directly productive of good results.</p> + +<p>Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge +evinced a warm interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great +experience combined with a retentive memory made him a +master of detail. He was famous for plain, and strong, +language; but while quick to condemn deviations from +the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great +precision in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural +kindliness made him ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the +older generation of soldiers, he could not easily adapt himself +to the new conditions, and in dispensing patronage he was somewhat +distrustful of originality, while his position as a member of +the royal family tended to narrow his scope for selection. He +was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations of pure +seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The +army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge +it had a commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly +anxious amid many difficulties to promote its well-being. The +duke resigned the commandership-in-chief on the 1st of November +1895, and was succeeded by Lord Wolseley, the duties of the +office being considerably modified. He was at the same time +gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces. He was made +ranger of Hyde Park and St James’s Park in 1852, and of +Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military +Academy in 1862, and its president in 1870, and personal aide-de-camp +to Queen Victoria in 1882. He died on the 17th of +March 1904 at Gloucester House, London. The chief honours +conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835; G.C.M.G., +1845; G.C.B., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he +was president of Christ’s hospital. The duke of Cambridge was +married to Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge +after her marriage. She died in 1890.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rev. E. Sheppard, <i>George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir +of his Private Life</i> (London, 1906); and Willoughby Verner, <i>Military +Life of the Duke of Cambridge</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1717-1802), English poet, +was born in London on the 14th of February 1717. He was +educated at Eton and at St John’s College, Oxford. Leaving +the university without taking a degree, he took up residence at +Lincoln’s Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and went to +live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In +1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society +of many notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes +many jesting allusions to Cambridge in the character of +newsmonger. +He died at Twickenham on the 17th of September +1802. His chief work is the <i>Scribleriad</i> (1751), a mock epic +poem, the hero of which is the Martinus Scriblerus of Pope, +Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded by a dissertation +on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his master. +The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read +by literary people; but it never became popular, and the +allusions, always obscure, have little interest for the present-day +reader. He made a valuable contribution to history in his +<i>Account of the War in India...on the Coast of Coromandel +from the year 1750 to 1760...</i> (1761). He had intended to write +a history of the rise and progress of British power in India, +but this enterprise went no further than the work just named, +as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the use +of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq., including several +Pieces never before published, with an Account of his Life and Character +by his Son, George Owen Cambridge</i> (1803), includes, besides the +<i>Scribleriad</i>, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty +papers originally published in Edward Moore’s paper called <i>The +World</i>. His poems are included in A. Chalmers’s <i>English Poets</i> (1816).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough, the +seat of a university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire, +England, 56 m. N. by E. of London by the Great Eastern +railway, served also by the Great Northern, London & North-Western +and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379. It lies in a flat +plain at the southern border of the low Fen country, at an +elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part of +the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a +tributary of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To +the south and west the slight hills bordering the fenland rise +gently. The parliamentary borough of Cambridge returns one +member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen, +and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres.</p> + +<p>Cambridge University<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> shares with that of Oxford the first +place among such institutions in the British empire. It is the +dominating factor in the modern importance of +the town, and it is therefore necessary to outline +<span class="sidenote"> <i>History</i></span> +the historical conditions which led to its establishment. The +geographical situation of Cambridge, in its present appearance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span> +possessing little attraction or advantage, calls nevertheless for +first consideration. Cambridge, in fact, owed its growth to its +position on a natural line of communication between the east and +the midlands of England, flanked on the one hand by the deep +forests which covered the uplands, on the other by the unreclaimed +fens, then desolate and in great part impenetrable. The importance +of this highway may be judged from the number of early +earthworks in the vicinity of Cambridge; and the Castle Hill, at +the north side of the present town (near the west bank of the +river), is perhaps a British work. Roman remains discovered in +the same locality give evidence of the existence of a small town +or village at the junction of roads; the name of <i>Camboritum</i> is +usually attached to it, but without certainty. The modern name +of Cambridge has no connexion with this. The present form of +the name has usually been derived from a corruption of the +original name Grantebrycge or Grantabridge (Skeat); but Mr +Arthur Gray points out that there is no documentary evidence +for this corruption in the shape of such probable intermediate +forms as Grantebrig or Crantebrig. On the other hand, he brings +evidence to show that the name Cantebrig, though not applied to +the whole town, was very early given to that quarter of it near +the Cante brig, <i>i.e.</i> the bridge over the Cante (the ward beyond +the Great Bridge was called “Parcelle of Cambridge” as late as +1340); in this quarter, close to the bridge, Cambridge castle was +built by the Conqueror, and from the castle and the castle-quarter +the name spread within sixty years to the whole town, +the similarity between the names Grantebrig and Cantebrig +playing some part in this extension (<i>The Dual Origin of the Town +of Cambridge</i>, p. 31). Granta is the earlier and still an alternative +name of the river Cam, this more common modern form having +been adopted in sympathy with the modern name of the town. +Cambridge had a further importance from its position at the head +of river navigation, and a charter of Henry I., in which the town +is already referred to as a borough, grants it exclusive rights as +a river-port, and regulates traffic and tolls. The wharves lay +principally along that part of the river where are now the +celebrated “backs” of some of the colleges, whose exquisite +grounds slope down to the water. The great Sturbridge or +Stourbridge Fair at Barnwell, formerly one of the most important +in England, is a further illustration of the ancient commercial +importance of Cambridge; the oldest known charter concerning +it dates from the opening of the 13th century, though its initiation +may perhaps be placed a century before.</p> + +<p>Concerning the early municipal history of Cambridge little is +known, but at the time of the Domesday survey its citizens felt +themselves strong enough to protest against the exactions of the +Norman sheriff, Roger Picot; and the town had attained a +considerable degree of importance when, in 1068, William the +Conqueror built a castle on the site known as Castle Hill, and used +it as a base of operations against Hereward the Wake and the +insurgents of the fenland. Cambridge, however, has practically +no further military history. From the 14th century onward +materials were taken from the castle by the builders of colleges, +while the gatehouse, the last surviving portion, was removed in +1842.</p> + +<p>The medieval spirit of emulation between the universities of +Cambridge and Oxford resulted in a series of remarkable fables +to account for the foundation of both. That of Cambridge was +assigned to a Spanish prince, Cantaber, in the 4321st year after +the Creation. A charter from King Arthur dated 531, and the +transference of students from Cambridge to Oxford by King +Alfred, were also claimed as historical facts. The true germ of +the university is to be sought in the religious foundations in the +town. The earliest to be noticed is the Augustinian house of St +Giles, founded by Hugoline, wife of Roger Picot the sheriff, in +1092; this was removed in 1112 to Barnwell, where the chapel +dedicated to St Andrew the Less is practically the sole remnant +of its buildings. In 1224 the Franciscans came to Cambridge, +and later in the same century a number of other religious orders +settled here, such as the Dominicans, the Gilbertines and the +Carmelites, who had before been established at Newnham. +Students were gradually attracted to these several religious +houses, and Cambridge was already recognized as a centre of +learning when, in 1231, Henry III. issued a writ for its governance +as such, among other provisions conferring certain disciplinary +powers on the bishop of Ely. It soon became evident that the +influence of the religious orders on those who came to them for +instruction was too narrow. This was recognized elsewhere, for +it was in order to counteract that influence that Walter de +Merton drew up the statute of governance for his foundation of +Merton College, Oxford, a statute which was soon afterwards +used as a model by Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely, when, in +1281-1284 he founded the first Cambridge college, Peterhouse.</p> + +<p>The friction between town and university, due in the main to +the conflict of their jurisdictions, the tradition of which, as in the +sister university, died hard in the annual efforts of some undergraduates +to revive the “town and gown” riots, culminated +during the rebellion of Wat Tyler (1381) in an episode which is +alone worthy of record and may serve to illustrate the whole. +This was an attack by the rabble, instigated, it is said, by the +more reputable townspeople, on the colleges, several of which +were sacked. The attack was ultimately defeated by the courage +and resource of Henry Spenser or Le Dispencer, bishop of +Norwich. The relations of the university of Cambridge with the +crown were never so intimate as those of Oxford. Henry III. +fortified the town with two gates, but these were burnt by the +rebellious barons; and in much later times the two first of the +Stuart kings, and the two first of the Georges, cultivated friendly +personal relations with the university. During the civil war the +colleges even melted down their plate for the war chest of King +Charles; but Cambridge showed little of the stubborn royalism +of Oxford, and submitted to the Commonwealth without serious +resistance.</p> + +<p>The history of collegiate foundation in Cambridge after that of +Peterhouse may be followed through the ensuing description of +the colleges, but for ease of reference these are dealt +with in alphabetical order. The main street which +<span class="sidenote">Colleges.</span> +traverses the town from south to north, parallel to, and at a +short distance from the river, is known successively as Trumpington +Street, King’s Parade, Trinity Street, St John’s Street and +Bridge Street. The majority of the colleges lie on either side of +this street, and chiefly between it and the river. Those of St +John’s, Trinity, Trinity Hall, Clare, King’s and Queens’ present +the famous “backs” towards the river, which is crossed by a +series of picturesque bridges leading to the gardens and grounds +on the opposite bank.</p> + +<p><i>Christ’s College</i> is not among the group indicated above; it +stands farther to the east, in St Andrew’s Street. It was founded +in 1505 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII. +It incorporated God’s House, which had been founded by +William Bingham, a cleric of London, in 1439, had been removed +when the site was required for part of King’s College, and had +been refounded with the countenance of Henry VI. in 1448. +This was a small house, but the Lady Margaret’s endowment +provided for a master, twelve fellows and forty-seven scholars. +Edward VI. added another fellowship and three scholarships +and the present number of fellows is fifteen. There are certain +exhibitions in election to which preference is given to schools +in the north of England—Giggleswick, Kirkby Lonsdale, Skipton +and Sedbergh. The buildings of Lady Margaret’s foundation +were in great part faced in classical style in the 17th century; +a building east of the old quadrangle is also of this period, and +is ascribed to Inigo Jones. The rooms occupied by the foundress +herself are preserved, though in an altered condition, as are +those of the poet Milton, who was educated here, and with whom +the college has many associations. In the fine gardens is an +ancient mulberry tree believed to have been planted by him. +Among illustrious names connected with this college are John +Leland the antiquary, Archdeacon Paley, author of the <i>Evidences</i>, +and Charles Darwin, while Henry More and others of the school +of Cambridge Platonists in the 17th century were educated here.</p> + +<p><i>Clare College</i> lies close to the river, south of Trinity Hall. In +1326 the university erected a hall, known as University Hall, to +accommodate a number of students, and in 1338 Elizabeth de +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span> +Burgh, countess of Clare, re-endowed the hall, which took the +name of Clare Hall, and only became known as college in 1856. +There was a strong ecclesiastical tendency in this foundation; +six out of the twenty fellows were to be priests when elected. +The foundation now consists of a master and fifteen fellows, +besides scholars, of whom three receive emoluments from the +endowment of Lady Clare. The old college buildings were in +great part destroyed by fire in 1521; the present buildings +date from 1638 to 1715, and are admirable examples of their +period. They surround a very beautiful quadrangle, and the +back towards the river is also fine. Unconfirmed tradition +indicates the poet Chaucer as an <i>alumnus</i> of this college; other +famous men associated with it were Hugh Latimer the martyr, +Ralph Cudworth, one of the “Platonists,” and Archbishop +Tillotson.</p> + +<p><i>Corpus Christi College</i> (commonly called Corpus) stands +on the east side of Trumpington Street. The influence of +medieval gilds in Cambridge, the character of which was +primarily religious, was exceedingly strong. About the beginning +of the 14th century there is first mentioned the gild of +St Mary, which was connected with Great St Mary’s church. +The gild was at this time prosperous, but about 1350, when +the idea of the foundation of a college by the gilds was matured, +the fraternity of St Mary lacked the means to proceed save by +amalgamating with another gild, that of Corpus Christi. The +age of this institution, whose church was St Benedict’s or St +Bene’t’s, is not known. By the two gilds, therefore, the “House +of Scholars of Corpus Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary” +was founded in 1352, the foundation being the only instance +of its kind. In early times it was commonly known as St Bene’t’s +from the church connected with the Corpus gild which stands over +against the college, and served as its chapel for nearly three +centuries. The foundation consists of a master and twelve +fellows, with scholars of the old and later foundations. The +ancient small quadrangle remains, and is of historical rather +than architectural interest. The great quadrangle dates from +1823-1825. The library contains the famous collection of MSS. +bequeathed by Archbishop Matthew Parker, <i>alumnus</i> of the +college, in the 16th century.</p> + +<p><i>Downing College</i> is in the southern part of the town, to the +east of Trumpington Street. Sir George Downing, baronet, of +Gamlingay Park, who died in 1749, left estates to various +relations, who died without issue. In this event, Downing’s will +provided for the foundation of a college, but the heirs contested +the will with the university, and in spite of a decision against +them in 1769, continued to hold the estates for many years, so +that it was not until 1800 that the charter for the college was +obtained. The foundation-stone was laid in 1807, and the two +ranges of buildings, in classical style, represent all that was +completed of an intended quadrangle. The foundation consists +of a master, professors of English law and of medicine, six +fellows and six scholars.</p> + +<p><i>Emmanuel College</i> overlooks St Andrew’s Street. It was +founded in 1584 by Sir Walter Mildmay (<i>c</i>. 1520-1589), chancellor +of the exchequer and privy councillor under Queen Elizabeth. +The foundation, considerably enlarged from the original, consists +of a master, sixteen fellows and thirty scholars. There are further +scholarships on other foundations which are awarded by preference +to pupils of Uppingham and other schools in the midlands. +Emmanuel was noted from the outset as a stronghold of Puritanism; +it is indeed recorded that Elizabeth rallied the founder +on his intention that this should be so. Mildmay assuredly had +the welfare of the church primarily at heart, and he attempted +to provide against the life residence of fellows, which he considered +an unhealthy feature in some colleges. The site of +Emmanuel was previously occupied by a Dominican friary, +and some of its buildings were adapted to collegiate uses. There +is only a little of the earliest building remaining; the greater +part of the present college dates from the second half of the +18th century. The chapel, however, is by Sir Christopher Wren +(1677). Richard Holdsworth, Gresham professor, and William +Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, were masters of this college; +Bishops Joseph Hall and Thomas Percy were among its <i>alumni</i>, +as was John Harvard, principal founder of the great American +college which bears his name.</p> + +<p><i>Gonville and Caius College</i> (commonly called Caius, pronounced +Kees), stands mainly on the west side of Trinity Street. It arose +out of an earlier foundation. In 1348 Edmund Gonvile or Gonevill +founded the hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which +was commonly called Gonville Hall, for the education of twenty +scholars in dialectic and other sciences, with endowment for +a master and three fellows. This hall stood on part of the present +site of Corpus, but on the death of its founder in 1351 it was +moved to the north-west corner of the site of the present Caius, +by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity +Hall. The famous physician John Caius (<i>q.v.</i>), who was educated +at this small institution, later conceived the idea of refounding +and enlarging it, obtained a charter to do so in 1557, and became +master of the new foundation of Gonville and Caius College. +The foundation consists of a master and not less than +twenty-two +fellows, exclusive of the provision under the will of William +Henry Drosier (d. 1889), doctor of medicine and fellow of the +college, for the endowment of seven additional fellowships. +Since its refoundation by Caius, the college has had a peculiar +connexion with the study of medicine, while, besides many +eminent physicians, Sir Thomas Gresham, Judge Jeffreys, +Robert Hare, Jeremy Taylor, Henry Wharton and Lord Thurlow +are among its noted names. Three sides of the main quadrangle, +Tree Court, including the frontage towards Trinity Street, are +modern (1870). The interior of this court is picturesque, and +the design of the smaller Caius Court was inspired by Caius +himself. He also designed the gates of Honour, Virtue and +Humility, of which the two first stand <i>in situ</i>; the gate of +Honour is a peculiarly good example of early Renaissance work. +Caius is buried in the chapel.</p> + +<p><i>Jesus College</i> lies apart from and to the north-east of the +majority of the colleges. It was founded in 1406 by John +Alcock, bishop of Ely. The site was previously occupied by a +Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St Radigund, which was +already in existence in the first half of the 12th century and was +claimed by Alcock to have been founded from Ely, to the bishops +of which it certainly owed much. The name given to Alcock’s +college was that of “the most Blessed Virgin Mary, St John the +Evangelist, and the glorious Virgin Saint Radigund,” but it +appears that the founder himself intended the name to be Jesus +College. He provided for a master and six fellows, but the +foundation now consists of a master and sixteen fellows, with +twenty scholars or more. There are several further scholarships +confined to the sons of clergymen of the Church of England. +Architecturally Jesus is one of the most interesting colleges in +Cambridge, for Alcock retained, and there still remains, a considerable +part of the old buildings of the nunnery. The most +important of these is the church, which Alcock, by removing +most of the nave and other portions, converted into the usual +form of a college chapel. The tower, however, is retained. The +bulk of the building is an admirable example of Early English +work, but there are traces of Norman; and Alcock added certain +Perpendicular features. Of the rest of the college buildings, +the hall is Alcock’s work, the brick gatehouse is a fine structure +of the close of the 15th century, while the cloister is a little later, +and stands on the site of the nuns’ cloister. Another court dates +from the 17th and early 18th centuries, and there is a considerable +amount of modern building. The most famous name connected +with Jesus College is that of Cranmer. Among many others are +Sir Thomas Elyot, John Bale, John Pearson, bishop of Chester, +Hugh Peters, Gilbert Wakefield, Thomas Malthus, Laurence +Sterne and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.</p> + +<p><i>King’s College</i> has its fine frontage upon the western side of +King’s Parade. It was founded by King Henry VI. in 1441. +The first site was small and circumscribed, and in 1443 the existing +site was with difficulty cleared of dwellings. The king designed +a close connexion between this college and his other foundation +at Eton; he provided for a provost and for seventy scholars, +all of whom should be Etonians. In 1861 open scholarships +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span> +were instituted, and the foundation now consists of a provost, +forty-six fellows and forty-eight scholars. Half the scholarships +are still appropriated to Eton. An administrative arrangement +peculiar to King’s College is that by which the provost has +absolute authority within its walls, to the exclusion of officers +of the University. The chief architectural ornament of the +college, and one of the most notable in the town, is the magnificent +Perpendicular chapel, comparable with those of St George +at Windsor and Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey. The +building was begun in 1446, and extended (apart from the +interior fittings) over nearly seventy years. Within, the most +splendid features are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout +the chapel, the noble range of stained-glass windows, which +date for the most part from the early part of the 16th century, +and the wooden organ screen, which, with part of the stalls, is +of the time of Henry VIII. The college services are celebrated +for the beauty of their music. The bulk of the other collegiate +buildings are of the 18th century or modern. The old court +of King’s College is occupied by the modern university library, +north of the chapel; the gateway, a good example (1444), is +preserved. John Frith the Martyr, Richard Croke, Giles +Fletcher, Richard Mulcaster, Sir William Temple, William +Oughtred, the poet Waller, and Horace Walpole and others of +his family are among many illustrious <i>alumni</i> of the college.</p> + +<p><i>Magdalene College</i> (pronounced Maudlin) stands on the west +bank of the Cam, near the Great Bridge. In 1428 the Benedictines +of Crowland Abbey founded a home for student monks +on this site, and in 1519 Edward, duke of Buckingham, partly +secularized this institution by founding Buckingham College +in connexion with it. After the dissolution of the monastery, +Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden, erected Magdalene in place +of the former house in 1542. The foundation consists of a +master and seven fellows, besides scholars. There are some +valuable exhibitions appropriated to Wisbech school. The +appointment of the master is peculiar, the office being in the gift +of the occupant of Audley End, an estate near Saffron Walden, +Essex. Some parts of the original building are preserved, but +the most notable portion of the college is the Pepysian library, +dating <i>c</i>. 1700. It contains the very valuable collection of books +bequeathed by Samuel Pepys to the college, at which he was a +student. Buckingham College had Archbishop Cranmer as a +lecturer; Charles Kingsley and Charles Stewart Parnell were +educated at Magdalene.</p> + +<p><i>Pembroke College</i> stands to the east of Trumpington Street. +It was founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, widow of Aylmer +de Valence, earl of Pembroke. Henry VI. made notable benefactions +to it. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen +fellows, and there are six scholarships on the original foundation, +besides others of later institution. The older existing buildings +are mainly of the 18th century, but much of the original fabric +was removed and rebuilt in 1874. The chapel is of the middle of +the 17th century, and is ascribed to Sir Christopher Wren. The +poets Spenser and Gray, Nicholas Ridley the martyr, Archbishop +Whitgift and William Pitt were associated with this college; +and from the number of bishops whose names are associated +with it the college has obtained the style of <i>collegium episcopale</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Peterhouse</i> or St Peter’s College is on the west side of Trumpington +Street, almost opposite Pembroke. It has already been +indicated as the oldest Cambridge college (1284). Hugh de +Balsham, the founder, had settled some secular scholars in the +ancient Augustinian Hospital of St John in 1280, but the experiment +was not a success. Nor did he carry out his full intentions +as regards Peterhouse, the foundation of which followed on the +failure of the fusion of his scholars with the hospital; but +Simon Montagu, his successor in the bishopric of Ely, carried +on his work, and in 1344 gave the college a code of statutes in +which the influence of the Merton code is plainly visible. A +master and fourteen fellows formed the original foundation, but +the present consists of a master, and not less than eleven fellows +and twenty-three scholars. The hall retains some original work; +it was first built out of a legacy from the founder. The library +building (<i>c</i>. 1590) is due to a legacy from Dr Andrew Perne +(master 1554-1580); and Dr Matthew Wren (master 1625-1634), +uncle of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, directed +the building of the chapel and cloisters. The most famous name +connected with the college is that of Cardinal Beaufort.</p> + +<p><i>Queens’ College</i> stands at the south of the riverside group, and +one of its ranges of buildings rises immediately from the river. +A college of St Bernard had been established in 1445 by Andrew +Docket or Dokett, rector of St Botolph’s church, who had also +been principal of a hostel, or students’ lodge, of St Bernard. +He sought and obtained the patronage of Margaret of Anjou, +wife of Henry VI., who undertook the foundation of a new house +on another site in 1448, to bear the name of Queens’. Docket +became the first master. In 1465 Elizabeth Woodville, wife of +Edward IV., became the college’s second foundress. The +foundation consists of a president and eleven fellows. The +buildings are exceedingly picturesque. The main quadrangle, +of red brick, was completed very soon after the foundation. +The smaller cloister court, towards the river, retains building +of the same period, and the beautiful wooden gallery of the +president’s lodge deserves notice. Another court is called +Erasmus’s; the rooms which he is said to have occupied remain, +and a walk in the college garden across the river bears his name.</p> + +<p><i>St Catharine’s College</i>, on the west side of Trumpington Street, +was founded by Dr Robert Woodlark or Wodelarke, chancellor +of the university and (1452) provost of King’s College. It was +opened in 1473, but the charter of incorporation dates from 1475. +The foundation provided for a master (Woodlark being the first) +and three fellows; there are now six fellows, and twenty-six +scholars. The principal buildings, surrounding a court on three +sides, date mainly from a complete reconstruction of the college +at the close of the 17th century.</p> + +<p><i>St John’s College</i>, at the north of the riverside group of colleges, +was founded in 1511 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, also +foundress of Christ’s College. It replaced the Hospital of St +John, which dated from the early years of the 13th century, +and has been mentioned already in connexion with Peterhouse. +The Lady Margaret died before the college was firmly established, +and her designs were not carried out without many difficulties, +which were overcome chiefly by the exertions of John Fisher, +bishop of Rochester, one of her executors. Thirty-two fellowships +were endowed, but subsequent endowments allowed +extension, and the foundation now consists of a master, fifty-six +fellows, sixty scholars and nine sizars. A large number of +exhibitions are appropriated to special schools. Of the four +courts of St John’s, the easternmost is the original, and has a very +fine Tudor gateway of brick. The chapel is modern (1863-1869), +an ornate example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The second +court, practically unaltered, dates from 1508-1602. In this there +is a beautiful Masters’ gallery, panelled, with a richly-moulded +ceiling; it is now used as a combination room or fellows’ common-room. +The third court, which contains the library (1624), backs +on to the river, and the fourth, which is on the opposite bank, +was built <i>c</i>. 1830. A covered bridge connects the two, and is +commonly called the Bridge of Sighs from a certain resemblance +to the bridge of that name at Venice. Among the notable names +connected with this college are Cecil, Lord Burghley, Thomas +Cartwright, Wentworth, earl of Strafford, Roger Ascham, +Richard Bentley, John Cleveland, the satirist, Thomas Baker, the +historian, Lord Palmerston, Professor Adams, Sir John Herschel, +Bishop Colenso, Dr Benjamin Kennedy, Dean Merivale, Horne +Tooke, Samuel Parr and William Wilberforce, and the poets +Herrick (afterwards of Trinity Hall) and Wordsworth.</p> + +<p><i>Selwyn College</i>, standing west of the river (Sidgwick Avenue), +was founded in 1882 by public subscription in memory of George +Augustus Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand and afterwards of +Lichfield, for the purpose of giving university education with +economy “combined,” according to the charter, “with Christian +training, based upon the principles of the Church of England.”</p> + +<p><i>Sidney Sussex College</i> faces Sidney Street. It was founded +under the will (1588) of the Lady Frances Sidney, dowager +countess of Sussex (d. 1589), and received its charter in 1596. +The foundress provided for a master, ten fellows and twenty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span> +scholars, but thirty-six scholarships are now provided. The +original buildings were of brick, but they were plastered over +and greatly altered by Wyatville about 1830. The Grey Friars +had occupied the site, and part of their buildings remained in +the chapel until 1777. A beautiful block of new buildings, +with a cloister, was erected in 1890. The most famous name +associated with the college is that of Oliver Cromwell, who was +a fellow commoner, as also was Thomas Fuller, author of the +<i>Worthies of England</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Trinity College</i>, the front of which is on Trinity Street, is the +largest collegiate foundation in Cambridge, and larger than any +in Oxford. It was founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. and +absorbed several earlier institutions—King’s Hall (founded +by Edward III. in 1336), St Michael’s or Michaelhouse (founded +by Hervey de Stanton, chancellor of the exchequer under +Edward II., in 1323), Fyswick or Physick’s Hostel, belonging +to Gonville Hall, and other hostels. Henry’s original foundation +was for a master and sixty fellows and scholars, but Queen +Mary and other later benefactors enabled extensions to be made, +and the foundation now consists of a master (appointed by the +crown), at least sixty fellows, seventy-four scholars and sixteen +sizars, with minor scholars, chaplains librarian and the regius +professors of Divinity, Hebrew and Greek. Major scholarships +are open to undergraduates, not being of standing to take the +degree of bachelor of arts, as well as to non-members of the +university under nineteen years of age, while minor scholarships +and exhibitions are open only to the latter. There are valuable +exhibitions appropriated to certain schools, of which the most +important are those confined to Westminster school. Trinity +College is entered from Trinity Street by the King’s Gateway +(1518-1535) preserved from King’s Hall, but subsequently +altered. The principal or Great Court is the largest in Cambridge +and very fine. Its buildings are of different dates. In the centre +is a picturesque fountain, erected by Thomas Neville, master +(1593-1615), under whose direction much of the building was +carried out. The chapel on the north side of the court was +begun in the reign of Mary. The carved oak fittings within +date from the mastership of Richard Bentley (1700-1742). The +organ is particularly fine. A statue of Sir Isaac Newton by +Roubiliac stands in the antechapel, and Richard Porson and +William Whewell are buried here. The hall on the west of the +court is Neville’s work (1605), and very beautiful. The second +court is also his foundation and bears his name. The library +on the west side is the work of Sir Christopher Wren. Its interior +is excellent, and besides busts of some of the vast number of +famous men connected with Trinity, it contains a statue of Lord +Byron by the Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen. The New Court, +Gothic in style, was begun in 1823. The beautiful grounds and +walks of the college extend down to and beyond the river. +The college has extended its buildings to the opposite side of +Trinity Street, where the two courts known as Whewell’s Hostel +were built (c. 1860) at the charge of Dr William Whewell during +his mastership. The eminent <i>alumni</i> of this great college are +too numerous to admit of selection.</p> + +<p><i>Trinity Hall,</i> which lies near the river, south of Trinity, was +founded by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich, in 1350. On +the site there had been, for about twenty years before the foundation, +a house of monastic students from Ely. The present college +is alone in preserving the term Hall in its title. The foundation +consists of a master and thirteen fellows, and the study of law, +which the founder had especially in mind, is provided for by +lectureships, and not less than three studentships tenable by +graduates of the college. The buildings are for the most part +modern or modernized, but the interior of the library well +preserves its character of the early part of the 17th century.</p> + +<p>Of the churches of Cambridge one has long been recognized as +the church of the university, namely Great St Mary’s, which +stands in the centre of the town, between King’s +Parade and Market Hill. It is a fine Perpendicular +<span class="sidenote">University buildings.</span> +structure, founded in 1478; but the tower was not +completed until 1608. Some Decorated details are preserved +from a former building. The university preachers deliver their +sermons in this church, but it was formerly the meeting-place +of the university for the transaction of business, for learned +disputations and for secular festivals. The “Cambridge +chimes” struck by the clock are famous, and a curfew is rung +each evening on the great bell. The Senate House, standing +opposite Great St Mary’s, dates from 1730 and is classical in +style. The buildings of the university library, in the immediate +vicinity, enclose two quadrangles, and in part occupy the site +of the old court of King’s College. One of the quadrangles +was formerly occupied by the schools or lecture rooms, but as +the library grew it usurped their place. Important modern additions +date from 1842, 1864 and 1888. The facade of the old +schools is an excellent work of 1758. The library is one of those +which is entitled to receive, under the Copyright Act, a copy of +every book published in the United Kingdom. The Fitzwilliam +Museum, a massive classical building, was begun in 1837 to +contain the bibliographical and art collection bequeathed by +Richard, Viscount Fitzwilliam, in 1816. The museum of +archaeology (classical, general and local, 1884), is connected +with the Fitzwilliam Museum. The Pitt Press (1833), housing +the university printing establishment, was begun out of the +residue of a fund for erecting the statues of William Pitt in +Hanover Square, London, and Westminster Abbey. It stands +near Pembroke, Pitt’s college. The Selwyn Divinity School +(1879), opposite St John’s College, was built largely at the charge +of Dr William Selwyn, Lady Margaret professor of divinity. +The museums and lecture rooms (begun in 1863) are extensive +buildings on each side of Downing Street. Included in these +are the museum of zoology, which had its origin in collections +made by Sir Busick Harwood, professor of anatomy in +1785-1814, and contains the collection of fishes made by +Charles Darwin in the ship “Beagle”; the medical school, +botanical museum and herbarium, mineralogical museum, +engineering laboratory (1894), optical and astronomical lecture +room, chemical laboratory (1887), and the Cavendish laboratory +for physical research (1874), the gift of William Cavendish, +7th duke of Devonshire and chancellor of the university. The +Sedgwick Geological Museum, opened by King Edward VII. +in 1904, commemorates Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian professor +of geology, and originated in the collections of Dr +John Woodward (d. 1728). Adjoining this building, in Downing +Street is the law library, founded on a bequest from Miss +Rebecca Flower Squire (d. 1898) with the law school. The +observatory (1824) is on the outskirts of the town in Madingley +Road, and the botanic garden (founded 1762, and removed +to its present site in 1831) borders Trumpington Road. The +club-rooms and debating hall of the Cambridge Union Society +are adjacent to the Holy Sepulchre church.</p> + +<p>The non-collegiate students of the university (<i>i.e.</i> those who +receive the university education and possess the same status as +collegiate students without belonging to any college) have +lecture and other rooms and a library in Fitzwilliam Hall. This +body was created in 1869. The students reside in lodgings. +There are two women’s colleges—Girton, established in 1873 on +the north-western outskirts of the town, having been previously +opened at Hitchin in 1869, and Newnham (1875), originally (1873) +a hall of residence for students attending special lectures for +women. Among other educational establishments mention must +be made of the Leys school, founded in 1875 by prominent Wesleyans +for non-sectarian education, and the Perse School, an +ancient foundation remodelled in 1902.</p> + +<p>Out of a number of ancient churches in Cambridge, two, +besides Great St Mary’s, deserve special notice. In St Benedict’s +or Benet’s, which has been already mentioned +in connexion with Corpus College, the tower is of +<span class="sidenote">Non-university buildings.</span> +great interest, being the oldest surviving building in +Cambridge, of pre-Norman workmanship, having rude +ornamentation on the exterior and the tower arch within. The +church of the Holy Sepulchre in Bridge Street is one of the four +ancient round churches in England. Its supposed date is 1120-1140, +but although it is doubtless to be associated with the +Knights Templars, the circumstances of its foundation are not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span> +known. The chancel is practically a modern reconstruction, +and an extensive restoration, which has been adversely criticized, +was applied by the Cambridge Camden Society to the whole +fabric in 1841. At several of the villages neighbouring or +suburban to Cambridge there are churches of interest, as at +Chesterton, Trumpington, Grantchester (where the name indicates +a Roman station, borne out by the discovery of remains), +Fen Ditton and Barnwell, near which is the Norman Sturbridge +chapel. In Cambridge itself there is a Norman house, much +altered, which by a tradition of unknown origin bears the name +of the School of Pythagoras.</p> + +<p>The university is a corporate body, including all the colleges. +These, however, are also corporations in themselves, and have +their own statutes, but they are further subject to the +paramount laws of the university. The university +<span class="sidenote">University constitution and administration.</span> +statutes of Queen Elizabeth were only replaced in +1858. The statutes as revised by a commission in +that year were soon found to require emendation; in +1872 another commission was appointed, and in 1882 new +statutes received the approval of the queen in council. The +head of the university is the chancellor. He is a member of the +university, of high rank and position, elected by the senate. +Being generally non-resident, he delegates his administrative +duties to the vice-chancellor, who is the head of a college, and +is elected for one year by the senate. The principal executive +officers under the vice-chancellor are as follows. The two +proctors have as their main duty that of disciplinary officers +over the members of the university <i>in statu pupillari</i>. In each +year two colleges nominate one proctor each, according to a +fixed rotation which gives the larger colleges a more frequent +choice than the smaller. The proctors are assisted by four +pro-proctors. The public orator is the spokesman of the senate +upon such public occasions as the conferring of honorary +degrees. The librarian has charge of the university library. +The registrary, with his assistant, records the proceedings of +the senate, &c., and has charge of documents. The university +returns two members to parliament, elected by the members of +the senate. The chancellor and <i>sex viri</i> (elected by the senate) +form a court for offences against the university statutes by +members not <i>in statu pupillari</i>. The chancellor and six heads of +colleges, appointed by the senate, form a court of discipline for +members <i>in statu pupillari</i>.</p> + +<p>The senate in congregation is the legislative body. Those who +have votes in it are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of +divinity, law, medicine, science, letters and music, +and masters of art, law, surgery and music. The +<span class="sidenote">Senate.</span> +council of the senate, consisting of the chancellor, vice-chancellor, +four heads of colleges, four professors and eight other members +of the senate chosen by the vice-chancellor, brings all proposals +(called Graces) before the senate. The revenues of the university +are derived chiefly from fees at matriculation, for certain examinations, +and for degrees, from a tax upon all members of the +university, and from contributions by the colleges, together with +the profits of the University Press. A financial board, consisting +of the vice-chancellor <i>ex officio</i> and certain elected members, +administers the finances of the university. There are boards for +each of the various faculties, and a General Board of Studies, +with the vice-chancellor at the head. There are university +professors, readers or lecturers in a large number of subjects. +The oldest professorship is the Lady Margaret professorship of +divinity, instituted by the founders of Christ’s and St John’s +Colleges in 1502. In 1540 Henry VIII. founded the regius +professorships of divinity, civil law, physic, Hebrew and Greek.</p> + +<p>The head of a college generally bears the title of master, as +indicated above in the account of the several colleges. It has +also seen that the foundation of each college +includes a certain number of fellows and scholars. +<span class="sidenote">College organization—undergraduates.</span> +The affairs of the college are managed by the head and +the fellows, or a committee of fellows. The scholars +and other members <i>in statu pupillari</i> are generally +termed collectively undergraduates. Those who receive no +emoluments (and therefore pay the full fees) are technically +called pensioners, and form the bulk of the undergraduates. +Another group of students receiving emoluments are termed +sizars; the primary object of sizarships is to open the university +course to men of limited means. The title of fellow-commoners +belongs to wealthy students who pay special fees and have the +right of dining at the fellows’ tables. This class has virtually +ceased to exist. As regards his work, the undergraduate in +college is under the intimate direction of his tutor; the disciplinary +officer in college is the dean. Besides the foundation +scholarships in each college there are generally certain scholarships +and exhibitions founded by private or special benefactions; +these are frequently awarded for the encouragement of specific +branches of study, or are confined wholly, or by preference, to +students from certain schools.</p> + +<p>The total number of students is about 3000. The colleges +cannot accommodate this number, so that a student commonly +spends some part of his residence in lodgings, which +are licensed by, and under the control of, the university +<span class="sidenote">Residence and examinations.</span> +authorities. Such residence implies no sacrifice of +membership of a college. There are three terms—Michaelmas +(October), Lent and Easter (summer). They +include together not less than 227 days, though the actual period +of residence for undergraduates is about 24 weeks annually. +Undergraduates usually begin residence in Michaelmas term. +An elementary examination or other evidence of qualification is +required for admission to a college. After nine terms’ (three +years’) residence an undergraduate can take the first degree, that +of bachelor of arts (B.A.). The examinations required for the +ordinary B.A. degree are—(1) Previous examination or Little-go +(usually taken in the first term of residence or at least in the first +year), including classics, mathematics and a gospel in Greek and +Paley’s <i>Evidences of Christianity</i>, or an additional Greek or Latin +classic and logic. (2) General examination in classics and +mathematics, with a portion of English history, &c. (3) Special +examination in a subject other than classical or mathematical. +Candidates for honours are required to pass the Previous examination +with certain additional subjects; they then have only a +“tripos” examination in one of the following subjects—mathematics, +classics, moral sciences, natural sciences, theology, law, +history, oriental languages, medieval and modern languages, +mechanical sciences, economics. The mathematical tripos is +divided into two parts, in the first of which, down to 1909, the +candidates were classed in the result as Wranglers, Senior +Optimes and Junior Optimes. There was also an individual +order of merit, the most proficient candidate being placed at the +head of the list as Senior Wrangler. But in 1906 a number of +important reforms of this tripos were proposed by the Mathematical +Board, and among these the abolition of the individual +order of merit was recommended and passed by the senate. It +is not employed in any other tripos. The classical tripos is also +in two parts, to the second of which certain kindred subjects are +added (ancient philosophy, history, &c.). Individual order of +merit is not observed in either part, the candidates being grouped +in classes. There are a large number of university prizes and +scholarships on special foundations. Such are the Smith’s prizes +for mathematics and natural philosophy, on the foundation +(1768) of Robert Smith, master of Trinity, awarded up to 1883 +after examination, but since then for an essay on some branch of +each subject, and the Chancellor’s medals, of which two have +been awarded annually in classics since the foundation of the +prizes in 1751 by Thomas Holles, duke of Newcastle.</p> + +<p>The university may adopt as affiliated colleges institutions in +the United Kingdom or in any part of the British empire which +fulfil certain conditions as to the education of adult +students. Attendance at these institutions is counted as +<span class="sidenote">Affiliated colleges.</span> +equivalent to a certain period of residence at Cambridge +University in the event of a student wishing to pursue his work +here. There are over twenty such affiliated colleges. There are +also, in England, certain “affiliated centres.” These are towns +in which there is no affiliated college, but students who have +there attended a course of education managed in connexion +with the university by a committee may enter the university +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> +with privileges similar to those enjoyed by students from +affiliated colleges.</p> + +<p>The principal social function of the university is the “May +Week” at the close of the Easter term. It actually takes place +in June and lasts longer than a week. There is a great +influx of visitors into Cambridge for this occasion. +<span class="sidenote">May week.</span> +The first four days are occupied by the college boat-races on the +Cam, and on subsequent days there are college balls, concerts, +theatrical performances and other entertainments. On the +Tuesday after the races there is a Congregation, at which prize +exercises are recited, and usually, but not invariably, a number +of honorary degrees are conferred on eminent men by invitation. +This final period of the academic year is called Commencement, +or in Latin <i>Comitia Maxim</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For details of the administration of the university +and colleges, regulations as to studies, prizes, scholarships, &c., see +the annual <i>Cambridge University Calendar</i> and <i>The Students’ Handbook +to the University and Colleges of Cambridge</i>; see also R. Willis +and J.W. Clark, <i>Architectural History of the University of Cambridge</i> +(3 vols., Cambridge, 1886); J. Bass Mullinger, <i>History of the University +of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to the Accession of +Charles I.</i> (2 vols., 1873-1884; third vol., 1909); and smaller +<i>History of Cambridge</i>, in Longman’s “Epoch” Series (1888); +J.W. Clark, <i>Cambridge, Historical and Picturesque</i> (London, 1890); +T.D. Atkinson, <i>Cambridge Described and Illustrated</i>, with introduction +by J.W. Clark (London, 1897); F.W. Maitland, <i>Township +and Borough</i> (Cambridge, 1898); C.W. Stubbs, <i>Cambridge</i>, in +“Mediaeval Towns” series (London, 1905); Arthur Gray, <i>The +Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge</i> (publications of the Cambridge +Antiquarian Soc., new ser. No. I, Cambridge, 1908); J.W. Clark, +<i>Liber memorandorum ecclesie de Bernewelle</i> (Cambridge, 1907), with +an introduction by F.W. Maitland. For the individual colleges, +see the series of <i>College Histories</i>, by various authors (London, 1899 +et seq.).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Dorchester +county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Choptank river, near Chesapeake +Bay, about 60 m. S.E. of Baltimore. Pop. (1890) 4192; +(1900) 5747 (1958 being negroes); (1910) 6407. It is served by the +Cambridge branch of the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington +railway (Pennsylvania railway), which connects with the +main line at Seaford, 30 m. distant, and with the Baltimore, +Chesapeake & Atlantic at Hurlock, 16 m. distant; and by +steamers of the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway +company. It is a business centre for the prosperous farming +region by which it is surrounded, and is a shipping point for +oysters and fish; among its manufactures are canned fruits +and vegetables, flour, hominy, phosphates, underwear and +lumber. Cambridge was founded in 1684, received its present +name in 1686, and was chartered as a city in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a city and one of the county-seats of Middlesex +county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Charles river, +in the outskirts of Boston, of which it is in effect a part, although +under separate government. Pop. (1880) 52,669; (1890) +70,028; (1900) 91,886; (1910 census) 104,839. Of the +total population in 1900, 30,446 were foreign-born, including +11,235 Irish, 9613 English Canadians, 1944 English, 1483 French +Canadians and 1584 Swedish; and 54,200 were of foreign +parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 24,961 of Irish +parentage, 9829 of English-Canadian parentage, 2587 of English +parentage, and 2288 of French-Canadian parentage. Cambridge +is entered directly by only one railway, the Boston & Maine. +The township, now practically built over by the city, contained +originally several separate villages, the names of which are still +used as a convenience in designating corresponding sections of +the municipality: Old Cambridge, North Cambridge, Cambridgeport +and East Cambridge, the last two being manufacturing +and commercial districts.</p> + +<p>Old Cambridge is noted as the seat of Harvard University +(<i>q.v.</i>) and as a literary and scientific centre. Radcliffe College +(1879), for women, practically a part of Harvard; an Episcopal +Theological School (1867), and the New Church (Swedenborgian +or New Jerusalem) Theological School (1866) are other educational +institutions of importance. To Cambridge also, in 1908, +was removed Andover Theological Seminary, a Congregational +institution chartered in 1807, opened in Andover, Massachusetts, +in 1808 (re-incorporated under separate trustees in 1907). This +seminary is one of the oldest and most famous theological institutions +in the United States; it grew out of the theological teaching +previously given in Phillips Academy, and was founded by the +widow of Lt.-Governor Samuel Phillips, her son John Phillips +and Samuel Abbot (1732-1812). The instruction was strongly +Calvinistic in the earlier period, but the seminary has always +been “equally open to Protestants of every denomination.” +Very liberal aid is given to students, and there is no charge for +tuition. The <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, founded in 1843 by Edward +Robinson and in 1844 taken over by Professors Bela B. Edwards +and Edwards A. Park, and the <i>Andover Review</i> (1884-1893), have +been the organs of the seminary. In 1886 some of its professors +published <i>Progressive Orthodoxy</i>, a book which made a great stir +by its liberal tone, its opposition to supernaturalism and its +evident trend toward the methods of German “higher criticism.” +Legal proceedings for the removal of five professors, after the +publication of this book, failed; and their successful defence +helped to secure greater freedom in thought and in instruction +in American Presbyterian and Congregational theological +seminaries. The seminary is now affiliated with Harvard +University, though it remains independent and autonomous.</p> + +<p>Cambridge is a typical New England city, built up in detached +residences, with irregular streets pleasantly shaded, and a +considerable wealth of historic and literary associations. There +are many reminders of the long history of Harvard, and of the +War of Independence. Cambridge was the site of the camp of +the first American army, at the outbreak of the war, and from +it went the detachment which intrenched on Bunker’s Hill. +Here are the Apthorp House (built in 1760), in which General +Burgoyne and his officers were lodged as prisoners of war in +1777; the elm under which, according to tradition, Washington +took command of the Continental Army on the 3rd of July 1775; +the old Vassall or Craigie House (1759), where Washington lived +in 1775-1776, and which was later the home of Edward Everett, +Joseph E. Worcester, Jared Sparks and (1837-1882) Henry W. +Longfellow. Elbridge Gerry lived and James Russell Lowell +was born, lived and died in “Elmwood” (built in 1767); Oliver +Wendell Holmes was born in Cambridge also; John Fiske, the +historian, lived here; and there are many other literary associations, +attractive and important for those interested in American +letters. In Mt Auburn Cemetery are buried many artists, poets, +scholars and other men and women of fame. Cambridge is +one of the few American cities possessing a crematorium (1900). +The municipal water-works are excellent. A handsome bridge +joining Cambridgeport to Boston (cost about $2,250,000) was +opened late in 1906. Four other bridges span the Charles river +between the two cities. A dam between East Cambridge and +Boston, traversed by a roadway 150 ft. wide, was in the process +of construction in 1907; and an extension of the Boston subway +into Cambridge to the grounds of Harvard University, a distance +of about 3 m., was projected. The city government is administered +almost entirely under the state civil-service laws, Cambridge +having been a leader in the adoption of its provisions. +A non-partisan association for political reform did excellent +work from 1890 to 1900, when it was superseded by a non-partisan +party. Since 1887 the city has declared yearly by +increasing majorities for prohibition of the liquor traffic. The +high schools enjoy a notable reputation. A handsome city hall +(cost $235,000) and public library (as well as a manual training +school) were given to the city by Frederick H. Rindge, a one-time +resident, whose benefactions to Cambridge aggregated +in value $650,000. Cambridge has many manufacturing establishments, +and in 1905 the city’s factory products were valued +at $42,407,064, an increase of 45.8% over their value in 1900. +The principal manufactures are slaughtering and meat-packing +products, foundry and machine-shop products, rubber boots and +shoes, rubber belting and hose, printing and publishing products, +carpentering, pianos and organs, confectionery and furniture. +Cambridge is one of the chief publishing centres of the country. +The tax valuation of property in 1906 ($105,153,235) was more +than $1000 per inhabitant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span></p> + +<p>Cambridge is “one of the few American towns that may be +said to have owed their very name and existence to the pursuit +of letters” (T.W. Higginson). Its site was selected in 1630 +by Governor Winthrop and others as suitable for fortifications +and defence, and it was intended to make it the capital of the +Massachusetts Bay Colony; but as Boston’s peninsular position +gave it the advantage in commerce and in defence against the +Indians, the plan fell through, although up to 1638 various +sessions of the general court and particular courts were held +here. The township records (published) are continuous since +1632. A direct tax for the wooden “pallysadoe” about Cambridge +led the township of Watertown in 1632 to make the first +protest in America against taxation without representation. +The settlement was first known as the “New Towne,” but in +1638 was named Cambridge in honour of the English Cambridge, +where several score of the first immigrants to the colony were +educated. The oldest college in America (Harvard) was founded +here in 1636. In 1639 there was set up in Cambridge the first +printing press of British North America (Boston having none +until 1676). Other notable dates in history are 1637 and 1647, +when general synods of New England churches met at Cambridge +to settle disputed doctrine and define orthodoxy; the departure +for Connecticut of Thomas Hooker’s congregation in 1636; the +meeting of the convention that framed the present constitution +of the commonwealth, 1779-1780; the separation of the +Congregationalists and Unitarians of the first parish church, in 1829; +and the grant of a city charter in 1846. The original township +of Cambridge was very large, and there have been successively +detached from it, Newton (1691), Lexington (1713), Brighton +(1837) and Arlington (1867).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lucius R. Paige, <i>History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630-1877</i> +(Boston, Mass., 1877); T.W. Higginson, <i>Old Cambridge</i> +(New York, 1899); Arthur Gilman (ed.), <i>The Cambridge of Eighteen +Hundred and Ninety-Six</i> (Cambridge, 1896); and <i>Historic Guide +to Cambridge</i> (Cambridge, 1907.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Guernsey county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on Wills Creek, about 75 m. E. by N. of Columbus. +Pop. (1890) 4361; (1900) 8241, of whom 407 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 11,327. It is served by the Baltimore & +Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and is connected by an +electric line with Byesville (pop. in 1910, 3156), about 7 m. S. +Cambridge is built on a hill about 800 ft. above sea-level. +There is a public library. Coal, oil, natural gas, clay and iron +are found in the vicinity, and among the city’s manufactures are +iron, steel, glass, furniture and pottery. The value of its +factory products in 1905 was $2,440,917. The municipality +owns and operates the water-works. Cambridge was first settled +in 1798 by emigrants from the island of Guernsey (whence the +name of the county); was laid out as a town in 1806; was +incorporated as a village in 1837; and was chartered as a city +in 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a school of philosophico-religious +thinkers which flourished mainly at Cambridge University in the +second half of the 17th century. The founder was Benjamin +Whichcote and the chief members were Ralph Cudworth, +Richard Cumberland, Joseph Glanvill, Henry More and John +Norris (see separate articles). Other less important members +were Nathanael Culverwel (d. 1651?), Theophilus Gale (1628-1678), +John Pordage (1607-1681), George Rust (d. 1670), John +Smith (1618-1652) and John Worthington (1618-1671). They +represented liberal thought at the time and were generally +known as Latitudinarians. Their views were due to a reaction +against three main tendencies in contemporary English thought: +the sacerdotalism of Laud and his followers, the obscurantist +sectaries and, most important of all, the doctrines of Hobbes. +They consist chiefly of a reconciliation between reason and +religion, resulting in a generally tolerant spirit. They tend +always to mysticism and the contemplation of things transcendental. +In spite of inaccuracy and the lack of critical capacity +in dealing with their authorities both ancient and modern, the +Cambridge Platonists exercised a valuable influence on English +theology and thought in general. Their chief contributions to +thought were Cudworth’s theory of the “plastic nature” of +God, More’s elaborate mysticism, Norris’s appreciation of Malebranche, +Glanvill’s conception of scepticism as an aid to Faith, +and, in a less degree, the harmony of Faith and Reason elaborated +by Culverwel. The one doctrine on which they all combined to +lay especial emphasis was the absolute existence of right and +wrong quite apart from the theory of divine authority. Their +chief authorities were Plato and the Neo-platonists (between +whom they made no adequate distinction), and among modern +philosophers, Descartes, Malebranche and Boehme. From these +sources they attempted to evolve a philosophy of religion, +which would not only refute the views of Hobbes, but would +also free theology finally from the errors of scholasticism, +without plunging it in the newer dangers of unfettered rationalism +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Tulloch, <i>Rational Theology in England in the 17th Century</i>; +Hallam, <i>Literature of Europe</i> (chap, on Philosophy from 1650 to 1700); +Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i>; von Stein, <i>Sieben Bucher zur +Geschichte des Platonismus</i> (1862), and works on individual philosophers +appended to biographies.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBRIDGESHIRE,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an eastern county of England, bounded +N. by Lincolnshire, E. by Norfolk and Suffolk, S. by Essex and +Hertfordshire, and W. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire and +Northamptonshire. The area is 858.9 sq. m. The greater part +of the county falls within the district of the Fens, and is flat, +elevated only a few feet above sea-level, and intersected with +innumerable drainage channels. The physical characteristics of +this district, and the history of its reclamation from a marshy +and in great part uninhabitable condition, fall for consideration +under the heading FENS. Except in the south of the county the +scenery of the flat land is hardly ever varied by rising ground or +wood, and owes the attraction it possesses rather to individuality +than to beauty. At the south-eastern and southern boundaries, +and to the west of Cambridge, bordering the valley of the Cam on +the north, the land rises in gentle undulations; but for the rest, +such elevations as the Gog Magog Hills, S.E. of Cambridge, and +the gentle hillock on which the city of Ely stands, are isolated +and conspicuous from afar. The principal rivers are the Ouse +and its tributaries in the south and centre, and the Nene +in the north; the greater part of the waters of both these +rivers within Cambridgeshire flow in artificial channels, of +which those for the Ouse, two great parallel cuts between +Earith and Denver Sluice, in Norfolk, called the Bedford +Rivers, form the most remarkable feature in the drainage of +the county. The old main channel of the Ouse, from Ely +downward to Denver (below which are tidal waters), is filled +chiefly by the waters of the Cam or Granta, which joins the +Ouse 3 m. above Ely, the Lark (which with its feeder, the +Kennett, forms the boundary of the county with Suffolk for a +considerable distance) and the Little Ouse, forming part of the +boundary with Norfolk.</p> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—By its geological features, Cambridgeshire is +divisible into three well-marked regions; in the south and +south-east are the low uplands formed by the Chalk; north of +this, but best developed in the south-west, is a clay and greensand +area; all the remaining portion is alluvial Fenland. The general +strike of the rocks is along a south-west and north-east line, the +dip is south-easterly. The oldest rock is the Jurassic Oxford +Clay, which appears as an irregular strip of elevated flat ground +reaching from Croxton by Conington and Fenny Drayton to +Willingham and Rampton. Eastward and northward it no doubt +forms the floor of the Fen country, and at Thorney and Whittlesea +small patches rise like islands, through the level fen alluvium. +The Coralline Oolite, with the Els worth or St Ives rock at the +base, occurs as a small patch, covered by Greensand, at Upware, +whence many fossils have been obtained; elsewhere its place is +taken by the Ampthill Clays, which are passage beds between the +Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. The latter clay lies in a narrow +strip by Papworth St Agnes, Oakington and Cottenham; a +large irregular outcrop surrounds Haddenham and Ely, and +similar occurrences are at March, Chatteris and Manea. Above +the Kimmeridge Clay comes the Lower Greensand, sandy for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span> +greater part, but here and there hardened into the condition +known as “Carstone,” which has been used as an inferior +building-stone. This formation is thickest in the south-west; it +extends from the border by Gamlingay, Cuxton and Cottenham, +and appears again in outliers at Upware, Ely and Haddenham. +The Gault forms a strip of flat ground, 4 to 6 m. wide, running +roughly parallel with the course of the river Cam, from Guilden +Morden through Cambridge to Soham; it is a stiff blue clay +200 ft. thick in the south-west, but is thinner eastward. At the +bottom of the chalk is the Chalk Marl, 10 to 20 ft. thick, with +a glauconitic and phosphatic nodule-bearing layer at its base, +known as the Cambridge Greensand. This bed has been largely +worked for the nodules and for cement; it contains many +fossils derived from the Gault below. Several outliers of Chalk +Marl lie upon the Gault west of the Cam. The Chalk comprises +all the main divisions of the formation, including the Totternhoe +stone, Melbourn rock and Chalk rock. Much glacial boulder +clay covers all the higher ground of the county; it is a stiff +brownish clay with many chalk fragments of travelled rocks. +Near Ely there is a remarkable mass of chalk, evidently transported +by ice, resting on and surrounded by boulder clay. +Plateau gravel caps some of the chalk hills, and old river gravels +occur at lower levels with the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros and +other extinct mammals. The low-lying Fen beds are marly silt +with abundant peat beds and buried forests; at the bottom is a +gravel layer of marine origin.</p> + +<p><i>Industries</i>.—The climate is as a whole healthy, the fens being +so carefully drained that diseases to which dwellers in marshy +districts are commonly liable are practically eliminated. The +land is very fertile, and although some decrease is generally +apparent in the acreage under grain crops, Cambridgeshire is +one of the principal grain-producing counties in England. +Nearly nine-tenths of the total area is under cultivation, and an +unusually small proportion is under permanent pasture. Wheat +is the chief grain crop, but large quantities of barley and oats are +also grown. Among green crops potatoes occupy a large and +increasing area. Dairy-farming is especially practised in the +south-west, where the district of the Cam valley has long been +known as the Dairies; and much butter and cheese are sent to +the London markets. Sheep are pastured extensively on the +higher ground, but the number of these and of cattle for the +county as a whole is not large. Beans occupy a considerable +acreage, and fruit-growing and market-gardening are important +in many parts. There is no large manufacturing industry +common to the county in general; among minor trades brewing +is carried on at several places, and brick-making and lime-burning +may also be mentioned.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—The principal railway serving the county is +the Great Eastern, of which system numerous branch lines centre +chiefly upon Cambridge, Ely and March. Cambridge is also +served by branches of the Great Northern line from Hitchin, +of the London & North-Western from Bletchley and Bedford, +and of the Midland from Kettering. A trunk line connecting +the eastern counties with the north and north-west of England +runs northward from March under the joint working of the Great +Northern and Great Eastern companies. The artificial waterways +provide the county with an extensive system of inland +navigation; and a considerable proportion of the industrial +population is employed on these. In this connexion the building +of boats and barges is carried on at several towns.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration</i>.—The area of the ancient +county is 549,723 acres, with a population in 1891 of 188,961, +and in 1901 of 190,682. The ancient county includes the two +administrative counties of Cambridge in the south and the Isle +of Ely in the north. The liberty of the Isle of Ely was formerly +of the independent nature of a county palatine, but ceased to +be so under acts of 1836 and 1837. Its area is 238,048 acres, +and that of the administrative county of Cambridge 315,171 +acres. Cambridgeshire contains seventeen hundreds. The +municipal boroughs are Cambridge, the county town (pop. +38,379), in the administrative county of Cambridge, and Wisbech +(9381) in the Isle of Ely. The other urban districts are—in the +administrative county of Cambridge, Chesterton (9591), and in +the Isle of Ely, Chatteris (4711), Ely (7713), March (7565) and +Whittlesey (3909). Among other considerable towns Soham +(4230) and Littleport (4181), both in the neighbourhood of Ely, +may be mentioned. The town of Newmarket, which, although +wholly within the administrative county of West Suffolk, is +mainly in the ancient county of Cambridgeshire, is famous for +its race-meetings. The county is in the south-eastern circuit, +and assizes are held at Cambridge. Each administrative county +has a court of quarter sessions, and the two are divided into ten +petty sessional divisions. The borough of Cambridge has a +separate court of quarter sessions, and this borough and Wisbech +have separate commissions of the peace. The university of +Cambridge exercises disciplinary jurisdiction over its members. +There are 168 entire civil parishes in the two administrative +counties. Cambridgeshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Ely +and the archdeaconries of Ely and Sudbury, but small portions +are within the dioceses of St Albans and Norwich. There are +194 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within +the county. The parliamentary divisions are three, namely, +Northern or Wisbech, Western or Chesterton, and Eastern or +Newmarket, each returning one member. The county also +contains the parliamentary borough of Cambridge, returning +one member; and the university of Cambridge returns two +members.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The earliest English settlements in what is now +Cambridgeshire were made about the 6th century by bands of +Engles, who pushed their way up the Ouse and the Cam, and +established themselves in the fen-district, where they became +known as the Gyrwas, the districts corresponding to the modern +counties of Huntingdonshire and Cambridgeshire being distinguished +as the lands of the North Gyrwas and the South +Gyrwas respectively. At this period the fen-district stretched +southward as far as Cambridge, and the essential unity which +it preserved is illustrated later by its inclusion under one +sheriff, chosen in successive years from Cambridgeshire proper, +the Isle of Ely and Huntingdonshire. In 656 numerous lands in +the neighbourhood of Wisbech were included in the endowment +of the abbey of Peterborough, and in the same century religious +houses were established at Ely and Thorney, both of which, +however, were destroyed during the Danish invasions of the +9th century. After the treaty of Wedmore the district became +part of the Danelaw. On the expulsion of the Danes by Edward +in the 10th century it was included in East Anglia, but in the +11th century was again overrun by the Danes, who in the course +of their devastations burnt Cambridge. The first mention of +the shire in the Saxon Chronicle records the valiant resistance +which it opposed to the invaders in 1010 when the rest of East +Anglia had taken ignominious flight. The shire-system of +East Anglia was in all probability not definitely settled before +the Conquest, but during the Danish occupation of the 9th century +the district possessed a certain military and political organization +round Cambridge, its chief town, whence probably originated +the constitution and demarcation of the later shire. At the time +of the Domesday Survey the county was divided as now, except +that the Isle of Ely, which then formed two hundreds having +their meeting-place at Witchford, is now divided into the four +hundreds of Ely, Wisbech, North Witchford and South Witchford, +while Cambridge formed a hundred by itself. The +hundred of Flendish was then known as Flamingdike. Cambridgeshire +was formerly included in the diocese of Lincoln, +until, on the erection of Ely to a bishop’s see in 1109, almost the +whole county was placed in that diocese. In 1291 the whole +county, with the exception of parishes in the deanery of Fordham +and diocese of Norwich, constituted the archdeaconry of Ely, +comprising the deaneries of Ely, Wisbech, Chesterton, Cambridge, +Shingay, Bourn, Barton and Camps. The Isle of Ely formerly +constituted an independent franchise in which the bishops +exercised quasi-palatinate rights, and offences were held to be +committed against the bishop’s peace. These privileges were +considerably abridged in the reign of Henry VIII., but the Isle +still had separate civil officers, appointed by the bishop, chief +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span> +among whom were the chief justice, chief bailiff, deputy bailiff +and two coroners. The bishop is still <i>custos rotulorum</i> of the +Isle. Cambridgeshire has always been remarkable for its lack +of county families, and for the frequent changes in the ownership +of estates. No Englishmen retained lands of any importance +after the Conquest, and at the time of the Domesday Survey +the chief lay proprietors were Alan, earl of Brittany, whose +descendants the Zouches retained estates in the county until +the 15th century; Picot the sheriff, whose estates passed to +the families of Peverell and Peche; Aubrey de Vere, whose +descendants retained their estates till the 16th century; and +Hardwinus de Scalariis, ancestor of the Scales of Whaddon.</p> + +<p>From the time of Hereward’s famous resistance to the Conqueror +in the fen-district, the Isle of Ely was intimately concerned +with the great political struggles of the country. It was defended +against Stephen by Bishop Nigellus of Ely, who fortified Ely +and Aldreth, and the latter in 1144 was held for the empress +Maud by Geoffrey de Mandeville. During the struggles between +John and his barons, Faukes de Breauté was made governor of +Cambridge Castle, which, however, surrendered to the barons +in the same year. The Isle of Ely was seized by the followers +of Simon de Montfort in 1266, but in 1267 was taken by Prince +Edward. At the Reformation period the county showed much +sympathy with the Reformers, and in 1642 the knights, gentry +and commoners of Cambridgeshire petitioned for the removal +of all unwarrantable orders and dignities, and the banishment +of popish clergy. In the civil war of the 17th century +Cambridgeshire was one of the associated counties in which the +king had no visible party, though the university assisted him +with contributions of plate and money.</p> + +<p>Cambridgeshire has always been mainly an agricultural +county. The Domesday Survey mentions over ninety mills +and numerous valuable fisheries, especially eel-fisheries, and +contains frequent references to wheat, malt and honey. The +county had a flourishing wool-industry in the 14th century, +and became noted for its worsted cloths. The Black Death of +1349 and the ravages committed during the Wars of the Roses +were followed by periods of severe depression, and in 1439 several +Cambridgeshire towns obtained a remission of taxation on the +plea of poverty. In the 16th century barley for malt was grown +in large quantities in the south, and the manufacture of willow-baskets +was carried on in the fen-districts. Saffron was extensively +cultivated in the 18th century, and paper was manufactured +near Sturbridge. Sturbridge fair was at this period reckoned +the largest in Europe, the chief articles of merchandise being +wool, hops and leather; and the Newmarket races and horse-trade +were already famous. Large waste areas were brought +under cultivation in the 17th century through the drainage +of the fen-district, which was brought to completion about +1652 through the labours of Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman. +The coprolite industry was very profitable for a short period +from 1850 to 1880, and its decline was accompanied by a general +industrial and agricultural depression. Cambridgeshire returned +three members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 the county +returned two members, the borough of Cambridge two members, +and the city of Ely two members, this being the sole return for +Ely. The university was summoned to return members in 1300 +and again in 1603, but no returns are recorded before 1614, +after which it continued to return two members. Under the +Reform Act of 1832 the county returned three members.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities</i>.—In ecclesiastical architecture Cambridgeshire +would be rich only in the possession of the magnificent cathedral +at Ely and the round church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jesus +College and King’s College chapels, and many other examples +in Cambridge. But there are many fine churches elsewhere. +At Thorney, a small town in the north of the county, which owes +much in appearance to the 8th duke of Bedford (d. 1872), the +parish church is actually a portion of the church of an abbey +said to date originally from the 7th century, and refounded in +972 by Ethelwold, bishop of Winchester, as a Benedictine +monastery. The church is partly fine Norman. Another +Norman building of special interest is Sturbridge chapel near +Cambridge, which belonged to a lepers’ hospital. To this +foundation King John granted a fair, which became, and continued +until the 18th century, one of the most important in England. It +is still held in September. At Swaffham Prior there are remains +of two churches in one churchyard, the tower of one being good +Transitional Norman, while that of the other is Perpendicular, +the upper part octagonal. Among many Early English examples +the church of Cherry Hinton near Cambridge may be mentioned. +The churches of Trumpington and Bottisham are fine specimens +of the Decorated style; in the first is a famous brass to Sir +Roger de Trumpington (1289). As Perpendicular examples the +tower and spire of St Mary’s, Whittlesey, and the rich wooden +roof of Outwell church, may be selected. Monastic remains +are scanty. Excluding the town of Cambridge there are no +domestic buildings, either ancient or modern, of special note, +with the exception of Sawston Hall, in the south of the county, +a quadrangular mansion dated 1557-1584.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See D. and S. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i>, vol. ii. +part i. (London, 1808); C.C. Babington, <i>Ancient Cambridgeshire</i> +(Cambridge, 1883); R. Bowes, <i>Catalogue of Books printed at or +relating to Cambridge</i> (Cambridge, 1891 et seq.); E. Conybeare, +<i>History of Cambridgeshire</i> (London, 1897); <i>Victoria County History, +Cambridgeshire</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBUSLANG,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is situated +near the Clyde, 4½ m. S.E. of Glasgow (of which it is a +residential suburb) by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891) +8323; (1901) 12,252. Its leading industries include coal-mining, +turkey-red dyeing and brick-making. It contains one of the +largest steel works in the United Kingdom. Among the chief +edifices are a public hall, institute and library. It was the +birthplace of John Claudius London (1783-1843), the landscape +gardener and writer on horticulture, whose <i>Arboretum et +Fruticetum Britannicum</i> still ranks as an authority.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMBYSES<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Pers. <i>Kambujiya</i>), the name borne by the father +and the son of Cyrus the Great. When Cyrus conquered Babylon +in 539 he was employed in leading religious ceremonies (<i>Chronicle +of Nabonidus</i>), and in the cylinder which contains Cyrus’s +proclamation to the Babylonians his name is joined to that of +his father in the prayers to Marduk. On a tablet dated from the +first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babel. But his +authority seems to have been quite ephemeral; it was only in +530, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, +that he associated Cambyses on the throne, and numerous +Babylonian tablets of this time are dated from the accession +and the first year of Cambyses, when Cyrus was “king of the +countries” (<i>i.e.</i> of the world). After the death of his father in +the spring of 528 Cambyses became sole king. The tablets dated +from his reign in Babylonia go down to the end of his eighth +year, <i>i.e.</i> March 521 <span class="sc">b.c.</span><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Herodotus (iii. 66), who dates his reign +from the death of Cyrus, gives him seven years five months, <i>i.e.</i> +from 528 to the summer of 521. For these dates cf. Ed. Meyer, +<i>Forschungen zur alien Geschichte</i>, ii. 470 ff.</p> + +<p>The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek +authors, come from two different sources. The first, which +forms the main part of the account of Herodotus (iii. 2; 4; +10-37), is of Egyptian origin. Here Cambyses is made the +legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries (Herod, iii. 2, +Dinon fr. 11, Polyaen. viii. 29), whose death he avenges on the +successor of the usurper Amasis. (In Herod, iii. 1 and Ctesias +<i>ap</i>. Athen. xiii. 560 D, this tradition is corrected by the Persians: +Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends +him a daughter of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by +her Cambyses is induced to begin the war.) His great crime is +the killing of the Apis, for which he is punished by madness, +in which he commits many other crimes, kills his brother and his +sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a wound in the hip, +at the same place where he had wounded the sacred animal. +Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek mercenaries, +especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span> +betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the +crime of Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further +accused of drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and +thus accelerates his ruin. These traditions are found in different +passages of Herodotus, and in a later form, but with some +trustworthy detail about his household, in the fragments of +Ctesias. With the exception of Babylonian dated tablets and +some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary evidence +about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of Darius in +the Behistun inscription. It is impossible from these sources to +form a correct picture of Cambyses’ character; but it seems +certain that he was a wild despot and that he was led by +drunkenness to many atrocious deeds.</p> + +<p>It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered Asia, +Cambyses should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only +remaining independent state of the Eastern world. Before he +set out on his expedition he killed his brother Bardiya (Smerdis), +whom Cyrus had appointed governor of the eastern provinces. +The date is given by Darius, whereas the Greek authors narrate +the murder after the conquest of Egypt. The war took place in +525, when Amasis had just been succeeded by his son Psammetichus +III. Cambyses had prepared for the march through +the desert by an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a +large supply of water to the stations. King Amasis had hoped +that Egypt would be able to withstand the threatened Persian +attack by an alliance with the Greeks. But this hope failed; +the Cyprian towns and the tyrant Polycrates of Samos, who +possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, and +the commander of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus, +went over to them. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the +Egyptians were beaten, and shortly afterwards Memphis was +taken. The captive king Psammetichus was executed, having +attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian inscriptions show that +Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the costume of the +Pharaohs, although we may very well believe that he did not +conceal his contempt for the customs and the religion of the +Egyptians. From Egypt Cambyses attempted the conquest of +Ethiopia (Cush), <i>i.e.</i> the kingdom of Napata and Meroe, the +modern Nubia. But his army was not able to cross the deserts; +after heavy losses he was forced to return. In an inscription +from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the Ethiopian king Nastesen +relates that he had beaten the troops of Kembasuden, <i>i.e.</i> +Cambyses, and taken all his ships (H. Schäfer, <i>Die Aethiopische +Königsinschrift des Berliner Museums</i>, 1901). Another expedition +against the great oasis failed likewise, and the plan of attacking +Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians +to operate against their kindred. Meanwhile in Persia a usurper, +the Magian Gaumata, arose in the spring of 522, who pretended +to be the murdered Bardiya (Smerdis). He was acknowledged +throughout Asia. Cambyses attempted to march against him, +but, seeing probably that success was impossible, died by his +own hand (March 521). This is the account of Darius, which +certainly must be preferred to the traditions of Herodotus and +Ctesias, which ascribe his death to an accident. According to +Herodotus (iii. 64) he died in the Syrian Ecbatana, <i>i.e.</i> Hamath; +Josephus (<i>Ant.</i> xi. 2. 2) names Damascus; Ctesias, Babylon, +which is absolutely impossible.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Lincke, <i>Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und Kunst des +Mittelalters</i>, in <i>Aegyptiaca: Festschrift für Georg Ebers</i> (Leipzig +1897), pp. 41-61; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Ancient History.</i> (Ed. M.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the much discussed tablet, which is said to date from his +11th year, the writer had at first written “10th year of Cyrus,” +and then corrected this date into “1st year of Cambyses”; see +Strassmaier, <i>Inschriften von Cambyses</i>, No. 97.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl</span> (1714-1794), lord +chancellor of England, was born in Kensington in 1714. He was +a descendant of an old Devonshire family of high standing, the +third son of Sir John Pratt, chief-justice of the king’s bench in +the reign of George I. He received his early education at Eton +and King’s College, Cambridge. In 1734 he became a fellow of +his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of B.A. +Having adopted his father’s profession, he had entered the +Middle Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the +bar. He practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling +also the western circuit. For some years his practice was so +limited, and he became so much discouraged, that he seriously +thought of turning his back on the law and entering the church. +He listened, however, to the advice of his friend Sir Robert +Henley, a brother barrister, afterwards known as Lord Chancellor +Northington, and persevered, working on and waiting for success. +The first case which brought him prominently into notice and +gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government +prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen, for a libel on +the House of Commons.</p> + +<p>His speech for the defence contributed much to the verdict for +the defendant. In 1757, through the influence of William Pitt +(afterwards earl of Chatham), with whom he had formed an +intimate friendship while at Eton, he received the appointment +of attorney-general. The same year he entered the House of +Commons as member for the borough of Downton in Wiltshire. +He sat in parliament four years, but did not distinguish himself +as a debater. His professional practice now largely increased. +One of the most noticeable incidents of his tenure of office as +attorney-general was the prosecution of Dr. J. Shebbeare (1709-1788), +a violent party writer of the day, for a libel against the +government contained in his notorious <i>Letters to the People of +England</i>, which were published in the years 1756-1758. As a +proof of Pratt’s moderation in a period of passionate party +warfare and frequent state trials, it is noted that this was the +only official prosecution for libel which he set on foot. In +January 1762 Pratt was raised to the bench as chief-justice of the +common pleas. He was at the same time knighted. Soon after +his elevation the nation was thrown into great excitement about +the prosecution of John Wilkes, and the question involved in it +of the legality of “general warrants.” Chief-Justice Pratt +pronounced, with decisive and almost passionate energy, against +their legality, thus giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation +and winning for himself an extraordinary degree of popularity +as one of the “maintainers of English constitutional liberty.” +Honours fell thick upon him in the form of addresses from the city +of London and many large towns, and of presentations of freedom +from various corporate bodies. In July 1765 he was raised to +the peerage as Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in the county of +Kent; and in the following year he was removed from the court +of common pleas to take his seat as lord chancellor (July 30, +1766). This seat he retained less than four years; for although +he discharged its duties in so efficient a manner that, with one +exception, his decisions were never reversed on appeal, he took +up a position of such uncompromising hostility to the governments +of the day, the Grafton and North administrations, on +the greatest and most exciting matters, the treatment of the +American colonies and the proceedings against John Wilkes, +that the government had no choice but to require of him the +surrender of the great seal. He retired from the court of chancery +in January 1770, but he continued to take a warm interest in +the political affairs and discussions of the time. He continued +steadfastly to oppose the taxation of the American colonists, and +signed, in 1778, the protest of the Lords in favour of an address +to the king on the subject of the manifesto of the commissioners +to America. In 1782 he was appointed president of the +council under the Rockingham administration, but retired in the +following year. Within a few months he was reinstated in this +office under the Pitt administration, and held it till his death. +Lord Camden was a strenuous opponent of Fox’s India Bill, took +an animated part in the debates on important public matters +till within two years of his death, introduced in 1786 the scheme +of a regency on occasion of the king’s insanity, and to the last +zealously defended his early views on the functions of juries, +especially of their right to decide on all questions of libel. He +was raised to the dignity of an earl in May 1786, and was at the +same time created Viscount Bayham. Earl Camden died in +London on the 18th of April 1794. His remains were interred in +Seale church in Kent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> and <span class="sc">1st +Marquess</span> (1759-1840), only son of the 1st earl, was born on the +11th of February 1750, and was educated at Trinity College, +Cambridge. In 1780 he was chosen member of parliament for +Bath, and he obtained the lucrative position of teller of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span> +exchequer, an office which he kept until his death, although +after 1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it. +In the ministry of William Pitt, Pratt was successively a lord of +the admiralty and a lord of the treasury; then, having succeeded +his father in the earldom in 1794, he was appointed lord-lieutenant +of Ireland in 1795. Disliked in Ireland as an opponent +of Roman Catholic emancipation and as the exponent of an +unpopular policy, Camden’s term of office was one of commotion +and alarm, culminating in the rebellion of 1798. Immediately +after the suppression of the rising he resigned, and in 1804 +became secretary for war and the colonies under Pitt, and in +1805 lord president of the council. He was again lord president +from 1807 to 1812, after which date he remained for some +time in the cabinet without office. In 1812 he was created +earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden. He died on the 8th +of October 1840, and was succeeded by his only son, George +Charles, 2nd marquess (1799-1866). The present marquess is +his descendant. Camden was chancellor of the university of +Cambridge and a knight of the Garter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMDEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1551-1623), English antiquary and +historian, was born in London on the 2nd of May 1551. His +father, Sampson Camden, a native of Lichfield, had settled in +London, and, as a painter, had become a member of the company +of painter-stainers. His mother, Elizabeth, belonged to the old +Cumberland family of Curwen. Young Camden received his +early education at Christ’s Hospital and St Paul’s school, and +in 1566 went to Magdalen College, Oxford, probably as a servitor +or chorister. Failing to obtain a demyship at Magdalen he removed +to Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College, and +later to Christ Church, where he was supported by his friend, +Dr Thomas Thornton, canon of Christ Church. As a defender +of the established religion he was soon engaged in controversy, +and his failure to secure a fellowship at All Souls’ College is +attributed to the hostility of the Roman Catholics. In 1570 +he supplicated in vain for the degree of B.A., and although a +renewed application was granted in 1573 it is doubtful if he ever +took a degree; and in 1571 he went to London and devoted +himself to antiquarian studies, for which he had already acquired +a taste.</p> + +<p>Camden spent some time in travelling in various parts of +England collecting materials for his <i>Britannia</i>, a work which +was first published in 1586. Owing to his friendship with Dr +Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster, Camden was made +second master of Westminster school in 1575; and when Dr +Edward Grant resigned the headmastership in 1593 he was +appointed as his successor. The vacations which he enjoyed +as a schoolmaster left him time for study and travel, and during +these years he supervised the publication of three further +editions of the <i>Britannia</i>. Although a layman he was granted +the prebend of Ilfracombe in 1589, and in 1597 he resigned his +position at Westminster on being made Clarencieux king-at-arms, +an appointment which caused some ill-feeling, and the York +herald, Ralph Brooke, led an attack on the genealogical accuracy +of the <i>Britannia</i>, and accused its author of plagiarism. Camden +replied to Brooke in an appendix to the fifth edition of the +<i>Britannia</i>, published in 1600, and his reputation came through +the ordeal untarnished. Having brought out an enlarged and +improved edition of the <i>Britannia</i> in 1607, he began to work on a +history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, to which he had been +urged by Lord Burghley in 1597. The first part of this history +dealing with the reign down to 1588 was published in 1615 under +the title <i>Annales rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante +Elizabetha</i>. With regard to this work some controversy at +once arose over the author’s treatment of Mary, queen of Scots. +It was asserted that Camden altered his original narrative in +order to please James I., and, moreover, that the account which +he is said to have given to his friend, the French historian, +Jacques de Thou, differed substantially from his own. It seems +doubtful if there is any truth in either of these charges. The +second part of this work, finished in 1617, was published, after +the author’s death, at Leiden in 1625 and in London in 1627. +In 1622 Camden carried out a plan to found a history lectureship +at Oxford. He provided an endowment from some lands at +Bexley, and appointed as the first lecturer, his friend, Degory +Wheare. The present occupant of the position is known as the +Camden professor of ancient history. His concluding years were +mainly spent at Chislehurst, where he had taken up his residence +in 1609, and in spite of recurring illnesses he continued to work +at material for the improvement of the <i>Britannia</i> and kindred +subjects. He died at Chislehurst on the 9th of November 1623, +and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument now +stands to his memory.</p> + +<p>The <i>Britannia</i>, the first edition of which is dedicated to +Burghley, is a survey of the British islands written in elegant Latin. +It was first translated into English in 1610, probably under the +author’s direction, and other translations have subsequently +appeared, the best of which is an edition edited by Richard +Gough and published in three volumes in 1789, and in four +volumes in 1806. The <i>Annales</i> has been translated into French, +and English translations appeared in 1635, 1675 and 1688. +The Latin version was published at Leiden in 1639 and 1677, +and under the editorship of T. Hearne at Oxford in 1717. In +addition to these works Camden compiled a Greek grammar, +<i>Institutio Graecae Grammatices Compendiaria</i>, which became +very popular, and he published an edition of the writings of Asser, +Giraldus Cambrensis, Thomas Walsingham and others, under the +title, <i>Anglica, Hibernica, Normannica, Cambrica, a veteribus +scripta</i>, published at Frankfort in 1602, and again in 1603. +He also drew up a list of the epitaphs in Westminster Abbey, +which was issued as <i>Reges, Reginae, Nobiles et alii in ecclesia +collegiata Beati Petri Westmonasterii sepulti</i>. This was enlarged +and published again in 1603 and 1606. In 1605 he published +his <i>Remains concerning Britain</i>, a book of collections from the +<i>Britannia</i>, which quickly passed through seven editions; and +he wrote an official account of the trial of the Gunpowder Plot +conspirators as <i>Actio in Henricum Garnetum, Societatis Jesuiticae +in Anglia superiorem et caeteros</i>.</p> + +<p>Camden, who refused a knighthood, was a man of enormous +industry, and possessed a modest and friendly disposition. +He had a large number of influential friends, among whom were +Archbishop Ussher, Sir Robert Cotton, John Selden, the French +jurist Brisson, and Isaac Casaubon. His correspondence was +published in London in 1691 by Dr Thomas Smith under the title, +<i>Vita Gulielmi Camdeni et Illustrium virorum ad G. Camdenum +Epistolae</i>. This-volume also contains his <i>Memorabilia de seipso</i>; +his notes of the reign of James I.; and other interesting matter. +In 1838 the Camden Society was founded in his honour, and +much valuable work has been done under its auspices.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMDEN,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Camden county, +New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, directly opposite +Philadelphia, Pa. Pop. (1880) 41,659; (1890) 58,313; (1900) +75,935, of whom 10,097 were foreign-born and 5576 were +negroes; (1910) 94,538. It is a terminus of the Atlantic +City, the West Jersey & Sea Shore, and the Pennsylvania +(Amboy division) railways, and is also served by river and coasting +steamboat lines. Camden is practically a suburb of Philadelphia, +with which it is connected by ferries. It has several pleasant +residential sections, and among its public buildings are the +city hall, the Camden county court house, the post office, the +free public library, the Cooper hospital and the West Jersey +homeopathic hospital. The high school has a thoroughly +equipped manual training department. The city owns and +operates its water-works system, and is an important manufacturing +and ship-building centre, among its manufactories being +chemical works; asbestos, wall-paper, oil-cloth and morocco-leather +factories; woollen, worsted and yarn mills; preserving +factories; iron and steel mills; boot and shoe factories; and +ship-yards. In 1900 the total value of the city’s manufactured +products was $20,451,874 (of which $17,969,954 was the value +of factory products, which in 1905 had increased 86.5% to +$33,587,273), several of the largest items being worsted goods +($2,090,991 in 1900, and $2,528,040 in 1905); leather, tanned, +curried and finished ($1,515,935 in 1900, and $6,364,928 in +1905); oil-cloth ($1,638,556 in 1900); pickles, preserves and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span> +sauces ($685,358 in 1900), and wooden ships and boats ($409,500 +in 1900, and $361,089 in 1905, when the value of the iron and +steel ship-building industry was $4,673,504). The first settlers +on the site of Camden came in 1679, but for a century the settlement +consisted of isolated farms and a small group of houses +about the ferry by which travellers from the east crossed to +Philadelphia. The early settlers were largely Quakers. About +1773 Jacob Cooper laid out a town near the ferry, and gave it +the name Camden in honour of Lord Chancellor Camden, who +had been one of the strongest opponents of the Stamp Act. +The settlement, however, was known variously as “Pluckemin,” +“The Ferry” and “Cooper’s Ferry” until about the time of +the War of 1812. Until 1828 it was administratively a part +of the town of Newton, Gloucester county, but in that year, +with more than a thousand inhabitants, it was chartered as a +city under its present name. During the British occupation +of Philadelphia in the War of Independence, a British force +was stationed here, and Camden was the scene of several skirmishes +between the British troops and the New Jersey irregular +militia. Camden was the home of Walt Whitman from 1873 +until his death.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMDEN,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Kershaw county, +South Carolina, U.S.A., near the Wateree river, 33 m. N.E. of +Columbia. Pop. (1890) 3533; (1900) 2441; this decrease was +due to the separation from Camden during the decade of its +suburb “Kirkwood,” re-annexed in 1905; (1910) 3569. It is +served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and +the Southern railways. Camden is situated about 100 ft. above +the river, which is navigable to this point. The town is a winter +resort, chiefly for Northerners. Cotton, grain and rice are +produced in the vicinity, and there are some manufactories, +including cotton mills, a cotton-seed oil mill and planing mills. +Camden, first known as Pine Tree Hill, is one of the oldest +interior towns of the state, having been settled in 1758; in 1768 +the present name was adopted in honour of Lord Chancellor +Camden. The town was first incorporated in 1791; its present +charter dates from 1890. For a year following the capture of +Charleston by the British in May 1780, during the War of +Independence, Camden was the centre of important military +operations. It was occupied by the British under Cornwallis in +June 1780, was well fortified and was garrisoned by a force +under Lord Rawdon. On the 16th of August Gen. Horatio +Gates, with an American force of about 3600, including some +Virginia militia under Charles Porterfield (1750-1780) and Gen. +Edward Stevens (1745-1820), and North Carolina militia under +Gen. Richard Caswell (1729-1789), was defeated here by the +British, about 2000 strong, under Lord Cornwallis, who had +joined Rawdon in anticipation of an attack by Gates. Soon +after the engagement began a large part of the Americans, +mostly North Carolina and Virginia militia, fled precipitately, +carrying Gates with them; but Baron De Kalb and the Maryland +troops fought bravely until overwhelmed by numbers, De Kalb +himself being mortally wounded. A monument was erected to +his memory in 1825, Lafayette laying the corner-stone. The +British loss in killed, wounded and missing was 324; the +American loss was about 800 or 900 killed and 1000 prisoners, +besides arms and baggage. On the 3rd of December Gates was +superseded by Gen. Nathanael Greene, who after Cornwallis had +left the Carolinas, advanced on Camden and arrived in the +neighbourhood on the 19th of April 1781. Considering his force +(about 1450) insufficient for an attack on the fortifications, he +withdrew a short distance north of Camden to an advantageous +position on Hobkirk’s Hill, where on the 25th of April Rawdon, +with a force of only 950, took him somewhat by surprise and +drove him from the field. The casualties on each side were nearly +equal: American 271; British 258. On the 8th of May Rawdon +evacuated the town, after burning most of it. On the 24th of +February 1865, during the Civil War, a part of Gen. W.T. Sherman’s +army entered Camden and burned stores of tobacco and cotton, +and several buildings. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American War of Independence</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also T.J. Kirkland and R.M. Kennedy, <i>Historic Camden</i> +(Columbia, S.C., 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMEL<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (from the Arabic <i>Djemal</i> or the Heb. <i>Gamal</i>), the +name of the single-humped Arabian <i>Camelus dromedarius</i>, but +also applied to the two-humped central Asian <i>C. bactrianus</i> and +to the extinct relatives of both. The characteristics of camels +and their systematic position are discussed under the headings +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tylopoda</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artiodactyla</a></span>. The two living species are +distinguishable at a glance. It may be mentioned that the +Bactrian camel, which is a shorter-legged and more ponderous +animal than the Arabian species, grows an enormously long and +thick winter coat, which is shed in blanket-like masses in spring. +The Arabian camel, which is used not only in the country from +which it takes its name, but also in North Africa and India, and +has been introduced into Australia and North America, is known +only as a domesticated animal. On the other hand, the Bactrian +species, which is employed throughout a large tract of central +Asia in the domesticated condition, appears, according to recent +researches, to exist in the wild state in some of the central +Asian deserts. From the examination of specimens collected by +Dr Sven Hedin, Professor W. Leche shows that the wild Bactrian +camel differs from the domesticated breed of central Asia in the +following external characters: the humps are smaller; the long +hair does not occupy nearly so much of the body; the colour is +much more rufous; and the ears and muzzle are shorter. Many +important differences are also recorded between the skulls of the +two animals, and it is especially noteworthy that the last lower +molar is smaller in the wild than in the tame race. In connexion +with this point it should be noticed that, unlike what occurs in +the yak, the wild animal is not larger than the tame one, although +it is incorrect to say that the former is decidedly the inferior of +the latter in point of stature. Dr Leche also institutes a +comparison between the skeletons of the wild and the tame Bactrian +camel with the remains of certain fossil Asiatic camels, namely, +<i>Camelus knoblochi</i> from Sarepta, Russia, and <i>C. alutensis</i> +from the Aluta valley, Rumania. This comparison leads to the +important conclusion that the wild Bactrian <i>Camelus bactrianus +ferus</i> comes much nearer to the fossil species than it does to the +domesticated breed, the resemblance being specially noticeable +in the absolutely and relatively small size of the last molar. In +view of these differences from the domesticated breed, and the +resemblance of the skull or lower jaw to that of the extinct +European species, it becomes practically impossible to regard +the wild camels as the offspring of animals that have escaped +from captivity.</p> + +<p>On the latter hypothesis it has been generally assumed that +the wild camels are the descendants of droves of the domesticated +breed which escaped when certain central Asian cities were +overwhelmed by sand-storms. This theory, according to +Professor Leche, is rendered improbable by Dr Sven Hedin’s +observations on the habits and mode of life of the wild camel. +The habitat of the latter extends from the lower course of the +Keria river to the desert at the termination of that river, and +thence to the neighbourhood of the Achik, the ancient bed of the +Tarim river. These animals also occur in the desert district +south of the Tarim; but are most abundant in the deserts and +mountains to the southward of Kuruktagh, where there are a +few brackish-water pools, and are also common in the barren +mountains between Kuruktagh and Choetagh. Large herds +have also been observed in the deserts near Altyntagh. The +capacity of camels for travelling long distances without +water—owing to special structural modifications in the stomach—is +familiar to all. That the Arabian species was one of the +earliest animals to be domesticated is evident from the record +of Scripture, where six thousand camels are said to have formed +part of the wealth of the patriarch Job. Camels also formed +part of the present which Pharaoh gave to Abraham, and it was +to a company of Ishmaelites travelling from Gilead to Egypt on +camels, laden with spices, much as their Arabian descendants do +at the present day, that Joseph was sold by his brothers.</p> + +<p>The hump (or humps) varies in size according to the condition +of the animal, becoming small and flaccid after hard work and +poor diet.</p> + +<p>During the rutting-season male camels become exceedingly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span> +savage and dangerous, uttering a loud bubbling roar and engaging +in fierce contests with their fellows. The female carries her +young for fully eleven months, and produces only one calf at a +time, which she suckles for a year. Eight days after birth the +young Arabian camel stands 3 ft. high, but does not reach its +full growth till its sixteenth or seventeenth year; it lives from +forty to fifty years. The flesh of the young camel resembles veal, +and is a favourite food of the Arabs, while camel’s milk forms +an excellent and highly nutritious beverage, although it does +not furnish butter. The long hair is shorn every summer, and +woven into a variety of stuffs used by the Arab for clothing +himself and his family, and covering his tent. It was in raiment +of camel’s hair that John the Baptist appeared as a preacher. +The hair imported into Europe is chiefly used in the manufacture +of small brushes used by painters, while the thick hide is formed +into a very durable leather. The droppings are used as fuel, and +from the incinerated remains of these sal-ammoniac is extracted, +which was at one time largely exported from Egypt.</p> + +<p>The Bactrian camel is, if possible, of still more importance +to many of the central Asian Mongol races, supplying them +alike with food and raiment. It is, however, as “the ship of the +desert,” without which vast tracts of the earth’s surface could +scarcely be explored, that the camel is specially valuable. In +its fourth year its training as a beast of burden begins, when it +is taught to kneel and to rise at a given signal, and is gradually +accustomed to bear increasing loads. These vary in weight +from 500 to 1000 lb., according to the variety of camel employed, +for of the Arabian camel there are almost as many breeds as +there are of the horse. When crossing a desert camels are +expected to carry their loads 25 m. a day for three days without +drink, getting a supply of water, however, on the fourth; but +the fleeter breeds will carry their rider and a bag of water 50 m. +a day for five days without drinking. When too heavily laden +the camel refuses to rise, but on the march it is exceedingly +patient under its burden, only yielding beneath it to die. +Relieved from its load it does not, like other animals, seek the +shade, even when that is to be found, but prefers to kneel beside +its burden in the broad glare of the sun, seeming to luxuriate +in the burning sand. When overtaken by a dust-storm it falls +on its knees, and stretching its neck along the sand, closes its +nostrils and remains thus motionless till the atmosphere clears; +and in this position it affords some shelter to its driver, who, +wrapping his face in his mantle, crouches behind his beast.</p> + +<p>The food of the camel consists chiefly of the leaves of trees, +shrubs and dry hard vegetables, which it is enabled to tear down +and masticate by means of its powerful front teeth. As regards +temperament, if, writes Sir F. Palgrave, “docile means stupid, +well and good; in such a case the camel is the very model of +docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an animal +that takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can, that in +some way understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate +fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or half-fellow-feeling +with his master, like the horse or elephant, then +I say that the camel is by no means docile—very much the +contrary. He takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention +whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on when once +set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside, and +then should some tempting thorn or green branch allure him out +of the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply +because he is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a +word, he is from first to last an undomesticated and savage +animal rendered serviceable by stupidity alone, without much +skill on his master’s part, or any co-operation on his own, save +that of an extreme passiveness. Neither attachment nor even +habit impresses him; never tame, though not wide-awake enough +to be exactly wild.”</p> + +<p>For extinct camels see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tylopoda</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Biblical expression (Matt. xix. 24, &c.), “it is easier for a camel +to go through a needle’s eye,” &c., is sometimes explained by saying +that the “needle’s eye” means the small gate which is opened in the +great gate of a city, when the latter is closed for the night; but +recent criticism (<i>e.g.</i> Post in <i>Hastings’ Dict.</i>, under “Camel”) throws +doubt on this explanation, and assumes that the more violent hyperbole +is intended. There is a various reading <span class="grk" title="Khamilos">κάμιλος</span> (cable) for <span class="grk" title="Khamaelos">κάμηλος</span> +(camel), but Cheyne, in the <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, rejects this (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cable</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1737-1793), +English politician and art patron, was a nephew of the 1st earl +of Chatham. He sat in parliament from 1761 till 1784, siding +against his uncle and following George Grenville, who was also +a relative; and in 1784 he was raised to the peerage. He +dabbled in architecture and the arts generally, and was a prominent +figure in the artistic circles of his day. His son <span class="sc">Thomas +Pitt</span>, 2nd Baron Camelford (1775-1804), who succeeded him +in 1793, had an adventurous and misspent career in the navy, +but is principally remembered for his death in a duel with +Mr Best on the 10th of March 1804, the title becoming extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMELLIA,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> a genus or subgenus of evergreen trees or shrubs +belonging to the natural order Ternstroemiaceae, with thick +dark shining leaves and handsome white or rose-coloured +flowers. The name <i>Camellia</i> was given by Linnaeus in honour +of George Joseph Camellus or Kamel, a Moravian Jesuit who +travelled in Asia and wrote an account of the plants of the +Philippine Island, Luzon, which is included in the third volume +of John Ray’s <i>Historia Plantarum</i> (1704). Modern botanists +are agreed that the tea-plant, placed by Linnaeus in a separate +genus, <i>Thea</i>, is too nearly allied to <i>Camellia</i> to admit of the +two being regarded as distinct genera. <i>Thea</i> and <i>Camellia</i> are +therefore now considered to represent one genus, which has been +generally called <i>Camellia</i>, but more correctly <i>Thea</i>, as this name +was the earlier of the two. Under the latter view <i>Camellia</i> is +regarded as a subgenus or section of <i>Thea</i>. It contains about +eight species, natives of India, China and Japan. Most of the +numerous cultivated forms are horticultural products of <i>C. +japonica</i>, a native of China and Japan, which was introduced +into Europe by Lord Petre in 1739. The wild plant has red +flowers, recalling those of the wild rose, but most of the cultivated +forms are double. In the variety <i>anemonaeflora</i> nearly all the +stamens have become transformed into small petaloid structures +which give the flower the appearance of a double anemone.</p> + +<p>Another species, <i>C. reticulata</i>, a native of Hongkong, is also +prized for its handsome flowers, larger than those of <i>C. japonica</i>, +which are of a bright rose colour and as known in cultivation +semi-double or double.</p> + +<p>Both <i>C. sasanqua</i> and <i>C. drupifera</i>, the former inhabiting +Japan and China, the latter Cochin-China and the mountains +of India, are oil-yielding plants. The oil of <i>C. sasanqua</i> (of which +sasankwa is the native Japanese name) has an agreeable odour +and is used for many domestic purposes. It is obtained from +the seeds by subjecting them to pressure sufficient to reduce them +to a coarse powder, and then boiling and again pressing the +crushed material. The leaves are also used in the form of a +decoction by the Japanese women for washing their hair; and +in a dried state they are mixed with tea on account of their +pleasant flavour. The oil of <i>C. drupifera</i>, which is closely allied +to <i>C. sasanqua</i>, is used medicinally in Cochin-China. The flowers +of these two species, unlike those of <i>C. japonica</i> and <i>C. reticulata</i>, +are odoriferous.</p> + +<p>Camellias, though generally grown in the cool greenhouse, +are hardy in the south of England and the south-west of Scotland +and Ireland. They grow best in a rich compost of sandy peat +and loam, and should not be allowed to get too dry at the roots; +a liberal supply of water is especially necessary during the +flowering period. The best position—when grown out of doors—is +one facing north or north-west, with a wall or hedge behind +for protection from cold winds. July is the best time for planting; +care must be taken that the roots are evenly spread, not +matted into a ball.</p> + +<p>The plants are propagated by layers or cuttings, and the +single-flowered ones also by seeds. Cuttings are taken in +August and placed in sandy peat or loam in a cold shaded frame. +In the following spring those which have struck are placed in a +gentle heat, and in September or October the rooted plants are +potted off. Camellias are also propagated by grafting or inarching +in early spring on stocks of the common variety of <i>C. japonica.</i></p> + +<p>The scale insect sometimes attacks the camellia. To remove +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span> +the white scale, the plants are washed with a sponge and solution +of soft soap as soon as their growth is completed, and again +before the buds begin to swell. The brown scale may be got rid +of by repeated washings with one of the many insecticides, but +it should be applied at a temperature of 90°.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMEO,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a term of doubtful origin, applied in the first instance +to engraved work executed in relief on hard or precious stones. +It is also applied to imitations of such stones in glass, called +“pastes,” or on the shells of molluscous animals. A cameo is +therefore the converse of an intaglio, which consists of an +incised or sunk engraving in the same class of materials. For +the history of this branch of art, and for an account of some of +its most remarkable examples, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gem</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The origin of the word is doubtful and has been a matter of +copious controversy. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes its use +in a Sarum inventory of 1222, <i>”lapis unus cameu”</i> and <i>”magnus +camehu.”</i> The word is in current use in the 13th century. Thus +Matthew Paris, in his Life of Abbot Leofric of St Albans, in the +<i>Abbatum S. Albani Vitae,</i> says: <i>”retentis quibusdam nobilibus +lapidibus insculptis, quos camaeos vulgariter appellamus.”</i> In +variant forms the word has found its way into most languages, <i>e.g.</i> +Latin, <i>camahutus, camahelus, camaynus</i>; Italian, <i>chammeo, chameo</i>; +French, <i>camahieu, chemahou, camaut, camaieu</i>. The following may +be mentioned among the derivations that have been proposed:—von +Hammer: <i>camaut</i>, the hump of a camel; Littré and others: +<i>camateum</i>, an assumed Low Latin form from <span class="grk" title="kamateuein">καματεύειν</span> and +<span class="grk" title="kamaton">κάματον</span>; Chabouillet and Babelon: <span class="grk" title="keimaelia">κειμήλια</span>, treasures, +connecting the word in particular with the dispersion of treasures +from Constantinople, in 1204; King: Arabic <i>camea</i>, an amulet.</p> + +<p>For a bibliography of the question, see Babelon, <i>Cat. des +Camées ... de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>, p. iv.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERA<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (a Latin adaptation of Gr. <span class="grk" title="kamara">καμάρα</span>, an arched +chamber), in law, a word applied at one time to the English +judges’ chambers in Serjeants’ Inn, as distinct from their bench +in Westminster Hall. It was afterwards applied to the judges’ +private room behind the court, and, hence, in the phrase <i>in +camera</i>, to cases heard in private, <i>i.e.</i> in chambers. So far as +criminal cases are concerned, the courts have no power to hear +them in private, nor have they any power to order adults (men +or women) out of court during the hearing. In civil proceedings +at common law, it may also be laid down that the public cannot +be excluded from the court; in <i>Malan</i> v. <i>Young</i>, 1889, 6 T.L.R. +68, Mr Justice Denman held that he had power to hear the case +<i>in camera</i>, but he afterwards stated that there was considerable +doubt among the judges as to the power to hear cases <i>in camera</i>, +even by consent, and the case was, by consent of the parties, +finally proceeded with before the judge <i>as arbitrator</i>. In the court +of chancery it is the practice to hear in private cases affecting +wards of the court and lunatics, family disputes (by consent), +and cases where a public trial would defeat the object of the +action (<i>Andrew</i> v. <i>Raeburn</i>, 1874, L.R. 9 Ch. 522). In an action +for infringement of a patent for a chemical process the defendant +was allowed to state a secret process <i>in camera (Badische Anilin +und Soda Fabrik</i> v. <i>Gillman</i>, 1883, 24 Ch. D. 156). The Court +of Appeal has decided that it has power to sit in private; in +<i>Mellor</i> v. <i>Thompson</i>, 1885, 31 Ch. D. 55, it was stated that a +public hearing would defeat the object of the action, and render +the respondent’s success in the appeal useless. In matrimonial +causes, the divorce court, following the practice of the ecclesiastical +courts under the provisions of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, +s. 22, hears suits for nullity of marriage on physical grounds +<i>in camera</i>, but not petitions for dissolution of marriage, which +must be heard in open court. It was also decided in <i>Druce</i> v. +<i>Druce</i>, 1903, 19 T.L.R. 387, that, in cases for judicial separation +the court has jurisdiction to hear the case <i>in camera</i>, where it is +satisfied that justice cannot be done by hearing the case in public.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERA LUCIDA,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> an optical instrument invented by Dr +William Hyde Wollaston for drawing in perspective. Closing +one eye and looking vertically downwards with the other through +a slip of plain glass, <i>e.g.</i> a microscope cover-glass, held close to +the eye and inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizon, one can +see the images of objects in front, formed by reflection from the +surface of the glass, and at the same time one can also see through +the transparent glass. The virtual images of the objects appear +projected on the surface of a sheet of paper placed beneath the +slip of glass, and their outline can be accurately traced with a +pencil. This is the simplest form of the camera lucida. The +image (see fig. 1) is, however, inverted and +perverted, and it is not very bright owing to +the poor reflecting power of unsilvered glass. +The brightness of the image is sometimes increased +by silvering the glass; and on removing +a small portion of the silver the observer can +see the image with part of the pupil while he +sees the paper through the unsilvered aperture +with the remaining part. This form of the instrument +is often used in conjunction with the +microscope, the mirror being attached to the eye-piece and the +tube of the microscope being placed horizontally.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:114px; height:166px" src="images/img104a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:181px; height:177px" src="images/img104b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>About the beginning of the 19th century Dr Wollaston invented +a simple form of the camera lucida which gives bright +and erect images. A four-sided prism of glass is constructed +having one angle of 90°, the opposite angle of 135°, and the two +remaining angles each of 67½°. This is represented in cross-section +and in position in fig. 2. When the pupil of the eye is +held half over the edge of the prism a, +one sees the image of the object with +one half of the pupil and the paper with +the other half. The image is formed by +successive total reflection at the surfaces +b c and a b. In the first place an inverted +image (first image) is formed in +the face b c, and then an image of this +image is formed in a b, and it is the +outline of this second image seen projected +on the paper that is traced by the +pencil. It is desirable for two reasons that the image should +lie in the plane of the paper, and this can be secured by placing +a suitable lens between the object and the prism. If the image +does not lie in the plane of the paper, it is impossible to see it +and the pencil-point clearly at the same time. Moreover, any +slight movement of the head will cause the image to appear to +move relatively to the paper, and will render it difficult to obtain +an accurate drawing.</p> + +<p>Before the application of photography, the camera lucida was +of considerable importance to draughtsmen. The advantages +claimed for it were its cheapness, smallness and portability; +that there was no appreciable distortion, and that its field was +much larger than that of the camera obscura. It was used largely +for copying, for reducing or for enlarging existing drawings. It +will readily be understood, for example, that a copy will be +half-size if the distance of the object from the instrument is +double the distance of the instrument from the copy.</p> +<div class="author">(C. J. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERA OBSCURA,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> an optical apparatus consisting of a +darkened chamber (for which its name is the Latin rendering) +at the top of which is placed a box or lantern containing a convex +lens and sloping mirror, or a prism combining the lens and +mirror. If we hold a common reading lens (a magnifying lens) +in front of a lamp or some other bright object and at some +distance from it, and if we hold a sheet of paper vertically at a +suitable distance behind the lens, we see depicted on the paper +an image of the lamp. This image is inverted and perverted. +If now we place a plane +mirror (<i>e.g.</i> a lady’s hand +glass) behind the lens and +inclined at an angle of 45° to +the horizon so as to reflect +the rays of light vertically +downwards, we can produce +on a horizontal sheet of +paper an unperverted image +of the bright object (fig. 1), <i>i.e.</i> the image has the same appearance +as the object and is not perverted as when the reflection of a +printed page is viewed in a mirror. This is the principle of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span> +camera obscura, which was extensively used in sketching from +nature before the introduction of photography, although it is +now scarcely to be seen except as an interesting side-show at +places of popular resort. The image formed on the paper may +be traced out by a pencil, and it will be noticed that in this case +the image is real—not virtual as in the case of the camera +lucida. Generally the mirror and lens are combined into a +single piece of worked glass represented in section in fig. 2. +Rays from external objects are first refracted +at the convex surface <i>a b,</i> then totally +reflected at the plane surface <i>a c,</i> and finally +refracted at the concave surface <i>b c</i> (fig. 2) +so as to form an image on the sheet of paper +<i>d e.</i> The curved surfaces take the place of +the lens in fig. 1, and the plane surface performs +the function of the mirror. The prism +<i>a b c</i> is fixed at the top of a small tent furnished +with opaque curtains so as to prevent the diffused daylight +from overpowering the image on the paper, and in the +darkened tent the images of external objects are seen very +distinctly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:143px" src="images/img104c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:150px; height:139px" src="images/img105.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Quite recently, the camera obscura has come into use with +submarine vessels, the <i>periscope</i> being simply a camera obscura +under a new name.</p> +<div class="author">(C. J. J.)</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The invention of this instrument has generally been +ascribed, as in the ninth edition of this work, to the famous +Neapolitan savant of the 16th century, Giovanni Battista della +Porta, but as a matter of fact the principle of the simple camera +obscura, or darkened chamber with a small aperture in a window +or shutter, was well known and in practical use for observing +eclipses long before his time. He was anticipated in the improvements +he claimed to have made in it, and all he seems really to +have done was to popularize it. The increasing importance +of the camera obscura as a photographic instrument makes it +desirable to bring together what is known of its early history, +which is far more extensive than is usually recognized. In +southern climes, where during the summer heat it is usual to +close the rooms from the glare of the sunshine outside, we may +often see depicted on the walls vivid inverted images of outside +objects formed by the light reflected from them passing through +chinks or small apertures in doors or window-shutters. From +the opening passage of Euclid’s <i>Optics</i> (<i>c.</i> 300 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), which +formed the foundation for some of the earlier middle age treatises +on geometrical perspective, it would appear that the above +phenomena of the simple darkened room were used by him to +demonstrate the rectilinear propagation of light by the passage +of sunbeams or the projection of the images of objects through +small openings in windows, &c. In the book known as Aristotle’s +<i>Problems</i> (sect. xv. cap. 5) we find the correlated problem +of the image of the sun passing through a quadrilateral aperture +always appearing round, and he further notes the lunated image +of the eclipsed sun projected in the same way through the +interstices of foliage or lattice-work.</p> + +<p>There are, however, very few allusions to these phenomena +in the later classical Greek and Roman writers, and we find the +first scientific investigation of them in the great optical treatise +of the Arabian philosopher Alhazen (<i>q.v.</i>), who died at Cairo in +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1038. He seems to have been well acquainted with the +projection of images of objects through small apertures, and to +have been the first to show that the arrival of the image of an +object at the concave surface of the common nerve—or the +retina—corresponds with the passage of light from an object +through an aperture in a darkened place, from which it falls +upon a surface facing the aperture. He also had some knowledge +of the properties of concave and convex lenses and mirrors in +forming images. Some two hundred years later, between +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1266 and 1279, these problems were taken up by three +almost contemporaneous writers on optics, two of whom, Roger +Bacon and John Peckham, were Englishmen, and Vitello or +Witelo, a Pole.</p> + +<p>That Roger Bacon was acquainted with the principle of the +camera obscura is shown by his attempt at solving Aristotle’s +problem stated above, in the treatise <i>De Speculis,</i> and also from +his references to Alhazen’s experiments of the same kind, but +although Dr John Freind, in his <i>History of Physick,</i> has given him +the credit of the invention on the strength of a passage in the +<i>Perspectiva</i>, there is nothing to show that he constructed any +instrument of the kind. His arrangement of concave and plane +mirrors, by which the realistic images of objects inside the house +or in the street could be rendered visible though intangible, +there alluded to, may apply to a camera on Cardan’s principle or +to a method of aerial projection by means of concave mirrors, +which Bacon was quite familiar with, and indeed was known +long before his time. On the strength of similar arrangements of +lenses and mirrors the invention of the camera obscura has also +been claimed for Leonard Digges, the author of <i>Pantometria</i> +(1571), who is said to have constructed a telescope from information +given in a book of Bacon’s experiments.</p> + +<p>Archbishop Peckham, or Pisanus, in his <i>Perspectiva Communis</i> +(1279), and Vitello, in his <i>Optics</i> (1270), also attempted the +solution of Aristotle’s problem, but unsuccessfully. Vitello’s +work is to a very great extent based upon Alhazen and some of +the earlier writers, and was first published in 1535. A later +edition was published, together with a translation of Alhazen, +by F. Risner in 1572.</p> + +<p>The first practical step towards the development of the camera +obscura seems to have been made by the famous painter and +architect, Leon Battista Alberti, in 1437, contemporaneously +with the invention of printing. It is not clear, however, whether +his invention was a camera obscura or a show box, but in a +fragment of an anonymous biography of him, published in +Muratori’s <i>Rerum Italicarum Scriptores</i> (xxv. 296), quoted by +Vasari, it is stated that he produced wonderfully painted +pictures, which were exhibited by him in some sort of small +closed box through a very small aperture, with great verisimilitude. +These demonstrations were of two kinds, one nocturnal, +showing the moon and bright stars, the other diurnal, for day +scenes. This description seems to refer to an arrangement of a +transparent painting illuminated either from the back or the front +and the image projected through a hole on to a white screen in a +darkened room, as described by Porta (<i>Mag. Nat.</i> xvii. cap. 7) +and figured by A. Kircher (<i>Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae</i>), who +notes elsewhere that Porta had taken some arrangement of projecting +images from an Albertus, whom he distinguished from +Albertus Magnus, and who was probably L.B. Alberti, to whom +Porta also refers, but not in this connexion.</p> + +<p>G.B.I.T. Libri-Carucci dalla Sommaja (1803-1869), in his +account of the invention of the camera obscura in Italy (<i>Histoire +des sciences mathématiques en Italic,</i> iv. 303), makes no mention +of Alberti, but draws attention to an unpublished MS. of Leonardo +da Vinci, which was first noticed by Venturi in 1797, and has +since been published in facsimile in vol. ii. of J.G.F. Ravaisson-Mollien’s +reproductions of the MSS. in the Institut de France at +Paris (MS. <i>D</i>, fol. 8 <i>recto</i>). After discussing the structure of the +eye he gives an experiment in which the appearance of the +reversed images of outside objects on a piece of paper held in +front of a small hole in a darkened room, with their forms and +colours, is quite clearly described and explained with a diagram, +as an illustration of the phenomena of vision. Another similar +passage is quoted by Richter from folio 404b of the reproduction +of the <i>Codice Atlantico,</i> in Milan, published by the Italian +government. These are probably the earliest distinct accounts +of the natural phenomena of the camera obscura, but remained +unpublished for some three centuries. Leonardo also discussed +the old Aristotelian problem of the rotundity of the sun’s image +after passing through an angular aperture, but not so successfully +as Maurolycus. He has also given methods of measuring the +sun’s distance by means of images thrown on screens through +small apertures. He was well acquainted with the use of magnifying +glasses and suggested a kind of telescope for viewing the +moon, but does not seem to have thought of applying a lens to +the camera.</p> + +<p>The first published account of the simple camera obscura was +discovered by Libri in a translation of the <i>Architecture</i> of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span> +Vitruvius, with commentary by Cesare Caesariano, one of the +architects of Milan cathedral, published at Conio in 1521, shortly +after the death of Leonardo, and some twenty years before +Porta was born. He describes an experiment made by a +Benedictine monk and architect, Dom Papnutio or Panuce, of +the same kind as Leonardo’s but without the demonstration.</p> + +<p>About the same time Francesco Maurolico, or Maurolycus, +the eminent mathematician of Messina, in his <i>Theoremata de +Lumine et Umbra</i>, written in 1521, fully investigated the optical +problems connected with vision and the passage of rays of light +through small apertures with and without lenses, and made +great advances in this direction over his predecessors. He was +the first correctly to solve Aristotle’s problem, stated above, +and to apply it practically to solar observations in a darkened +room (<i>Cosmographia</i>, 1535). Erasmus Reinhold has described +the method in his edition of G. Purbach’s <i>Theoricae Novae +Planetarum</i> (1542), and probably got it from Maurolycus. He +says it can also be applied to terrestrial objects, though he only +used it for the sun. His pupil, Rainer Gemma-Frisius, used it +for the observation of the solar eclipse of January 1544 at +Louvain, and fully described the methods he adopted for making +measurements and drawings of the eclipsed sun, in his <i>De Radio +Astronomico et Geometrico</i> (1545). He says they can be used for +observation of the moon and stars and also for longitudes. The +same arrangement was used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, by +M. Moestlin and his pupil Kepler—the latter applying it in 1607 +to the observation of a transit of Mercury—also by Johann +Fabricius, in 1611, for the first observations of sun-spots. It is +interesting to note this early employment of the camera obscura +in the field of astronomical research, in which its latest achievements +have been of such pre-eminent value.</p> + +<p>The addition of optical appliances to the simple dark chamber +for the purpose of seeing what was going on outside, was first +described by Girolamo Cardan in his <i>De Subtilitate</i> (1550), as +noted by Libri. The sun shining, he fixed a round glass speculum +(<i>orbem e vitro</i>) in a window-shutter, and then closing it the images +of outside objects would be seen transmitted through the +aperture on to the opposite wall, or better, a white paper screen +suitably placed. The account is not very clear, but seems to +imply the use of a concave mirror rather than a lens, which +might be suggested by the word <i>orbem</i>. He refers to Maurolycus’ +work with concave specula.</p> + +<p>We now come to Giovanni Battista della Porta, whose account +of the camera obscura in the first edition of the <i>Magia Naturalis,</i> +in four books (1558, lib. iv. cap. 2), is very similar to Caesariano’s—a +darkened room, a pyramidal aperture towards the sun, and a +whitened wall or white paper screens, but no lens. He discloses +as a great secret the use of a concave speculum in front of the +aperture, to collect the rays passing through it, when the images +will be seen reversed, but by prolonging them beyond the centre +they would be seen larger and unreversed. This is much the +same as Cardan’s method published eight years earlier, but +though more detailed is not very clear. He then notes the +application to portraiture and to painting by laying colours on +the projected images. Nothing is said about the use of a lens +or of solar observations. The second edition, in which he in the +same words discloses the use of a convex lens in the aperture as a +secret he had intended to keep, was not published till 1589, +thirty-one years after the first. In this interval the use of the +lens was discovered and clearly described by Daniello Barbaro, a +Venetian noble, patriarch of Aquileia, in his work <i>La Pratica +della perspettiva</i> (p. 192), published in 1568, or twenty-one +years before Porta’s mention of it. The lens used by Barbaro +was an ordinary convex or old man’s spectacle-glass; concave, +he says, will not do. He shows how the paper must be moved +till it is brought into the focus of the lens, the use of a diaphragm +to make the image clearer, and also the application of the method +for drawing in true perspective. That Barbaro was really the +first to apply the lens to the camera obscura is supported by +Marius Bettinus in his <i>Apiaria</i> (1645), and by Kaspar Schott in +his <i>Magia Universalis</i> (1657), the former taunting Porta with the +appropriation.</p> + +<p>In an Italian translation of Euclid’s <i>Optica</i>, with commentary, +Egnacio Danti (1573), after discussing the effects of plane, +convex and concave reflectors, fully describes the method of +showing reversed images passing through an aperture in a +darkened room, and shows how, by placing a mirror behind the +aperture, unreversed images might be obtained, both effects +being illustrated by diagrams. F. Risner, who died in 1580, +also in his <i>Opticae</i> (1606) very clearly explained the reversal of +the images of the simple camera obscura. He notes the convenience +of the method for solar observations and its previous +use by some of the observers already mentioned, as well as its +advantages for easily and accurately copying on an enlarged or +reduced scale, especially for chorographical or topographical +documents. This is probably the first notice of the application +of the camera to cartography and the reproduction of drawings, +which is one of its principal uses at the present time. In +the <i>Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum el Physicarum</i> +(1585), by the Venetian Giovanni Battista Benedetti, there is a +letter in which he discusses the simple camera obscura and +mentions the improvement some one had made in it by the use +of a double convex lens in the aperture; he also says that the +images could be made erect by reflection from any plane mirror.</p> + +<p>Thus the use of the camera and of the lens with it was well +known before Porta published his second edition of the <i>Magia +Naturalis</i> in 1589. In this the description of the camera obscura +is in lib. xvii. cap. 6. The use of the convex lens, which is given +as a great secret, in place of the concave speculum of the first +edition, is not so clearly described as by Barbaro; the addition +of the concave speculum is proposed for making the images +larger and clearer, and also for making them erect, but no details +are given. He describes some entertaining peep-show arrangements, +possibly similar to Alberti’s, and indicates how the dark +chamber with a concave speculum can be used for observing +eclipses. There is no mention whatever of a portable box or +construction beyond the darkened room, nor is there in his later +work, <i>De Refractione Optices Parte</i> (1593), in which he discusses +the analogy between vision and the simple dark room with an +aperture, but incorrectly. Though Porta’s merits were undoubtedly +great, he did not invent or improve the camera +obscura. His only novelty was the use of it as a peep-show; +his descriptions of it are vague, but being published in a book of +general reference, which became popular, he acquired credit for +the invention.</p> + +<p>The first to take up the camera obscura after Porta was Kepler, +who used it in the old way for solar observations in 1600, and +in his <i>Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena</i> (1604) discusses the early +problems of the passages of light through small apertures, and +the rationale of the simple dark chamber. He was the first to +describe an instrument fitted with a sight and paper screen for +observing the diameters of the sun and moon in a dark room. +In his later book, <i>Dioptrice</i> (1611), he fully discusses refraction +and the use of lenses, showing the action of the double convex +lens in the camera obscura, with the principles which regulate +its use and the reason of the reversal of the image. He also +demonstrates how enlarged images can be produced and projected +on paper by using a concave lens at a suitable distance behind +the convex, as in modern telephotographic lenses. He was the +first to use the term <i>camera obscura</i>, and in a letter from Sir H. +Wotton written to Lord Bacon in 1620 we learn that Kepler had +made himself a portable dark tent fitted with a telescope lens +and used for sketching landscapes. Further, he extended the +work of Maurolycus, and demonstrated the exact analogy +between the eye and the camera and the arrangement by which +an inverted image is produced on the retina.</p> + +<p>In 1609 the telescope came into use, and the danger of observing +the sun with it was soon discovered. In 1611 Johann +Fabricius published his observations of sun-spots and describes +how he and his father fell back upon the old method of projecting +the sun’s image in a darkened room, finding that they could +observe the spots just as well as with the telescope. They do +not seem to have used a lens, or thought of using the telescope +for projecting an enlarged imase on Kepler’s principle. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span> +was done in 1612 by Christoph Schemer, who fully described his +method of solar observation in the <i>Rosa Ursina</i> (1630), demonstrating +very clearly and practically the advantages and disadvantages +of using the camera, without a lens, with a single +convex lens, and with a telescopic combination of convex +object-glass and concave enlarging lens, the last arrangement +being mounted with an adjustable screen or tablet on an equatorial +stand. Most of the earlier astronomical work was done +in a darkened room, but here we first find the dark chamber +constructed of wooden rods covered with cloth or paper, and +used separately to screen the observing-tablet.</p> + +<p>Various writers on optics in the 17th century discussed the +principle of the simple dark chamber alone and with single or +compound lenses, among them Jean Tarde (<i>Les Astres de Borbon</i>, +1623); Descartes, the pupil of Kepler (<i>Dioptrique</i>, 1637); +Bettinus (<i>Apiaria</i>, 1645); A. Kircher (<i>Ars Magna Lucis et +Umbrae</i>, 1646); J. Hevelius (<i>Selenographia</i>, 1647); Schott +(<i>Magia Universalis Naturae et Artis</i>, 1674); C.F.M. Deschales +(<i>Cursus, seu Mundus Mathematicus</i>, 1674); Z. Traber (<i>Nervus +Opticus</i>, 1675), but their accounts are generally more interesting +theoretically than as recording progress in the practical use and +development of the instrument.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention of the camera obscura in England is +probably in Francis Bacon’s <i>De Augmentis Scientiarum</i>, but it is +only as an illustration of the projected images showing better +on a white screen than on a black one. Sir H. Wotton’s letter +of 1620, already noted, was not published till 1651 (<i>Reliquiae +Wottonianae</i>, p. 141), but in 1658 a description of Kepler’s portable +tent camera for sketching, taken from it, was published in a work +called <i>Graphice, or the most excellent Art of Painting</i>, but no +mention is made of Kepler. In W. Oughtred’s English edition +(1633) of the <i>Récréations mathématiques</i> (1627) of Jean Leurechon +(“Henry van Etten”) there is a quaint description, with +figures, of the simple dark chamber with aperture, and also of a +sort of tent with a lens in it and the projection on an inner wall +of the face of a man standing outside. The English translation +of Porta’s <i>Natural Magick</i> was published in 1658.</p> + +<p>Robert Boyle seems to have been the first to construct a box +camera with lens for viewing landscapes. It is mentioned in his +essay <i>On the Systematic or Cosmical Qualities of Things</i> (ch. vi.), +written about 1570, as having been made several years before +and since imitated and improved. It could be extended or +shortened like a telescope. At one end of it paper was stretched, +and at the other a convex lens was fitted in a hole, the image +being viewed through an aperture at the top of the box. Robert +Hooke, who was some time Boyle’s assistant, described (<i>Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1668, 3, p. 741) a camera lucida on the principle of the +magic lantern, in which the images of illuminated and inverted +objects were projected on any desired scale by means of a broad +convex lens through an aperture into a room where they were +viewed by the spectators. If the objects could not be inverted, +another lens was used for erecting the images. From Hooke’s +<i>Posthumous Works</i> (1705), p. 127, we find that in one of the +Cutlerian lectures on Light delivered in 1680, he illustrated the +phenomena of vision by a darkened room, or perspective box, +of a peculiar pattern, the back part, with a concave white screen +at the end of it, being cylindrical and capable of being moved +in and out, while the fore part was conical, a double convex +lens being fixed in a hole in front. The image was viewed +through a large hole in the side. It was between 4 and 5 ft. +long.</p> + +<p>Johann Zahn, in his <i>Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus</i> (1685-1686), +described and figured two forms of portable box cameras +with lenses. One was a wooden box with a projecting tube in +which a combination of a concave with a convex lens was fitted, +for throwing an enlarged image upon the focusing screen, +which in its proportions and application is very similar to our +modern telephotographic objectives. The image was first thrown +upon an inclined mirror and then reflected upwards to a paper +screen on the top of the box. In an earlier form the image is +thrown upon a vertical thin paper screen and viewed through a +hole in the back of the camera. There is a great deal of practical +information on lenses in connexion with the camera and other +optical instruments, and the book is valuable as a repertory +of early practical optics, also for the numerous references to +and extracts from previous writers. An improved edition was +published in 1702.</p> + +<p>Most of the writers already noticed worked out the problems +connected with the projection of images in the camera obscura +more by actual practice than by calculation, but William +Molyneux, of Dublin, seems to have been the first to treat them +mathematically in his <i>Dioptrica Nova</i> (1692), which was also the +first work in English on the subject, and is otherwise an interesting +book. He has fully discussed the optical theory of the dark +chamber, with and without a lens, and its analogy to the eye, +also several optical problems relating to lenses of various forms +and their combinations for telescopic projection, rules for finding +foci, &c. He does not, however, mention the camera obscura +as an instrument in use, but in John Harris’s <i>Lexicon Technicum</i> +(1704) we find that the camera obscura with the arrangement +called the “scioptric ball,” and known as <i>scioptricks</i>, was on sale +in London, and after this must have been in common use as a +sketching instrument or as a show.</p> + +<p>Sir Isaac Newton, in his <i>Opticks</i> (1704), explains the principle +of the camera obscura with single convex lens and its analogy +with vision in illustration of his seventh axiom, which aptly +embodies the correct solution of Aristotle’s old problem. He +also made great use of the simple dark chamber for his optical +experiments with prisms, &c. Joseph Priestley (1772) mentions +the application of the solar microscope, both to the small and +portable and the large camera obscura. Many patterns of these +two forms for sketching and for viewing surrounding scenes +are described in W.J.’s Gravesande’s <i>Essai de perspective</i> +(1711), Robert Smith’s <i>Compleat System of Optics</i> (1738), Joseph +Harris’s <i>Treatise on Optics</i> (1775), Charles Hutton’s <i>Philosophical +and Mathematical Dictionary</i>, and other books on optics +and physics of that period. The camera obscura was first +applied to photography (<i>q.v.</i>) probably about 1794, by Thomas +Wedgwood. His experiments with Sir Humphrey Davy in +endeavouring to fix the images of natural objects as seen in the +camera were published in 1802 (<i>Journ. Roy. Inst.</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(J. Wa.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1500-1574), German classical +scholar, was born at Bamberg on the 12th of April 1500. His +family name was Liebhard, but he was generally called Kammermeister, +previous members of his family having held the office +of chamberlain (<i>camerarius</i>) to the bishops of Bamberg. He +studied at Leipzig, Erfurt and Wittenberg, where he became +intimate with Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher +of history and Greek at the gymnasium, Nuremberg. In 1530 +he was sent as deputy for Nuremberg to the diet of Augsburg, +where he rendered important assistance to Melanchthon in +drawing up the Confession of Augsburg. Five years later he +was commissioned by Duke Ulrich of Württemberg to reorganize +the university of Tübingen; and in 1541 he rendered a similar +service at Leipzig, where the remainder of his life was chiefly +spent. He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes, +Xenophon, Homer, Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoretus, +Nicephorus and other Greek writers. He published upwards of +150 works, including a <i>Catalogue of the Bishops of the Principal +Sees</i>; <i>Greek Epistles</i>; <i>Accounts of his Journeys</i>, in Latin verse; +a Commentary on Plautus; a treatise on Numismatics; <i>Euclid</i> +in Latin; and the Lives of Helius Eobanus Hessus, George of +Anhalt and Philip Melanchthon. His <i>Epistolae Familiares</i> +(published after his death) are a valuable contribution to the +history of his time. He played an important part in the Reformation +movement, and his advice was frequently sought by +leading men. In 1535 he entered into a correspondence with +Francis I. as to the possibility of a reconciliation between the +Catholic and Protestant creeds; and in 1568 Maximilian II. +sent for him to Vienna to consult him on the same subject. +He died at Leipzig on the 17th of April 1574.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See article by A. Horawitz in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; +C. Bursian, <i>Die Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> +(1883); J.E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> (ed. 1908), ii. 266.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1534-1598), German botanist and +physician, son of the classical scholar of the same name, was +born at Nuremberg on the 6th of November 1534. After finishing +his studies in Germany he visited Italy, where he graduated as +doctor of medicine. On his return he was invited to reside at +the courts of several princes, but preferred to settle in his native +town of Nuremberg, where he had a botanical garden and +formed extensive collections. He wrote a <i>Hortus Medicus</i> +(1588) and several other works. He died at Nuremberg on the +11th of October 1598.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1665-1721), German +botanist and physician, was born at Tübingen on the 12th of +February 1665, and became professor of medicine and director +of the botanical gardens at Tübingen in 1687. He died at +Tübingen on the 11th of September 1721. He is chiefly known +for his investigations on the reproductive organs of plants +(<i>De sexu plantarum epistola</i>, 1694).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERINO<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (anc. <i>Camerinum</i>), a city and episcopal see (since +465, if not sooner; Treia is now combined with it) of the Marches, +Italy, in the province of Macerata, 6 m. S. of the railway +station of Castelraimondo (to which there is an electric tramway) +which is 24 m. W. of Macerata; 2148 ft. above sea-level. +Pop. (1901) of town, 4005; of commune, 12,083. The cathedral +is modern, the older building having fallen in 1799; the church +of S. Venanzio suffered similarly, but preserves a portal of the +15th century. The citadel, perhaps constructed from the plans +of Leonardo da Vinci, dates from 1503. Camerino occupies +the site of the ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which +(<i>Camertes Umbri</i>) became allies of the Romans in 310 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (at +the time of the attack on the Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest). +On the other hand, the <span class="grk" title="Kamertioi">Καμέρτιοι</span> referred to in the history of +the year 295 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> are probably the inhabitants of Clusium. +Later it appears as a dependent autonomous community with +the <i>foedus aequum</i> (Mommsen, <i>Röm. Staatsrecht</i>, iii. 664). Two +cohorts of Camertes fought with distinction under Marius +against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of +Catiline, and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under +the empire it was a <i>municipium</i>. It belonged to ancient Umbria, +but was on the borders of Picenum. No ancient buildings are +visible, the Roman level lying as much as 30 ft. below the modern.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. Savini, <i>Storia delta Città di Camerino</i> (2nd ed., Camerino, +1895); M. Mariani, <i>Intorno agli antichi Camerti Umbri</i> (Camerino, +1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERON, JOHN<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1579-1623), Scottish theologian, was born +at Glasgow about 1579, and received his early education in his +native city. After having taught Greek in the university for +twelve months, he removed to Bordeaux, where he was soon +appointed a regent in the college of Bergerac. He did not +remain long at Bordeaux, but accepted the offer of a chair of +philosophy at Sedan, where he passed two years. He then +returned to Bordeaux, and in the beginning of 1604 he was +nominated one of the students of divinity who were maintained +at the expense of the church, and who for the period of four +years were at liberty to prosecute their studies in any Protestant +seminary. During this period he acted as tutor to the two sons +of Calignon, chancellor of Navarre. They spent one year at +Paris, and two at Geneva, whence they removed to Heidelberg. +In this university, on the 4th of April 1608, he gave a public +proof of his ability by maintaining a series of theses, <i>De triplici +Dei cum Homine Foedere</i>, which were printed among his works. +The same year he was recalled to Bordeaux, where he was +appointed the colleague of Dr Primrose; and when Francis +Gomarus was removed to Leiden, Cameron, in 1618, was +appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, the principal seminary +of the French Protestants.</p> + +<p>In 1620 the progress of the civil troubles in France obliged +Cameron to seek refuge for himself and family in England. For +a short time he read private lectures on divinity in London; +and in 1622 the king appointed him principal of the university +of Glasgow in the room of Robert Boyd, who had been removed +from his office in consequence of his adherence to Presbyterianism. +Cameron was prepared to accept Episcopacy, and was +cordially disliked for his adherence to the doctrine of passive +obedience. He resigned his office in less than a year.</p> + +<p>He returned to France, and lived at Saumur. After an +interval of a year he was appointed professor of divinity at +Montauban. The country was still torn by civil and religious +dissensions; and Cameron excited the indignation of the more +strenuous adherents of his own party. He withdrew to the +neighbouring town of Moissac; but he soon returned to Montauban, +and a few days afterwards he died at the age of about +forty-six. Cameron left by his first wife several children, whose +maintenance was undertaken by the Protestant churches in +France. All his works were published after his death.</p> + +<p>His name has a distinct place in the development of Calvinistic +theology in Europe. He and his followers maintained that the +will of man is determined by the practical judgment of the +mind; that the cause of men’s doing good or evil proceeds from +the knowledge which God infuses into them; and that God does +not move the will physically, but only morally, by virtue of its +dependence on the judgment of the mind. This peculiar doctrine +of grace and free-will was adopted by Amyraut, Cappel, Bochart, +Daillé and others of the more learned among the Reformed +ministers, who dissented from Calvin’s. The Cameronites (not +to be confused with the Scottish sect called Cameronians) +are moderate Calvinists, and approach to the opinion of the +Arminians. They are also called Universalists, as holding the +universal reference of Christ’s death, and sometimes Amyraldists. +The rigid adherents to the synod of Dort accused them +of Pelagianism, and even of Manichaeism, and the controversy +between the parties was carried on with great zeal; yet the +whole question between them was only, whether the will of man +is determined by the immediate action of God upon it, or by +the intervention of a knowledge which God impresses on the +mind.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERON, RICHARD<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1648?-1680), founder of a Scottish +religious sect of Cameronians, which formed the nucleus of +the regiment of this name in the British army, was born at +Falkland in the county of Fife. He was educated at the village +school, and his success was so great that, while still a youth, +he was appointed schoolmaster. In this situation he became +acquainted with some of the more enthusiastic field-preachers. +Persuaded by them he resigned his post and entered the family +of Sir Walter Scott of Harden as chaplain and tutor. Refusing +to acknowledge the Indulgence, he joined the ranks of the non-conforming +ministers, and incited the inhabitants of the southern +counties of Scotland to protest openly against the new edict. +So formidable was the agitation that the government pronounced +illegal all armed assemblages for religious purposes. Cameron +took refuge in Holland, where he resided for some time; but +in the autumn of 1679 (probably) he returned to Scotland, and +once more made himself formidable to the government. Shortly +after the defeat of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge in that +year, Cameron was slain in a skirmish at the Aird’s, or Airs, +Moss, fighting bravely at the head of the few troops which he +had been able to collect. His prayer before going into battle +became a tradition—“Lord spare the green and take the ripe.” +After the accession of William III. the survivors were amnestied, +and the Cameronian regiment was formed from them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Andrew Lang, <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iii. (1907); Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1897), <i>s.v.</i> “Cameronianer”; A. Smellie, +<i>Men of the Covenant</i>; Herkless, <i>Richard Cameron</i>; P. Walker, <i>Six +Saints of the Covenant.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERON, SIMON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1799-1889), American politician, was +born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of March +1799. Left an orphan at the age of nine, he early entered +journalism, and, in banking and railway enterprises, accumulated +a considerable fortune. He became influential in Pennsylvania +politics, and in 1845-1849 served in the United States Senate, +being elected by a combination of Democratic, Whig and +“American” votes to succeed James Buchanan. In 1854, +having failed to secure the nomination for senator from the +“Know-Nothing” Party, which he had recently joined, he +became a leader of the “People’s Party,” as the Republican +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> +Party was at first called in Pennsylvania. In 1857 he was +elected to the United States Senate as a Republican, despite a +Democratic majority in the state legislature, a fact that gave +rise to charges of bribery. His prominence as a candidate first +for the presidential and then for the vice-presidential nomination +in the Republican national convention of 1860 led to his being +selected by President Lincoln as secretary of war. His administration +of this office at a critical time was marked by his accustomed +energy, but unfortunately also by partiality in the letting +of government contracts, which brought about his resignation +at Lincoln’s request in January 1862 and his subsequent censure +by the House of Representatives. Lincoln sent him as minister +to Russia, but he returned in November 1862. He again served +in the Senate (after 1872, being chairman of the committee on +foreign relations) from 1867 until 1877, when he resigned to +make room for his son, whose election he dictated. Cameron +was one of the ablest political organizers the United States has +ever known, and his long undisputed control of Pennsylvania +politics was one of the most striking examples of “boss rule” +in American history. The definition of an honest politician as +“one who when he is bought will stay bought” has been +attributed to him. He died on the 26th of June 1889.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">James Donald Cameron</span> (1833-  ) was born at +Middletown, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of May 1833, graduated +at Princeton in 1852, became actively interested in his father’s +banking and railway enterprises, and from 1863 to 1874 was +president of the Northern Central railway. Trained in the +political school of his father, he developed into an astute politician. +From June 1876 to March 1877 he was secretary of war in +President Grant’s cabinet. In the Republican national convention +of 1876 he took an influential part in preventing the nomination +of James G. Elaine, and later was one of those who directed +the policy of the Republicans in the struggle for the presidency +between Tilden and Hayes. From 1877 until 1897 he was a +member of the United States Senate, having been elected +originally to succeed his father, who resigned in order to create +the vacancy. He was chairman of the Republican national +committee during the campaign of 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1844-1894), English traveller +in Central Africa, was born at Radipole, near Weymouth, Dorsetshire, +on the 1st of July 1844. He entered the navy in 1857, +served in the Abyssinian campaign of 1868, and was employed +for a considerable time in the suppression of the East African +slave trade. The experience thus obtained led to his being +selected to command an expedition sent by the Royal Geographical +Society in 1873, to succour Dr. Livingstone. He was also +instructed to make independent explorations, guided by Livingstone’s +advice. Soon after the departure of the expedition from +Zanzibar, Livingstone’s servants were met bearing the dead +body of their master. Cameron’s two European companions +turned back, but he continued his march and reached Ujiji, +on Lake Tanganyika, in February 1874, where he found and +sent to England Livingstone’s papers. Cameron spent some time +determining the true form of the south part of the lake, and +solved the question of its outlet by the discovery of the Lukuga +river. From Tanganyika he struck westward to Nyangwe, +the Arab town on the Lualaba previously visited by Livingstone. +This river Cameron rightly believed to be the main stream of +the Congo, and he endeavoured to procure canoes to follow +it down. In this he was unsuccessful, owing to his refusal to +countenance slavery, and he therefore turned south-west. +After tracing the Congo-Zambezi watershed for hundreds of +miles he reached Bihe and finally arrived at the coast on the +28th of November 1875, being the first European to cress +Equatorial Africa from sea to sea. His travels, which were +published in 1877 under the title <i>Across Africa</i>, contain valuable +suggestions for the opening up of the continent, including the +utilization of the great lakes as a “Cape to Cairo” connexion. +In recognition of his work he was promoted to the rank of +commander, made a Companion of the Bath and given the gold +medal of the Geographical Society. The remainder of Cameron’s +life was chiefly devoted to projects for the commercial development +of Africa, and to writing tales for the young. He visited +the Euphrates valley in 1878-1879 in connexion with a proposed +railway to the Persian Gulf, and accompanied Sir Richard +Burton in his West African journey of 1882. At the Gold Coast +Cameron surveyed the Tarkwa region, and he was joint author +with Burton of <i>To the Gold Coast for Gold</i> (1883). He was killed, +near Leighton Buzzard, by a fall from horseback when returning +from hunting, on the 24th of March 1894.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A second edition of <i>Across Africa</i>, with new matter and corrected +maps, appeared in 1885. A summary of Cameron’s great journey, +from his own pen, appears in Dr Robert Brown’s <i>The Story of Africa</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 266-279 (London, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1629-1719), Scottish +Highland chieftain, was the eldest son of John Cameron and the +grandson of Alan Cameron, the head of the clan Cameron. +Having lost his father in infancy he passed part of his youth with +the marquess of Argyll at Inveraray, leaving his guardian about +1647 to take up his duties as chief of the clan Cameron, a position +in which he succeeded his grandfather. In 1653 Lochiel joined +the earl of Glencairn in his rising on behalf of Charles II., and +after the defeat of this attempt he served the Royalist cause by +harassing General Monk. In 1681 he was knighted by Charles II., +and in July 1689 he was with Viscount Dundee at Killiecrankie. +He was too old to share personally in the Jacobite rising of 1715, +but his sympathies were with the Stuarts, and his son led the +Camerons at Sheriffmuir. Lochiel, who died in February 1719, +is called by Macaulay the “Ulysses of the Highlands.” He was a +man of enormous strength and size, and one who met him in 1716 +says “he wrung some blood from the point of my fingers with a +grasp of his hand.” An incident showing his strength and +ferocity in single combat is used by Sir Walter Scott in <i>The Lady +of the Lake</i> (canto v.). Lochiel’s son and successor, John, who +was attainted for sharing in the rebellion of 1715, died in Flanders +in 1748. John’s son Donald, sometimes called “gentle Lochiel,” +joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, in 1745, was +wounded at Culloden, and escaped to France, dying in the same +year as his father. The 79th regiment, or Cameron Highlanders, +was raised from among the members of the clan in 1793 by Sir +Alan Cameron (1753-1828).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoirs of Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel</i> (Bannatyne Club, +1842).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMERONIANS,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> the name given to that section of the Scottish +Covenanters (<i>q.v.</i>) who followed Richard Cameron (<i>q.v.</i>), and +who were chiefly found among those who signed the Sanquhar +Declaration in 1680. Known also as “Society Men,” “Sanquharians” +and “Hillmen,” they became a separate church +after the religious settlement of 1690, taking the official title +of Reformed Presbyterians in 1743. Societies of Cameronians +for the maintenance of the Presbyterian form of worship were +formed about 1681; their testimony, “The Informatory Vindication,” +is dated 1687; and they quickly became the most pronounced +and active adherents of the covenanting faith. Holding +fast to the two covenants, the National Covenant of 1580 and +the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, they wished to restore +the ecclesiastical order which had existed between 1638 and 1649, +and were dissatisfied with the moderate character of the religious +settlement of 1690. Refusing to take the oaths of allegiance to +an “uncovenanted” ruler, or to exercise any civil function, they +passed through a period of trial and found some difficulty in +maintaining a regular ministry; but in 1706 they were reinforced +by some converts from the established church. They objected +strongly to the proposal for the union of England and Scotland, +and were suspected of abetting a rising which took place in the +west of Scotland in 1706; but there appears to be no foundation +for the statement that they intrigued with the Jacobites, and +they gave no trouble to the government either in 1715 or in 1745. +In 1712 they publicly renewed the covenants at Auchensauch +Hill in Lanarkshire, and in 1743 their first presbytery was +constituted at Braehead, while a presbytery was formed in North +America in 1774. In 1863 the Cameronians, or Reformed +Presbyterians, decided to inflict no penalties upon those members +who had taken the oaths, or had exercised civil functions, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span> +consequently a few congregations seceded. In 1876 the general +body of the Reformed Presbyterians united with the Free Church +of Scotland, leaving the few seceding congregations as the +representatives of the principles of the Cameronians. In the +British army the first battalion of the Cameronians (Scottish +Rifles) is directly descended from the “Cameronian guard,” +which, composed of Cameronians, was embodied by the convention +parliament in 1689, and was afterwards employed to +restore order in the Highlands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.H. Burton, <i>History of Scotland</i>, vols. vii. and viii. (Edinburgh, +1905); and A. Lang, <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, +1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMEROON<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span><a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Ger. <i>Kamerun</i>), a German protectorate in West +Africa, bounded W. by the Atlantic, N.W. by British Nigeria, +N. by Lake Chad, E. and S. by French Congo, save for a short +distance on the south where it is conterminous with the Spanish +Muni river settlement.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:675px; height:855px" src="images/img110.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Boundaries and Area.</i>—The sea frontier extends from the Rio +del Rey, just where the great bend of the coast-line east to south +begins, forming the Bight of Biafra, to the Campo river, a distance +of 200 m. The north-western boundary, laid down in an +agreement between Germany and Great Britain on the 15th of +November 1893, runs from the mouth of the Rio del Rey to the +“rapids” of the Cross river in 8° 48′ E. Thence it is continued +in a north-east line towards Yola, as far as the confines of that +town. The boundary is then deflected south so as to leave +Yola in British territory, turning north again to cross the Benue +river at a spot 3 m. west of where the Faro joins the Benue. +From this point the frontier goes north-east to the border of +Lake Chad, 35 m. east of the meridian of the town of Kuka. +The southern shores of Lake Chad for a distance of some 40 m. +belong to the protectorate. The south and east boundaries +were laid down by agreements between Germany and France on +the 24th of December 1885, the 15th of March 1894 and the +18th of April 1908. The south boundary runs in a fairly direct +line from the mouth of the Campo river to the river Dscha (or +Ngoko), which it follows to its confluence with the Sanga. The +eastern boundary runs from the Sanga irregularly north to 10° N., +where it approaches the British frontier at Yola, so that at its +narrowest part the protectorate is little more than 50 m. across. +From 10° N. the frontier turns eastwards to +the Logone, thence going north-east to the +Shari river, which it follows to Lake Chad. +The protectorate has an area of about 190,000 +sq. m. Estimated population (1908) 3,500,000, +of whom 1128 were whites.</p> + +<p><i>Origin of the Name.</i>—The name Camarões was +first given by the Portuguese discoverers of +the 15th and 16th centuries to a large bay or +estuary, lying south-east of a great mountain +close to the sea, met with after passing the +Niger delta. This estuary they called the Rio +dos Camarões (the river of Prawns), from the +abundance of the crustacea found therein. +The name Camarões was also used to designate +the neighbouring mountains. The English +usage until nearly the end of the 19th century +was to confine the term “the Cameroons” to +the mountain range, and to speak of the +estuary as the Cameroons river. Locally it was +often called “the Bay.” On their acquisition +of the country in 1884 the Germans extended +the use of the name in its Teutonic form— +Kamerun—to the whole protectorate.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—Cameroon forms the +north-west corner of the great Central African +plateau. This becomes evident in its eastern +section, where are wide-spreading plains, which +farther west assume an undulating character, +and gradually merge into a picturesque mountain +range. This range, running from north +to south, is flanked by a parallel and lower +range in the west, with a wide valley between. +In the north-west the Upper Guinea mountains +send their eastern spurs across the boundary, +and from a volcanic rift, which runs south-west +to north-east, the Cameroon peak towers +up, its summit 13,370 ft. high. This mountain, +whose south-western base is washed by the +Atlantic, is the highest point on the western +side of Africa, and it alone of the great mountains +of the continent lies close to the coast. +From any vantage point, but especially from +the sea, it presents a magnificent spectacle, +while some 30 m. westward rises Clarence peak, the culminating +point of Fernando Po. With an area, on an isolated base, of +700 to 800 sq. m., Cameroon mountain has but two distinct +peaks, Great Cameroon and Little Cameroon (5820 ft.), which +is from foot to top covered with dense forest. The native +designation of the highest peak is Mongo-ma-Loba, or the +Mountain of Thunder, and the whole upper region is usually +called Mongo-mo-Ndemi, or the Mountain of Greatness. On the +principal summit there are a group of craters. In 1909 the +mountain was in eruption and huge streams of lava were +ejected. Inland the Chebchi and Mandara mountains indicate +the direction and extent of the rift.</p> + +<p>The mountains of the plateau sweep grandly round to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span> +east on reaching the eighth degree of N. lat. Here they give +rise to a number of small rivers, which collect in the rift and +form the Benue, the great eastern affluent of the Niger. This +part of the protectorate is known as Adamawa (<i>q.v.</i>). Farther +north, beyond the Mandara mountains, the country, here part +of the ancient sultanate of Bornu, slopes to the shores of Lake +Chad, and has a general level of 800 to 1000 ft. The greater part +of Cameroon is thus a mountainous country, with, on the coast, +a strip of low land. In the south this is very narrow; it widens towards +the north savewhere the Cameroon peak reaches to the sea.</p> + +<p>At the foot of the Cameroon peak a number of estuaries cut +deep bays which form excellent harbours. The small rivers +which empty into them can be ascended for some miles by steam +launches. The principal estuary, which is over 20 m. wide, is +called, as already noted, the Cameroon river or bay. The term +river is more particularly confined to a ramification of the estuary +which receives the waters of the Mungo river (a considerable +stream which flows south from the Cameroon mountains), the +Wuri, a river coming from the north-east, and various smaller +rivers. Under the shadow of Cameroon peak lies the bay of +Ambas, with the islands of Ndami (Ambas) and Mondola. It +forms a tolerable harbour, capable of receiving large vessels.</p> + +<p>Traversing the central portion of the country is a large river +known in its upper course as the Lom, and in its lower as the +Sanaga, which enters the ocean just to the south of the Cameroon +estuary. Both the Lom and the Nyong (a more southerly +stream) rise in the central plateau, from which they descend in +splendid cascades, breaking through the parallel coast range in +rapids, which indicate the extent of their navigability. The +Lokunja and Kribi are smaller rivers with courses parallel to +and south of the Nyong. In the south-east of the colony the +streams—of which the chief are the Dscha and Bumba—are +tributaries of the Sanga, itself an affluent of the Congo (<i>q.v.</i>). +About 100 m. of the right bank of the Sanga, from the confluence +of the Dscha upwards, are in German territory. In the north +the country drains into Lake Chad through the Logone and +Shari (<i>q.v.</i>). Including the headwaters of the Benue the colony +has four distinct river-systems, one connecting with the Niger, +another with the Congo, and a third with Lake Chad, the fourth +being the rivers which run direct to the sea. The Niger and +Shari systems communicate, with, at high water, but one obstruction +to navigation. The connecting link is a marshy lake named +Tuburi. From it issues the Kebbi (Mao Kebi) a tributary of +the Benue, and through it flows a tributary of the Logone, the +chief affluent of the Shari. The one obstruction in the waterway +is a fall of 165 ft. in the Kebbi.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The oldest rocks, forming the greater mass of the +hinterland, are gneisses, schists and granites of Archaean age. +Along the Benue river a sandstone (Benue sandstone) forms the +banks to 14° E. Cretaceous rocks occur around the basalt +platform of the Cameroon mountain and generally along the +coastal belt. Basalt and tuff, probably of Tertiary age, form +the great mass of the Cameroon mountain, also the island of +Fernando Po. Extensive areas in the interior, more especially +towards Lake Chad, are covered with black earth of alluvial or +lacustrine origin.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The country lies wholly within the tropics and has +a characteristic tropical climate. In the interior four seasons +can be distinguished; a comparatively dry and a wet one alternating. +July to October are the coldest months, and also bring +most rain, but there is hardly a month without rain. On the +coast the temperature is high all the year round, but on the +plateau it is cooler. Malarial fever is frequent, and even the +Africans, especially those coming from other countries, suffer from +it. The middle zone of the Cameroon mountain has, however, a +temperate climate and affords excellent sites for sanatoria.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The southern part of the low coast is +chiefly grass land, while the river mouths and arms of the bays +are lined with mangroves. The mountainous region is covered +with primeval forest, in which timber and valuable woods for +cabinet-making are plentiful. Most important are the <i>Elaeis +guineensis, Sterculia acuminata</i> and the wild coffee tree. On +Cameroon peak the forest ascends to 8000 ft.; above it is grass +land. Towards the east the forest gradually grows thinner, +assumes a park-like appearance, and finally disappears, wide +grass uplands taking its place. The country north of the Benue +is rich and well cultivated. Cotton and rubber are found in +considerable quantities, and fields of maize, corn, rice and sugarcane +bear witness to the fertility of the soil.</p> + +<p>Animals are plentiful, including the great pachyderms and +carnivora. The latter prey on the various kinds of antelopes +which swarm on the grass lands. Two kinds of buffaloes are +found in the forests, which are the home of the gorilla and +chimpanzee. Large rodents, like the porcupine and cane rat, +are numerous. Of birds there are 316 species, and several of +venomous snakes.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The north of Cameroon is inhabited by Fula +(<i>q.v.</i>) and Hausa (<i>q.v.</i>) and allied tribes, the south by Bantu-speaking +races. The Fula came from the north and north-east, +gradually driving the Bantu-negroes before them. They brought +horses and horned cattle, unknown in these regions until then, +and they founded well-organized states, like that of Adamawa, +now divided between Cameroon and the British protectorate +of Nigeria. In the vicinity of the rivers Benue, Faro and Kebbi, +the people, who are good agriculturists, raise cereals and other +crops, while on the plateaus stock-raising forms the chief pursuit +of the inhabitants. In this northern region villages are built +in the Sudanese zeriba style, surrounded with thorn fences; +more important places are enclosed by a well-built wall and +strongly fortified. Of martial disposition, the people often +waged war with their neighbours, and also amongst themselves +until the pacification of the hinterland by Germany at the +beginning of the 20th century.</p> + +<p>The Bantu-negroes inhabit the country south of about 7° N. +Chief among the tribes are the Dualla (<i>q.v.</i>), the Ba-kwiri (<i>q.v.</i>), +the Ba-Long, the Ba-Farami, the Wuri, the Abo and the Ba-Kundu. +They build square houses, are active traders and are +ruled by independent chiefs, having no political cohesion. +Among the Dualla a curious system of drum signals is noteworthy. +In the coast towns are numbers of Krumen, who, +however, rarely settle permanently in the country. The Fula, +as also most of the Hausa, are Moslems, the other tribes are +pagans. Missionary societies, both Protestant and Roman +Catholic, are represented in the colony, and their schools are +well attended, as are the schools belonging to the government. +In all the schools German is taught, but pidgin-English is largely +spoken at the coast towns.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>—Duala, the chief town in the protectorate, is +situated on the Cameroon estuary at the mouth of the Wuri +river in 4° 2′ N. 9° 42′ E. It consists of various trading stations +and native towns close to one another on the south bank of the +river and known, before the German occupation, as Cameroon, +Bell town, Akwa town, &c. Hickory, on the north side of the +stream and the starting point of the railway to the interior, is +also part of Duala, which has a total population of 22,000, including +about 170 Europeans. Duala is the headquarters of the +merchants and missionaries. The principal streets are wide +and tree lined, the sanitation is good. The government offices +are placed in a fine park in which are statues of Gustav Nachtigal +and others. The port is provided with a floating dock. The +seat of government is Buea, a post 3000 ft. above the sea on the +slopes of the Cameroon mountain. Victoria is a flourishing +town in Ambas Bay, founded by the British Baptist missionaries +expelled from Fernando Po in 1858 (see below). Batanga and +Campo are trading stations in the southern portion of the colony. +On the route from Duala to Lake Chad is the large commercial +town of Ngaundere, inhabited chiefly by Hausas and occupied +by the Germans in 1901. Another large town is Garua on the +Benue river. Farther north and within 30 m. of Lake Chad is +Dikwa (Dikoa), in Bornu, the town chosen by Rabah (<i>q.v.</i>) as his +capital after his conquest of Bornu. Gulfei on the lower Shari +and Kusseri on the Logone are also towns of some note. Ngoko +is a trading station on the Dscha, in the south-east of the protectorate, +near the confluence of that river with the Sanga.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span></p> + +<p><i>Products and Industry.</i>—Cameroon is rich in natural products, +one of the most important being the oil-palm. Cocoa cultivation +was introduced by the Germans and proved remarkably successful. +Rubber is collected from the Landolphia and various +species of Ficus. Palm-oil, palm kernels, cocoa, copal, copra, +Calabar beans, kola-nuts and ivory are the principal exports. +There are several kinds of finely-grained wood, amongst which +a very dark ebony is specially remarkable. Cotton, indigo and +various fibres of plants deserve notice. The natives grow several +kinds of bananas, yams and batatas, maize, pea-nuts, sugar-cane, +sorghum and pepper. Minerals have not been found in paying +quantities. Iron is smelted by the natives, who, especially +amongst the Hausas, are very clever smiths, and manufacture +fine lances and arrow heads, knives and swords, and also hoes. +Dikwa is the centre of an important trade of which the chief +articles are coffee, sugar, velvet, silk and weapons, as well as gold +and silver objects brought by caravans from Tripoli. The +natives round the Cameroon estuary are clever carvers of wood, +and make highly ornamental figure heads for their canoes, which +also sometimes show very fine workmanship. In the interior +the people use the wild-growing cotton and fibres of plants to +manufacture coarse drapery and plait-work. Plantations +founded by German industry are fairly successful. Large +reserves are set apart for the natives by government when +marking off the land granted to plantation companies. The +best-known of these companies, the <i>Süd-Kamerun,</i> holds a +concession over a large tract of country by the Sanga river, +exporting its rubber, ivory and other produce via the Congo. +The principal imports are cotton goods, spirits, building material, +firearms, hardware and salt. The annual value of the external +trade in the period 1900-1905 averaged about £800,000. In 1907 +the value of the trade had increased to £1,700,000. Some 70% +of the import and export trade was with Germany, the remainder +being almost entirely with Great Britain. The percentage of the +trade with Germany was increasing, that with Britain decreasing.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—There is regular steamship communication +with Europe by German and British boats. On the rivers which +run into the Cameroon estuary small steam launches ply. The +protectorate belongs to the Postal Union, and is connected by cable +with the British telegraph station at Bonny in the Niger delta.</p> + +<p>An imperial guarantee of interest was obtained in 1905 for +the construction of a railway from Hickory to Bayong, a place +100 m. to the north, the district traversed being fertile and +populous. From Victoria a line runs to Soppo (22 m.) near +Buea and is continued thence northward. Another line, sanctioned +in 1908, runs S.E. from Duala to the upper waters of the +Nyong. In the neighbourhood of government stations excellent +roads have been built. The chief towns in the coast region are +connected by telegraph and telephone.</p> + +<p><i>Government Revenue, &c.</i>—The administration is under the +direction of a governor appointed by and responsible to the +imperial authorities. The governor is assisted by a chancellor +and other officials and an advisory council whose members are +merchants resident in the protectorate. Decrees having the +force of law are issued by the imperial chancellor on the advice +of the governor. In Adamawa and German Bornu are various +Mahommedan sultanates controlled by residents stationed at +Garua and Kusseri. Revenue is raised chiefly by customs dues +on spirits and tobacco and a general 10% <i>ad valorem</i> duty on +most goods. A poll tax is imposed on the natives. The local +revenue (£131,000 in 1905) is supplemented by an imperial grant, +the protectorate in the first twenty-one years of its existence +never having raised sufficient revenue to meet its expenditure, +which in 1905 exceeded £230,000. Order is maintained by a +native force officered by Germans.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Cameroon and the neighbouring coast were discovered +by the Portuguese navigator, Fernando Po, towards the +close of the 15th century. They were formerly regarded as within +the Oil Rivers district, sometimes spoken of as the Oil Coast. +Trading settlements were established by Europeans as early as +the 17th century. The trade was confined to the coast, the +Dualla and other tribes being recognized intermediaries between +the coast “factories” and the tribes in the interior, whither +they allowed no strange trader to proceed. They took a quantity +of goods on trust, visited the tribes in the forest, and bartered +for ivory, rubber and other produce. This method of trade, +called the trust system, worked well, but when the country came +under the administration of Germany, the system broke down, +as inland traders were allowed to visit the coast. Before this +happened the “kings” of the chief trading stations—Akwa and +Bell—were wealthy merchant princes. From the beginning +until near the end of the 19th century they were very largely +under British influence. In 1837 the king of Bimbia, a district +on the mainland on the north of the estuary, made over a large +part of the country round the bay to Great Britain. In 1845, at +which time there was a flourishing trade in slaves between +Cameroon and America, the Baptist Missionary Society made +its first settlement on the mainland of Africa, Alfred Saker +(1814-1880) obtaining from the Akwa family the site for a +mission station. In 1848 another mission station was established +at Bimbia, the king agreeing to abolish human sacrifices +at the funerals of his great men. Into the Cameroon +country Saker and his colleagues introduced the elements +of civilization, and with the help of British men-of-war +the oversea slave trade was finally stopped (<i>c.</i> 1875). The +struggles between the Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa families were also +largely composed. In 1858, on the expulsion of the Baptists +from Fernando Po (<i>q.v.</i>), Saker founded at Ambas Bay a colony +of the freed negroes who then left the island, the settlement +being known as Victoria. Two years after this event the first +German factory was established in the estuary by Messrs Woermann +of Hamburg. In 1870 the station at Bimbia was given up +by the missionaries, but that at Akwa town continued to flourish, +the Dualla showing themselves eager to acquire education, while +Saker reduced their language to writing. He left Cameroon in +1876, the year before George Grenfell, afterwards famous for +his work on the Congo, came to the country, where he remained +three years. Like the earlier missionaries he explored the +adjacent districts, discovering the Sanaga in its lower course. +Although British influence was powerful and the British consul +for the Oil Rivers during this period exercised considerable +authority over the native chiefs, requests made by them—in +particular by the Dualla chiefs in 1882—for annexation by Great +Britain, were refused or neglected, with the result that when +Germany started on her quest to pick up unappropriated parts +of the African coast she was enabled to secure Cameroon. A +treaty with King Bell was negotiated by Dr Gustav Nachtigal, +the signature of the king and the other chiefs being obtained at +midnight on the 15th of July 1884. Five days later Mr E.H. +Hewett, British consul, arrived with a mission to annex the +country to Great Britain.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Though too late to secure King Bell’s +territory, Mr Hewett concluded treaties with all the neighbouring +chiefs, but the British government decided to recognize the +German claim not only to Bell town, but to the whole Cameroon +region. Some of the tribes, disappointed at not being taken over +by Great Britain, refused to acknowledge German sovereignty. +Their villages were bombarded and they were reduced to submission. +The settlement of the English Baptists at Victoria, +Ambas Bay, was at first excluded from the German protectorate, +but in March 1887 an arrangement was made by which, while +the private rights of the missionaries were maintained, the +sovereignty of the settlement passed to Germany. The Baptist +Society thereafter made over its missions, both at Ambas Bay +and in the estuary, to the Basel Society.</p> + +<p>The extension of German influence in the interior was gradually +accomplished, though not without considerable bloodshed. That +part of Adamawa recognized as outside the British frontier was +occupied in 1901 after somewhat severe fighting. In 1902 the +imperial troops first penetrated into that part of Bornu reserved +to Germany by agreements with Great Britain and France. +They found the country in the military occupation of France. +The French officers, who stated that their presence was due to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span> +the measures rendered necessary by the ravages of Rabah and +his sons, withdrew their troops into French territory. The shores +of Lake Chad were first reached by a German military force on +the 2nd of May 1902. In 1904 and again in 1905 there were +native risings in various parts of the protectorate. These +disturbances were followed, early in 1906, by the recall of the +governor, Herr von Puttkamer, who was called upon to answer +charges of maladministration. He was succeeded in 1907 by Dr +T. Seitz. Collisions on the southern border of the protectorate +between French and German troops led in 1905-1906 to an +accurate survey of the south and east frontier regions and to a +new convention (1908) whereby for the straight lines marking +the frontier in former agreements natural features were largely +substituted. Germany gained a better outlet to the Sanga river.</p> + +<p>The ascent of the Cameroon mountain was first attempted by +Joseph Merrick of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1847; but it +was not till 1861 that the summit was gained, when the ascent +was made by Sir Richard Burton, Gustav Mann, a noted botanist, +and Señor Calvo. The starting-point was Babundi, a place on the +seashore west of the mountain. From the south-east the summit +was reached by Mary Kingsley in 1895.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mary H. Kingsley, <i>Travels in West Africa</i> (London, 1897); +Sir R. Burton, <i>Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains</i> (2 vols., +London, 1863); E.B. Underhill, <i>Alfred Saker ... A Biography</i> +(London, 1884); Sir H.H. Johnston, <i>George Grenfell and the +Congo ... and Notes on the Cameroons ...</i> (London, 1908); +Max Buchner, <i>Kamerun Skizzen und Betrachtungen</i> (Leipzig, 1887); +S. Passarge, <i>Adamaua</i> (Berlin, 1895); +E. Zintgraph, <i>Nord-Kamerun</i> (Berlin, 1895); F. Hutter, +<i>Wanderungen und Forschungen im Nord-Hinterland von Kamerun</i> +(Brunswick, 1902); F. Bauer, +<i>Die deutsche Niger-Benue-Tsadsee-Expedition</i>, 1902-1903 (Berlin, 1904); +C. René, <i>Kamerun und die deutsche Tsâdsee Eisenbahn</i> (Berlin, 1905); +O. Zimmermann, <i>Durch Busch und Steppe vom Campo bis zum Schari, +1892-1902</i> (Berlin, 1909); also British Foreign Office Reports. +For special study of particular sciences see F. Wohltmann, +<i>Der Plantagenbau in Kamerun und seine Zukunft</i> (Berlin, 1896); +F. Plehn, <i>Die Kamerunküste, Studien zur Klimatologie, Physiologie +und Pathologie in den Tropen</i> (Berlin, 1898); +E. Esch, F. Solger, M. Oppenheim and 0. Jaekel, +<i>Beiträge zur Geologie von Kamerun</i> (Stuttgart, 1904). +For geology the following works may also be consulted: Stromer von Reichenbach, +<i>Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika</i> (Berlin, 1896); +A. von Koenen, “Über Fossilien der unteren Kreide am Ufer des Mungo +in Kamerun,” <i>Abh. k. Wiss.</i>, Göttingen, 1897; E. Cohen, +“Lava vom Camerun-Gebirge,” <i>Neues Jahrb. f. Min.</i>, 1887.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This English form of the name, adopted in the 10th ed. of the +<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, from the German, appears preferable both to the un-English +Kamerun and to the older and clumsy “the Cameroons.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> On the 26th of July a French gunboat also entered the estuary +on a belated annexation mission.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMILING,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a town of the province of Tarlac, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on the Camiling river, about 80 m. N.N.W. of Manila. +Pop. (1903) 25,243. In 1903 after the census had been +taken, the adjacent towns of Santa Ignacia (pop. 1911) and +San Clemente (pop. 1822) were annexed to Camiling. Its products +are rice, Indian corn and sugar. Fine timber grows in the +vicinity. The principal language is Ilocano; Pangasinan, too, +is spoken. Being in an isolated position, very difficult of access +during the rainy season, Camiling has always been infested with +thieves and bands of outlaws, who come here for concealment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> Roman soldier and statesman, +of patrician descent, censor in 403 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He triumphed four +times, was five times dictator, and was honoured with the title +of Second Founder of Rome. When accused of having unfairly +distributed the spoil taken at Veii, which was captured by him +after a ten years’ siege, he went into voluntary exile at Ardea. +The real cause of complaint against him was no doubt his +patrician haughtiness and his triumphal entry into Rome in a +chariot drawn by white horses. Subsequently the Romans, +when besieged in the Capitol by the Gauls, created him dictator; +he completely defeated the enemy (but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brennus</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: +<i>History</i>, ii., “The Republic”) and drove them from Roman +territory. He dissuaded the Romans, disheartened by the +devastation wrought by the Gauls, from migrating to Veii, and +induced them to rebuild the city. He afterwards fought successfully +against the Aequi, Volsci and Etruscans, and repelled a fresh +invasion of the Gauls in 367. Though patrician in sympathy, +he saw the necessity of making concessions to the plebeians +and was instrumental in passing the Licinian laws. He died of +the plague in the eighty-first year of his age (365). The story of +Camillus is no doubt largely traditional. To this element probably +belongs the story of the schoolmaster who, when Camillas +was attacking Falerii (<i>q.v.</i>), attempted to betray the town by +bringing into his camp the sons of some of the principal inhabitants +of the place. Camillus, it is said, had him whipped back +into the town by his pupils, and the Faliscans were so affected +by this generosity that they at once surrendered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy v. 10, vi. 4; Plutarch, <i>Camillus</i>. For the Gallic retreat, +see Polybius ii. 18; T. Mommsen, <i>Römische Forschungen</i>, ii. +pp. 113-152 (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMILLUS<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> and <b>CAMILLA,</b> in Roman antiquity, originally +terms used for freeborn children. Later, they were used to +denote the attendants on certain priests and priestesses, especially +the flamen dialis and flaminica and the curiones. It was necessary +that they should be freeborn and the children of parents +still alive (Dion. Halic. ii. 21). The name Camillus has been +connected with the Cadmilus or Casmilus of the Samothracian +mysteries, identified with Hermes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cabeiri</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMISARDS<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (from <i>camisade</i>, obsolete Fr. for “a night attack,” +from the Ital. <i>camiciata</i>, formed from <i>camicia</i>—Fr. <i>chemise</i>—a +shirt, from the fact of a shirt being worn over the armour in +order to distinguish friends from foes), the name given to the +peasantry of the Cévennes who, from 1702 to 1705 and for some +years afterwards, carried on an organized military resistance to +the <i>dragonnades</i>, or conversion by torture, death and confiscation +of property, by which, in the Huguenot districts of France, the +revocation of the edict of Nantes was attempted to be enforced. +The Camisards were also called Barbets (“water-dogs,” a term +also applied to the Waldenses), Vagabonds, Assemblers (<i>assemblée</i> +was the name given to the meeting or conventicle of Huguenots), +Fanatics and the Children of God. They belonged to that +romance-speaking people of Gothic descent whose mystic +imagination and independent character made the south of +France the most fertile nursing-ground of medieval heresy (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathars</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albigenses</a></span>). At the time of the Reformation +the same causes produced like results. Calvin was warmly +welcomed when he preached at Nîmes; Montpellier became the +chief centre for the instruction of the Huguenot youth. It was, +however, in the great triangular plateau of mountain called the +Cévennes that, among the small farmers, the cloth and silk +weavers and vine dressers, Protestantism was most intense and +universal. These people were (and still are) very poor, but +intelligent and pious, and of a character at once grave and fervent. +From the lists of Huguenots sent from Languedoc to the galleys +(1684 to 1762), we gather that the common type of <i>physique</i> is +“belle taille, cheveux bruns, visage ovale.” The chief theatre +of the revolt comprised that region of the Cévennes bounded by +the towns of Florac, Pont-de-Montvert, Alais and Lasalle, thus +embracing the southern portion of the department of Lozère +(the Bas-Gévaudan) and the neighbouring district in the east +of the department of Gard.</p> + +<p>In order to understand the War of the Cévennes it is necessary +to recall the persecutions which preceded and followed the +revocation of the edict of Nantes. It is also necessary to +remember the extraordinary religious movement which had for a +great number of years agitated the Protestants of France. +Faced by the violation of that most solemn of treaties, a treaty +which had been declared perpetual and irrevocable by Henry IV., +Louis XIII. and even Louis XIV. himself, they could not, in +the enthusiasm of their faith, believe that such a crime would +be left unpunished. But being convinced that no human power +could give them liberty of conscience, they went to the Bible +to find when their deliverance would come. As far back as +1686 Pierre Jurieu published his work <i>L’Accomplissement des +prophéties</i>, in which, speaking of the Apocalypse, he predicted +the end of the persecution and the fall of Babylon—that is +to say of Roman Catholicism—for 1689. The Revolution in +England seemed to provide a striking corroboration of his +prophecies, and the apocalyptic enthusiasm took so strong a +hold on people’s minds that Bossuet felt compelled to refute +Jurieu’s arguments in his <i>Apocalypse expliquée</i>, published in +1689. The <i>Lettres pastorales</i> of Jurieu (Rotterdam, 1686-1687), +a series of brief tracts which were secretly circulated in France, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span> +continued to narrate events and prodigies in which the author +saw the intervention of God, and thus strengthened the courage +of his adherents. This religious enthusiasm, under the influence +of Du Serre, was manifested for the first time in the Dauphiné. +Du Serre, who was a pupil of Jurieu, communicated his mystic +faith to young children who were called the “petits prophètes,” +the most famous of whom was a girl named “La belle Isabeau.” +Brought up on the study of the prophets and the Apocalypse, +these children went from village to village quoting and requoting +the most obscure and terrible passages from these ancient +prophecies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antichrist</a></span>). It is necessary to remember that +at this time the Protestants were without ministers, all being in +exile, and were thus deprived of all real religious instruction. They +listened with enthusiasm to this strange preaching, and thousands +of those who were called New Catholics were seen to be giving up +attendance at Mass. The movement advanced in Languedoc +with such rapidity that at one time there were more than three +hundred children shut up in the prisons of Uzès on the charge +of prophesying, and the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier, +which was entrusted with their examination, went so far in +their ignorance as to pronounce these irresponsible infants +guilty of fanaticism. After the peace of Ryswick, 1697, the +fierceness of the persecution was redoubled in the South. “I +will show no mercy to the preachers,” wrote the terrible Baville, +the so-called “king of Languedoc,” and he kept his word. The +people of the Cévennes were in despair, for their loyalty to the +king had been remarkable. In 1683 on the 6th of September +an assembly composed of fifty pastors, sixty-four noblemen and +thirty-four notables, held at Colognac, had drawn up a statement +of its unalterable loyalty to Louis XIV. It is important to notice +that the revolt of the Cévennes was essentially a popular movement. +Among its leaders there was not a single nobleman, but +only men of the people, a baker, a blacksmith, some ex-soldiers; +but by far the most extraordinary characterisic is the presence, +no longer of children, but of men and women who declared +themselves inspired, who fell into religious ecstasies and roused in +their comrades the most heroic bravery in battle and at the stake.</p> + +<p>The assassination of the abbé du Chayla marks the beginning +of the war of the Cévennes. The abbé, a veteran Catholic +missionary from Siam, had been appointed inspector of missions +in the Cévennes. There he introduced the “squeezers” (which +resembled the Scottish “boot”), and his systematic and refined +cruelty at last broke the patience of his victims. His murder, on +the 23rd of July 1702, at Pont de Monvert, was the first blow in +the war. It was planned by Esprit Séguier, who at once began to +carry out his idea of a general massacre of the Catholic priests. +He soon fell, and was succeeded by Laporte, an old soldier, who, +as his troop increased, assumed the title of “the Colonel of the +Children of God,” and named his camp the “Camp of the +Eternal.” He used to lead his followers to the fight, singing +Clement Marot’s grand version of the 68th Psalm, “Que Dieu se +montre seulement,” to the music of Goudimel. Besides Laporte, +the forest-ranger Castanet, the wool-carders Conderc and Mazel, +the soldiers Catinat, Joany and Ravenel were selected as captains—all +men whom the <i>théomanie</i> or prophetic malady had visited. +But the most important figures are those of Roland, who afterwards +issued the following extraordinary despatch to the inhabitants +of St André:—“Nous, comte et seigneur Roland, généralissime +des Protestants de France, nous ordonnons que vous ayez à +congédier dans trois jours tous les prêtres et missionnaires qui sont +chez vous, sous peine d’être brûlés tout vifs, vous et eux” (Court, +i.p. 219); and Jean Cavalier, the baker’s boy, who, at the age of +seventeen, commanded the southern army of the Camisards, and +who, after defeating successively the comte de Broglie and three +French marshals, Montrevel, Berwick and Villars, made an +honourable peace. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cavalier, Jean</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Cavalier for nearly two years continued to direct the war. +Regular taxes were raised, arsenals were formed in the great +limestone caves of the district, the Catholic churches and their +decorations were burned and the clergy driven away. Occasionally +routed in regular engagements, the Camisards, through their +desperate valour and the rapidity of their movements, were +constantly successful in skirmishes, night attacks and ambuscades. +A force of 60,000 was now in the field against them; among +others, the Irish Brigade which had just returned from the +persecutions of the Waldenses. The rising was far from being +general, and never extended to more than three or four thousand +men, but it was rendered dangerous by the secret and even in +many places the open support of the people in general. On the +other hand their knowledge of a mountainous country clothed in +forests and without roads, gave the insurgents an enormous +advantage over the royal troops. The rebellion was not finally +suppressed until Baville had constructed roads throughout this +almost savage country.</p> + +<p>Montrevel adopted a policy of extermination, and 466 villages +were burned in the Upper Cévennes alone, the population being +for the most part put to the sword. Pope Clement XI. assisted +in this work by issuing a bull against the “execrable race of the +ancient Albigenses,” and promising remission of sins to the holy +militia which was now formed among the Catholic population, +and was called the Florentines, Cadets of the Cross or White +Camisards. Villars, the victor of Hochstädt and Friedlingen, +saw that conciliation was necessary; he took advantage of the +feeling of horror with which the quiet Protestants of Nimes and +other towns now regarded the war, and published an amnesty. +In May 1704 a formal meeting between Cavalier and Villars took +place at Nimes. The result of the interview was that a document +entitled <i>Trés humble requête des réformés du Languedoc au Roi</i> was +despatched to the court. The three leading requests for liberty +of conscience and the right of assembly outside walled towns, for +the liberation of those sentenced to prison or the galleys under the +revocation, and for the restitution to the emigrants of their +property and civil rights, were all granted,—the first on condition +of no churches being built, and the third on condition of an oath +of allegiance being taken. The greater part of the Camisard army +under Roland, Ravenel and Joany would not accept the terms +which Cavalier had arranged. They insisted that the edict of +Nantes must be restored,—“<i>point de paix, que nous n’ayons nos +temples</i>.” They continued the war till January 1705, by which +time all their leaders were either killed or dispersed.</p> + +<p>In 1709 Mazel and Claris, with the aid of two preaching women, +Marie Desubas and Elizabeth Catalon, made a serious effort to +rekindle revolt in the Vivarais. In 1711 all opposition and all +signs of the reformed religion had disappeared. On the 8th +of March 1715, by medals and a proclamation, Louis XIV. +announced the entire extinction of heresy.</p> + +<p>What we know of the spiritual manifestations in the Cévennes +(which much resembled those of the Swedish Raestars of Smaland +in 1844) is chiefly derived from <i>Le Théâtre sacré des Cévennes</i>, +London, 1707, reprinted at Paris in 1847; <i>A Cry From the Desert</i>, +&c., by John Lacy, London, 1707; <i>La Clef des prophéties de M. +Marion</i>, London, 1707; <i>Avertissements prophétiques d’Élie +Marion</i>, &c., London, 1707. About the date of these publications +the three prophets of the Cévennes, Marion, Durand-Fage and +Cavalier (a cousin of the famous Jean Cavalier) were in London +and were objects of lively curiosity. The consistory of the French +church in the Savoy sent a protest to the lord mayor against +“cette secte impie et extravagante” and the matter was tried at +the Guildhall. Misson, author of the <i>Théâtre sacré</i>, declared in +defence of the accused, that the same spirit which had caused +Balaam’s ass to speak could speak through the mouths of these +prophets from the Cévennes. Marion and his two friends Fatio, +a member of the Royal Society of London, and Daudé, a leading +savant, who acted as his secretaries, were condemned to the +pillory and to the stocks. Voltaire relates (<i>Siécle de Louis XIV.</i> +c. 36) that Marion wished to prove his inspiration by attempting +to raise a dead body (Thomas Ernes) from St Paul’s churchyard. +He was at last compelled to leave England.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The inspiration (of which there were four degrees, <i>avertissement, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span> +souffle, prophetie, dons</i>) was sometimes communicated by a kiss at +the assembly. The patient, who had gone through several fasts +three days in length, became pale and fell insensible to the ground. +Then came violent agitations of the limbs and head, as Voltaire +remarks, “quite according to the ancient custom of all nations, +and the rules of madness transmitted from age to age.” Finally +the patient (who might be a little child, a woman, a half-witted +person) began to speak in the good French of the Huguenot Bible +words such as these: “Mes frères, amendez-vous, faites pénitence, +la fin du monde approche; le jugement général sera dans trois +mois; répentez-vous du grand péché que vous avez commis d’aller +à la messe; c’est le Saint-Esprit qui parle par ma bouche” +(Brueys, <i>Histoire du fanatisme de notre temps</i>, Utrecht, 1737, vol. i. +p. 153). The discourse might go on for two hours; after which +the patient could only express himself in his native patois,—a +Romance idiom,—and had no recollection of his “ecstasy.” All +kinds of miracles attended on the Camisards. Lights in the sky +guided them to places of safety, voices sang encouragement to +them, shots and wounds were often harmless. Those entranced +fell from trees without hurting themselves; they shed tears of +blood; and they subsisted without food or speech for nine days. +The supernatural was part of their life. Much literature has been +devoted to the discussion of these marvels. The Catholics +Fléchier (in his <i>Lettres choisies</i>) and Brueys consider them the +product of fasting and vanity, nourished on apocalyptic literature. +The doctors Bertrand (<i>Du magnétisme animal</i>, Paris, 1826) and +Calmeil (<i>De la folie</i>, Paris, 1845) speak of magnetism, hysteria +and epilepsy, a prophetic monomania based on belief in divine +possession. The Protestants especially emphasized the spirituality +of the inspiration of the Camisards; Peyral, <i>Histoire des +pasteurs du désert</i>, ii. 280, wrote: “Il fallait à cet effort gigantesque +un ressort prodigieux, l’enthousiasme ordinaire n’y eût pas +suffi.” Dubois, who has made a careful study of the problem, says: +“L’inspiration cévenole nous apparait comme un phénomène +purement spirituel.” Conservative Catholics, such as Hippolyte +Blanc in his book on <i>L’inspiration des Camisards</i> (1859), regard +the whole thing as the work of the devil. The publication +of J.F.K. Hecker’s work, <i>Die Volkskrankheiten des Mittelalters</i>, +made it possible to consider the subject in its true relation. This +was translated into English in 1844 by B.G. Babington as <i>The +Epidemics of the Middle Ages</i>.</p> + +<p>Although the Camisards were guilty of great cruelties in the +prosecution of the war, there does not seem to be sufficient ground +for the charge made by Marshal de Villars: “Le plupart de leurs +chefs ont leurs demoiselles” (letter of 9th August 1704, in the +<i>War Archives</i>, vol. 1797). Court replied to these unjust charges: +“Their enemies have accused them of leading a life of licence +because there were women in their camps. These were their wives, +their daughters, their mothers, who were there to prepare their +food and to nurse the wounded” (<i>Histoire</i>, vol. i. p. 71).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The works devoted to the history of the Camisards +are very numerous. Nevertheless there exists no work specifically +devoted to this extremely interesting period in French history, +for in none of the published works has proper use been made of the +valuable documents preserved in the archives of the ministry of +war. Among the chief works are:—Père Louvreleuil (priest, former +curé of St. Germain de Calberte), <i>Histoire du fanatisme renouvelé où +l’on raconte les sacrilèges, les maladies et les meurtres commis dans +les Cévennes</i> (Toulouse, 1704); M. de Brueys, <i>Suite de l’histoire du +fanatisme de notre temps où l’on voit les derniers troubles des Cévennes</i> +(Paris, 1709); <i>Lettres choisies de M. Fléchier évêque de Nîmes avec +une relation des fanatiques du Vivarez</i> (Paris, 1715); Madame de +Merez de l’Incarnation, <i>Memoires et journal très fidèle de ce qui s’est +passé le 11 de may 1703 jusqu’au 1 juin 1705 à Nîmes touchant les +phanatiques</i>, published by E. de Barthélemy (Montpellier, 1874). +These works are written by Catholic writers immediately after the +war of the Cévennes, and, despite their partiality, include some +valuable documents. <i>Mémoires du marquis de Guiscard</i> (Delft, 1705); +Maximilien Misson, <i>Le Théâtre sacré des Cévennes ou Récit de diverses +merveilles nouvellement opérées dans cette partie de la province de +Languedoc</i> (London, 1707); Misson, the author of the <i>Voyages en +Italie</i>, which met with such a great success, gave prominence to +the facts relating to the inspiration of the Camisards; the <i>Théâtre</i> +also contains important extracts from the works of Benoit, Brueys, +Guiscard and Boyer, and several original letters from Camisards; +<i>Histoire des Camisards, &c.</i> (London, 1740), the anonymous work of a +distinguished writer, which was eventually condemned by the parlement +of Toulouse to be torn up and burnt in 1759; Antoine Court, +<i>Histoire des troubles des Cévennes</i> (3 vols., 1760), the best work of +this period, compiled from numerous manuscript references. The war of the +Cévennes has been treated in several English works, <i>e.g.</i> <i>A Compleat +History of the Cevennes, giving a Particular Account of the Situation, +&c.</i>, by a doctor of civil law (London, 1703). This work includes +a dedication to the queen, an historical account of the people of the +Cévennes, the bull of Pope Clement against the Camisards, and the +bishop of Nîmes’s mandate publishing the bull, and a discourse on +the obligations of the English to help the Camisards, and a form of +prayer used in the Camisard assembly, printed in London in 1703 +under the title <i>Formulaire de prières des Cévennois dans leurs assemblées. +The History of the Rise and Downfal of the Camisards, &c.</i> +(London, 1709), dealt with the prophets of the Cévennes in London, +and is only an abridged translation of Père Louvreleuil’s work. +Among modern works are, Ernest Moret, <i>Quinze ans du règne de +Louis XIV</i> (3 vols., 1859), a work which gives a remarkable history +of the war of the Cévennes; <i>Les Insurgés protestants sous Louis XIV.</i>, +studies and unedited documents published by G. Frosterus (1868); +<i>Mémoires de Bonbonnoux,</i> chief Camisard and pastor of the desert, +published by Vielles (1883); Bonnemère, <i>Histoire de la guerre des +Camisards</i> (1859). Two popular works are—F. Puaux, <i>Histoire +populaire de la guerre des Camisards</i> (1875); Anna E. Bray, <i>The +Revolt of the Protestants of the Cévennes with some Account of the +Huguenots of the Seventeenth Century</i> (London, 1870).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Px.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This curious affair provoked a lengthy controversy, which is +described in “La Relation historique de ce qui s’est passe a Londres +au sujet des prophètes camisards” (<i>Republique des Lettres</i>, 1708), +in the study of M. Vesson, <i>Les Prophètes camisards à Londres</i> (1893), +and also in the book <i>Les Prophètes cévenols</i>, ch. iii. (1861) by Alfred +Dubois.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMOENS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> [<span class="sc">CamŌes</span>], <span class="bold">LUIS VAZ DE</span> (1524-1580), the prince +of Portuguese poets, sprang from an illustrious and wealthy +family of Galician origin, whose seat, called the castle of Camoens, +lay near Cape Finisterre. His ancestor, the poet Vasco Pires +de Camoens, followed the party of Peter the Cruel of Castile +against Henry II., and on the defeat of the former had to take +refuge along with other Galician nobles in Portugal, where he +founded the Portuguese family of his name. King Fernando +received him well, and gave him posts of honour and estates, +and though the master of Aviz sequestered some of these and +Vasco lost others after the battle of Aljubarrota, where he +fought on the Spanish side, considerable possessions still remained +to him. Antão Vaz, the grandfather of Luis, married one of the +Algarve Gamas, so that Vasco da Gama and Camoens, the discoverer +of the sea route to India and the poet who immortalized +the voyage in his <i>Lusiads</i>, were kinsmen. Antão’s eldest son +Simão Vaz was born in Coimbra at the close of the 15th century, +and married Anna de Sá e Macedo, who bore him an only son, +Luis Vaz de Camoens; thus the poet, like his father and grandfather, +was a <i>cavalleiro fidalgo</i>, that is, an untitled noble.</p> + +<p>Four cities dispute the honour of being his birthplace, though +Lisbon has the better title; and there is a like dispute about +the year, which, however, was almost certainly 1524. The poet +spent his childhood in Coimbra, where his father owned a property, +and made his first studies at the college of All Saints, +designed for “honourable poor students,” and there contracted +friendships with noblemen like D. Gonçalo da Silveira and his +brother D. Alvaro, who were inmates of the nobles’ college of +St Michael. These colleges were offshoots from and attached to +the Augustinian monastery of Santa Cruz, an important religious +and scholastic establishment, where the poet’s uncle D. Bento +de Camoens, a virtuous and very learned man, was professed. +The Renaissance, though late in penetrating into Portugal, had +by this time definitely triumphed, and the university of Coimbra, +after its reform in 1537 under the auspices of King John III., +boasted the best teachers drawn from every country, among +them George Buchanan. The possession of classical culture +was regarded as the mark of a gentleman; the colleges of Santa +Cruz required conversation within the walls to be in Greek or +Latin, and the university, when it absorbed the colleges, adopted +the same rule. In these surroundings, aided by a retentive +memory, Camoens steeped himself in the literature and mythology +of the ancients, as his works show, and he was thus able in +after years to perfect the Portuguese language and to enrich it +with many neologisms of classical origin. It is fortunate, however, +for his country and his fame that he never followed the fashion +of writing in Latin; on the contrary, except for his Spanish +poems, he always employed his native tongue. After completing +his grammar and rhetoric the poet entered on his university +course for the degree of bachelor of arts, which lasted for three +years, from 1539 to 1542, and during this period he met Jorge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span> +de Montemayor, the author of <i>Dianá</i>, who was then studying +music. He seems to have imbibed much of that encyclopaedic +instruction to which the humanists aspired, for his writings show +a very extensive reading, and his scientific knowledge and faculty +of observation compelled the admiration of the great Humboldt. +The thoroughness of his teaching is apparent when we remember +that he wrote his epic in the fortresses of Africa and Asia, far +from books, and yet gave proof of acquaintance with universal +history, geography, astronomy, Greek and Latin literature, and +the modern poetry of Italy and Spain. Much of the credit for this +learning must be attributed to the encouragement of D. Bento, +now prior of Santa Cruz, who became chancellor of the university +the very year when Camoens entered it. There is a tradition +that this uncle destined him for the church and caused him to +study theology. The poet’s knowledge of dogma and the Bible, +his friendly intercourse with the Lisbon Dominicans at the end of +his life, and the share he is said to have taken in their +disputations, make the hypothesis a likely one, but he made his own +choice and preferred a lay life. We have very little verse of his +Coimbra time, but it seems that he began in the Italian manner, +following the new classical school of Sá de Miranda (<i>q.v.</i>), and that, +though attached to the popular muse and well acquainted with +the national songs and romances, legends and lore, his poetry +in the old style (<i>medida velha</i>) is mostly of later date. An +exception may perhaps be found in his <i>Auto</i> after the manner +of Gil Vicente (<i>q.v.</i>), <i>The Amphitryons</i>, a Portuguese adaptation +from Plautus which was very well received. At the age of +eighteen Camoens left Coimbra, bidding adieu to the old city +in verses breathing the most tender <i>saudade</i>. Lisbon, which +impressed Cervantes so much as to draw from him a classic +description in the novel <i>Persiles y Sigismunda</i>, made an even +greater impression on the youthful Camoens, and the <i>Lusiads</i> +are full of eulogistic epithets on the city and the Tagus.</p> + +<p>Arriving in 1543, it has been conjectured that he became +tutor to D. Antonio de Noronha, son of the great noble D. +Francisco de Noronha, count of Linhares, who had lately returned +from a French embassy to his palace at Xabregas. The poet’s +birth and talents admitted him to the society of men like D. +Constantine de Braganza, the duke of Aveiro, the marquis of +Cascaes, the count of Redondo, D. Manoel de Portugal and +D. Gonçalo da Silveira, son of the count of Sortelha, who died +a Christian martyr in Monomotapa. At Xabregas Camoens +must have met Francisco de Moraes (<i>q.v.</i>), who had served as +secretary to the count of Linhares on his embassy, and there +he probably read the MS. of <i>Palmeirim</i>; this would explain the +origin of two of his roundels which are clearly founded on +passages in the romance. Camoens had had a youthful love +affair in Coimbra, but on Good Friday of the year 1544 he +experienced the passion of his life. On that day in some Lisbon +church he caught sight of D. Catherina de Ataide (daughter of +D. Antonio de Lima, high chamberlain to the infant D. Duarte), +who had recently become a lady-in-waiting to the queen. This +young girl, the Nathercia of his after songs, counted then some +thirteen years, and was destined to be his Beatrice. To see more +of her, he persuaded the count of Linhares to introduce him to +the court, where his poetical gifts and culture ensured him a +ready welcome, and his fifth idyll, addressed to his patron on +this occasion, paved the way for his entrance. Though inferior +to his later compositions, it excels in harmony any verse +previously written in Portuguese. At first his suit probably met +with few difficulties, and if Catherina’s family regarded it +seriously, their poverty, combined with the fact that the poet +came of a good stock and had the future in his hands, may have +prevented any real opposition. It was his own imprudence that +marred his fortunes, and his consciousness of this fact gave his +muse that moving expression, truth and <i>saudade</i>, which are +lacking in the somewhat artificial productions of the sentimental +Petrarch. But while Camoens gained protectors and admirers, +his temperament and conduct ensured him envious foes, and the +secret of his love got out and became the subject of gossip. All +was not smooth with the lady, who showed herself coy; now +yielding to her heart, she was kind; and then listening to her +friends, who would have preferred a better match for her, she +repelled her lover. Jealousy then seized him, and sick of court +life for the moment, he gladly accompanied his patron to the +latter’s country house; but once there he recognized that +Lisbon was the centre of attraction for him and that he could +not be happy at a distance. His verses at this time reveal his +parlous condition. He oscillates between joy and depression. +He passes from tender regrets to violent outbursts, which are +followed by calm and peace, while expressions of passionate love +alternate with bold desires and lofty ambitions. It is clear +that there was an understanding between him and Catherina and +that they looked forward to a happy ending, and this encouraged +him in his weary waiting and his search for a lucrative post +which would enable him to approach her family and ask for her +hand. From this period date the greater part of his roundels and +sonnets, some of the odes and nearly all the eclogues.</p> + +<p>His fifth eclogue shows that he was seriously thinking of his +patriotic poem in 1544; and from the fourth it seems likely +that the <i>Lusiads</i> were in course of composition, and that +cantos 3 and 4 were practically completed. He had by now established +his fame and was known as the Lusitanian Virgil, but presently +he had a rude awakening from his dreams of love and glory. +He had shown his affection too openly, and some infraction of +court etiquette, about which the queen was strict, caused the +tongue of scandal to wag; perhaps it was an affair with one of +Catherina’s brothers, even a duel, that led to the decree which +exiled him from Lisbon.</p> + +<p>Camoens’s rashness, self-confidence and want of respect for +the authorities all contributed to the penalty, and the composition +of the play <i>El Rei Seleuco</i> would aggravate his offence in the +eyes of John III. Produced in 1545 and derived from Plutarch, +the plot was calculated to draw attention to the relations between +the king and his stepmother, and to recall the action of D. Manoel +in robbing his son John III. of his intended bride. Camoens +composed it for a wedding festivity in the house of Estacio da +Fonseca, and some of the verses refer so openly to his passion, +that if, as is likely, he spoke them himself, emphasizing them +with voice and gesture so as to publish his love to the world, this +new boldness, combined with the subject of the piece, must have +rendered his exile a certainty. All we know definitely, however, +is that the court was henceforth closed to him, and in 1546 he +had to leave Lisbon, the abode of his love and the scene of his +triumph. Tradition says that he went to the Ribatejo and +spent seven or eight months with his mother’s relatives in or +near Santarem, whence he poured out a number of his finest +poems, including his <i>Elegy of Exile</i> and some magnificent +sonnets, which, in vigour of ideas and beauty of expression, +exceeded anything he had hitherto produced. Poets cannot live +on bays, however, and pressed by necessity he determined to +become a soldier.</p> + +<p>One of his best modern biographers thinks that he petitioned +the king for liberty to commute his penalty into military service +in Africa; but whether this be so, or whether he merely went +there to gain his spurs, certain it is that in the autumn of 1547 +he proceeded to Ceuta. For the next two years, the usual period of +service there, he lived the routine life of a common soldier in +this famous trade emporium and outpost-town, and he lost his +right eye in a skirmish with the Moroccans, though some writers +make the incident occur on the voyage across the straits when +his ship was attacked by Sallee rovers. Elegy ii. and a couple +of odes date from his stay in Ceuta. He is full of sadness and +almost in despair, but is saved from suicide by love and memory +of the past. He has intervals of calm and resignation, even of +satirical humour, and these become more frequent as the term of +his exile draws near, and in one of them he wrote his prose +letter to a “Lisbon friend.” The octaves on the <i>Discontent of the +World</i>, which breathe a philosophic equanimity and lift the reader +out of the tumult of daily life, go to show that his restless heart +had found peace at last and that he had accustomed himself to solitude.</p> + +<p>In November 1549 the aged governor of Ceuta, D. Affonso de +Noronha, was summoned to court and created viceroy of India, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span> +and Camoens accompanied him to Lisbon, intending to follow him +to the East in the armada which was due to sail in the spring of +1550. Reaching the capital in December, the poet almost +immediately enlisted, but when the time came for departure he +had changed his mind. His affection for Catherina and dreams +of literary glory detained him, and he lived on in the expectation +of obtaining a post on the strength of his services and wound. +But month after month passed by without result, and in his +disappointment he allied himself with a group of hot-blooded +youths, including the ex-friar Antonio Ribeiro, nicknamed +“the Chiado”, after whom the main street of Lisbon takes its +name, and endeavoured to forget his troubles in their society. +He took part in their extravagances and gained the name of +“Trinca-fortes” (“Crack-braves”) from his bohemian companions, +while there were ladies who mocked at his disfigurement, +dubbing him “devil” and “eyeless face”. In the course of his +adventures he had often to draw his sword, either as attacker or +attacked, and he boasted that he had seen the soles of the feet of +many but none had seen his. When the reply to his application +came from the palace it was a negative one, and he had now +nothing further to expect. His stock of money brought from +Ceuta was certainly exhausted, and misery stared him in the face, +making him desperate. On the feast of Corpus Christi, the 16th +of June 1552, he found two masked friends of his engaged in a +street fight near St Dominic’s convent, and joining in the fray he +wounded one Gonçalo Borges, a palace servant, with the result +that he was apprehended and lodged in gaol. This unprovoked +attack upon a royal servant on so holy a day constituted a serious +offence and cost him eight months’ imprisonment. In a pathetic +sonnet he describes his terrible experiences, which made such an +impression on him that years afterwards he recurred to them in +his great autobiographical Canzon 10. When Borges’ wound was +completely healed, the poet’s friends intervened to assist him, +and it was arranged that on his formally imploring pardon +Borges should grant it and desist from proceeding with the case. +This was effected on the 13th of February 1553, and on the 7th +of March the king, taking into consideration that Camoens was +“a youth and poor and decided to serve this year in India”, +confirmed the pardon. He had been obliged to humble his pride +and enlist again, but while he complained of his troubles he +recognized, in his frank, honest way, that his own mistakes were +in part the causes of them.</p> + +<p>After bidding good-bye to Catherina for the last time, Camoens +set sail on Palm Sunday, the 24th of March 1553, in the “S. +Bento”, the flagship of a fleet of four vessels, under Fernaõ +Alvares Cabral. His last words, he says in a letter, were those of +Scipio Africanus, “Ingrata patria, non possidebis ossa mea”.</p> + +<p>He relates some of his experiences on board and the events +of the voyage in various sonnets in Elegy iii. and in the <i>Lusiads</i>. +In those days the sailors navigated the ships, while the men-at-arms +kept the day and night watches, helped in the cleaning and, +in case of necessity, at the pumps, but the rank of Camoens +doubtless saved him from manual work. He had much time to +himself in his six months’ voyage and was able to lay in a store of +nautical knowledge, while tempestuous weather off the Cape of +Good Hope led him to conceive the dramatic episode of Adamastor +(<i>Lusiads</i>, canto 5). The “S. Bento”, the best ship of the fleet, +weathered the Cape safely, and without touching at Mozambique, +the watering-place of ships bound for India, anchored at Goa in +September. It seems probable that the idea of the <i>Lusiads</i> +took further shape on the voyage out, and that Camoens modified +his plan; cantos 3 and 4 were already written, but from an +historical he now made it a maritime epic. The discovery of +India became the main theme, while the history of Portugal was +interlaced with it, and the poem ended with the espousals +between Portugal and the ocean, and a prophecy of the future +greatness of the fatherland.</p> + +<p>At the time of his arrival Goa boasted 100,000 inhabitants, +and with its magnificent harbour was the commercial capital of +the west of India. The first viceroy had been content with a sea +dominion, but the great Affonso de Albuquerque saw that this +was not enough to secure the supremacy of the Portuguese; +recognizing the strategic value of Goa, he seized it and made it +the capital of a land empire, and built fortresses in every important +point through the East. Since his death a succession of remarkable +victories had made the flag of Portugal predominant, but +the enervating climate, the pleasures and the plunder of Asia, +began to tell on the conquerors. Corruption was rife from the +governor downwards, because the ruling ambition was to get +rich and return home, and the hero of one day was a pirate the +next. After all, it was only human nature, for a governorship +lasted but three years and Portugal was far away, so the saying +went round—“They are installed the first year, they rob the +second, and then pack up in the third to sail away.” Camoens +was well received at first, owing to his talents and bravery, and +he found the life cheap and merry, but having left his country +with high ideals, the injustice and demoralization of manners +he found in India soon disgusted him. He compared Goa to +Babylon, and called it “the mother of villains and the stepmother +of honest men.”</p> + +<p>His first military service in the East took place in November +1553, when he went with a force led by the viceroy to chastise a +petty king on the Malabar coast. The expedition only lasted +two or three months, and after some trivial combats it returned +to Goa. In February of the following year Camoens accompanied +the viceroy’s son, D. Fernando de Menezes, who led an +armada to the mouth of the Red Sea and thence up the Arabian +coast to snap up hostile merchantmen and suppress piracy. +Next the fleet went on to Ormuz, as was the custom with these +annual cruises, and then to Bassora, where the poet helped to +make some valuable prizes, and wrote a sonnet—it was ever, +with him, “in one hand the sword, in the other the pen”! +Returning to Goa in November he learnt of the deaths of Prince +John, and of his friend and pupil the young D. Antonio de +Noronha, and paid his tribute in a feeling sonnet and eclogue. +In February 1555 he sailed on another pirate hunt and spent +six weary months off Cape Guardafui, varied by a visit to +Mombasa and by further work on his epic, and only got back to +Goa in the following September. His experiences are recorded +in the profound and sad 10th Canzon.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Francisco Barreto, an honourable and generous +man, had become governor-general of India in the June of 1555, +and, his appointment being popular, a reign of festivities began +in Golden Goa to welcome his succession, in the course of which +Camoens produced his <i>Filodemo</i>, a dramatized novel written in +his court days. The same occasion probably gave birth to the +<i>Disparates na India</i> (“Follies of India”), and certainly to the +<i>Satyra do Torneio</i> (“Satire of the Tourney”), which confirmed +the poet’s reputation as a sayer of sharp things and gave +considerable umbrage to those whom the cap fitted. However, it +was not the enmities thus aroused but military duty which +compelled him to quit Goa once more in the spring of 1556. He +had enlisted in Lisbon for five years, the usual term, and in +compliance with the orders of the governor he sailed for the +Moluccas in April and there fought and versified for two years, +though nearly all is guesswork at this period of his life. He +appears to have spent the time between September 1556 and +February 1557 in the island of Ternate, where he wrote Canzon +6, revealing a state of moral depression similar to that of +Canzon 10, and he perhaps visited Banda and Amboina. In the +following year he took part in the military occupation of Macao, +which the emperor of China had presented to the Portuguese in +return for their destruction of a pirate fleet which had besieged +Canton. The poet’s five years’ term of service was now over, +and he remained at Macao many months waiting for a ship to +carry him back to India. He had made some profit out of the +<i>Mercî de Viagem</i>, granted by the governor Barreto to free him +from the poverty in which he habitually lived, and he spent his +money royally. At the same time he continued his epic, working +in the grotto which still bears his name.</p> + +<p>All seemed to be going smoothly with him until suddenly his +fortunes took a serious turn for the worse. As the result of an +intrigue the captain of the yearly ship from China to India, who +acted as governor of Macao during his stay in port, imprisoned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span> +Camoens, and took him on board with a view of bringing him to +trial in India. The ship, however, was wrecked in October 1559 +at the mouth of the Mekong river, and the poet had to save his +life and his <i>Lusiads</i> by swimming to shore, and though he +preserved the six or seven finished cantos of the poem, he lost +everything else. While wandering about on the Cambodian +coast awaiting the monsoon and a vessel to take him to Malacca, +he composed those magnificent stanzas “By the Waters of +Babylon,” called by Lope de Vega “the pearl of all poetry,” +in which he recalls the happy days of his youth, sighs for Lisbon +(Sion) and his love, and mourns his long exile from home. He +got somehow to Malacca, and after a short stay there reached +Goa, still as prisoner, in June 1561. He was straightway lodged +in gaol, where he heard for the first time of the death of Catherina, +and he poured out his grief in the great sonnet, <i>Alma Minha +Gentil</i>. The viceroy, D. Constantius de Bragança, had recently +returned from Jafanapatam, bringing as prize a tooth of Buddha, +and Camoens approached him with a splendid epistle in twenty +octaves, after the manner of Horace’s ode to Augustus. It +failed, however, to hasten the consideration of his case, but +in September the Conde de Redondo, a good friend, came into +office and immediately ordered his release from prison. His +troubles were not yet at an end, however, for one Miguel +Rodriguez Coutinho, a well-known soldier and citizen of Goa +who lent money at usurious rates, thought the opportunity a +good one to obtain repayment of a debt, and had Camoens +lodged once more in gaol. As soon as he came out the poet +composed a burlesque roundel satirizing his persecutor under the +nickname of Fios Seccos (“dry threads”).</p> + +<p>Though very poor he now led an easier, even a pleasant life +for a time. He was able to see his friends D. Vasco de Ataide, +D. Francisco de Almeida, Heitor da Silveira, João Lopes Leitaõ +and Francisco de Mello, all men of family and note. One day he +invited them to a banquet, at which, instead of the usual dishes, +each guest was served with a set of witty verses, and after these +had been read out and chaff had gone round, the food came and +they formed a merry party. The poet used his interest with the +viceroy to recommend to him the naturalist Garcia da Orta, whose +<i>Colloquies</i> on the simples and drugs of the East, the first +product of the press in India, appeared in April 1563 with an +ode by Camoens. His life for the next three years is almost a +blank, but we know that he was hard at work finishing his epic, +assisted by the advice of the historian Diogo do Couto, who +became its commentator, and further that the new viceroy, his +friend D. Antão de Noronha, nominated him to a reversion of +the factory of Chaul, which, however, never fell into possession. +It is clear from his writings that fourteen years in the East had +told on Camoens. His best friends were dead or scattered, and +he was overwhelmed with <i>saudade</i>. His sole ambition was +to go home and print his poem, but he had no money to pay his +passage. In September 1567, however, Pedro Barreto was named +captain of Mozambique, and insisted on the poet accompanying +him to Sofala, at the same time lending him two hundred +cruzades. It was part of the way home, so Camoens accepted, +but after they reached Mozambique Barreto called in this money, +and his debtor, being unable to pay, was detained there for two +whole years. Here Diogo do Couto found him “so poor that he +ate at the cost of friends, and in order that he might embark for +the Kingdom we friends collected for him the clothes he needed +and some gave him to eat, and that winter he finished perfecting +the <i>Lusiads</i> for the press and wrote much in a book he was +making, which he called <i>Parnaso of Luiz de Camoes</i>, a book of +much learning, doctrine and philosophy, which was stolen from +him.” Thanks to Couto and others, Camoens was able to +liquidate his debt and set sail in November 1569 in the “Santa +Clara,” and he reached Portugal on the 7th of April 1570, after +an absence of seventeen years.</p> + +<p>The only wealth he brought with him from India was the MS. +of his great poem, a <i>”Tesoro del Luso”</i> in the words of Cervantes. +Moreover, he returned at an unfortunate moment—one of pest +and famine. The great plague which had killed a quarter, or, as +some say, half of the population of the capital, was declining, +but a rigid quarantine prevailed, and the ship had to lie off +Cascaes until the sanitary authorities allowed her to enter the +Tagus. Camoens was welcomed by his mother, whom he found +“very old and very poor”—his father had died at Goa about +1555—and after a visit to Catherina’s tomb, which inspired the +poignant sonnet 337, he set about obtaining the royal licence +to print the <i>Lusiads</i>. This was dated the 24th of September +1571 and gave him a ten years’ copyright, and as soon as the +book appeared some friendly and influential hand, perhaps D. +Manoel de Portugal, perhaps D. Francisca de Aragão for whom +he had rhymed in the happy days of his youth, presented the +national epic to King Sebastian. Shortly afterwards, on the +28th of July 1572, the king gave the poet a pension of fifteen +milreis for the term of three years, as a reward for his services +in India and for his poem. It was relatively a considerable sum, +seeing that he had no great military record, and it seems even +generous when we remember that Magellan had only received +twelve, and had left Portugal because King Manoel would not +give him a slight increase. Many functionaries with families +had less to live on, and Camoens’s subsistence was secure for the +time being, and he could afford an attendant, so that the legend +of the slave Antonio may well be true. Moreover, he was in the +enjoyment of the fame his poem brought him. Philip II. is +said to have read and admired it, and the powerful minister, +Pedro de Alcaçova Carneiro, echoed the general opinion when +he remarked that it had only one defect, in not being short +enough to learn by heart or long enough to have no ending. +Tributes came from abroad too. Tasso wrote and sent Camoens +a sonnet in his praise, Fernando de Herrera celebrated him, and +the year 1580 saw the publication of two Spanish versions, one +at Alcalá, the other at Salamanca. His pension lapsed in 1575, +but on the 2nd of August it was renewed for a further term; +owing, however, to a mistake of the treasury officials, Camoens +drew nothing for about a year and a half and fell into dire distress. +This explains the story of Ruy da Camara, who had engaged him +to translate the penitential psalms, and not receiving the version, +called on the poet, who said in excuse that he had no spirit +for such work now that he wanted for everything, and that +his slave had asked him for a penny for fuel and he could not +give it.</p> + +<p>On the 2nd of June 1578, just before his start for the expedition +to Africa which cost him his life and Portugal her independence, +King Sebastian had renewed the poet’s pension for a further +period. Though Camoens had neither the health nor the means +to accompany the splendid train of nobles and courtiers who +followed the last crusading monarch to his doom, he began an +epic to celebrate the enterprise, but burnt it when he heard the +news of the battle of Alcacer. Instead, he mourned the death +of his royal benefactor in a magnificent sonnet, and in Elegy x. +reproached the cowardly soldiery who contributed to the rout. +On the 31st of January 1580 the cardinal king Henry died, and, +foreseeing the Spanish invasion, Camoens wrote in March to his +old friend D. Francisco de Almeida: “All will see that I so loved +my country that I was content not only to die in her but with her.” +A great plague had been raging in Lisbon since the previous year, +and the poet, who lay ill in his poor cottage in the rua de Santa +Anna, depressed by the calamities of his country, fell a victim +to it. He was removed to a hospital and there passed away, +unmarried and the last of his line, on the 10th of June 1580. +A Carmelite, Frei José Indio, attended him in his last moments +and received the only recognition Camoens could give, his copy +of the <i>Lusiads</i>. He wrote afterwards: “What more grievous +thing than to see so great a genius thus unfortunate. I saw him +die in a hospital in Lisbon, without a sheet to cover him, after +having triumphed in the East Indies and sailed 5000 leagues +by sea.” The house of Vimioso supplied the winding-sheet, and +Camoens was buried with other victims of the plague in a common +grave in the cemetery of Santa Anna. Years later D. Gonçalo +Coutinho erected in the church of that invocation an <i>in memoriam</i> +slab of marble with an inscription, and subsequently epitaphs +were added by other admirers, but the earthquake of 1755 +damaged the building, and all traces of these last acts of homage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span> +to genius have disappeared. The third centenary of the poet’s +death was made the occasion of a national apotheosis, and on the +8th of June 1880 some remains, piously believed to be his, were +borne with those of Vasco da Gama to the national pantheon, +the Jeronymos at Belem.</p> + +<p>The masterpiece of Camoens, the <i>Lusiads</i>, is the <i>epos</i> of +discovery. It is written in hendecasyllabic <i>ottava rima</i>, and is +divided into ten cantos containing in all 1102 stanzas. Its argument +is briefly as follows. After an exordium proposing the subject, +invoking the Tagus muses and addressing King Sebastian, +Vasco da Gama’s ships are shown sailing up the East African +coast on their way to India. At a council of the gods the fate +of the fleet is discussed, and Bacchus promises to thwart the +voyage, while Venus and Mars favour the navigators. They +arrive at Mozambique, where the governor endeavours to destroy +them by stratagem, and, this failing, Bacchus tries other plots +against them at Quiloa and Mombasa which are foiled by Venus. +In answer to her appeal, Jupiter foretells the glorious feats of +the Portuguese in the East, and sends Mercury to direct the +voyagers to Melinde, where they are hospitably received and get +a pilot to guide them to India. The local ruler visits the fleet +and asks Gama about his country and its history, and in response +the latter gives an account of the origin of the kingdom of +Portugal, its kings and principal achievements, ending with the +incidents of the voyage out. This recital occupies cantos 3, +4 and 5, and includes some of the most admired and most powerful +episodes in the poem, <i>e.g.</i> those of Ignez de Castro, King +Manoel’s dream of the rivers Ganges and Indus, the speech of +the old man of Belem and the apparition of Adamastor off the +Cape of Good Hope. Canto 6 describes the crossing of the Indian +Ocean from Melinde to Calicut and a fresh hostile attempt on the +part of Bacchus. He descends to Neptune’s palace, and at a +council of the sea-gods it is resolved to order Aeolus to loose the +winds against the Portuguese, but the tempest is quelled by Venus +and her nymphs in answer to Gama’s prayer, and the morning +light reveals the Ghats of India. Just before the storm, occurs +the night scene in which Velloso entertains his shipmates with +the story of the Twelve of England, another of the famous +episodes. Canto 7 is taken up with the arrival at Calicut, a +description of the country and the details of Gama’s reception +by the raja. The governor of the city visits the fleet and +inquires about the pictures on their banners, whereupon Paulo +da Gama, Vasco’s brother, tells him of the deeds of the early +Portuguese kings. Meanwhile Bacchus, not to be baulked, appears +to a priest in the guise of Mahomet, and stirs up the Moslems +against the Christian adventurers, with the result that the raja +charges Gama with being a leader of convicts and pirates. To +this the captain makes a spirited reply and gets his despatch, +but he has new snares to avoid and further difficulties to overcome +before he is finally able to set sail on the return voyage. +Pitying their toils, Venus determines to give the voyagers repose +and pleasure on their way home, and directs their course to an +enchanted island, which is described in canto 9, in the longest +and perhaps the most beautiful episode in the poem. On landing +they are received by the goddess and her nymphs, and general +joy ensues, heightened by banquets and amorous play. In a +prophetic song, the siren tells of the exploits of the Portuguese +viceroys, governors and captains in India until the time of +D John de Castro, after which Tethys ascends a mountain with +Gama, shows him the spheres after the system of Ptolemy and +the globe of Asia and Africa, and describes the Indian life of +St Thomas the apostle. Finally the navigators quit the island +and reach Lisbon, and an epilogue contains a patriotic +exhortation to King Sebastian and visions of glory, which +ended so disastrously at the battle of Alcacer.</p> + +<p>Though the influence of Camoens on Portuguese has been +exaggerated, it was very considerable, and he so far fixed the +written language that at the present day it is commonly and not +inaccurately called “the language of Camoens.” The <i>Lusiads</i> +is the most successful modern epic cast in the ancient mould, and +it has done much to preserve the corporate life of the Portuguese +people and to keep alive the spirit of nationality in times +of adversity like the “Spanish Captivity” and the Napoleonic +invasion. Even now it forms a powerful bond between the +mother-country and her potentially mighty daughter-nation +across the Atlantic, the United States of Brazil. The men of +the Renaissance saw nothing incongruous in that mixture of +paganism and Christianity which is found in the <i>Lusiads</i> as in +Ariosto, though some modern critics, like Voltaire, consider it a +grave artistic defect in the poem. The fact that the <i>Lusiads</i> +is written in a little-known language, and its intensely national +and almost exclusively historical character, undoubtedly militate +against a right estimate of its value, now that Portugal, once a +world power, has long ceased to hold the East in fee or to guide +the destinies of Europe. But though political changes may and +do react on literary appreciations, the <i>Lusiads</i> remains none +the less a great poem, breathing the purest religious fervour, +love of country and spirit of chivalry, with splendid imaginative +and descriptive passages full of the truest and deepest poetry. +The structure is Virgilian, but the whole conception is the +author’s own, while the style is natural and noble, the diction +nearly always correct and elegant, and the verse, as a rule, +sonorous and full of harmony.</p> + +<p>In addition to his epic, Camoens wrote sonnets, canzons, odes, +sextines, eclogues, elegies, octaves, roundels, letters and comedies. +The roundels include <i>cartas, motes, voltas, cantigas, trovas, +pastorals</i> and <i>endechas</i>. In the opinion of many competent +judges Camoens only attains his true stature in his lyrics; and +a score of his sonnets, two or three of the canzons, eclogues and +elegies, and the Babylonian roundels will bear comparison with +any composition of the same kind that other literatures can show. +Referring to the <i>Lusiads</i>, A. von Humboldt calls Camoens a +“great maritime painter,” but in his best lyrics he is a thinker +as well as a poet, and when free from the trammels of the epic +and inherited respect for classical traditions, he reveals a +personality so virile and deep, a philosophy so broad and human, a +vision so wide, and a form and style so nearly perfect, as not only +to make him the foremost of Peninsular bards but to entitle him to +a place in that small company of universal poets of the first rank.</p> + +<p>The oldest and most authentic portrait of Camoens appeared +in 1624 with his life, by Manoel Severim de Faria. It is a kitcat +and shows the poet in armour wearing a laurel crown; his right +hand holds a pen, his left rests on a copy of the <i>Lusiads</i>, while +a shield above shows the family arms, a dragon rising from between +rocks. The likeness exhibits a Gothic or northern type, and the +tradition of his red beard and blue eyes confirms it. Except for +an ode, sonnet and elegy, all Camoens’s lyrics were published +posthumously.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The most modern and most critical biographies are +those of Dr Theophilo Braga, <i>Camões, epoca e Vide</i> (Oporto, 1907), +and of Dr Wilhelm Storck, <i>Luis de Camões Leben</i> (Paderborn, 1890), +while the most satisfactory edition of the complete works is +due to the Visconde de Juromenha (6 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1869), +though it contains some spurious matter. While rejecting without +good reason many of the traditions accepted by Juromenha in his +life of the poet, Storck embroiders on his own account, and Braga +must be preferred to him. Two volumes of Innocencio da Silva’s +<i>Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez</i> (14 and 15) are entirely +devoted to Camoens and Camoniana, the second of them dealing fully +with the tercentenary celebrations. Among modern Portuguese studies +of the national epic the most important are perhaps <i>Camões e a +Renascença em Portugal</i>, by Oliveira Martins, and <i>Camões e o +Sentimento Nacional</i>, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, 1891). The latter +volume contains useful information on the various editions of Camoens, +with an account of the texts and remarks on his plagiarists. Very +few poets have been so often translated, and a list and estimate of +the English translations of the <i>Lusiads</i> from the time of Sir +Richard Fanshawe (1655) downwards, will be found in Sir Richard Burton’s +<i>Camoens: His Life and His Lusiads</i>, which, notwithstanding some +errors, is a most informing book, and the result of a curious +similarity of temperament and experience between master and disciple. +Burton translated the <i>Lusiads</i> (2 vols., London, 1880) and the +<i>Lyricks</i> (sonnets, canzons, odes and sextines; 2 vols., London, +1884), and left a version of all the minor works in MS. The accurate +and readable version of the epic by Mr J.J. Aubertin, with the +Portuguese text opposite, has gone through two editions (2nd ed., +2 vols., London, 1884), and there is a version of seventy of the +sonnets, accompanied by the Portuguese text, by the same author +(London, 1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 1 *** + +***** This file should be named 32975-h.htm or 32975-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/9/7/32975/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1 + "Calhoun" to "Camoens" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 25, 2010 [EBook #32975] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article CALIPH: "Mohallab was soon after deprived of the government + of Khorasan, Hajjaj accusing him of partiality towards the rebels + of Yemenite extraction." 'Hajjaj' amended from 'Majjaj'. + + Article CALIPH: "Moreover, Hajjaj, in order to maintain the regular + revenue from taxation, had been obliged to introduce stringent + regulations ..." 'maintain' amended from 'maintian'. + + Article CALIPH: "Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Hajjaj, was made + governor of Irak." 'Hajjaj' amended from 'Majjaj'. + + Article CALIPH: "Still, they could not believe that it was + according to the will of the caliph that they were thus treated, + until a certain number of their chiefs went as a deputation to + Hisham ..." 'were' amended from 'here'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME V, SLICE I + + Calhoun to Camoens + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL CALW + CALI CALYDON + CALIBRATION CALYPSO + CALICO CAM (CAO), DIOGO + CALICUT CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO + CALIFORNIA CAMALDULIANS + CALIFORNIA, LOWER CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE + CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF CAMARGUE + CALIPASH and CALIPEE CAMARINA + CALIPH CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE + CALIPHATE CAMBALUC + CALIVER CAMBAY + CALIXTUS (popes) CAMBAY, GULF OF + CALIXTUS, GEORG CAMBER + CALL CAMBERT, ROBERT + CALLANDER CAMBERWELL + CALLAO CAMBIASI, LUCA + CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL CAMBODIA + CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH + CALLIAS CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL + CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS CAMBORNE + CALLIMACHUS (Athenian sculptor) CAMBRAI + CALLIMACHUS (Greek poet) CAMBRIA + CALLINUS CAMBRIAN SYSTEM + CALLIOPE CAMBRIC + CALLIRRHOE CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF + CALLISTHENES CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN + CALLISTO CAMBRIDGE (of England) + CALLISTRATUS (grammarian) CAMBRIDGE (Maryland, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (Athenian poet) CAMBRIDGE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (Greek sophist) CAMBRIDGE (Ohio, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (of Aphidnae) CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS + CALLOT, JACQUES CAMBRIDGESHIRE + CALLOVIAN CAMBUSLANG + CALM CAMBYSES + CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT + CALNE CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT + CALOMEL CAMDEN, WILLIAM + CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE CAMDEN (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + CALORESCENCE CAMDEN (South Carolina, U.S.A.) + CALORIMETRY CAMEL + CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT + CALPURNIUS, TITUS CAMELLIA + CALTAGIRONE CAMEO + CALTANISETTA CAMERA + CALTROP CAMERA LUCIDA + CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE CAMERA OBSCURA + CALUMET CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (classical scholar) + CALUMPIT CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (German botanist) + CALVADOS CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB + CALVART, DENIS CAMERINO + CALVARY CAMERON, JOHN + CALVE EMMA CAMERON, RICHARD + CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART CAMERON, SIMON + CALVERT (English artists) CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT + CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN + CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART CAMERONIANS + CALVES' HEAD CLUB CAMEROON + CALVI CAMILING + CALVIN, JOHN CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS + CALVINISTIC METHODISTS CAMILLUS and CAMILLA + CALVISIUS, SETHUS CAMISARDS + CALVO, CARLOS CAMOENS, LUIS VAZ DE + + + + +CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1850), American statesman and +parliamentarian, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in Abbeville +District, South Carolina, on the 18th of March 1782. His father, Patrick +Calhoun, is said to have been born in Donegal, in North Ireland, but to +have left Ireland when a mere child. The family seems to have emigrated +first to Pennsylvania, whence they removed, after Braddock's defeat, to +Western Virginia. From Virginia they removed in 1756 to South Carolina +and settled on Long Cane Creek, in Granville (now Abbeville) county. +Patrick Calhoun attained some prominence in the colony, serving in the +colonial legislature, and afterwards in the state legislature, and +taking part in the War of Independence. In 1770 he had married Martha +Caldwell, the daughter of another Scottish-Irish settler. + +The opportunities for obtaining a liberal education in the remote +districts of South Carolina at that time were scanty. Fortunately, young +Calhoun had the opportunity, although late, of studying under his +brother-in-law, the Rev. Moses Waddell (1770-1840), a Presbyterian +minister, who afterwards, from 1819 to 1829, was president of the +University of Georgia. In 1802 Calhoun entered the junior class in Yale +College, and graduated with distinction in 1804. He then studied first +at the famous law school in Litchfield, Conn., and afterwards in a law +office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was admitted to the bar. He +began practice in his native Abbeville District, and soon took a leading +place in his profession. In 1808 and 1809 he was a member of the South +Carolina legislature, and from 1811 to 1817 was a member of the national +House of Representatives. + +When he entered the latter body the strained relations between Great +Britain and the United States formed the most important question for the +deliberation of Congress. Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, being +eager for war and knowing Calhoun's hostility to Great Britain, gave him +the second place on the committee of foreign affairs, of which he soon +became the actual head. In less than three weeks the committee reported +resolutions, evidently written by Calhoun, recommending preparations for +a struggle with Great Britain; and in the following June Calhoun +submitted a second report urging a formal declaration of war. Both sets +of resolutions the House adopted. Clay and Calhoun did more, probably, +than any other two men in Congress to force the reluctant president into +beginning hostilities. + +In 1816 Calhoun delivered in favour of a protective tariff a speech that +was ever after held up by his opponents as evidence of his inconsistency +in the tariff controversy. The embargo and the war had crippled American +commerce, but had stimulated manufactures. With the end of the +Napoleonic wars in Europe the industries of the old world revived, and +Americans began to feel their competition. In the consequent distress in +the new industrial centres there arose a cry for protection. Calhoun, +believing that there was a natural tendency in the United States towards +the development of manufactures, supported the Tariff Bill of 1816, +which laid on certain foreign commodities duties higher than were +necessary for the purposes of revenue. He believed that the South would +share in the general industrial development, not having perceived as yet +that slavery was an insuperable obstacle. His opposition to protection +in later years resulted from an honest change of convictions. He always +denied that in supporting this bill he had been inconsistent, and +insisted that it was one for revenue. + +From 1817 to 1825 Calhoun was secretary of war under President Monroe. +To him is due the fostering and the reformation of the National Military +Academy at West Point, which he found in disorder, but left in a most +efficient state. Calhoun was vice-president of the United States from +1825 to 1832, during the administration of John Quincy Adams, and during +most of the first administration of Andrew Jackson. This period was for +Calhoun a time of reflection. His faith in a strong nationalistic policy +was gradually undermined, and he finally became the foremost champion of +particularism and the recognized leader of what is generally known as +the "States Rights" or "Strict Construction" party. + +In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties. In 1828 a +still higher tariff act, the so-called "Bill of Abominations," was +passed, avowedly for the purpose of protection. The passage of these +acts caused great discontent, especially among the Southern states, +which were strictly agricultural. They felt that the great burden of +this increased tariff fell on them, as they consumed, but did not +produce, manufactured articles. Under such conditions the Southern +states questioned the constitutionality of the imposition. Calhoun +himself now perceived that the North and the South represented diverse +tendencies. The North was outstripping the South in population and +wealth, and already by the tariff acts was, as he believed, selfishly +levying taxes for its sole benefit. The minority must, he insisted, be +protected from "the tyranny of the majority." In his first important +political essay, "The South Carolina Exposition," prepared by him in the +summer of 1828, he showed how this should be done. To him it was clear +that the Federal Constitution was a limited instrument, by which the +sovereign states had delegated to the Federal government certain general +powers. The states could not, without violating the constitutional +compact, interfere with the activities of the Federal government so long +as the government confined itself to its proper sphere; but the attempt +of Congress, or any other department of the Federal government, to +exercise any power which might alter the nature of the instrument would +be an act of usurpation. The right of judging such an infraction +belonged to the state, being an attribute of sovereignty of which the +state could not be deprived without being reduced to a wholly +subordinate condition. As a remedy for such a breach of compact the +state might resort to nullification (q.v.), or, as a last resort, to +secession from the Union. Such doctrines were not original with Calhoun, +but had been held in various parts of the Union from time to time. It +remained for him, however, to submit them to a rigid analysis and reduce +them to a logical form. + +Meantime the friendship between Calhoun and Jackson had come to an end. +While a member of President Monroe's cabinet, Calhoun had favoured the +reprimanding of General Jackson (q.v.) for his high-handed course in +Florida in 1818, during the first Seminole War. In 1831 W.H. Crawford, +who had been a member of this cabinet, desiring to ruin Calhoun +politically by turning Jackson's hostility against him, revealed to +Jackson what had taken place thirteen years before. Jackson could brook +no criticism from one whom he had considered a friend; Calhoun, +moreover, angered the president still further by his evident sanction of +the social proscription of Mrs Eaton (q.v.); the political views of the +two men, furthermore, were becoming more and more divergent, and the +rupture between the two became complete. + +The failure of the Jackson administration to reduce the Tariff of 1828 +drew from Calhoun his "Address to the People of South Carolina" in 1831, +in which he elaborated his views of the nature of the Union as given in +the "Exposition." In 1832 a new tariff act was passed, which removed the +"abominations" of 1828 but left the principle of protection intact. The +people of South Carolina were not satisfied, and Calhoun in a third +political tract, in the form of a letter to Governor James Hamilton +(1786-1857) of South Carolina, gave his doctrines their final form, but +without altering the fundamental principles that have already been +stated. + +In 1832 South Carolina, acting in substantial accordance with Calhoun's +theories, "nullified" the tariff acts passed by Congress in 1828 and +1832 (see NULLIFICATION; SOUTH CAROLINA; and UNITED STATES). On the 28th +of December 1832 Calhoun resigned as vice-president, and on the 4th of +January 1833 took his seat in the Senate. President Jackson had, in a +special message, taken strong ground against the action of South +Carolina, and a bill was introduced to extend the jurisdiction of the +courts of the United States and clothe the president with additional +powers, with the avowed object of meeting the situation in South +Carolina. Calhoun, in turn, introduced resolutions upholding the +doctrine held by South Carolina, and it was in the debate on the +first-named measure, termed the "Force Bill," and on these resolutions, +that the first intellectual duel took place between Daniel Webster and +Calhoun. Webster declared that the Federal government through the +Supreme Court was the ultimate expounder and interpreter of its own +powers, while Calhoun championed the rights of the individual state +under a written contract which reserved to each state its sovereignty. + +The practical result of the conflict over the tariff was a compromise. +Congress passed an act gradually reducing the duties to a revenue basis, +and South Carolina repealed her nullification measures. As the result of +the conflict, Calhoun was greatly strengthened in his position as the +leader of his party in the South. Southern leaders generally were now +beginning to perceive, as Calhoun had already seen, that there was a +permanent conflict between the North and the South, not only a +divergence of interests between manufacturing and agricultural sections, +but an inevitable struggle between free and slave labour. Should enough +free states be admitted into the Union to destroy the balance of power, +the North would naturally gain a preponderance in the Senate, as it had +in the House, and might, within constitutional limits, legislate as it +pleased. The Southern minority recognized, therefore, that they must +henceforth direct the policy of the government in all questions +affecting their peculiar interests, or their section would undergo a +social and economic revolution. The Constitution, if strictly +interpreted according to Calhoun's views, would secure this control to +the minority, and prevent an industrial upheaval. + +An element of bitterness was now injected into the struggle. The +Northern Abolitionists, to whom no contract or agreement was sacred that +involved the continuance of slavery, regarded the clauses in the Federal +Constitution which maintained the property rights of the slave-owners as +treaties with evil, binding on no one, and bitterly attacked the +slave-holders and the South generally. Their attacks may be said to have +destroyed the moderate party in that section. Any criticism of their +peculiar institution now came to be highly offensive to Southern +leaders, and Calhoun, who always took the most advanced stand in behalf +of Southern rights, urged (but in vain) that the Senate refuse to +receive abolitionist petitions. He also advocated the exclusion of +abolitionist literature from the mails. + +Indeed from 1832 until his death Calhoun may be said to have devoted his +life to the protection of Southern interests. He became the exponent, +the very embodiment, of an idea. It is a mistake, however, to +characterize him as an enemy to the Union. His contention was that its +preservation depended on the recognition of the rights guaranteed to the +states by the Constitution, and that aggression by one section could +only end in disruption. Secession, he contended, was the only final +remedy left to the weaker. Calhoun was re-elected to the Senate in 1834 +and in 1840, serving until 1843. From 1832 to 1837 he was a man without +a party. He attacked the "spoils system" inaugurated by President +Jackson, opposed the removal of the government deposits from the Bank of +the United States, and in general was a severe critic of Jackson's +administration. In this period he usually voted with the Whigs, but in +1837 he went over to the Democrats and supported the "independent +treasury" scheme of President Van Buren. He was spoken of for the +presidency in 1844, but declined to become a candidate, and was +appointed as secretary of state in the cabinet of President Tyler, +serving from the 1st of April 1844, throughout the remainder of the +term, until the 10th of March 1845. While holding this office he devoted +his energies chiefly to the acquisition of Texas, in order to preserve +the equilibrium between the South and the constantly growing North. One +of his last acts as secretary of state was to send a despatch, on the +3rd of March 1845, inviting Texas to accept the terms proposed by +Congress. Calhoun was once more elected to the Senate in 1845. The +period of his subsequent service covered the settlement of the Oregon +dispute with Great Britain and the Mexican War. On the 19th of February +1847 he introduced in the Senate a series of resolutions concerning the +territory about to be acquired from Mexico, which marked the most +advanced stand as yet taken by the pro-slavery party. The purport of +these resolutions was to deny to Congress the power to prohibit slavery +in the territories and to declare all previous enactments to this effect +unconstitutional. + +In 1850 the Union seemed in imminent danger of dissolution. California +was applying for admission to the Union as a state under a constitution +which did not permit slavery. Her admission with two Senators would have +placed the slave-holding states in the minority. In the midst of the +debate on this application Calhoun died, on the 31st of March 1850, in +Washington. + +Calhoun is most often compared with Webster and Clay. The three +constitute the trio upon whom the attention of students at this period +naturally rests. Calhoun possessed neither Webster's brilliant rhetoric +nor his easy versatility, but he surpassed him in the ordered method and +logical sequence of his mind. He never equalled Clay in the latter's +magnetism of impulse and inspiration of affection, but he far surpassed +him in clearness and directness and in tenacity of will. He surpassed +them both in the distinctness with which he saw results, and in the +boldness with which he formulated and followed his conclusions. + +Calhoun in person was tall and slender, and in his later years was +emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh, but with a +striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue. To his slaves +he was just and kind. He lived the modest, unassuming life of a country +planter when at his home, and at Washington lived as unostentatiously as +possible, consistent with his public duties and position. His character +in other respects was always of stainless integrity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collected edition of Calhoun's _Works_ (6 vols., New + York, 1853-1855) has been edited by Richard K. Cralle. The most + important speeches and papers are:--_The South Carolina Exposition_ + (1828); _Speech on the Force Bill_ (1833); _Reply to Webster_ (1833); + _Speech on the Reception of Abolitionist Petitions_ (1836), _and on + the Veto Power_ (1842); a _Disquisition on Government_, and a + _Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States_ + (1849-1850)--the last two, written a short time before his death, + defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a government + such as that of the United States. Calhoun's _Correspondence_, edited + by J. Franklin Jameson, has been published by the American Historical + Association (see _Report_ for 1899, vol. ii.). The biography of + Calhoun by Dr Hermann von Holst in the "American Statesmen Series" + (Boston, 1882) is a condensed study of the political questions of + Calhoun's time. Gustavus M. Pinckney's _Life of John C. Calhoun_ + (Charleston, 1903) gives a sympathetic Southern view. Gaillard Hunt's + _John C. Calhoun_ (Philadelphia, 1908) is a valuable work. + (H. A. M. S.) + + + + +CALI, an inland town of the department of Cauca, Colombia, South +America, about 180 m. S.W. of Bogota and 50 m. S.E. of the port of +Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch of the Cauca. Pop. (1906 +estimate) 16,000. Cali stands 3327 ft. above sea-level on the western +side of the Cauca valley, one of the healthiest regions of Colombia. The +land-locked character of this region greatly restricts the city's trade +and development; but it is considered the most important town in the +department. It has a bridge across the Cali, and a number of religious +and public edifices. A railway from Buenaventura will give Cali and the +valley behind it, with which it is connected by over 200 m. of river +navigation, a good outlet on the Pacific coast. Coal deposits exist in +the immediate vicinity of the town. + + + + +CALIBRATION, a term primarily signifying the determination of the +"calibre" or bore of a gun. The word _calibre_ was introduced through +the French from the Italian _calibro_, together with other terms of +gunnery and warfare, about the 16th century. The origin of the Italian +equivalent appears to be uncertain. It will readily be understood that +the calibre of a gun requires accurate adjustment to the standard size, +and further, that the bore must be straight and of uniform diameter +throughout. The term was subsequently applied to the accurate +measurement and testing of the bore of any kind of tube, especially +those of thermometers. + +In modern scientific language, by a natural process of transition, the +term "calibration" has come to denote the accurate comparison of any +measuring instrument with a standard, and more particularly the +determination of the errors of its scale. It is seldom possible in the +process of manufacture to make an instrument so perfect that no error +can be discovered by the most delicate tests, and it would rarely be +worth while to attempt to do so even if it were possible. The cost of +manufacture would in many cases be greatly increased without adding +materially to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in +all cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correction of +errors, is to economize time and labour in production by taking pains in +the subsequent verification or calibration. This process of calibration +is particularly important in laboratory research, where the observer has +frequently to make his own apparatus, and cannot afford the time or +outlay required to make special tools for fine work, but is already +provided with apparatus and methods of accurate testing. For +non-scientific purposes it is generally possible to construct +instruments to measure with sufficient precision without further +correction. The present article will therefore be restricted to the +scientific use and application of methods of accurate testing. + +_General Methods and Principles._--The process of calibration of any +measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two parts, which +differ greatly in importance in different cases, and of which one or the +other may often be omitted. (1) The determination of the value of the +unit to which the measurements are referred by comparison with a +standard unit of the same kind. This is often described as the +_Standardization_ of the instrument, or the determination of the +_Reduction factor_. (2) The verification of the accuracy of the +subdivision of the scale of the instrument. This may be termed +calibration of the scale, and does not necessarily involve the +comparison of the instrument with any independent standard, but merely +the verification of the accuracy of the relative values of its +indications. In many cases the process of calibration adopted consists +in the comparison of the instrument to be tested with a standard over +the whole range of its indications, the relative values of the +subdivisions of the standard itself having been previously tested. In +this case the distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, +and the term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to +include both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part +only, but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall +restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning. + + The methods of standardization or calibration employed have much in + common even in the cases that appear most diverse. They are all + founded on the axiom that "things which are equal to the same thing + are equal to one another." Whether it is a question of comparing a + scale with a standard, or of testing the equality of two parts of the + same scale, the process is essentially one of interchanging or + substituting one for the other, the two things to be compared. In + addition to the things to be tested there is usually required some + form of balance, or comparator, or gauge, by which the equality may be + tested. The simplest of such comparators is the instrument known as + the _callipers_, from the same root as calibre, which is in constant + use in the workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions, or + uniformity of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated forms of + optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and screw + adjustments are essentially similar in principle, being finely + adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can be + successively fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison is + that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the gauge + or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most accurate + and most important methods of calibration. The common balance for + testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate and so easily tested + that the process of calibration may frequently with advantage be + reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the calibration + of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities of mercury + required to fill it to different marks. The balance may, however, be + regarded more broadly as the type of a general method capable of the + widest application in accurate testing. It is possible, for instance, + to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical resistances + against each other, or to measure the refractivity of a gas by + balancing it against a column of air adjusted to produce the same + retardation in a beam of light. These "equilibrium," or "null," or + "balance" methods of comparison afford the most accurate measurements, + and are generally selected if possible as the basis of any process of + calibration. In spite of the great diversity in the nature of things + to be compared, the fundamental principles of the methods employed are + so essentially similar that it is possible, for instance, to describe + the testing of a set of weights, or the calibration of an electrical + resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and to represent the + calibration correction of a mercury thermometer or of an ammeter by + precisely similar curves. + + _Method of Substitution._--In comparing two units of the same kind and + of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general method of + substitution is invariably adopted. The same method in a more + elaborate form is employed in the calibration of a series of multiples + or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method depend on the + system of subdivision adopted, which is to some extent a matter of + taste. The simplest method of subdivision is that on the binary scale, + proceeding by multiples of 2. With a pair of submultiples of the + smallest denomination and one of each of the rest, thus 1, 1, 2, 4, 8, + 16, &c., each weight or multiple is equal to the sum of all the + smaller weights, which may be substituted for it, and the small + difference, if any, observed. If we call the weights A, B, C, &c., + where each is approximately double the following weight, and if we + write a for observed excess of A over the rest of the weights, b for + that of B over C + D + &c., and so on, the observations by the method + of substitution give the series of equations, + + A - rest = a, B - rest = b, C - rest = c, &c. (1) + + Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second, and + so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of the + preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest, which + is most conveniently taken as the standard + + B = A/2 + (b - a)/2, C = B/2 + (c - b)2, &c. (2) + + The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in + addition to its extreme simplicity, are (1) that there is only one + possible combination to represent any given weight within the range of + the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights is required + to cover any given range; (3) that the smallest number of + substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These + advantages are important in cases where the accuracy of calibration is + limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in the + case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the case + when it is a question of accuracy of estimation by an observer. + + In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded by + familiarity with the decimal system is the most important + consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal system + for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens, hundreds, &c., + arranged in groups of four adjusted in the proportion of the numbers + 1, 2, 3, 4. The relative values of the weights in each group of four + can then be determined by substitution independently of the others, + and the total of each group of four, making ten times the unit of the + group, can be compared with the smallest weight in the group above. + This gives a sufficient number of equations to determine the errors of + all the weights by the method of substitution in a very simple manner. + A number of other equations can be obtained by combining the different + groups in other ways, and the whole system of equations may then be + solved by the method of least squares; but the equations so obtained + are not all of equal value, and it may be doubted whether any real + advantage is gained in many cases by the multiplication of + comparisons, since it is not possible in this manner to eliminate + constant errors or personal equation, which are generally aggravated + by prolonging the observations. A common arrangement of the weights in + each group on the decimal system is 5, 2, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1. These + do not admit of the independent calibration of each group by + substitution. The arrangement 5, 2, 1, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1, 1, permits + independent calibration, but involves a larger number of weights and + observations than the 1, 2, 3, 4, grouping. The arrangement of ten + equal weights in each group, which is adopted in "dial" + resistance-boxes, and in some forms of chemical balances where the + weights are mechanically applied by turning a handle, presents great + advantages in point of quickness of manipulation and ease of + numeration, but the complete calibration of such an arrangement is + tedious, and in the case of a resistance-box it is difficult to make + the necessary connexions. In all cases where the same total can be + made up in a variety of ways, it is necessary in accurate work to make + sure that the same weights are always used for a given combination, or + else to record the actual weights used on each occasion. In many + investigations where time enters as one of the factors, this is a + serious drawback, and it is better to avoid the more complicated + arrangements. The accurate adjustment of a set of weights is so simple + a matter that it is often possible to neglect the errors of a + well-made set, and no calibration is of any value without the most + scrupulous attention to details of manipulation, and particularly to + the correction for the air displaced in comparing weights of different + materials. Electrical resistances are much more difficult to adjust + owing to the change of resistance with temperature, and the + calibration of a resistance-box can seldom be neglected on account of + the changes of resistance which are liable to occur after adjustment + from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to remember that the + order of accuracy required, and the actual values of the smaller + resistances, depend to some extent on the method of connexion, and + that the box must be calibrated with due regard to the conditions + under which it is to be used. Otherwise the method of procedure is + much the same as in the case of a box of weights, but it is necessary + to pay more attention to the constancy and uniformity of the + temperature conditions of the observing-room. + + _Method of Equal Steps_.--In calibrating a continuous scale divided + into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale + divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees of + temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by a + method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the method + of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers or tubes of + small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution employing a + column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge for comparing the + capacities of different parts of the tube. A precisely similar method, + employing a pair of microscopes at a fixed distance apart as a + standard of length, is applicable to the calibration of a divided + scale. The interval to be calibrated is divided into a whole number of + equal steps or sections, the points of division at which the + corrections are to be determined are called _points of calibration._ + + _Calibration of a Mercury Thermometer_.--To facilitate description, we + will take the case of a fine-bore tube, such as that of a thermometer, + to be calibrated with a thread of mercury. The bore of such a tube + will generally vary considerably even in the best standard + instruments, the tubes of which have been specially drawn and + selected. The correction for inequality of bore may amount to a + quarter or half a degree, and is seldom less than a tenth. In ordinary + chemical thermometers it is usual to make allowance for variations of + bore in graduating the scale, but such instruments present + discontinuities of division, and cannot be used for accurate work, in + which a finely-divided scale of equal parts is essential. The + calibration of a mercury thermometer intended for work of precision is + best effected after it has been sealed. A thread of mercury of the + desired length is separated from the column. The exact adjustment of + the length of the thread requires a little manipulation. The + thermometer is inverted and tapped to make the mercury run down to the + top of the tube, thus collecting a trace of residual gas at the end of + the bulb. By quickly reversing the thermometer the bubble passes to + the neck of the bulb. If the instrument is again inverted and tapped, + the thread will probably break off at the neck of the bulb, which + should be previously cooled or warmed so as to obtain in this manner, + if possible, a thread of the desired length. If the thread so obtained + is too long or not accurate enough, it is removed to the other end of + the tube, and the bulb further warmed till the mercury reaches some + easily recognized division. At this point the broken thread is + rejoined to the mercury column from the bulb, and a microscopic bubble + of gas is condensed which generally suffices to determine the + subsequent breaking of the mercury column at the same point of the + tube. The bulb is then allowed to cool till the length of the thread + above the point of separation is equal to the desired length, when a + slight tap suffices to separate the thread. This method is difficult + to work with short threads owing to deficient inertia, especially if + the tube is very perfectly evacuated. A thread can always be separated + by local heating with a small flame, but this is dangerous to the + thermometer, it is difficult to adjust the thread exactly to the + required length, and the mercury does not run easily past a point of + the tube which has been locally heated in this manner. + + Having separated a thread of the required length, the thermometer is + mounted in a horizontal position on a suitable support, preferably + with a screw adjustment in the direction of its length. By tilting or + tapping the instrument the thread is brought into position + corresponding to the steps of the calibration successively, and its + length in each position is carefully observed with a pair of reading + microscopes fixed at a suitable distance apart. Assuming that the + temperature remains constant, the variations of length of the thread + are inversely as the variations of cross-section of the tube. If the + length of the thread is very nearly equal to one step, and if the tube + is nearly uniform, the average of the observed lengths of the thread, + taking all the steps throughout the interval, is equal to the length + which the thread should have occupied in each position had the bore + been uniform throughout and all the divisions equal. The error of each + step is therefore found by subtracting the average length from the + observed length in each position. Assuming that the ends of the + interval itself are correct, the correction to be applied at any point + of calibration to reduce the readings to a uniform tube and scale, is + found by taking the sum of the errors of the steps up to the point + considered with the sign reversed. + + + Table I.--_Calibration by Method of Gay Lussac_. + + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | No. of | | | | | | | | | | | + | Step. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Ends of |+.010|-.016|-.020|-.031|+.016|+.008|+.013|+.017|+.004|-.088| + | thread. |+.038|+.017|-.003|-.022|+.010|+.005|+.033|+.018|+.013|-.003| + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Excess- |-.028|-.033|-.017|-.009|+.006|-.003|-.020|-.001|-.004|+.005| + | Length | | | | | | | | | | | + | Error of |-17.6|-22.6|- 6.6|+ 1.4|+16.4|+ 7.4|- 9.6|+ 9.4|+ 6.4|+15.4| + | step. | | | | | | | | | | | + | Correc- |+17.6|+40.2|+46.8|+45.4|+29.0|+21.6|+31.2|+21.8|+15.4| 0 | + | tion. | | | | | | | | | | | + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + In the preceding example of the method an interval of ten degrees is + taken, divided into ten steps of 1 deg. each. The distances of the + ends of the thread from the nearest degree divisions are estimated by + the aid of micrometers to the thousandth of a degree. The error of any + one of these readings probably does not exceed half a thousandth, but + they are given to the nearest thousandth only. The excess length of + the thread in each position over the corresponding degree is obtained + by subtracting the second reading from the first. Taking the average + of the numbers in this line, the mean excess-length is -10.4 + thousandths. The error of each step is found by subtracting this mean + from each of the numbers in the previous line. Finally, the + corrections at each degree are obtained by adding up the errors of the + steps and changing the sign. The errors and corrections are given in + thousandths of 1 deg. + + _Complete Calibration._--The simple method of Gay Lussac does very + well for short intervals when the number of steps is not excessive, + but it would not be satisfactory for a large range owing to the + accumulation of small errors of estimation, and the variation of the + personal equation. The observer might, for instance, consistently + over-estimate the length of the thread in one half of the tube, and + under-estimate it in the other. The errors near the middle of the + range would probably be large. It is evident that the correction at + the middle point of the interval could be much more accurately + determined by using a thread equal to half the length of the interval. + To minimize the effect of these errors of estimation, it is usual to + employ threads of different lengths in calibrating the same interval, + and to divide up the fundamental interval of the thermometer into a + number of subsidiary sections for the purpose of calibration, each of + these sections being treated as a step in the calibration of the + fundamental interval. The most symmetrical method of calibrating a + section, called by C.E. Guillaume a "Complete Calibration," is to use + threads of all possible lengths which are integral multiples of the + calibration step. In the example already given nine different threads + were used, and the length of each was observed in as many positions as + possible. Proceeding in this manner the following numbers were + obtained for the excess-length of each thread in thousandths of a + degree in different positions, starting in each case with the + beginning of the thread at 0 deg., and moving it on by steps of 1 deg. + The observations in the first column are the excess-lengths of the + thread of 1 deg. already given in illustration of the method of Gay + Lussac. The other columns give the corresponding observations with the + longer threads. The simplest and most symmetrical method of solving + these observations, so as to find the errors of each step in terms of + the whole interval, is to obtain the differences of the steps in pairs + by subtracting each observation from the one above it. This method + eliminates the unknown lengths of the threads, and gives each + observation approximately its due weight. Subtracting the observations + in the second line from those in the first, we obtain a series of + numbers, entered in column 1 of the next table, representing the + excess of step (1) over each of the other steps. The sum of these + differences is ten times the error of the first step, since by + hypothesis the sum of the errors of all the steps is zero in terms of + the whole interval. The numbers in the second column of Table III. are + similarly obtained by subtracting the third line from the second in + Table II., each difference being inserted in its appropriate place in + the table. Proceeding in this way we find the excess of each interval + over those which follow it. The table is completed by a diagonal row + of zeros representing the difference of each step from itself, and by + repeating the numbers already found in symmetrical positions with + their signs changed, since the excess of any step, say 6 over 3, is + evidently equal to that of 3 over 6 with the sign changed. The errors + of each step having been found by adding the columns, and dividing by + 10, the corrections at each point of the calibration are deduced as + before. + + + TABLE II.--_Complete Calibration of Interval of 10 deg. in 10 Steps._ + + +--------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Lengths of Threads. |1 deg.|2 deg.|3 deg.|4 deg.|5 deg.|6 deg.|7 deg.|8 deg.|9 deg.| + +--------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Observed excess-lengths 0 deg. | -28 | -32 | -47 | -62 | -11 | -15 | -48 | - 2 | - 8 | + | of threads, in various 1 deg. | -33 | -21 | -47 | -28 | +14 | - 8 | -22 | +21 | +24 | + | positions, the 2 deg. | -17 | + 2 | - 8 | + 1 | +26 | +23 | + 6 | +58 | | + | beginning of the 3 deg. | - 9 | +26 | + 5 | - 3 | +41 | +36 | +28 | | | + | thread being set 4 deg. | + 6 | +31 | - 7 | + 4 | +45 | +49 | | | | + | near the points. 5 deg. | - 3 | + 5 | -15 | - 6 | +43 | | | | | + | 6 deg. | -20 | + 7 | -16 | + 2 | | | | | | + | 7 deg. | - 1 | +23 | +10 | | | | | | | + | 8 deg. | - 4 | +29 | | | | | | | | + | 9 deg. | + 5 | | | | | | | | | + +--------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + + TABLE III.--_Solution of Complete Calibration._ + + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Step No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 1 | 0 | - 5 | +11 | +20 | +34 | +25 | + 7 | +26 | +23 | +32 | + | 2 | + 5 | 0 | +16 | +23 | +39 | +29 | +12 | +31 | +28 | +37 | + | 3 | -11 | -16 | 0 | + 8 | +24 | +13 | - 4 | +15 | +13 | +22 | + | 4 | -20 | -23 | - 8 | 0 | +15 | + 5 | -12 | + 7 | + 4 | +13 | + | 5 | -34 | -39 | -24 | -15 | 0 | - 9 | -26 | - 8 | -10 | - 2 | + | 6 | -25 | -29 | -13 | - 5 | + 9 | 0 | -17 | + 2 | - 1 | + 8 | + | 7 | - 7 | -12 | + 4 | +12 | +26 | +17 | 0 | +19 | +16 | +26 | + | 8 | -26 | -31 | -15 | - 7 | + 8 | - 2 | -19 | 0 | - 3 | + 6 | + | 9 | -23 | -28 | -13 | - 4 | +10 | + 1 | -16 | + 3 | 0 | + 9 | + | 10 | -32 | -37 | -22 | -13 | + 2 | - 8 | -26 | - 6 | - 9 | 0 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Error of | | | | | | | | | | | + | step. | -17.3| -22.0| - 6.4| + 1.9| +16.7| + 7.1| -10.1| + 8.9| + 6.1| +15.1| + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Corrections.| +17.3| +39.3| +45.7| +43.8| +27.1| +20.0| +30.1| +21.2| +15.1| 0| + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + The advantages of this method are the simplicity and symmetry of the + work of reduction, and the accuracy of the result, which exceeds that + of the Gay Lussac method in consequence of the much larger number of + independent observations. It may be noticed, for instance, that the + correction at point 5 is 27.1 thousandths by the complete calibration, + which is 2 thousandths less than the value 29 obtained by the Gay + Lussac method, but agrees well with the value 27 thousandths obtained + by taking only the first and last observations with the thread of 5 + deg. The disadvantage of the method lies in the great number of + observations required, and in the labour of adjusting so many + different threads to suitable lengths. It is probable that + sufficiently good results may be obtained with much less trouble by + using fewer threads, especially if more care is taken in the + micrometric determination of their errors. + + The method adopted for dividing up the fundamental interval of any + thermometer into sections and steps for calibration may be widely + varied, and is necessarily modified in cases where auxiliary bulbs or + "ampoules" are employed. The Paris mercury-standards, which read + continuously from 0 deg. to 100 deg. C., without intermediate + ampoules, were calibrated by Chappuis in five sections of 20 deg. + each, to determine the corrections at the points 20 deg., 40 deg., 60 + deg., 80 deg., which may be called the "principal points" of the + calibration, in terms of the fundamental interval. Each section of 20 + deg. was subsequently calibrated in steps of 2 deg., the corrections + being at first referred, as in the example already given, to the mean + degree of the section itself, and being afterwards expressed, by a + simple transformation, in terms of the fundamental interval, by means + of the corrections already found for the ends of the section. + Supposing, for instance, that the corrections at the points 0 deg. and + 10 deg. of Table III. are not zero, but C deg. and C' respectively, + the correction C_n at any intermediate point n will evidently be given + by the formula, + + C_n = C deg. + c_n + (C' - C deg.)n/10 (3) + + where c_n is the correction already given in the table. + + If the corrections are required to the thousandth of a degree, it is + necessary to tabulate the results of the calibration at much more + frequent intervals than 2 deg., since the correction, even of a good + thermometer, may change by as much as 20 or 30 thousandths in 2 deg. + To save the labour and difficulty of calibrating with shorter threads, + the corrections at intermediate points are usually calculated by a + formula of interpolation. This leaves much to be desired, as the + section of a tube often changes very suddenly and capriciously. It is + probable that the graphic method gives equally good results with less + labour. + + _Slide-Wire._--The calibration of an electrical slide-wire into parts + of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that of a capillary tube + into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster method, employing short + steps of equal resistance, effected by transferring a suitable small + resistance from one side of the slide-wire to the other, is exactly + analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers from the same defect + of the accumulation of small errors unless steps of several different + lengths are used. The calibration of a slide-wire, however, is much + less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube for several reasons. + It is easy to obtain a wire uniform to one part in 500 or even less, + and the section is not liable to capricious variations. In all work of + precision the slide-wire is supplemented by auxiliary resistances by + which the scale may be indefinitely extended. In accurate electrical + thermometry, for example, the slide-wire itself would correspond to + only 1 deg., or less, of the whole scale, which is less than a single + step in the calibration of a mercury thermometer, so that an accuracy + of a thousandth of a degree can generally be obtained without any + calibration of the slide-wire. In the rare cases in which it is + necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as the cylinder + potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best effected by + comparison with a standard, such as a Thomson-Varley slide-box. + +_Graphic Representation of Results._--The results of a calibration are +often best represented by means of a correction curve, such as that +illustrated in the diagram, which is plotted to represent the +corrections found in Table III. The abscissa of such a curve is the +reading of the instrument to be corrected. The ordinate is the +correction to be added to the observed reading to reduce to a uniform +scale. The corrections are plotted in the figure in terms of the whole +section, taking the correction to be zero at the beginning and end. As a +matter of fact the corrections at these points in terms of the +fundamental interval were found to be -29 and -9 thousandths +respectively. The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in +terms of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the +points +29 and +9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates from this +line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may be replotted with +the new ordinates thus obtained. In drawing the curve from the +corrections obtained at the points of calibration, the exact form of the +curve is to some extent a matter of taste, but the curve should +generally be drawn as smoothly as possible on the assumption that the +changes are gradual and continuous. + +The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the +corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to the +first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under the term +"Standardization." It effects the reduction of the readings to a common +standard, and may be neglected if relative values only are required. A +precisely analogous correction occurs in the case of electrical +instruments. A potentiometer, for instance, if correctly graduated or +calibrated in parts of equal resistance, will give correct relative +values of any differences of potential within its range if connected to +a constant cell to supply the steady current through the slide-wire. But +to determine at any time the actual value of its readings in volts, it +is necessary to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or +reduction-factor, by comparison with a standard cell. + +[Illustration: CALIBRATION CURVE.] + + A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by Professor + W.A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of dividing machines + or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as applied by + Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect in point of + uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced by the + method of mounting. In the production of divided scales, and more + particularly in the case of optical gratings, it is most important + that the errors should be as small as possible, and should be + automatically corrected during the process of ruling. With this object + a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the uncorrected + screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal template may + then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correction curve on a + suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut which feeds the + carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour of the + template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each point of the + travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the screw. A small + periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each revolution, + may be similarly corrected by means of a suitable cam or eccentric + revolving with the screw and actuating the template. This kind of + error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to determine + and correct. + +_Calibration by Comparison with a Standard._--The commonest and most +generally useful process of calibration is the direct comparison of the +instrument with a standard over the whole range of its scale. It is +necessary that the standard itself should have been already calibrated, +or else that the law of its indications should be known. A continuous +current ammeter, for instance, can be calibrated, so far as the relative +values of its readings are concerned, by comparison with a tangent +galvanometer, since it is known that the current in this instrument is +proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an +alternating current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an +electrodynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the +current. But in either case it is neccessary, in order to obtain the +readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some particular +value of the current by comparison with a voltameter, or in some +equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters and voltmeters are +calibrated by comparison of their readings with those of a +potentiometer, the calibration of which can be reduced to the comparison +and adjustment of resistances, which is the most accurate of electrical +measurements. The commoner kinds of mercury thermometers are generally +calibrated and graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases +this is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A mercury +thermometer of limited scale reading between 250 deg. and 400 deg. C., +with gas under high pressure to prevent the separation of the mercury +column, cannot be calibrated on itself, or by comparison with a mercury +standard possessing a fundamental interval, on account of difficulties +of stem exposure and scale. The only practical method is to compare its +readings every few degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under +the conditions for which it is to be used. This method has the +advantage of combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, +&c., with the calibration correction in a single curve, except the +correction for variation of zero which must be tested occasionally at +some point of the scale. + + AUTHORITIES.--Mercurial Thermometers: Guillaume, _Thermometrie de + Precision_ (Paris, 1889), gives several examples and references to + original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and testing of + standards are generally to be found in publications of Standards + Offices, such as those of the Bureau International des Poids et + Mesures at Paris. Dial Resistance-Box: Griffiths, _Phil. Trans._ A, + 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box: J.A. Harker and P. Chappuis, _Phil. + Trans._ A, 1900; Thomson-Varley Potentiometer and Binary Scale Box: + Callendar and Barnes, _Phil. Trans._ A, 1901. (H. L. C.) + + + + +CALICO, a general name given to plain cotton cloth. The word was spelt +in various forms, including "calicut," which shows its derivation from +the Indian city of Calicut or Kolikod, a seaport in the presidency of +Madras, and one of the chief ports of intercourse with Europe in the +16th century, where cotton cloths were made. The name seems to have been +applied to all kinds of cotton cloths imported from the East. In England +it is now applied particularly to grey or bleached cotton cloth used for +domestic purposes, and, generally, to any fairly heavy cotton cloth +without a pattern. In the United States there is a special application +to printed cloth "of a coarser quality than muslin." In England "printed +calico" is a comprehensive term. + + + + +CALICUT, a city of British India, in the Malabar district of Madras; on +the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypur. In 1901 the population was 76,981, showing +an increase of 14% in the decade. The weaving of cotton, for which the +place was at one time so famous that its name became identified with its +_calico_, is no longer of any importance. Calicut is of considerable +antiquity; and about the 7th century it had its population largely +increased by the immigration of the Moplahs, a fanatical race of +Mahommedans from Arabia, who entered enthusiastically into commercial +life. The Portuguese traveller Pero de Covilham (q.v.) visited Calicut +in 1487 and described its possibilities for European trade; and in May +1498 Vasco da Gama, the first European navigator to reach India, arrived +at Calicut. At that time it was a very flourishing city, and contained +several stately buildings, among which was especially mentioned a +Brahminical temple, not inferior to the largest monastery in Portugal. +Vasco da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he met with persistent +hostility from the local chief (_zamorin_), and a similar attempt made +by Cabral two years later ended in the destruction of the factory by the +Moplahs. In revenge the Portuguese bombarded the town, but no further +attempt was made for some years to establish a trading settlement there. +In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an unsuccessful attack on +the city; and in the following year it was again assailed by Albuquerque +with 3000 troops. On this occasion the palace was plundered and the town +burnt; but the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships +after heavy loss. In the following year they concluded a peace with the +zamorin and were allowed to build a fortified factory on the north bank +of the Kallayi river, which was however again, and finally, abandoned in +1525. In 1615 the town was visited by an English expedition under +Captain Keeling, who concluded a treaty with the zamorin; but it was not +until 1664 that an English trading settlement was established by the +East India Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was +founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali, who expelled +all the merchants and factors, and destroyed the cocoa-nut trees, +sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country reduced to ruin might +present no temptation to the cupidity of Europeans. In 1782 the troops +of Hyder were driven from Calicut by the British; but in 1788 it was +taken and destroyed by his son Tippoo, who carried off the inhabitants +to Beypur and treated them with great cruelty. In the latter part of +1790 the country was occupied by the British; and under the treaty +concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his dominions, +Calicut fell to the British. After this event the inhabitants returned +and rebuilt the town, which in 1800 consisted of 5000 houses. + +As the administrative headquarters of the district, Calicut maintains +its historical importance. It is served by the Madras railway, and is +the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, and the principal exports are +coffee, timber and coco-nut products. There are factories for +coffee-cleaning, employing several hundred hands; for coir-pressing and +timber-cutting. The town has a cotton-mill, a saw-mill, and tile, coffee +and oil works. A detachment of European troops is generally stationed +here to overawe the fanatical Moplahs. + + + + +CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific Coast states of the United States of +America, physically one of the most remarkable, economically one of the +more independent, and in history and social life one of the most +interesting of the Union. It is bounded N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and +Arizona, from which last it is separated by the Colorado river, and S. +by the Mexican province of Lower California. The length of its medial +line N. and S. is about 780 m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350 m., +and its total area is 158,207 sq. m., of which 2205 are water surface. +In size it ranks second among the states of the Union. The coast is bold +and rugged and with very few good harbours; San Diego and San Francisco +bays being exceptions. The coast line is more than 1000 m. long. There +are eight coast islands, all of inconsiderable size, and none of them as +yet in any way important. + +_Physiography._--The physiography of the state is simple; its main +features are few and bold: a mountain fringe along the ocean, another +mountain system along the east border, between them--closed in at both +ends by their junction--a splendid valley of imperial extent, and +outside all this a great area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to +the Great Basin and partly to the Open Basin region. + +Along the Pacific, and some 20-40 m. in width, runs the mass of the +Coast Range, made up of numerous indistinct chains--most of which have +localized individual names--that are broken down into innumerable ridges +and spurs, and small valleys drained by short streams of rapid fall. The +range is cut by numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of +recent activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause +the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of which seem +to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast Range vary from about 2000 to +8000 ft.; in the neighbourhood of San Francisco Bay the culminating +peaks are about 4000 ft. in height (Mount Diablo, 3856 ft.; Mount St +Helena, 4343 ft.), and to the north and south the elevation of the +ranges increases. In the east part of the state is the magnificent +Sierra Nevada, a great block of the earth's crust, faulted along its +eastern side and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west +and a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system of +the United States. The Sierra proper, from Lassen's Peak to Tehachapi +Pass in Kern county, is about 430 m. long (from Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou +county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside county, more than 600 m.). It +narrows to the north and the altitude declines in the same direction. +Far higher and grander than the Coast Range, the Sierra is much less +complicated, being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of +structure. It is only here and there that a double line of principal +summits exists. The slope is everywhere long and gradual on the west, +averaging about 200 ft. to the mile. Precipitous gorges or canyons often +from 2000 to 5000 ft. in depth become a more and more marked feature of +the range as one proceeds northward; over great portions of it they +average probably not more than 20 m. apart. Where the volcanic +formations were spread uniformly over the flanks of the mountains, the +contrast between the canyons and the plain-like region of gentle slope +in which they have been excavated is especially marked and +characteristic. The eastern slope is very precipitous, due to a great +fault which drops the rocks of the Great Basin region abruptly downward +several thousand feet. Rare passes cross the chain, opening at the foot +of the mountains on the east and the west high on their flanks, +7000-10,000 ft. above the sea. Between 36 deg. 20' and 38 deg. the +lowest gap of any kind is above 9000 ft., and the average height of +those actually used is probably not less than 11,000 ft. The Kearsarge, +most used of all, is still higher. Very few in the entire Sierra are +passable by vehicles. Some forty peaks are catalogued between 5000 and +8000 ft., and there are eleven above 14,000. The highest portion of the +system is between the parallels of 36 deg. 30' and 37 deg. 30'; here the +passes are about 12,000 ft. in elevation, and the peaks range from +13,000 ft. upward, Mount Whitney, 14,502 ft., being the highest summit +of the United States, excluding Alaska. From this peak northward there +is a gradual decline, until at the point where the Central Pacific +crosses in lat. 39 deg. 20' the elevation is only 7000 ft. + +Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of the highest +Sierra opposite Owen's Lake, where there is a drop eastward into the +valley of about 10,000 ft. in 10 m.; the snowy volcanic cone of Mt +Shasta, rising 10,000 ft. above the adjacent plains; and the lovely +valleys of the Coast Range, and the south fork of the King river--all +these have their charms; but most beautiful of all is the unique scenery +of the Yosemite Valley (q.v.). Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the +mountains is due to the erosive action of many alpine glaciers that once +existed on the higher summits, and which have left behind their +evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with towering walls, polished +rock-expanses, glacial lakes and meadows and tumbling waterfalls. +Remnants of these glaciers are still to be seen,--as notably on Mt. +Shasta,--though shrunk to small dimensions. Glacial action may be +studied well as far south as 36 deg. The canyons are largely the work of +rivers, modified by glaciers that ran through them after the rivers had +formed them. All of the Sierra lakes and ponds are of glacial origin and +there are some thousands of them. The lower lake line is about 8000 ft.; +it is lower to the north than to the south, owing to the different +climate, and the different period of glacial retrogression. Of these +lakes some are fresh, and some--as those of the north-east +counties--alkali. The finest of all is Tahoe, 6225 ft. above the sea, +lying between the true Sierras and the Basin Ranges, with peaks on +several sides rising 4000-5000 ft. above it. It is 1500 ft. deep and its +waters are of extraordinary purity (containing only three grains of +solid matter to the gallon). Clear Lake, in the Coast Range, is another +beautiful sheet of water. It is estimated by John Muir that on an +average "perhaps more than a mile" of degradation took place in the last +glacial period; but with regard to the whole subject of glacial action +in California as in other fields, there is considerable difference of +opinion. The same authority counted 65 small residual glaciers between +36 deg. 30' and 39 deg.; two-thirds of them lie between 37 deg. and 38 +deg., on some of the highest peaks in the district of the San Joaquin, +Merced, Tuolumne and Owen's rivers. They do not descend, on an average, +below 11,000 ft.; the largest of all, on Mt. Shasta, descends to 9500 +ft. above the sea. + +Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, especially in the +northern half of the range, whereas the evidences of glacial action are +most perfect (though not most abundant) in the south. Lava covers most +of the northern half of the range, and there are many craters and +ash-cones, some recent and of perfect form. Of these the most remarkable +is Mt. Shasta. In Owen's Valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant +volcanoes. + +Among the other indications of great geological disturbances on the +Pacific Coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes to which California +like the rest of the coast is liable. From 1850 to 1887 almost 800 were +catalogued by Professor E.H. Holden for California, Oregon and +Washington. They occur in all seasons, scores of slight tremors being +recorded every year by the Weather Bureau; but they are of no +importance, and even of these the number affecting any particular +locality is small. From 1769 to 1887 there were 10 "destructive" and 24 +other "extremely severe" shocks according to the Rossi Forel +nomenclatural scale of intensity. In 1812 great destruction was wrought +by an earthquake that affected all the southern part of the state; in +1865 the region about San Francisco was violently disturbed; in 1872 the +whole Sierra and the state of Nevada were violently shaken; and in 1906 +San Francisco (q.v.) was in large part destroyed by a shock that caused +great damage elsewhere in the state. + +North of 40 deg. N. lat. the Coast Range and Sierra systems unite, +forming a country extremely rough. The eastern half of this area is +covered chiefly with volcanic plains, very dry and barren, lying between +precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges; the western half is +magnificently timbered, and toward the coast excessively wet. Between 35 +deg. and 36 deg. N. lat. the Sierra at its southern end turns westward +toward the coast as the Tehachapi Range. The valley is thus closed to +the north and south, and is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is +broken down in but a single place, the gap behind the Golden Gate at San +Francisco. Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The +length of the valley is about 450 m., its breadth averages about 40 m. +if the lower foothills be included, so that the entire area is about +18,000 sq. m. The drainage basin measured from the water-partings of the +enclosing mountains is some three times as great. From the mouth of the +Sacramento to Redding, at the northern head of the valley, the rise is +552 ft. in 192 m., and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to +Kern lake it is 282 ft. in 260 m. + +Two great rivers drain this central basin,--the San Joaquin, whose +valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire basin, and the +Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder. The San Joaquin is a +very crooked stream flowing through a low mud-plain, with tule banks; +the Sacramento is much less meandering, and its immediate basin, which +is of sandy loam, is higher and more attractive than that of the San +Joaquin. The eastward flanks of the Coast Range are very scantily +forested, and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach +either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season. On the +eastern side of both rivers are various important tributaries, fed by +the more abundant rains and melting snows of the western flank of the +Sierra; but these streams also shrink greatly in the dry season. The +Feather, emptying into the Sacramento river about 20 m. N. of the city +of Sacramento, is the most important tributary of the Sacramento river. +A striking feature of the Sacramento system is that for 200 m. north of +the Feather it does not receive a single tributary of any importance, +though walled in by high mountains. Another peculiar and very general +feature of the drainage system of the state is the presence of numerous +so-called river "sinks," where the waters disappear, either directly by +evaporation or (as in Death Valley) after flowing for a time beneath the +surface. These "sinks" are therefore not the true sinks of limestone +regions. The popular name is applied to Owen's lake, at the end of +Owen's river; to Mono lake, into which flow various streams rising in +the Sierra between Mount Dana and Castle Peak; and to Death Valley, +which contains the "sink" of the Amargosa river, and evidently was once +an extensive lake, although now only a mud-flat in ordinary winters, and +a dry, alkaline, desert plain in summer. All these lakes, and the other +mountain lakes before referred to, show by the terraces about them that +the water stood during the glacial period much higher than it does now. +Tulare lake, which with Buena Vista lake and Kern lake receives the +drainage of the southern Sierra, shows extreme local variations of +shore-line, and is generally believed to have shrunk extremely since +1850, though of this no adequate proof yet exists. In 1900 it was about +200 sq. m. in area. In wet seasons it overflows its banks and becomes +greatly extended in area, discharging its surplus waters into the San +Joaquin; but in dry seasons the evaporation is so great that there is no +such discharge. The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou and Modoc counties has +no outlet to the sea and is collected in a number of great alkaline +lakes. + +Finally along the sea below Pt. Conception are fertile coastal plains of +considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts by various +mountain ranges from 5000 to 7000 ft. high, and with peaks much higher +(San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto, 10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). +Unlike the northern Sierra, the ranges of Southern California are broken +down in a number of places. It is over these passes--Soledad, 2822 ft., +Cajon, San Gorgonio, 2560 ft.--that the railways cross to the coast. +That part of California which lies to the south and east of the southern +inosculation of the Coast Range and the Sierra comprises an area of +fully 50,000 sq. m., and belongs to the Basin Range region. For the most +part it is excessively dry and barren. The Mohave desert--embracing +Kern, Los Angeles and San Bernardino, as also a large part of San Diego, +Imperial and Riverside counties--belong to the "Great Basin," while a +narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the "Open Basin Region." +They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for slight areas through +the Colorado river. The Mohave desert is about 2000 ft. above the sea in +general altitude. The southern part of the Great Basin region is vaguely +designated the Colorado desert. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside +counties a number of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are +normally dry, flow centrally toward the desert of Salton Sink or "Sea"; +this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the +level of the sea,--at Salton 263 ft., and 287 ft. at the lowest point. +In 1900 the Colorado river (q.v.) was tapped south of the Mexican +boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial Valley +along the Southern Pacific railway, adjoining Salton Sea. The river +enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than that to its +mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding Salton Sea;[1] +and when the break in this river was closed for the second time in +February 1907, though much of its water still escaped through minor +channels and by seepage, a lake more than 400 sq. m. in area was left. A +permanent 60 ft. masonry dam was completed in July 1907. The region to +the east of the Sierra, likewise in the Great Basin province, between +the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very mountainous. +Owen's river runs through it from north to south for some 180 m. Near +Owen's lake the scenery is extremely grand. The valley here is very +narrow, and on either side the mountains rise from 7000 to 10,000 ft. +above the lake and river. The Inyo range, on the east, is quite bare of +timber, and its summits are only occasionally whitened with snow for a +few days during the winter, as almost all precipitation is cut off by +the higher ranges to the westward. Still further to the east some 40 m. +from the lake is Death Valley (including Lost or Mesquite Valley)--the +name a reminder of the fate of a party of "forty-niners" who perished +here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death Valley, some 50 m. +long and on an average 20-25 m. broad from the crests of the inclosing +mountain ranges (or 5-10 m. at their base), constitutes an independent +drainage basin. It is below sea level (about 276 ft. according to recent +surveys), and altogether is one of the most remarkable physical features +of California. The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant +with varied colours. The Amargosa river, entering the valley from +Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities of borax, +already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known to be present in +the surrounding country, the former as almost pure borate of lime in +Tertiary lake sediments. + +The physiography of the state is the evident determinant of its climate, +fauna and flora. California has the highest land and the lowest land of +the United States, the greatest variety of temperature and rainfall, and +of products of the soil. + +[Illustration: Map of CALIFORNIA and NEVADA] + +_Climate._--The climate is very different from that of the Atlantic +coast; and indeed very different from that of any part of the country +save that bordering California. Amid great variations of local weather +there are some peculiar features that obtain all over the state. In the +first place, the climate of the entire Pacific Coast is milder and more +uniform in temperature than that of the states in corresponding latitude +east of the mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57 +deg. N. lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of +Halifax, Nova Scotia, in latitude 44 deg. 39'. And going south along the +coast, we find the mean temperature of San Diego 6 deg. or 7 deg. less +than that of Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. The quantity of total +annual heat supply at Puget Sound exceeds that at Philadelphia, +Pittsburg, Cleveland or Omaha, all more than 500 m. farther south; +Cape Flattery, exposed the year round to cold ocean fogs, receives more +heat than Eastport, Maine, which is 3 deg. farther south and has a +warmer summer. In the second place, the means of winter and summer are +much nearer the mean of the year in California than in the east. This +condition of things is not so marked as one goes inward from the coast; +yet everywhere save in the high mountains the winters are comparatively +mild. In the third place, the division of the year into two seasons--a +wet one and a dry (and extremely dusty) one--marks this portion of the +Pacific Coast in the most decided manner, and this natural climatic area +coincides almost exactly in its extension with that of California; being +truly characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part +of Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally, in the +fourth place, except on the coast the disagreeableness of the heat of +summer is greatly lessened by the dryness of the air and the consequent +rapidity of evaporation. Among the peculiarities of Californian climate +it is not one of the least striking that as one leaves the Sacramento or +San Joaquin plains and travels into the mountains it becomes warmer, at +least for the first 2000 or 3000 ft. of ascent. + +Along both the Coast Range and the Sierra considerable rainfall is +certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumulations of the former, +its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy rain-belt, with a normal +fall of more than 40 in., covers all the northern half of the Sierra and +the north-west counties; shading off from this is the region of 10-20 +in. fall, which covers all the rest of the state save Inyo, Kern and San +Bernardino counties, Imperial county and the eastern portion of +Riverside county; the precipitation of this belt is from 0 to 10 in. In +excessively dry years the limits of this last division may include all +of the state below Fresno and the entire Central Valley as well. In the +mountains the precipitation increases with the altitude; above 6000 or +7000 ft. it is almost wholly in the form of snow; and this snow, melting +in summer, is of immense importance to the state, supplying water once +for placer mining and now for irrigation. The north-west counties are +extremely wet; many localities here have normal rainfalls of 60-70 in. +and even higher annually, while in extreme seasons as much as 125 in. +falls. Along the entire Pacific Coast, but particularly N. of San +Francisco, there is a night fog from May to September. It extends but a +few miles inland, but within this belt is virtually a prolongation of +the rainy season and has a marked effect on vegetation. Below San +Francisco the precipitation decreases along the coast, until at San +Diego it is only about 10 in. The south-east counties are the driest +portions of the United States. At Ogilby, Volcano, Indio and other +stations on the Southern Pacific line the normal annual precipitation is +from 1.5 to 2.5 in.; and there are localities near Owen's lake, even on +its very edge, that are almost dry. For days in succession when it +storms along the Southern California coasts and dense rain clouds blow +landwards to the mountains, leaving snow or rain on their summits, it +has been observed that within a few miles beyond the ridge the contact +of the desert air dissipates the remaining moisture of the clouds into +light misty masses, like a steam escape in cold air. The extreme heat of +the south-east is tempered by the extremely low humidity characteristic +of the Great Basin, which in the interior of the two southernmost +counties is very low. The humidity of places such as Fresno, Sacramento +and Red Bluff in the valley varies from 48 to 58. Many places in +northern, southern, central, mountain and southern coastal California +normally have more than 200 perfectly clear days in a year; and many in +the mountains and in the south, even on the coast, have more than 250. +The extreme variability in the amount of rainfall is remarkable.[2] The +effects of a season of drought on the dry portions of the state need not +be adverted to; and as there is no rain or snow of any consequence on +the mountains during summer, a succession of dry seasons may almost bare +the ranges of the accumulated stock of previous winter snows, thus +making worse what is already bad. + +The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila Valley of Arizona) is +the hottest part of the United States. Along the line of the Southern +Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently from 124 deg. to 129 deg. F. +(i.e. in the shade, which is almost if not quite the greatest heat ever +actually recorded in any part of the world). At the other extreme, +temperatures of -20 deg. to -36 deg. are recorded yearly on the Central +(Southern) Pacific line near Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the +coldest localities of the state are from 37 deg. to 44 deg. F.; the +monthly means from 20 deg. to 65 deg. F. The normal annual means on +Indio, Mammoth Tanks, Salton and Volcano Springs are from 73.9 deg. to +78.4 F.; the monthly means from 52.8 deg. to 101.3 deg. (frequently 95 +deg. to 98 deg.). The normal trend of the annual isotherms of the state +is very simple: a low line of about 40 deg. circles the angle in the +Nevada boundary line; 50 deg. normally follows the northern Sierra +across the Oregon border; lines of higher temperature enclose the Great +Valley; and lines of still higher temperature--usually 60 deg. to 70 +deg., in hotter years 60 deg. to 75 deg.--run transversely across the +southern quarter of the state. + +Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely regular in +their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes, and seasonal +trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an on-shore breeze blows +every summer day; in the evening it is replaced by a night-fog, and the +cooler air draws down the mountain sides in opposition to its movement +during the day. In the upper air a dry off-shore wind from the Rocky +Mountain plateau prevails throughout the summer; and in winter an +on-shore rain wind. The last is the counter-trade, the all-year wind of +Alaska and Oregon; it prevails in winter even off Southern California. + +There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates. At +Truckee, for example, lying about 5800 ft. above the sea near Lake +Tahoe, the lowest temperature of the year may be -25 deg. F. or colder, +when 70 m. westward at Rocklin, which lies in the foothills about 250 +ft. above the sea, the mercury does not fall below 28 deg. Snow never +falls at Rocklin, but falls in large quantity at Truckee; ice is the +crop of the one, oranges of the other, at the same time. There are +points in Southern California where one may actually look from sea to +desert and from snow to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, +situation with reference to the mountain ranges, and altitude are all +important determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the +last seems to be most important. At any rate it may be said that +generally speaking the maximum, minimum and mean temperatures of points +of approximately equal altitude are respectively but slightly different +in northern or southern California.[3] + +Death Valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any meteorological +stations on earth where regular observations are taken, although for +extremes of heat it is exceeded by places in the Colorado desert. The +minimum daily temperature in summer is rarely below 70 deg. F. and often +above 90 deg. F. (in the shade), while the maximum may for days in +succession be as high as 120 deg. F. A record of 6 months (1891) showed +an average daily relative humidity of 30.6 in the morning and 15.6 in +the evening, and the humidity sometimes falls to 5. Yet the surrounding +country is not devoid of vegetation. The hills are very fertile when +irrigated, and the wet season develops a variety of perennial herbs, +shrubs and annuals. + +_Fauna._--California embraces areas of every life-zone of North America: +of the boreal, the Hudsonian and Canadian subzones; of the transition, +the humid Pacific subzone; of the upper austral, the arid or upper +Sonoran subzone; of the lower austral, the arid or lower Sonoran; of the +tropical, the "dilute arid" subzone. As will be inferred from the above +account of temperature, summer is longer in the north, and localities +in the Valley have more hours of heat than do those of south California. +Hence that climatic characteristic of the entire Pacific Coast--already +referred to and which is of extreme importance in determining the +life-zones of California--the great amount of total annual heat supply +at comparatively high latitudes. A low summer temperature enables +northern species to push far southward, while the high heat total of the +year enables southern species to push far north. The resultant +intermingling of forms is very marked and characteristic of the Pacific +Coast states. The distribution of life-zones is primarily a matter of +altitude and corresponds to that of the isotherms. The mountain goat and +mountain sheep live in the Sierran upper-land, though long ago well-nigh +exterminated. The Douglas red squirrel is ubiquitous in the Sierran +forests and their most conspicuous inhabitant. White-tailed deer and +especially black-tails are found on the high Sierra; the mule deer, too, +although its habitat is now mainly east of the range, on the plateau, is +also met with. Grizzly, black, cinnamon and brown bears are all +Californian species once common and to-day rare. When Americans began to +rule in California elk and antelope herded in great numbers in the Great +Valley; the former may to-day sometimes be seen, possibly, in the +northern forests, and the latter occasionally cross into the state from +Nevada. The sage-hen is abundant on the eastern flank of the Sierra. +Grouse, quail, crows and woodpeckers (_Melanerpes formicivorus_) furnish +species characteristic of the state. There are various species of +ground-squirrels and gophers, which are very abundant. Noteworthy in the +animal life of the lower Sonoran and tropic region are a variety of +snakes and lizards, desert rats and mice; and, among birds, the cactus +wren, desert thrasher, desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk, mocking-bird +and ground cuckoo or road runner (_Geococcyx Californianus_). The +California vulture, the largest flying bird in North America and fully +as large as the Andean condor, is not limited to California but is +fairly common there. In the zoology and botany of California as of the +rest of the Pacific Coast, the distinctions between the upper austral +and humid transition zones are largely obliterated; and as one passes +southward into the arid lands, life forms of both these zones +intermingle with those of the arid transition. + +Fish are abundant. The United States fish commission, and an active +state commission established in 1869, have done much to preserve and +increase this source of food. In 1904 the yield of the fisheries of the +three Pacific Coast states was 168,600,000 lbs., valued at +$6,681,000,--nearly half that of the New England states, more than +one-third that of the Middle Atlantic states and more than that of the +South Atlantic and Gulf states combined. Of the total, California +yielded between a quarter and a third. A third of her fish comes from +the Sacramento river. Some 230--more or less--marine food fishes are to +be found in the market at San Francisco. The exports of fish from that +port from 1892-1899 were valued at from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000 +annually. Native oysters are small and of peculiar flavour; eastern +varieties also are fattened, but not bred in California waters. Shrimp +are abundant; the shrimp fishers are Chinese and four-fifths of the +catch is exported to China. Sturgeon were once the cheapest fish after +salmon; to-day, despite all efforts to increase the supply, they are the +dearest. Salmon, once threatened with extinction, have been saved, +maintained in good supply, and indeed have probably regained their +pristine abundance. Shad and striped bass are both very abundant and +cheap. Black bass, flounders, terrapin, sea-turtles, perch, turbot, sole +and catfish are also common. Great herds of seals once lay like +toll-gatherers off the Golden Gate and other bays of the coast, taking a +large share of the salmon and other fish; but they are no longer common. +The sea-lions sometimes raid the rivers for 100 m. inland. They have +greatly increased since hunting them for their hides and oil ceased to +be profitable, and thousands sometimes gather on the Farallones, off the +Golden Gate. + +_Flora._--Inclusiveness of range in the distribution of vegetable life +is perhaps more suggestive than the distribution of animal species. The +variation is from dwarf mountain pine to giant cactus and dates. The +humid transition belt is the habitat of California's magnificent +forests. Nut pine, juniper and true sage-brush (_Artemisia tridentata_) +characterize the upper Sonoran,--although the latter grows equally in +the transition zone. Cereals, orchard fruits and alfalfa are of primary +importance in the upper and of secondary importance in the lower +Sonoran. In the arid portions of this and the tropic areas the +indigenous plants are creosote, mesquite and alfileria bushes, desert +acacias, paloverdes, alkali-heath, salt grass, agaves, yuccas +(especially the Spanish-bayonet and Joshua tree) and cactuses. Among +exotics the Australian saltbush spreads successfully over the worst +alkali land. The introduction of other exotics into these zones,--made +humid by irrigation, which converts them, the one into true +austro-riparian the other into true humid tropical,--has revolutionized +the agricultural, and indeed the whole, economy of California. At the +two ends of Cajon Pass, only four or five kilometres apart, are the two +utterly distinct floras of the Mohave desert and the San Bernardino +valley. Despite the presence of the pass, plants do not spread, so great +is the difference of climatic conditions. On the desert the same plant +will vary in different years from 4 in. to 10 ft. in height when equally +mature, according to the rainfall and other conditions of growth. Many +mature plants are not taller than 0.4 to 0.8 in. The tree yucca often +attains a height of 20 to 25 ft., and a diameter of 1.5 ft. About 600 +species of plants were catalogued in desert California in 1891 by a +government botanical party. The flora of the coast islands of California +is very interesting. On Santa Cruz Professor Joseph Le Conte found 248 +species, nearly all of which are distinctively Californian, 48 being +peculiar to the surrounding islands and 28 peculiar to Southern +California. Various other things indicate a separation of the islands +from the mainland in quaternary times; since which, owing to the later +southward movement on the continent of northern forms in glacial times, +there has been a struggle for existence on the mainland from which the +islands have largely escaped. + +_Forests._--The forests and agricultural crops of the state demand +particular notice. In 1900 the woodland was estimated by the United +States census at 22% of the state's area, and the total stand at 200,000 +million ft. of timber. The variety of forest trees is not great, but +some of the California trees are unique, and the forests of the state +are, with those of Oregon and Washington, perhaps the most magnificent +of the world. At least the coniferous forests which make up nine-tenths +of California's woodland surpass all others known in number of species +and in the size and beauty of the trees. Forty-six species occur, +namely, 32 species of pitch trees (18 pines), 12 species of the +cypresses and their allies (2 sequoia), and 2 species of yews or their +allies. Peculiar to California are the two species of sequoia +(q.v.),--the redwood (_S. sempervirens_), and the big-tree (_S. +gigantea_), remnants of an earlier age when they were common in other +parts of the world. The redwood grows only in a narrow strip on the +Coast Range from Southern Oregon (where there are not more than 1000 +acres) down nearly to the Golden Gate, in a habitat of heavy rains and +heavy fogs. They cover an area of about 2000 sq. m. almost unmixed with +other species. One fine grove stands S. of San Francisco near Santa +Cruz. These noble trees attain very often a height of more than 300 ft., +frequently of 350 and even more, and a butt diameter of more than 15 to +20 ft., with clean, straight fluted trunks rising 200 ft. below the +lowest branches. They grow in a very dense timber stand; single acres +have yielded 1,500,000 ft. B.M. of lumber, and single trees have cut as +high as 100,000 ft. The total stand in 1900 was estimated by the United +States census as 75,000,000,000 ft., and the ordinary stand per acre +varies from 25,000 to 150,000 ft., averaging probably 60,000 ft. The +redwood is being rapidly used for lumber. There is nowhere any +considerable young growth from seed, although this mode of reproduction +is not (as often stated) unknown; the tree will reproduce itself more +than once from the stump (hence its name). In thirty years a tree has +been known to grow to a height of 80 ft. and a diameter of 16 in. The +wood contains no pitch and much water, and in a green condition will not +burn. To this fact it owes its immunity from the forest fires which +wreak frightful havoc among the surrounding forests. As the redwood is +limited to the Coast Range, so the big tree is limited wholly to the +Sierra Nevada. Unlike the redwood the big tree occurs in scattered +groves (ten in all) among other species. Its habitat extends some 200 +m., from latitude 36 deg. to 39 deg., nowhere descending much below an +altitude of 5000 ft., nor rising above 8000 ft. The most northerly grove +and the nearest to San Francisco is the Calaveras Grove near Stockton; +the Mariposa Grove just south of the Yosemite National Park, is a state +reservation and easily accessible to tourists. The noblest groves are +near Visalia, and are held as a national park. The average height is +about 275 ft., and the diameter near the ground 20 ft.; various +individuals stand over 300 ft., and a diameter of 25 ft. is not rare. +One tree measures 35.7 ft. inside the bark 4 ft. above the ground, 10 +ft. at 200 ft. above the ground, and is 325 ft. tall. Specimens have +been cut down that were estimated to be 1300 and even 2200 years old; +many trees standing are presumably 2500 years old. It is the opinion of +John Muir that the big tree would normally live 5000 years or more; that +the California groves are still in their prime; that, contrary to +general ideas, the big tree was never more widely distributed than now, +at least not within the past 8000 or 10,000 years; that it is not a +decaying species, but that on the contrary "no tree of all the forest is +more enduringly established in concord with climate and soil," growing +like the mountain pine even on granite, and in little danger save from +the greed of the lumberman; but other excellent authorities consider it +as hardly holding its own, especially in the north. Three main wood +belts cover the flanks of the Sierra: the lower or main pine belt, the +silver fir belt, and the upper pine belt. The sugar pine, the yellow or +silver pine and the Douglas spruce (considerably smaller than in Oregon +and Washington), are rivals in stature and nobility, all attaining 200 +ft. or more when full grown; and the incense cedar reaches a height of +150 ft. In this belt and the following one of firs the big tree also +grows. The white silver fir (_abies concolor_) and the silver or red fir +(_ab. magnifica_), standing 200 to 250 ft., make up almost wholly the +main forest belt from 5000 to 9000 ft. for some 450 m. Above the firs +come the tamarack, constituting the bulk of the lower Alpine forest; the +hardy long-lived mountain pine; the red cedar or juniper, growing even +on the baldest rocks; the beautiful hemlock spruce; the still higher +white pine, nut pine, needle pine; and finally, at 10,000 to 12,000 ft., +the dwarf pine, which grows in a tangle on the earth over which one +walks, and may not show for a century's growth more than a foot of +height or an inch of girth. The Nevada slope of the mountains below 7500 +ft. is covered with the nut pine down to the sage plains. Its nuts are +gathered in enormous amounts by the Indians for food; and it is +estimated that the yearly harvest of these nuts exceeds in bulk that of +all the cereals of California (John Muir). On the Sierra the underbrush +is characterized by the pungent manzanita, the California buckeye and +the chamiso; the last two growing equally abundantly on the Coast Range. +The chamiso and the manzanita, with a variety of shrubby oaks and thorny +plants, often grow together in a dense and sometimes quite impenetrable +undergrowth, forming what is known as "chaparral"; if the chamiso occurs +alone the thicket is a "chamisal." The elm, the hickory, the beech, the +chestnut, and many others of the most characteristic and useful trees of +the eastern states were originally entirely wanting in California. Oaks +are abundant; they are especially characteristic of the Great Valley, +where they grow in magnificent groves. Up to 1910 national forest +reserves amounted to 27,968,510 acres. In 1909 Congress created a +national forest to include the big tree groves in Calaveras and Tuolumne +counties. One of the noblest redwood areas (that of Santa Cruz county) +is a state reservation (created in 1901). Even within reservations +almost all the merchantable timber is owned by private individuals. In +addition to native trees many others--especially ornamental +species--have been successfully introduced from various parts of the +world. + +_Soil._--Sand and loams in great variety, grading from mere sand to +adobe, make up the soils of the state. The plains of the north-east +counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east sandy. It is +impossible to say with accuracy what part of the state may properly be +classed as tillable. The total farm acreage in 1900 was 28,828,951 +acres, of which 41.5% were improved; since 1880 the absolute amount of +improved land has remained practically constant, despite the +extraordinary progress of the state in these years. Much land is too +rough, too elevated or too arid ever to be made agriculturally +available; but irrigation, and the work of the state and national +agricultural bureaus in introducing new plants and promoting scientific +farming, have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. The +peculiarities of the climate, especially its division into two seasons, +make Californian (and Southern Arizona) agriculture very different from +that of the rest of the country. During the winter no shelter is +necessary for live-stock, nor, during summer, for the grains that are +harvested in June and July, and may lie for weeks or months in the +field. The mild, wet winter is the season of planting and growth, and so +throughout the year there is a succession of crops. The dangers of +drought in the long dry seasons particularly increase the uncertainties +of agriculture in regions naturally arid. Irrigation was introduced in +Southern California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its +spread slow till after 1850. In 1900 almost 1,500,000 acres were +irrigated--an increase of 46% since 1890. About half of this total was +in San Joaquin Valley. California has the greatest area of irrigated +land of any state in the Union, and offers the most complete utilization +of resources. In the south artesian wells, and in the Great Valley the +rivers of the Sierra slope, are the main source of water-supply. On +nearly all lands irrigated some crops will grow in ordinary seasons +without irrigation, but it is this that makes possible selection of +crops; practically indispensable for all field and orchard culture in +the south, save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases +the yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the state. Of +the acreage devoted to alfalfa in 1899, 76.2% was irrigated; of that +devoted to subtropical fruits, 71.7%. Small fruits, orchard fruits, +hay, garden products and grains are decreasingly dependent on +irrigation; wheat, which was once California's great staple, is (for +good, but not for best results) comparatively independent of it,--hence +its early predominance in Californian agriculture, due to this success +on arid lands since taken over for more remunerative irrigated crops. + +_Agriculture._--The spread of irrigation and of intensive cultivation, +and the increase of small farms during the last quarter of the 19th +century, have made California what it is to-day. Agriculture had its +beginning in wheat-raising on great ranches, from 50,000 even to several +hundred thousand acres in extent. A few of these, particularly in the +Great Valley, are still worked, but only a few. The average size of +farms in 1850 (when the large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, +and these unbroken) was 4466 acres; in 1860 it was 466.4, and in 1900 +only 397.4 acres. Stock ranches, tobacco plantations, and hay and grain +farms, average from 800 to 530 acres, and counteract the tendency of +dairy farms, beet plantations, orchards, vegetable gardens and nurseries +to lower the size of the farm unit still further. The renting of large +holdings prevails to a greater extent than in any other state except +Texas. From 1880 to 1900 the number of farms above 500 and below 1000 +acres doubled; half of the total in 1900 were smaller than 100 acres. +The most remunerative and most characteristic farming to-day is +diversified and intensive and on small holdings. The essential character +of California's economic life has been determined by the successive +predominance of grass, gold, grain and fruits. Omitting the second it +may be truly said that the order of agricultural development has been +mainly one of blind experiment or fortuitous circumstances. Staple +products have changed with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, +of life-zones and of the fitness of crops; first hides and tallow, then +wool, wheat, grapes (which in the early eighteen-nineties were the +leading fruit), deciduous orchard fruits, and semi-tropical citrus +fruits successively. Prunes were introduced in 1854, but their +possibilities were only slightly appreciated for some thirty years. Of +various other crops much the same is true. Of late years progress has +been very intelligent; in earlier years it was gained through a +multitude of experiments and failures, and great pecuniary loss, and +progress was a testimonial chiefly to courage and perseverance. The +possibilities of the lower Sonoran and tropical areas are still +imperfectly known. Nature has been niggard of rain but lavish in soil +and sun. Irrigation has shown that with water, arid and barren plains, +veritable deserts may be made to bloom with immense wealth of +semi-tropical fruits; and irrigation in the tropical area along the +Colorado river, which is so arid that it naturally bears only desert +vegetation, has made it a true humid-tropical region like Southern +Florida, growing true tropical fruits. + +In 1900 California ranked eleventh among the states in total value of +farm property ($796,527,955) and in 1899 fourteenth in the value of farm +products ($131,690,606). The growth of the former from 1890 to 1900 was +only 2.5%, one of the smallest increases among all the states. + +The pastoral period extended from 1769 to 1848. The live-stock industry +was introduced by the Franciscans and flourished exceedingly. In 1834, +when the missions had already passed their best days, there were some +486,000 cattle, horses, mules and asses on the ranges, and 325,000 small +animals, principally sheep. Throughout the pre-American period +stock-raising was the leading industry; it built up the prosperity of +the missions, largely supported the government and almost exclusively +sustained foreign commerce. Hides and tallow were the sum and substance +of Californian economy. Horses were slaughtered wholesale at times to +make way for cattle on the ranges. There was almost no dairying; olive +oil took the place of butter, and wine of milk, at the missions; and in +general indeed the Mexicans were content with water. In the development +of the state under the American regime the live-stock industry has been +subordinate. A fearful drought in 1862-1864 greatly depressed it, and +especially discouraged cattle ranching. Sheep then became of primary +importance, until the increase of the flocks threatened ranges and +forests with destruction. As late as 1876 there were some 7,000,000 +sheep, in 1900 only 2,581,000, and in 1906 only 1,750,000. In the total +value of all live stock (5,402,297 head) in 1900 ($65,000,000) the rank +of the state was 15th in the Union, and in value of dairy products in +1899 (12.84 million dollars) 12th. The live-stock industry showed a +tendency to decline after 1890, and the dairy industry also, despite +various things--notably irrigation and alfalfa culture--that have +favoured them. + +Cereals replaced hides and tallow in importance after 1848. Wheat was +long California's greatest crop. Its production steadily increased till +about 1884, the production in 1880, the banner year, being more than 54 +million bushels (32,537,360 centals). Since 1884 its production has +markedly fallen off; in 1905 the wheat crop was 17,542,013 bushels, and +in 1906, 26,883,662 bushels (valued at $20,162,746). There has been a +general parallelism between the amount of rain and the amount of wheat +produced; but as yet irrigation is little used for this crop. In the +eighth decade of the 19th century, the value of the wheat product had +come to exceed that of the annual output of gold. Barley has always been +very important. The acreage given to it in 1899 was one-fourth the total +cereal acreage, and San Francisco in 1902-1904 was the shipping point of +the larger part of American exported barley, of (roughly) three-quarters +in 1902, seven-eighths in 1903 and four-fifths in 1904. In 1906 +California produced 38,760,000 bushels of barley, valued at $20,930,400. +The great increase in the acreage of barley, which was 22.5% of the +country's barley acreage in 1906, and 24.2% in 1905, is one reason for +the decreased production of wheat. The level nature of the great grain +farms of the valley led to the utilization of machinery of remarkable +character. Combined harvesters (which enter a field of standing grain +and leave this grain piled in sacks ready for shipment), steam +gang-ploughs, and other farm machinery are of truly extraordinary size +and efficiency. In 1899 cereals represented more than a third of the +total crop acreage and crop product ($93,641,334) of the state. Wheat +and other cereals are in part cut for hay, and the hay crop of 1906 was +1,133,465 tons, valued at $12,751,481. California is one of the leading +hop-producing states of the Union, the average annual production since +1901 being more than 10,000,000 lb. The product of sugar beets increased +between 1888 and 1902 from 1910 to 73,761 tons (according to the state +board of trade), and in 1909 (according to the department of +agriculture) it was 882,084 tons, from which 254,544,000 lb of sugar was +manufactured. In this industry California in 1909 ranked second to +Colorado. Truck gardening for export is an assured industry, especially +in the north. Great quantities of vegetables, fresh and canned, are +shipped yearly, and the same is true on a far larger scale of fruit. +Vegetable exports more than doubled between 1894 and 1903. In 1899 hay +and grain represented slightly more than a third of the farm acreage and +capital and also of the value of all farm products; live-stock and dairy +farms represented slightly more than half the acreage, and slightly +under 30% of the capital and produce; fruit farms absorbed 6.2% of the +acreage and 27% of the capital, and returned 22.5% of the value of +farm produce. + +_Fruit-growing._--Horticulture is now the principal industry, and in +this field California has no rival in the United States, although +ranking after Florida in the growth of some tropical or semi-tropical +fruits,--pineapples, guava, limes, pomeloes or grape-fruit and Japanese +persimmons. In 1899 California's output of fruit was more than a fifth +of that of the whole Union. The supremacy of the state is established in +the growth of oranges, lemons, citrons, olives, figs, almonds, Persian +(or English) walnuts, plums and prunes, grapes and raisins, nectarines, +apricots and pomegranates; it also leads in pears, and peaches, but here +its primacy is not so assured. Southern California by no means +monopolizes the warm-zone fruits. Oranges, lemons and walnuts come +chiefly from that section, but citrus fruits grow splendidly in the +Sierra foothills of the Sacramento Valley, and indeed ripen earlier +there than in the southern district. Almonds, as well as peaches, pears, +plums, cherries and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over half of +the prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the raisin +output from Fresno county. Olives thrive as far north as the head of the +Great Valley, growing in all the valleys and foothills up to 1500 or +2000 ft. They were introduced by the Franciscans (as were various other +subtropical fruits, pears and grapes), but their scientific betterment +and commercial importance date from about 1885. They grow very +abundantly and of the finest quality; for many years poor methods of +preparation prejudiced the market against the Californian product, but +this has ceased to be the case. The modern orange industry practically +began with the introduction into Southern California in 1873 of two +seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have been developed +by budding millions of trees bearing a seedless fruit known as the +"Washington navel," which now holds first rank in American markets; +other varieties, mainly seedlings, are of great but secondary +importance. Shipments continue the year round. There has been more than +one horticultural excitement in California, but especially in orange +culture, which was for a time almost as epidemic a fever as gold seeking +once was. By reason of the co-operative effort demanded for the large +problems of irrigation, packing and marketing, the citrus industry has +done much for the permanent development of the state, and its +extraordinary growth made it, towards the close of the 19th century, the +most striking and most potent single influence in the growth of +agriculture. State legislation has advanced the fruit interest in all +possible ways. Between 1872 and 1903 exports of canned fruits increased +from 91 to 94,205 short tons; between 1880 and 1903 the increase of +dried fruit exports was from 295 to 149,531 tons; of fresh deciduous +fruits, from 2590 to 101,199; of raisins, from 400 to 39,963; of citrus +fruits, from 458 to 299,623; of wines and brandies between 1891 and +1903, from 47,651 to 97,332 tons. Of the shipments in 1903 some 44% +were from Southern California,--i.e. from the seven southernmost +counties. + +Grape culture has a great future in California. Vines were first +introduced by the Franciscans in 1771 from Spain, and until after 1860 +"Mission" grapes were practically the only stock in California. +Afterwards many hundreds of European varieties were introduced with +great success. "The state has such a variety of soil, slope, elevation, +temperature and climatic conditions as to reproduce, somewhere within +its borders, any wine now manufactured" (United States Census, 1900); +but experience has not as yet divided the state into districts of +specialized produce, nor determined just how far indigenous American +vines may profitably be used, either as base or graftings, with European +varieties. Grapes are grown very largely over the state. Raisins do well +as far north as Yolo county, but do best in Madera, Fresno, Kings, +Tulare and San Diego counties. The product is more than sufficient for +the markets of the United States. Dry wine grapes do best in the +counties around San Francisco Bay, on unirrigated lands; while sweet +wine stocks do best in Yolo, San Joaquin and the counties of the raisin +grape, and on irrigated lands. In 1900 California produced about +three-fifths in value ($3,937,871) and in 1905 the same proportion +($6,688,620) of the wine output of the United States. The value of +product more than sextupled from 1880 to 1900. In quantity the product +was more than four times the combined product of all other states. The +better California wines are largely sold under French labels. Brandies +are an important product. They are made chiefly from grapes, and are +used to fortify wines. It was officially estimated that in the spring of +1904 there were some 227,000 acres of vineyards in the state, of which +exactly five-tenths were in wine grapes and four-tenths in raisin +grapes. + +_Gold._--Between the pastoral period and the era of wheat was the golden +epoch of Californian history. The existence of gold had long been +suspected, and possibly known, in California before 1848, and there had +been desultory washings in parts where there was very little to reward +prospectors. The first perfectly authenticated discovery was made near +Los Angeles in 1842. The discovery of real historical importance was +made in January 1848 (the 24th is the correct date) at John A. Sutter's +mill, on the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman, +James W. Marshall (1810-1885). His monument now marks the spot. From +1848 to the 1st of January 1903, according to the state mining bureau, +California produced $1,379,275,408 in gold. There were two periods of +intense excitement. The first ended in 1854, at which time there was a +decided reaction throughout the United States in regard to mining +matters. The Californian discoveries had given rise to a general search +for metalliferous deposits in the Atlantic states, and this bad been +followed by wild speculations. At the time of their greatest +productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of the washings was +probably not less than $65,000,000 a year; according to the state mining +bureau the average production from 1851-1854 was $73,570,087 +($81,294,270 in 1852, the banner year), and from 1850-1861 $55,882,861, +never falling below $50,000,000. The estimates of other competent +authorities differ considerably, and generally are somewhat less +generous than these figures. + +At first the diggings were chiefly along the rivers. These were +"flumed,"--that is, the water was diverted by wooden flumes from the +natural channel and the sand and gravel in the bed were washed. All the +"gulches" or ravines leading down into the canyons were also worked +over, with or without water. These were the richest "placers," but in +them the gold was very unequally distributed. Those who first got +possession of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, Feather, Stanislaus +and the other smaller streams in the heart of the gold region, made +sometimes from $1000 to $5000 a day; but after one rich spot was worked +out it might be days or weeks before another was found. In 1848 $500-700 +a day was not unusual luck; but, on the other hand, the income of the +great majority of miners was certainly far less than that of men who +seriously devoted themselves to trade or even to common labour. Many +extraordinary nuggets were found, varying from $1000 to $20,000 in +value. The economic stimulus given by such times may be imagined. For +several years gold-dust was a regular circulating medium in the cities +as well as in the mining districts of the state. An ounce of dust in +1848 frequently went for $4 instead of $17; for a number of years +traders in dust were sure of a margin of several dollars, as for example +in private coinage, mints for which were common by 1851. From the record +of actual exports and a comparison of the most authoritative estimates +of total production, it may be said that from 1848 to 1856 the yield was +almost certainly not less than $450,000,000, and that about 1870 the +billion dollar mark had been passed. Just at this time came the highest +point and the sudden fall of the second great mining fever of the state. +This was a stock speculation based on the remarkable output +($300,000,000 in 20 years) of the silver "bonanzas" of the Comstock lode +at Virginia City, Nevada, which were opened and financed by San +Francisco capitalists. The craze pervaded all classes. Shares that at +first represented so many dollars per foot in a tangible mine were +multiplied and remultiplied until they came to represent paper +thicknesses or almost nothing, yet still their prices mounted upward. In +April 1872 came the revulsion; there was a shrinkage of $60,000,000 in +ten days; then in 1873 a tremendous advance, and in 1875 a final and +disastrous collapse; in ten years thereafter the stock of the Comstock +lode shrank from $3,000,000 to $2,000,000. This Comstock fever belongs +to Californian rather than to Nevadan history, and is one of the most +extraordinary in mining annals. + +First the "rocker," then the "tom," the "flume," and the hydraulic +stream were the tools of the miner. Into the "rocker" and the "tom" the +miner shovelled dirt, rocking it as he poured in water, catching the +gold on riffles set across the bottom of his box; thus imitating in a +wooden box the work of nature in the rivers. The "flume" enabled him to +dry the bed of a stream while he worked over its gravels. The hydraulic +stream came into use as early as 1852 (or 1853) when prospecting of the +higher ground made it certain that the "deep" or "high" gravels--i.e. +the detrital deposits of tertiary age--contained gold, though in too +small quantities to be profitably worked in the ordinary way. The +hydraulic process received an immense development through successive +improvements of method and machinery. In this method tremendous blasts +of powder, sometimes twenty-five or even fifty tons, were used to loosen +the gravel, which was then acted on by the jet of water thrown from the +"pipes." To give an idea of the force of the agent thus employed it may +be stated that when an eight-inch nozzle is used under a heavy head, +more than 3000 ft. may be discharged in a minute with a velocity of 150 +ft. per second. The water as it thus issues from the nozzle feels to the +touch like metal, and the strongest man cannot sensibly affect it with a +crowbar. A gravel bank acted on by such tremendous force crumbled +rapidly, and the disintegrated material could be run readily through +sluices to the "dumps." Hydraulic mining is no longer practised on the +scale of early days. The results were wonderful but disastrous, for the +"dumps" were usually river-beds. From 1870-1879 the bed of Bear river +was raised in places in its lower course 97 ft. by the detritus wash of +the hydraulic mines, and that of Sleepy Hollow Creek 136 ft. The total +filling up to that time on the streams in this vicinity had been from +100 to 250 ft., and many thousand acres of fine farming land were buried +under gravel,--some 16,000 on the lower Yuba alone. For many years the +mining interests were supreme, and agriculture, even after it had become +of great importance, was invariably worsted when the two clashed; but in +1884 the long and bitter "anti-debris" or "anti-slickins" fight ended in +favour of the farmers. In 1893 the United States government created a +California Debris Commission, which has acted in unison with the state +authorities. Permits for hydraulic mining are granted by the commission +only when all gravel is satisfactorily impounded and no harm is done to +the streams; and the improvement of these, which was impossible so long +as limits were not set to hydraulic mining, can now be effectively +advanced. Quartz mining began as early as 1851. In 1908 about +five-eighths of the gold output was from such mines. Quartz veins are +very often as good at a depth of 3000 ft. as at the surface. A +remarkable feature of recent years (especially since 1900) is gold +"dredging." Thousands of acres even of orchard, vineyard and farming +land have been thus treated in recent years. Gold was being produced in +1906 in more than thirty counties. The annual output since 1875 has been +about $15,000,000 to $17,000,000; in 1905, according to the Mines +Report, it was $18,898,545. Colorado now excels California as a gold +producer. + +_Mineral Products._--California produces more than forty mineral +substances that are of commercial significance. Gold, petroleum, copper, +borax and its products, clays, quicksilver and silver lead, in order of +importance, representing some four-fifths of the total. From 1894 to +1902 the aggregate production increased from 20.2 to 35.1 million +dollars; in 1908 it was $65,137,636. Metallic products long represented +three-fourths of the total, but the feature of recent years has been the +rising importance of hydrocarbons and gases, and of structural +materials, and indeed of non-metallic products generally. The production +of crude petroleum has grown very rapidly since about 1895. Oil is found +from north to south over some 600 m., but especially in Southern +California. The high cost of coal, which has always been a hindrance to +the development of manufactures, makes the petroleum deposits of +peculiar value. Their total output increased from 4,250,000 to +44,854,737 barrels between 1900 and 1908, and the value of the product +in 1908 was $23,433,502. The Kern river field is the most important in +the state and one of the greatest in the world. Those of Coalinga, Santa +Maria and Lompoc, and Los Angeles are next in importance. Both in 1900 +and in 1905 California ranked fifth among the states of the United +States in the petroleum refining industry. Copper has risen in +importance in very recent years; it is mined mainly in Shasta county; +the value of the state's total product in 1908 was $5,232,986. Gold +mining still centres in the mountainous counties north of Tuolumne. This +is the region of quartz mining. In borax (of which California's output +in 1904 was 45,647 tons) and structural materials San Bernardino has a +long lead. More than nine-tenths of the borax product of the country +comes from about Death Valley. San Bernardino marbles have a very high +repute. California was the fourth state of the Union in 1908 in the +production of granite. It furnishes about two-fifths of the quicksilver +of the world. This has been mined since 1824; the output was greatest +from 1875-1883, when it averaged about 43,000,000 pounds. The New +Almaden mine (opened in 1824) in Santa Clara county produced from 1850 +to 1896 some 73,000,000 pounds. The centre of production is north and +south of San Francisco Bay. Californian coal is almost wholly inferior +brown lignite, together with a small quantity of bituminous coals of +poor quality; the state does not produce a tenth part of the coal it +consumes. Of growing importance are the gems found in California: a few +diamonds in Butte county; rock crystal in Calaveras county; and +tourmalines, kunzite, the rare pink beryl and bright blue topazes in San +Diego county. Chrysoprase, mined near Porterville and near Visalia +(Tulare county), is used partly for gems, but more largely (like the +vesuvianite found near Exeter, in the same county) for mosaic work; and +there are ledges of fine rose quartz in the Coahuila mountains of +Riverside county and near Lemon Cove, Tulare county. + +A vivid realization of the industrial revolution in the state is to be +gained from the reflection that in 1875 California was pre-eminent only +for gold and sheep; that the aggregate mineral output thirty years later +was more than a third greater than then, and that nevertheless the value +of farm produce at the opening of the 20th century exceeded by more than +$100,000,000 the value of mineral produce, and exceeded by $50,000,000 +the most generous estimate of the largest annual gold output in the +annals of the state. + +_Manufactures._--Previous to 1860 almost every manufactured article used +in the state was imported from the east or from Europe. Dairy products, +for example, for whose production good facilities always existed, were +long greatly neglected, and not for two decades at least after 1848 was +the state independent in this respect. The high cost of coal, the +speculative attractions of mining, and the high wages of labour, +handicapped the development of manufactures in early years. The first +continued to be a drag on such industries, until after 1895 the +increasing use of crude petroleum obviated the difficulty. Several +remarkable electric power and lighting plants utilize the water power of +the mountains.[4] Geographic isolation has somewhat fostered state +industries. The value of gross manufactured products increased 41.9% +from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year California ranked 12th among the +states in the gross value of all manufactures ($302,874,761); the +per-capita value of manufactured and agricultural products being +$293,--$89 of the latter, $204 of the former. Of the wage-earners 61% +were engaged in manufacturing. Fourteen industries represented from 41% +to 45% of the employees, wages, capital and product of the aggregate +manufacturers of the state. The leading ones in order of importance and +the value of product in millions of dollars were: the manufacture of +railway, foundry, and machine shop products (19.6 million dollars), +lumber and timber industries (18.57), sugar and molasses refining +(15.91), beef slaughtering (15.72), canning and preserving (13.08), +flour and grist milling (13.10), the manufacture of malt, vinous and +distilled liquors (9.26), leather industries (7.40), printing and +publishing (6.86). In the second, third and fifth of these industries +the state ranked respectively fifth, fourth and first in the Union.[5] +The canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables is in the main an +industry of the northern and central counties. In 1890 the state board +of forestry estimated that the redwood forests were in danger of +exhaustion by 1930. The redwood is a general utility lumber second only +to the common white pine, and the drain on the woods has been continuous +since 1850. The wood has a fine, straight and even grain; and though +light and soft, is firm and extremely durable, lying, it is +authoritatively asserted, for centuries in the forest without +appreciable decay. It takes a beautiful polish. The colour varies from +cedar colour to mahogany. A small southern belt in San Mateo, Santa +Clara and Santa Cruz counties is not being commercially exploited. The +annual lumber cut from 1898-1903 averaged more than 663,348,000 ft.; of +the 852,638,000 ft. cut in 1903, 465,460,000 were of redwood, and +264,890,000 of yellow pine; fir and sugar pines contributing another +104,600,000, and spruce and cedar 17,670,000 ft. In 1900 California +ranked 16th among the states in value of product ($13,764,647, out of a +total of $566,852,984). The total cut was under 1/2 of 1% of the +estimated stand. In Humboldt county, in the redwood belt near Eureka, +are probably the most modern and remarkable lumber mills of the world. +In 1900 it was estimated that lumbermen controlled somewhat less than a +fifth of the timber of the state, and the same part of the redwood. +After 1890 important shipyards were established near San Francisco. The +most important naval station of the United States on the Pacific coast +is at Mare Island at the northern end of San Francisco Bay, and the +private Union Iron Works, on the peninsula near San Francisco, is one of +the largest shipyards of the country. In 1905 more than one-half of the +factory product was the output of four cities: San Francisco +($137,788,233), Los Angeles ($34,814,475), Sacramento ($10,319,416) and +Fresno ($9,849,001); next ranked Oakland, Stockton, and San Jose. + +The transportation facilities in California increased rapidly after +1870. The building of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific lines are +among the romances of American railway history. They joined tracks near +Ogden, Utah, in May 1869. The New Orleans line of the Southern Pacific +was opened in January 1883; the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe completed +its line to San Diego in 1885, and to San Francisco Bay in 1900. The San +Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, with trans-continental connexions at the +eastern terminus, was chartered in 1901 and fully opened in March 1903. +Railway mileage increased 137.3% from 1870 to 1880, and 154.6% from +1880 to 1900. At the close of 1908 the total mileage was 7039.36 m., +practically all of which is either owned or controlled by the two great +trans-continental systems of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, +Topeka & Santa Fe. From 1869 to 1875 registered mail exchanges were +opened with China, Japan, Hawaii and Australia. There are now frequent +mail connexions from San Francisco with Hawaii, Australasia, and eastern +Asia, as well as with American ports north and south. The commerce of +San Francisco amounts to some $80,000,000 or $90,000,000 yearly, about +equally divided between imports and exports, until after 1905--in 1907 +the imports were valued at $54,207,011, and the exports at $30,378,355 +(less than any year since 1896). San Diego has a very good harbour, and +the harbours of San Pedro (Los Angeles) and Eureka are fairly good and +of growing importance. Grains, lumber, fish, fruits and fruit products, +petroleum, vegetables and sugar are the leading items in the commerce of +San Francisco. Other ports are of very secondary importance. Navigation +on the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers was very important in early +days, but is to-day of relatively slight importance in comparison with +railway traffic. + +_Population._--The population of California increased in successive +decades from 1850 to 1910 respectively by 310.3, 47.3, 54.3, 40.3, 22.4 +and 60.1%. (The percentage of increase in 1900-1910 was exceeded in +Washington, Oklahoma, Idaho, Nevada, North Dakota and Oregon.) In 1910 +the total population was 2,377,549, or 15.2 per sq. m. In 1900 there were +116 incorporated towns and cities; and of the total population 43.3% +was urban,--i.e. resident in cities (11 in number) of 8000 or more +inhabitants. These 11 cities were: San Francisco (pop. 342,782), Los +Angeles (102,479), Oakland (66,960), Alameda (16,464), Berkeley +(13,214),--the last three being suburbs of San Francisco, and the last +the seat of the state university,--Sacramento, the state capital +(29,282), San Jose (21,500), San Diego (17,700), Stockton (17,506), +Fresno (12,470), and Pasadena (9117). Eight other cities had populations +of more than 5000--Riverside City (7973), Vallejo (7965), Eureka (7327), +Santa Rosa (6673), Santa Barbara (6587), San Bernardino (6156), Santa +Cruz (5659), and Pomona (5526). + +Of the entire population in 1900 persons of foreign birth or parentage +(one or both parents being foreign) constituted 54.2 and those of native +birth were 75.3%. Of the latter six-tenths were born in California. The +foreign element included 45,753 Chinese (a falling off of 25,313 since +1890), and 10,151 Japanese (an increase of 9004 in the same decade). +Twenty-two foreign countries contributed over 1000 residents each, the +leading ones being the United Kingdom (91,638), Germany (72,449), Canada +(29,618; 27,408 being English Canadians), Italy (22,777), Sweden +(14,549), France (12,256), Portugal (12,068), Switzerland (10,974), +Japan, Denmark, and Mexico, in the order named. Persons of negro descent +numbered 11,045. Almost all the Indians of the state are taxed as +citizens. In 1906 of 611,464 members of religious denominations 354,408 +were Roman Catholics, 64,528 Methodist Episcopalians, 37,682 +Presbyterians, 26,390 Congregationalists, 24,801 Baptists, 21,317 +Protestant Episcopalians, 11,371 Lutherans, and 9,110 members of +Eastern Orthodox churches. A peculiar feature in the population +statistics of California is the predominance of males, which in 1900 was +156,009; the Asiatic element accounts for a third of this number. Since +1885 the eight counties south of the Tehachapi Range, which are known +collectively and specifically as Southern California have greatly +advanced in population. In 1880 their population was 7.3, in 1890 17.2, +and in 1900 20.1% of the total population of the state. The initial +impulse to this increase was the beginning of the "fruit epoch" in these +counties, combined with a railway "rate-war" following the completion to +the coast in 1885 of the Santa Fe, and an extraordinary land boom +prevailing from 1886 to 1888. The conjuncture of circumstances, and the +immigration it induced, were unusual. The growth of the South, as of the +rest of the state, has been continuous and steady. + +The Indians were prominent in early Californian history, but their +progress toward their present insignificance began far back in the +Spanish period. It proceeded much more rapidly after the restraining +influence of the missions was removed, leaving them free to revert to +savagery; and the downward progress of the race was fearfully +accelerated during the mining period, when they were abused, depraved, +and in large numbers killed. There have been no Indian wars in +California's annals, but many butcheries. The natives have declined +exceedingly in number since 1830, in 1900 numbering 15,377. They have +always been mild-tempered, low, and unintelligent, and are to-day a poor +and miserable race. They are all called "Digger Indians" +indiscriminately, although divided by a multiplicity of tongues. + +_Government and Institutions._--In the matter of constitution-making +California has been conservative, having had only two between 1849 and +1910. The first was framed by a convention at Monterey in 1849, and +ratified by the people and proclaimed by the United States military +governor in the same year. The present constitution, framed by a +convention in 1878-1879, came into full effect in 1880, and was +subsequently amended. It was the work of the labour party, passed at a +time of high discontent, and goes at great length into the details of +government, as was demanded by the state of public opinion. The +qualifications required for the suffrage are in no way different from +those common throughout the Union, except that by a constitutional +amendment of 1894 it is necessary for a voter to be able to read the +state constitution and write his name. As compared with the earlier +constitution it showed many radical advances toward popular control, the +power of the legislature being everywhere curtailed. The power of +legislation was taken from it by specific inhibition in thirty-one +subjects before within its power; its control of the public domain, its +powers in taxation, and its use of the state credit were carefully +safe-guarded. "Lobbying" was made a felony; provisions were inserted +against lotteries and stock-exchange gambling, to tax and control common +carriers and great corporations, and to regulate telegraph, telephone, +storage and wharfage charges. The powers of the executive department +were also somewhat curtailed. For the judiciary, provisions were made +for expediting trials and decisions. Notable was the innovation that +agreement by three-fourths of a jury should be sufficient in civil cases +and that a jury might be waived in minor criminal cases, a provision +which of course was based on experience under the Mexican law. All these +changes in the organic law reflect bitter experience after 1850; and, +read with the history of those years as a commentary, few American +constitutions are more instructive. The constitution of 1879 corresponds +very closely to the ordinary state constitution of to-day. The +incorporation of banks issuing circulating notes is forbidden. Marriage +is not only declared a civil contract, but the laws expressly recognize +that the mere consent of the parties is adequate to constitute a binding +marriage. The union of whites with persons of African descent is +forbidden. Felons twice convicted may not be pardoned except on the +recommendation of a majority of the judges of the supreme court. Judges +and state executive officers are elected for terms longer than is usual +in the different states (supreme judges 12 years, executive officers 4 +years). These few provisions are mentioned, not as of particular +importance in themselves, but as exceptions of some moment to the usual +type of state Constitutions (see UNITED STATES). The Australian ballot +was introduced in 1891. In local government there are no deviations from +the usual types that demand notice. In the matter of liquor-laws there +is local option, and a considerable proportion of the towns and smaller +cities, particularly in the south, adopt prohibition. In most of the +rest high licence is more or less strictly enforced. + +The total assessed valuation of property grew from $666,399,985 in 1880 +to $1,217,648,683 in 1900 and $1,879,728,763 in 1907. In 1904, when the +U.S. Census Report showed California to be the twenty-first state of the +Union in population but the sixth in wealth, the total estimated true +value of all property was $4,115,491,106, of which $2,664,472,025 was +the value of real property and improvements thereon. The per capita +wealth of the state was then reported as $2582.32, being exceeded only +by the three sparsely settled states of Montana, Wyoming and Nevada. In +1898 California had the largest savings-bank deposit per depositor +($637.75) of any state in the Union; the _per caput_ deposit was $110 in +1902, and about one person in seven was a depositor. The state bonded +debt in 1907 amounted to three and a half million dollars, of which all +but $767,529.03 was represented by bonds purchased by the state and held +for the school and university funds; for the common school fund on the +1st of July 1907 there were held bonds for $4,890,950, and $800,000 in +cash available for investment; for the university fund there were held +$751,000 in state bonds, and a large amount in other securities. The +total bonded county indebtedness was $4,879,600 in 1906 (not including +that of San Francisco, a consolidated city and county, which was +$4,568,600). A homestead, entered upon record and limited to a value of +$5000 if held by the head of a family and to a value of $1000 if held by +one not the head of a family, is exempt from liability for debts, except +for a mortgage, a lien before it was claimed as a homestead or a lien +afterward for improvements. A homestead held by a married man cannot be +mortgaged without consent of his wife. + +Under an act approved on the 25th of March 1903 a state board of +charities and corrections,--consisting of six members, not more than +three being of the same political party, appointed by the governor, with +the advice and consent of the senate, and holding office for twelve +years, two retiring at the end of each quadrennium,--investigates, +examines, and makes "reports upon the charitable, correctional and penal +institutions of the state," excepting the Veterans' Home at Yountville, +Napa county, and the Woman's Relief Corps Home at Evergreen, Santa Clara +county. There are state prisons with convicts working under the public +account system, at San Quentin, Marin county, and Folsom, Sacramento +county. The Preston (Sonoma county) School of Industry, for older boys, +and the Whittier (Los Angeles county) State School, for girls and for +boys under sixteen, are the state reformatories, each having good +industrial and manual training departments. There are state hospitals +for the insane at Agnew, Santa Clara county; at Stockton, San Joaquin +county; at Napa, Napa county; at Patton, San Bernardino county; and, +with a colony of tubercular patients, at Ukiah, Mendocino county. In +1906 the ratio of insane confined to institutions, to the total +population, was 1 to every 270. Also under state control are the home +for care and training of feeble-minded children, at Eldridge, Sonoma +county; the institution for the deaf and the blind at Berkeley, and the +home of mechanical trades for the adult blind at Oakland. A Juvenile +Court Law was enacted in 1903 and modified in 1905. + +The educational system of California is one of the best in the country. +The state board of education is composed of the governor of the state, +who is its president; the superintendent of public instruction, who is +its secretary; the presidents of the five normal schools and of the +University of California, and the professor of pedagogy in the +university. Sessions are long in primary schools, and attendance was +made compulsory in 1874 (and must not be less than two-thirds of all +school days). The state controlled the actual preparation and sale of +text-books for the common schools from 1885 to 1903, when the Perry +amendment to the constitution (ratified by popular vote in 1884) was +declared to mean that such text-books must be manufactured within the +state, but that the texts need not be prepared in California. The +experiment of state-prepared text-books was expensive, and its effect +was bad on the public school system, as such text-books were almost +without exception poorly written and poorly printed. After 1903 +copyrights were leased by the state. Secondary schools are closely +affiliated with, and closely inspected by, the state university. All +schools are generously supported, salaries are unusually good, and +pension funds in all cities are authorized by state laws. The value of +school property in 1900 was $19,135,722, and the expenditure for the +public schools $6,195,000; in 1906 the value of school property was +$29,013,150, and the expenditure for public schools $10,815,857. The +average school attendance for all minors of school age (5-20 years) was +59.9%; of those native-born 61.5, of those foreign-born 34.6; of +coloured children, including Asiatics and Indians, 35.8, and of white, +60.8%. In 1900, 6.2% of the males of voting age, and 2.4% of the +native-born males of voting age, were illiterate (could not write). Some +3% of the total population could not speak English; Chinese and +Japanese constituting almost half of the number, foreign-born whites +somewhat less, and Indians and native-born whites of foreign parentage +together less than a tenth of the total. Of the higher educational +institutions of the state the most important are the state university at +Berkeley and Leland Stanford Jr. University at Palo Alto. The former is +supported with very great liberality by the state; and the latter, the +endowment of which is private (the state, however, exempting it from +taxation), is one of the richest educational institutions of America. In +1906 there were also five state normal schools (at Chico, Los Angeles, +San Diego, San Francisco, and San Jose), and a considerable number of +denominational colleges. There is also a state polytechnic school at San +Luis Obispo (1903). + +_History._--The name "California" was taken from Ordonez de Montalvo's +romance of chivalry _Las Sergas de Esplandian_ (Madrid, 1510), in which +is told of black Amazons ruling an island of this name "to the right of +the Indies, very near the quarter of the terrestrial paradise." The name +was given to the unknown north-west before 1540. It does not show that +the namers were prophets or wise judges, for the Spaniards really knew +California not at all for more than two centuries, and then only as a +genial but rather barren land; but it shows that the _conquistadores_ +mixed poetry with business and illustrates the glamour thrown about the +"Northern Mystery." Necessarily the name had for a long time no definite +geographical meaning. The lower Colorado river was discovered in 1540, +but the explorers did not penetrate California; in 1542-1543 Juan +Rodriguez Cabrillo explored at least the southern coast; in 1579 Sir +Francis Drake repaired his ships in some Californian port (almost +certainly not San Francisco Bay), and named the land New Albion; two +Philippine ships visited the coast in 1584 and 1595, and in 1602 and +1603 Sebastian Vizcaino discovered the sites of San Diego and Monterey. +There was apparently no increase of knowledge thereafter for 150 years. +Most of this time California was generally supposed to be an island or a +group of islands. Jesuit missionaries entered Lower California as early +as 1697, maintaining themselves there until Charles III.'s expulsion in +1767 of all Jesuits from his dominions; but not until Russian +explorations in Alaska from 1745-1765 did the Spanish government show +interest in Upper California. Because of these explorations, and also +the long-felt need of a refitting point on the California coast for the +galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 and Monterey in +1770 as a result of urgent orders from Charles III. San Francisco Bay +was discovered in the former year. Meanwhile the Jesuit property in the +Peninsula had been turned over to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the +Dominicans took over the missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly +withdrew to Upper California, where they were to thrive remarkably for +some fifty years. + + + The rule of the missions. + +This is the mission period--or from an economic standpoint, the +pastoral period--of Californian history. In all, twenty-one missions +were established between 1769 and 1823. The leader in this movement was +a really remarkable man, Miguel Jose Serra (known as Junipero Serra, +1713-1784), a friar of very great ability, purest piety, and tireless +zeal. He possessed great influence in Mexico and Madrid. "The theory of +the mission system," says H.H. Bancroft, "was to make the savages work +out their own salvation and that of the priests also." The last phrase +scarcely does justice to the truly humane and devout intentions of the +missionaries; but in truth the mission system was a complete failure +save in the accumulation of material wealth. Economically the missions +were the blood and life of the province. At them the neophytes worked up +wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cultivated hemp and wheat, raised a +few oranges, made soap, some iron and leather articles, mission +furniture, and a very little wine and olive oil. Such as it was, this +was about the only manufacturing or handicraft in California. Besides, +the hides and tallow yielded by the great herds of cattle at the +missions were the support of foreign trade and did much toward paying +the expenses of the government. The Franciscans had no sympathy for +profane knowledge, even among the Mexicans,--sometimes publicly burning +quantities of books of a scientific or miscellaneous nature; and the +reading of Fenelon's _Telemaque_ brought excommunication on a layman. As +for the intellectual development of the neophytes the mission system +accomplished nothing; save the care of their souls they received no +instruction, they were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal +dependence, so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once into +barbarism. It cannot be said, however, that Anglo-Americans have done +much better for them. + +The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808 made little +stir in this far-off province. Joseph was never recognized, and +allegiance was sworn to Ferdinand (1809). When revolution broke out in +Mexico (1811), California remained loyal, suffering much by the +cessation of supplies from Mexico, the resulting deficits falling as an +added burden upon the missions. The occupation of Monterey for a few +hours by a Buenos Aires privateer (1818) was the only incident of actual +war that California saw in all these years; and it, in truth, was a +ridiculous episode, fit introduction to the bloodless play-wars, soon to +be inaugurated in Californian politics. In 1820 the Spanish constitution +was duly sworn to in California, and in 1822 allegiance was given to +Mexico. Under the Mexican Federal constitution of 1824 Upper California, +first alone (it was made a distinct province in 1804) and then with +Lower California, received representation in the Mexican congress. + +The following years before American occupation may be divided into two +periods of quite distinct interest. From about 1840 to 1848 foreign +relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to 1840 there is a +complicated and not uninteresting movement of local politics and a +preparation for the future,--the missions fall, republicanism grows, the +sentiment of local patriotism becomes a political force, there is a +succession of sectional controversies and personal struggles among +provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign commerce, of foreign +immigration and of foreign influence. + +The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in sympathies. They +viewed with displeasure and foreboding the fall of Iturbide's empire and +the creation of the republic. They were not treasonable, but talked +much, refusing allegiance to the new government; and as they controlled +the resources of the colony and the good will of the Indians, they felt +their strength against the local authority; besides, they were its +constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with the growth +of republican ideas. There was talk in California of the rights of man +and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The missions were never +intended to be permanent. The missionaries were only the field workers +sent out to convert and civilize the Indians, who were to be turned over +then to the regular clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new +fields. This was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the +Spanish Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America +that were ten years old, but this decree was not published in +California until 1821. After that secularization was the burning +question in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made +in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough +secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was +consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and by 1840 at all. +At some of the missions the monks acted later as temporary curates for +the civil authorities, until in 1845-1846 all the missions were sold by +the government. Unfortunately the manner of carrying it out discredited +a policy neither unjust nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in +the political struggles of the time. The friars were in no way +mistreated: Californians did not share Mexican resentments against +Spaniards, and the national laws directed against these were in the main +quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question led to a +rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor Manuel +Victoria. He was driven out of the province. + +This was the first of the opera bouffe wars. The causes underlying them +were serious enough. In the first place, there was a growing +dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accomplished nothing tangible +for good in California,--although its plans were as excellent as could +be asked had there only been peace and means to realize them; however, +it made the mistake of sending convicts as soldiers. Californians were +enthusiastic republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow +in coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of these and +other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of foreign residents, +and the ambitions of leading Californian families united to foment and +propagate discontent. The feeling against Mexicans--those "de la otra +banda" as they were significantly termed--invaded political and even +social life. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between +northern towns and southern towns, northern families and southern +families. These entered into disputes over the location of the capital +and the custom-house, in the Franciscan question also (because the +friars came some from a northern and some from a southern college), and +in the question of the distribution of commands in the army and offices +in the civil government. Then there was the mission question; this +became acuter about 1833 when the friars began to destroy, or sell and +realize on, the mission property. The next decade was one of plunder and +ruin in mission history. Finally there was a real growth of +republicanism, and some rulers--notably Victoria--were wholly out of +sympathy with anything but personal, military rule. From all these +causes sprang much unrest and considerable agitation. + +In 1828-1829 there was a revolution of unpaid soldiers aided by natives, +against alleged but not serious abuses, that really aimed at the +establishment of an independent native government. In 1831 Governor +Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Governor Mariano Chico was frightened out +of the province; in 1836 Governor Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1844-1845 +Governor Manuel Micheltorena were driven out of office. The leading +natives headed this last rising. There was talk of independence, but +sectional and personal jealousies could not be overcome. In all these +wars there was not enough blood shed to discolour a sword. The rising of +1836 against Gutierrez seems to-day most interesting, for it was in part +a protest against the growth of federalism in Mexico. California was +even deferred to as (declared to be seems much too strong a statement) +an Estado Libre y Soberano; and from 1836 to 1838, when the +revolutionary governor, Juan B. Alvarado, was recognized by the Mexican +government, which had again inclined to federalism and, besides, did not +take the matter very seriously, the local government rested simply on +local sentiment. The satisfaction of this ended all difficulties. + + + American immigration. + + American and European intriques. + +By this time foreign influence was showing itself of importance. Foreign +commerce, which of course was contraband, being contrary to all Spanish +laws, was active by the beginning of the 19th century. It was greatly +stimulated during the Spanish-American revolutions (the Lima and Panama +trade dating from about 1813), for, as the Californian authorities +practically ignored the law, smuggling was unnecessary; this was, +indeed, much greater after 1822 under the high duties (in 1836-1840 +generally about 100%) of the Mexican tariffs. In the early 'forties some +three-fourths of the imports, even at Monterey itself, are said to have +paid no duties, being landed by agreement with the officials. Wholesale +and retail trade flourished all along the coast in defiance of +prohibitory laws. American trade was by far most important. The Boston +traders--whose direct trade began in 1822, but the indirect ventures +long before that--were men of decided influence in California. The trade +supplied almost all the clothing, merchandise and manufactures used in +the province; hides and furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade +was not to be received, still less were foreign travellers, under the +Spanish laws. However, the Russians came in 1805, and in 1812 founded on +Bodega Bay a post they held till 1841, whence they traded and hunted +(even in San Francisco Bay) for furs. From the day of the earliest +foreign commerce sailors and traders of divers nationalities began to +settle in the province. In 1826 American hunters first crossed to the +coast; in 1830 the Hudson's Bay Company began operations in northern +California. By this time the foreign element was considerable in number, +and it doubled in the next six years, although the true overland +immigration from the United States began only about 1840. As a class +foreigners were respected, and they were influential beyond proportion +to their numbers. They controlled commerce, and were more energetic, +generally, than were the natives; many were naturalized, held generous +grants of land, and had married into Californian families, not excluding +the most select and influential. Most prominent of Americans in the +interior was John A. Sutter (1803-1880), who held a grant of eleven +square leagues around the present site of Sacramento, whereon he built a +fort. His position as a Mexican official, and the location of his +fortified post on the border, commanding the interior country and lying +on the route of the overland immigrants, made him of great importance in +the years preceding and immediately following American occupation; +although he was a man of slight abilities and wasted his great +opportunities. Other settlers in the coast towns were also of high +standing and importance. In short, Americans were hospitably received +and very well treated by the government and the people; despite some +formalities and ostensible surveillance there was no oppression +whatever. There was, however, some jealousy of the ease with which +Americans secured land grants, and an entirely just dislike of "bad" +Americans. The sources from which all the immigrants were recruited made +inevitable an element of lawlessness and truculence. The Americans +happened to predominate. Along with a full share of border individuality +and restlessness they had the usual boisterous boastfulness and a racial +contempt, which was arrogantly proclaimed, for Mexicans,--often too for +Mexican legal formalities. The early comers were a conservative force in +politics, but many of the later comers wanted to make California a +second Texas. As early as 1805 (at the time of James Monroe's +negotiations for Florida), there are traces of Spain's fear of American +ambitions even in this far-away province. It was a fear she felt for all +her American possessions. Spain's fears passed on to Mexico, the +Russians being feared only less than Americans. An offer was made by +President Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern part of California, +including San Francisco Bay, but was refused. In 1836 and 1844 Americans +were prominent in the incidents of revolution; divided in opinion in +both years they were neutral in the actual "hostilities" of the latter, +but some gave active support to the governor in 1836. From 1836 on, +foreign interference was much talked about. Americans supposed that +Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; France +also was thought to be watching for an opening for gratifying supposed +ambitions; and all parties saw that even without overt act by the United +States the progress of American settlement seemed likely to gain them +the province, whose connexion with Mexico had long been a notoriously +loose one. A considerable literature written by travellers of all the +countries named had before this discussed all interests. In 1840 for too +active interest in politics some Americans and Englishmen were +temporarily expelled. + + + The "Bear Flag." + +In 1842 Commodore T.A.C. Jones (1789-1858) of the United States navy, +believing that war had broken out between his country and Mexico and +that a British force was about to seize California, raised the American +flag over Monterey (October 21st), but finding that he had acted on +misinformation he lowered the flag next day with due ceremony and warm +apology. In California this incident served only to open up agreeable +personal relations and social courtesies, but it did not tend to clarify +the diplomatic atmosphere. It showed the ease of seizing the country, +the indifference of the natives, and the resolution of the United States +government. Mexico sought to prevent American immigration, but the local +authorities would not enforce such orders, however positive. Between +1843 and 1845, Great Britain, the United States, and France opened +consulates. By 1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among +all American residents (then not 700 in number) as regards the future of +the country. The policy of France and Great Britain in these years is +unknown. That of the United States is fully known. In 1845 the American +consul at Monterey, Thomas O. Larkin (1802-1858), was instructed to work +for the secession of California from Mexico, without overt aid from the +United States, but with their good-will and sympathy. He very soon +gained from leading officers assurances of such a movement before 1848. +At the same time American naval officers were instructed to occupy the +ports in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the +good-will of the natives. In 1845 Captain J.C. Fremont,--whose doings in +California in the next two years were among the main assets in a +life-long reputation and an unsuccessful presidential campaign,--while +engaged in a government surveying expedition, aroused the apprehensions +of the Californian authorities by suspicious and very possibly +intentionally provocative movements, and there was a show of military +force by both parties. Fremont had information beyond that of ordinary +men that made him believe early hostilities between the United States +and Mexico to be inevitable; he was also officially informed of Larkin's +secret task and in no way authorized to hamper it. Resentment, however, +incited him to personal revenge on the Californian government, and an +ambition that clearly saw the gravity of the crisis prompted him to +improve it unscrupulously for his own advancement, leaving his +government to support or disavow him according as war should come or +not. In violation therefore of international amities, and practically in +disobedience of orders, he broke the peace, caused a band of Mexican +cavalry mounts to be seized, and prompted some American settlers to +occupy Sonoma (14th June 1846). This episode is known as the "Bear Flag +War," inasmuch as there was short-lived talk of making California an +independent state, and a flag with a bear as an emblem (California is +still popularly known as the Bear Flag State) flew for a few days at +Sonoma. It was a very small, very disingenuous, inevitably an anomalous, +and in the vanity of proclamations and other concomitant incidents +rather a ridiculous affair; and fortunately for the dignity of +history--and for Fremont--it was quickly merged in a larger question, +when Commodore John Drake Sloat (1780-1867) on the 7th of July raised +the flag of the United States over Monterey, proclaiming California a +part of the United States. The opening hostilities of the Mexican War +had occurred on the Rio Grande. The excuses and explanations later given +by Fremont--military preparations by the Californian authorities, the +imminence of their attack, ripening British schemes for the seizure of +the province, etc.--made up the stock account of historians until the +whole truth came out in 1886 (in Royce's _California_). Californians had +been very friendly to Americans, but Larkin's intimates thought they had +been tricked, and the people resented the stealthy and unprovoked +breaking of peace, and unfortunately the Americans did not known how to +treat them except inconsiderately and somewhat contemptuously. The +result was a feeble rising in the south. The country was fully pacified +by January 1847. The aftermath of Fremont's filibustering acts, followed +as they were by wholly needless hostilities and by some injustice then +and later in the attitude of Americans toward the natives, was a growing +misunderstanding and estrangement, regrettable in Californian history. +Thus there was an end to the "lotos-land society" of California. Another +society, less hospitable, less happy, less contented, but also less +mild, better tempered for building states, and more "progressive," took +the place of the old. + + + California ceded to the United States. + + The rush for gold. + +By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 Mexico ceded California to +the United States. It was just at this time that gold was discovered, +and the new territory took on great national importance. The discussion +as to what should be done with it began in Congress in 1846, immediately +involving the question of slavery. A furious conflict developed, so that +nothing was accomplished in two successive sessions; even at the end of +a third, in March 1849, the only progress made toward creating a +government for the territory was that the national revenue laws had been +extended over it and San Francisco had been made a port of entry. +Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabitants. Before the +end of the war Mexican laws not incompatible with United States laws +were by international law supposed to be in force; but nobody knew what +they were, and the uncertainties of vague and variable alcalde +jurisdictions were increased when Americans began to be alcaldes and +grafted English common-law principles, like the jury, on Californian +practice. Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the +motley Californian people of 1848-1849, yet they had none when, with +peace, military rule and Mexican law technically ended. There was a +curious extra-legal fusion of laws, a half-breed legal system, and no +definite basis for either law or government. Even the acts and theories +of the officials were very inconsistent. Early in 1849 temporary local +governments were set up in various towns, and in September a convention +framed a free-state constitution and applied for admission to the Union. +On the 7th of September 1850 a bill finally passed Congress admitting +California as a free state. This was one of the bargains in the +"Compromise Measures of 1850" that were intended to dispose of the +question of slavery in the Territories. Meanwhile the gold discoveries +culminated and surpassed "three centuries of wild talk about gold in +California." For three months there was little excitement, then a wild +rush. Settlements were completely deserted; homes, farms and stores +abandoned. Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San +Francisco--there were 500 of them in July 1850; soldiers deserted +wholesale, churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit, +merchants, clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody, flocked +to the foothills. Soon, from Hawaii, Oregon and Sonora, from the Eastern +states, the South Seas, Australia, South America and China came an +extraordinary flow of the hopeful and adventurous. In the winter of '48 +the rush began from the states to Panama, and in the spring across the +plains. It is estimated that 80,000 men reached the coast in 1849, about +half of them coming overland; three-fourths were Americans. Rapid +settlement, excessive prices, reckless waste of money, and wild +commercial ventures that glutted San Francisco with all objects usable +and unusable made the following years astounding from an economic point +of view; but not less bizarre was the social development, nor less +extraordinary the problems of state-building in a society "morally and +socially tried as no other American community ever has been tried" +(Royce). There was of course no home life in early California. In 1850 +women numbered 8% of the population, but only 2% in the mining +counties. The miners were an energetic, covetous, wandering, abnormally +excitable body of men. Occasionally a kind of frenzy even would seem to +seize on them, and lured by the hope of new deposits of unheard-of +richness thousands would flock on unfounded rumours to new and perhaps +distant localities, where many might perish from disease and starvation, +the rest returning in poverty and rags. Such were the Kern River fever +of 1855 and the greater "Fraser River rush" of 1858, the latter, which +took perhaps 20,000 men out of the state, causing a terrible amount of +suffering. Many interior towns lost half their population and some +virtually all their population as a result of this emigration; and it +precipitated a real estate crash in San Francisco that threatened +temporary ruin. Mining times in California brought out some of the most +ignoble and some of the best traits of American character. Professor +Josiah Royce has pictured the social-moral process by which society +finally impressed its "claims on wayward and blind individuals" who +"sought wealth and not a social order," and so long as possible shirked +all social obligations. Through varied instruments--lynch law, popular +courts, vigilance committees--order was, however, enforced, better as +times went on, until there was a stable condition of things. In the +economic life and social character of California to-day the legacies of +1848 are plain. + + + Disputed land grants. + +The slavery question was not settled for California in 1850. Until the +Civil War the division between the Whig and Democratic parties, whose +organization in California preceded statehood, was essentially based on +slavery. The struggle fused with the personal contests of two men, +rivals for the United States Senate, William McKendree Gwin (1805-85, +U.S. senator, 1850-55 and 1857-61), the leader of the pro-slavery party, +and David Colbreth Broderick (1819-1859), formerly a leader of Tammany +in New York, and after 1857 a member from California of the United +States Senate, the champion of free labour, who declared in 1860 for the +policy of the Republican party. Broderick's undoing was resolved upon by +the slavery party, and he was killed in a duel. The Gwin party hoped to +divide California into two states and hand the southern over to slavery; +on the eve of the Civil War it considered the scheme of a Pacific coast +republic. The decade 1850-1860 was also marked by the activity of +filibusters against Sonora and Central America. Two of these--a French +adventurer, one Gaston Raoux, comte de Raousset-Boulbon (1817-1854), and +William Walker, had very picturesque careers. The state was thoroughly +loyal when war came. The later 'fifties are characterized by H.H. +Bancroft as a period of "moral, political and financial night." National +politics were put first, to the complete ignoring of excessive taxation, +financial extravagance, ignorant legislation and corruption in +California. The public was exploited for many years with impunity for +the benefit of private interests. One legacy that ought to be briefly +noted here is that of disputed land grants. Under the Mexican regime +such grants were generous and common, and the complicated formalities +theoretically essential to their validity were very often, if not +usually, only in part attended to. Titles thus gained would never have +been questioned under continued Mexican government, but Americans were +unaccustomed to such riches in land and to such laxity. From the very +first hundreds "squatted" on large claims, contesting the title. Instead +of confirming all claims existing when the country passed to the United +States, and so ensuring an immediate settlement of the matter, which was +really the most important thing for the peace and purse of the +community, the United States government undertook through a land +commission and courts to sift the valid from the fraudulent. Claims of +enormous aggregate value were thus considered and a large part of those +dating from the last years of Mexican dominion (many probably artfully +concocted and fraudulently antedated after the commission was at work) +were finally rejected. This litigation filled the state and federal +courts for many years. The high value of realty in San Francisco +naturally offered extraordinary inducements to fraud, and the largest +part of the city was for years involved in fraudulent claims, and its +peace broken by "squatter"-troubles. Twenty or thirty years of the +state's life were disturbed by these controversies. Land monopoly is an +evil of large proportions in California to-day, but it is due to the +laxness of the United States government in enabling speculators to +accumulate holdings and not to the original extent of Mexican grants. + +In state gubernatorial elections after the Civil War the Democrats won +in 1867, 1875, 1882, 1886, 1894; the Republicans in 1871, 1879, 1890, +1898, 1902, 1906, 1910. Features of political life and of legislation +after 1876 were a strong labour agitation, the struggle for the +exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of hydraulic mining, +irrigation, and the advancement by state-aid of the fruit interests; the +last three of which have already been referred to above. Labour +conditions were peculiar in the decade following 1870. Mining, war times +and the building of the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices +and prosperity. Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather +that money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there was +any over-supply of labour. The turning off of some 15,000 Chinese +(principally in 1869-1870) from the Central Pacific lines who flocked to +San Francisco, augmented the discontent of incompetents, of disappointed +late immigrants, and the reaction from flush times. Labour unions became +strong and demonstrative. In 1877-1878 Denis Kearney (1847-1907), an +Irish drayman and demagogue of considerable force and daring, headed the +discontented. This is called the "sand-lots agitation" from the +favourite meeting-place (in San Francisco) of the agitators. + +The outcome of these years was the Constitution of 1879, already +described, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law. In 1879 +California voted against further immigration of Chinese by 154,638 to +883. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in 1902. All authorities +agree that the Chinese in early years were often abused in the mining +country and their rights most unjustly neglected by the law and its +officers. Men among the most respected in California (Joaquin Miller, +H.H. Bancroft and others) have said most in praise and defence of the +Chinaman. From railroad making to cooking he has proved his abilities +and trustworthiness. He is found to-day in the mines and fisheries, in +various lines of manufacture, in small farming, and in all branches of +domestic service. The question of the economic development of the state, +and of trade to the Orient, the views of the mercenary labour-contractor +and of the philanthropist, the factor of "upper-race" repugnance, the +"economic-leech" argument, the "rat-rice-filth-and-opium" argument, have +all entered into the problem. Certain it is that though the unprejudiced +must admit that exclusion has not been at all an unmixed blessing, yet +the consensus of opinion is that a large population, non-citizen and +non-assimilable, sending--it is said--most of their earnings to China, +living in the main meanly at best, and practically without wives, +children or homes, is socially and economically a menace outweighing the +undoubted convenience of cheaper (and frequently more trustworthy) +menial labour than the other population affords. The exclusion had much +to do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable and in +leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops. Many of +the Chinese now in the state are wealthy. Race feeling against them has +become much less marked. + +One outcome of early mission history, the "Pious Fund of the +Californias," claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague Tribunal. (See +ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL, Hague cases section.) In 1906-1907 there was +throughout the state a remarkable anti-Japanese agitation, centring in +San Francisco (q.v.) and affecting international relations and national +politics. + + GOVERNORS OF CALIFORNIA (State)[6] + + I. SPANISH + + Gasper de Portola served 1767-1770 + Filipe de Barri " 1771-1774 + Felipe de Neve " 1774-1782 + Pedro Pages " 1782-1791 + Jose Antonio Romeu " 1791-1792 + *Jose Joaquin de Arillaga " 1792-1794 + Diego de Borica " 1794-1800 + *Jose Joaquin de Arillaga " 1800-1804 + Jose Joaquin de Arillaga " 1804-1814 + *Jose Diario Arguello " 1814-1815 + Pablo Vicente de Sola " 1815-1822 + + II. Mexican + + Pablo Vicente de Sola served 1822 + *Luis Antonio Arguello " 1822-1825 + Jose Maria Echeandia " 1825-1831 + Manuel Victoria " 1831 + Jose Maria Echeandia[7] " 1831-1832 + Pio Pico[8] " 1832 + Jose Figueroa " 1832-1835 + *Jose Castro " 1835-1836 + *Nicolas Gutierrez " 1836 + Mariano Chico " 1836 + Nicolas Gutierrez " 1836 + Juan Bautista Alvarado[9] " 1836-1842 + Carlos Antonio Carrillo[10] " 1837-1838 + Manuel Micheltorena " 1842-1845 + Pio Pico " 1845-1846 + + III AMERICAN + (a) _Military_ + + John D. Sloat appointed 1846 + Richard F. Stockton " 1846-1847 + Stephen W. Kearny " 1847 + R.B. Mason " 1847-1849 + Bennett Riley " 1849 + + (b) _State_. + + Peter H. Burnett 1849-1851 Democrat + *John H. McDougall 1851-1852 " + John Bigler 1852-1856 " + John M. Johnson 1856-1858 Know Nothing + John B. Weller 1858-1860 Lecompton Democrat + Milton S. Latham 1869 (6 days) " " + *John G. Downey 1860-1862 " " + Leland Stanford 1862-1863 Republican + Frederick F. Low 1863-1867 " + Henry H. Haight 1867-1871 Democrat + Newton Booth 1871-1875 Republican + *Romualdo Pacheco 1875 " + William Irwin 1875-1880 Democrat + George G. Perkins 1880-1883 Republican + George C. Stoneman 1883-1887 Democrat + Washington Bartlett 1887 " + *Robert W. Waterman 1887-1891 Republican + Henry H. Markham 1891-1895 " + James H. Budd 1895-1899 Democrat + Henry T. Gage 1899-1903 Republican + George C. Pardee 1903-1907 " + James N. Gillett 1907-1911 " + Hiram W. Johnson 1911- " + + The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors indicates + that he acted only _ad interim_, and, in the case of governors since + 1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor and + succeeded to the office of governor. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For list of works on California, see University of + California _Library Bulletin_, No. 9, 1887, "List of Printed Maps of + California"; catalogue of state official publications by State Library + (Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on different + aspects:-- + + TOPOGRAPHY.--J. Muir, _Mountains of California_ (New York, 1894); H. + Gannett, "Dictionary of Elevations" (1898), and "River Profiles," + publications of _United States Geological Survey_; G.W. James, _The + Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906). + + CLIMATE, &c.--_U.S. Department of Agriculture, California Climate and + Crop Service_, monthly reports; E.S. Holden, _Recorded, Earthquakes + in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington Territory_ + (California State University, 1887); _United States Department + Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins_, Alexander G. McAdie, + "Climatology of California" (Washington, 1903). There is a great mass + of general descriptive literature, especially on Southern California, + such as Charles Dudley Warner, _Our Italy_ (New York, 1891); Kate + Sanborn, _A Truthful Woman in Southern California_ (New York, 1893); + W. Lindley and J.P. Widney, _California of the South_ (New York, + 1896); J.W. Hanson, _American Italy_ (Chicago, 1896); T.S. Van Dyke, + _Southern California_ (New York, 1886), &c. + + FAUNA, FLORA.--Muir, _op. cit._; _United States Geological Survey, + 19th Annual Report_, pt. v., H. Gannett, "Forests of the United + States"; idem, _20th Annual Report_, pt. v., "United States Forest + Reserves"; _United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin_ No. 28, "A + Short Account of the Big Trees of California" (1900), No. 38, "The + Redwood" (a volume, 1903), also _Professional Papers, e.g._ No. 8, + J.B. Leiberg, "Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada" + (1902); _California Board of Forestry, Reports_ (1885- ); _United + States Censuses_, reports on forests; _United States Biological + Survey, North American Fauna_, No. 16, 1899, C.H. Merriam, + "Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta"; _United States Department + Agriculture, Contributions from United States National Herbarium_, + iv., 1893, F.V. Coville, "Botany of Death Valley Expedition"; _State + Board of Fish Commissioners, Reports_, from 1877; _United States Fish + Commissioners, Annual Reports_, from 1871, and _Bulletins_ from 1882; + J. le Conte, "Flora of the Coast Islands" (1887), being _Bulletin_ No. + 8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its _Proceedings_, + _Memoirs_, and _Occasional Papers;_ G.J. Peirce, _Studies on the + Coast Redwood_ (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University, 1901). + + AGRICULTURE.--_California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins_ + from 1884; _Reports of the State Dairy Bureau_, from 1898; _State + Board of Horticulture, Reports_, 1889-1894; _United States Censuses_, + 1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation. + + INDUSTRIES.--J.S. Hittell, _Resources of California_ (7th ed., San + Francisco, 1879); J.S. Hittell, _Commerce and Industries of the + Pacific Coast_ (San Francisco, 1882); T.F. Cronise, _Natural Wealth + of California_ (San Francisco, 1868); E.W. Maslin, _Resources of + California_, prepared by order of Governor H. H. Markham (Sacramento, + 1893); _United States Treasury, Bureau of Statistics_, report by T.J. + Vivian on "Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Transportation and + Other Industries of California" (Washington 1890, valuable for whole + period before 1890); _United States Censuses_, 1890 and 1900, reports + on agriculture, manufactures, mines and fisheries; _California State + Board of Trade_ (San Francisco), _Annual Report_ from 1890. On Mineral + Industries:--J.R. Browne, Report on "Mineral Resources of the States + and Territories west of the Rocky Mountains" (_United States + Treasury_, 2 vols., Washington, 1867-1868); _United States Geological + Survey, Annual Reports, Mineral Resources;_ consult also the + bibliographies of publications of the _Survey_, issued as _Bulletins; + California State Mining Bureau, Bulletins_ from 1888, note especially + No. 30, 1904, by A.W. Vodges, "Bibliography relating to the Geology, + Palaeontology and Mineral Resources of California" (2nd ed., the 1st + being _Bulletin_ No. 10, 1896); _California Debris Commission_, + _Reports_ (in _Annual Reports Chief of Engineers, United States Army_, + from 1893). + + GOVERNMENT.--E.F. Treadwell, _The Constitution of the State of + California ... Annotated_ (San Francisco, 1902); _Johns Hopkins + University, Studies in History and Political Science_, xiii., R.D. + Hunt, "Genesis of California's First Constitution"; _Annals of the + American Academy of Political and Social Science_, xii., R.D. Hunt, + "Legal Status of California, 1846-1849"; Reports of the various + officers, departments and administrative boards of the state + government (Sacramento), and also the _Appendix to the Journals of the + Senate and Assembly_, which contains, especially in the earlier + decades of the state's history, many of these state official reports + along with valuable legislative reports of varied character. + + HISTORY.--Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by Z.E. + Eldridge in _California Genealogical Society_ (1901); elaborate + bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many + works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work of two + men, Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The former has + published a _History of California, 1542-1890_ (7 vols., San + Francisco, 1884-1890), also _California Pastoral, 1769-1848_ (San + Francisco, 1888), _California Inter-Pocula, 1848-1856_ (San Francisco, + 1888), and _Popular Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887). These + volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft's direction and + control by an office staff, and are of very unequal value; they are a + vast storehouse of detailed material which is of great usefulness, + although their judgments of men are often inadequate and prejudiced. + As regards events the histories are of substantial accuracy and + adequacy. Written by one hand and more uniform in treatment and good + judgment, is T.H. Hittell's _History of California_ (4 vols., San + Francisco, 1885-1897). The older historian of the state was Francisco + Palou, a Franciscan, the friend and biographer of Serra; his "Noticias + de la Nueva California" (Mexico, 1857, in the _Doc. Hist. Mex._, ser. + iv., tom, vi.-viii.; also San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer + of importance save for its historical interest. Of the contemporary + material on the period of Mexican domination the best is afforded by + R.H. Dana's _Two Years Before the Mast_ (New York, 1840, many later + and foreign editions); also A. Robinson, _Life in California_ (New + York, 1846); and Alexander Forbes, _California: A History of Upper and + Lower California from their First Discovery to the Present Time_ + (London, 1839); see also F.W. Blackmar, "Spanish Institutions of the + Southwest" (_Johns Hopkins University Studies_, 1891). A beautiful, + vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is given + in Helen Hunt Jackson's novel, _Ramona_ (New York, 1884). There is no + really scientific separate account of mission history; there are books + by Father Z. Engelhart, _The Franciscans in California_ (Harbor + Springs, Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan + standpoint; C.F. Carter, _Missions of Nueva California_ (San + Francisco, 1900); Bryan J. Clinch, _California and its Missions: Their + History to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo_ (2 vols., San Francisco, + 1904); Francisco Palou, _Relacion Historica de la Vida ... del Fray + Junipero Serra_ (Mexico, 1787), the standard contemporary source; the + _Craftsman_ (Syracuse, N.Y., vol. v.), a series of articles on + "Mission Buildings," by G.W. James. On the case of the Pious Fund of + the missions see J.F. Doyle, _History of the Pious Fund_ (San + Francisco, 1887); _United States Department of State_, "United States + _v._ Mexico. Report of J.H. Ralston, agent of the United States and of + counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Californias" + (Washington, 1902). On the "flush" mining years the best books of the + time are J.Q. Thornton's _Oregon and California_ (2 vols., New York, + 1849); Edward Bryant's _What I Saw in California_ (New York, 1848); W. + Shaw's _Golden Dreams_ (London, 1851); Bayard Taylor's _Eldorado_ (2 + vols., New York, 1850); W. Colton's _Three Years in California_ (New + York, 1850); E.G. Buffum's _Six Months in the Gold Mines; from a + Journal of Three Years' Residence in Upper and Lower California_ + (London, 1850); J.T. Brooks' _Four Months among the Gold Finders_ + (London, 1849); G.G. Foster, _Gold Regions of California_ (New York, + 1884). On this same period consult Bancroft's _Popular Tribunals_; + D.Y. Thomas, "A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired + Territory of the United States," in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of + _Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law_; + C.H. Shinn's _Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government_ + (New York, 1885); J. Royce, _California ... A Study of American + Character, 1846-1856_ (Boston, 1886); and, for varied pictures of + mining and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret + Harte. See also P.H. Burnet, _Recollections and Opinions of an Old + Pioneer_ (New York, 1880); S.J. Field, _Personal Reminiscences of + Early Days in California_ (privately published, copyright 1893). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was + occupied by a lake 60 m. long. + + [2] During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at San + Francisco ranged from 11.37 to 49.27 in.; from 1850 to 1904 the + average was 22.74, and the probable annual variation 4 in. + + [3] The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and Fresno, + of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey and + Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them lie + between 56 deg. and 63 deg. F. The places mentioned are scattered + over 3-1/2 deg. of longitude and 6-1/2 deg. of latitude. + + [4] Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use of + turbines are important features of such plants. One on the North Yuba + river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves Oakland, San + Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in San Francisco + (220 m. away) 75% of its power. Other plants are one at Electra (154 + m. from San Francisco), and one on the San Joaquin, which delivers to + Fresno 62 m. distant. + + [5] The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments + under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for + 1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows:--total value of + products, 1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of + 42.7%; leading industries, with value of product in millions of + dollars--canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23.8 millions, + third in 1900 with 13.4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing, + second in 1905 with 21.79 millions, first in 1900 with 15.71 + millions; flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20.2 + millions, fourth in 1900 with 13.04 millions; lumber and timber, + fourth in 1905 with 18.27 millions, second in 1900 with 13.71 + millions; printing and publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17.4 millions, + sixth in 1900 with 9.6 millions; foundry and machine shop products, + sixdth in 1905 with 15.7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12.04 millions; + planing mill products, seventh in 1905 with 13.9 millions, twelfth in + 1900 with 4.8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in + 1905 with 10.6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4.87 millions. + + [6] As months and even years often elapsed between the date when + early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual + service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of + service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at + Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto in + Lower California. All the Spanish and Mexican governors were + appointed by the national government, except in the case of the + semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose + title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national + statute regarding gubernatorial vacancies. + + [7] Acting political chief, revolutionary title. + + [8] Briefly recognized in South. + + [9] Revolutionary title, 1836-1838. + + [10] Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North. + + + + +CALIFORNIA, LOWER (_Baja California_), a long narrow peninsula between +the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, forming a territory of the +republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), 42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California +is a southward extension of the State of California, United States, and +is touched by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E. +The peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and has +an area of 58,328 sq. m. It is traversed throughout its entire length by +an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes toward the Pacific +in a succession of low hills, but breaks down abruptly toward the Gulf. +The coast has two or three good sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the +Gulf side and of Magdalena on the Pacific side being best known. The +coast is bordered by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. +The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly +because of the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty +rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of +the desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern part is +hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern part receives +more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild and pleasant climate. +The principal natural product in this region is _orchil_, or Spanish +moss, but by means of irrigation the soil produces a considerable +variety of products, including sugar cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, +tobacco and grapes. Horses, sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile +valleys, but only to a limited extent. The territory is rich in +minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and +salt. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early +as 1700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz +being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W. +coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of mining and +other industries in the territory has led to an extension of the +California railway system southward into the peninsula, with the Mexican +government's permission, the first section of 37 m. from the northern +frontier being completed and opened to traffic in 1907. The territory is +divided into two districts, the northern having its capital at the +insignificant little village of La Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and +the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay +opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamships running +between Mazatlan and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in +1900. La Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San +Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory, +and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m. +inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures and +exports flour and leather. + +By orders of Cortes the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539 +by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It was called +California, the name (according to E.E. Hale) being derived from a +popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled _Sergas de Esplandian_, +in which an island named California was mentioned and situated "on the +right hand of the Indies, very near the terrestrial paradise." The name +must have been given derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower +California could not have suggested the proximity of a "terrestrial +paradise." The exploration of the coast did not extend above the +peninsula until 1842. The name California was at first applied +exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait +connected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name +Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous theory was held as +late as 1721. The first settlement was made in 1597, but was abandoned. +From 1633 to 1683 five unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a +settlement at La Paz. Finally the Jesuits succeeded in founding a +mission at Loreto on the Gulf coast, in about 26 deg. N. lat., in 1697, +and at La Paz in 1720. At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had +sixteen missions which were either self-supporting or were maintained by +funds invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper +California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were +distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, the +seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. The two +provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one governor +residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then reunited in a single +department through the political changes of 1836, which lasted no later +than 1847. Lower California was only slightly disturbed by the struggle +for independence among the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822 +Admiral Lord Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean +revolutionists, appeared on the coast and plundered San Jose del Cabo, +Todos Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United States +La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small detachments from +California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under +William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic +consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the +mainland, the filibusters first withdrew to La Ensenada, near the +American frontier, and then in the following year broke up altogether +during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the +leadership of Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, +but died for want of material support in 1880. The development of mining +and other industries since that time, together with vigorous efforts to +found colonies in the more favoured localities, have greatly improved +the situation in the territory. + + See the two volumes of H.H. Bancroft's _North Mexican States and + Texas_, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his _Works_; also Arthur Walbridge + North, _The Mother of California_ (San Francisco, 1908). + + + + +CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most important of +state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, California, on the +E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place of the College of +California (founded in 1855), received California's portion of the +Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered as a state institution by the +legislature in 1868, and opened its doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it +was removed to its present site. In the revised state constitution of +1879 provision is made for it as the head of the state's educational +system. The grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes +(299-900 ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above +the university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the Golden +Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings have gradually +been provided. In 1896 an international architectural competition was +opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. Hearst (made a regent of the +university in 1898) for plans for a group of buildings harmonizing with +the university's beautiful site, and ignoring all buildings already +existing. The first prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Benard, of Paris. +The first building begun under the new plans was that for the college of +mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, providing worthily +for the important school of mining, from 1885 directed by Prof. S.B. +Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, built by state appropriation, had +been completed in 1906. The Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium +seating 7500 spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering +eucalypts, was the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used +regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra, under +the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), who originated +the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free public concerts are given on +Sunday afternoons; and there have been some remarkable dramatic +performances here, notably Sudraka's _Mricchakattika_ in English, and +Aeschylus's _Eumenides_ in Greek, in April 1907. There are no +dormitories. Student self-government works through the "Undergraduate +Students' Affairs Committee" of the Associated Students. The faculty of +the university has its own social club, with a handsome building on the +grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the colleges of letters, +social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, agriculture, mechanical, +mining and civil engineering, and chemistry, and the first two years' +course of the college of medicine--the Toland Medical College having +been absorbed by the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of +the Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of +dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post graduate +or clinical) years of the medical course--the San Francisco Polyclinic +having become a part of the university in 1892. Three of the San +Francisco departments occupy a group of three handsome buildings in the +western part of the city, overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick +astronomical department (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San +Jose, occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by +James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with $700,000, +$610,000 of this being used for the original buildings and equipments, +which were formally transferred to the university in 1888. The art +department (San Francisco Institute of art) was until 1906 housed in the +former home of Mark Hopkins, a San Francisco "railroad king"; it dated +from 1893, under the name "Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building +was destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under its +present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the old site. At the +university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davisville, Yolo county, +instruction is given in practical agriculture, horticulture, dairying, +&c.; courses in irrigation are given at Berkeley; a laboratory of plant +pathology, established in 1907 at Whittier, Riverside county, and an +experiment station on 20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study +of plant and tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine +biological laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and +another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; the +Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. The +university has excellent anthropological and archaeological collections, +mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by Mrs Hearst, to Peru +and to Egypt. In 1907 the university library contained 160,000 volumes, +ranking, after the destruction of most of the San Francisco libraries in +1906, as the largest collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe +library (given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of +the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has also the +valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and countless pamphlets +and manuscripts, dealing principally with the history of the Pacific +Coast from Alaska through Central America, and of the Rocky Mountain +region, including Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico +and Western Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe +Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr Bancroft +contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the newly organized +Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library of Karl Weinhold +(1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich in Germanic linguistics +and "culture history," was presented to the university in 1903 by John +D. Spreckels. The university publishes _The University of California +Chronicle_, an official record; and there are important departmental +publications, especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, +edited by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of +various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physiology, edited by +Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited by William Albert Setchell (b. +1864); in zoology, edited by William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in +astronomy, the publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William +Wallace Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry Morse +Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of history, a department +of university extension was organized; lecture courses, especially on +history and literature, were delivered in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension +"centres," at most of which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the +university, but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley +Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological Seminary +(Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary and a Unitarian +school. + +The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From 1890 to 1900 +the number of students increased fourfold. In the latter year the +university of California was second to Harvard only in the number of +academic graduate and undergraduate students, and fifth among the +educational institutions of the country in total enrolment. In July 1907 +there were 519 officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 +were in the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there +were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for 1906-1907 +thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. The university +conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in 1905. The affairs of +the university are administered by a board of twenty-three regents, +seven state officials and heads of educational institutions, being +members _ex officio_, and sixteen other members being appointed by the +governor and senate of the state; its instruction is governed by the +faculties of the different colleges, and an academic senate in which +these are joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was +$1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from investments, state +and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder was gifts and +endowments. There is a permanent endowment of more than $3,000,000, +partly from munificent private gifts, especially from Mrs Hearst and +from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The financial support of the state has always +been generous. No tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to +students resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students +from without the state. The university maintains about 90 undergraduate +scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellowships. All +able-bodied male students are required to take the courses in military +science, under instruction by an officer of the United States army +detailed for the purpose. Physical culture and hygiene are prescribed +for all men and women. A state law forbids the sale of liquor within one +mile of the university grounds. To realize the ideal of the university +as the head of the educational system of the state, a system of +inspection of high schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching +the prescribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for +admission to the university without examination. It was anticipated at +one time that the foundation of the Leland Stanford Junior University at +Palo Alto would injure the state institution at Berkeley; but in +practice this was not found to be the case; on the contrary, the +competition resulted in giving new vigour and enterprise to the older +university. Joseph Le Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. +Oilman (president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly +connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler (b. 1854) +became president. He had been a graduate (1875) of Brown University, and +was professor first of comparative philology and then of Greek at +Cornell University; his chief publications are _Der griechische +Nominalaccent_ (1885); _Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in +Language_ (1887); _Principles of Language Growth_ (1891); _The +Organization of Higher Education in the United States_ (1897); _Dionysos +and Immortality_ (1899); and _Life of Alexander the Great_ (1900). + + + + +CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with _carapace_, the upper +shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper and lower +shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull +greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour. + + + + +CALIPH, CALIF, or KHALIF (Arab, _khalifa_; the lengthening of the a is +strictly incorrect), literally "successor," "representative," a title +borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the death of Mahomet, became the +civil and religious head of the Mahommedan state. In the same sense the +term is used in the Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of +God. Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known as +the "perfect" caliphs; after them the title was borne by the thirteen +Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by the thirty-seven +Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell before the Turks in 1258. +By some rigid Moslems these rulers were regarded as only amirs, not +caliphs. There were titular caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from +that date till 1517 when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the +fall of the Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the +Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova (755-1031), +and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended to descent from Ali, and +Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also assumed the name (see FATIMITES). + +According to the Shi'ite Moslems, who call the office the "imamate" or +leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of +the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the office belongs to the tribe of +Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet himself belonged, but this condition +would vitiate the claim of the Turkish sultans, who have held the office +since its transference by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a +tradition falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a +time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he "is a rebel." +(See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) + + + + +CALIPHATE.[1] The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the East who bore +the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three main +divisions:--(_a_) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of +Mahomet; (_b_) The Omayyad caliphs; (_c_) The Abbasid caliphs. To these +three groups the present article is confined; for the Western caliphs, +see SPAIN: _History_ (and minor articles such as ALMOHADES, +ALMORAVIDES); for the Egyptian caliphs see EGYPT: _History_ (S +Mahommedan) and FATIMITES. The history of Arabia proper will be found +under ARABIA: _History_. + + +A.--THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS + +After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be his +"representative." The choice lay with the community of Medina; so much +was understood; but whom were they to choose? The natives of Medina +believed themselves to be now once more masters in their own house, and +wished to promote one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see MAHOMET) +asserted their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into +the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to terrorize +the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into two parties. The +Emigrants' leading spirit was Omar; he did not, however, cause homage to +be paid to himself, but to Abu Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the +Prophet. + +The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the opportune +defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward schism which +threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once more limited to the +community of Medina; only Mecca and Taif (Tayef) remained true. The +Bedouins were willing enough to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay +taxes; their defection, as might have been expected, was a political +movement.[2] None the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the +political society and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment +to Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion in +the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as +prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam's success. + +1. _Reign of Abu Bekr_.--Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal to the +perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the expedition +against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, quietly to set out, +limiting himself for the time to the defence of Medina. On the return of +the army he proceeded to attack the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam +kept the men of Medina together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing +zeal for the faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and +no better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was to be +expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns of the Moslems, +sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell the revolt. Those who +submitted were forthwith received back into favour; those who persevered +in rebellion were punished with death. The majority accordingly +converted, the obstinate were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was +there a severe struggle; the Banu Hanifa under their prophet Mosailima +fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed. + +The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to say, +brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border +countries which Mahomet had already inaugurated, was the best means for +making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at +the same time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was +organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by quite +other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means the first +occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; once and again in +former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins had settled on the borders of +the wilderness. This had last happened in consequence of the events +which destroyed the prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time +the small Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira had arisen in the western +and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented to Moslem +conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch as Hira was subject +to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to the Greeks, the annexation of +the Arabians involved the extension of the war beyond the limits of +Arabia to a struggle with the two great powers (see further ARABIA: +_History_). + +After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. +al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the conquest of the +districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where +hostilities had also broken out. Damascus fell late in the summer of +635, and on the 20th of August 636 was fought the great decisive battle +on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) +finally to abandon Syria.[3] Left to themselves, the Christians +henceforward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified +cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of the +Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was also carried on +against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at first, until the tide +turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, Qadisiya) (end of 637). In +consequence of the defeat which they here sustained, the Persians were +forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit +themselves to Iran proper. The Moslems made themselves masters of +Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and +conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two +rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face to face in +Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the +principal old Semitic lands--Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and +Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little +difficulty by 'Amr ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) in 640. (See EGYPT: _History_, S +Mahommedan.) This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the +wilderness of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and +natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously occurred. The +kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts hitherto, now became the +headquarters of the Arabs; the new empire had its centres on the one +hand at Damascus, on the other hand at Kufa and Basra, the two +newly-founded cities in the region of old Babylonia. The capital of +Islam continued indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz +(Hijaz) and the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of +affairs. + +The ease with which the native populations of the conquered districts, +exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted themselves to the new +rule is very striking. Their nationality had been broken long ago, but +intrinsically it was more closely allied to the Arabian than to the +Greek or Persian. Their religious sympathy with the West was seriously +impaired by dogmatic controversies; from Islam they might at any rate +hope for toleration, even though their views were not in accordance with +the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the masses from +Christianity to Islam, however, which took place during the first +century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that +in reality they had no inward relation to the gospel at all. They +changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of +Moslem citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so; indeed the +Omayyad caliphs saw with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the +poll-tax derived from their Christian subjects (see MAHOMMEDAN +INSTITUTIONS). + +It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian +empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic +lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so +ready as the Greeks to give up the contest; they did not rest until the +Moslems had subjugated the whole of the Sassanid empire. The most +important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, +was the battle of Nehawend in 641;[4] the most obstinate resistance was +offered by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr +(Persepolis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous +provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into the +hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III. (q.v.), was +compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came +to a miserable end.[5] But it was long before the Iranians learned to +accept the situation. Unlike the Christians of western Asia, they had a +vigorous feeling of national pride, based upon glorious memories and +especially upon a church having a connexion of the closest kind with the +state. Internal disturbances of a religious and political character and +external disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids +indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They were +fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, in defence of +their holiest possessions, their nationality and their faith. Their +subjection was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating +them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated. Even when in process of +time they did accept the religion of the prophet, they leavened it +thoroughly with their own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it +of the practical political and national character which it had assumed +after the flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a +thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its internal +order, and it was from them also that it at last received its outward +death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their work, and with the +Omayyads fell the Arabian empire. + +2. _Reign of Omar_.--Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the 22nd of +August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by Omar. To Omar's +ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests. He +himself did not take the field, but remained in Medina with the +exception of his visit to Syria in 638; he never, however, suffered the +reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the influence of his +personality and the Moslem community of feeling. His political insight +is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite +extension of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national +Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam,[6] and especially to +promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying with which he +began his reign will never grow antiquated: "by Allah, he that is +weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have +vindicated for him his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as +the weakest, until he complies with the laws." After the administration +of justice he directed his organizing activity, as the circumstances +demanded, chiefly towards financial questions--the incidence of taxation +in the conquered territories,[7] and the application of the vast +resources which poured into the treasury at Medina. It must not be +brought against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with these +he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the chartered plunderers +of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone by his death for the +fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Kufan +workman and died in November 644. + +3. _Reign of Othman._--Before his death Omar had nominated six of the +leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the caliph from among +themselves--Othman, Ali, Zobair, Talha, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, and +Abdarrahman b. Auf. The last-named declined to be a candidate, and +decided the election in favour of Othman. Under this weak sovereign the +government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish +nobility. We have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for +this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the Emigrants +were unanimous among themselves in thinking that the precedence and +leadership belonged to them as of right. Thanks to the energy of Omar, +they were successful in appropriating to themselves the succession to +the Prophet. They indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority +of their services to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood +relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right to the +inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with the Koreish in +general. In point of fact they felt a closer connexion with these than, +for example, with the natives of Medina; nature had not been expelled by +faith.[8] The supremacy of the Emigrants naturally furnished the means +of transition to the supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all +in his power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged +to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he should favour +his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every possible way, seemed +to him a matter of course. Every position of influence and emolument was +assigned to them; they themselves boastingly called the important +province of Irak the garden of Koreish. In truth, the entire empire had +become that garden. Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization +of Islam the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew the +world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca, and after +them those of Taif, people like Khalid b. al-Walid, Amr-ibn-el-Ass, +'Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghira b. Sho'ba, and, above all, old Abu Sofian +with his son Moawiya. + +Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began +to appear. It was led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of +Islam, which, as distinguished from the hereditary nobility of Mecca, +might also be designated as the nobility of merit, consisting of the +"Defenders" (_Ansar_), and especially of the Emigrants who had lent +themselves to the elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the +intention of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition +was headed by Ali, Zobair, Talha, both as leading men among the +Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate. Their +motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their own, not religion +but power and preferment, were what they sought.[9] Their party was a +mixed one. To it belonged the men of real piety, who saw with +displeasure the promotion to the first places in the commonwealth of the +great lords who had actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined +themselves to it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a +band of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system, but of +persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the provinces there was +agitation against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where +Othman's cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu Sofian (see below), carried on a +wise and strong administration. The movement was most energetic in Irak +and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of +Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet +seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then there were +enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah. + +The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands they came +from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions from Othman, who, +though his armies were spreading terror from the Indus and Oxus to the +Atlantic, had no troops at hand in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers +by concessions, but as soon as they had gone, he let matters resume +their old course. Thus things went on from bad to worse. In the +following year (656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt +and Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph again +tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend to keep. But +the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his word,[10] and now +demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own house, where he was +defended by a few faithful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last +took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty. +His death in the act of maintaining his rights was of the greatest +service to his house and of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy. + +4. _Reign of Ali._--Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose +among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mutineers summoned +Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zobair to do him +homage. But soon these two, along with Ayesha, the mother of the +faithful, who had an old grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their +escape to Irak, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. +Ali in point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover +was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the desire of +power, so that men of penetration, even although they condemned Othman's +method of government, yet refused to recognize his successor. The new +caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at +the battle of the Camel, fought at Basra in November 656, Talha and +Zobair were slain, and Ayesha was taken prisoner. + +But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of Othman the +dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate +cry--that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired caliph and a +distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya, whose position in Syria +was impregnable. The kernel of his subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, +not only recent immigrants along with Islam, but also old settlers who, +through contact with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had +become to some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter had +become habituated to monarchical government and loyal obedience, and for +a long time much better order had prevailed amongst them than elsewhere +in Arabia. Syria was the proper soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, +and Moawiya was just the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited +Othman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited +his Syrians to vengeance. + +Ali's position in Kufa was much less advantageous. The population of +Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, +and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters +here; Kufa and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, +the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was +that had raised Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any +personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and +more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of +Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either act or refrain from acting +as he chose, secure in either case of the obedience of his subjects. +Ali, on the other hand, was unable to convert enthusiasm for the +principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was +necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his +supporters, which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him +suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on +the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians fastened copies +of the Koran to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word +of God should decide the contest (see further below, B.1; also ALI). But +in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of +the minority, the genuine zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the +enemy of Islam, and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him +as a denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was +resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had to turn +his armies in the first instance against them. He succeeded in disposing +of them without difficulty at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success +he lost the soul of his following. For they were the true champions of +the theocratic principle; through their elimination it became clear that +the struggle had in no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali's +defeat was a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed +him; the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far +superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January 661), +thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes of a large part +of the Mahommedan world (Shi'a) which he had never possessed during his +life. + + +B.--THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY + +_Summary of Preceding Movements._--The conquest of Mecca had been of the +greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because Islam thus obtained +possession of this important city with its famous sanctuary, but above +all because his late adversaries were at last compelled to acknowledge +him as the Envoy of God. Among these there were many men of great +ability and influence, and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the +Arabic expression has it, "to mellow their hearts" by concessions and +gifts, that his loyal helpers (_Ansar_) at Medina became dissatisfied +and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it. Mahomet +was a practical man; he realized that the growing state needed skilful +administrators, and that such were found in much greater number among +the antagonists of yesterday than among the honest citizens of Medina. +The most important positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and +Yemen, were entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the +Makhzum and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's +example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the death of +Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the Moslems, the +principal generals belonged to them. Omar did not deviate from that line +of conduct. It was he who appointed Yazid, the son of Abu Sofian, and +after his death, his brother Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned +the province of Egypt to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b. As). It is even +surprising to find among the leading men so few of the house of Hashim, +the nearest family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain +this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too noble +to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they could not be +spared at Medina, where their counsel was required in all important +affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which Ali himself calls the +Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar lived opposition was silent. But +Othman had not the strong personality of his predecessor, and, although +he practically adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of +favouring the members of his own family--the caliph belonged himself to +the house of Omayya--at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar. The +jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the +governorship and military commands had become not only much more +important, but also much more lucrative, while power and money again +procured many adherents. The truly devout Moslems on the other hand were +scandalized by the growing luxury which relaxed the austere morals of +the first Moslems, and this also was imputed to Othman. + +We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya developed itself, and +how there arose against it an opposition, which led in the first place +to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali, and furthermore, +during the whole period of the Omayyad caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous +outbreaks, culminating in the great catastrophe which placed the +Abbasids on the throne. The elements of this opposition were of very +various kinds:--(1) The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the _Ansar_ and +_Mohajir_, who had been Mahomet's first companions and supporters, and +could not bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the +Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed _tolaqa_ (freedmen), should be in +control of the imamate, which carried with it the management of affairs +both civil and religious. This party was in the foreground, chiefly in +the first period. (2) The partisans of Ali, the Shi'a (Shi'ites), who in +proportion as their influence with the Arabs declined, contrived to +strengthen it by obtaining the support of the non-Arabic Moslems, aided +thereto, especially in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the +decisive moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves. +(3) The Kharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sustained at +the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining new adherents from +among those austere Moslems, who held both Omayyads and Alids as +usurpers, and have often been called, not unjustly, the Puritans of +Islam. (4) The non-Arabic Moslems, who on their conversion to Islam, had +put themselves under the patronage of Arabic families, and were +therefore called maula's (clients). These were not only the most +numerous, but also, in virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the +most dangerous. The largest and strongest group of these were the +Persians, who, before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the +ruling class of that country, so that Persian was the dominant language. +With them all malcontents, in particular the Shi'ites, found support; by +them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the supremacy of the Arabs was +finally overthrown. To these elements of discord we must add:--(1) That +the Arabs, notwithstanding the bond of Islam that united them, +maintained their old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds +and factions; (2) that the old antagonism between Ma'adites[11] +(original northern tribes) and Yemenites (original southern tribes), +accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged to the +former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter division, gave +rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one dangerous +pretender--some of them of the reigning family itself--contended with +the caliph for the sovereignty, and must be crushed _coute que coute_. +It is only by the detailed enumeration of these opposing forces that we +can form an idea of the heavy task that lay before the Prince of the +Believers, and of the amount of tact and ability which his position +demanded. + +The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely difficult. +Never perhaps has the system of undermining authority by continual +slandering been applied on such a scale as by the Alids and the +Abbasids. The Omayyads were accused by their numerous missionaries of +every imaginable vice; in their hands Islam was not safe; it would be a +godly work to extirpate them from the earth. When the Abbasids had +occupied the throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion. +But not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves, +they carried their hostility to a further point. The official history of +the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is coloured by Abbasid +feeling to such an extent that we can scarcely distinguish the true from +the false. An example of this occurs at the outset in the assertion that +Moawiya deliberately refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and +indeed that it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of +the plot. The facts seem to contradict this view. When, ten weeks before +the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt and Irak, +pretending that they were on their pilgrimage to Mecca, but wanted to +bring before the caliph their complaints against his vicegerents, nobody +could have the slightest suspicion that the life of the caliph was in +danger; indeed it was only during the few days that Othman was besieged +in his house that the danger became obvious. If the caliph then, as the +chroniclers tell, sent a message to Moawiya for help, his messenger +could not have accomplished half the journey to Damascus when the +catastrophe took place. There is no real reason to doubt that the +painful news fell on Moawiya unexpectedly, and that he, as mightiest +representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his own the duty of +avenging the crime. He could not but view Ali in the light of an +accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did not abet the murderers, +yet he took them under his protection. An acknowledgment of Ali as +caliph by Moawiya before he had cleared himself from suspicion was +therefore quite impossible. + +1. _The Reign of Moawiya._--Moawiya, son of the well-known Meccan chief +Abu Sofian, embraced Islam together with his father and his brother +Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and was, like them, treated +with the greatest distinction. He was even chosen to be one of the +secretaries of Mahomet. When Abu Bekr sent his troops for the conquest +of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of Abu Sofian, held one of the chief +commands, with Moawiya as his lieutenant. In the year 639 Omar named him +governor of Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the +north of Syria and Mesopotamia. To him was committed the conduct of the +war against the Byzantine emperor, which he continued with energy, at +first only on land, but later, when the caliph had at last given in to +his urgent representations, at sea also. In the year 34 (A.D. 655) was +fought off the coast of Lycia the great naval battle, which because of +the great number of masts has been called "the mast fight," in which the +Greek[12] fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans II. in person, was +utterly defeated. Moawiya himself was not present, as he was conducting +an attack (the result of which we do not know) on Caesarea in +Cappadocia. The Arabic historians are so entirely preoccupied with the +internal events that they have no eye for the war at the frontier. The +contention which Moawiya had with Ali checked his progress in the north. + +Moawiya was a born ruler, and Syria was, as we have seen, the best +administered province of the whole empire. He was so loved and honoured +by his Syrians that, when he invited them to avenge the blood of Othman, +they replied unanimously, "It is your part to command, ours to obey." +Ali was a valiant man, but had no great talent as a ruler. His army +numbered a great many enthusiastic partisans, but among them not a few +wise-acres; there were also others of doubtful loyalty. The battle at +Siffin (657), near the Euphrates, which lasted two months and consisted +principally in, sometimes bloody, skirmishes, with alternate success, +ended by the well-known appeal to the decision of the Koran on the part +of Moawiya. This appeal has been called by a European scholar "one of +the unworthiest comedies of the whole world's history," accepting the +report of very partial Arabic writers that it happened when the Syrians +were on the point of losing the battle. He forgot that Ali himself, +before the Battle of the Camel, appealed likewise to the decision of the +Koran, and began the fight only when this had been rejected. There is in +reality no room for suspecting Moawiya of not having been in earnest +when making this appeal; he might well regret that internecine strife +should drain the forces which were so much wanted for the spread of +Islam. That the Book of God could give a solution, even of this arduous +case, was doubtless the firm belief of both parties. But even if the +appeal to the Koran had been a stratagem, as Ali himself thought, it +would have been perfectly legitimate, according to the general views of +that time, which had been also those of the Prophet. It is not unlikely +that the chief leader of the Yemenites in Ali's army, Ash'ath b. Qais, +knew beforehand that this appeal would be made. Certainty is not to be +obtained in the whole matter. + +On each side an umpire was appointed, Abu Musaa al-Ash'ari, the +candidate of Ash'ath, on that of Ali, Amr-ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) on that of +Moawiya. The arbitrators met in the year 37 (A.D. 658) at Adhroh, in the +south-east of Syria, where are the ruins of the Roman Castra described +by Brunnow and Domaszewsky (_Die Provincio Arabia_, i. 433-463). Instead +of this place, the historians generally put Dumat-al-Jandal, the +biblical Duma, now called Jauf, but this rests on feeble authority. The +various accounts about what happened in this interview are without +exception untrustworthy. J. Wellhausen, in his excellent book _Das +arabische Reich und sein Sturz_, has made it very probable that the +decision of the umpires was that the choice of Ali as caliph should be +cancelled, and that the task of nominating a successor to Othman should +be referred to the council of notable men (_shura_), as representing the +whole community. Ali refusing to submit to this decision, Moawiya became +the champion of the law, and thereby gained at once considerable support +for the conquest of Egypt, to which above all he directed his efforts. +As soon as Amr returned from Adhroh, Moawiya sent him with an army of +four or five thousand men against Egypt. About the same time the +constitutional party rose against Ali's vicegerent Mahommed, son of Abu +Bekr, who had been the leader of the murderous attack on Othman. +Mahommed was beaten, taken in his flight, and, according to some +reports, sewn in the skin of an ass and burned. + +Moawiya, realizing that Ali would take all possible means to crush him, +took his measures accordingly. He concluded with the Greeks a treaty, by +which he pledged himself to pay a large sum of money annually on +condition that the emperor should give him hostages as a pledge for the +maintenance of peace. Ali, however, had first to deal with the +insurrection of the Kharijites, who condemned the arbitration which +followed the battle of Siffin as a deed of infidelity, and demanded that +Ali should break the compact (see above, A.4). Freed from this +difficulty, Ali prepared to direct his march against Moawiya, but his +soldiers declined to move. One of his men, Khirrit b. Rashid, renounced +him altogether, because he had not submitted to the decision of the +umpires, and persuaded many others to refuse the payment of the +poor-rate. Ali was obliged to subdue him, a task which he effected not +without difficulty. Not a few of his former partisans went over to +Moawiya, as already had happened before the days of Siffin, amongst +others Ali's own brother 'Aqil. Lastly, there were in Kufa, and still +more in Basra, many Othmaniya or legitimists, on whose co-operation he +could not rely. Moawiya from his side made incessant raids into Ali's +dominion, and by his agents caused a very serious revolt in Basra. The +statement that a treaty was concluded between Moawiya and Ali to +maintain the _status quo_, in the beginning of the year 40 (A.D. 660), +is not very probable, for it is pretty certain that just then Ali had +raised an army of 40,000 men against the Syrians, and also that in the +second or third month of that year Moawiya was proclaimed caliph at +Jerusalem. At the same time Bosr b. Abi Artat made his expedition +against Medina and Mecca, whose inhabitants were compelled to +acknowledge the caliphate of Moawiya. On the murder of Ali in 661, his +son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he recoiled before the prospect of a +war with Moawiya, having neither the ambition nor the energy of Ali. +Moawiya stood then with a large army in Maskin, a rich district lying to +the north of the later West Bagdad, watered by the Dojail, or Little +Tigris, a channel from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The army of Trak was +near Madain, the ancient Ctesiphon. The reports about what occurred are +confused and contradictory; but it seems probable that Abdallah b. +Abbas, the vicegerent of Ali at Basra and ancestor of the future Abbasid +dynasty, was in command. No battle was fought. Hasan and Ibn Abbas +opened, each for himself, negotiations with Moawiya. The latter made it +a condition of surrender that he should have the free disposal of the +funds in the treasury of Basra. Some say that he had already before the +death of Ali rendered himself master of it. Notwithstanding the protest +of the Basrians, he transported this booty safely to Mecca. When his +descendants had ascended the throne and he had become a demi-saint, the +historians did their best to excuse his conduct. Hasan demanded, in +exchange for the power which he resigned, the contents of the treasury +at Kufa, which amounted to five millions of dirhems, together with the +revenues of the Persian province of Darabjird (Darab). When these +negotiations became known, a mutiny broke out in Hasan's camp. Hasan +himself was wounded and retired to Medina, where he died eight or nine +years afterwards. The legend that he was poisoned by order of Moawiya is +without the least foundation. It seems that he never received the +revenues of Darabjird, the Basrians to whom they belonged refusing to +cede them. + +Moawiya now made his entry into Kufa in the summer of A.H. 41 (A.D. 661) +and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the Believers. This +year is called the year of union (_jama'a_). Moghira b. Sho'ba was +appointed governor of Kufa. Homran b. Aban had previously assumed the +government of Basra. This is represented commonly as a revolt, but as +Homran was a client of Othman, and remained in favour with the Omayyads, +it is almost certain that he took the management of affairs only to +maintain order. + +One strong antagonist to Moawiya remained, in the person of Ziyad. This +remarkable man was said to be a bastard of Abu Sofian, the father of +Moawiya, and was, by his mother, the brother of Abu Bakra, a man of +great wealth and position at Basra. He thus belonged to the tribe of +Thaqif at Taif, which produced many very prominent men. At the age of +fourteen years Ziyad was charged with the financial administration of +the Basrian army. He had won the affection of Omar, by his knowledge of +the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet, and by the fact that he had +employed the first money he earned to purchase the freedom of his mother +Somayya. He was a faithful servant of Ali and put down for him the +revolt excited by Moawiya's partisans in Basra. Thence he marched into +Fars and Kirman, where he maintained peace and kept the inhabitants in +their allegiance to Ali. After Ali's death he fortified himself in his +castle near Istakhr and refused to submit. Moawiya, therefore, sent Bosr +b. Abi Artat to Basra, with orders to capture Ziyad's three sons, and to +force Ziyad into submission by threatening to kill them. Ziyad was +obdurate; and it was due to his brother Abu Bakra, who persuaded Moawiya +to cancel the order, that the threat was not executed. On his return to +Damascus, Moawiya charged Moghira b. Sho'ba to bring his countryman to +reason. Abdallah b. 'Amir was made governor of Basra. + +As soon as Moawiya had his hands free, he directed all his forces +against the Greeks. Immediately after the submission of Irak, he had +denounced the existing treaty, and as early as 662 had sent his troops +against the Alans and the Greeks. Since then, no year passed without a +campaign. Twice he made a serious effort to conquer Constantinople, in +669 when he besieged it for three months, and in 674. On the second +occasion his fleet occupied Cyzicus, which it held till shortly after +his death in 680, when a treaty was signed. In Africa also the extension +of Mahommedan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took place the +famous march of 'Okba ('Oqba) b. Nafi' and the foundation of Kairawan, +where the great mosque still bears his name. Our information about these +events, though very full, is untrustworthy, while of the events in Asia +Minor the accounts are scarce and short. The Arabic historians are still +absorbed by the events in Irak and Khorasan. + +The talented prefect of Kufa, Moghira b. Sho'ba, eventually broke down +the resistance of Ziyad, who came to Damascus to render an account of +his administration, which the caliph ratified. Moawiya seems also to +have acknowledged him as the son of Abu Sofian, and thus as his brother; +in 664 this recognition was openly declared.[13] In the next year Ziyad +was appointed governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to +it. As the austere champion of the precepts of Islam, he soon restored +order in the whole district. Outwardly, this was the case in Kufa also. +A rising of Kharijites in the year 663 had ended in the death of their +chief. But the Shi'ites were dissatisfied and even dared to give public +utterance to their hostility. Moghira contented himself with a warning. +He was already aged and had no mind to enter on a conflict. He died +about the year 670, and his province also was entrusted to Ziyad, who +appointed 'Amr b. Horaith as his vicegerent. At a Friday service in the +great mosque 'Amr was insulted and pelted with pebbles. Ziyad then came +himself, arrested the leader of the Shi'ites, and sent fourteen rebels +to Damascus, among them several men of consideration. Seven of them who +refused to pledge themselves to obedience were put to death; the +Shi'ites considered them as martyrs and accused Moawiya of committing a +great crime. But in Kufa peace was restored, and this not by military +force, but by the headmen of the tribes. We must not forget that Kufa +and Basra were military colonies, and that each tribe had its own +quarter of the city. A wholesome diversion was provided by the serious +resumption of the policy of eastern expansion, which had been +interrupted by the civil war. For this purpose Irak had to furnish the +largest contingent. The first army sent by Ziyad into Khorasan +recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered Tokharistan and advanced as +far as the Oxus. In 673 'Obaidallah, the son of Ziyad, crossed the +river, occupied Bokhara, and returned laden with booty taken from the +wandering Turkish tribes of Transoxiana. He brought 2000 Turkish archers +with him to Basra, the first Turkish slaves to enter the Moslem empire. +Sa'id, son of the caliph Othman, whom Moawiya made governor of Khorasan, +in 674 marched against Samarkand. Other generals penetrated as far as +the Indus and conquered Kabul, Sijistan, Makran and Kandahar. + +Ziyad governed Irak with the greatest vigour, but as long as discontent +did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death (672-673), order +was so generally restored that "nobody had any more to fear for life or +estate, and even the unprotected woman was safe in her house without +having her door bolted." + +Moawiya was a typical Arab _sayyid_ (gentleman). He governed, not by +force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-control, his mildness +and magnanimity. The following anecdote may illustrate this. One of +Moawiya's estates bordered on that of Abdallah b. Zobair, who complained +in a somewhat truculent letter that Moawiya's slaves had been guilty of +trespassing. Moawiya, disregarding his son Yazid's advice that he should +exact condign punishment for Zobair's disrespect, replied in flattering +terms, regretting the trespass and resigning both slaves and estate to +Zobair. In reply Zobair protested his loyalty to Moawiya, who thereupon +pointed a moral for the instruction of Yazid. + +Moawiya has been accused of having poisoned more than one of his +adversaries, among them Malik Ashtar, Abdarrahman the son of the great +captain Khalid b. Walid, and Hasan b. Ali. As for the latter, European +scholars have long been agreed that the imputation is groundless. As to +Abdarrahman the story is in the highest degree improbable. Madaini says +that Moawiya was prompted to it, because when he consulted the Syrians +about the choice of his son Yazid as his successor, they had proposed +Abdarrahman. The absurdity of this is obvious, for Abdarrahman died in +the year 666.[14] Others say[15] that Moawiya was afraid lest +Abdarrahman should become too popular. Now, Abdarrahman had not only +been a faithful ally of Moawiya in the wars with Ali, but after the +peace devoted all his energy to the Greek war. It is almost incredible +that Moawiya out of petty jealousy would have deprived himself of one of +his best men. The probability is that Abdarrahman was ill when returning +from the frontier, that Moawiya sent him his own medical man, the +Christian doctor Ibn Othal, and that the rumour arose that the doctor +had poisoned him. It is remarkable withal that this rumour circulated, +not in Homs (Emesa), where Abdarrahman died, but in Medina. There a +young relation of Abdarrahman was so roused by the taunt that the death +of his kinsman was unavenged, that he killed Ibn Othal near the mosque +of Damascus. Moawiya imprisoned him and let him pay a high ransom, the +law not permitting the talio against a Moslem for having killed a +Christian. The story that this relative was Khalid, the son of +Abdarrahman, is absurd inasmuch as Moawiya made this Khalid commander +against the Greeks in succession to his father. In the third case--that +of Malik Ashtar--the evidence is equally inadequate. In fact, since +Moawiya did not turn the weapon of assassination against such men as +Abdallah b. Zobair and Hosain b. Ali, it is unlikely that he used it +against less dangerous persons. These two men were the chief obstacles +to Moawiya's plan for securing the Caliphate for his son Yazid. The +leadership with the Arabic tribes was as a rule hereditary, the son +succeeding his father, but only if he was personally fit for the +position, and was acknowledged as such by the principal men of the +tribe. The hereditary principle had not been recognized by Islam in the +cases of Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman; it had had some influence upon the +choice of Ali, the husband of Fatima and the cousin of the Prophet. But +it had been adopted entirely for the election of Hasan. The example of +Abu Bekr proved that the caliph had the right to appoint his successor. +But this appointment must be sanctioned by the principal men, as +representing the community. Moawiya seems to have done his best to gain +that approbation, but the details given by the historians are altogether +unconvincing. This only seems to be certain, that the succession of +Yazid was generally acknowledged before the death of his father, except +in Medina. (See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) + +Moawiya died in the month of Rajab 60 (A.D. 680). His last words are +said to have been: "Fear ye God, the Elevated and Mighty, for God, +Praise be to Him, protects the man that fears Him; he who does not fear +God, has no protection." Moawiya was, in fact, a religious man and a +strict disciple of the precepts of Islam. We can scarcely, therefore, +credit the charges made by the adversaries of his chosen successor +Yazid, that he was a drinker of wine, fond of pleasure, careless about +religion. All the evidence shows that, during the reign of the Omayyads, +life in Damascus and the rest of Syria was austere and in striking +contrast to the dissolute manners which prevailed in Medina. + +2. _Rule of Yazid._--When Moawiya died, the opposition had already been +organized. On his accession Yazid sent a circular to all his prefects, +officially announcing his father's death, and ordering them to +administer the oath of allegiance to their subjects. In that sent to +Walid b. 'Otba, the governor of Medina, he enclosed a private note +charging him in particular to administer the oath to Hosain, Abdallah b. +Omar and Abdallah b. Zobair, if necessary, by force. Walid sent a +messenger inviting them to a conference, thus giving them time to +assemble their followers and to escape to Mecca, where the prefect Omar +b. Sa'id could do nothing against them. In the month Ramadan this Omar +was made governor of Medina and sent an army against Ibn Zobair. This +army was defeated, and from that time Ibn Zobair was supreme at Mecca. + +On the news of Yazid's accession, the numerous partisans of the family +of Ali in Kufa sent addresses to Hosain, inviting him to take refuge +with them, and promising to have him proclaimed caliph in Irak. Hosain, +having learned that the majority of the inhabitants were apparently +ready to support him strenuously, prepared to take action. Meanwhile +Yazid, having been informed of the riotous behaviour of the Shi'ites in +Kufa, sent Obaidallah, son of the famous Ziyad and governor of Basra, to +restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used before, +Obaidallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made them responsible +for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijja Hosain set out +from Mecca with all his family, expecting to be received with enthusiasm +by the citizens of Kufa, but on his arrival at Kerbela west of the +Euphrates, he was confronted by an army sent by Obaidallah under the +command of Omar, son of the famous Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, the founder of +Kufa. Hosain gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid from Kufa, +and fell with almost all his followers on the 10th of Muharram 61 (10th +of October 680). + +No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. But, as +it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of Ali, and so many +members of his family, Hosain's devout partisans at Kufa, who by their +overtures had been the principal cause of the disaster, regarded it as +a tragedy, and the facts gradually acquired a wholly romantic colouring. +Omar b. Sa'd and his officers, Obaidallah and even Yazid came to be +regarded as murderers, and their names have ever since been held +accursed by all Shi'ites. They observe the 10th of Muharram, the day of +'Ashura, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages are +erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted, representing +the misfortunes of the family of Ali.[16] "Revenge for Hosain" became +the watchword of all Shi'ites, and the Meshed Hosain (Tomb of the martyr +Hosain) at Kerbela is to them the holiest place in the world (see +KERBELA). Obaidallah sent the head of Hosain to Damascus, together with +the women and children and Ali b. Hosain, who, being ill, had not taken +part in the fight. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the +prisoners under safe-conduct to Medina. Ali remained faithful to the +caliph, taking no share in the revolt of the Medinians, and openly +condemning the risings of the Shi'ites. + +Ibn Zobair profited greatly by the distress caused by Hosain's death. +Though he named himself publicly a refugee of the House of God, he had +himself secretly addressed as caliph, and many of the citizens of Medina +acknowledged him as such. Yazid, when informed of this, swore in his +anger to have him imprisoned. But remembering the wisdom of his father, +he sent messengers with a chain made of silver coins, and bearing +honourable proposals. At the same time he received a number of the chief +men of Medina, sent by the prefect, with great honour and loaded them +with gifts and presents. But Ibn Zobair refused, and the Medinians, of +whom the majority probably had never before seen a prince's court, +however simple, were only confirmed in their rancour against Yazid, and +told many horrible tales about his profligacy, that he hunted and held +wild orgies with Bedouin sheikhs, and had no religion. A +characteristically Arabic ceremony took place in the mosque of Medina. +"I cast off the oath of allegiance to Yazid, as I cast off my turban," +exclaimed the first, and all others followed, casting off one of their +garments, till a heap of turbans and sandals lay on the floor. Ibn +Hanzala was made commander. The Omayyads, though they with their clients +counted more than 1000 men, were not able to maintain themselves, and +were allowed to depart only on condition of strict neutrality. + +At last the patience of Yazid was exhausted. An army--the accounts about +the number vary from 4000 to 20,000--was equipped in all haste and put +under the command of Moslim b. 'Oqba, with orders first to exact +submission from the Medinians, if necessary by force, and then to march +against Ibn Zobair. Moslim, having met the expelled Omayyads at Wadi +'l-Qora, encamped near the city (August 683) and gave the inhabitants +three days in which to return to obedience, wishing to spare the city of +the Prophet and to prevent the shedding of blood. When, however, after +the lapse of three days, a final earnest appeal had been answered +insultingly, he began the battle. The Medinians fought valiantly, but +could not hold out against the well-disciplined Syrians. Moreover, they +were betrayed by the Medinian family of the Banu Haritha, who introduced +Syrian soldiers into the town. Medina lies between two volcanic hills, +called _harra_. After one of these the battle has been named "The Day of +Harra." For three days the city was given up to plunder. It is said that +a thousand bastards (the "children of the Harra") were born in +consequence of these days. The remaining citizens were compelled to take +the oath of allegiance to Yazid in a humiliating form; the few who +refused were killed. Ali b. Hosain, who had refused to have anything to +do with the revolt, was treated with all honour. Mahommed b. +al-Hanafiya, the son of Ali, and Abdallah b. Omar had likewise +abstained, but they had left Medina for Mecca. + +Moslim then proceeded towards Mecca. He was already ill, and died about +midway between the two cities, after having given the command, according +to the orders of the caliph, to Hosain b. Nomair. It is quite natural +that the man who delivered up the city of the Prophet to plunder, and at +whose hands so many prominent Moslems fell, should have been an object +of detestation to the devout. Even some European scholars have drawn a +false picture of his personality, as has been clearly shown by +Wellhausen. About Medina also false statements have been made. The city +recovered very soon from the disaster, and remained the seat not only of +holy tradition and jurisdiction, but also of the Arabic aristocracy. In +no city of the empire, during the reign of the Omayyads, lived more +singers and musicians than in Medina. + +Hosain b. Nomair arrived before Mecca in September 683 and found Ibn +Zobair ready to defend it. A number of the citizens of Medina had come +to the aid of the Holy City, as well as many Kharijites from Yamama +under Najda b. 'Amir. The siege had lasted 65--others say 40--days, when +the news came of the death of Yazid, which took place presumably on the +14th of Rabia I, 64 (12th November 683). Eleven days before a fire, +caused by imprudence, had consumed all the woodwork of the Ka'ba and +burst the black stone in three places. The evidence is quite conclusive; +yet the fire has been imputed to the Syrians, and a tale was invented +about ballistas which hurled against the House of God enormous stones +and vessels full of bitumen. In fact, the siege had been confined to +enclosure and skirmishes. It is said that on the news of the death of +Yazid a conference took place between Hosain and Ibn Zobair, and that +the former offered to proclaim the latter as caliph provided he would +accompany him to Syria and proclaim a general amnesty. Ibn Zobair +refused haughtily, and Hosain, with a contemptuous criticism of his +folly, ordered his army to break up for Syria. + +Hitherto Ibn Zobair had confined himself to an appeal to the Moslems to +renounce Yazid and to have a caliph elected by the council (_shura_) of +the principal leading men. He now openly assumed the title of caliph and +invited men to take the oath of allegiance. He was soon acknowledged +throughout Arabia, in Egypt and in Irak. The Omayyads, who had returned +to Medina, were again expelled. + +Yazid is described in the _Continuatio Isidori Byz._S27, as +"iucundissimus et cunctis nationibus regni eius subditis vir gratissime +habitus, qui nullam unquam, ut omnibus moris est, sibi regalis fastigii +causa gloriam appetivit, sed communis[17] cum omnibus civiliter vixit." +This is confirmed by the fact that Moawiya II. is said to have been a +mild ruler, like his father, and goes far to outweigh the prejudiced +account given by his opponents and coloured still further by tradition. +Against the accusation of being a drinker of wine he himself protested +in verses which he recited when he sent the army against Ibn Zobair. +Decisive is also the testimony of Ibn al-Hanafiya, who declared that all +the accusations brought by the Medinians were false. It may be true that +he was fond of hunting, but he was a peace-loving, generous prince. It +is uncertain at what age he died. Accounts vary between 33 and 39. The +latter finds confirmation in the statement that he was born in A.H. 25, +though another account places his birth in 22. As his son Moawiya who +succeeded him was certainly adult (the accounts vary between 17 and 23), +the latter date seems to be preferable. + +3. Moawiya II. had reigned a very short time--how long is again wholly +uncertain--when he fell sick and died. Then commenced a period of the +greatest confusion. The mother of Yazid, Maisun, belonged to the most +powerful tribe in Syria, the Kalb, and it seems that this and the +cognate tribes of Qoda'a (Yemenites) had enjoyed certain prerogatives, +which had aroused the jealousy of the Qais and the cognate tribes of +Modar. Immediately after the death of Yazid, Zofar b. Harith, who had +already fought with Ibn Zobair against Yazid, had induced northern Syria +and Mesopotamia to declare for Ibn Zobair. In Homs (Emesa) the governor +No'man b. Bashir had pledged himself to the same cause. The prefect of +Damascus, Dahhak b. Qais, seemed to be wavering in his loyalty. Khalid, +the brother of Moawiya II., was still a youth and appears to have had no +strength of character. There was, however, a much more dangerous +candidate, viz. Merwan b. Hakam, of another branch of the Omayyads, who +had been Othman's right-hand man. He had pledged himself after some +hesitation to Yazid, but now his turn had come. The amir of the Kalb, +Ibn Bahdal, persuaded probably by Obaidallah b. Ziyad, conceived that +only a man of distinction could win the contest, and proclaimed Merwan +caliph, on condition that his successor should be Khalid b. Yazid, and +after him 'Amr b. Sa'id al-Ashdaq, who belonged to the third branch of +the Omayyads. Meanwhile Dahhak had declared himself openly for Ibn +Zobair. A furious battle (A.D. 684) ensued at Merj Rahit, near Damascus, +in which Dahhak and Zofar, though they had the majority of troops, were +utterly defeated. This battle became the subject of a great many poems +and had pernicious consequences, especially as regards the antagonism +between the Qais-Modar and Kalb-Yemenite tribes. + +4. _Reign of Merwan I._--Merwan strengthened his position according to +the old oriental fashion by marrying the widow of Yazid, and soon felt +himself strong enough to substitute his own son Abdalmalik for Khalid b. +Yazid as successor-designate. Khalid contented himself with protesting; +he was neither a politician nor a soldier, but a student of alchemy and +astronomy; translations of Greek books have been ascribed to him (Jahiz, +_Bayan_, i. p. 126). In the year A.H. 435 there was still in Egypt a +brazen globe attributed to Ptolemy which had belonged to Khalid (Ibn +Qifti, p. 440, 1.15). He was also consulted about future events. There +were, however, not a few who deplored the fact that the throne had +passed from the descendants of Abu Sofian. This feeling gave rise to the +prophecy that there should appear later a Sofiani on the throne, who +would reign with might and wisdom. 'Amr Ashdaq made no opposition till +the death of Merwan. After the victory at Merj Rahit, Merwan conquered +Egypt, and installed as governor his second son Abdalaziz. An army sent +to the rescue by Ibn Zobair under the command of his brother Mus'ab was +beaten in Palestine by 'Amr Ashdaq. But a division sent by Merwan to the +Hejaz was cut to pieces. Obaidallah b. Ziyad set out with the purpose of +subduing Mesopotamia and marching thence against Irak. But he was +detained a whole year in the former country, by a rising of the Shi'ites +in Kufa, who were still in mourning for Hosain and had formed an army +which called itself "the army of the penitent." They were routed at Ras +'Ain, but Obaidallah had still to fight Zofar. + +Meanwhile Mokhtar (son of that Abu 'Obaid the Thaqifite who had +commanded the Arabs against the Persians in the unfortunate battle of +the Bridge), a man of great talents and still greater ambition, after +having supported Ibn Zobair in the siege of Mecca, had gone to Kufa, +where he joined the Shi'ites, mostly Persians, and acquired great power. +He claimed that he was commissioned by Ali's son, Mahommed ibn +al-Hanafiya, who after the death of Hosain was recognized by the +Shi'ites as their Mahdi. A vague message from Mahommed, that it was the +duty of every good Moslem to take part with the family of the Prophet, +was interpreted in favour of Mokhtar, and thenceforward all the +Shi'ites, among them the powerful Ibrahim, son of Ali's right hand Malik +Ashtar, followed him blindly as their chief. Afterwards Ibn al-Hanafiya +seems to have acknowledged him distinctly as his vicegerent. Ibn +Zobair's representative in Kufa was compelled to flee, and all those who +had participated in the battle of Kerbela were put to death. An army +despatched against Obaidallah under Ibrahim routed the Syrians near +Mosul (battle of Khazir); Obaidallah and Hosain b. Nomair were slain. +Mokhtar was now at the zenith of power, but Ibn Zobair, determined to +get rid at all costs of so dangerous an enemy, named his brother Mus'ab +governor of Basra and ordered him to march against Kufa. Basra was at +that time full of fugitives from Kufa, Arabian chiefs who resented the +arrogance of Mokhtar's adherents, and desired eagerly to regain their +former position in Kufa. The troops of Basra had been, since the death +of Yazid, at war with the Kharijites, who had supported Ibn Zobair +during the siege of Mecca, but had deserted him later. Their caliph, +Nafi' b. Azraq, after whom they were called also Azraqites, threatened +even the city itself, when Mohallab b. Abi Sofra, a very able general, +compelled them to retire. Mohallab then marched with Mus'ab against +Kufa. Mokhtar fell, and with him the ephemeral dominion of the Persian +Shi'ites. This had been their first attempt to dispute the authority of +their Arabian conquerors, but it was not to be the last. Ibrahim b. +Ashtar, Mokhtar's governor of Mesopotamia, submitted and acknowledged +the Caliphate of Ibn Zobair. + +5. Reign of Abdalmalik.--Merwan died on the 27th of Ramadan 65 (7th May +685); according to tradition, he was suffocated by his wife, because he +had insulted her son Khalid and herself. The accession of Abdalmalik was +attended with no difficulty, but the first years of his reign were +occupied by troubles in northern Syria, where, instigated by the Greeks, +the Mardaites of the Amanus, called Jarajima by the Arabs, penetrated +into the Lebanon. He was obliged to conclude an unfavourable treaty +first with them, later with the emperor of Constantinople. Moreover, in +the year 68 (A.D. 687-688) Syria was afflicted by a serious famine. Ibn +Zobair, however, was occupied at Mecca with the rebuilding of the Ka'ba, +and Mus'ab was harassed not only by the Kharijites, but also by a noble +freebooter, Obaidallah b. Horr, who had created for himself a +principality in the vicinity of Madain (Ctesiphon). + +The period of the pilgrimage caused a momentary truce to all these +struggles, and in Dhu 'l-hijja, A.H. 68 (January 688), was seen the +curious spectacle of four different standards planted near Mecca, +belonging respectively to four chiefs, each of whom was a pretender to +the empire; the standard of Abdallah b. Zobair, caliph of Mecca; that of +the caliph of Damascus, Abdalmalik; that of Ali's son Mahommed b. +al-Hanafiya, Mahdi of the Shi'ites; and that of the Kharijites, who were +at that time under the command of Najda b. 'Amir. Such, however, was the +respect inspired by the holy places, that no disorders resulted. + +When, in the year (69 A.H.) 689 Abdalmalik had at last encamped at Botan +Habib in the vicinity of Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin),[18] with the purpose of +marching against Mus'ab, his cousin 'Amr Ashdaq, to whom by the treaty +of Jabia, before the battle of Merj Rahit, the succession to Merwan had +been promised, took advantage of his absence to lay claim to the supreme +power, and to have himself proclaimed caliph by his partisans. +Abdalmalik was obliged to retrace his steps and to lay siege to his own +capital. The garrison of Damascus took fright, and deserted their posts, +so that 'Amr Ashdaq was compelled to surrender. The caliph Abdalmalik +summoned him to his palace and slew him with his own hand. Abdalmalik +has every claim to our esteem as one of the ablest monarchs that ever +reigned, but this murder remains a lasting blot on his career. + +Abdalmalik could now give his whole attention to the projected +expedition against Irak. Mus'ab was encamped at Bajomaira in the +neighbourhood of Takrit. But Abdalmalik's first task was to subdue Zofar +and his Qaisites at Kerkesia (Qarqisia), and the rest of the partisans +of Mokhtar at Nisibis. Meanwhile, Mus'ab had to curb a violent revolt in +Basra, brought about by agents of Abdalmalik, and called after a place +in the city the revolt of the Jofrites. About the middle of A.D. 691 +Abdalmalik at last encamped at Dair al-Jathaliq (the monastery of the +Catholicus) between Maskin, not far from the site of Bagdad, and +Bajomaira. Mus'ab's best troops were fighting under Mohallab against the +Kharijites; many Basrians were secretly favourable to the Omayyads, nor +were the Kufian soldiers to be trusted. The people of Irak had never +been accustomed to discipline, and no improvement had taken place during +the troubles of the last years. Abdalmalik, therefore, wrote secretly to +the chiefs of Mus'ab's army, and persuaded them to desert to him, with +the exception of Ibrahim b. Ashtar, the brave son of a brave father, +who, after the fall of Mokhtar, had become a faithful supporter of Ibn +Zobair. His death, in the beginning of the battle, decided the fate of +Mus'ab, who was slain sword in hand by a Shi'ite of Kufa. + +This victory opened the gates of Kufa to Abdalmalik, and all Irak +received him with acclamation. Thence, a few days later, he sent Hajjaj +b. Yusuf at the head of 2000 Syrians against Ibn Zobair in Mecca, and +despatched a messenger to Tariq b.'Amr, who was encamped at Wadi +'l-Qora with 5000 men, to make himself master of Medina and thence to +rejoin Hajjaj. Before the arrival of this reinforcement, Hajjaj confined +himself to skirmishes, in which his soldiers always had the advantage. +Then, in Dhu 'l Qa'da 72 (March 25th, 692) Mecca was invested. The +blockade lasted more than six months, during which the city was a prey +to all the horrors of siege and famine. Hajjaj had set up a balista on +the hill of Abu Qobais, whence he poured on the city a hail of stones, +which was suspended only in the days of the pilgrimage. Ibn Zobair +employed against him Abyssinians armed with Greek-fire-tubes, who, +however, quitted him soon under the pressure of famine. This at length +triumphed over his last adherents. Ten thousand fighting men, and even +two of the sons of the pretender (it is said, on his own advice), left +the city and surrendered. Mecca being thus left without defenders, Ibn +Zobair saw that ruin was inevitable. Hajjaj having promised him amnesty +if he would surrender, he went to his mother Asma, the daughter of Abu +Bekr, who had reached the age of a hundred years, and asked her counsel. +She answered that, if he was confident in the justice of his cause, he +must die sword in hand. In embracing him for the last time, she felt the +cuirass he wore and exclaimed that such a precaution was unworthy of a +man resolved to die. He, therefore, took off the cuirass, and, when the +Omayyad troops made their way into the city, attacked them furiously, +notwithstanding his advanced age, and was slain. His head was cut off, +and sent by Hajjaj to Damascus. + +With Ibn Zobair perished the influence which the early companions of +Mahomet had exercised over Islam. Medina and Mecca, though they +continued to be the holy cities, had no longer their old political +importance, which had already been shaken to its foundations by the +murder of Othman and the subsequent troubles. Henceforward we shall find +temporal interests, represented by Damascus, predominating over those of +religion, and the centre of Islam, now permanently removed beyond the +limits of Arabia, more susceptible to foreign influence, and +assimilating more readily their civilizing elements. Damascus, Kufa and +Basra will attract the flower of all the Moslem provinces, and thus that +great intellectual, literary and scientific movement, which reached its +apogee under the first Abbasid Caliphs at Bagdad, steadily becomes more +marked. + +After the burning of the Ka'ba during the siege of Mecca by Hosain b. +Nomair, Ibn Zobair had rebuilt and enlarged the house of God. It is said +that he thus carried out a design of the Prophet, which he had not +ventured to undertake for fear of offending the newly converted +Koreishites. Hajjaj pulled down the enlargements and restored the Ka'ba +to its old state. Meanwhile, the caliph committed to him the government +of the Hejaz. The Medinians, whose loyalty was suspected, were treated +by him with severity; not a few _maulas_ (clients) were obliged to wear +a leaden badge on their neck (Tabari, ii. p. 854 seq.). + +Thus the protracted war against Ibn Zobair was brought to an end; hence +this year (71) also is called the "year of union" (_jama'a_). But the +storms in Irak and Mesopotamia had not yet altogether subsided. The Qais +could not leave unavenged the blood shed at Merj Rahit. For about ten +years the Syrian and Mesopotamian deserts were the scene of a series of +raids, often marked by great cruelty, and which have been the subject of +a great many poems. Abdalmalik had need of all his tact and energy to +pacify ultimately the zealous sectaries, but the antagonism between +Yemenites (Kalb and Azd) and Modarites (Qais and Tamim) had been +increased by these struggles, and even in the far east and the far west +had fatal consequences. + +When Abdalmalik, after a stay of forty days, returned from Irak to +Syria, he left two Omayyad princes as his vicegerents in Kufa and Basra. +Mohallab, who at the time of the battle of Bajomaira was in the field +against the Azraqites (Kharijites), and had put himself at the disposal +of the caliph, had orders to carry on the war. But the two princes +proved unequal to their task and did not support Mohallab sufficiently, +so that the Kharijites gained more than one victory. Abdalmalik in alarm +made Hajjaj governor of Irak with the most extensive powers. The troops +of Kufa, who accompanied Mohallab in an expedition against the +Kharijites, had abandoned their general and dispersed to their homes, +and nothing could induce them to return to their duty. Then, in the year +75 (A.D. 694), at the moment when the people were assembled in the +mosque for morning prayers, an unknown young man of insignificant +appearance, with a veil over his face, ascended the pulpit. It seemed at +first that he could not find his words. One of the audience, with a +contemptuous remark, took a handful of pebbles to pelt him with. But he +let them fall when Hajjaj lifted his veil and began to speak. + +"Men of Kufa," he said, "I see before me heads ripe for the sickle, and +the reaper--I am he. It seems to me, as if I saw already the blood +between your turbans and your shoulders. I am not one of those who can +be frightened by inflated bags of skin, nor need any one think to +squeeze me like a fig. The Prince of the Believers has spread before him +the arrows of his quiver, and has tried every one of them by biting its +wood. It is my wood that he has found the hardest and strongest, and I +am the arrow which he shoots against you." + +At the end of this address he ordered his clerk to read the letter of +the caliph. He began: "From the servant of God, Abdalmalik, Prince of +the Believers, to the Moslems that are in Kufa, peace be with you." As +nobody uttered a word in reply, Hajjaj said: "Stop, boy," and exclaimed: +"The Prince of the Believers salutes you, and you do not answer his +greeting! You have been but poorly taught. I will teach you afresh, +unless you behave better. Read again the letter of the Prince of the +Believers." Then, as soon as he had read: "peace upon ye," there +remained not a single man in the mosque who did not respond, "and upon +the Prince of the Believers be peace." Thereupon Hajjaj ordered that +every man capable of bearing arms should immediately join Mohallab in +Khuzistan (Susiana), and swore that all who should be found in the town +after the third day should be beheaded. This threat had its effect, and +Hajjaj proceeded to Basra, where his presence was followed by the same +results. Mohallab, reinforced by the army of Irak, at last succeeded, +after a struggle of eighteen months, in subjugating the Kharijites and +their caliph Qatara b. Foja'a, and was able at the beginning of the year +78 (A.D. 697) to return to Hajjaj at Basra. The latter loaded him with +honours and made him governor of Khorasan, whence he directed several +expeditions into Transoxiana. In the meantime Hajjaj himself had, in 695 +and 696, with great difficulty suppressed Shabib b. Yazid at the head of +the powerful tribe of Shaiban, who, himself a Kharijite, had assumed the +title of Prince of the Believers, and had even succeeded in occupying +Kufa. In the east the realm of Islam had been very much extended under +the reign of Moawiya, when Ziyad was governor of Irak and Khorasan. +Balkh and Tokharistan, Bokhara, Samarkand and Khwarizm (modern Khiva), +even Kabul and Kandahar had been subdued; but in the time of the civil +war a great deal had been lost again. Now at last the task of recovering +the lost districts could be resumed. When, in 697, Hajjaj gave the +government of Khorasan to Mohallab, he committed that of Sijistan +(Seistan) to Obaidallah b. Abi Bakra, a cousin of Ziyad. This prefect +allowed himself to be enticed by Zanbil, prince of Zabulistan, to +penetrate into the country far from his base, and escaped narrowly, not +without severe losses. The command over Sijistan was now given to +Abdarrahman b. Ash'ath, a descendant of the old royal family of Kinda, +and a numerous army was entrusted to him, so magnificently equipped that +it was called "the peacock army." Not long after his arrival in +Sijistan, Ibn Ash'ath, exasperated by the masterful tone of Hajjaj, the +plebeian, towards himself, the high-born, decided to revolt. The +soldiers of Irak, who did not love the governor, and disliked the +prospect of a long and difficult war far from home, eagerly accepted the +proposition of returning to Irak, and even proclaimed the dethronement +of Abdalmalik, in favour of Ibn Ash'ath. The new pretender entered Fars +and Ahwaz (Susiana), and it was in this last province near Tostar +(Shuster) that Hajjaj came up with him, after receiving from Syria the +reinforcements which he had demanded in all haste from the caliph. Ibn +Ash'ath drove him back to Basra, entered the city, and then turned his +arms against Kufa, of which he took possession with aid from within. +Hajjaj, afraid lest his communications with Syria should be cut off, +pitched his camp at Dair Qorra, eighteen miles west from Kufa towards +the desert, where Mahommed, the brother of the caliph, and Abdallah, his +son, brought him fresh troops. Ibn Ash'ath encamped not far from him at +Dair al-Jamajim with a far more numerous army. In great alarm Abdalmalik +endeavoured to stifle the revolt by offering to dismiss Hajjaj from his +post. The insurgents rejected this offer, and hostilities recommenced. +At the end of three months and a half, in July 702, a decisive action +took place. Victory declared for Hajjaj. Ibn Ash'ath fled to Basra, +where he managed to collect fresh troops; but having been again beaten +in a furious battle that took place at Maskin near the Dojail, he took +refuge at Ahwaz, from which he was soon driven by the troops of Hajjaj +under 'Omara b. Tamim. The rebel then retired to Sijistan, and +afterwards sought an asylum with the king of Kabul. His partisans fled +before 'Omara's army and penetrated into Khorasan, where they were +isarmed by the governor Yazid, son of the celebrated Mohallab, who had +died in the year 701. The pretender was betrayed by the king of Kabul +and killed himself. His head was sent to Hajjaj and then to Damascus. +This happened in the year 703 or 704. Yazid b. Mohallab was soon after +deprived of the government of Khorasan, Hajjaj accusing him of +partiality towards the rebels of Yemenite extraction. He appointed in +his stead first his brother Mofaddal b. Mohallab, and nine months after +Qotaiba b. Moslim, who was destined in a later period to extend the sway +of Islam in the east as far as China. + +The struggle of Ibn Ash'ath was primarily a contest for hegemony between +Irak and Syria. The proud Arabic lords could not acquiesce in paying to +a plebeian like Hajjaj, invested with absolute power by the caliph, the +strict obedience he required. They considered it further as an injustice +that the Syrian soldiers received higher pay than those of Irak. This is +apparent from the fact that one of the conditions of peace proposed by +Abdalmalik before the battle of Dair al-Jamajim had been that henceforth +the Irakian troops should be paid equally with the Syrian. Moreover, +Hajjaj, in order to maintain the regular revenue from taxation, had been +obliged to introduce stringent regulations, and had compelled a great +many villagers who had migrated to the cities to return to their +villages. Several of these were _faqihs_, students of Koranic science +and law, and all these seconded Ibn Ash'ath with all their might. But, +as Wellhausen has shown, it is not correct to consider the contest as a +reaction of the _maula's_ (Persian Moslems) against the Arabic +supremacy. + +Immediately after the victories of Dair al-Jamajim and Maskin, in 702, +Hajjaj, built a new residence on the Tigris, between Basra and Kufa, +which he called Wasit ("Middle"). There his Syrian soldiers were not in +contact with the turbulent citizens of the two capitals, and were at any +moment ready to suppress any fresh outburst. + +At the beginning of his reign Abdalmalik had replaced the humble mosque +built by Omar on the site of the temple at Jerusalem by a magnificent +dome, which was completed in the year 691. Eutychius and others pretend +that he desired to substitute Jerusalem for Mecca, because Ibn Zobair +had occupied the latter place, and thus the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba had +become difficult for the Syrians. This is quite improbable. Abdalmalik +was born and educated in Islam, and distinguished himself in his youth +by piety and continence. He regarded himself as the champion of Islam +and of the communion of the believers, and had among his intimates men +of acknowledged devoutness such as Raja b. Haywa. The idea of +interfering with the pilgrimage to the House of God at Mecca, which +would have alienated from him all religious men, and thus from a +political point of view would have been suicidal, cannot have entered +his mind for a moment. But the glorification of Jerusalem, holy alike +for Moslems, Christians and Jews, could not but exalt the glory of Islam +and its rulers within and without. + +As soon as the expedition to Irak against Mus'ab had terminated, the +holy war against the Greeks was renewed. The operations in Asia Minor +and Armenia were entrusted to Mahommed b. Merwan, the caliph's brother, +who was appointed governor of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 692 beat +the army of Justinian II. near Sebaste in Cilicia. From this time forth +the Moslems made yearly raids, the chief advantage of which was that +they kept the Syrian and Mesopotamian Arabs in continual military +exercise. After the victorious march of Okba (Oqba) b. Nafi' through +north Africa and the foundation of Kairawan, his successor Qais b. +Zohair had been obliged to retreat to Barca (Cyrenaica). In the year 696 +Abdalmalik sent Hassan b. No'man into Africa at the head of a numerous +army. He retook Kairawan, swept the coast as far as Carthage, which he +sacked, expelling the Greek garrisons from all the fortified places; he +then turned his arms against the Berbers, who, commanded by the Kahina +(Diviner), as the Arabs called their queen, beat him so completely that +he was compelled to retreat to Barca. Five years later he renewed the +war, defeated and killed the Kahina, and subdued the Berbers, who +henceforward remained faithful to the Arabs. Hassan continued to be +governor of Kairawan till after the death of Abdalmalik. + +In the meantime Abdalmalik reconstituted the administration of the +empire on Arabic principles. Up to the year 693 the Moslems had no +special coinage of their own, and chiefly used Byzantine and Persian +money, either imported or struck by themselves. Moawiya, indeed, had +struck dinars and dirhems with a Moslem inscription, but his subjects +would not accept them as there was no cross upon them. Abdalmalik +instituted a purely Islamitic coinage. If we may believe Theophanes, who +says that Justinian II. refused to receive these coins in payment of the +tribute and therefore declared the treaty at an end, we must put the +beginning of the coinage at least two years earlier. Hajjaj coined +silver dirhems at Kufa in 694. A still greater innovation was that +Arabic became the official language of the state. In the conquered +countries till then, not only had the Greek and Persian administration +been preserved, but Greek remained the official language in the western, +Persian in the eastern provinces. All officials were now compelled to +know Arabic and to conduct their administration in that language. To +this change was due in great measure the predominance of Arabic +throughout the empire. Lastly, a regular post service was instituted +from Damascus to the provincial capitals, especially destined for +governmental despatches. The postmasters were charged with the task of +informing the caliph of all important news in their respective +countries. + +All the great rivals of Abdalmalik having now disappeared, he was no +longer like his predecessors _primus inter pares_, but _dominus_. Under +his rule the members of the Omayyad house enjoyed a greater amount of +administrative control than had formerly been the case, but high office +was given only to competent men. He succeeded in reconciling the sons of +'Amr Ashdaq, and also Khalid b. Yazid, to whom he gave his own daughter +in marriage. He himself had married 'Atika, a daughter of Yazid, a union +which was in all respects a happy one. He took great care in the +education of his sons, whom he destined as his successors. His brother +Abdalaziz, governor of Egypt, whom Merwan had marked out as his +successor, died in the year 703 or 704, and Abdalmalik chose as heirs to +the empire first his son Walid, and after him his second son Suleiman. +He himself died on the 14th Shawwal 86 (9th October 705) at the age of +about sixty. His reign was one of the most stormy in the annals of +Islam, but also one of the most glorious. Abdalmalik not only brought +triumph to the cause of the Omayyads, but also extended and strengthened +the Moslem power as a whole. He was well versed in old Arabic tradition +and in the doctrine of Islam, and was passionately fond of poetry. His +court was crowded with poets, whom he loaded with favours, even if they +were Christians like Akhtal. In his reign flourished also the two +celebrated rivals of Akhtal, Jarir and Farazdaq. + +6. _Reign of Walid I._--This is the most glorious epoch in the history +of Islam. In Asia Minor and Armenia, Maslama, brother of the caliph, and +his generals obtained numerous successes against the Greeks. Tyana was +conquered after a long siege, and a great expedition against +Constantinople was in preparation. In Armenia Maslama advanced even as +far as the Caucasus. In Africa, Musa b. Nosair, who succeeded Hassan b. +No'man as governor, in a short time carried his conquests as far as Fez, +Tangier and Ceuta, and one of his captains even made a descent on Sicily +and plundered Syracuse. When he returned from the west to Kairawan, he +made his client Tariq (or Tarik) governor of Tangier and of the whole +western part of Africa. Under him the chiefs who had submitted to the +Moslem arms retained their authority. One of them was the Greek exarch +of Tangier, Julian, who, supported by the powerful Berber tribe of +Ghomera, had long resisted and even asked for aid from Spain, but had +been compelled to surrender and was left governor of Ceuta. Meanwhile in +Spain, after the death of the Gothic king Witiza in the year 90 +(708-709), anarchy arose, which was terminated by the council of +noblemen at Toledo electing Roderic, the powerful duke of Baetica, to be +his successor in the fifth year of Walid. The eldest son of Witiza then +applied to Julian, and asked the aid of the Arabs for the recovery of +his father's throne. Tariq forwarded the embassy to Kairawan, and Musa +asked the caliph's permission to send an expedition into Spain. +Authorized by Musa, Tariq now sent, in Ramadan 91 (July 710), 500 +Berbers under the command of Tarif to reconnoitre the country. This +expedition, seconded by partisans of Witiza, was successful. In the +beginning of A.D. 711 Roderic had been summoned to the north on account +of an invasion of Navarra by the Franks, caused, it is said, by the +conspirators. Tariq, thus certain of meeting no serious opposition to +his landing, passed into Spain himself with an army composed mainly of +Berbers of the Ghomera tribe under the guidance of Julian. The spot +where he landed thence acquired the name of Jebel Tariq, "Mountain of +Tariq," afterwards corrupted into Gibraltar. Having made himself master +of Algeciras and thereby secured his communication with Africa, Tariq +set out at once in the direction of Cordova. At the news of the invasion +Roderic hastened back and led a numerous army against the combined +forces of Tariq and the partisans of Witiza. A fierce battle took place +in the plain of Barbata on the little river of Guadaleta (north of +Medina Sidonia), in which Roderic was completely routed. The spoils of +the victors were immense, especially in horses, but the king himself had +disappeared. Fearing lest he should have escaped to Toledo and should +there fit out another army, the partisans of Witiza insisted that Tariq +should march immediately against the capital. Tariq complied with their +wishes, notwithstanding the express command of Musa b. Nosair that he +should not venture too far into the country, and the protests of Julian. +Having made himself master of Ecija and having despatched a detachment +under Moghith against Cordova, Tariq took Mentesa (Villanueva de la +Fuente) and marched upon Toledo, which he soon conquered. At the same +time Moghith took Cordova. But, notwithstanding these successes, Tariq +knew that his situation was most critical. King Roderic, who had escaped +to Lusitania, and the noble Goths, who had fled from Toledo, would +certainly not be slow in making efforts to regain what they had lost. He +therefore sent a message in all haste to Musa, entreating him to come +speedily. Musa, though angered by the disobedience of Tariq, hastened to +the rescue and embarked in April 712 with 18,000 men, among them many +noble Arabs, and began, advised by Julian, a methodical campaign, with +the purpose of establishing and securing a line of communication between +the sea and Toledo. After having taken Seville, Carmona and Merida, he +marched from the latter place by the Via Romana to Salamanca, after +having ordered Tariq to rejoin him in order to encounter king Roderic. +Not far from Tamames the king was defeated and killed. King Alphonso the +Great found his tombstone at Viseo with the inscription, "Hic requiescit +Rodericus rex Gothorum." After this battle Musa reconquered Toledo, +which, after the departure of Tariq, had recovered its independence, and +entered the capital in triumph. Already, before the expedition to +Salamanca, he had perceived that the sons of Witiza had neither military +nor political ability. He therefore proclaimed the caliph of Damascus as +sole ruler of the whole peninsula. The Gothic princes must content +themselves with honours and apanages, in which they readily acquiesced. +In the same year 93 (A.D. 712) Musa struck Moslem coins with Latin +inscriptions. Musa then continued the subjugation of Spain, till Walid +recalled him to Damascus. He obeyed after having appointed his son +Abdalaziz governor of Andalos (Andalusia), as the Arabs named the +peninsula, and assigned Seville as his residence. Abdalaziz consolidated +his power by marrying the widow of the late king Roderic. Musa left +Spain about August 714, and reached Damascus shortly before the death of +Walid. Notwithstanding the immense booty he brought, he did not receive +his due reward. Accused of peculation, he was threatened with +imprisonment unless he paid a fine of 100,000 pieces of gold. The old +man--he was born in the year 640--was released by Yazid b. Mohallab, the +then mighty favourite of the caliph Suleiman, but died in the same year +716 on his way to Mecca. His son Abdalaziz was an excellent ruler, who +did much for the consolidation of the new conquests, but he reigned only +one year and eleven months, when he was murdered. His death has been +falsely imputed by some historians to the caliph Suleiman.[19] + +In the East the Moslem armies gained the most astonishing successes. In +the course of a few years Qotaiba b. Moslim conquered Paikend, Bokhara, +Samarkand, Khwarizm (mod. Khiva), Ferghana and Shash (Tashkent), and +even Kashgar on the frontiers of China. Meanwhile Mahommed b. Qasim +invaded Makran, took Daibol, passed the Indus, and marched, after having +beaten the Indian king Daher, through Sind upon Multan, which he +conquered and whence he carried off an immense booty. + +Walid was the first caliph, born and trained as prince, who felt the +majesty of the imamate and wished it to be felt by his subjects. He +desired to augment the splendours of Islam and its sovereign, as +Abdalmalik had already done by building the dome of Jerusalem. In the +time of the conquest of Damascus, one half of the great church had been +made a mosque, while the remaining half had been left to the Christians. +Walid annexed this part, indemnifying the Christians elsewhere, and +restored the whole building sumptuously and magnificently. In his time +many fine palaces and beautiful villas were built in Syria, and Becker's +conjecture seems not altogether improbable, that from this period dates +the palace of Mashetta, the facade of which is now in the Kaiser +Friedrich Museum at Berlin, as perhaps also the country houses +discovered by Musil in the land of Moab. Walid also caused the mosque of +Medina to be enlarged. For this purpose, the apartments of the Prophet +and his wives were demolished, which at first caused much discontent in +Medina, some crying out that thereby a verse of the Book of God (S. 49, +v. 4) was cancelled. With this exception, the citizens of Medina had +nothing to complain of. The vicegerent of Abdalmalik had treated them +harshly. Walid immediately on his accession appointed as governor of +Hejaz his cousin Omar b. Abdalaziz, who was received there with joy, his +devoutness and gentle character being well known. But the reputation of +Omar attracted to the two holy cities a great number of the inhabitants +of Irak, who had been deeply involved in the rebellion of Ibn Ash'ath. +Hajjaj, however, was not the man to allow the formation of a fresh +nucleus of sedition, and persuaded the caliph to dismiss Omar in the +year 712, and appoint Othman b. Hayyan at Medina and Khalid al-Qasri at +Mecca. These two prefects compelled the refugees to return to Irak, +where many of them were severely treated and even put to death by +Hajjaj. + +Few people have been so slandered as this great viceroy of the Orient. +In reality he was a man of extraordinary ability, and accomplished the +task committed to him with vigour and energy. To his unflagging +constancy was due the suppression of the dangerous rebellion of Ibn +Ash'ath. After the restoration of peace his capacity for organization +was displayed in all directions. The draining and tilling of submerged +or uncultivated land on a large scale, the promotion of agriculture in +every way, in particular by the digging of channels, and the regulation +of the system of taxation, were carried out on his initiative. He showed +the utmost wisdom in the selection of his lieutenants. The fear of his +name was so great that even in the desert there was security for life +and property, and his brilliant military successes were unquestionably +due in a great measure to the care which he bestowed on equipment and +commissariat. The heavy expenses entailed thereby were largely met by +the booty which he won. Hajjaj was a sincere Moslem; this, however, did +not prevent him from attacking Ibn Zobair in the Holy City, nor again +from punishing rebels, though they bore the name of holy men. He enjoyed +the entire confidence of Abdalmalik with Walid, but Suleiman, the +appointed successor, regarded him with disfavour. Yazid b. Mohallab, +whom he had recalled from Khorasan, and imprisoned, had escaped and put +himself under the protection of Suleiman, who made himself surety for +the fine to which Yazid had been condemned. Hajjaj foreboded evil, and +prayed eagerly that he might die before Walid. His death took place +about the end of Ramadan 95 (June or July 714). + +7. _Reign of Suleiman_ (_Solaiman_).--Suleiman had early missed the +throne. Walid wished to have his son Abdalaziz chosen as his successor, +and had offered Suleiman a large sum of money to induce him to surrender +his rights. Walid went still further and sent letters to the governors +of all the provinces, calling on them to take the oath of allegiance to +his son. None, except Hajjaj and his two generals Qotaiba b. Moslim and +Mahommed b. Qasim, consented thus to set at naught the order of +succession established by Abdalmalik; and Suleiman succeeded without +difficulty on the death of his brother Jomada II. 96 (February 715). We +can easily conceive the hatred felt by Suleiman for Hajjaj and for all +that belonged to him. Hajjaj himself was dead; but Suleiman poured out +his wrath on his family and his officers. The governors of Medina and +Mecca were dismissed; Mahommed b. Qasim, the conqueror of India, cousin +of Hajjaj, was dismissed from his post and outlawed. Qotaiba b. Moslim, +the powerful governor of Khorasan, tried to anticipate the caliph by a +revolt, but a conspiracy was formed against him, which ended in his +murder. Some historians say that he was falsely accused of rebellion. + +Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Hajjaj, was made governor of Irak. His +arrival was hailed with joy, especially by the Azd, to whom his family +belonged, and the other Yemenite tribes. Yazid discovered soon that the +system of taxation as regulated by Hajjaj could not be altered without +serious danger to the finances of the empire, and that he could not +afford the expenses which his prodigal manner of life involved. He +therefore asked the caliph to give him the governorship of Khorasan +also, and took his residence in Merv, where he was free from control. On +his return to Khorasan he set on foot a series of new expeditions +against Jorjan and Tabaristan, with only partial success. He sent, +however, to the caliph an exaggerated account of his victories and the +booty he had made. He had cause to repent this later. + +Walid had, in the last years of his reign, made preparations for a great +expedition against Constantinople. Suleiman carried them on with energy, +and as early as the autumn of A.D. 715 Maslama invaded Asia Minor at the +head of a numerous army, whilst a well-equipped fleet under Omar b. +Hobaira sailed out to second him. It is said that Suleiman was firmly +persuaded that Constantinople would be conquered during his reign, in +accordance with a Sibylline prophecy which said that the city would be +subdued by a caliph bearing the name of a prophet, he himself being the +first to fulfil this condition.[20] Moreover, the Byzantine empire was +in these years disturbed by internal troubles. The first year of the +expedition was not unsuccessful. The siege of Amorium in Phrygia was +broken up, but Pergamum and Sardis were taken. On the 25th of August 716 +the blockade of Constantinople began from the land side, and two weeks +later from the sea side. A few months before, Leo the Isaurian had +ascended the throne and prepared the city for the siege. This lasted +about a year. The besieged were hard pressed, but the besiegers suffered +by the severe winter, and were at last obliged to raise the siege. +Maslama brought back the rest of his army in a pitiful state, while the +fleet, on its return, was partly destroyed by a violent tempest. The +Moslems regard this failure as one of the great evils that have befallen +the human race, and one which retarded the progress of the world for +ages,[21] the other calamity being the defeat in the battle of Tours by +Charles Martel. + +Maslama was still on his way back when Suleiman died at Dabiq in +northern Syria, which was the base of the expeditions into Asia Minor. +He seems not to have had the firmness of character nor the frugality of +Walid; but he was very severe against the looseness of manners that +reigned at Medina, and was highly religious. Raja b. Haywa, renowned for +his piety, whose influence began under Abdalmalik and increased under +Walid, was his constant adviser and even determined him to designate as +his successor his devout cousin Omar b. Abdalaziz. Suleiman was kind +towards the Alids and was visited by several of them, amongst others by +Abu Hashim, the son of Mahommed b. al Hanafiya, who after his father's +death had become the secret Imam (head) of the Shi'ites. On his way back +to Hejaz this man visited the family of Abdallah b. 'Abbas, which +resided at Homaima, a place situated in the vicinity of 'Amman, and died +there, after having imparted to Mahommed b. Ali b. Abdallah b. Abbas the +names of the chiefs of the Shi'a in Irak and Khorasan, and disclosed his +way of corresponding with them. From that time the Abbasids began their +machinations against the Omayyads in the name of the family of the +Prophet, avoiding all that could cause suspicion to the Shi'ites, but +holding the strings firmly in their own hands. + +8. _Reign of Omar II._--Omar b. Abdalaziz did his best to imitate his +grandfather Omar in all things, and especially in maintaining the simple +manner of life of the early Moslems. He was, however, born in the midst +of wealth; thus frugality became asceticism, and in so far as he +demanded the same rigour from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused +uneasiness and discontent. By paying the highest regard to integrity in +the choice of his officers, and not to ability, he did not advance the +interests of his subjects, as he earnestly wished to do. In the matter +of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he did harm to the +public revenues. The principle of Islam was, that no Moslem, whatever +might be his nationality, should pay any tax other than the _zakat_ or +poor-rate (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). In practice, this privilege was +confined to the Arabic Moslems. Omar wished to maintain the principle. +The original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as +agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for each +district. If one of these adopted Islam, Omar permitted him to leave his +place, which had been strictly forbidden by Hajjaj in Irak and the +eastern provinces, because by it many hands were withdrawn from the +tilling of the ground, and those who remained were unable to pay the +allotted amount. Omar's system not only diminished the actual revenue, +but largely increased in the cities the numbers of the _maula's_ +(clients), mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their +Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. Their short +dominion in Kufa under Mokhtar had been suppressed, but the discontent +continued. In North Africa particularly, and in Khorasan the effect of +Omar's proclamation was that a great multitude embraced Islam. When it +became necessary to impose a tribute upon the new converts, great +discontent arose, which largely increased the number of those who +followed the Shi'ite preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was +promoted by the severe regulations which Omar introduced for the +non-believers, such as Christians and Jews. It was he who issued those +humiliating rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to +Omar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than one illegal +impost. He endeavoured above all to procure justice for all his +subjects. Complaints against oppression found in him a ready listener, +and many unlawfully acquired possessions were restored to the legal +owners, for instance, to the descendants of Ali and Talha. Even to the +Kharijites he contrived to give satisfaction, as far as possible. In all +these matters he followed the guidance of divines and devotees, in whose +congenial company he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at +that these men saw in Omar the ideal of a prince, and that in Moslem +history he has acquired the reputation of a saint. + +After the failure of the siege of Constantinople, the advanced posts in +Asia Minor were withdrawn, but the raids were continued regularly. It +has been said that it was Omar's intention to give up his Spanish +conquests, but the facts argue the contrary. The governor, named by +Omar, Samh b. Abdallah, even crossed the Pyrenees and took possession of +Narbonne; but he was beaten and killed at Toulouse in July 720. But Omar +did all he could to prevent the degradation of the Holy War, which, +instead of being the ultimate expedient for the propagation of Islam, if +all other means had failed, had often degenerated into mere pillaging +expeditions against peaceful nations. + +9. _Reign of Yazid II._--Omar's reign was as short as that of his +predecessor. He died on the 24th of Rajab 101 (A.D. 9th February 720). +Yazid II., son of Abdalmalik and, by his mother 'Atika, grandson of +Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposition. He had at once, +however, to put down a dangerous rebellion. Yazid b. Mohallab had +returned to Irak, after the conquest of Jorjan, when Suleiman was still +alive. Shortly after, Adi b. Artat, whom Omar II. had appointed +governor, arrived, arrested Yazid, and sent him to Omar, who called him +to account for the money he had mentioned in his letter to Suleiman, and +imprisoned him when he pretended not to be able to pay the amount. Yazid +II. had personal grounds for ill-will to Yazid b. Mohallab. One of the +wives of the new caliph, the same who gave birth to that son of Yazid +II. who afterwards reigned as Walid II., was niece to the celebrated +Hajjaj, whose family had been ill-treated by the son of Mohallab, when +he was governor of Irak under Suleiman. Aware that Yazid b. Abdalmalik, +on ascending the throne, would spare neither him nor his family, Yazid +b. Mohallab had succeeded in escaping to Basra, the home of his family, +where his own tribe the Azd was predominant. Meanwhile 'Adi b. Artat had +all the brothers of Yazid and other members of the family of Mohallab +arrested, and tried to prevent Yazid from entering the city. But 'Adi +was too scrupulous to employ the public money for raising the pay of his +soldiers, whilst Yazid promised mountains of gold. Yazid stormed the +castle and took 'Adi prisoner, the public treasury fell into his hands, +and he employed the money to pay his troops largely and to raise fresh +ones. A pardon obtained for him from the caliph came too late; he had +already gone too far. He now proclaimed a Holy War against the Syrians, +whom he declared to be worse enemies of Islam than even the Turks and +the Dailam. Notwithstanding the warnings of the aged Hasan al-Basri, the +friend of Omar II., the religious people, took the part of Yazid, and +were followed by the _maulas_. Though the number of his adherents thus +increased enormously, their military value was small. Ahwaz (Khuzistan), +Fars and Kirman were easily subdued, but in Khorasan the Azd could not +prevail over the Tamim, who were loyal to the caliph. As the rebellion +threatened to spread far and wide, Yazid II. was obliged to appeal to +his brother, the celebrated Maslama. With the approach of the Syrians, +Yazid b. Mohallab tried to forestall them at Kufa. He took his way over +Wasit, which he mastered--the Syrian garrison seems to have been +withdrawn in the days of Omar II.--but, before he could get hold of +Kufa, the Syrian troops arrived. The meeting took place at 'Aqr in the +vicinity of Babel, and Yazid was completely defeated and fell in the +battle. His brothers and sons fled to Basra; thence they went by sea to +Kirman and then to Kandabil in India; but they were pursued relentlessly +and slain with only two exceptions by the officers of Maslama. The +possessions of the Mohallabites were confiscated. + +Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of Irak and Khorasan, but +was soon replaced by Omar b. Hobaira, who under Omar II. had been +governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to the tribe of Qais, and was very +severe against the Azd and other Yemenite tribes, who had more or less +favoured the part of Yazid b. Mohallab. In these years the antagonism +between Qais (Modar) and Yemenites became more and more acute, +especially in Khorasan. The real cause of the dismissal of Maslama was, +that he did not send the revenue-quota to Damascus. Omar b. Hobaira, to +supply the deficiency, ordered the prefect of Khorasan, +Sa'id-al-Harashi, to take tribute from the Sogdians in Transoxiana, who +had embraced Islam on the promise of Omar II. The Sogdians raised a +revolt in Ferghana, but were subdued by Sa'id and obliged to pay. A +still more questionable measure of Ibn Hobaira was his ordering the +successor of Sa'id Harashi to extort large sums of money from several of +the most respectable Khorasanians. The discontent roused thereby became +one of the principal causes of the fall of the Omayyads. + +In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause. Yazid b. Abi +Moslim, who had been at the head of the financial department in Irak +under Hajjaj, and had been made governor of Africa by Yazid II., issued +orders that the villagers who, having adopted Islam, were freed from +tribute according to the promise of Omar II., and had left their +villages for the towns, should return to their domiciles and pay the +same tribute as before their conversion. The Berbers rose in revolt, +slaughtered the unfortunate governor, and put in his place the former +governor Mahommed b. Yazid. The caliph at first ratified this choice, +but soon after dismissed Mahommed from his post, and replaced him by +Bishr b. Safwan, who under Hisham made an expedition against Sicily. + +Yazid II. was by natural disposition the opposite of his predecessor. He +did not feel that anxiety for the spiritual welfare of his subjects +which had animated Omar II. Poetry and music, not beloved by Suleiman +and condemned by Omar, were held by him in great honour. Two +court-singers, Sallama and Hababa, exercised great influence, tempered +only by the austerity of manners that prevailed in Syria. He was so +deeply affected by the death of Hababa, that Maslama entreated him not +to exhibit his sorrow to the eyes of the public. He died a few days +later, on the 26th of January 724, according to the chroniclers from +grief for her loss. As his successor he had appointed in the first place +his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid. + +10. _Reign of Hisham_.--Hisham was a wise and able prince and an enemy +of luxury, not an idealist like Omar II., nor a worldling like Yazid +II., but more like his father Abdalmalik, devoting all his energy to the +pacification of the interior, and to extending and consolidating the +empire of Islam. But the discontent, which had been sown under his +predecessors, had now developed to such an extent that he could not +suppress it in detail. His first care was to put an end to the +tyrannical rule of the Qaisites (Modarites) in Irak and Khorasan by +dismissing Omar b. Hobaira and appointing in his place Khalid al-Qasri. +This very able man, who under Hajjaj had been prefect of Mecca, belonged +properly neither to the Qaisites nor to the Yemenites, but as he took +the place of Ibn Hobaira and dismissed his partisans from their posts, +the former considered him as their adversary, the latter as their +benefactor. After his death, in particular, the Yemenites celebrated him +as their chief, and assigned as the reason for their revolt the injuries +which he suffered. Khalid himself assuredly did not intend it. He was a +loyal servant of the dynasty, and remained such even after receiving +very harsh treatment from them. For fifteen years Khalid governed the +eastern half of the empire, and continued to maintain peace with only +few exceptions throughout. He did much for the reclaiming and improving +of lands in Irak, in which the caliph himself and several princes took +an active part. The great revenues obtained thereby naturally caused +much jealousy. Khalid lived on a very rich scale and was extraordinarily +liberal, and he was charged with having carried out all his improvements +for his own interests, and upbraided for selling the corn of his estates +only when the prices were high. To these charges were added the +accusation that he was too tolerant to Christians, Jews and +Zoroastrians. As his mother professed the Christian religion, he was +accused of infidelity. At last a conspiracy, into which the principal +engineer of Khalid, Hassan the Nabataean, had been drawn, succeeded in +inciting Hisham against Khalid. They told him that Khalid had used +disrespectful terms in speaking of the caliph, and that he had +appropriated revenues belonging to the state. The latter imputation +especially influenced Hisham, who was very parsimonious. When the +dismissal of Khalid had been resolved upon, Yusuf b. Omar, his appointed +successor, was sent secretly to Kufa, where he seized on Khalid +unawares. For eighteen months Khalid remained in prison. But when he +declined even under torture to confess that he had been guilty of +extensive peculation, he was finally released. He settled at Damascus +and made a noble return for his injuries by taking an active part in the +war against the Greeks. In the summer of A.D. 740, while he was in Asia +Minor, a great fire broke out in Damascus, the guilt of which was +attributed to Khalid. Though it soon appeared that the imputation was +false, Khalid, on his return, was furious, and uttered very offensive +words against the caliph. Hisham, however, would not again punish his +old servant; on the contrary, he seems to have regarded his indignation +as a proof of innocence. + +The successor of Khalid in Irak had not long been in office when Zaid b. +Ali, grandson of Hosain b. Ali, who had come to Kufa for a lawsuit, was +persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi'a to organize a revolt. He succeeded +in so far that 15,000 Kufians swore to fight with him for the +maintenance of the commandments of the Book of God and the _Sunna_ +(orthodox tradition) of his Prophet, the discomfiture of the tyrants, +the redress of injury, and last, not least, the vindication of the +family of the Prophet as the rightful caliphs. The revolt broke out on +the 6th of January 740. Unfortunately for Zaid he had to do with the +same Kufians whose fickleness had already been fatal to his family. He +was deserted by his troops and slain. His body was crucified in Kufa, +his head sent to Damascus and thence to Medina. His son Yahya, still a +youth, fled to Balkh in Khorasan, but was discovered at last and hunted +down, till he fell sword in hand under Walid II. Abu Moslim, the founder +of the Abbasid dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that +occasion adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive +colour of the dynasty. + +In Khorasan also there were very serious disturbances. The Sogdians, +though subdued by Sa'id al Harashi, were not appeased, but implored the +assistance of the Turks, who had long been contending earnestly against +the Arabs for the dominion of Transoxiana. They found besides a most +valuable ally in Harith b. Soraij, a distinguished captain of the Arabic +tribe of Tamim, who, with many pious Moslems, was scandalized by the +government's perfidy in regard to the new converts. Harith put himself +at the head of all the malcontents, and raised the black flag, in +compliance with a Sibylline prophecy, holding that the man with the +black flag (the Prophet's flag) would put an end to the tyranny, and be +the precursor of the Mahdi.[22] The government troops suffered more than +one defeat, but in the last month of the year 118 (A.D. 736) the +governor Asad al-Qasri, the brother of Khalid, after having defeated +Harith, gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, which finally caused +them to retreat. Asad died almost simultaneously with the dismissal of +Khalid. Hisham then separated Khorasan from Irak and chose as governor +of the former Nasr b. Sayyar, a valiant soldier who had grown grey in +war, and who, besides all his other capacities, was an excellent poet. +Nasr instituted a system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced +earlier, would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that +which later on was generally adopted, viz. that all possessors of +conquered lands (i.e. nearly the whole empire except Arabia), whether +Moslems or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in addition to pay a +poll-tax, from which they were relieved on conversion to Islam. During +the reign of Hisham, Nasr made a successful expedition against Harith +and the Turks. The propaganda of the Shi'a by the Abbasids was +continued in these years with great zeal. + +In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam under the +Caliphate of Omar II. declared themselves independent, because the +promise of equal rights for all Moslems was not kept under the reign of +his successors. This led to the evacuation of the eastern part of India +(called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the name of the western part), and +to the founding of the strong cities of Mahfuza and Mansura for the +purpose of controlling the land. + +In the north and north-west of the empire there were no internal +disorders, but the Moslems had hard work to maintain themselves against +the Alans and the Khazars. In the year 112 (A.D. 730) they suffered a +severe defeat, in which the general Jarrah perished. But the illustrious +Maslama b. Abdalmalik, and Merwan b. Mahommed (afterwards caliph), +governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan (Adherbaijan), succeeded in repelling +the Khazars, imposing peace on the petty princes of the eastern +Caucasus, and consolidating the Arab power in that quarter. The war +against the Byzantines was continued with energy during the whole of +Hisham's reign. Moawiya, the son of Hisham, whose descendants reigned +later in Spain, was in command till 118 (A.D. 736), when he met his +death accidentally in Asia Minor by a fall from his horse. After his +death, Suleiman, another son of the caliph, had the supreme command. +Both were eager and valiant warriors. But the hero of all the battles +was Abdallah b. Hosain, surnamed al-Battal (the brave). He has been the +subject of many romantic tales. Tabari tells how he took the emperor +Constantine prisoner in the year 114 (A.D. 732; but Constantine V. +Copronymus only began to reign in 740 or 741 A.D.); another Arabic +author places this event in the year 122, adding that al-Battal, having +defeated the Greeks, was attacked and slain in returning with his +captives. The Greek historians say nothing about Constantine having been +made prisoner. It is probable that the Arabs took another Greek soldier +for the prince.[23] The victories of the Moslems had no lasting results. +During the troubles that began in the reign of Walid II., the Greeks +reconquered Marash (Germanicia), Malatia (Malatiyeh) and Erzerum +(Theodosiopolis). + +In Spain the attention of the Moslems was principally turned to avenge +the defeat of Samh beyond the Pyrenees. As early as the second year of +the reign of Hisham, 'Anbasa, the governor of Spain, crossed the +Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations vigorously. Carcassonne and +Nimes were taken, Autun sacked. The death of 'Anbasa in A.D. 725 and +internal troubles put a stop to further hostilities. The Berbers were +the chief contingent of the Moslem troops, but were treated by their +Arab masters as inferior people. They began to resent this, and one of +their chiefs, Munisa (Munuza), made himself independent in the north and +allied himself with Odo, king of Aquitaine, who gave him his daughter in +marriage. In the year 113 Abdarrahman b. Abdallah subdued Munisa, +crossed the mountains and penetrated into Gascony by the valley of +Roncesvalles. The Moslems beat Odo, gained possession of Bordeaux, and +overran the whole of southern Gaul nearly as far as the Loire. But in +October 732 their march was checked between Tours and Poitiers by +Charles Martel and after some days of skirmishing a fierce but +indecisive battle was fought. Abdarrahman was among the slain and the +Moslems retreated hastily in the night, leaving their camp to the +Franks. They were, however, not yet discouraged. In 739 the new governor +of Spain, Oqba (Aucupa) b. Hajjaj, a man of high qualities, re-entered +Gaul and pushed forward his raids as far as Lyons, but the Franks again +drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne. Thenceforth the continual +revolts of the Berbers in Africa, and the internal troubles which +disturbed Spain until the reign of Abdarrahman I., effectually checked +the ambition of the Moslems. + +In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The Berbers, though +they had pledged themselves to Islam and had furnished the latest +contingents for the Holy War, were treated as tributary serfs, +notwithstanding the promises given by Omar II. The Kharijites, of whom a +great many had emigrated to Africa, found them eager listeners. Still, +they could not believe that it was according to the will of the caliph +that they were thus treated, until a certain number of their chiefs went +as a deputation to Hisham, but failed to obtain an audience. Thereupon a +fierce insurrection broke out, against which the governor of Africa was +powerless. Hisham at once sent an army of more than 30,000 men, under +the command of Kolthum al-Qoshairi, and Balj b. Bishr. Not far from the +river Sabu in Algeria,[24] the meeting with the army of the insurgents +took place (A.D. 740). Kolthum was beaten and killed; Balj b. Bishr led +the rest of the Syrian army to Ceuta, and thence, near the end of 741, +to Spain, where they aided in the suppression of the dangerous revolt of +the peninsular Berbers. Balj died in 742. A year later the governor, +Abu'l-Khattar, assigned to his troops for settlement divers countries +belonging to the public domain.[25] An effort of the African Berbers to +make themselves masters of Kairawan failed, their army being utterly +defeated by the governor Hanzala. + +Hisham died in February 743, after a reign of twenty years. He had not +been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins of the government +in his own hands. He was a correct Moslem and tolerant towards +Christians and Jews. His financial administration was sound and he +guarded against any misuse of the revenues of the state. But he was not +popular. His residence was at Rosafa on the border of the desert, and he +rarely admitted visitors into his presence; as a rule they were received +by his chamberlain Abrash. Hisham tried to keep himself free from and +above the rival parties, but as his vicegerents were inexorable in the +exaction of tribute, the Qaisites against the Yemenites, the Yemenites +against the Qaisites, both parties alternately had reason to complain, +whilst the non-Arabic Moslems suffered under the pressure and were +dissatisfied. He caused a large extent of land to be brought into +cultivation, and many public works to be executed, and he was accused of +overburdening his subjects for these purposes. Therefore, Yazid III. (as +also the Abbasids) on taking office undertook to abstain from spending +money on building and digging. The principle that a well-filled treasury +is the basis of a prosperous government was pushed by him too far. +Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to the management of +affairs, the Moslem power declined rather than advanced, and signs of +the decay of the Omayyad dynasty began to show themselves. The history +of his four successors, Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim and Merwan II., +is but the history of the fall of the Omayyads. + +11. _Reign of Walid II._--Walid II. was a handsome man, possessed of +extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished poet. But Hisham, +to whom he was successor-designate, foolishly kept him in the +background, and even made earnest efforts to get his own son Maslama +acknowledged as his successor. Walid therefore retired to the country, +and passed his time there in hunting, cultivating poetry, music and the +like, waiting with impatience for the death of Hisham and planning +vengeance on all those whom he suspected of having opposed him. His +first public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10 +dirhems, that of the Syrians by 20. The Omayyads who came to pay their +respects to him received large donations. Many philanthropic +institutions were founded. As to the family of his predecessor, he +contented himself with confiscating their possessions, with the single +exception of Suleiman b. Hisham, whom he had whipped and put in prison. +But the Makhzumites, who were related to Hisham by his mother, he +deprived of all their power and had them tortured to death. The +vicegerents of Hisham were replaced by Qaisites; Yusuf b. Omar, the +governor of Irak, being a Qaisite, was not only confirmed in his office, +but received with it the supreme command of Khorasan. He made use of it +immediately by ordering Nasr b. Sayyar to collect a rich present of +horses, falcons, musical instruments, golden and silver vessels and to +offer it to the caliph in person, but before the present was ready the +news came that Walid had been murdered. + +It is not certain that Walid also suspected Khalid al-Qasri of having +intrigued against him. But Yusuf b. Omar did not rest until he had his +old enemy in his power. It is said that he guaranteed Walid a large sum +of money, which he hoped to extort from Khalid. This unfortunate man +died under torture, which he bore with fortitude, in Muharram 126 +(November 743). + +Walid designated his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate. These were +still under age and were not the children of a freeborn, noble mother. +Both circumstances, according to the then prevailing notions, made them +unfit for the imamate. Moreover, it was an affront, in particular, for +the sons of Walid I., who already had considered the nomination of Yazid +II. as a slight to themselves. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. +Walid I., and joined by the majority of the Merwanid princes and many +Kalbites and other Yemenites who regarded the ill-treatment of Khalid +al-Qasri as an insult to themselves. Various stories were circulated +about the looseness of Walid's manner of life; Yazid accused him of +irreligion, and, by representing himself as a devout and God-fearing +man, won over the pious Moslems. The conspirators met with slight +opposition. A great many troops had been detached by Hisham to Africa +and other provinces, the caliph himself was in one of his country +places; the prefect of Damascus also was absent. Without difficulty, +Yazid made himself master of Damascus, and immediately sent his cousin +Abdalaziz with 2000 men against Walid, who had not more than 200 +fighting men about him. A few men hastened to the rescue, among others +'Abbas b. Walid with his sons and followers. Abdalaziz interrupted his +march, took him prisoner and compelled him to take the oath of +allegiance to his brother Yazid. Walid's small body of soldiers was soon +overpowered. After a valiant combat, the caliph retired to one of his +apartments and sat with the Koran on his knee, in order to die just as +Othman had died. He was killed on the 17th of April 744. His head was +taken to Damascus and carried about the city at the end of a spear. + +On the news of the murder of the caliph, the citizens of Homs (Emesa) +put at their head Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani, a grandson of Yazid I., and +marched against Damascus. They were beaten by Suleiman b. Hisham at a +place called Solaimania, 12 m. from the capital. Abu Mahommed was taken +prisoner and shut up with several of his brethren and cousins in the +Khadra, the old palace of Moawiya, together with the two sons of Walid +II. One or two risings in Palestine were easily suppressed. But the +reigning family had committed suicide. Their unity was broken. The +holiness of their Caliphate, their legitimate authority, had been +trifled with; the hatred of the days of Merj Rahit had been revived. The +orthodox faith also, whose strong representative and defender had +hitherto been the caliph, was shaken by the fact that Yazid III. +belonged to the sect of the Qadaris who rejected the doctrine of +predestination. The disorganization of the empire was at hand. + +12. _Reign of Yazid III._--Yazid III., on his accession, made a fine +speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected from a +good and wise ruler, even offering to make place immediately for the man +whom his subjects should find better qualified for the Caliphate than +himself. He cancelled, however, the increase of the pay granted by Walid +and thus earned the nickname of the _Naqis_ (diminisher). As he owed his +position to the aid of the Kalbites, he chose his officers from among +them. The governorship of Irak was confided to a Kalbite, Mansur b. +Jomhur, a hot-headed and unscrupulous man. Yusuf b. Omar was unable to +offer resistance, and was ultimately taken and confined in the Khadra. +Mansur had hardly been three months in office when Yazid replaced him by +Abdallah, son of Omar II. The distant provinces, with the exception of +Sind and Sijistan, renounced the authority of the new caliph. In Africa +Abdarrahman b. Habib, a descendant of the famous 'Oqba b. Nafi', was +almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself from a +suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Nasr b. Sayyar, the +governor of Khorasan, had not yet decided whether he ought to take the +oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a reign of only five months +and a half, on the 12th of Dhu'l-Hijja A.H. 126 (25th September A.D. +744). + +13. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. He was +acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned no longer +than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and to submit to the +authority of Merwan II. + +14. Merwan II., the son of Mahommed b. Merwan and cousin of Maslama, was +a man of energy, and might have revived the strength of the Omayyad +dynasty, but for the general disorder which pervaded the whole empire. +In 732 Hisham had entrusted to him the government of Armenia and +Azerbaijan, which he held with great success till the death of Walid II. +He had great military capacity and introduced important reforms. On the +murder of Walid he prepared to dispute the supreme power with the new +caliph, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in alarm, offered him as +the price of peace the government of this province together with Armenia +and Azerbaijan. Merwan resolved to accept those conditions, and sent a +deputation to Damascus, which, however, had just reached Manbij +(Hierapolis) when Yazid died. Leaving his son Abdalmalik with 40,000 men +in Rakka, Merwan entered Syria with 80,000 men. Suleiman b. Hisham, at +the head of 120,000 men, was defeated at 'Ain al-Jarr, between Baalbek +and Damascus. Merwan made many prisoners, whom he treated with the +greatest mildness, granting them freedom on condition that they should +take the oath of allegiance to the sons of Walid II. He then marched +upon Damascus. But Suleiman b. Hisham, Yazid, the son of Khalid +al-Qasri, and other chiefs, hastened to the Khadra and killed the two +princes, together with Yusuf b. Omar. Suleiman then made himself master +of the treasury and fled with the caliph Ibrahim to Tadmor (Palmyra). +Only Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani escaped the murderers. When Merwan entered +Damascus this man testified that the sons of Walid II., who had just +become adult, had named Merwan successor to the Caliphate, and was the +first to greet him as Prince of the Believers. All the generals and +officers followed his example and took the oath of allegiance (7th +December A.D. 744). Merwan did all he could to pacify Syria, permitting +the Arabs of the four provinces to choose their own prefects, and even +acquiescing in the selection as prefect of Palestine of Thabit b. +No'aim, who had behaved very treacherously towards him before, but whom +he had forgiven. He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but +transplanted the seat of government to his own town, Harran in +Mesopotamia. Suleiman b. Hisham and Ibrahim tendered their submission +and were pardoned. + +But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Omayyad princes +considered Merwan as an upstart, his mother being a slave-girl; the +Damascenes were angry because he had chosen Harran for his residence; +the Kalbites felt themselves slighted, as the Qaisites predominated. +Thabit b. No'aim revolted in Palestine, Emesa (Homs) and Tadmor were +turbulent, Damascus was besieged by Yazid b. Khalid al Qasri. Merwan, +who wanted to march against Irak, was obliged to return to Syria, where +he put an end to the troubles. This time Thabit b. No'aim had to pay for +his perfidy with his life. After this new pacification, Merwan caused +the Syrians to acknowledge his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate, and +married them to two daughters of Hisham. All the Omayyad princes were +invited to the wedding, Merwan hoping still to conciliate them. He then +equipped 10,000 Syrians, and ordered them to rejoin the army of 20,000 +men from Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin) and Mesopotamia, who, under Yazid b. Omar +b. Hobaira, were already on the march towards Irak. When these Syrians +came to Rosafa (Rusafa), Suleiman b. Hisham persuaded them to proclaim +himself caliph, and made himself master of Kinnesrin. From all sides +Syrians flocked to his aid till he had 70,000 men under his orders. +Merwan immediately ordered Ibn Hobaira to stop his march and to wait for +him at Durin, and marched with the main force against Suleiman, whom he +utterly defeated at Khosaf in the district of Kinnesrin. Suleiman fled +to Homs and thence to Tadmor and on to Kufa, leaving his brother Sa'id +in Homs. The siege of this place by Merwan lasted nearly five months. +After the victory the walls were demolished, and likewise those of +Baalbek, Damascus, Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, +and therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until the +summer of 128 (A.D. 746) could Merwan resume his campaign against Irak. + +The governor of this province, Abdallah, the son of Omar II., was a man +of small energy, whose principal care was his personal ease and comfort. +An ambitious man, Abdallah b. Moawiya, a great-grandson of Ali's brother +Ja'far, put himself at the head of a band of Shi'ites and _maulas_, made +himself master of Kufa and marched upon Hira, where, since Yusuf b. +Omar, the governor and the Syrian troops had resided. The rebels were +defeated, and Kufa surrendered (October 744) under condition of amnesty +for the insurgents and freedom for Abdallah b. Moawiya. This adventurer +now went into Media (Jabal), where a great number of _maulas_ and +Shi'ites, even members of the reigning dynasty and of the Abbasid +family, such as the future caliph Mansur, rejoined him. With their help +he became master of a vast empire, which, however, lasted scarcely three +years. + +Ibn Omar did not acknowledge Merwan as caliph. For the moment Merwan +could do no more than send a new governor, Ibn Sa'id al Harashi. This +officer was supported only by the Qaisite troops, the Kalbites, who were +numerically superior, maintaining Ibn Omar in his residence at Hira. +There were many skirmishes between them, but a common danger soon forced +them to suspend their hostilities. The general disorder after the death +of Hisham had given to the Khawarij an opportunity of asserting their +claims such as they had never had before. They belonged for the greater +part to the Rabi'a, who always stood more or less aloof from the other +Arabs, and had a particular grudge against the Modar. Their leading +tribe, the Shaiban, possessed the lands on the Tigris in the province of +Mosul, and here, after the murder of Walid II., their chief proclaimed +himself caliph. Reinforced by many Kharijites out of the northern +provinces, he marched against Kufa. Ibn Omar and Ibn Sa'id al Harashi +tried to defend their province, but were completely defeated. Harashi +fled to Merwan, Ibn Omar to Hira, which, after a siege of two months, he +was obliged to surrender in Shawwal 127 (August A.D. 745). Mansur b. +Jomhur was the first to pass over to the Khawarij; then Ibn Omar himself +took the oath of allegiance. That a noble Koreishite, a prince of the +reigning house, should pledge himself to follow Dahhak the Shaibanite as +his Imam, was an event of which the Khawarij were very proud. Ibn Omar +was rewarded with the government of eastern Irak, Khuzistan and Fars. + +Whilst Merwan besieged Homs, Dahhak returned to Mesopotamia and took +Mosul, whence he threatened Nisibis, where Abdallah, the son of Merwan, +maintained himself with difficulty. Suleiman b. Hisham also had gone +over to the Khawarij, who now numbered 120,000 men. Mesopotamia itself +was in danger, when Merwan at last was able to march against the enemy. +In a furious battle at Kafartutha (September A.D. 746) the Khawarij were +defeated; Dahhak and his successor Khaibari perished; the survivors were +obliged to retire to Mosul, where they crossed the Tigris. Merwan +followed them and encamped on the western bank. Immediately after the +battle of Kafartutha, Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira directed his troops +towards Irak. He beat the Kharijites repeatedly and entered Kufa in May +or June 747. Ibn Omar was taken prisoner; Mansur b. Jomhur fled to Ibn +Moawiya. Ibn Hobaira was at last free to send Ibn Dobara with an army to +Mesopotamia. At his approach the Kharijites left their camp and fled to +Abdallah b. Moawiya, who was now at the height of his power. But it was +not destined to last. The two generals of Ibn Hobaira, Ibn Dobara and +Nobata b. Hanzala defeated his army; Ibn Moawiya fled to Khorasan, where +he met his death; the chief of the Kharijites, Shaiban Yashkori went to +eastern Arabia; Suleiman b. Hisham and Mansur b. Johmur escaped to +India. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern parts of the empire +lay at the feet of Merwan. But in the north-east, in Khorasan, meanwhile +a storm had arisen, against which his resources and his wisdom were +alike of no avail. + +When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khorasan, Nasr b. +Sayyar did not at once acknowledge the Caliphate of Yazid III., but +induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir of Khorasan, until a +caliph should be universally acknowledged. Not many months later +(Shawwal 126) he was confirmed in his post by Yusuf b. Omar, the +governor of Irak. But Nasr had a personal enemy, the chief of the Azd +(Yemenites) Jodai' al-Kirmani, a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose, +and in a short time the Azd under Kirmani, supported by the Rabi'a, who +always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection, which +Nasr tried in vain to put down by concessions. + +So stood matters when Harith b. Soraij, seconded by Yazid III., +reappeared on the scene, crossed the Oxus and came to Merv. Nasr +received him with the greatest honour, hoping to get his aid against +Kirmani, but Harith, to whom 3000 men of his tribe, the Tamim, had gone +over, demanded Nasr's abdication and tried to make himself master of +Merv. Having failed in this, he allied himself with Kirmani. Nasr could +hold Merv no longer, and retired to Nishapur. But the Tamim of Harith +could not endure the supremacy of the Azd. In a moment the allies were +divided into two camps; a battle ensued, in which Harith was defeated +and killed. Originally, Harith seems to have had the highest aims, but +in reality he did more than any one else to weaken the Arabic dominion. +He brought the Turks into the field against them; he incited the native +population of Transoxiana against their Arab lords, and stirred up +discord between the Arabs themselves. Being a Tamimite, he belonged to +the Modar, on whom the government in Khorasan depended; but he aided the +Yemenites to gain the upper hand of them. Thus he paved the way for Abu +Moslim. + +Since the days of Ali there had been two tendencies among the Shi'ites. +The moderate party distinguished itself from the other Moslems only by +their doctrine that the imamate belonged legally to a man of the house +of the Prophet. The other party, that of the ultra-Shi'ites, named +Hashimiya after Abu Hashim the son of Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, preached +the equality of all Moslems, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the +same divine spirit that had animated the Prophet, incorporated itself +again in his heirs (see SHI'ITES). After the death of Hosain, they chose +for their Imam Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, and at his decease his son Abu +Hashim, from whom Mahommed b. Ali, the grandson of Abdallah b. Abbas, +who resided at Homaima in the south-east of Syria, obtained the secrets +of the party and took the lead (A.H. 98, see above). This Mahommed, the +father of the two first Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability +and great ambition. He directed his energies primarily to Khorasan. The +missionaries were charged with the task of undermining the authority of +the Omayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took place +under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of the court, as +contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects. God would not +suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe that time could not +be far off--He would send a saviour--and out of the house of the +Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore Islam to its original purity. All +who desired to co-operate in this holy purpose must pledge themselves to +unlimited obedience to the Imam, and place their lives and property at +his disposal. As a proof of their sincerity they were required at once +to pay a fixed sum for the Imam. The missionaries had great success, +especially among the non-Arabic inhabitants of Khorasan and Transoxiana. + +Mahommed b. Ali died A.H. 126 (A.D. 743-744), and his son Ibrahim, the +Imam, took his place. Ibrahim had a confidant about whose antecedents +one fact alone seems certain, that he was a _maula_ (client) of Persian +origin. This man, Abu Moslim by name, was a man of real ability and +devoted to his master's cause. To him, in 745-746, the management of +affairs in Khorasan was entrusted, with instructions to consult in all +weighty matters the head of the mission, the Arab Suleiman b. Kathir. At +first the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize +Abu Moslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet. In the +year 129 he judged that the time for open manifestation had arrived. His +partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides on a fixed day at +Siqadenj in the province of Merv. Then, on the 1st Shawwal (15th June +747), the first solemn meeting took place and the black flags were +unfolded. On that occasion Suleiman b. Kathir was still leader, but by +the end of the year Abu Moslim, whom the majority believed to belong +himself to the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a +strong army. Meantime, Nasr had moved from Nishapur to Merv, and here +the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last, the true +significance of Abu Moslim's work was recognized. Nasr warned the Arabs +against their common enemy, "who preaches a religion that does not come +from the Envoy of God, and whose chief aim is the extirpation of the +Arabs." In vain he had entreated Merwan and Ibn Hobaira to send him +troops before it should be too late. When at last it was possible to +them to fulfil his wish, it was in fact too late. For a moment it seemed +as though the rival Arab factions, realizing their common peril, would +turn their combined forces against the Shi'ites. But Abu Moslim +contrived to re-awaken their mutual distrust and jealousy, and, taking +advantage of the opportunity, made himself master of Merv, in Rabia II. +A.H. 130 (December 747). Nasr escaped only by a headlong flight to +Nishapur. This was the end of the Arabic dominion in the East. Many Arab +chiefs were killed, partly by order of Abu Moslim, partly by their +clients. The latter, however, was strictly forbidden by Abu Moslim. So +severe indeed was the discipline he exercised, that one of the chief +missionaries, who by a secret warning had rendered possible the escape +of Nasr from Merv, paid for it with his life. + +As soon as Abu Moslim had consolidated his authority, he sent his chief +general Qahtaba against Nishapur. Nasr's son Tamim was vanquished and +killed, and Nasr retreated to Kumis (Qumis) on the boundary of Jorjan, +whither also advanced from the other side Nobata at the head of an army +sent by Merwan. Qahtaba detached his son Hasan against Nasr and went +himself to meet Nobata, whom he beat on the 1st of Dhu'l-hijja 130 (6th +August 748). Nasr could not further resist. He reached Sawa in the +vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of +eighty-five years. Rei and Hamadan were taken without serious +difficulty. Near Nehawend, Ibn Dobara, at the head of a large army, +encountered Qahtaba, but was defeated and killed. In the month of +Dhu'l-qa'da 131 (June 749) Nehawend (Nehavend) surrendered, and thereby +the way to Irak lay open to Qahtaba. Ibn Hobaira was overtaken and +compelled to retire to Wasit. Qahtaba himself perished in the combat, +but his son Hasan entered Kufa without any resistance on the 2nd of +September 740. + +Merwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the movement in +Khorasan, and had seized upon Ibrahim the Imam and imprisoned him at +Harran. There he died, probably from the plague, though Merwan was +accused of having killed him. When the other Abbasids left Homaima is +not certain. But they arrived at Kufa in the latter half of September +749, where in the meantime the head of the propaganda, Abu Salama, +called the wazir of the family of Mahomet, had previously undertaken the +government. This Abu Salama seems to have had scruples against +recognizing Abu'l-Abbas as the successor of his brother Ibrahim, and to +have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked for from Medina, would not +be slow in making his appearance, little thinking that an Abbasid would +present himself as such. But Abu Jahm, on the instructions of Abu +Moslim, declared to the chief officers of the Khorasanian army that the +Mahdi was in their midst, and brought them to Abu'l-Abbas, to whom they +swore allegiance. Abu Salama also was constrained to take the oath. On +Friday, the 12th Rabia II. A.H. 132 (28th November 749) Abu'l-Abbas was +solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal mosque of Kufa. The trick +had been carried out admirably. On the point of gathering the ripe +fruit, the Alids were suddenly pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched +away by the Abbasids. The latter gained the throne and they took good +care never to be deprived of it. + +After the conquest of Nehawend, Qahtaba had detached one of his +captains, Abu 'Aun, to Shahrazur, where he defeated the Syrian army +which was stationed there. Thereupon Abu 'Aun occupied the land of +Mosul, where he obtained reinforcements from Kufa, headed by Abdallah b. +Ali, an uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, who was to have the supreme command. +Merwan advanced to meet him, and was completely defeated near the +Greater Zab, an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted eleven +days. Merwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to +Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle towards the end of 132 (August +750). His head was cut off and sent to Kufa.[26] Abu Aun, who had been +the real leader of the campaign against Merwan, remained in Egypt as its +governor. Ibn Hobaira, who had been besieged in Wasit for eleven months, +then consented to a capitulation, which was sanctioned by Abu'l-Abbas. +Immediately after the surrender, Ibn Hobaira and his principal officers +were treacherously murdered. In Syria, the Omayyads were persecuted with +the utmost rigour. Even their graves were violated, and the bodies +crucified and destroyed. In order that no members of the family should +escape, Abdallah b. Ali pretended to grant an amnesty to all Omayyads +who should come in to him at Abu Fotros (Antipatris) and acknowledge the +new caliph, and even promised them the restitution of all their +property. Ninety men allowed themselves to be entrapped, and Abdallah +invited them to a banquet. When they were all collected, a body of +executioners rushed into the hall and slew them with clubs. He then +ordered leathern covers to be thrown upon the dying men, and had the +banquet served upon them. In Medina and Mecca Da'ud b. Ali, another +uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, conducted the persecution; in Basra, Suleiman b. +Ali. Abu'l-Abbas himself killed those he could lay his hands on in Hira +and Kufa, amongst them Suleiman b. Hisham, who had been the bitterest +enemy of Merwan. Only a few Omayyads escaped the massacre, several of +whom were murdered later. A grandson of Hisham, Abdarrahman, son of his +most beloved son Moawiya, reached Africa and founded in Spain the +Omayyad dynasty of Cordova. + +With the dynasty of the Omayyads the hegemony passes finally from Syria +to Irak. At the same time the supremacy of the Arabs came to an end. +Thenceforth it is not the contingents of the Arabic tribes which compose +the army, and on whom the government depends; the new dynasty relies on +a standing army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers. +The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations begins +to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic language and the +Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and spread more and more over +the whole empire. + + +C.--THE ABBASIDS + +We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under which the power +of Islam reached its highest point. + +1. Abu'l-Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue in which he +announced the era of concord and happiness which was to begin now that +the House of the Prophet had been restored to its right. He asserted +that the Abbasids were the real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants +of his oldest uncle Abbas. Addressing the Kufians, he said, "Inhabitants +of Kufa, ye are those whose affection towards us has ever been constant +and true; ye have never changed your mind, nor swerved from it, +notwithstanding all the pressure of the unjust upon you. At last our +time has come, and God has brought you the new era. Ye are the happiest +of men through us, and the dearest to us. I increase your pensions with +100 dirhems; make now your preparations, for I am the lavish shedder of +blood[27] and the avenger of blood." + +Notwithstanding these fine words, Abu'l-Abbas did not trust the +Kufians. He resided outside the town with the Khorasanian troops, and +with them went first to Hira, then to Hashimiya, which he caused to be +built in the neighbourhood of Anbar. For their real sympathies, he knew, +were with the house of Ali, and Abu Salama their leader, who had +reluctantly taken the oath of allegiance, did not conceal his +disappointment. Abu Jahm, the vizier (q.v.; also MAHOMMEDAN +INSTITUTIONS), or "helper," of Abu Moslim, advised that Abu Ja'far, the +caliph's brother, should be sent to Khorasan to consult Abu Moslim. The +result was that Abu Salama was assassinated, and at the same time +Suleiman b. Kathir, who had been the head of the propaganda in Khorasan, +and had also expected that the Mahdi would belong to the house of Ali. +It is said that Abu Ja'far, whilst in Khorasan, was so impressed by the +unlimited power of Abu Moslim, and saw so clearly that, though he called +his brother and himself his masters, he considered them as his +creatures, that he vowed his death at the first opportunity. + +The ruin of the Omayyad empire and the rise of the new dynasty did not +take place without mighty convulsions. In Bathaniya and the Hauran, in +the north of Syria, in Mesopotamia and Irak Khorasan insurrections had +to be put down with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the +provinces among the principal members of his family and his generals. To +his brother Abu Ja'far he gave Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and Armenia; to +his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, Syria; to his uncle Da'ud, Hejaz, Yemen and +Yamama (Yemama); to his cousin 'Isa b. Musa, the province of Kufa. +Another uncle, Suleiman b. Ali, received the government of Basra with +Bahrein and Oman; Isma 'il b. Ali that of Ahwaz; Abu Moslim, Khorasan +and Transoxiana; Mahommed b. Ash'ath, Fars; Abu 'Aun, Egypt. In Sind the +Omayyad governor, Mansur b. Jomhur, had succeeded in maintaining +himself, but was defeated by an army sent against him under Musa b. +Ka'b, and the black standard of the Abbasids was raised over the city of +Mansura. Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the +Abbasids never gained any real footing in Spain, while Africa remained, +at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection to the new +dynasty. In 754 Abu Moslim came to Irak to visit Abu'l-Abbas and to ask +his permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was received with +great honour, but the caliph said that he was sorry not to be able to +give him the leadership of the pilgrimage, which he had already +purposely entrusted to his brother, Abu Ja'far. + +Abu'l-Abbas died on the 13th of Dhu'l-hijja 136 (5th June 754). He seems +to have been a man of limited capacity, and had very little share in the +achievements accomplished in his name. He initiated practically nothing +without the consent of Abu Jahm, who was thus the real ruler. In the few +cases where he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his +brother Abu Ja'far. + +2. _Reign of Mansur._--Abu'l-Abbas had designated as his successors +first Abu Ja'far, surnamed al-Mansur (the victorious), and after him his +cousin 'Isa b. Musa. Abu Ja'far was, according to the historians, older +than Abu'l-Abbas, but while the mother of the latter belonged to the +powerful Yemenite tribe of al-Harith b. Ka'b, the mother of Abu Ja'far +was a Berber slave-girl. But he was a son of Mahommed b. Ali, and was +therefore preferred by Abu Moslim to his uncles and cousins. +Abu'l-Abbas, however, had promised the succession to his uncle Abdallah +b. Ali, when he marched against Merwan. When the news of the death of +Abu'l-Abbas reached Abdallah, who at the head of a numerous army was on +the point of renewing the Byzantine war, he came to Harran, furious at +his exclusion, and proclaimed himself caliph. Abu Moslim marched against +him, and the two armies met at Nisibis, where, after a number of +skirmishes, a decisive engagement took place (28th November 754). +Abdallah was defeated and escaped to Basra, where he found a refuge with +his brother Suleiman. A year later he asked for pardon, and took the +oath of allegiance to Mansur. The caliph spared his life for a time, but +he did not forget. In 764 Abdallah met his death by the collapse of his +house, which had been deliberately undermined. + +The first care of Mansur was now to get rid of the powerful Abu Moslim, +who had thus by another brilliant service strengthened his great +reputation. On pretence of conferring with him on important business of +state, Mansur induced him, in spite of the warnings of his best general, +Abu Nasr, to come to Madain (Ctesiphon), and in the most perfidious +manner caused him to be murdered by his guards. Thus miserably perished +the real founder of the Abbasid dynasty, the _Sahib addaula_, as he is +commonly called, the _Amin_ (trustee) of the House of the Prophet. A +witty man, being asked his opinion about Abu Ja'far (Mansur) and Abu +Moslim, said, alluding to the Koran 21, verse 22, "if there were two +Gods, the universe would be ruined." The Khorasanian chiefs were bribed +into submission, and order was at last re-established by Mansur's +general Khazim b. Khozaima in Mesopotamia, and by Abu Da'ud, the +governor of Khorasan in the east. + +About the same time Africa[28] and Spain escaped from the dominion of +the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season, the latter permanently. +The cause of the revolt of Africa was as follows. Mansur had written to +Abdarrahman, announcing the death of Abu'l-Abbas, and requiring him to +take the oath of allegiance. Abdarrahman sent in his adhesion, together +with a few presents of little value. The caliph replied by a threatening +letter which angered Abdarrahman. He called the people together at the +hour of prayer, publicly cursed Mansur from the pulpit and declared him +deposed. He next caused a circular letter, commanding all Maghribins to +refuse obedience to the caliph, to be read from the pulpit throughout +the whole extent of the Maghrib (western North Africa). A brother of +Abdarrahman, Ilyas, saw in this revolt an opportunity of obtaining the +government of Africa for himself. Seconded by many of the inhabitants of +Kairawan, who had remained faithful to the cause of the Abbasids, he +attacked his brother, slew him, and proclaimed himself governor in his +stead. This revolution in favour of the Abbasids was, however, not of +long duration. Habib, the eldest son of Abdarrahman, who had fled in the +night of his father's murder, was captured, but the vessel which was to +convey him to Spain having been detained by stress of weather, his +partisans took arms and rescued him. Ilyas was marching against them, +when the idea occurred to Habib of challenging him to single combat. +Ilyas hesitated, but his own soldiers compelled him to accept the +challenge. He measured arms with Habib, and was slain. The party of +independence thus triumphed, but in the year 144 (761) Mahommed b. +Ash'ath, the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained possession +of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the year 800, it must +be added, Africa only nominally belonged to the Abbasids; for, under the +reign of Harun al-Rashid, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with +the government of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, +that of the Aghlabites. + +At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent Caliphate of +the western Omayyads was founded in Spain. The long dissensions which +had preceded the fall of that dynasty in the East had already prepared +the way for the independence of a province so distant from the centre of +the empire. Every petty amir then tried to seize sovereign power for +himself, and the people groaned under the consequent anarchy. Weary of +these commotions, the Arabs of Spain at last came to an understanding +among themselves for the election of a caliph, and their choice fell +upon one of the last survivors of the Omayyads, Abdarrahman b. Moawiya, +grandson of the caliph Hisham. This prince was wandering in the deserts +of Africa, pursued by his implacable enemies, but everywhere protected +and concealed by the desert tribes, who pitied his misfortunes and +respected his illustrious origin. A deputation from Spain sought him out +in Africa and offered him the Caliphate, which he accepted with joy. On +the 1st Rabia I. 138 (14th August 755) Abdarrahman landed in the Iberian +peninsula, where he was universally welcomed, and speedily founded at +Cordova the Western Omayyad Caliphate (see SPAIN: _History_). + +While Mansur was thus losing Africa and Spain, he was trying to redeem +the losses the empire had sustained on the northern frontier by the +Byzantines. In 750-751 the emperor Constantine V. (Copronymus) had +unsuccessfully blockaded Malatia; but five years later he took it by +force and razed its wall to the ground. Mansur now sent in 757 an army +of 70,000 men under the command of his cousin Abdalwahhab, the son of +Ibrahim the Imam, whom he had made governor of Mesopotamia, the real +chief being Hasan b. Qahtaba. They rebuilt all that the emperor had +destroyed, and made this key of Asia Minor stronger than ever before. +The Moslems then made a raid by the pass of Hadath (Adata) and invaded +the land of the Byzantines. Two aunts of the caliph took part in this +expedition, having made a vow that if the dominion of the Omayyads were +ended they would wage war in the path of God. Constantine advanced with +a numerous army, but was afraid of attacking the invaders. The Moslems +also rebuilt Mopsuestia. But from 758 till 763 Mansur was so occupied +with his own affairs that he could not think of further raids. + +In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called +Rawendis (q.v.), went to Hashimiya, the residence of the caliph, not far +from Kufa. They believed that the caliph was their lord, to whom they +owed their daily bread, and came to pay him divine honours. They began +by marching in solemn procession round the palace, as if it had been the +Ka'ba. Mansur being told of it said: "I would rather they went to hell +in obedience to us, than to heaven in disobedience." But as they grew +tumultuous, and he saw that this impious homage gave offence to his men, +he caused the principal leaders to be seized and thrown into prison. The +Rawendis immediately rose in revolt, broke the prison doors, rescued +their chiefs, and returned to the palace. The unfortunate fanatics were +hunted down and massacred to the last man, and thereby the ties that +bound the Abbasids to the ultra-Shi'ites were severed. From that time +forward the Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam, +just as the Omayyads had been. The name of Hashimiya, which the reigning +family still retained, was henceforward derived not from Abu Hashim, but +from Hashim, the grandfather of Abbas, the great-grandfather of the +Prophet. + +A much greater danger now threatened Mansur. In the last days of the +Omayyads, the Shi'ites had chosen as caliph, Mahommed b. Abdallah b. +Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi and the "pure soul," and Mansur had +been among those who pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, +the Alids in Medina were indignant at being supplanted by the Abbasids, +and Mansur's chief concern was to get Mahommed into his power. +Immediately after his occupying the throne, he named Ziyad b. Obaidallah +governor of Medina, with orders to lay hands on Mahommed and his brother +Ibrahim, who, warned betimes, took refuge in flight. In 758 Mansur, +informed that a revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and +ordered Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or +would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other +relatives were seized and transported to Irak, where Abdallah and his +brother Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned. Notwithstanding all +these precautions, a vast conspiracy was formed. On the same day +Mahommed was to raise the standard of revolt in Medina, Ibrahim in +Basra. But the Alids, though not devoid of personal courage, never +excelled in politics or in tactics. In A.D. 762 Mahommed took Medina and +had himself proclaimed caliph. The governor of Kufa, 'Isa b. Musa, +received orders to march against him, entered Arabia, and captured +Medina, which, fortified by Mahommed by the same means as the Prophet +had employed against the besieging Meccans, could not hold out against +the well-trained Khorasanians. Mahommed was defeated and slain. His head +was cut off and sent to Mansur. When on the point of death, Mahommed +gave the famous sword of the Prophet called Dhu'l-Fiqar to a merchant to +whom he owed 400 dinars. It came later into the possession of Harun +al-Rashid. In the meanwhile Ibrahim had not only gained possession of +Basra, Ahwaz and Fars, but had even occupied Wasit. The empire of the +Abbasids was in great jeopardy. For fifty days Mansur stayed in his +room, neither changing his clothes nor allowing himself a moment's +repose. The greater part of his troops were in Rei with his son +al-Mahdi, who had conquered Tabaristan, in Africa, with Mahommed b. +Ash'ath, and in Arabia with 'Isa b. Musa. Had Ibrahim marched at once +against Kufa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the +opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Ba-Khamra, 48 m. from +Kufa. Homaid b. Qahtaba, the commander of Mansur's army, was defeated, +only a small division under 'Isa b. Musa holding its ground. At that +moment Salm, the son of the famous Qotaiba b. Moslim, came to the rescue +by attacking the rear of Ibrahim. Homaid rallied his troops, and Ibrahim +was overpowered. At last he fell, pierced by an arrow, and, in spite of +the desperate efforts of his followers, his body remained in the hands +of the enemy. His head was cut off and brought to Mansur. + +Mansur could now give his mind to the founding of the new capital. When +the tumult of the Rawendis took place he saw clearly that his personal +safety was not assured in Hashimiya,[29] where a riot of the populace +could be very dangerous, and his troops were continually exposed to the +perverting influence of the fickle and disloyal citizens of Kufa. He had +just made choice of the admirable site of the old market-town of Bagdad +when the tidings came of the rising of Mahommed in Medina. In those days +he saw that he had been very imprudent to denude himself of troops, and +decided to keep henceforth always with him a body of 30,000 soldiers. So +Bagdad, or properly "the round city" of Mansur, on the western bank of +the Tigris, was built as the capital. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in +the centre of which was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. +But around this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which +was to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate +lasted.[30] The building lasted three years and was completed in the +year 149 (A.D. 766). That year is really the beginning of the new era. +"The Omayyads," says the Spanish writer Ibn Hazm, "were an Arabic +dynasty; they had no fortified residence, nor citadel; each of them +dwelt in his villa, where he lived before becoming caliph; they did not +desire that the Moslems should speak to them as slaves to their master, +nor kiss the ground before them or their feet; they only gave their care +to the appointment of able governors in the provinces of the empire. The +Abbasids, on the contrary, were a Persian dynasty, under which the Arab +tribal system, as regulated by Omar, fell to pieces; the Persians of +Khorasan were the real rulers, and the government became despotic as in +the days of Chrosroes." The reign of Abu'l-Abbas and the first part of +that of Mansur had been almost a continuation of the former period. But +now his equals in birth and rank, the Omayyads and the Alids, had been +crushed; the principal actors in the great struggle, the leaders of the +propaganda and Abu Moslim were out of the way; the caliph stood far +above all his subjects; and his only possible antagonists were the +members of his own family. + +'Isa b. Musa had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu'l-Abbas as +successor to Mansur. The latter having vainly tried to compel 'Isa to +renounce his right of succession, in favour of Mansur's son Mahommed +al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who swore that he had done so. +However unwillingly, 'Isa was obliged at last to yield, but it was +understood that, in case of Mahommed's death, the succession should +return to 'Isa. One of the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khalid +b. Barmak, the head of that celebrated family the Barmecides (q.v.), +which played so important a part in the reign of Harun al-Rashid. This +Khalid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family in Balkh, and +had been one of the trusty supporters of Abu Moslim, Mansur appointed as +minister of finance. + +A son of Mahommed the Alid had escaped to India, where, with the +connivance of the governor Omar b. Hafs Hazarmerd, he had found refuge +with an Indian king. Mansur discovered his abode, and caused him to be +killed. His infant son was sent to Medina and delivered to his family. +Omar Hazarmerd lost his government and received a command in Africa, +where he died in 770. + +In A.H. 158 (A.D. 775) Mansur undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca, but +succumbed to dysentery at the last station on the route. He was about +sixty-five years of age, and had reigned for twenty-two years. He was +buried at Mecca. He was a man of rare energy and strength of mind. His +ambition was boundless and no means, however perfidious, were despised +by him. But he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able +officers for all places. He was thrifty and anxious to leave to his son +a full treasury. He seems to have cherished the ideal that this son, +called Mahommed b. Abdallah, after the Prophet, should fulfil the +promises of peace and happiness that had been tendered to the believers, +and therefore to have called him al-Mahdi. For that purpose it was +necessary that he should have the means not only to meet all state +expenses, but also to be bounteous. But from the report of the historian +Haitham b. 'Adi[31] about the last discourse which father and son had +together, we gather that the former had misgivings in regard to the +fulfilment of his wishes. + +Khalid b. Barmak took the greatest care of the revenues, but contrived +at the same time to consult his own interests. Mansur discovered this in +the same year in which he died, and threatened him with death unless he +should pay to the treasury three millions of dirhems within three days. +Khalid already had so many friends that the sum was brought together +with the exception of 30,000 dirhems. At that moment tidings came about +a rising in the province of Mosul, and a friend of Khalid said to the +caliph that Khalid was the only man capable of putting it down. +Thereupon Mansur overlooked the deficiency and gave Khalid the +government of Mosul. "And," said a citizen of that town, "we had such an +awe and reverence for Khalid, that he appeased the disorders, almost +without punishing anybody." + +3. _Reign of Mahdi._--As soon as Mansur was dead, Rabi', his client and +chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals who accompanied the +caliph, to take the oath of allegiance to his son Mahommed al-Mahdi, who +was then at Bagdad. Isa b. Musa hesitated, but was compelled to give in. +In 776 Mahdi constrained him for a large bribe to renounce his right of +succession in favour of his sons, Musa and Harun. Mansur wrote in his +testament to his son that he had brought together so much money that, +even if no revenue should come in for ten years, it would suffice for +all the wants of the state. Mahdi, therefore, could afford to be +munificent, and in order to make his accession doubly welcome to his +subjects, he began by granting a general amnesty to political prisoners. +Among these was a certain Ya'qub b. Da'ud, who, having insinuated +himself into the confidence of the caliph, especially by discovering the +hiding places of certain Alids, was afterwards (in 778) made prime +minister. The provincial governors in whom his father had placed +confidence, Mahdi superseded by creatures of his own. + +In Khorasan many people were discontented. The promises made to them +during the war against the Omayyads had not been fulfilled, and the new +Mahdi did not answer at all to their ideal. A revolt in 160 under the +leadership of a certain Yusuf b. Ibrahim, surnamed al-Barm, was +suppressed by Yazid b. Mazyad, who, after a desperate struggle, defeated +Yusuf, took him prisoner and brought him in triumph to Bagdad, where he +with several of his officers was killed and crucified. In the following +year, Mahdi was menaced by a far more dangerous revolt, led by a +sectary, known generally as Mokanna (q.v.), or "the veiled one," because +he always appeared in public wearing a mask. He took up his abode in the +Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he gathered around +him a great number of adherents. After some successes, the pretender was +ultimately cornered at the castle of Sanam near Kish, and took poison +together with all the members of his family. His head was cut off and +sent to Mahdi in the year 163. + +Mahdi had been scarcely a year on the throne when he resolved to +accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca. The chroniclers relate that on this +occasion for the first time camels loaded with ice for the use of the +caliph came to Mecca. Immediately on his arrival in the Holy City he +applied himself, at the request of the inhabitants, to the renewal of +the curtains which covered the exterior walls of the Ka'ba. For a very +long time no care had been taken to remove the old covering when a new +one was put on; and the accumulated weight caused uneasiness respecting +the stability of the walls. Mahdi caused the house to be entirely +stripped and anointed with perfumes, and covered the walls again with a +single cloth of great richness. The temple itself was enlarged and +restored. On this occasion he distributed considerable largesses among +the Meccans. From Mecca Mahdi went to Medina, where he caused the mosque +to be enlarged, and where a similar distribution of gifts took place. +During his stay in that city he formed for himself a guard of honour, +composed of 500 descendants of the Ansar,[32] to whom he assigned a +quarter in Bagdad, named after them the Qati'a (Fief) of the Ansar. +Struck by the difficulties of every kind which had to be encountered by +poor pilgrims to Mecca from Bagdad and its neighbourhood, he ordered +Yaqtin, his freedman, to renew the milestones, to repair the old +reservoirs, and to dig wells and construct cisterns at every station of +the road where they were missing. He also had new inns built and decayed +ones repaired. Yaqtin remained inspector of the road till 767. + +During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the Byzantines had +taken place almost without intermission, but the only feat of importance +had been the conquest of Laodicea, called "the burnt" ([Greek: hae +katakekaumenae]), by Ma'yuf b. Yahya in the year 770. At first the +armies of Mahdi were not successful. The Greeks even conquered Marash +(Germanicia) and annihilated the Moslem army sent from Dabiq. In 778, +however, Hasan b. Qahtaba made a victorious raid as far as Adhruliya +(Dorylaeum); it was on his proposition that Mahdi resolved on building +the frontier town called Hadath (Adata), which became an outpost. In 779 +the caliph decided on leading his army in person. He assembled his army +in the plains of Baradan north of Bagdad and began his march in the +early spring of 780, taking with him his second son Harun, and leaving +his elder son Musa as his lieutenant in Bagdad. Traversing Mesopotamia +and Syria, he entered Cilicia, and established himself on the banks of +the Jihan (Pyramus). Thence he despatched an expeditionary force, +nominally under the command of Harun, but in reality under that of his +tutor, the Barmecide Yahya b. Khalid. Harun captured the fortress Samalu +after a siege of thirty-eight days, the inhabitants surrendering on +condition that they should not be killed or separated from one another. +The caliph kept faith with them, and settled them in Bagdad, where they +built a monastery called after their native place. In consequence of +this feat, Mahdi made Harun governor of the whole western part of the +empire, including Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out +afresh between the Moslems and the Greeks. Leo IV., the East Roman +emperor, had recently died, leaving the crown to Constantine VI. This +prince being only ten years old, his mother Irene acted as regent and +assumed the title Augusta. By her orders an army of 90,000 men, under +the command of Michael Lachanodrakon, entered Asia Minor. The Moslems, +on their side, invaded Cilicia under the orders of Abdalkabir who, being +afraid of encountering the enemy, retired with his troops. Irritated by +this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Harun, accompanied by his +chamberlain Rabi', with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with orders to +carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. The patrician +Nicetas, count of Opsikion, who sought to oppose his march, was defeated +by Harun's general, Yazid b. Mazyad, and put to flight. Harun then +marched against Nicomedia, where he vanquished the domesticus, the chief +commander of the Greek forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the +Bosporus. Irene took alarm, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for +three years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual +tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Moslems with guides and +markets on their way home. This brilliant success so increased Mahdi's +affection for Harun that he appointed him successor-designate after Musa +and named him _al-Rashid_ ("the follower of the right cause"). Three +years later, he resolved even to give to him the precedence in the +succession instead of Musa, yielding to the importunity of Khaizoran, +the mother of the two princes, and to his own predilection. It was +necessary first to obtain from Musa a renunciation of his rights; and +for that purpose he was recalled from Jorjan, where he was engaged on an +expedition against the rebels of Tabaristan. Musa, informed of his +father's intentions, refused to obey this order, and Mahdi determined to +march in person against him. But, after his arrival at Masabadhan, a +place in Jabal (Media, the later Persian Irak), he died suddenly, at the +age of only forty-three. Some attribute his death to an accident met +with in hunting; others believe him to have been poisoned. Some European +scholars have suspected Musa of having been concerned in it, but of this +we have no proof whatever. + +The reign of Mahdi was a time of great prosperity. Much was done for the +organization of the huge empire; agriculture and commerce flourished; +the revenues were increasing, whilst the people fared well. The power of +the state was acknowledged even in the far east: the emperor of China, +the king of Tibet, and many Indian princes concluded treaties with the +caliph. He was an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, repudiating all +the extravagant doctrine preached by the Abbasid missionaries and +formerly professed by his father. In particular he persecuted +mercilessly the Manichaeans and all kinds of freethinkers. + +4. _Reign of Hadi_.--On the death of Mahdi, Harun, following the advice +of Yahya. b. Khalid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate, with letters of +condolence and congratulation, to Musa in Jorjan, and brought the army +which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully back from Media to Bagdad. Musa +returned in all haste to the capital, and assumed the title of _al-Hadi_ +("he who directs"). The accession of a new caliph doubtless appeared to +the partisans of the house of Ali a favourable opportunity for a rising. +Hosain b. Ali b. Hasan III. raised an insurrection at Medina with the +support of numerous adherents, and proclaimed himself caliph. Thence he +went to Mecca, where on the promise of freedom many slaves flocked to +him, and many pilgrims also acknowledged him. Suleiman b. Mansur, the +caliph's representative in the pilgrimage of that year, was entrusted +with the command against him. Hosain was attacked at Fakh, 3 m. from +Mecca, and perished in the combat with many other Alids. His maternal +uncle, Idris b. Abdallah, a brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, the rivals +of Mansur, succeeded in escaping, and fled to Egypt, whence by the help +of the postmaster, himself a secret partisan of the Shi'ites, he passed +into West Africa, where at a later period his son founded the Idrisite +dynasty in Fez (see MOROCCO). + +Hadi, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly escaped +being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for excluding him from +the Caliphate and transmitting the succession to his own son Ja'far. To +this he obtained the assent of his ministers and the principal chiefs of +his army, with the exception of Yahya b. Khalid, Harun's former tutor, +who showed such firmness and boldness that Hadi cast him into prison and +resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already given +orders for his execution, when he himself was killed (September 14th, +786) by his mother Khaizoran, who had systematically and successfully +intrigued against him with the object of gaining the real power for +herself. Hadi, indignant at the fact that she was generally regarded as +the real source of authority, had attempted to poison her, and +Khaizoran, hoping to find a more submissive instrument of her will in +her second and favourite son, caused Hadi to be smothered with cushions +by two young slaves whom she had presented to him. She herself died +three years later. + +5. _Reign of Harun al-Rashid_.--We have now reached the most celebrated +name among the Arabian caliphs, celebrated not only in the East, but in +the West as well, where the stories of the _Thousand and One Nights_ +have made us familiar with that world which the narrators represent in +such brilliant colours. Harun ascended the throne without opposition. +His first act was to choose as prime minister his former tutor, the +faithful Yahya b. Khalid, and to confide important posts to the two sons +of Yahya, Fadl and Ja'far, of whom the former was his own +foster-brother, the latter his intimate friend. The Barmecide family +were endowed in the highest degree with those qualities of generosity +and liberality which the Arabs prized so highly, and the chronicles +never weary in their praises. Loaded with all the burdens of government, +Yahya brought the most distinguished abilities to the exercise of his +office. He put the frontiers in a good state of defence; he filled the +public treasury, and carried the splendour of the throne to the highest +point. His sons, especially Fadl, were worthy of their father. + +Although the administration of Harun's states was committed to skilful +hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free from +troubles. Towards the year 176 (A.D. 792-793) a man of the house of Ali, +named Yahya b. Abdallah, another brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, who +had taken refuge in the land of Dailam on the south-western shores of +the Caspian Sea, succeeded in forming a powerful party, and publicly +claimed the Caliphate. Harun immediately sent against him an army of +50,000 men, under the command of Fadl, whom he made governor of all the +Caspian provinces. Reluctant, however, to fight against a descendant of +the Prophet, Fadl first attempted to induce him to submit by promising +him safety and a brilliant position at the court of Bagdad. +Yahyaaccepted the proposal, but required that the caliph should send him +letters of pardon countersigned by the highest legal authorities and the +principal personages of the empire. Harun consented and Yahya went to +Bagdad, where he met with a splendid reception. At the end of some +months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy, and the +caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a possible rival, +threw him into prison, where he died, according to the majority of the +historians, of starvation. Others say that Ja'far b. Yahya b. Khalid, to +whose care he had been entrusted, suffered him to escape, and that this +was the real cause of Harun's anger against the Barmecides (q.v.). +Dreading fresh insurrections of the Alids, Harun secured the person of +another descendant of Ali, Musa b. Ja'far, surnamed al-Kazim, who +enjoyed great consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and +released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by the caliph +himself to Bagdad, and there died, apparently by poison. + +Meanwhile Harun did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam. In the +first year of his reign all the strong places of Kinnesrin and +Mesopotamia were formed into a special province, which received the name +of al-'Awasim ("the defending fortresses"), with Manbij (Hierapolis) as +its capital. The building of the fortress of Hadath having been +completed, Harun committed to Faraj the Turk the task of rebuilding and +fortifying the city of Tarsus. Thanks to these and similar measures, the +Moslem armies were able to advance boldly into Asia Minor. Almost every +year successful raids were made, in the year 797 under the command of +the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to sue for peace. An +attack by the Khazars called the caliph's attention from his successes +in Asia Minor. This people had made an irruption into Armenia, and their +attack had been so sudden that the Moslems and Christians were unable to +defend themselves, and 100,000 had been reduced to captivity. Two +valiant generals, Khozaima b. Khazim and Yazid b. Mazyad, marched +against the Khazars and drove them out of Armenia. + +In the midst of the cares of war, Harun was assiduous in his religious +duties, and few years passed without his making the pilgrimage. Having +determined to fix the order of succession in so formal a manner as to +take away all pretext for future contentions, he executed a deed by +which he appointed his eldest son Mahommed his immediate heir, and after +him the second, Abdallah, and after Abdallah the third, Qasim. Mahommed +received the surname of _al-Amin_ ("the Sure"), Abdallah that of +_al-Ma'mun_ ("he in whom men trust"), and Qasim that of _al-Mo'tamin +billah_ ("he who trusts in God"). Harun further stipulated that Mamun +should have as his share during the lifetime of his brother the +government of the eastern part of the empire. Each of the parties +concerned swore to observe faithfully every part of this deed, which the +caliph caused to be hung up in the Ka'ba, imagining that it would be +thus guaranteed against all violation on the part of men, a precaution +which was to be rendered vain by the perfidy of Amim. + +It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very moment when +the Barmecides thought their position most secure, that Harun brought +sudden ruin upon them. The causes of their disgrace have been +differently stated by the annalists (see BARMECIDES). The principal +cause appears to have been that they abused the sovereign power which +they exercised. Not a few were jealous of their greatness and sought for +opportunities of instilling distrust against them into the mind of +Harun, and of making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The +secret dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some +apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the Alid Yahya +b. Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Harun resolved on their +destruction, and Ja'far b. Yahya, who had just taken leave of him after +a day's hunting, was arrested, taken to the castle of Harun, and +beheaded. The following day, his father Yahya, his brother Fadl, and all +the other Barmecides were arrested and imprisoned; all their property +was confiscated. The only Barmecide who remained unmolested with his +family was Mahommed the brother of Yahya, who had been the chamberlain +of the caliph till 795, when Fadl b. Rabi' got his place. This latter +had henceforward the greatest influence at court. + +In the same year a revolution at Constantinople overthrew the empress +Irene. The new emperor Nicephorus, thinking himself strong enough to +refuse the payment of tribute, wrote an insulting letter to Harun, who +contented himself with replying: "Thou shall not hear, but see, my +answer." He entered Asia Minor and took Heraclea, plundering and burning +along his whole line of march, till Nicephorus, in alarm, sued for +peace. Scarcely had the caliph returned into winter quarters when +Nicephorus broke the treaty. When the news came to Rakka, where Harun +was residing, not one of the ministers ventured to tell him, until at +last a poet introduced it in a poem which pleased the monarch. +Notwithstanding the rigour of the season, Harun retraced his steps, and +Nicephorus was compelled to observe his engagements. In 805 the first +great ransoming of Moslem prisoners took place on the banks of the +little river Lamus in Cilicia. But Nicephorus, profiting by serious +disturbances in Khorasan, broke the treaty again, and overran the +country as far as Anazarba and Kanisat as-sauda ("the black church") on +the frontier, where he took many prisoners, who were, however, recovered +by the garrison of Mopsuestia. Thus Harun was obliged to take the field +again. He entered Asia Minor with an army of 135,000 regulars, beside +volunteers and camp followers. Heraclea was taken, together with many +other places, and Tyana was made a military station. At the same time +his admiral, Homaid b. Ma'yuf, conquered Cyprus, which had broken the +treaty, and took 16,000 of its people captive. Nicephorus was now so +completely beaten that he was compelled to submit to very harsh +conditions. In the year 808 the second ransoming between the Moslems and +the Greeks took place near the river Lamus. + +The disturbances in Khorasan were caused by the malversations of the +governor of that province, Ali b. 'Isa b. Mahan. The caliph went in +person to Merv, in order to judge of the reality of the complaints which +had reached him. Ali b. 'Isa hastened to meet the caliph on his arrival +at Rai (Rhagae), near the modern Teheran, with a great quantity of +costly presents, which he distributed with such profusion among the +princes and courtiers that no one was anxious to accuse him. Harun +confirmed him in his post, and, after having received the chiefs of +Tabaristan who came to tender their submission, returned through Bagdad +to Rakka on the Euphrates, which city was his habitual residence. In the +following year Rafi' b. Laith, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyar, raised the +standard of revolt in Samarkand, and, at the head of a numerous army, +defeated the son of Ali b. 'Isa. Thereupon Ali fled from Balkh, leaving +the treasury, which was plundered by the populace after his departure. +The caliph on learning that the revolt was due to Ali's tyranny, sent +Harthama b. A'yan with stringent orders to seize Ali and confiscate his +possessions. This order was carried out, and it is recorded that 1500 +camels were required to transport the confiscated treasures. The +caliph's hope that Rafi' would submit on condition of receiving a free +pardon was not fulfilled, and he resolved to set out himself to +Khorasan, taking with him his second son Mamun. On the journey he was +attacked by an internal malady, which carried him off, ten months after +his departure from Bagdad, A.H. 193 (March 809), just on his arrival at +the city of Tus. Harun was only forty-five years of age. He was far from +having the high qualifications of his grandfather Mansur; indeed he did +not even possess the qualities of his father and his brother. When the +latter asked him to renounce his right of succession, he was willing to +consent, saying that a quiet life with his beloved wife, the princess +Zobaida, was his highest wish, but he obeyed his mother and Yahya b. +Khalid. As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on their +direction. After their disgrace he was led into many impolitic actions +by his violent and often cruel propensities. But the empire was, +especially in the earlier part of his reign, in a very prosperous state, +and was respected widely by foreign powers. Embassies passed between +Charlemagne and Harun in the years 180 (A.D. 797) and 184 (A.D. 801), by +which the former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, +the latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean +ports. The ambassadors brought presents with them; on one of these +occasions the first elephant reached the land of the Franks. + +Under the reign of Harun, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, the governor of Africa, +succeeded in making himself independent of the central government, on +condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his suzerain the caliph. +This was, if we do not take Spain into the account, the first instance +of dismemberment, later to be followed by many others. + +In the days of this caliph the first paper factories were founded in +Bagdad. + +6. _Reign of Amin_.--On the death of Harun his minister, Fadl b. Rabi', +with the view of gaining the new caliph's confidence, hastened to call +together all the troops of the late caliph and to lead them back to +Bagdad, in order to place them in the hands of the new sovereign, Amin. +He even, in direct violation of Harun's will, led back the corps which +was intended to occupy Khorasan under the authority of Mamun. Aware, +however, that in thus acting he was making Mamun his irreconcilable +enemy, he persuaded Amin to exclude Mamun from the succession. Mamun, on +receiving his brother's invitation to go to Bagdad, was greatly +perplexed; but his tutor and later vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, a Zoroastrian +of great influence, who in 806 had adopted Islam, reanimated his +courage, and pointed out to him that certain death awaited him at +Bagdad. Mamun resolved to hold out, and found pretexts for remaining in +Khorasan. Amin, in anger, caused the will of his father, which, as we +have seen, was preserved in the Ka'ba, to be destroyed, declared on his +own authority that Mamun's rights of succession were forfeited, and +caused the army to swear allegiance to his own son Musa, a child of +five, on whom he bestowed the title of _an-Natiq bil-Haqq_ ("he who +speaks according to truth"), A.H. 194 (A.D. 809-810). On hearing the +news, Mamun, strong in the rightfulness of his claim, retaliated by +suppressing the caliph's name in all public acts. Amin immediately +despatched to Khorasan an army of 40,000 under the command of Ali b. +'Isa, who had regained his former influence, and told the caliph that, +at his coming to Khorasan, all the leading men would come over to his +side. Zobaida, the mother of the caliph, entreated Ali to treat Mamun +kindly when he should have made him captive. It is said that Fadl b. +Sahl had, through a secret agent, induced Fadl b. Rabi' to select Ali, +knowing that the dislike felt towards him by the Khorasanians would +double their strength in fighting against him. Mamun, on his side, sent +in all haste an army of less than 4000 men of his faithful Khorasanians, +and entrusted their command to Tahir b. Hosain, who displayed +remarkable abilities in the war that ensued. The two armies met under +the walls of Rai (Shaaban 195, May 811). By a bold attack, in the manner +of the Kharijites of yore, Tahir penetrated into the centre of the +hostile army and killed Ali. The frightened army fled, leaving the camp +with all its treasures to Tahir, who from that day was named "the man +with the two right hands." A courier was despatched immediately to Merv, +who performed the journey, a distance of about 750 miles, in three days. +On the very day of his arrival, Harthama b. A'yan had left Merv with +reinforcements. Mamun now no longer hesitated to take the title of +caliph. + +When the news of Ali's defeat came to Bagdad, Amin sent Abdarrahman b. +Jabala to Hamadan with 20,000 men. Tahir defeated him, forced Hamadan to +surrender, and occupied all the strong places in Jabal (Media). The year +after, Amin placed in the field two new armies commanded respectively by +Ahmad b. Mazyad and Abdallah b. Homaid b. Qahtaba. The skilful Tahir +succeeded in creating divisions among the troops of his adversaries, and +obtained possession, without striking a blow, of the city of Holwan, an +advantage which opened the way to the very gates of Bagdad. He was here +reinforced by troops sent from Khorasan under the command of Harthama b. +A'yan, who was appointed leader of the war against Amin, with orders to +send Tahir to Ahwaz. Tahir continued his victorious march, conquered +Ahwaz, took Wasit and Madain, and pitched his camp near one of the gates +of the capital, where he was rejoined by Harthama. One after the other +the provinces fell away from Amin, and he soon found himself in +possession of Bagdad alone. The city, though blockaded on every side, +made a desperate defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern +part of the city fell into the hands of Tahir, and Amin, deserted by his +followers, was compelled to surrender. He resolved to treat with +Harthama, as he was averse to Tahir; but this step caused his ruin. +Tahir succeeded in intercepting him on his way to Harthama, and +immediately ordered him to be put to death. His head was sent to Mamun +(September 813). It was presented to him by his vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, +surnamed Dhu'l-Riyasatain, or "the man with two governments," because +his master had committed to him both the ministry of war and the general +administration. Mamun hid his joy beneath a feigned display of sorrow. + +Amin was only twenty-eight years old. As a ruler he was wholly +incompetent. He hardly comprehended the importance of the affairs with +which he was called upon to deal. He acted invariably on the advice of +those who for the time had his confidence, and occupied himself mainly +with the affairs of his harem, with polo, fishing, wine and music. The +five years of his reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular +to Bagdad which never entirely recovered its old splendour. + +7. _Reign of Mamun._--On the day following the death of Amin Tahir +caused Mamun to be proclaimed at Bagdad, and promised in his name a +general amnesty. The accession of this prince appeared likely to restore +to the empire the order necessary for its prosperity. It was not so, +however. The reign of Mamun--that reign in which art, science and +letters, under the patronage of the caliph, threw so brilliant a +lustre--had a very stormy beginning. Mamun was in no haste to remove to +Bagdad, but continued to reside at Merv. In his gratitude to Fadl b. +Sahl, to whose service he owed his success, he not only chose him as +prime minister of the empire, but also named his brother, Hasan b. Sahl, +governor of Media, Fars, Ahwaz, Arabia and Irak. The two generals to +whom he owed still more were not treated as they deserved. Harthama was +ordered to return to Khorasan; Tahir was made governor of Mesopotamia +and Syria, with the task of subduing Nasr b. Shabath, who with numerous +adherents refused submission to the caliph. The Alids seized on the +elevation of Mamun as a pretext for fresh revolts. At Kufa a certain Ibn +Tabataba placed an army in the field under Abu'l-Saraya, who had been a +captain in the army of Harthama. An army sent by Hasan b. Sahl was +defeated, and Abu'l-Saraya, no longer content to play a second part, +poisoned his chief, Ibn Tabataba, and put in his place another of the +family of Ali, Mahommed b. Mahommed, whom, on account of his extreme +youth, he hoped to govern at his will. Abu'l-Saraya's success continued, +and several cities of Irak--Basra, Wasit and Madain--fell into his +hands. Mecca, Medina and Yemen also were mastered by the Alids, who +committed all kinds of atrocities and sacrilege. Abu'l-Saraya, who even +struck money in Kufa, began to menace the capital, when Hasan b. Sahl +hastily sent a messenger to Harthama b. A'yan, who was already at Holwan +on his way back to Merv, entreating him to come to his aid. Harthama, +who was deeply offended by his dismissal, refused at first, but at last +consented, and at once checked the tide of disaster. The troops of the +Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of Irak fell again into +the hands of the Abbasids. Kufa opened its gates; Basra was taken by +assault. Abu'l-Saraya and Mahommed b. Mahommed fled to Mesopotamia, but +were made prisoners. The former was decapitated, the latter was sent to +Khorasan, the revolt in Arabia was quickly suppressed, and peace seemed +within reach. This, however, was by no means the case. The disorder of +civil war had caused a multitude of robbers and vagabonds to emerge from +the purlieus of Bagdad. These ruffians proceeded to treat the capital as +a conquered city, and it became necessary for all good citizens to +organize themselves into a regular militia. Harthama, having vanquished +Abu'l-Saraya, did not go to Hasan b. Sahl, but proceeded towards Merv +with the purpose of telling Mamun that the state of affairs was not as +Fadl b. Sahl represented it to him, and urging him to come to Bagdad, +where his presence was necessary. Fadl, informed of his intentions, +filled the caliph's mind with distrust against the old general, so that +when Harthama arrived Mamun had him cast into prison, where he died +shortly afterwards. When the tidings of his disgrace came to Bagdad, the +people expelled the lieutenant of Hasan b. Sahl, called by them the +Majuzi ("the Zoroastrian"), who had chosen Madain for his residence, and +put at their head Mansur, a son of Mahdi, who refused to assume the +title of caliph, but consented to be Mamun's vicegerent instead of Hasan +b. Sahl. + +Meanwhile, at Merv, Mamun was adopting a decision which fell like a +thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In A.H. 201 (A.D. 817), under pretence of +putting an end to the continual revolts of the partisans of Ali, and +acting on the advice of his prime minister Fadl, he publicly designated +as his successor in the Caliphate Ali ar-Rida, a son of that Musa +al-Kazim who perished in the prison of Mahdi, a direct descendant of +Hosain, the son of Ali, and proscribed black, the colour of the +Abbasids, in favour of that of the house of Ali, green. This step was +well calculated to delight the followers of Ali, but it could not fail +to exasperate the Abbasids and their partisans. The people of Bagdad +refused to take the oath to Ali b. Musa, declared Mamun deposed, and +elected his uncle, Ibrahim, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate.[33] It was +only indirectly that the news reached the caliph, who then saw that Fadl +had been treating him as a puppet. His anger was great, but he kept it +carefully to himself. Fadl was one day found murdered, and Ali b. Musa +died suddenly. The historians bring no open accusation against Mamun, +but it seems clear that the opportune removal of these men was not due +to chance. Mamun affected the profoundest grief, and, in order to disarm +suspicion, appointed as his prime minister the brother of Fadl, Hasan b. +Sahl, whose daughter Buran he afterwards married. Soon after the news +came to him that Hasan b. Sahl had become insane. Mamun appointed an +officer to act as his lieutenant, and wrote that he was coming to Bagdad +in a short time. From that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrahim found +himself deserted, and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His +precarious reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Mamun had found +out also that the general uneasiness was largely due to his treatment of +Harthama and Tahir, the latter having been put in a rebellious country +without the men and the money to maintain his authority. The caliph +therefore wrote to Tahir to meet him at Nahrawan, where he was received +with the greatest honour. Having taken all precautions, Mamun now made +his solemn entry into Bagdad, but, to show that he came as a master, he +still displayed for several days the green colours, though at last, at +the request of Tahir, he consented to resume the black. From this time, +A.H. 204 (August 819), the real reign of Mamun began, freed as he now +was from the tutelage of Fadl. + +When welcoming Tahir, Mamun bade him ask for any reward he might desire. +Tahir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to endure the sight of +the murderer of his brother, should change his mind towards him, +contrived to get himself appointed governor of Khorasan. Like most of +the great Moslem generals, Tahir, it is said, had conceived the project +of creating an independent kingdom for himself. His death, A.H. 207 +(A.D. 822), prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded +him one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in +reality to have founded a dynasty in Khorasan. His son Abdallah b. Tahir +was a special favourite of Mamun, He brought Nasr b. Shabath to +subjection in Mesopotamia, and overcame by great ability a very +dangerous rebellion in Egypt. When he returned thence, the caliph gave +him the choice between the government of Khorasan and that of the +northern provinces, where he would have to combat Babak the Khorramite. +Abdallah chose the former (see below, S 8). + +The pseudo-caliph, Ibrahim, who, since Mamun's entry into Bagdad, had +led a wandering life, was eventually arrested. But Mamun generously +pardoned him, as well as Fadl b. Rabi', the chief promoter of the +terrible civil war which had so lately shaken the empire. After that +time, Ibrahim lived peacefully at the court, cultivating the arts of +singing and music. + +Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Mamun gave himself up +to science and literature. He caused works on mathematics, astronomy, +medicine and philosophy to be translated from the Greek, and founded in +Bagdad a kind of academy, called the "House of Science," with a library +and an observatory. It was also by his orders that two learned +mathematicians undertook the measurement of a degree of the earth's +circumference. Mamun interested himself too in questions of religious +dogma. He had embraced the Motazilite doctrine about free will and +predestination, and was in particular shocked at the opinion which had +spread among the Moslem doctors that the Koran was the uncreated word of +God. In the year 212 (A.D. 827) he published an edict by which the +Motazilite (Mu'tazilite) doctrine was declared to be the religion of the +state, the orthodox faith condemned as heretical. At the same time he +ordered all his subjects to honour Ali as the best creature of God after +the Prophet, and forbade the praise of Moawiya. In A.H. 218 (A.D. 833) a +new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors were summoned to +renounce the error of the uncreated word of God. Several distinguished +doctors, and, among others, the celebrated Ahmad b. Hanbal (q.v.), +founder of one of the four orthodox Moslem schools, were obliged to +appear before an inquisitorial tribunal; and as they persisted in their +belief respecting the Koran, they were thrown into prison. Mamun, being +at Tarsus, received from the governor of Bagdad the report of the +tribunal, and ordered that the culprits should be sent off to him. +Happily for these unfortunate doctors, they had scarcely reached Adana, +when news of the caliph's death arrived and they were brought back to +Bagdad. The two successors of Mamun maintained the edicts--Ahmad b. +Hanbal, who obstinately refused to yield, was flogged in the year +834--but it seems that Motasim did not himself take much interest in the +question, which perhaps he hardly understood, and that the prosecution +of the inquisition by him was due in great part to the charge which was +left him in Mamun's will. In the reign of Motawakkil the orthodox faith +was restored, never to be assailed again.[34] + +In spite of these manifold activities Mamun did not forget the +hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 832 he made +expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theophilus, the Greek +emperor, sued for peace, which Mamun haughtily refused to grant. +Accordingly, he decided on marching in the following year against +Amorium, and thence to Constantinople itself. Having sent before him his +son Abbas to make Tyana a strong fortress, he set out for Asia Minor to +put himself at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by +bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 40 m. from Tarsus, in Rajab 218 +(A.D. August 833), at the age of forty-eight. + +Mamun was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers of the +whole dynasty after Mansur. By him the ascendancy of the Persian element +over the Arabian was completed. Moreover, he began to attract young +Turkish noblemen to his court, an example which was followed on a much +larger scale by his successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a +later period. + +8. _Reign of Motasim._--Abu Ishak al-Mo'tasim had for a long time been +preparing himself for the succession. Every year he had bought Turkish +slaves, and had with him in the last expedition of Mamun a bodyguard of +3000. Backed by this force he seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph +to designate him as his successor. The chroniclers content themselves +with recording that he himself wrote in the name of the caliph to the +chief authorities in Bagdad and elsewhere that he was to be the +successor. His accession, however, met at first with active opposition +in the army, where a powerful party demanded that Abbas should take the +place of his father. Abbas, however, publicly renounced all pretension +to the Caliphate, and the whole army accepted Motasim, who immediately +had the fortifications of Tyana demolished and hastened back to Bagdad, +where he made his public entry on the 20th of September 833. + +Motasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately after his coming +to Bagdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves living there who had +distinguished themselves. Among them were Ashnas, Itakh, Wasif, Sima, +all of whom later became men of great influence. The guard was composed +of an undisciplined body of soldiers, who, moreover, held in open +contempt the religious precepts of Islam. Tired of the excesses +committed by these Turks, the people of Bagdad beat or killed as many of +them as they could lay hands on, and Motasim, not daring to act with +severity against either his guard or the citizens, took the course of +quitting the city. Having bought in 834 territories at Samarra, a small +place situated a few leagues above Bagdad, he caused a new residence to +be built there, whose name, which could be interpreted "Unhappy is he +who sees it," was changed by him into Sorra-man-ra'a, "Rejoiced is he +who sees it." Leaving the government of the capital in the hands of his +son Harun al-Wathiq, he established himself at Samarra in 836. This +resolution of Motasim was destined to prove fatal to his dynasty; for it +placed the caliphs at the mercy of their praetorians. In fact, from the +time of Wathiq, the Caliphate became the plaything of the Turkish guard, +and its decline was continuous. + +In the time of the civil war the marshlands in Irak between Basra and +Wasit had been occupied by a large population of Indians, called _yat_, +or, according to the Arabic pronunciation, _Zott_, who infested the +roads and levied a heavy tribute from the ships ascending and descending +the Tigris. From the year 821 onwards Mamun had tried in vain to bring +them to submission. When Motasim came back to Bagdad, after the death of +his brother, he found the people in great distress, their supply of +dates from Basra having been cut off by the Zott, and resolved to put +them down with all means. After seven months of vigorous resistance, +they at last yielded on condition of safety of life and property. In +January 835 the Zott in their national costume and with their own music +were conducted on a great number of boats through Bagdad. Thence they +were transported to Ainzarba (Anazarba) on the frontier of the Greek +empire. Twenty years later they entered Asia Minor, whence in a later +period they came into Europe, under the name of Athinganoi (Ziganes) and +Egyptians (gipsies).[35] + +A far more difficult task lay before Motasim, the subjection of Babak +al-Khorrami in Azerbaijan. Though the name Khorrami is often employed by +the Moslem writers to designate such extravagant Moslem sectaries as +the Hashimiya, the real Khorrami were not Moslems, but Persian +Mazdaqites, or communists. The name Khorrami, or Khorramdini, "adherent +of the pleasant religion," seems to be a nickname. As they bore red +colours, they were also called Mohammira, or Redmakers. Their object was +to abolish Islam and to restore "the white religion." We find the first +mention of them in the year 808, when Harun al-Rashid sent an army +against them. During the civil war their power was steadily increasing, +and spread not only over Azerbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and +Khorasan. The numerous efforts of Mamun to put them down had been all in +vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor. +Therefore, in the year 835, Motasim made Afshin, a Turkish prince who +had distinguished himself already in the days of Mamun, governor of +Media, with orders to take the lead of the war against Babak. After +three years' fighting, Babak was taken prisoner. He was carried to +Samarra, led through the city on the back of an elephant, and then +delivered to the executioners, who cut off his arms and legs. His head +was sent to Khorasan, his body was crucified. For long afterwards the +place where this happened bore the name of "Babak's Cross." + +In the hope of creating a diversion in Babak's favour, Theophilus in 837 +fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of Zibatra. There and in +several other places he took a great number of prisoners, whom he +mutilated. The news arrived just after that of the capture of Babak, and +Motasim swore to take exemplary vengeance. He assembled a formidable +army, penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium, where he +gained rich plunder. During his return the caliph was informed of a +conspiracy in the army in favour of 'Abbas the son of Mamun, of which +'Ojaif b. 'Anbasa was the ringleader. The unfortunate prince was +arrested and died soon after in prison. The conspirators were killed, +many of them with great cruelty. (For the campaign see Bury in _J.H.S._, +1909, xxix. pt. i.) + +Motasim had just returned to Samarra when a serious revolt broke out in +Tabaristan, Maziyar, one of the hereditary chiefs of that country, +refusing to acknowledge the authority of Abdallah Ibn Tahir, the +governor of Khorasan, of which Tabaristan was a province. The revolt was +suppressed with great difficulty, and it came out that it was due to the +secret instigation of Afshin, who hoped thereby to cause the fall of the +Tahirids, and to take their place, with the ulterior object of founding +an independent kingdom in the East. Afshin, who stood at that moment in +the highest favour of the caliph, was condemned and died in prison. +Motasim died a year later, January 842. + +9. _Reign of Wathiq._--His son Wathiq, who succeeded, though not in the +least to be compared with Mamun, had yet in common with him a thirst for +knowledge--perhaps curiosity would be a more appropriate term--which +prompted him, as soon as he became caliph, to send the famous astronomer +Mahommed b. Musa into Asia Minor to find out all about the Seven +Sleepers which he discovered in the neighbourhood of Arabissus,[36] and +Sallam the Interpreter to explore the situation of the famous wall of +Gog and Magog, which he reached at the north-west frontier of China.[37] +For these and other personal pursuits he raised money by forcing a +number of high functionaries to disgorge their gains. In so vast an +empire the governors and administrators had necessarily enjoyed an +almost unrestricted power, and this had enabled them to accumulate +wealth. Omar had already compelled them to furnish an account of their +riches, and, when he found that they had abused their trust, to +relinquish half to the state. As time went on, nomination to an office +was more and more generally considered a step to wealth. During the +reign of the Omayyads a few large fortunes were made thus. But with the +increasing luxury after Mansur, the thirst for money became universal, +and the number of honest officials lessened fast. Confiscation of +property had been employed with success by Harun al-Rashid after the +disgrace of the Barmecides, and occasionally by his successors, but +Wathiq was the first to imprison high officials and fine them heavily on +the specific charge of peculation. + +The caliph also shared Mamun's intolerance on the doctrinal question of +the uncreated Koran. He carried his zeal to such a point that, on the +occasion of an exchange of Greek against Moslem prisoners in 845, he +refused to receive those Moslem captives who would not declare their +belief that the Koran was created. The orthodox in Bagdad prepared to +revolt, but were discovered in time by the governor of the city. The +ringleader Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khoza'i was seized and brought to Samarra, +where Wathiq beheaded him in person. The only other event of importance +in the reign of Wathiq was a rising of the Arabian tribes in the +environs of Medina, which the Turkish general Bogha with difficulty +repressed. When he reached Samarra with his prisoners, Wathiq had just +died (August 846). That the predominance of the praetorians was already +established is clear from the fact that Wathiq gave to two Turkish +generals, Ashnas and Itakh respectively, the titular but lucrative +supreme government of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In +his days the soldiery at Samarra was increased by a large division of +Africans (Maghribis). + +10. _Reign of Motawakkil._--As Wathiq had appointed no successor the +vizier Mahommed Zayyat had cast his eye on his son Mahommed, who was +still a child, but the generals Wasif and Itakh, seconded by the upper +cadi Ibn abi Da'ud, refused their consent, and offered the supreme power +to Wathiq's brother Ja'far, who at his installation adopted the name of +_al-Motawakkil 'ala 'llah_ ("he who trusts in God"). The new caliph +hated the vizier Zayyat, who had opposed his election, and had him +seized and killed with the same atrocious cruelty which the vizier +himself had inflicted on others. His possessions, and those of others +who had opposed the caliph's election, were confiscated. But the +arrogance of Itakh, to whom he owed his Caliphate, became insufferable. +So, with the perfidy of his race, the caliph took him off his guard, and +had him imprisoned and killed at Bagdad. He was succeeded by Wasif. + +About this time an impostor named Mahmud b. Faraj had set himself up as +a prophet, claiming to be Dhu'l-Qarnain (Alexander the Great) risen from +the dead. Asserting that Gabriel brought him revelations, he had +contrived to attract twenty-seven followers. The caliph had him flogged, +and compelled each of the twenty-seven to give him ten blows on the head +with his fist. The "prophet" expired under the blows (850). + +One of the first acts of Motawakkil was the release of all those who had +been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the created Koran, +and the strict order to abstain from any litigation about the Book of +God. The upper cadi Ibn abi Da'ud, the leader of the movement against +orthodoxy, who had stood in great esteem with Mamun and had fulfilled +his high office under the reigns of Motasim and Wathiq, had a stroke of +paralysis in the year 848. His son Mahommed was put in his place till +851, when all the members of the family were arrested. They released +themselves by paying the enormous sum of 240,000 dinars and 16,000,000 +dirhems, which constituted nearly their whole fortune, and were then +sent to Bagdad, where father and son died three years later. An orthodox +upper cadi was named instead, and the dogma of the created Koran was +declared heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of +that doctrine and other Motazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed, never +again to lose its place as the state religion. Hand in hand with these +reactionary measures came two others, one against Jews and Christians, +one against the Shi'ites. The first caliph who imposed humiliating +conditions on the Dhimmis, or Covenanters, who, on condition of paying a +certain not over-heavy tribute, enjoyed the protection of the state and +the free exercise of their cult, was Omar II., but this policy was not +continued. A proposition by the cadi Abu Yusuf to Harun al-Rashid to +renew it had not been adopted. Motawakkil, in 850, formulated an edict +by which these sectaries were compelled to wear a distinctive dress and +to distinguish their houses by a figure of the devil nailed to the +door, excluding them at the same time from all public employments, and +forbidding them to send their children to Moslem schools. Nevertheless, +he kept his Christian medical men, some of whom were high in favour. He +showed his hatred for the Shi'ites by causing the mausoleum erected over +the tomb of Hosain at Kerbela, together with all the buildings +surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be ploughed +up, and by forbidding any one to visit the spot. A year before, a +descendant of Hosain, Yahya b. Omar, had been arrested and flogged on +his orders. He escaped afterwards, rose in rebellion at Kufa in 864, and +was killed in battle. It is reported that the caliph even permitted one +of his buffoons to turn the person of Ali into mockery. + +In the year 848-849 Ibn Ba'ith, who had rendered good service in the war +against Babak, but had for some cause been arrested, fled from Samarra +to Marand in Azerbaijan and revolted. Not without great difficulty +Bogha, the Turkish general, succeeded in taking the town and making Ibn +Ba'ith prisoner. He was brought before Motawakkil and died in prison. In +the year 237 (A.D. 851-852) a revolt broke out in Armenia. +Notwithstanding a vigorous resistance, Bogha subdued and pacified the +province in the following year. In that same year, 852-853, the +Byzantines made a descent on Egypt with 300 vessels. 'Anbasa the +governor had ordered the garrison of Damietta to parade at the capital +Fostat. The denuded town was taken, plundered and burned. The Greeks +then destroyed all the fortifications at the mouth of the Nile near +Tinnis, and returned with prisoners and booty. The annual raids of +Moslems and Greeks in the border districts of Asia Minor were attended +with alternate successes, though on the whole the Greeks had the upper +hand. In 856 they penetrated as far as Amid (Diarbekr), and returned +with 10,000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a heavy +defeat with losses of men and cattle, the emperor Michael himself was in +danger, whilst the fleet of the Moslems captured and sacked Antalia. +This was followed by a truce and an exchange of prisoners in the +following year. + +In 855 a revolt broke out in Homs (Emesa), where the harsh conditions +imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews had caused great +discontent. It was repressed after a vigorous resistance. A great many +leading men were flogged to death, all churches and synagogues were +destroyed and all the Christians banished. + +In the year 851 the Boja (or Beja), a wild people living between the Red +Sea and the Nile of Upper Egypt, the Blemmyes of the ancients, refused +to pay the annual tribute, and invaded the land of the gold and emerald +mines, so that the working of the mines was stopped. The caliph sent +against them Mahommed al-Qommi, who subdued them in 856 and brought +their king Ali Baba to Samarra before Motawakkil, on condition that he +should be restored to his kingdom. + +About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy of the +Tahirids. Ya'qub b. Laith al-Saffar proclaimed himself amir of that +province in the year 860, and was soon after confirmed in this dignity +by the caliph. + +In 858 Motawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant patronage of +Wasif, who had taken the place of Itakh as head of the Turkish guard, +transferred his residence to Damascus. But the place did not agree with +him, and he returned to Samarra, where he caused a magnificent quarter +to be built 3 m. from the city, which he called after his own name +Ja'fariya, and on which he spent more than two millions of dinars (about +L900,000). He found the means by following the example of his +predecessor in depriving many officials of their ill-gotten gains. He +contrived to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater +part Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. In the year of his elevation to +the Caliphate, he had regulated the succession to the empire in his own +family by designating as future caliphs his three sons, _al-Montasir +billah_ ("he who seeks help in God"), _al-Mo'tazz billah_ ("he whose +strength is of God"), and _al-Mowayyad billah_ ("he who is assisted by +God"). By and by he conceived an aversion to his eldest son, and wished +to supplant him by Motazz, the son of his favourite wife Qabiha. The day +had been fixed on which Montasir, Wasif and several other Turkish +generals were to be assassinated. But Wasif and Montasir had been +informed, and resolved to anticipate him. In the night before, Shawwal +A.H. 247 (December 861), Motawakkil, after one of his wonted orgies, was +murdered, together with his confidant, Fath b. Khaqan. The official +report, promulgated by his successor, was that Fath b. Khaqan had +murdered his master and had been punished for it by death. For the +administrative system in this reign see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. + +11. _Reign of Montasir._--On the very night of his father's +assassination Montasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was a man of +very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands of his vizier +Ahmad b. Khasib and the Turkish generals. He was compelled to send +Wasif, the personal enemy of Ibn Khasib, to the frontier for a term of +four years, and then to deprive his two brothers Motazz and Mowayyad, +who were not agreeable to them, of their right of succession. He died +six months after, by poison, it is said. + +12. _Reign of Mosta'in._--The Turkish soldiery, now the chief power in +the state, chose, by the advice of Ibn Khasib, in succession to +Montasir, his cousin Ahmad, who took the title of _al-Mosta'in billah_ +("he who looks for help to God"). In the reign of this feeble prince the +Greeks inflicted serious losses on the Moslems in Asia Minor. A great +many volunteers from all parts, who offered their services, were hunted +down as rioters by the Turkish generals, who were wholly absorbed by +their own interests. The party which had placed Mosta'in on the throne, +led by Ibn Khasib and Otamish, were soon overpowered by Wasif and Bogha. +Ibn Khasib was banished to Crete, Otamish murdered. The superior party, +however, maintained Mosta'in on the throne, because they feared lest +Motazz should take vengeance upon them for the murder of his father +Motawakkil. But in the year 865 Wasif and Bogha fled with Mosta'in to +Bagdad, and Motazz was proclaimed caliph at Samarra. A terrible war +ensued; Mosta'in was obliged to abdicate, and was killed in the +following year. + +In 864 a descendant of Ali, named Hasan b. Zaid, gained possession of +Tabaristan and occupied the great city of Rai (Rey) near Teheran. A year +later the province was reconquered by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan, +so that Hasan was obliged to retreat for refuge to the land of the +Dailam. But he returned soon, and after many reverses ruled over +Tabaristan and Jorjan for many years. + +13. _Reign of Motazz._--Motazz, proclaimed caliph at Bagdad in the first +month of 252 (January 866), devoted himself to the object of freeing +himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals, especially Wasif and +Bogha, who had opposed his election. But such a task demanded an ability +and energy which he did not possess. He was obliged to grant them +amnesty and to recall them to Samarra. He mistrusted also his brothers +Mowayyad and Mowaffaq, who had interceded for them. He put the former to +death and drove the latter into exile to Bagdad. Some time after he had +the satisfaction of seeing Wasif killed by his own troops, and +succeeded, a year later, in having Bogha assassinated. But a more +difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish, Persian and African +guards, which was said to have amounted in A.H. 252 to 200,000,000 +dirhems[38] (about L6,500,000), or apparently twice the revenue derived +from the land tax. As the provincial revenues annually decreased, it +became impossible to pay this sum, and Salih the son of Wasif, in spite +of the remonstrances of the caliph, confiscated the property of state +officials. Upon a further demand, Motazz, having failed to procure money +from his mother Qabiha, who was enormously rich, was seized upon and +tortured, and died of starvation in prison (Shaaban 255, July 868). + +The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these years, and the +caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual independence of the +governors Ya'qub the Saffarid (see SAFFARIDS and PERSIA, _History_, S B) +in Seistan, and Ahmad b. Tulun in Egypt. + +14. _Reign of Mohtadi._--Immediately after the seizure of Motazz, the +Turks, led by Salih b. Wasif, proclaimed as caliph one of the sons of +Wathiq with the title of al-Mohtadi billah ("the guided by God"), who, +however, refused to occupy the throne until his predecessor had solemnly +abdicated. Mohtadi, who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had +no lack of energy, began by applying the precarious measure of power +which was left him to the reform of the court. He banished the musicians +and singers, and forbade all kinds of games; he devoted himself to the +administration of justice, and gave public audiences to the people for +the redress of their grievances. At the same time he contrived to +elevate the power of the Abna, the descendants of those Persian soldiers +who had established the dynasty of the Abbasids, in order to break the +supremacy of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Mohtadi came too late, +and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work. + +On the news of the conspiracy against Motazz, Musa, the son of the +famous general Bogha,[39] then governor of Media (Jabal), ordered his +deputy-general Moflih to return at once from a proposed invasion of +Dailam, and moved with his army towards Samarra, notwithstanding the +peremptory orders of the caliph. At his approach Salih, who was afraid +of Musa, hid himself, but was soon discovered and killed. At that moment +a Kharijite, named Mosawir, who in 867 had risen in Mesopotamia and +beaten more than one general of the government, took Balad and menaced +Mosul. Musa could not refuse to comply with the formal command of the +caliph to march against him. During the absence of these troops, Mohtadi +seems to have tried to get rid of the principal Turkish leaders. A +brother of Musa and one of his best generals, Bayikbeg (Baiekbak), were +killed, but the soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong +enough. Mohtadi was overwhelmed and killed, Rajab 256 (June 870). + +15. _Reign of Motamid._--Whether from weariness or from repentance, the +Turkish soldiery discontinued for a time their hateful excesses, and +their new leader, Musa b. Bogha, was without the greed and ambition of +his predecessors. A son of Motawakkil was brought out of prison to +succeed his cousin, and reigned for twenty-three years under the name of +_al-Mo'tamid 'ala'llah_ ("he whose support is God"). He was a feeble, +pleasure-loving monarch, but Mohtadi had regained for the Caliphate some +authority, which was exercised by Obaidallah b. Khaqan, the able vizier +of Mohtadi, and by Motamid's talented brother Abu Ahmad al-Mowaffaq; +Musa b. Bogha himself remained till his death a staunch servant of the +government. During the reign of Motamid great events took place. The +great power long wielded by the Tahirids, not only in the eastern +provinces, but also at Bagdad itself, had been gradually diminishing, +and came to an end in the year 873, when Ya'qub the Saffarid occupied +Nishapur and imprisoned Mahommed b. Tahir with his whole family. The +power of Ya'qub then increased to such an extent that he was not content +with the caliph's offer to recognize him as supreme in the provinces he +had conquered, and military governor of Bagdad, but marched against +Irak. The caliph himself, wearing the mantle and the staff of the +Prophet, then went out against him, and after a vigorous resistance he +was beaten by Mowaffaq, who had the command of the troops, and fled to +Jondisapur in Khuzistan, where he died three years later, leaving his +empire to his brother 'Amr. This prince maintained himself in power till +the year 900, when he was beaten and taken prisoner by Isma'il b. Ahmed +the Samanid. The Samanids had been governors of Transoxiana from the +time of Mamun, and after the fall of the Tahirids, had been confirmed in +this office by the caliph. After 287 (900) they were independent +princes, and under their dominion these districts attained to high +prosperity. + +Motamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves in the +province of Basra, led by one Ali b. Mahommed, who called himself a +descendant of Ali. It lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked the government +to its utmost.[40] + +In the west, Ahmad b. Tulun became a mighty prince, whose sway extended +over Syria and a part of Mesopotamia. Motamid, who wished to free +himself from the guardianship of his brother Mowaffaq, concerted with +him a plan to emigrate to Egypt, Ahmad being himself angered against +Mowaffaq on personal grounds. Motamid's flight was stopped by his vizier +Ibn Makhlad, and the caliph himself was reconducted to Samarra as a +prisoner in the year 882. From that time there was war between the +Abbasids and the Tulunids. Ahmad died in 270 (884). His son Khomaruya +succeeded him, and maintained himself in power till his death in 896, in +which year his daughter was married to the caliph Motadid. Ten years +later Egypt was conquered by a general of the caliph Moktafi. + +During the reign of Motamid the emperor Basil I. conducted the war +against the Moslems with great success, till in the year 270 (A.D. 884) +his army suffered a terrible defeat near Tarsus, in which the greater +part of the army, the commander Andreas, and many other patricians +perished. + +Motamid had appointed his son al-Mofawwid as successor to the Caliphate, +and after him his brother Mowaffaq. When the latter died in the year +891, his son Abu 'l-'Abbas, _al-Mo'tadid_ ("he who seeks his support in +God"), was put in his place. Next year Mofawwid was compelled to +abdicate in favour of his cousin. Shortly after Motamid died, Rajab 279 +(October 892). Not long before these events, the seat of the Caliphate +had been restored to Bagdad. + +16. _Reign of Motadid_.--Motadid may be called, after Mansur, the most +able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers. He took good care of the +finances, reformed the administration, was an excellent commander in +war, and maintained order as far as possible. The Kharijites in +Mesopotamia, who for many years had molested the government, were +finally crushed with the aid of their former ally Hamdan, who became the +founder of the well-known dynasty of the Hamdanites. The mighty house of +Abu Dolaf in the south-west of Media, which had never ceased to encroach +on the Caliphate, was put down. The governor of Azerbaijan and Armenia, +belonging to the powerful Turkish house of the Sajids or Sajites, whose +loyalty was always doubtful, planned an invasion of Syria and Egypt. +Motadid frustrated it by a quick movement. The citizens of Tarsus who +were involved in the plot were severely punished. The chief punishment, +however, the burning of the fleet, was a very impolitic measure, as it +strengthened the hands of the Byzantines. + +Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves in Basra there +arose in the province of Kufa the celebrated sect of the Carmathians +(q.v.), Fatimites[41] or Isma'ilites. This powerful sect, which save for +a difference of opinion would have joined the negro rising, remained +outwardly quiet during Motamid's reign, but under Motadid the government +began to have misgivings about them. Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, who had +founded a Carmathian state in Bahrein, the north-eastern province of +Arabia (actually called Lahsa), which could become dangerous for the +pilgrim road as well as for the commerce of Basra, in the year 900 +routed an army sent against him by Motadid, and warned the caliph that +it would be safer to let the Carmathians alone. In the same year the +real chief of the sect, whose abode had been discovered by the caliph, +fled from Salamia in Syria, where he lived, to Africa, and hid himself +at Sijilmasa (in Tafilalt) in the far west, whence he reappeared ten +years later at Kairawan as the Mahdi, the first caliph of the +Fatimites.[42] + +Motadid died in Rabia II. A.H. 289 (March 902), leaving the Caliphate to +his son _al-Moktafi billah_ ("he who sufficeth himself in God"). + +17. _Reign of Moktafi_.--Moktafi inherited his father's intrepidity, and +seems to have had high personal qualities, but his reign of six years +was a constant struggle against the Carmathians in Syria, who defeated +the Syrian and Egyptian troops, and conquered Damascus and other +cities. Moktafi led his troops in person, and his general, Mahommed b. +Suleiman, gained a signal victory. Three of their chiefs were taken and +put to death. But, to avenge their defeat, they lay in wait for the +great pilgrim caravan on its return from Mecca in the first days of 294 +(906), and massacred 20,000 pilgrims, making an immense booty. This +horrible crime raised the whole Moslem world against them. Zikruya their +chief was defeated at last and perished. + +After the defeat of the Syrian Carmathians, Mahommed b. Suleiman was +sent by the caliph to Egypt, where he overthrew the dominion of the +Tulunids. 'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari was made governor in their stead +(905). + +The war with the Byzantines was conducted with great energy during the +reign of Moktafi. In the year 905 the Greek general Andronicus took +Marash, and penetrated as far as Haleb (Aleppo), but the Moslems were +successful at sea, and in 907 captured Iconium, whilst Andronicus went +over to the caliph's side, so that the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy +to Bagdad to ask for a truce and an exchange of prisoners. + +18. _Reign of Moqtadir._--The sudden death of Moktafi, Dhu'l-qa'da 295 +(August 908), was a fatal blow to the prestige of the Caliphate, which +had revived under the successive governments of Mowaffaq, Motadid and +himself. The new caliph, _al-Moqtadir billah_ ("the powerful through +God"), a brother of Moktafi, was only thirteen years of age when he +ascended the throne. Owing to his extreme youth many of the leading men +at Bagdad rebelled and swore allegiance to Abdallah, son of the former +caliph Motazz, a man of excellent character and of great poetical gifts; +but the party of the house of Motadid prevailed, and the rival caliph +was put to death. Moqtadir, though not devoid of noble qualities, +allowed himself to be governed by his mother and her ladies and eunuchs. +He began by squandering the 15,000,000 dinars which were in the treasury +when his brother died in largesses to his courtiers, who, however, +merely increased their demands. His very able vizier, the noble and +disinterested Ali b. 'Isa, tried to check this foolish expenditure, but +his efforts were more than counterbalanced by the vizier Ibn abi'l-Forat +and the court. The most shameless bribery and the robbery of the +well-to-do went together with the most extravagant luxury. The +twenty-four years of Moqtadir's reign are a period of rapid decay. The +most important event in the reign was the foundation of the Fatimite +dynasty, which reigned first in the Maghrib and then in Egypt for nearly +three centuries (see FATIMITES and EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan"). + +Far more dangerous, however, for the Caliphate of Bagdad at the time +were the Carmathians of Bahrein, then guided by Abu Tahir, the son of +Abu Sa'id Jannabi. In 311 (A.D. 923) they took and ransacked Basra; in +the first month of the following year the great pilgrim caravan on its +return from Mecca was overpowered; 2500 men perished, while an even +larger number were made prisoners and brought to Lahsa, the residence of +the Carmathian princes, together with an immense booty. The caravan +which left Bagdad towards the end of this year returned in all haste +before it had covered a third of the way. Then Kufa underwent the fate +that had befallen Basra. In 313 (A.D. 926) the caravan was allowed to +pass on payment of a large sum of money. The government of Bagdad +resolved to crush the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated +by Abu Tahir in 315 (927), and Bagdad was seriously threatened. Next +year Mecca was taken and plundered; even the sacred Black Stone was +transported to Lahsa, where it remained till 339 (950), when by the +express order of the Imam, the Fatimite caliph, it was restored to the +Ka'ba. + +In 317 (929) a conspiracy was formed to dethrone Moqtadir, to which +Munis, the chief commander of the army, at first assented, irritated by +false reports. Very soon he withdrew, and though he could not prevent +the plundering of the palace, and the proclamation as caliph of another +son of Motadid with the title _al-Qahir billah_ ("the victorious through +God"), he rescued Moqtadir and his mother, and at the same time his +imprisoned friend Ali b. 'Isa, and brought them to his own house. A few +days later, a counter-revolution took place; the leaders of the revolt +were killed, and Moqtadir, against his wish, was replaced on the throne. +In 320 (A.D. 932) Munis, discovering a court intrigue against him, set +out for Mosul, expecting that the Hamdanids, who owed to him their +power, would join him. Instead of doing this, they opposed him with a +numerous army, but were defeated. Munis took Mosul, and having received +reinforcements from all parts, marched against Bagdad. The caliph, who +wished nothing more than to be reconciled to his old faithful servant, +was forced to take arms against him, and fell in battle Shawwal 320 +(October 932), at the age of 38 years. His reign, which lasted almost +twenty-five years, was in all respects injurious to the empire. + +19. _Reign of Qahir_.--After the victory Munis acted with great +moderation and proclaimed a general amnesty. His own wish was to call +Abu Ahmad, a son of Moktafi, or a son of Moqtadir, to the Caliphate, but +the majority of generals preferring Qahir because he was an adult man +and had no mother at his side, he acquiesced, although he had a personal +dislike for him, knowing his selfish and cruel character. Qahir was a +drunkard, and derived the money for his excesses from promiscuous +confiscation. He ill-treated the sons of Moqtadir and Abu Ahmad, and +ultimately assassinated his patrons Munis and Yalbak, whose guardianship +he resented. In Jomada I. 322 (April 934) he was dethroned and blinded, +and died in poverty seven years later. + +During the last years of Moqtadir and the reign of Qahir a new dynasty +rose. Buya, the chief of a clan of the Dailam, a warlike people who +inhabit the mountainous country south-west of the Caspian Sea, had +served under the Samanids, and found a footing in the south of Media +(Jabal), whence his three sons--well known under the titles they assumed +at a later period: 'Imad addaula ("prop of the dynasty"), Rokn addaula +("pillar of the dynasty"), and Mo'izz addaula ("strengthener of the +dynasty")--succeeded in subduing the province of Fars, at the time of +Qahir's dethronement (see PERSIA: _History_). + +20. _Reign of Radi_.--Moqtadir's son, who was then proclaimed caliph +under the name of _ar-Radi billah_ ("the content through God"), was +pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the shadow of power. The +vizier Ibn Moqla tried to maintain his authority at least in Irak and +Mesopotamia, but without success. The treasury was exhausted, the troops +asked for pay, the people in Bagdad were riotous. In this extremity the +caliph bade Ibn Raiq, who had made himself master of Basra and Wasit, +and had command of money and men, to come to his help. He created for +him the office of Amir al-Omara, "Amir of the Amirs," which nearly +corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace among the Franks.[43] +Thenceforth the worldly power of the Caliphate was a mere shadow. The +empire was by this time practically reduced to the province of Bagdad; +Khorasan and Transoxiana were in the hands of the Samanids, Fars in +those of the Buyids; Kirman and Media were under independent sovereigns; +the Hamdanids possessed Mesopotamia; the Sajids Armenia and Azerbaijan; +the Ikshidites Egypt; as we have seen, the Fatimites Africa, the +Carmathians Arabia. The Amir al-Omara was obliged to purchase from the +latter the freedom of the pilgrimage to Mecca, at the price of a +disgraceful treaty. + +During the troubles of the Caliphate the Byzantines had made great +advances; they had even taken Malatia and Samosata (Samsat). But the +great valour of the Hamdanid prince Saif-addaula checked their march. +The Greek army suffered two severe defeats and sued for peace. + +21. _Reign of Mottaqi_.--Radi died in Rabia I. A.H. 329 (December 940). +Another son of Moqtadir was then proclaimed caliph under the name of +_al-Mottaqi billah_ ("he who guards himself by God"). At the time of his +accession the Amir al-Omara was the Turkish general Bajkam, in whose +favour Ibn Raiq had been obliged to retire. Unfortunately Bajkam died +soon after, and his death was followed by general anarchy. A certain +Baridi, who had carved out for himself a principality in the province of +Basra, marched against Bagdad and made himself master of the capital, +but was soon driven out by the Dailamite general Kurtakin. Ibn Raiq +came back and reinstated himself as Amir al-Omara. But Baridi again laid +siege to Bagdad, and Mottaqi fled to Nasir addaula the Hamdanid prince +of Mosul, who then marched against Bagdad, and succeeded in repelling +Baridi. In return he obtained the office of Amir al-Omara. But the +Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer him to keep this office +longer than several months. Tuzun, a former captain of Bajkam, compelled +him to return to Mosul and took his place. Mottaqi fled again to Mosul +and thence to Rakka. The Ikshid, sovereign of Egypt and Syria, offered +him a refuge, but Tuzun, fearing to see the caliph obtain such powerful +support, found means to entice him to his tent, and had his eyes put +out, Saphar 333 (October 944). + +22. _Reign of Mostakfi._--As successor Tuzun chose _al-Mostakfi billah_ +("he who finds full sufficiency with God"), a son of Moktafi. This +prince, still more than his predecessors, was a mere puppet in the hands +of Tuzun, who died a few months later, and his successor Ibn Shirzad. +Such was the weakness of the caliph that a notorious robber, named +Hamdi, obtained immunity for his depredations by a monthly payment of +25,000 dinars. One of the Buyid princes, whose power had been steadily +increasing, marched about this time against Bagdad, which he entered in +Jomada I. A.H. 334 (December 945), and was acknowledged by the caliph as +legal sovereign, under the title of Sultan. He assumed at this time the +name of Mo'izz addaula. Mostakfi was soon weary of this new master, and +plotted against him. At least Mo'izz addaula suspected him and deprived +him of his eyesight, Jomada II. A.H. 334 (January 946). There were thus +in Bagdad three caliphs who had been dethroned and blinded, Qahir, +Mottaqi and Mostakfi. + +23. _Reign of Moti._--Mo'izz addaula soon abandoned his original idea of +restoring the title of caliph to one of the descendants of Ali, fearing +a strong opposition of the people, and also dreading lest this should +lead to the recovery by the caliphs of their former supremacy. His +choice fell on a son of Moqtadir, who took the title of _al-Moti' +billah_ ("he who obeys God"). The sultan, reserving to himself all the +powers and revenues of the Caliphate, allowed the caliph merely a +secretary and a pension of 5000 dirhems a day. Though in public prayers +and on the coins the name of the caliph remained as that of the supreme +authority, he had in reality no authority out of the palace, so that the +saying became proverbial, "he contents himself with sermon and coin." + +The Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who began to think his possessions +threatened by Mo'izz addaula, tried without success to wrest Bagdad from +him, and was obliged to submit to the payment of tribute. He died in 358 +(A.D. 969), and ten years later the power of this branch of the +Hamdanids came to an end. The representative of the other branch, Saif +addaula, the prince of Haleb (Aleppo), conducted the war against the +Byzantines with great valour till his death in 356 (A.D. 967), but could +not stop the progress of the enemy. His descendants maintained +themselves, but with very limited power, till A.H. 413 (A.D. 1022). + +Mo'izz addaula died in the same year as Saif addaula, leaving his power +to his son Bakhtiyar 'Izz addaula, who lacked his father's energy and +loved pleasure more than business. + +While the Abbasid dynasty was thus dying out in shame and degradation, +the Fatimites, in the person of Mo'izz li-din-allah (or Mo'izz Abu Tamin +Ma'add) ("he who makes God's religion victorious"), were reaching the +highest degree of power and glory in spite of the opposition of the +Carmathians, who left their old allegiance and entered into negotiations +with the court of Bagdad, offering to drive back the Fatimites, on +condition of being assisted with money and troops, and of being rewarded +with the government of Syria and Egypt. The former condition was +granted, but the caliph emphatically refused the latter demand, saying: +"Both parties are Carmathians, they profess the same religion and are +enemies of Islam." The Carmathians drove the Fatimites out of Syria, and +threatened Egypt, but, notwithstanding their intrepidity, they were not +able to cope with their powerful rival, who, however, in his turn could +not bring them to submission. In 978-979 peace was made on condition +that the Carmathians should evacuate Syria for an annual payment of +70,000 dinars. But the losses sustained by the Carmathians during that +struggle had been enormous. Their power henceforward declined, and came +to an end in A.H. 474 (A.D. 1081). + +Mo'izz addaula, as we have seen, professed a great veneration for the +house of Ali. He not only caused the mourning for the death of Hosain +and other Shi'ite festivals to be celebrated at Bagdad, but also allowed +imprecations against Moawiya and even against Mahomet's wife Ayesha and +the caliphs Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, to be posted up at the doors of +the mosques. These steps annoyed the people and the Turkish soldiery, +who were Sunnites, and led at last to an insurrection. Moti was +compelled to abdicate, and Bakhtiyar was driven out of Bagdad +Dhu'l-qa'da 363 (August 974). + +24. _Reign of Tai._--Moti left the empty title of caliph to his son +_al-Ta'i li-amri'llah_ ("the obedient to the command of God"). The Turks +who had placed him on the throne could not maintain themselves, but so +insignificant was the person of the caliph that 'Adod addaula, who +succeeded his cousin Bakhtiyar in Bagdad, did not think of replacing him +by another. Under this prince, or king, as he was called, the power of +the Buyids reached its zenith. His empire stretched from the Caspian to +the Persian Sea, and in the west to the eastern frontier of Syria. He +did his best to remedy the misery caused by the intestine Wars, repaired +the ruined mosques and other public edifices, founded hospitals and +libraries--his library in Shiraz was one of the wonders of the +world--and improved irrigation. It was also he who built the mausoleum +of Hosain at Kerbela, and that of Ali at Kufa. But after his death in +the year 372 (A.D. 983), his sons, instead of following the example of +their predecessors, the three sons of Buya, fought one against the +other. In 380 (A.D. 990) the youngest of them, Baha addaula, had the +upper hand. This prince, who was as avaricious as he was ambitious, +wishing to deprive the caliph Ta'i of his possessions, compelled him to +abdicate A.H. 381 (A.D. 991). + +25. _Reign of Qadir._--A grandson of Moqtadir was then made caliph under +the name of _al-Qadir billah_ ("the powerful through God"). The only +deed of power, however, that is recorded of him, is that he opposed +himself to the substitution of a Shi'ite head cadi for the Sunnite, so +that Baha addaula had to content himself with giving to the Shi'ites a +special judge, to whom he gave the title of _naqib_ (superintendent). +During this caliphate the Buyid princes were in continual war with one +another. Meanwhile events were preparing the fall of their dynasty. In +350 (A.D. 961) a Turkish general of the Samanids had founded for himself +a principality in Ghazni, arid at his death in 366 (A.D. 976) his +successor Sabuktagin had conquered Bost in Sijistan and Qosdar in +Baluchistan, beaten the Indian prince Diaya Pala, and been acknowledged +as master of the lands west of the Indus. At his death in 387 his son +Mahmud conquered the whole of Khorasan and Sijistan, with a great part +of India. He then attacked the Buyids, and would have destroyed their +dynasty but for his death in the year 421 (A.D. 1030). + +In 389 (A.D. 999) Ilek-khan, the prince of Turkistan, took Bokhara and +made an end to the glorious state of the Samanids, the last prince of +which was murdered in 395 (A.D. 1005). The Samanids had long been a +rampart of the Caliphate against the Turks, whom they held under firm +control. From their fall dates the invasion of the empire by that +people. The greatest gainer for the moment was Mahmud of Ghazni. In +Mesopotamia and Irak several petty states arose on the ruins of the +dominions of the Hamdanids and of the Abbasids. + +Qadir died in the last month of A.H. 422 (November 1031). He is the +author of some theological treatises. + +26. _Reign of Qaim_.--He was succeeded by his son, who at his accession +took the title of _al-Qaim bi-amri'llah_ ("he who maintains the cause of +God"). During the first half of his long reign took place the +development of the power of the Ghuzz, a great Turkish tribe, who took +the name Seljuk from Seljuk their chief in Transoxiana. Already during +the reign of Mahmud large bodies had passed the Oxus and spread over +Khorasan and the adjacent countries. In the time of his successor the +bulk of the tribe followed, and in the year 429 (A.D. 1038) Toghrul Beg, +their chief, beat the army of the Ghaznevids and made his entry into +Nishapur. Thenceforth this progress was rapid (see SELJUKS). The +situation in Bagdad had become so desperate that the caliph called +Toghrul to his aid. This prince entered Bagdad in the month of Ramadan +A.H. 447 (December 1055), and overthrew finally the dynasty of the +Buyids.[44] In 449 (A.D. 1058) the caliph gave him the title of "King of +the East and West." But in the following year, 450, during his absence, +the Shi'ites made themselves masters of the metropolis, and proclaimed +the Caliphate of the Fatimite prince Mostansir. They were soon +overthrown by Toghrul, who was now supreme, and compelled the caliph to +give him his daughter in marriage. Before the marriage, however, he +died, and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan, who died in 465 (25th +December) (A.D. 1072). Qaim died two years later, Shaaban A.H. 467 +(April 1075). + +In the year 440 Mo'izz b. Badis, the Zeirid ruler of the Maghrib, made +himself independent, and substituted in prayer the name of the Abbasid +caliph for that of Mostansir. In order to punish him, the latter gave +permission to the Arab tribes in Egypt to cross the Nile, and granted +them possession of all the lands they should conquer. This happened in +442 (A.D. 1050) and was of the greatest significance for the subsequent +fate of Africa. + +27. _Reign of Moqtadi_.--In the first year of the Caliphate of +_al-Moqtadi bi-amri'llah_ ("he who follows the orders of God"), a +grandson of Qaim, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its zenith. All +the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor, Syria with the +exception of a few towns on the shore, the main part of West Africa +acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad as the Imam. Yemen had been subjected, +and at Mecca and Medina his name was substituted in the public prayers +for that of the Fatimite caliph. But after the death of Malik-Shah a +contest for the sultanate took place. The caliph, who had in 1087 +married the daughter of Malik-Shah, had been compelled two years after +to send her back to her father, as she complained of being neglected by +her husband. Just before his death, the Sultan had ordered him to +transfer his residence from Bagdad to Basra. After his death he stayed +and supported the princess Turkan Khatun. This lost him his life. The +day after Barki-yaroq's triumphant entry into Bagdad, Muharram 487 +(February 1094), he died suddenly, apparently by poison. + +28. _Reign of Mostazhir_.--_Al-Mostazhir billah_ ("he who seeks to +triumph through God"), son of Moqtadi, was only sixteen years old when +he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable chiefly for the growing +power of the Assassins (q.v.) and for the first Crusade (see CRUSADES). +The Seljuk princes were too much absorbed by internal strife to +concentrate against the new assailants. After the death of Barkiyaroq in +November 1104, his brother Mahommed reigned till April 1118. His death +was followed about four months later by that of Mostazhir. + +29. _Reign of Mostarshid._--_Al-Mostarshid billah_ ("he who asks +guidance from God"), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512 (August +1118), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to reestablish the power +of the caliph. Towards the end of the year 529 (October 1134) he was +compelled to promise that he would confine himself to his palace and +never again take the field. Not long after he was assassinated. About +the same time Dobais was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu +Mazyad, who had founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of +the ruins of Babel in 1102. + +30. _Reign of Rashid._--_Al-Rashid billah_ ("the just through God") +tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of Zengi, the +prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas'ud beat the army of the allies, took +Bagdad and had Rashid deposed (August 1136). Rashid escaped, but was +murdered two years later. + +31. _Reign of Moqtafi._--His successor _Al-Moqtafi li-amri'llah_ ("he +who follows the orders of God"), son of Mostazhir, had better success. +He was real ruler not only of the district of Bagdad, but also of the +rest of Irak, which he subdued by force. He died in the month of Rabia +II. 555 (March 1160). Under his reign the central power of the Seljuks +was rapidly sinking. In the west of Atabeg (prince's guardian) Zengi, +the prince of Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the +north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam against +the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (A.D. 1146), his noble son, the +well-known Nureddin, who was called "the just king," continued his +father's glorious career. Transoxiana was conquered by the heathen +hordes of Khata, who towards the end of 535 (A.D. 1141) under the king +Ghurkhan defeated the great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the +Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan. + +32. _Reign of Mostanjid._--_Al-Mostanjid billah_ ("he who invokes help +from God"), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the dominion of the Caliphate +by making an end to the state of the Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies +were the Arabic tribe of the Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in +southern Irak. The greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was +the conquest of Egypt by the army of Nureddin, the overthrow of the +Fatimite dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his +majordomo in Rabia II. 566 (December 1170). + +33. _Reign of Mostadi._--His son and successor _al-Mostadi' +bi-amri'llah_ ("he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God "), +though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers for that +of the Fatimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real authority. By the +death of Nureddin in 569 (A.D. 1174) Saladin's power became firmly +rooted. The dynasty founded by him is called that of the Ayyubites, +after the name of his father Ayyub. Mostadi died in the month of +Dhu'l-qa'da 575 (March 1180). + +34. _Reign of Nasir._--Quite a different man from his father was his +successor _al-Nasir li-dini'llah_ ("he who helps the religion of God"). +During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab 583 +(October 2nd, 1187). Not long before that event the well-known Spanish +traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin, and came to Bagdad +in 580, where he saw the caliph himself. Nasir was very ambitious; he +had added Khuzistan to his dominions, and desired to become also master +of Media (Jabal, or Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the +Seljuks). Here, however, he came into conflict with the then mighty +prince of Khwarizm (Khiva), who, already exasperated because the caliph +refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved to overthrow the +Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a descendant of Ali on the +throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety, Nasir took a step which brought the +greatest misery upon western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival. + +In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish tribes +(Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known under his +honorific title Jenghiz Khan, had conquered the northern provinces of +China, and extended its power to the frontiers of the Transoxianian +regions. To this heathen chief the Imam of the Moslems sent a messenger, +inducing him to attack the prince of Khwarizm, who already had provoked +the Mongolian by a disrespectful treatment of his envoys. Neither he nor +the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they conjured +up. When Nasir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225), the eastern provinces +of the empire had been trampled down by the wild hordes, the towns +burned, and the inhabitants killed without mercy. + +35. _Reign of Zahir_.--_Al-Zahir bi-amri'llah_ ("the victorious through +the orders of God") died within a year after his father's death, in +Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor are praised as +beneficent and just princes. + +36. _Reign of Mostansir_.--_Al-Mostansir billah_ ("he who asks help from +God") was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640 (December 1242). In +the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khan died, but the Mongol invasion continued +to advance with immense strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes +with success, to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwarizm, +but after his death in 628 (A.D. 1231) all resistance was paralysed. + +37. _Reign of Mostasim_.--_Al-Mosta'sim billah_ ("he who clings to God +for protection"), son of Mostansir, the last caliph of Bagdad, was a +narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover by bad counsellors. In +the last month of the year 653 (January 1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the +brother of the gteat khan of the Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by +destroying all the strongholds of the Isma'ilis. Then the turn of Bagdad +came. On the 11th of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived under +the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for peace. Totally +devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by surrendering and imploring +mercy from the barbarian victor. On the 4th of Saphar (February 10th) he +came with his retinue into the camp. The city was then given up to +plunder and slaughter; many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, +after having been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of +the family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. With him +expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, which had lasted 524 +years, from the entry of Abu'I-Abbas into Kufa. + +In vain, three years later, did Abu'I-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of the race +of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with Bibars the Mameluke +sultan, and who had been proclaimed caliph under the title _al-Mostansir +billah_ ("he who seeks help from God"), make an effort to restore a +dynasty which was now for ever extinct. At the head of an army he +marched against Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached +that city. Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found +an asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name of +_al-Hakim bi-amrillah_ ("he who decides according to the orders of +God"). His sons inherited his title, but, like their father, remained in +Egypt without power or influence (see EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan +period"). This shadow of sovereignty continued to exist till the +conquest of Egypt by the Turkish sultan Selim I., who compelled the last +of them, Motawakkil, to abdicate in his favour (see TURKEY: _History_). +He died at Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538. + +Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great-grandson of the +caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a refuge in India, where the +sultan of Delhi received him with the greatest respect, named him +Makhdumzadeh, "the Master's son," and treated him as a prince. Ibn +Batuta saw him when he visited India, and says that he was very +avaricious. On his return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young +man, son of this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as +imam in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father. +It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to Sumatra, +where in the old Samutra the graves of their descendants have been +lately discovered. (M. J. de G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places + appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents or + other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles on + these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such + cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration + adopted, are there given in addition. + + [2] See Noldeke, _Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ + (1864), pp. 89 seq. + + [3] De Goeje, _Memoires d'hist. et de geog. orient._ No. 2 (2nd ed., + Leiden, 1864); Noldeke, _D.M.Z._, 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Baladhuri 137. + + [4] The accounts differ; see Baladhuri 305. The chronology of the + conquests is in many points uncertain. + + [5] Baladhuri 315 sq.; Tabari. i. 1068. + + [6] He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the Arabs + were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire + landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made + state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a + perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the + army. + + [7] Noldeke, _Tabari_, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of + the Era of the Flight (Hegira). + + [8] Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the + Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and + distinguished from the men of Medina. + + [9] It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular + nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred + cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the + elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual + nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage + was as apparent in Ali's hostilities against Zobair and Talha, as in + that of the Abbasids against the followers af Ali. + + [10] Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to + 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh seems to have been a trick played on the + caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it. + + [11] Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Modar and + the Rab'ia tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Modar. + + [12] The Arabs always call them Rum, i.e. Romans. + + [13] A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazan, says that he was a legitimate + son of Abu Sofian, and that his mother was Asma, daughter of A'war. + But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a + slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofian, and who became later also + the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofian + acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid + caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyad and his descendants struck off + the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, the persons concerned + gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names + replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479). + + [14] Aghani xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118. + + [15] Tabari ii. p. 82. + + [16] See Chodzko, _Theatre persan_ (Paris, 1878). + + [17] Dozy took _communis_ for a gloss to _civiliter_ + + [18] Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; it + lies a day's march west from Haleb (Aleppo). + + [19] This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches + of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in his _Estudio sobre la + Invasion de los Arabes en Espana_ (Madrid, 1892). Some of the + details, however, e.g. the battle near Tamames and the part played by + the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but on + probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa and + Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir, _Caliphate_ (London, 1891), pp. 368-9. + + [20] Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to be + found in the _Kitab al-Oyun_, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138. + + [21] Seyid Ameer Ali, _A Critical Examination of the Life and + Teachings of Mahomet_, pp. 341-343. + + [22] Cf. Van Vloten, _Recherches sur la domination arabe, le + Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des + Omayades_ (Amsterdam, 1894), p. 63 seq. + + [23] Cf. Wellhausen, _Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der Zeit + der Umaijiden_ (Gottingen, 1901), p. 31. + + [24] Bayan i. p. 42; Dozy, _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne_, i. p. + 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist + Nauam. + + [25] Dozy i. p. 268. + + [26] Merwan has been nicknamed _al-Ja'di_ and _al-Himar_ (the Ass). + As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, + it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarani (ed. de Jong, p. 31), + who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja'd b. Durham, killed + under the reign of Hisham for heretical opinions, had followers in + Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khorasanians + called him a Ja'd, pretending that all'Ja'd had been his teacher. As + to al-Himar this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his + usual title, al-Faras, "the race-horse." + + [27] The Arabic word for "shedder of blood," _as-Saffah_, which by + that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host + who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have + taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it + an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the + same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abu'l-Abbas finally + established his power. + + [28] The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly + established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent + princes (see MOROCCO, _History_). + + [29] This Hashimiya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded + by Abu'l-Abbas near Anbar. + + [30] Cf. G. le Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ + (Oxford, 1900). + + [31] Tabari iii. p. 443 seq. + + [32] The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called + Ansar ("helpers"). + + [33] On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in + the _Journal Asiatique_ for March-April, 1869. + + [34] Cf. W.M. Patton, _Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_ (Leiden, + 1897); and article MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. + + [35] See M.J. de Goeje, _Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes + travers l'Asie_ (Leiden, 1903); also GIPSIES. + + [36] See M.J. de Goeje, "De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze," + _Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk._ 4^e Reeks, + iii., 1900. + + [37] See M.J. de Goeje, "De muur van Gog en Magog," _Versl. en + Meded._ 3^e Reeks, v., 1888. + + [38] "Dinars" in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for + "dirhems." + + [39] This Bogha was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Wasif, a + man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor. + + [40] See Noldeke, _Orientalische Skizzen_, pp. 155 seq. + + [41] For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under + FATIMITES. + + [42] M.J. de Goeje, _Memoire sur les Carmathes du Bahrain et les + Fatimides_ (Leiden, 1886). + + [43] See Defremery, _Memoire sur les Emirs al-Omara_ (Paris, 1848). + + [44] Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the + Seljuk princes (see SELJUKS). + + + + +CALIVER, a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is an English +corruption of "calibre," and arises from the "arquebus of calibre," that +is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. "Caliver," +therefore, is practically synonymous with "arquebus." The heavier +musket, fired from a rest, replaced the caliver or arquebus towards the +close of the century. + + + + +CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS, the name of three popes. + +CALIXTUS I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery +of the book of the _Philosophumena_. From this work, which is in part a +pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a +slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into +collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured +his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope +Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the government +of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus (217) he was elected in +his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological +adversary Hippolytus, the author of the _Philosophumena_, accused him of +having favoured the medalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and +after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most +prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him also of +certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus reduced the +penitential severities applied until his time to those guilty of +adultery and other analogous sins. Under Calixtus and his two immediate +successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized +by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in +222, in circumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine +the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr popes. + (L. D.*) + +CALIXTUS II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a +noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and +belonged to the party which favoured reform in the Church. In September +1112, after Pope Paschal II. had made a surrender to the emperor Henry +V., Guido called a council at Vienne, which declared against lay +investiture, and excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen +pope at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the +anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he +opened negotiations with the emperor with a view to settling the dispute +over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment +difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 +both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. +The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He +was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory, having +fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands and treated with great +ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations +between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of +Worms made in September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible +by concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, and +was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. During his short +reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern +Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the +city of Rome. During preparations for a crusade he died in Rome on the +13th or 14th of December 1124. + + See M. Maurer, _Pabst Calixt II._ (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, _Hisloire + du pape Calixte II._ (Paris, 1891); and A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, + Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). + +CALIXTUS III. (_c._1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a Spaniard +named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a +great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor at Lerida; in 1429 he +was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion +mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and +Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a +crusade against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, +succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the people of +Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, and very little result +came from the pope's exertions. During his papacy Calixtus became +involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now +also king of Naples, and after the king's death in June 1458 he refused +to recognize his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, +asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was +notorious for nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, +Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on the +6th of August 1458. + + See A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). + + + + +CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelby, a +village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying philology, philosophy and +theology at Helmstadt, Jena, Giessen, Tubingen and Heidelberg, he +travelled through Holland, France and England, where he became +acquainted with the leading Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was +appointed professor of theology at Helmstadt by the duke of Brunswick, +who had admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute +with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a book, +_Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus_, which +provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he +published his _Epitome theologiae_, and some years later his _Theologia +Moralis_ (1634) and _De Arte Nova Nihusii_. Roman Catholics felt them to +be aimed at their own system, but they gave so great offence to +Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher to charge the author with a +secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refuted the accusation of +Buscher, when, on account of his intimacy with the Reformed divines at +the conference of Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a +reconciliation between them and the Lutherans, a new charge was +preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius +(1612-1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim +of his life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant +differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, known in the +Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime +of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran church, till a new controversy +arose with P.J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656. + + There is a monograph on Calixtus by E.L.T. Henke (2 vols., 1853-1856); + see also Isaak Dorner, _Gesch. d. protest. Theol._ pp. 606-624; and + especially Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. + + + + +CALL (from Anglo-Saxon _ceallian_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch +_kallen_, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and +particularly to attract some one's attention by a loud utterance. Hence +its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the occupier, to whom +the visit was made, was called aloud, in early times, to indicate the +presence of the visitor. It is thus transferred to a short stay at a +place, but usually with the idea of a specific purpose, as in "port of +call," where ships stop in passing. Connected with the idea of summoning +by name are such uses as "roll-call" or "call-over," where names are +called over and answered by those present; similar uses are the "call to +the bar," the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students qualified +to practise as barristers, and the "call within the bar" to the +appointment of king's counsel. In the first case the "bar" is that which +separates the benchers from the rest of the body of members of the Inn, +in the other the place in a court of law within which only king's +counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law, are allowed to plead. "Call" is +also used with a particular reference to a divine summons, as of the +calling of the apostles. It is thus used in nonconformist churches of +the invitation to serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. +It is from this sense of a _vocatio_ or summons that the word "calling" +is used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man's ordinary +profession, occupation or business. In card games "call" is used, in +poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest bettor be exposed or +seen, exercised by that player who equals his bet; in whist or bridge, +of a certain method of play, the "call" for a suit or for trumps on the +part of one partner, to which the other is expected to respond; and in +many card games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is +laid face up on the table, and may be thus "called" for, at any point +the opponent may choose. + +"Call" is also a term on the English and American stock exchanges for a +contract by which, in consideration of a certain sum, an "option" is +given by the person making or signing the agreement to another named +therein or his order or to bearer, to "call" for a specified amount of +stock at a certain day for a certain price. A "put," which is the +reverse of a "call," is the option of selling (putting) stock at a +certain day for a certain price. A combined option of either calling or +putting is termed a "straddle," and sometimes on the American stock +exchange a "spread-eagle." (See further STOCK EXCHANGE.) The word is +also used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand +for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company has not +been demanded or "called" up at once. (See COMPANY.) + + + + +CALLANDER, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m. north-west of +Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 1458. Situated on the +north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a three-arched bridge, and +sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is in growing repute as a +health resort. A mile and a half north-east are the Falls of Bracklinn +(Gaelic, "white-foaming pool"), formed by the Keltie, which takes a leap +of 50 ft. down the red sandstone gorge on its way to the Teith. Two +miles north-west of Callander is the Pass of Leny, "the gate of the +Highlands," and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the +shores of which stand the ruins of St Bride's chapel. Callander owes +much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from which the +Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that described in Scott's +_Lady of the Lake_. The ascent of Ben Ledi is commonly made from the +town. + + + + +CALLAO, a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8-1/2 m. west of +Lima, in 12 deg. 04' S., 77 deg. 13' W. Pop. (1905) 31,128, of whom 3349 +were foreigners. The department includes the city and its environs, +Bellavista and La Punta, and the neighbouring islands, San Lorenzo, +Fronton, the Palominos, &c., and covers an area of 14-1/2 sq. m. Callao +is the principal port of the republic, its harbour being a large bay +sheltered by a tongue of land on the south called La Punta, and by the +islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and +the harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. +The city stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a flat +point of land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most +part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly paved, +irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast is swept by cool +ocean breezes, the average temperatures ranging from 65 deg. to 77 deg. +F., but notwithstanding this, Callao has a bad reputation for fevers and +contagious diseases, chiefly because of its insanitary condition. Its +noteworthy public buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses +which occupy the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish +government between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, +the military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three +Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some modern +commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north of the site of +the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake and tidal wave in +1746. For a short time the commercial interests of the stricken city +centred at Bellavista, 1-1/4 m. east, where wheat granaries were built +and still remain, but later the greater convenience of a waterside site +drew the merchants and population back to the vicinity of the submerged +town. The importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only +open port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political +order, because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss of +its monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked, and the modern +development of the port began, when a railway was built from Callao into +the heart of the Andes, and Callao is now an important factor in the +development of copper-mining. The port is connected with Lima by two +railways and an electric tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and +with Cerro de Pasco by railway 221 m. A short railway also runs from the +port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with modern +harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete blocks, two +fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels, and a large +floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable of receiving +vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight), which was built in +Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863. The docks are provided with +gas and electric lights, 18 steam cranes for loading and discharging +vessels, a triple line of railway and a supply of fresh water. Callao +was formerly the headquarters in South America of the Pacific Steam +Navigation Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies +that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of Lima, few +industrial establishments in the city; among them are a large sugar +refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory for making effervescent +drinks, and a number of foundries and repair shops. Being a port of the +first class, Callao is an important distributing centre for the coasting +trade, in which a large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign +steamship companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific +Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compania Sud-America (Chilean), the +Kosmos and Roland lines (German), the Merchants line (New York), and a +Japanese line from the ports of Japan and China. A subsidized Peruvian +line is also contemplated to ply between the Pacific ports of South +America with an eventual extension of the service to Europe. The +arrivals from and clearances for foreign ports in 1907 were as +follows:-- + + Steamers. Sailing Vessels. + No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. + Arrivals 518 937,302 924 174,165 + Clearances 517 937,706 931 163,365 + +The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides, silver, +copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include timber and +other building materials, cotton and other textiles, general merchandise +for personal, household and industrial uses, railway material, coal, +kerosene, wheat, flour and other food stuffs. The maintenance of peace +and order, and the mining development of the interior, have added to the +trade and prosperity of the port. + +The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was founded in +1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima. As the port of that +capital and the only open port below Panama it grew rapidly in +importance and wealth. It was raised to the dignity of a city in 1671. +The appearance of Sir Francis Drake in the bay in 1578 led to the +fortification of the port, which proved strong enough to repel an attack +by the Dutch in 1624. The city was completely destroyed and partly +submerged by the great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which +about 6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and +figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also in the +various revolutions which have convulsed the republic. Its political +autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a coast department. The +Callao fortifications were bombarded by a Spanish fleet under Admiral +Mendez Nunez on the 2nd of May 1866, when there were heavy losses both +in lives and material. Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the +Chileans, though it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession +of the invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before +the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were sunk, +to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy. + + + + +CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL (1779-1844), English landscape painter, was +born at Kensington in 1779 and died there in 1844. His first study was +music; and he sang for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. +But at the age of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had +exhibited his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to +distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an academician in +1810. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood; and, seven years +later, was appointed surveyor of the royal pictures. His two principal +subject pictures--"Raphael and the Fornarina," and "Milton dictating to +his Daughters," are much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in +the highest class by their refined taste and quiet beauty. + +His wife, MARIA, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married in 1827, was +a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. +(d. 1822). With her first husband she travelled in India, South Africa +and South America, where she acted for some time as teacher of Donna +Maria, who became queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her +second husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She published +accounts of her visits to India (1812), and to the environs of Rome +(1820); _Memoirs of Poussin_ (1820); a _History of France_; a _History +of Spain_ (1828); _Essays toward a History of Painting_ (1836); _Little +Arthur's History of England_ (1836); and the _Scripture Herbal_ (1842). + + + + +CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL (1766-1821), English musician, brother of Sir +Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the 20th of November 1766. +At the age of seven he was sent to a neighbouring day-school, where he +continued for five years, studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this +time he frequently went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which +his father was employed, and the impression he received on hearing the +organ of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The +organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott received his +first musical instruction. He did not, however, choose music as a +profession, as he wished to become a surgeon. But on witnessing a +surgical operation he found his nervous system so seriously affected by +the sight, that he determined to devote himself to music. His intimacy +with Dr Arnold and other leading musicians of the day procured him +access to artistic circles; he was deputy organist at St George the +Martyr, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, from 1783 to 1785, in which year his +successful competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by +the "Catch Club" soon spread his reputation as composer of glees, +catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music. The +compositions with which he won these medals were--the catch "O beauteous +fair," the canon "Blessed is he," and the glee "Dull repining sons of +care." In these and other similar compositions he displays considerable +skill and talent, and some of his glees retain their popularity at the +present day. In 1787 Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the +"Glee Club." In 1789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul's, +Covent Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for +Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never succeeded, +not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But of far greater +importance than his compositions are his theoretical writings. His +_Musical Grammar_, published in 1806 (3rd ed., 1817), was long +considered the standard English work of musical instruction, and in +spite of its being antiquated when compared with modern standards, it +remains a scholarly and lucid treatment of the rudiments of the art. +Callcott was a much-esteemed teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he +took his degree of Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had +received his degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr +Crotch as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of +his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of his +mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on the 15th of +May 1821. A posthumous collection of his most favourite vocal pieces was +published in 1824 with a memoir of his life by his son-in-law, William +Horsley, himself a composer of note. + +Callcott's son, WILLIAM HUTCHINS CALLCOTT (1807-1882), inherited to a +large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song, "The last man," +and his anthem, "Give peace in our time, O Lord," were his best-known +compositions. + + + + +CALLIAS, tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance of Philip II. +of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contemplated the subjugation of +the whole island. But finding that Philip was unwilling to help him, +Callias had recourse to the Athenians, although he had previously (350 +B.C.) been engaged in hostilities with them. With the support of +Demosthenes, he was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the +tribute formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over to +him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his rule, with +Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up tyrants chosen +by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently, when Philip's attention +was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians in conjunction with Callias drove +out these tyrants, and Callias thus became master of the island +(Demosthenes, _De Pace_, p. 58; _Epistola Philippi_, p. 159; Diod. Sic. +xvi. 74). At the end of his life he appears to have lived at Athens, and +Demosthenes proposed to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines, +_Contra Ctesiphontem_, 85, 87). + + + + +CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, two names borne alternately by the heads of a +wealthy and distinguished Athenian family. During the 5th and 4th +centuries B.C. the office of _daduchus_ or torch-bearer at the +Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary privilege of the family till its +extinction. The following members deserve mention. + +1. CALLIAS, the second of the name, fought at the battle of Marathon +(490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of Cimon, probably +about 445 B.C., he was sent to Susa to conclude with Artaxerxes, king of +Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards misnamed the "peace of Cimon." +Cimon had nothing to do with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea +of peace with Persia (see CIMON). At all events Callias's mission does +not seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason on +his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents. + + See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes, _De Falsa + Legatione_, p. 428; Grote recognizes the treaty as a historical fact, + _History of Greece_, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii. ch. ii., denies + the conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, + _Forschungen_, ii.; J.B. Bury in _Hermathena_, xxiv. (1898). + +2. HIPPONICUS, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon he commanded +the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian territory (426 B.C.) +and was slain at the battle of Delium (424). His wife, whom he +divorced, subsequently became the wife of Pericles; one of his +daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades; another, the wife of +Theodorus, was the mother of the orator Isocrates. + + See Thucydides iii. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides, _Contra + Alcibiadem_, 13. + +3. CALLIAS, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was +notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed by the +comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian (Aristophanes, +_Frogs_, 429, _Birds_, 283, and schol. Andocides, _De Mysteriis_, +110-131). The scene of Xenophon's _Symposium_ and Plato's _Protagoras_ +was laid at his house. He was reduced to a state of absolute poverty +and, according to Aelian (_Var. Hist._ iv. 23), committed suicide, but +there is no confirmation of this. In spite of his dissipated life he +played a certain part in public affairs. In 392 he was in command of the +Athenian hoplites at Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by +Iphicrates. In 371 he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms +with Sparta. The peace which was the result was called after him the +"peace of Callias." + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv. 5, vi. 3; and DELIAN LEAGUE. + + + + +CALLIMACHUS, an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the 5th century +B.C. Ancient critics associate him with Calamis, whose relative he may +have been. He is given credit for two inventions, the Corinthian column +and the running borer for drilling marble. The most certain facts in +regard to him are that he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and +made a golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408 B.C.); and that he used +to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour. + + + + +CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Cyrene and a +descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae, flourished about +250 B.C. He opened a school in the suburbs of Alexandria, and some of +the most distinguished grammarians and poets were his pupils. He was +subsequently appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the +Alexandrian library, which office he held till his death (about 240). +His _Pinakes_ (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically +arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history of +Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800 works, in +verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four epigrams and some +fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of the _Hecale_, an +idyllic epic, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon +in _Classical Review_, November 1893). His _Coma Berenices_ is only +known from the celebrated imitation of Catullus. His _Aitia_ (causes) +was a collection of elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the +foundation of cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According +to Quintilian (_Instit._ x. i. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac +poets; his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by +Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns are extremely +learned, and written in a laboured and artificial style. The epigrams, +some of the best specimens of their kind, have been incorporated in the +Greek Anthology. Art and learning are his chief characteristics, +unrelieved by any real poetic genius; in the words of Ovid (_Amores_, i. +15)-- + + "Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet." + + EDITIONS.--Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by + Bentley) by J.A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) (with + elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke + (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff (1897). See _Neue Bruchstucke + aus der Hekale des Kallimachus_, by T. Gomperz (1893); also G. Knaack, + _Callimachea_ (1896); A. Bertrami, _Gl' Inni di Callimacho e il Nomo + di Terpandro_ (1896); K. Kuiper, _Studia Callimachea_ (1896); A. + Hamette, _Les Epigrammes de Callimaque: etude critique et litteraire_ + (Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd + (1755) and H.W. Tytler (1793); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). See also + Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (ed. 1906), p. 122. + + + + +CALLINUS of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets and the +creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed to have +flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the Cimmerii and their +expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 B.C.). During his lifetime his own +countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the +Magnesians. These two events give the key to his poetry, in which he +endeavours to rouse the indolent Ionians to a sense of patriotism. Only +scanty fiagments of his poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in +Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus. + + Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bergk, _Poetae + Lyrici Graeci_ (1882). On the date of Callinus, see the histories of + Greek literature by Mure and Muller; G.H. Bode, _Geschichte der + hellenischen Dichtkunst_, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger, _De + Callini Aetate_ (1877), who places him earlier, about 642. + + + + +CALLIOPE, the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweetness of her +vioce (Gr. [Greek: kallos], beauty; [Greek: ops], voice). In Hesiod she +was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over the +others. (See also MUSES, THE.) + + + + +CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-god Achelous +and wife of Alcmaeon (q.v.). At her earnest request her husband induced +Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia, and the father of his first wife +Arsinoe (or Alphesiboea), to hand over to him the necklace and peplus +(robe) of Harmonia (q.v.), that he might dedicate them at Delphi to +complete the cure of his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were +really meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid +and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102). Callirrhoe +now implored the gods that her two young sons might grow to manhood at +once and avenge their father's death. This was granted, and her sons +Amphoterus and Acarnan slew Phegeus with his two sons, and returning +with the necklace and peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, _Metam._ +ix. 413). + + + + +CALLISTHENES (_c._ 360-328 B.C.), of Olynthus, Greek historian, a +relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation he was +appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. He +censured Alexander's adoption of oriental customs, inveighing especially +against the servile ceremony of adoration. Having thereby greatly +offended the king, he was accused of being privy to a treasonable +conspiracy and thrown into prison, where he died from torture or +disease. His melancholy end was commemorated in a special treatise +([Greek: Kallisthenaes ae peri penthous]) by his friend Theophrastus, +whose acquaintance he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote +an account of Alexander's expedition, a history of Greece from the peace +of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a history of the Phocian +war and other works, all of which have perished. The romantic life of +Alexander, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the middle ages, +originated during the time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form +belongs to the 3rd century A.D. Its author is usually known as +pseudo-Callisthenes, although, in the Latin translation by Julius +Valerius Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is +ascribed to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and +Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are also +Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek +versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle ages (see +Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_, 1897, p. 849). +Valerius's translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, +arch-priest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-called _Historia de +Preliis_. + + See _Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni_ (by C.W. Muller, in the Didot + edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments and the + text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduction; A. + Westermann, _De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene + Commentatio_ (1838-1842); J. Zacher, _Pseudo-Callisthenes_ (1867); W. + Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1898), pp. 363, 819; + article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyklopadie_; A. Ausfeld, _Zur Kritik des griechischen + Alexanderromans_ (Bruchsal, 1894); Plutarch, _Alexander_, 52-55; + Arrian, _Anab_. iv. 10-14; Diog. Laertius v. I; Quintus Curtius viii. + 5-8; Suidas _s.v._ See also ALEXANDER THE GREAT (_ad fin._). For the + Latin translations see Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ + (Eng, trans.), S 399; and M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen + Litteratur_, iv. i., p. 43. + + + + +CALLISTO, in Greek mythology, an Arcadian nymph, daughter of Lycaon and +companion of Artemis. She was transformed into a bear as a penalty for +having borne to Zeus a son, Arcas, the ancestor of the Arcadians. Hera, +Zeus and Artemis are all mentioned as the authors of the transformation. +Arcas, when hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot +her, had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where he +placed them as a constellation. In another version, she was slain by +Artemis. Callisto was originally only an epithet of the Arcadian Artemis +herself. + + See Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ ii. 381-530; R. Franz, _De + Callistus fabula_ (1890), which deals exhaustively with the various + forms of the legend. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at the beginning of the +2nd century B.C. He was one of the pupils of Aristophanes of Byzantium, +who were distinctively called Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted +himself to the elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his +commentaries have been preserved in the various collections of scholia +and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscellaneous work called +[Greek: Summikta] used by the later lexicographers, and of a treatise on +courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D). He is not to be confused +with Callistratus, the pupil and successor of Isocrates and author of a +history of Heraclea in Pontus. + + See R. Schmidt, _De Callistrato Aristophaneo_, appended to A. Nauck's + _Aristophanis Byzantii Fragmenta_ (1848); also C.W. Muller, _Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum_, iv. p. 353 note. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, only known as the author of a hymn in +honour of Harmodius (q.v.) and Aristogeiton. This ode, which is to be +found in Athenaeus (p. 695), has been beautifully translated by Thomas +Moore. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, Greek sophist and rhetorician, probably flourished in the +3rd century. He wrote [Greek: Ekfraseis], descriptions of fourteen works +of art in stone or brass by distinguished artists. This little work, +which is written in a dry and affected style, without any real artistic +feeling, is usually edited with the [Greek: Eikones] of Philostratus. + + Edition by Schenkl-Reisch (Teubner series, 1902); see also C.G. Heyne, + _Opuscula Academica_, v. pp. 196-221, with commentary on the + _Descriptiones_; F. Jacobs, _Animadversiones criticae in Callistrati + statuas_ (1797). + + + + +CALLISTRATUS of Aphidnae, Athenian orator and general in the 4th century +B.C. For many years, as _prostates_, he supported Spartan interests at +Athens. On account of the refusal of the Thebans to surrender Oropus, +which on his advice they had been allowed to occupy temporarily, +Callistratus, despite his magnificent defence (which so impressed +Demosthenes that he resolved to study oratory), was condemned to death, +361 B.C. He fled to Methone in Macedonia, and on his return to Athens in +355 he was executed. + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii. 3, vi. 2; Lycurgus, _In Leocr._ 93. + + + + +CALLOT, JACQUES (1592-1635), French engraver, was born at Nancy in +Lorraine, where his father, Jean Callot, was a herald-at-arms. He early +discovered a very strong predilection for art, and at the age of twelve +quitted home without his father's consent, and set out for Rome where he +intended to prosecute his studies. Being utterly destitute of funds he +joined a troop of Bohemians, and arrived in their company at Florence. +In this city he had the good fortune to attract the notice of a +gentleman of the court, who supplied him with the means of study; but he +removed in a short time to Rome, where, however, he was recognized by +some relatives, who immediately compelled him to return home. Two years +after this, and when only fourteen years old, he again left France +contrary to the wishes of his friends, and reached Turin before he was +overtaken by his elder brother, who had been despatched in quest of him. +As his enthusiasm for art remained undiminished after these +disappointments, he was at last allowed to accompany the duke of +Lorraine's envoy to the papal court. His first care was to study the art +of design, of which in a short time he became a perfect master. Philip +Thomasin instructed him in the use of the graver, which, however, he +ultimately abandoned, substituting the point as better adapted for his +purposes. From Rome he went to Florence, where he remained till the +death of Cosimo II., the Maecenas of these times. On returning to his +native country he was warmly received by the then duke of Lorraine, who +admired and encouraged him. As his fame was now spread abroad in various +countries of Europe, many distinguished persons gave him commissions to +execute. By the Infanta Isabella, sovereign of the Low Countries, he was +commissioned to engrave a design of the siege of Breda; and at the +request of Louis XIII. he designed the siege of Rochelle and the attack +on the Isle of Re. When, however, in 1631 he was desired by that +monarch to execute an engraving of the siege of Nancy, which he had just +taken, Callot refused, saying, "I would rather cut off my thumb than do +anything against the honour of my prince and of my country"; to which +Louis replied that the duke of Lorraine was happy in possessing such +subjects as Callot. Shortly after this he returned to his native place, +from which the king failed to allure him with the offer of a handsome +pension. He engraved in all about 1600 pieces, the best of which are +those executed in aquafortis. No one ever possessed in a higher degree +the talent for grouping a large number of figures in a small space, and +of representing with two or three bold strokes the expression, action +and peculiar features of each individual. Freedom, variety and _naivete_ +characterize all his pieces. His Fairs, his Miseries of War, his Sieges, +his Temptation of St Anthony and his Conversion of St Paul are the +best-known of his plates. + + See also Edouard Meaume, _Recherches sur la vie de Jacques Callot_ + (1860). + + + + +CALLOVIAN (from _Callovium_, the Latinized form of Kellaways, a village +not far from Chippenham in Wiltshire), in geology, the name introduced +by d'Orbigny for the strata which constitute the base of the Oxfordian +or lowermost stage of the Middle Oolites. The term used by d'Orbigny in +1844 was "Kellovien," subsequently altered to "Callovien" in 1849; +William Smith wrote "Kellaways" or "Kelloways Stone" towards the close +of the 18th century. In England it is now usual to speak of the +Kellaways Beds; these comprise (1) the Kellaways Rock, alternating clays +and sands with frequent but irregular concretionary calcareous +sandstones, with abundant fossils; and (2) a lower division, the +Kellaways Clay, which often contains much selenite but is poor in +fossils. The lithological characters are impersistent, and the sandy +phase encroaches sometimes more, sometimes less, upon the true Oxford +Clay. The rocks may be traced from Wiltshire into Bedfordshire, +Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, where they are well exposed in the cliffs at +Scarborough and Gristhorpe, at Hackness (90 ft.), Newtondale (80 ft.) +and Kepwick (100 ft.). In Yorkshire, however, the Callovian rocks lie +upon a somewhat higher palaeontological horizon than in Wiltshire. In +England, _Kepplerites calloviensis_ is taken as the zone fossil; other +common forms are _Cosmoceras modiolare_, _C. gowerianum_, _Belemnites +oweni_, _Ancyloceras calloviense_, _Nautilus calloviensis_, _Avicula +ovalis_, _Gryphaea bilobata_, &c. + +On the European continent the "Callovien" stage is used in a sense that +is not exactly synonymous with the English Callovian; it is employed to +embrace beds that lie both higher and lower in the time-scale. Thus, the +continental Callovien includes the following zones:-- + + Upper Callovien / Zone of _Peltoceras athleta_, _Cosmoceras Duncani_, + (Divesien) \ _Quenstedtoceras Lamberti_ and _Q. mariae._ + + / Zone of _Reineckia anceps_, _Stephanoceras + Lower Callovien < coronatum_ and _Cosmoceras jason_ and a lower zone + | of _C. gowerianum_ and _Macrocephalites + \ macrocephalus_. + +Rocks of Callovian age (according to the continental classification) are +widely spread in Europe, which, with the exception of numerous insular +masses, was covered by the Callovian Sea. The largest of these land +areas lay over Scandinavia and Finland, and extended eastward as far as +the 40th meridian. In arctic regions these rocks have been discovered in +Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, the east coast of Greenland, and Siberia. +They occur in the Hebrides and Skye and in England as indicated above. +In France they are well exposed on the coast of Calvados between +Trouville and Dives, where the marls and clays are 200 ft. thick. In the +Ardennes clays bearing pyrites and oolitic limonite are about 30 ft. +thick. Around Poitiers the Callovian is 100 ft. thick, but the formation +thins in the direction of the Jura. + +Clays and shales with ferruginous oolites represent the Callovian of +Germany; while in Russia the deposits of this age are mainly +argillaceous. In North America Callovian fossils are found in +California; in South America in Bolivia. In Africa they have been found +in Algeria and Morocco, in Somaliland and Zanzibar, and on the west +coast of Madagascar. In India they are represented by the shales and +limestones of the Chari series of Cutch. Callovian rocks are also +recorded from New Guinea and the Moluccas. + + See JURASSIC; also A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_, vol. ii. + (5th ed., 1906), and H.B. Woodward, "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," + _Mem. Geol. Survey_, vol. v. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CALM, an adjective meaning peaceful, quiet; particularly used of the +weather, free from wind or storm, or of the sea, opposed to rough. The +word appears in French _calme_, through which it came into English, in +Spanish, Portuguese and Italian _calma_. Most authorities follow Diez +(_Etym. Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen_) in tracing the origin to +the Low Latin _cauma_, an adaptation of Greek [Greek: kauma], burning +heat, [Greek: kaiein], to burn. The Portuguese _calma_ has this meaning +as well as that of quiet. The connexion would be heat of the day, rest +during that period, so quiet, rest, peacefulness. The insertion of the +_l_, which in English pronunciation disappears, is probably due to the +Latin _calor_, heat, with which the word was associated. + + + + +CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1672-1757), French Benedictine, was born at +Mesnil-la-Horgne on the 26th of February 1672. At the age of seventeen +he joined the Benedictine order, and in 1698 was appointed to teach +theology and philosophy at the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was +successively prior at Lay, abbot at Nancy and of Senones in Lorraine. He +died in Paris on the 25th of October 1757. The erudition of Calmet's +exegetical writings won him a reputation that was not confined to the +Roman Catholic Church, but they have failed to stand the test of modern +scholarship. The most noteworthy are:--_Commentaire de la Bible_ (Paris, +23 vols. 1707-1716), and _Dictionnaire historique, geographique, +critique, chronologique et litteral de la Bible_ (Paris, 2 vols., 1720). +These and numerous other works and editions of the Bible are known only +to students, but as a pioneer in a branch of Biblical study which +received a wide development in the 19th century, Calmet is worthy of +remembrance. As a historical writer he is best known by his _Histoire +ecclesiastique et civile de la Lorraine_ (Nancy, 1728), founded on +original research and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full +list is given In Vigouroux's _Dictionnaire de la Bible_. + + See A. Digot, _Notice biographique et litteraire sur Dom Augustin + Calmet_ (Nancy, 1860). + + + + +CALNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99 m. west of London by +the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3457. Area, 356 acres. It lies in +the valley of the Calne, and is surrounded by the high table-land of +Salisbury Plain and the Marlborough Downs. The church of St Mark has a +nave with double aisles, and massive late Norman pillars and arches. The +tower, which fell in 1628, was perhaps rebuilt by Inigo Jones. Other +noteworthy buildings are a grammar school, founded by John Bentley in +1660, and the town-hall. Bacon-curing is the staple industry, and there +are flour, flax and paper mills. The manufacture of broadcloth, once of +great importance, is almost extinct. Calne is governed by a mayor, four +aldermen and twelve councillors. + +In the 10th century Calne (_Canna_, _Kalne_) was the site of a palace of +the West-Saxon kings. Calne was the scene of the synod of 978 when, +during the discussion of the question of celibacy, the floor suddenly +gave way beneath the councillors, leaving Archbishop Dunstan alone +standing upon a beam. Here also a witenagemot was summoned in 997. In +the Domesday Survey Calne appears as a royal borough; it comprised +forty-seven burgesses and was not assessed in hides. In 1565 the borough +possessed a gild merchant, at the head of which were two gild stewards. +Calne claimed to have received a charter from Stephen and a confirmation +of the same from Henry III., but no record of these is extant, and the +charter actually issued to the borough by James II. in 1687 apparently +never came into force. The borough returned two members to parliament +more or less irregularly from the first parliament of Edward I. until +the Reform Bill of 1832. From this date the borough returned one member +only until, by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the privilege +was annulled. In 1303 Lodovicus de Bello Monte, prebendary of +Salisbury, obtained a grant of a Saturday market at the manor of Calne, +and a three days' fair at the feast of St Mary Magdalene; the latter was +only abandoned in the 19th century. Calne was formerly one of the chief +centres of cloth manufacture in the west of England, but the industry is +extinct. + + + + +CALOMEL, a drug consisting of mercurous chloride, mercury subchloride, +Hg2Cl2, which occurs in nature as the mineral horn-quicksilver, found as +translucent crystals belonging to the tetragonal system, with an +adamantine lustre, and a dirty white grey or brownish colour. The chief +localities are Idria, Obermoschel, Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in +Spain. It was used in medicine as early as the 16th century under the +names _Draco mitigatus, Manna metallorum, Aquila alba, Mercurius +dulcis_; later it became known as calomel, a name probably derived from +the Greek [Greek: kalos], beautiful, and [Greek: melas], black, in +allusion to its blackening by ammonia, or from [Greek: kalos] and +[Greek: meli], honey, from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by +heating mercury in chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive +sublimate) with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by +heating a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron retorts, +and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers. In the wet way it +is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt with hydrochloric acid. +Calomel is a white powder which sublimes at a low red heat; it is +insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. Boiling with stannous chloride +solution reduces it to the metal; digestion with potassium iodide gives +mercurous iodide. Nitric acid oxidizes it to mercuric nitrate, while +potash or soda decomposes it into mercury and oxygen. Long continued +boiling with water gives mercury and mercuric chloride; dilute +hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline chlorides convert it into +mercuric chloride on long boiling. + +The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion for much +discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour density to be 8.3 (air += 1), corresponding to HgCl. The supporters of the formula Hg2Cl2 +pointed out that dissociation into mercury and mercuric chloride would +give this value, since mercury is a monatomic element. After +contradictory evidence as to whether dissociation did or did not occur, +it was finally shown by Victor Meyer and W. Harris (1894) that a rod +moistened with potash and inserted in the vapour was coloured yellow, +and so conclusively proved dissociation. A. Werner determined the +molecular weights of mercurous, cuprous and silver bromides, iodides and +chlorides in pyridine solution, and obtained results pointing to the +formula HgCl, etc. However, the double formula, Hg2Cl2, has been +completely established by H.B. Baker (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p. +646) by vapour density determinations of the absolutely dry substance. + +Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in medicine which +are dealt with here as a supplement to the general discussion of the +pharmacology and therapeutics of mercury (q.v.). Calomel exerts remote +actions in the form of mercuric chloride. The specific value of +mercurous chloride is that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric +chloride in the safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is +continuously and freshly generated in small quantities. Its +pharmacopeial preparations are the "Black wash," in which calomel and +lime react to form mercurous oxide, a pill still known as "Plummer's +pill" and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any particular +advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the existence of the +official ointment. Internally the salt is given in doses--for an adult +of from one-half to five grains. It is an admirable aperient, acting +especially on the upper part of the intestinal canal, and causing a +slight increase of intestinal secretion. The stimulant action occurring +high up in the canal (duodenum and jejunum), it is well to follow a dose +of calomel with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special +value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power and its +stimulation of the liver. The stools are dark green, containing calomel, +mercuric sulphide and bile which, owing to the antiseptic action, has +not been decomposed. The salt is often used in the treatment of +syphilis, but is probably less useful than certain other mercurial +compounds. It is also employed for fumigation; the patient sits naked +with a blanket over him, on a cane-bottomed chair, under which twenty +grains of calomel are volatilized by a spirit-lamp; in about twenty +minutes the calomel is effectually absorbed by the skin. + + + + +CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (1734-1803), French statesman, was born at +Douai of a good family. He entered the profession of the law, and became +in succession advocate to the general council of Artois, _procureur_ to +the parlement of Douai, master of requests, then intendant of Metz +(1768) and of Lille (1774). He seems to have been a man of great +business capacity, gay and careless in temperament, and thoroughly +unscrupulous in political action. In the terrible crisis of affairs +preceding the French Revolution, when minister after minister tried in +vain to replenish the exhausted royal treasury and was dismissed for +want of success, Calonne was summoned to take the general control of +affairs. He assumed office on the 3rd of November 1783. He owed the +position to Vergennes, who for three years and a half continued to +support him; but the king was not well disposed towards him, and, +according to the testimony of the Austrian ambassador, his reputation +with the public was extremely poor. In taking office he found "600 +millions to pay and neither money nor credit." At first he attempted to +develop the latter, and to carry on the government by means of loans in +such a way as to maintain public confidence in its solvency. In October +1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he developed the _caisse d' +escompte_. But these measures failing, he proposed to the king the +suppression of internal customs, duties and the taxation of the property +of nobles and clergy. Turgot and Necker had attempted these reforms, and +Calonne attributed their failure to the malevolent criticism of the +parlements. Therefore he had an assembly of "notables" called together +in January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury, and +proposed the establishment of a _subvention territoriale_, which should +be levied on all property without distinction. This suppression of +privileges was badly received by the privileged notables. Calonne, +angered, printed his reports and so alienated the court. Louis XVI. +dismissed him on the 8th of April 1787 and exiled him to Lorraine. The +joy was general in Paris, where Calonne, accused of wishing to augment +the imposts, was known as "Monsieur Deficit." In reality his audacious +plan of reforms, which Necker took up later, might have saved the +monarchy had it been firmly seconded by the king. Calonne soon +afterwards passed over to England, and during his residence there kept +up a polemical correspondence with Necker on the finances. In 1789, when +the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over to Flanders +in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for election, but he was +sternly forbidden to enter France. In revenge he joined the _emigre_ +party at Coblenz, wrote in their favour, and expended nearly all the +fortune brought him by his wife, a wealthy widow. In 1802, having again +taken up his abode in London, he received permission from Napoleon to +return to France. He died on the 30th of October 1802, about a month +after his arrival in his native country. + + See Ch. Gomel, _Les Causes financieres de la Revolution_ (Paris, + 1893); R. Stourm, _Les Finances de l'ancien regime et de la + Revolution_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); Susane, _La Tactique financiere de + Calonne_, with bibliography (Paris, 1902). + + + + +CALORESCENCE (from the Lat. _calor_, heat), a term invented by John +Tyndall to describe an optical phenomenon, the essential feature of +which is the conversion of rays belonging to the dark infra-red portion +of the spectrum into the more refrangible visible rays, i.e. heat rays +into rays of light. Such a transformation had not previously been +observed, although the converse phenomenon, i.e. the conversion of short +waves of light into longer or less refrangible waves, had been shown by +Sir G.G. Stokes to occur in fluorescent bodies. Tyndall's experiments, +however, were carried out on quite different lines, and have nothing to +do with fluorescence (q.v.). His method was to sift out the long dark +waves which are associated with the short visible waves constituting the +light of the sun or of the electric arc and to concentrate the former to +a focus. If the eye was placed at the focus, no sensation of light was +observed, although small pieces of charcoal or blackened platinum foil +were immediately raised to incandescence, thus giving rise to visible +rays. + +The experiment is more easily carried out with the electric light than +with sunlight, as the former contains a smaller proportion of visible +rays. According to Tyndall, 90% of the radiation from the electric arc +is non-luminous. The arc being struck in the usual way between two +carbons, a concave mirror, placed close behind it, caused a large part +of the radiation to be directed through an aperture in the camera and +concentrated to a focus outside. In front of the aperture were placed a +plate of transparent rock-salt, and a flat cell of thin glass containing +a solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide. Both rock-salt and carbon +bisulphide are extremely transparent to the luminous and also to the +infra-red rays The iodine in the solution, however, has the property of +absorbing the luminous rays, while transmitting the infra-red rays +copiously, so that in sufficient thicknesses the solution appears nearly +black. Owing to the inflammable nature of carbon bisulphide, the plate +of rock-salt was found to be hardly a sufficient protection, and Tyndall +surrounded the iodine cell with an annular vessel through which cold +water was made to flow. Any small body which was a good absorber of dark +rays was rapidly heated to redness when placed at the focus. Platinized +platinum (platinum foil upon which a thin film of platinum had been +deposited electrolytically) and charcoal were rendered incandescent, +black paper and matches immediately inflamed, ordinary brown paper +pierced and burned, while thin white blotting-paper, owing to its +transparency to the invisible rays, was scarcely tinged. A simpler +arrangement, also employed by Tyndall, is to cause the rays to be +reflected outwards parallel to one another, and to concentrate them by +means of a small flask, containing the iodine solution and used as a +lens, placed some distance from the camera. The rock-salt and cold water +circulation can then be dispensed with. + +Since the rays used by Tyndall in these experiments are similar to those +emitted by a heated body which is not hot enough to be luminous, it +might be thought that the radiation, say from a hot kettle, could be +concentrated to a focus and employed to render a small body luminous. It +would, however, be impossible by such means to raise the receiving body +to a higher temperature than the source of radiation. For it is easy to +see that if, by means of lenses of rock-salt or mirrors, we focused all +or nearly all the rays from a small surface on to another surface of +equal area, this would not raise the temperature of the second surface +above that of the first; and we could not obtain a greater concentration +of rays from a large heated surface, since we could not have all parts +of the surface simultaneously in focus. The desired result could be +obtained if it were possible, by reflection or otherwise, to cause two +different rays to unite without loss and pursue a common path. Such a +result must be regarded as impossible of attainment, as it would imply +the possibility of heat passing from one body to another at a higher +temperature, contrary to the second law of thermodynamics (q.v.). +Tyndall used the dark rays from a luminous source, which are emitted in +a highly concentrated form, so that it was possible to obtain a high +temperature, which was, however, much lower than that of the source. + + A full account of Tyndall's experiments will be found in his _Heat, a + Mode of Motion_. (J. R. C.) + + + + +CALORIMETRY, the scientific name for the measurement of quantities of +heat (Lat. _calor_), to be distinguished from thermometry, which +signifies the measurement of temperature. A calorimeter is any piece of +apparatus in which heat is measured. This distinction of meaning is +purely a matter of convention, but it is very rigidly observed. +Quantities of heat may be measured indirectly in a variety of ways in +terms of the different effects of heat on material substances. The most +important of these effects are (_a_) rise of temperature, (_b_) change +of state, (_c_) transformation of energy. + +S 1. The rise of temperature of a body, when heat is imparted to it, is +found to be in general nearly proportional to the quantity of heat +added. The _thermal capacity_ of a body is measured by the quantity of +heat required to raise its temperature one degree, and is necessarily +proportional to the mass of the body for bodies of the same substance +under similar conditions. The _specific heat_ of a substance is +sometimes defined as the thermal capacity of unit mass, but more often +as the ratio of the thermal capacity of unit mass of the substance to +that of unit mass of water at some standard temperature. The two +definitions are identical, provided that the thermal capacity of unit +mass of water, at a standard temperature, is taken as the unit of heat. +But the specific heat of water is often stated in terms of other units. +In any case it is necessary to specify the temperature, and sometimes +also the pressure, since the specific heat of a substance generally +depends to some extent on the external conditions. The methods of +measurement, founded on rise of temperature, may be classed as +_thermometric methods_, since they depend on the observation of change +of temperature with a thermometer. The most familiar of these are the +method of mixture and the method of cooling. + + S 2. The _Method of Mixture_ consists in imparting the quantity of + heat to be measured to a known mass of water, or some other standard + substance, contained in a vessel or calorimeter of known thermal + capacity, and in observing the rise of temperature produced, from + which data the quantity of heat may be found as explained in all + elementary text-books. This method is the most generally convenient + and most readily applicable of calorimetric methods, but it is not + always the most accurate, for various reasons. Some heat is generally + lost in transferring the heated body to the calorimeter; this loss may + be minimized by performing the transference rapidly, but it cannot be + accurately calculated or eliminated. Some heat is lost when the + calorimeter is raised above the temperature of its enclosure, and + before the final temperature is reached. This can be roughly estimated + by observing the rate of change of temperature before and after the + experiment, and assuming that the loss of heat is directly + proportional to the duration of the experiment and to the average + excess of temperature. It can be minimized by making the mixing as + rapid as possible, and by using a large calorimeter, so that the + excess of temperature is always small. The latter method was generally + adopted by J.P. Joule, but the rise of temperature is then difficult + to measure with accuracy, since it is necessarily reduced in nearly + the same proportion as the correction. There is, however, the + advantage that the correction is rendered much less uncertain by this + procedure, since the assumption that the loss of heat is proportional + to the temperature-excess is only true for small differences of + temperature. Rumford proposed to eliminate this correction by starting + with the initial temperature of the calorimeter as much below that of + its enclosure as the final temperature was expected to be above the + same limit. This method has been very generally recommended, but it is + really bad, because, although it diminishes the absolute magnitude of + the correction, it greatly increases the uncertainty of it and + therefore the probable error of the result. The coefficient of heating + of a calorimeter when it is below the temperature of its surroundings + is seldom, if ever, the same as the coefficient of cooling at the + higher temperature, since the convection currents, which do most of + the heating or cooling, are rarely symmetrical in the two cases, and + moreover, the duration of the two stages is seldom the same. In any + case, it is desirable to diminish the loss of heat as much as possible + by polishing the exterior of the calorimeter to diminish radiation, + and by suspending it by non-conducting supports, inside a polished + case, to protect it from draughts. It is also very important to keep + the surrounding conditions as constant as possible throughout the + experiment. This may be secured by using a large water-bath to + surround the apparatus, but in experiments of long duration it is + necessary to use an accurate temperature regulator. The method of + lagging the calorimeter with cotton-wool or other non-conductors, + which is often recommended, diminishes the loss of heat considerably, + but renders it very uncertain and variable, and should never be used + in work of precision. The bad conductors take so long to reach a + steady state that the rate of loss of heat at any moment depends on + the past history more than on the temperature of the calorimeter at + the moment. A more serious objection to the use of lagging of this + kind is the danger of its absorbing moisture. The least trace of damp + in the lagging, or of moisture condensed on the surface of the + calorimeter, may produce serious loss of heat by evaporation. This is + another objection to Rumford's method of cooling the calorimeter below + the surrounding temperature before starting. Among minor difficulties + of the method may be mentioned the uncertainty of the thermal capacity + of the calorimeter and stirrer, and of the immersed portion of the + thermometer. This is generally calculated by assuming values for the + specific heats of the materials obtained by experiment between 100 + deg. C. and 20 deg. C. Since the specific heats of most metals + increase rapidly with rise of temperature, the values so obtained are + generally too high. It is best to make this correction as small as + possible by using a large calorimeter, so that the mass of water is + large in proportion to that of metal. Analogous difficulties arise in + the application of other calorimetric methods. The accuracy of the + work in each case depends principally on the skill and ingenuity of + the experimentalist in devising methods of eliminating the various + sources of error. The form of apparatus usually adopted for the + method of mixtures is that of Regnault with slight modifications, and + figures and descriptions are given in all the text-books. Among + special methods which have been subsequently developed there are two + which deserve mention as differing in principle from the common type. + These are (1) the constant temperature method, (2) the continuous flow + method. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + The _constant temperature method of mixtures_ was proposed by N. + Hesehus (_Jour. Phys._, 1888, vii. p. 489). Cold water at a known + temperature is added to the calorimeter, immediately after dropping in + the heated substance, at such a rate as to keep the temperature of the + calorimeter constant, thus eliminating the corrections for the water + equivalent of the calorimeter and the external loss of heat. The + calorimeter is surrounded by an air-jacket connected to a petroleum + gauge which indicates any small change of temperature in the + calorimeter, and enables the manipulator to adjust the supply of cold + water to compensate it. The apparatus as arranged by F.A. Waterman is + shown in fig. 1 (_Physical Review_, 1896, iv. p. 161). A is the + calorimetric tube, B the air-jacket and L the gauge. H is an electric + heater for raising the body to a suitable temperature, which can swing + into place directly over the calorimeter. W is a conical can + containing water cooled by ice I nearly to 0 deg., which is swung over + the calorimeter as soon as the hot body has been introduced and the + heater removed. The cold water flow is regulated by a tap S with a + long handle O, and its temperature is taken by a delicate thermometer + with its bulb at G. The method is interesting, but the manipulations + and observations involved are more troublesome than with the ordinary + type of calorimeter, and it may be doubted whether any advantage is + gained in accuracy. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + The _continuous flow method_ is specially applicable to the important + case of calorific value of gaseous fuel, where a large quantity of + heat is continuously generated at a nearly uniform rate by combustion. + Fig. 2 illustrates a recent type of gas calorimeter devised by C.V. + Boys (_Proc. R.S._, 1906, A. 77, p. 122). The heated products of + combustion from the burner B impinge on a metal box H, through which + water is circulating, and then pass downwards and outwards through a + spiral cooler which reduces them practically to the atmospheric + temperature. A steady stream of water enters the apparatus by the + inflow thermometer O, flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and + finally through the box H, where it is well mixed before passing the + outflow thermometer P. As soon as a steady state is reached, the + difference of temperature between the outflow and inflow thermometers, + multiplied by the current of water in grammes per minute gives the + heat per minute supplied by combustion. The gas current is + simultaneously observed by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary + corrections for pressure, temperature, &c., gives the necessary data + for deducing calorific value. + + A continuous flow calorimeter has been used by the writer for + measuring quantities of heat conveyed by conduction (see CONDUCTION OF + HEAT), and also for determining the variation of the specific heat of + water. In the latter case two steady currents of water at different + temperatures, say 0 deg. and 100 deg. are passed through an equalizer, + and the resulting temperature measured without mixing the currents, + which are then separately determined by weighing. This is a very good + method of comparing the mean specific heats over two ranges of + temperature such as 0-50, and 50-100, or 0-20 and 20-40, but it is not + so suitable as the electric method described below for obtaining the + actual specific heat at any point of the range. + +S 3. _Method of Cooling._--A common example of this method is the +determination of the specific heat of a liquid by filling a small +calorimeter with the liquid, raising it to a convenient temperature, and +then setting it to cool in an enclosure at a steady temperature, and +observing the time taken to fall through a given range when the +conditions have become fairly steady. The same calorimeter is afterwards +filled with a known liquid, such as water, and the time of cooling is +observed through the same range of temperature, in the same enclosure, +under the same conditions. The ratio of the times of cooling is equal to +the ratio of the thermal capacities of the calorimeter and its contents +in the two cases. The advantage of the method is that there is no +transference or mixture; the defect is that the whole measurement +depends on the assumption that the rate of loss of heat is the same in +the two cases, and that any variation in the conditions, or uncertainty +in the rate of loss, produces its full effect in the result, whereas in +the previous case it would only affect a small correction. Other sources +of uncertainty are, that the rate of loss of heat generally depends to +some extent on the rate of fall of temperature, and that it is difficult +to take accurate observations on a rapidly falling thermometer. As the +method is usually practised, the calorimeter is made very small, and the +surface is highly polished to diminish radiation. It is better to use a +fairly large calorimeter to diminish the rate of cooling and the +uncertainty of the correction for the water equivalent. The surface of +the calorimeter and the enclosure should be permanently blackened so as +to increase the loss of heat by radiation as much as possible, as +compared with the losses by convection and conduction, which are less +regular. For accurate work it is essential that the liquid in the +calorimeter should be continuously stirred, and also in the enclosure, +the lid of which must be water-jacketed, and kept at the same steady +temperature as the sides. When all these precautions are taken, the +method loses most of the simplicity which is its chief advantage. It +cannot be satisfactorily applied to the case of solids or powders, and +is much less generally useful than the method of mixture. + +S 4. _Method of Fusion._--The methods depending on change of state are +theoretically the simplest, since they do not necessarily involve any +reference to thermometry, and the corrections for external loss of heat +and for the thermal capacity of the containing vessels can be completely +eliminated. They nevertheless present peculiar difficulties and +limitations, which render their practical application more troublesome +and more uncertain than is usually supposed. They depend on the +experimental fact that the quantity of heat required to produce a given +change of state (e.g. to convert one gramme of ice at 0 deg. C. into +water at 0 deg. C., or one gramme of water at 100 deg. C. into steam at +100 deg. C.) is always the same, and that there need be no change of +temperature during the process. The difficulties arise in connexion with +the determination of the quantities of ice melted or steam condensed, +and in measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization in terms of +other units for the comparison of observations. The earlier forms of +ice-calorimeter, those of Black, and of Laplace and Lavoisier, were +useless for work of precision, on account of the impossibility of +accurately estimating the quantity of water left adhering to the ice in +each case. This difficulty was overcome by the invention of the Bunsen +calorimeter, in which the quantity of ice melted is measured by +observing the diminution of volume, but the successful employment of +this instrument requires considerable skill in manipulation. The sheath +of ice surrounding the bulb must be sufficiently continuous to prevent +escape of heat, but it must not be so solid as to produce risk of +strain. The ideal condition is difficult to secure. In the practical use +of the instrument it is not necessary to know both the latent heat of +fusion of ice and the change of volume which occurs on melting; it is +sufficient to determine the change of volume per calorie, or the +quantity of mercury which is drawn into the bulb of the apparatus per +unit of heat added. This can be determined by a direct calibration, by +inserting a known quantity of water at a known temperature and observing +the contraction, or weighing the mercury drawn into the apparatus. In +order to be independent of the accuracy of the thermometer employed for +observing the initial temperature of the water introduced, it has been +usual to employ water at 100 deg. C., adopting as unit of heat the "mean +calorie," which is one-hundredth part of the heat given up by one gramme +of water in cooling from 100 deg. to 0 deg. C. The weight of mercury +corresponding to the mean calorie has been determined with considerable +care by a number of observers well skilled in the use of the instrument. +The following are some of their results:--Bunsen, 15.41 mgm.; Velten, +15.47 mgm.; Zakrevski, 15.57 mgm.; Staub, 15.26 mgm. The explanation of +these discrepancies in the fundamental constant is not at all clear, but +they may be taken as an illustration of the difficulties of manipulation +attending the use of this instrument, to which reference has already +been made. It is not possible to deduce a more satisfactory value from +the latent heat and the change of density, because these constants are +very difficult to determine. The following are some of the values +deduced by well-known experimentalists for the latent heat of +fusion:--Regnault, 79.06 to 79.24 calories, corrected by Person to +79.43; Person, 79.99 calories; Hess, 80.34 calories; Bunsen, 80.025 +calories. Regnault, Person and Hess employed the method of mixture which +is probably the most accurate for the purpose. Person and Hess avoided +the error of water sticking to the ice by using dry ice at various +temperatures below 0 deg. C., and determining the specific heat of ice +as well as the latent heat of fusion. These discrepancies might, no +doubt, be partly explained by differences in the units employed, which +are somewhat uncertain, as the specific heat of water changes rapidly in +the neighbourhood of 0 deg. C; but making all due allowance for this, it +remains evident that the method of ice-calorimetry, in spite of its +theoretical simplicity, presents grave difficulties in its practical +application. + + One of the chief difficulties in the practical use of the Bunsen + calorimeter is the continued and often irregular movement of the + mercury column due to slight differences of temperature, or pressure + between the ice in the calorimeter and the ice bath in which it is + immersed. C.V. Boys (_Phil. Mag._, 1887, vol. 24, p. 214) showed that + these effects could be very greatly reduced by surrounding the + calorimeter with an outer tube, so that the ice inside was separated + from the ice outside by an air space which greatly reduces the free + passage of heat. The present writer has found that very good results + may be obtained by enclosing the calorimeter in a vacuum jacket (as + illustrated in fig. 3), which practically eliminates conduction and + convection. If the vacuum jacket is silvered inside, radiation also is + reduced to such an extent that, if the vacuum is really good, the + external ice bath may be dispensed with for the majority of purposes. + If the inner bulb is filled with mercury instead of water and ice, the + same arrangement answers admirably as a Favre and Silbermann + calorimeter, for measuring small quantities of heat by the expansion + of the mercury. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.] + + The question has been raised by E.L. Nichols (_Phys. Rev._ vol. 8, + January 1899) whether there may not be different modifications of ice + with different densities, and different values of the latent heat of + fusion. He found for natural pond-ice a density 0.9179 and for + artificial ice 0.9161. J. Vincent (_Phil. Trans._ A. 198, p. 463) also + found a density .9160 for artificial ice, which is probably very + nearly correct. If such variations of density exist, they may + introduce some uncertainty in the absolute values of results obtained + with the ice calorimeter, and may account for some of the + discrepancies above enumerated. + +S 5. The _Method of Condensation_ was first successfully applied by J. +Joly in the construction of his steam calorimeter, a full description of +which will be found in text-books. The body to be tested is placed in a +special scale-pan, suspended by a fine wire from the arm of a balance +inside an enclosure which can be filled with steam at atmospheric +pressure. The temperature of the enclosure is carefully observed before +admitting steam. The weight of steam condensed on the body gives a means +of calculating the quantity of heat required to raise it from the +atmospheric temperature up to 100 deg. C. in terms of the latent heat of +vaporization of steam at 100 deg. C. There can be no appreciable gain or +loss of heat by radiation, if the admission of the steam is sufficiently +rapid, since the walls of the enclosure are maintained at 100 deg. C., +very nearly. The thermal capacity of the scale-pan, &c., can be +determined by a separate experiment, or, still better, eliminated by the +differential method of counterpoising with an exactly similar +arrangement on the other arm of the balance. The method requires very +delicate weighing, as one calorie corresponds to less than two +milligrammes of steam condensed; but the successful application of the +method to the very difficult problem of measuring the specific heat of a +gas at constant volume, shows that these and other difficulties have +been very skilfully overcome. The application of the method appears to +be practically limited to the measurements of specific heat between the +atmospheric temperature and 100 deg. C. The results depend on the value +assumed for the latent heat of steam, which Joly takes as 536.7 +calories, following Regnault. Joly has himself determined the mean +specific heat of water between 12 deg. and 100 deg. C. by this method, +in terms of the latent heat of steam as above given, and finds the +result .9952. Assuming that the mean specific heat of water between 12 +deg. and 100 deg. is really 1.0011 in terms of the calorie at 20 deg. C. +(see table, p. 66), the value of the latent heat of steam at 100 deg. +C., as determined by Joly, would be 540.2 in terms of the same unit. The +calorie employed by Regnault is to some extent uncertain, but the +difference is hardly beyond the probable errors of experiment, since it +appears from the results of recent experiments that Regnault made an +error of the same order in his determination of the specific heat of +water at 100 deg. C. + +S 6. _Energy Methods._--The third general method of calorimetry, that +based on the transformation of some other kind of energy into the form +of heat, rests on the general principle of the conservation of energy, +and on the experimental fact that all other forms of energy are readily +and completely convertible into the form of heat. It is therefore often +possible to measure quantities of heat indirectly, by measuring the +energy in some other form and then converting it into heat. In addition +to its great theoretical interest, this method possesses the advantage +of being frequently the most accurate in practical application, since +energy can be more accurately measured in other forms than in that of +heat. The two most important varieties of the method are (_a_) +mechanical, and (_b_) electrical. These methods have reached their +highest development in connexion with the determination of the +mechanical equivalent of heat, but they may be applied with great +advantage in connexion with other problems, such as the measurement of +the variation of specific heat, or of latent heats of fusion or +vaporization. + +S 7. _Mechanical Equivalent of Heat._--The phrase "mechanical equivalent +of heat" is somewhat vague, but has been sanctioned by long usage. It is +generally employed to denote the number of units of mechanical work or +energy which, when completely converted into heat without loss, would be +required to produce one heat unit. The numerical value of the mechanical +equivalent necessarily depends on the particular units of heat and work +employed in the comparison. The British engineer prefers to state +results in terms of foot-pounds of work in any convenient latitude per +pound-degree-Fahrenheit of heat. The continental engineer prefers +kilogrammetres per kilogramme-degree-centigrade. For scientific use the +C.G.S. system of expression in ergs per gramme-degree-centigrade, or +"calorie," is the most appropriate, as being independent of the value of +gravity. A more convenient unit of work or energy, in practice, on +account of the smallness of the erg, is the _joule_, which is equal to +10.7 ergs, or one _watt-second_ of electrical energy. On account of its +practical convenience, and its close relation to the international +electrical units, the _joule_ has been recommended by the British +Association for adoption as the absolute unit of heat. Other convenient +practical units of the same kind would be the _watt-hour_, 3600 joules, +which is of the same order of magnitude as the kilo-calorie, and the +_kilowatt-hour_, which is the ordinary commercial unit of electrical +energy. + + S 8. _Joule_.--The earlier work of Joule is now chiefly of historical + interest, but his later measurements in 1878, which were undertaken on + a larger scale, adopting G.A. Hirn's method of measuring the work + expended in terms of the torque and the number of revolutions, still + possess value as experimental evidence. In these experiments (see fig. + 4) the paddles were revolved by hand at such a speed as to produce a + constant torque on the calorimeter _h_, which was supported on a float + _w_ in a vessel of water _v_, but was kept at rest by the couple due + to a pair of equal weights _k_ suspended from fine strings passing + round the circumference of a horizontal wheel attached to the + calorimeter. Each experiment lasted about forty minutes, and the rise + of temperature produced was nearly 3 deg. C. The calorimeter contained + about 5 kilogrammes of water, so that the rate of heat-supply was + about 6 calories per second. Joule's final result was 772.55 + foot-pounds at Manchester per pound-degree-Fahrenheit at a temperature + of 62 deg. F., but individual experiments differed by as much as 1%. + This result in C.G.S. measure is equivalent to 4.177 joules per + calorie at 16.5 deg. C., on the scale of Joule's mercury thermometer. + His thermometers were subsequently corrected to the Paris scale by A. + Schuster in 1895, which had the effect of reducing the above figure to + 4.173. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + S 9. _Rowland_.--About the same time H.A. Rowland (_Proc. Amer. Acad._ + xv. p. 75, 1880) repeated the experiment, employing the same method, + but using a larger calorimeter (about 8400 grammes) and a petroleum + motor, so as to obtain a greater rate of heating (about 84 calories + per second), and to reduce the importance of the uncertain correction + for external loss of heat. Rowland's apparatus is shown in fig. 5. The + calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire, the torsion of which made + the equilibrium stable. The torque was measured by weights O and P + suspended by silk ribbons passing over the pulleys n and round the + disk kl. The power was transmitted to the paddles by bevel wheels, f, + g, rotating a spindle passing through a stuffing box in the bottom of + the calorimeter. The number of revolutions and the rise of temperature + were recorded on a chronograph drum. He paid greater attention to the + important question of thermometry, and extended his researches over a + much wider range of temperature, namely 5 deg. to 35 deg. C. His + experiments revealed for the first time a diminution in the specific + heat of water with rise of temperature between 0 deg. and 30 deg. C., + amounting to four parts in 10.000 per 1 deg. C. His thermometers were + compared with a mercury thermometer standardized in Paris, and with a + platinum thermometer standardized by Griffiths. The result was to + reduce the coefficient of diminution of specific heat at 15 deg. C. by + nearly one half, but the absolute value at 20 deg. C. is practically + unchanged. Thus corrected his values are as follows:-- + + Temperature 10 deg. 15 deg. 20 deg. 25 deg. 30 deg. 35 deg. + Joules per cal. 4.197 4.188 4.181 4.176 4.175 4.177 + + These are expressed in terms of the hydrogen scale, but the difference + from the nitrogen scale is so small as to be within the limits of + experimental error in this particular case. Rowland himself considered + his results to be probably correct to one part in 500, and supposed + that the greatest uncertainty lay in the comparison of the scale of + his mercury thermometer with the air thermometer. The subsequent + correction, though not carried out strictly under the conditions of + the experiment, showed that the order of accuracy of his work about + the middle of the range from 15 deg. to 25 deg. was at least 1 in + 1000, and probably 1 in 2000. At 30 deg. he considered that, owing to + the increasing magnitude and uncertainty of the radiation correction, + there "might be a small error in the direction of making the + equivalent too great, and that the specific heat might go on + decreasing to even 40 deg. C." The results considered with reference + to the variation of the specific heat of water are shown in the curve + marked Rowland in Fig. 6. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + S 10. _Osborne Reynolds and W.H. Moorby (Phil. Trans._, 1897, p. 381) + determined the mechanical equivalent of the mean thermal unit between + 0 deg. and 100 deg. C., on a very large scale, with a Froude-Reynolds + hydraulic brake and a steam-engine of 100 h.p. This brake is + practically a Joule calorimeter, ingeniously designed to churn the + water in such a manner as to develop the greatest possible resistance. + The admission of water at 0 deg. C. to the brake was controlled by + hand in such a manner as to keep the outflow nearly at the + boiling-point, the quantity of water in the brake required to produce + a constant torque being regulated automatically, as the speed varied, + by a valve worked by the lifting of the weighted lever attached to the + brake. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + The accompanying illustration (fig. 7) shows the brake lagged with + cotton-wool, and the 4-ft. lever to which the weights are suspended. + The power of the brake may be estimated by comparison with the size of + the rope pulley seen behind it on the same shaft. With 300 pounds on a + 4-ft. lever at 300 revolutions per minute, the rate of generation of + heat was about 12 kilo-calories per second. In spite of the large + range of temperature, the correction for external loss of heat + amounted to only 5%, with the brake uncovered, and was reduced to less + than 2% by lagging. This is the special advantage of working on so + large a scale with so rapid a generation of heat. But, for the same + reason, the method necessarily presents peculiar difficulties, which + were not overcome without great pains and ingenuity. The principal + troubles arose from damp in the lagging which necessitated the + rejection of several trials, and from dissolved air in the water, + causing loss of heat by the formation of steam. Next to the radiation + loss, the most uncertain correction was that for conduction of heat + along the 4-in. shaft. These losses were as far as possible eliminated + by combining the trials in pairs, with different loads on the brake, + assuming that the heat-loss would be the same in the heavy and light + trials, provided that the external temperature and the gradient in the + shaft, as estimated from the temperature of the bearings, were the + same. The values deduced in this manner for the equivalent agreed as + closely as could be expected considering the impossibility of + regulating the external condition of temperature and moisture with any + certainty in an engine-room. The extreme variation of results in any + one series was only from 776.63 to 779.46 ft.-pounds, or less than + 1/2%. This variation may have been due to the state of the lagging, + which Moorby distrusted in spite of the great reduction of the + heat-loss, or it may have been partly due to the difficulty of + regulating the speed of the engine and the water-supply to the brake + in such a manner as to maintain a constant temperature in the outflow, + and avoid variations in the heat capacity of the brake. Since hand + regulation is necessarily discontinuous, the speed and the temperature + were constantly varying, so that it was useless to take readings + nearer than the tenth of a degree. The largest variation recorded in + the two trials of which full details are given, was 4-9 deg. F. in two + minutes in the outflow temperature, and four or five revolutions per + minute on the speed. These variations, so far as they were of a purely + accidental nature, would be approximately eliminated on the mean of a + large number of trials, so that the accuracy of the final result would + be of a higher order than might be inferred from a comparison of + separate pairs of trials. Great pains were taken to discuss and + eliminate all the sources of constant error which could be foreseen. + The results of the light trials with 400 ft.-pounds on the brake + differ slightly from those with 600 ft.-pounds. This might be merely + accidental, or it might indicate some constant difference in the + conditions requiring further investigation. It would have been + desirable, if possible, to have tried the effect of a larger range of + variation in the experimental conditions of load and speed, with a + view to detect the existence of constant errors; but owing to the + limitations imposed by the use of a steam-engine, and the difficulty + of securing steady conditions of running, this proved to be + impossible. There can be no doubt, however, that the final result is + the most accurate direct determination of the value of the mean + calorie between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C. in mechanical units. Expressed + in joules per calorie the result is 4.1832, which agrees very closely + with the value found by Rowland as the mean over the range 15 deg. to + 20 deg. C. The value 4.183 is independently confirmed in a remarkable + manner by the results of the electrical method described below, which + give 4.185 joules for the mean calorie, if Rowland's value is assumed + as the starting-point, and taken to be 4.180 joules at 20 deg. C. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +S 11. _Electrical Methods._--The value of the international electrical +units has by this time been so accurately determined in absolute measure +that they afford a very good, though indirect, method of determining the +mechanical equivalent of heat. But, quite apart from this, electrical +methods possess the greatest value for calorimetry, on account of the +facility and accuracy of regulating and measuring the quantity of heat +supplied by an electric current. The frictional generation of heat in a +metallic wire conveying a current can be measured in various ways, which +correspond to slightly different methods. By Ohm's law, and by the +definition of difference of electric pressure or potential, we obtain +the following alternative expressions for the quantity of heat H in +joules generated in a time T seconds by a current of C amperes flowing +in a wire of resistance R ohms, the difference of potential between the +ends of the wire being E = CR volts:-- + + H = ECT = C^2RT = E^2T/R (1). + +The method corresponding to the expression C^2RT was adopted by Joule +and by most of the early experimentalists. The defects of the earlier +work from an electrical point of view lay chiefly in the difficulty of +measuring the current with sufficient accuracy owing to the imperfect +development of the science of electrical measurement. These difficulties +have been removed by the great advances since 1880, and in particular by +the introduction of accurate standard cells for measurements of +electrical pressure. + + S 12. _Griffiths_.--The method adopted by E.H. Griffiths (_Phil. + Trans._, 1893, p. 361), whose work threw a great deal of light on the + failure of previous observers to secure consistent results, + corresponded to the last expression E^2T/R, and consisted in + regulating the current by a special rheostat, so as to keep the + potential difference E on the terminals of the resistance R balanced + against a given number of standard Clark cells of the Board of Trade + pattern. The resistance R could be deduced from a knowledge of the + temperature of the calorimeter and the coefficient of the wire. But in + order to obtain trustworthy results by this method he found it + necessary to employ very rapid stirring (2000 revolutions per minute), + and to insulate the wire very carefully from the liquid to prevent + leakage of the current. He also made a special experiment to find how + much the temperature of the wire exceeded that of the liquid under the + conditions of the experiment. This correction had been neglected by + previous observers employing similar methods. The resistance R was + about 9 ohms, and the potential difference E was varied from three to + six Clark cells, giving a rate of heat-supply about 2 to 6 watts. The + water equivalent of the calorimeter was about 85 grammes, and was + determined by varying the quantity of water from 140 to 260 or 280 + grammes, so that the final results depended on a difference in the + weight of water of 120 to 140 grammes. The range of temperature in + each experiment was 14 deg. to 26 deg. C. The rate of rise was + observed with a mercury thermometer standardized by comparison with a + platinum thermometer under the conditions of the experiment. The time + of passing each division was recorded on an electric chronograph. The + duration of an experiment varied from about 30 to 70 minutes. Special + observations were made to determine the corrections for the heat + supplied by stirring, and that lost by radiation, each of which + amounted to about 10% of the heat-supply. The calorimeter C, fig. 8, + was gilded, and completely surrounded by a nickel-plated steel + enclosure B, forming the bulb of a mercury thermo-regulator, immersed + in a large water-bath maintained at a constant temperature. In spite + of the large corrections the results were extremely consistent, and + the value of the temperature-coefficient of the diminution of the + specific heat of water, deduced from the observed variation in the + rate of rise at different points of the range 15 deg. to 25 deg., + agreed with the value subsequently deduced from Rowland's experiments + over the same range, when his thermometers were reduced to the same + scale. Griffiths' final result for the average value of the calorie + over this range was 4.192 joules, taking the E.M.F. of the Clark cell + at 15 deg. C. to be 1.4342 volts. The difference from Rowland's value, + 4.181, could be explained by supposing the E.M.F. of the Clark cells + to have in reality been 1.4323 volts, or about 2 millivolts less than + the value assumed. Griffiths subsequently applied the same method to + the measurement of the specific heat of aniline, and the latent heat + of vaporization of benzene and water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + S 13. _Schuster and Gannon._--The method employed by A. Schuster and + W. Gannon for the determination of the specific heat of water in terms + of the international electric units (_Phil. Trans._ A, 1895, p. 415) + corresponded to the expression ECT, and differed in many essential + details from that of Griffiths. The current through a platinoid + resistance of about 31 ohms in a calorimeter containing 1500 grammes + of water was regulated so that the potential difference on its + terminals was equal to that of twenty Board of Trade Clark cells in + series. The duration of an experiment was about ten minutes, and the + product of the mean current and the time, namely CT, was measured by + the weight of silver deposited in a voltameter, which amounted to + about 0.56 gramme. The uncertainty due to the correction for the water + equivalent was minimized by making it small (about 27 grammes) in + comparison with the water weight. The correction for external loss was + reduced by employing a small rise of temperature (only 2.22 deg.), and + making the rate of heat-supply relatively rapid, nearly 24 watts. The + platinoid coil was insulated from the water by shellac varnish. The + wire had a length of 760 cms., and the potential difference on its + terminals was nearly 30 volts. The rate of stirring adopted was so + slow that the heat generated by it could be neglected. The result + found was 4.191 joules per calorie at 19 deg. C. This agrees very well + with Griffiths considering the difficulty of measuring so small a rise + of temperature at 2 deg. with a mercury thermometer. Admitting that the + electro-chemical equivalent of silver increases with the age of the + solution, a fact subsequently discovered, and that the E.M.F. of the + Clark cell is probably less than 1.4340 volts (the value assumed by + Schuster and Gannon), there is no difficulty in reconciling the result + with that of Rowland. + + S 14. _H.L. Callendar and H.T. Barnes_ (_Brit. Assoc. Reports_, 1897 + and 1899) adopted an entirely different method of calorimetry, as well + as a different method of electrical measurement. A steady current of + liquid, Q grammes per second, of specific heat, Js joules per degree, + flowing through a fine tube, A B, fig. 9, is heated by a steady + electric current during its passage through the tube, and the + difference of temperature d[theta] between the inflowing and the + outflowing liquid is measured by a single reading with a delicate pair + of differential platinum thermometers at A and B. The difference of + potential E between the ends of the tube, and the electric current C + through it, are measured on an accurately calibrated potentiometer, in + terms of a Clark cell and a standard resistance. If hd[theta] is the + radiation loss in watts we have the equation, + + EC = JsQd[theta] + hd[theta] (2). + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + The advantage of this method is that all the conditions are steady, so + that the observations can be pushed to the limit of accuracy and + sensitiveness of the apparatus. The water equivalent of the + calorimeter is immaterial, since there is no appreciable change of + temperature. The heat-loss can be reduced to a minimum by enclosing + the flow-tube in a hermetically sealed glass vacuum jacket. Stirring + is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs + of the thermometers and the heating conductor as indicated in the + figure. The conditions can be very easily varied through a wide range. + The heat-loss hd[theta] is determined and eliminated by varying the + flow of liquid and the electric current simultaneously, in such a + manner as to secure approximately the same rise of temperature for two + or more widely different values of the flow of liquid. An example + taken from the _Electrician_, September 1897, of one of the earliest + experiments by this method on the specific heat of mercury will make + the method clearer. The flow-tube was about 1 metre long and 1 millim. + in diameter, coiled in a short spiral inside the vacuum jacket. The + outside of the vacuum jacket was immersed in a water jacket at a + steady temperature equal to that of the inflowing mercury. + + + SPECIFIC HEAT OF MERCURY BY CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC METHOD + + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + |Flow of Hg.| Rise of Temp. |Watts.| Heat-loss. | Specific Heat. | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + | gm./sec. | d[theta] | EC | hd[theta] | Per gm. deg. | + | 8.753 | 11.764 |14.862| 0.655 | \ .13780 joules| + | 4.594 | 12.301 | 7.912| 0.865 | / .03297 cals. | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + + It is assumed as a first approximation that the heat-loss is + proportional to the rise of temperature _d[theta]_, provided that + _d[theta]_ is nearly the same in both cases, and that the distribution + of temperature in the apparatus is the same for the same rise of + temperature whatever the flow of liquid. The result calculated on + these assumptions is given in the last column in joules, and also in + calories of 20 deg. C. The heat-loss in this example is large, nearly + 4.5% of the total supply, owing to the small flow and the large rise + of temperature, but this correction was greatly reduced in subsequent + observations on the specific heat of water by the same method. In the + case of mercury the liquid itself can be utilized to conduct the + electric current. In the case of water or other liquids it is + necessary to employ a platinum wire stretched along the tube as + heating conductor. This introduces additional difficulties of + construction, but does not otherwise affect the method. The absolute + value of the specific heat deduced necessarily depends on the absolute + values of the electrical standards employed in the investigation. But + for the determination of relative values of specific heats in terms of + a standard liquid, or of the variations of specific heat of a liquid, + the method depends only on the constancy of the standards, which can + be readily and accurately tested. The absolute value of the E.M.F. of + the Clark cells employed was determined with a special form of + electrodynamometer (Callendar, _Phil. Trans._ A. 313, p. 81), and + found to be 1.4334 volts, assuming the ohm to be correct. Assuming + this value, the result found by this method for the specific heat of + water at 20 deg. C. agrees with that of Rowland within the probable + limits of error. + + S 15. _Variation of Specific Heat of Water._--The question of the + variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest and + importance in connexion with the choice of a thermal unit. Many of the + uncertainties in the reduction of older experiments, such as those of + Regnault, arise from uncertainty in regard to the unit in terms of + which they are expressed, which again depends on the scale of the + particular thermometer employed in the investigation. The first + experiments of any value were those of Regnault in 1847 on the + specific heat of water between 110 deg. C. and 192 deg. C. They were + conducted on a very large scale by the method of mixture, but showed + discrepancies of the order of 0.5%, and the calculated results in many + cases do not agree with the data. This may be due merely to deficient + explanation of details of tabulation. We may probably take the + tabulated values as showing correctly the rate of variation between + 110 deg. and 190 deg. C., but the values in terms of any particular + thermal unit must remain uncertain to at least 0.5% owing to the + uncertainties of the thermometry. Regnault himself adopted the + formula, + + s = 1 + 0.00004t + 0.0000009t^2 (Regnault), (3) + + for the specific heat _s_ at any temperature _t_ C. in terms of the + specific heat at 0 deg. C. taken as the standard. This formula has + since been very generally applied over the whole range 0 deg. to 200 + deg. C., but the experiments could not in reality give any information + with regard to the specific heat at temperatures below 100 deg. C. The + linear formula proposed by J. Bosscha from an independent reduction of + Regnault's experiments is probably within the limits of accuracy + between 100 deg. and 200 deg. C., so far as the mean rate of variation + is concerned, but the absolute values require reduction. It may be + written-- + + s = S_100 + .00023(t - 100) (Bosscha-Regnault) (4). + + The work of L. Pfaundler and H. Platter, of G.A. Hirn, of J.C. Jamin + and Amaury, and of many other experimentalists who succeeded Regnault, + appeared to indicate much larger rates of increase than he had found, + but there can be little doubt that the discrepancies of their results, + which often exceeded 5%, were due to lack of appreciation of the + difficulties of calorimetric measurements. The work of Rowland by the + mechanical method was the first in which due attention was paid to the + thermometry and to the reduction of the results to the absolute scale + of temperature. The agreement of his corrected results with those of + Griffiths by a very different method, left very little doubt with + regard to the rate of diminution of the specific heat of water at 20 + deg. C. The work of A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati by the method of + mixture between 0 deg. and 30 deg. C., though their curve is otherwise + similar to Rowland's, had appeared to indicate a minimum at 20 deg. + C., followed by a rapid rise. This lowering of the minimum was + probably due to some constant errors inherent in their method of + experiment. The more recent work of Ludin, 1895, under the direction + of Prof. J. Pernet, extended from 0 deg. to 100 deg. C., and appears + to have attained as high a degree of excellence as it is possible to + reach by the employment of mercury thermometers in conjunction with + the method of mixture. His results, exhibited in fig. 6, show a + minimum at 25 deg. C., and a maximum at 87 deg. C., the values being + .9935 and 1.0075 respectively in terms of the mean specific heat + between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C. He paid great attention to the + thermometry, and the discrepancies of individual measurements at any + one point nowhere exceed 0.3%, but he did not vary the conditions of + the experiments materially, and it does not appear that the well-known + constant errors of the method could have been completely eliminated by + the devices which he adopted. The rapid rise from 25 deg. to 75 deg. + may be due to radiation error from the hot water supply, and the + subsequent fall of the curve to the inevitable loss of heat by + evaporation of the boiling water on its way to the calorimeter. It + must be observed, however, that there is another grave difficulty in + the accurate determination of the specific heat of water near 100 deg. + C. by this method, namely, that the quantity actually observed is not + the specific heat _at_ the higher temperature _t_, but the _mean + specific heat_ over the range 18 deg. to _t_. The specific heat itself + can be deduced only by differentiating the curve of observation, which + greatly increases the uncertainty. The peculiar advantage of the + electric method of Callendar and Barnes, already referred to, is that + the specific heat itself is determined over a range of 8 deg. to 10 + deg. at each point, by adding accurately measured quantities of heat + to the water at the desired temperature in an isothermal enclosure, + under perfectly steady conditions, without any possibility of + evaporation or loss of heat in transference. These experiments, which + have been extended by Barnes over the whole range 0 deg. to 100 deg., + agree very well with Rowland and Griffiths in the rate of variation at + 20 deg. C., but show a rather flat minimum of specific heat in the + neighbourhood of 38 deg. to 40 deg. C. At higher points the rate of + variation is very similar to that of Regnault's curve, but taking the + specific heat at 20 deg. as the standard of reference, the actual + values are nearly 0.56% less than Regnault's. It appears probable that + his values for higher temperatures may be adopted with this reduction, + which is further confirmed by the results of Reynolds and Moorby, and + by those of Ludin. According to the electric method, the whole range + of variation of the specific heat between 10 deg. and 80 deg. is only + 0.5%. Comparatively simple formulae, therefore, suffice for its + expression to 1 in 10,000, which is beyond the limits of accuracy of + the observations. It is more convenient in practice to use a few + simple formulae, than to attempt to represent the whole range by a + single complicated expression:-- + + Below 20 deg. C. s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t - 40)^2 - 0.0000005(t - 20)^3. + + From 20 deg. to 60 deg., s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t - 40)^2 (5). + + / s = 0.9944 + .00004t + 0.0000009t^2 + Above 60 deg. to 200 deg. < (Regnault corrd.) + \ s = 1.000 + 0.00022(t - 60), (Bosscha corrd.) + + The addition of the cubic term below 20 deg. is intended to represent + the somewhat more rapid change near the freezing-point. This effect is + probably due, as suggested by Rowland, to the presence of a certain + proportion of ice molecules in the liquid, which is also no doubt the + cause of the anomalous expansion. Above 60 deg. C. Regnault's formula + is adopted, the absolute values being simply diminished by a constant + quantity 0.0056 to allow for the probable errors of his thermometry. + Above 100 deg. C., and for approximate work generally, the simpler + formula of Bosscha, similarly corrected, is probably adequate. + + The following table of values, calculated from these formulae, is + taken from the _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1899, with a slight modification + to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 20 deg. C. This + was estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the + constant quantity 0.20 to the values of the total heat h of the liquid + as reckoned by the parabolic formula (5). This quantity is now, as the + result of further experiments, added to the values of h, and also + represented in the formula for the specific heat itself by the cubic + term. + + + SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER IN TERMS OF UNIT AT 20 deg. C. 4.180 JOULES + + +-----------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + | t deg. C. |Joules.| s. | h | Rowland. | + +-----------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + | 0 deg. | 4.208 | 1.0094 | 0 | 0 | + | 5 deg. | 4.202 | 1.0054 | 5.037 | 5.037 | + | 10 deg. | 4.191 | 1.0027 | 10.056 | 10.058 | + | 15 deg. | 4.184 | 1.0011 | 15.065 | 15.068 | + | 20 deg. | 4.180 | 1.0000 | 20.068 | 20.071 | + | 25 deg. | 4.177 | 0.9992 | 25.065 | 25.067 | + | 30 deg. | 4.175 | 0.9987 | 30.060 | 30.057 | + | 35 deg. | 4.173 | 0.9983 | 35.052 | 35.053 | + | 40 deg. | 4.173 | 0.9982 | 40.044 | | + | 50 deg. | 4.175 | 0.9987 | 50.028 | | + | 60 deg. | 4.180 | 1.0000 | 60.020 | | + | 70 deg. | 4.187 | 1.0016 | 70.028 | | + | 80 deg. | 4.194 | 1.0033 | 80.052 | | + | 90 deg. | 4.202 | 1.0053 | 90.095 | Shaw | + | 100 deg. | 4.211 | 1.0074 | 100.158 | Regnault | + | 120 deg. | 4.231 | 1.0121 | 120.35 | 120.73 | + | 140 deg. | 4.254 | 1.0176 | 140.65 | 140.88 | + | 160 deg. | 4.280 | 1.0238 | 161.07 | 161.20 | + | 180 deg. | 4.309 | 1.0308 | 181.62 | 182.14 | + | 200 deg. | 4.341 | 1.0384 | 202.33 | | + | 220 deg. | 4.376 | 1.0467 | 223.20 | | + +-----------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + + The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the specific + heat of water at 20 deg. C. for the reasons given below. This unit is + taken as being 4.180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade on the scale + of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute scale as + explained in the article THERMOMETRY, which has been shown to be + practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4.180 joules + at 20 deg. C. is the mean between Rowland's corrected result 4.181 and + the value 4.179, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds and Moorby + on the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific heat 0 deg. to + 100 deg. to that at 20 deg. is 1.0016, as given by the formulae + representing the results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate + that Rowland's corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In + any case the value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at + least 1 in 2000. + + The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be obtained + by integrating the formulae between the limits required, or by taking + the difference of the corresponding values of the total heat h, and + dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity actually observed + by Rowland was the total heat. It may be remarked that starting from + the same value at 5 deg., for the sake of comparison, Rowland's values + of the total heat agree to 1 in 5000 with those calculated from the + formulae. The values of the total heat observed by Regnault, as + reduced by Shaw, also show a very fair agreement, considering the + uncertainty of the units. It must be admitted that it is desirable to + redetermine the variation of the specific heat above 100 deg. C. This + is very difficult on account of the steam-pressure, and could not + easily be accomplished by the electrical method. Callendar has, + however, devised a continuous method of mixture, which appears to be + peculiarly adapted to the purpose, and promises to give more certain + results. In any case it may be remarked that formulae such as those of + Jamin, Henrichsen, Baumgartner, Winkelmann or Dieterici, which give + far more rapid rates of increase than that of Regnault, cannot + possibly be reconciled with his observations, or with those of + Reynolds and Moorby, or Callendar and Barnes, and are certainly + inapplicable above 100 deg. C. + +S 16. _On the Choice of the Thermal Unit._--So much uncertainty still +prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed over without +reference. There are three possible kinds of unit, depending on the +three fundamental methods already given: (1) the thermometric unit, or +the thermal capacity of unit mass of a standard substance under given +conditions of temperature and pressure on the scale of a standard +thermometer. (2) The latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required +to melt or vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given +conditions. This unit has the advantage of being independent of +thermometry, but the applicability of these methods is limited to +special cases, and the relation of the units to other units is difficult +to determine. (3) The absolute or mechanical unit, the quantity of heat +equivalent to a given quantity of mechanical or electrical energy. This +can be very accurately realized, but is not so convenient as (1) for +ordinary purposes. + + In any case it is necessary to define a thermometric unit of class + (1). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always + selected, although some less volatile liquid, such as aniline or + mercury, would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of + temperature, there is very general agreement that the absolute scale + as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be adopted as + the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen thermometer is + not directly available for the majority of experiments, it is + necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition of + the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum presents + very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury thermometer in + point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability to the practical + conditions of experiment. The conditions of use of a mercury + thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are necessarily different + from those under which its corrections are determined, and this + difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in practical + work. The primary consideration in the definition of a unit is to + select that method which permits the highest order of accuracy in + comparison and verification. For this reason the definition of the + thermal unit will in the end probably be referred to a scale of + temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum thermometer. + + There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question of the + standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Regnault's formula, have + selected 0 deg. C. as the standard temperature, but this cannot be + practically realized in the case of water, and his formula is + certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite temperature to + select is 4 deg. C., the temperature of maximum density, since at this + point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that at + constant pressure But this is really of no consequence, since the + specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized. The + specific heat at 4 deg. could be accurately determined at the mean + over the range 0 deg. to 8 deg. keeping the jacket at 0 deg. C. But + the change appears to be rather rapid near 0 deg., the temperature is + inconveniently low for ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4 + deg. would be so much larger than the specific heat at ordinary + temperatures that nearly all experiments would require reduction. The + natural point to select would be that of minimum specific heat, but if + this occurs at 40 deg. C. it would be inconveniently high for + practical realization except by the continuous electrical method. It + was proposed by a committee of the British Association to select the + temperature at which the specific heat was 4.200 joules, leaving the + exact temperature to be subsequently determined. It was supposed at + the time, from the original reduction of Rowland's experiments, that + this would be nearly at 10 deg. C., but it now appears that it may be + as low is 5 deg. C., which would be inconvenient. This is really only + an absolute unit in disguise, and evades the essential point, which is + the selection of a standard temperature for the water thermometric + unit. A similar objection applies to selecting the temperature at + which the specific heat is equal to its mean value between 0 deg. and + 100 deg. The mean calorie cannot be accurately realized in practice + in any simple manner, and is therefore unsuitable as a standard of + comparison. Its relation to the calorie at any given temperature, such + as 15 deg. or 20 deg., cannot be determined with the same degree of + accuracy as the ratio of the specific heat at 15 deg. to that at 20 + deg., if the scale of temperature is given. The most practical unit is + the calorie at 15 deg. or 20 deg. or some temperature in the range of + ordinary practice. The temperature most generally favoured is 15 deg., + but 20 deg. would be more suitable for accurate work. These units + differ only by 11 parts in 10,000 according to Callendar and Barnes, + or by 13 in 10,000 according to Rowland and Griffiths, so that the + difference between them is of no great importance for ordinary + purposes. But for purposes of definition it would be necessary to take + the mean value of the specific heat _over a given range_ of + temperature, preferably at least 10 deg., rather than the specific + heat _at a point_ which necessitates reference to some formula of + reduction for the rate of variation. The specific heat at 15 deg. + would be determined with reference to the mean over the range 10 deg. + to 20 deg., and that at 20 deg. from the range 15 deg. to 25 deg. + There can be no doubt that the range 10 deg. to 20 deg. is too low for + the accurate thermal regulation of the conditions of the experiment. + The range 15 deg. to 25 deg. would be much more convenient from this + point of view, and a mean temperature of 20 deg. is probably nearest + the average of accurate calorimetric work. For instance 20 deg. is the + mean of the range of the experiments of Griffiths and of Rowland, and + is close to that of Schuster and Gannon. It is readily attainable at + any time in a modern laboratory with adequate heating arrangements, + and is probably on the whole the most suitable temperature to select. + +S 17. _Specific Heat of Gases._--In the case of solids and liquids under +ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of expansion is so +small that it may generally be neglected; but with gases or vapours, or +with liquids near the critical point, the external work becomes so large +that it is essential to specify the conditions under which the specific +heat is measured. The most important cases are, the specific heats (1) +at constant volume; (2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure +in the case of a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal +capacity of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the +difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except in case +(2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat meagre and +conflicting, but the question of the relation of the specific heats of +gases is one of great interest in connexion with the kinetic theory and +the constitution of the molecule. The well-known experiments of Regnault +and Wiedemann on the specific heat of gases at constant pressure agree +in showing that the _molecular specific heat_, or the thermal capacity +of the molecular weight in grammes, is approximately independent of the +temperature and pressure in case of the more stable diatomic gases, such +as H2, O2, N2, CO, &c., and has nearly the same value for each gas. They +also indicate that it is much larger, and increases considerably with +rise of temperature, in the case of more condensible vapours, such as +Cl2, Br2, or more complicated molecules, such as CO2, N2O, NH3, C2H4. +The direct determination of the specific heat at constant volume is +extremely difficult, but has been successfully attempted by Joly with +his steam calorimeter, in the case of air and CO2. Employing pressures +between 7 and 27 atmospheres, he found that the specific heat of air +between 10 deg. and 100 deg. C. increased very slightly with increase of +density, but that of CO2 increased nearly 3% between 7 and 21 +atmospheres. The following formulae represent his results for the +specific heat s at constant volume in terms of the density d in gms. per +c. c.:-- + + Air, s = 0.1715 + 0.028d, + + CO2, s = 0.165 + 0.213d + 0.34d^2. + + S 18. _Ratio of Specific Heats._--According to the elementary kinetic + theory of an ideal gas, the molecules of which are so small and so far + apart that their mutual actions may be neglected, the kinetic energy + of translation of the molecules is proportional to the absolute + temperature, and is equal to 3/2 of pv, the product of the pressure + and the volume, per unit mass. The expansion per degree at constant + pressure is v/[theta] = R/p. The external work of expansion per degree + is equal to R, being the product of the pressure and the expansion, + and represents the difference of the specific heats S - s, at constant + pressure and volume, assuming as above that the internal work of + expansion is negligible. If the molecules are supposed to be like + smooth, hard, elastic spheres, incapable of receiving any other kind + of energy except that of translation, the specific heat at constant + volume would be the increase per degree of the kinetic energy namely + 3pv/2[theta] - 3R/2, that at constant pressure would be 5R/2, and the + ratio of the specific heats would be 5/3 or 1.666. This appears to be + actually the case for monatomic gases such as mercury vapour (Kundt + and Warburg, 1876), argon and helium (Ramsay, 1896). For diatomic or + compound gases Clerk Maxwell supposed that the molecule would also + possess energy of rotation, and endeavoured to prove that in this case + the energy would be equally divided between the six degrees of + freedom, three of translation and three of rotation, if the molecule + were regarded as a rigid body incapable of vibration-energy. In this + case we should have s = 3R, S = 4R, S/s = 4/3 = 1.333. In 1879 Maxwell + considered it one of the greatest difficulties which the kinetic + theory had yet encountered, that in spite of the many other degrees of + freedom of vibration revealed by the spectroscope, the experimental + value of the ratio S/s was 1.40 for so many gases, instead of being + less than 4/3. Somewhat later L. Boltzmann suggested that a diatomic + molecule regarded as a rigid dumb-bell or figure of rotation, might + have only five effective degrees of freedom, since the energy of + rotation about the axis of symmetry could not be altered by collisions + between the molecules. The theoretical value of the ratio S/s in this + case would be the required 7/5. For a rigid molecule on this theory + the smallest value possible would be 4/3. Since much smaller values + are found for more complex molecules, we may suppose that, in these + cases, the energy of rotation of a polyatomic molecule may be greater + than its energy of translation, or else that heat is expended in + splitting up molecular aggregates, and increasing energy of vibration. + A hypothesis doubtfully attributed to Maxwell is that each additional + atom in the molecule is equivalent to two extra degrees of freedom. + From an m-atomic molecule we should then have S/s = 1 + 2/(2m + 1). + This gives a series of ratios 5/3, 7/5, 9/7, 11/9, &c., for 1, 2, 3, + 4, &c., atoms in the molecule, values which fall within the limits of + experimental error in many cases. It is not at all clear, however, + that energy of vibration should bear a constant ratio to that of + translation, although this would probably be the case for rotation. + For the simpler gases, which are highly diathermanous and radiate + badly even at high temperature, the energy of vibration is probably + very small, except under the special conditions which produce + luminosity in flames and electric discharges. For such gases, assuming + a constant ratio of rotation to translation, the specific heat at low + pressures would be very nearly constant. For more complex molecules + the radiative and absorptive powers are known to be much greater. The + energy of vibration may be appreciable at ordinary temperatures, and + would probably increase more rapidly than that of translation with + rise of temperature, especially near a point of dissociation. This + would account for an increase of S, and a diminution of the ratio S/s, + with rise of temperature which apparently occurs in many vapours. The + experimental evidence, however, is somewhat conflicting, and further + investigations are very desirable on the variation of specific heat + with temperature. Given the specific heat as a function of the + temperature, its variation with pressure may be determined from the + characteristic equation of the gas. The direct methods of measuring + the ratio S/s, by the velocity of sound and by adiabatic expansion, + are sufficiently described in many text-books. + + S 19. _Atomic and Molecular Heats._--The ideal atomic heat is the + thermal capacity of a gramme-atom in the ideal state of monatomic gas + at constant volume. This would be nearly three calories. For a + diatomic gas, the molecular heat would be nearly five calories, or the + atomic heat of a gas in the diatomic state would be 2.5. Estimated at + constant pressure the atomic heat would be 3.5. Some authors adopt 2.5 + and some 3.5 for the ideal atomic heat. The atomic heat of a metal in + the solid state is in most cases larger than six calories at ordinary + temperatures. Considering the wide variations in the physical + condition and melting points, the comparatively close agreement of the + atomic heats of the metals at ordinary temperatures, known as Dulong + and Petit's Law, is very remarkable. The specific heats as a rule + increase with rise of temperature, in some cases, e.g. iron and + nickel, very rapidly. According to W.A. Tilden (_Phil. Trans._, 1900), + the atomic heats of pure nickel and cobalt, as determined from + experiments at the boiling-points of O2, and CO2, diminish so rapidly + at temperatures below 0 deg. C. as to suggest that they would reach + the value 2.42 at the absolute zero. This is the value of the minimum + of atomic heat calculated by Perry from diatomic hydrogen, but the + observations themselves might be equally well represented by taking + the imaginary limit 3, since the quantity actually observed is the + mean specific heat between 0 deg. and -182.5 deg. C. Subsequent + experiments on other metals at low temperatures did not indicate a + similar diminution of specific heat, so that it may be doubted whether + the atomic heats really approach the ideal value at the absolute zero. + No doubt there must be approximate relations between the atomic and + molecular heats of similar elements and compounds, but considering the + great variations of specific heat with temperature and physical state, + in alloys, mixtures or solutions, and in allotropic or other + modifications, it would be idle to expect that the specific heat of a + compound could be accurately deduced by any simple additive process + from that of its constituents. + + AUTHORITIES.--Joule's _Scientific Papers_ (London, 1890); Ames and + Griffiths, _Reports to the International Congress_ (Paris, 1900), "On + the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat," and "On the Specific Heat of + Water"; Griffiths, _Thermal Measurement of Energy_ (Cambridge, 1901); + Callendar and Barnes, _Phil. Trans._ A, 1901, "On the Variation of the + Specific Heat of Water"; for combustion methods, see article + THERMOCHEMISTRY, and treatises by Thomsen, Pattison-Muir and + Berthelot; see also articles THERMODYNAMICS and VAPORIZATION. + (H. L. C.) + + + + +CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM (1612-1686), German Lutheran divine, was born at +Mohrungen in east Prussia, on the 16th of April 1612. After studying at +Konigsberg, in 1650 he was appointed professor of theology at +Wittenberg, where he afterwards became general superintendent and +primarius. He died on the 25th of February 1686. Calovius was the most +noteworthy of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century. +He strongly opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians, attacked in +particular the reconciliation policy or "syncretism" of Georg Calixtus +(cf. the _Consensus repetitus fidei vere lutheranae_, 1665), and as a +writer of polemics he had few equals. His chief dogmatic work, _Systema +locorum theologicorum_ (12 vols. 1655-1677), represents the climax of +Lutheran scholasticism. In his _Biblia Illustrata_ (4 vols.), written +from the point of view of a very strict belief in inspiration, his +object is to refute the statements made by Hugo Grotius in his +Commentaries. His _Historia Syncretistica_ (1682) was suppressed. + + + + +CALPURNIUS, TITUS, Roman bucolic poet, surnamed SICULUS from his +birthplace or from his imitation of the style of the Sicilian +Theocritus, most probably flourished during the reign of Nero. Eleven +eclogues have been handed down to us under his name, of which the last +four, from metrical considerations and express MS. testimony, are now +generally attributed to Nemesianus (q.v.), who lived in the time of the +emperor Carus and his sons (latter half of the 3rd century A.D.). Hardly +anything is known of the life of Calpurnius; we gather from the poems +themselves (in which he is obviously represented by "Corydon") that he +was in poor circumstances and was on the point of emigrating to Spain, +when "Meliboeus" came to his aid. Through his influence Calpurnius +apparently secured a post at Rome. The time at which Calpurnius lived +has been much discussed, but all the indications seem to point to the +time of Nero. The emperor is described as a handsome youth, like Mars +and Apollo, whose accession marks the beginning of a new golden age, +prognosticated by the appearance of a comet, doubtless the same that +appeared some time before the death of Claudius; he exhibits splendid +games in the amphitheatre (probably the wooden amphitheatre erected by +Nero in 57); and in the words + + maternis causam qui vicit Iulis[1] (i. 45), + +there is a reference to the speech delivered in Greek by Nero on behalf +of the Ilienses (Suetonius, _Nero_, 7; Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 58), from +whom the Julii derived their family.[2] Meliboeus, the poet's patron, +has been variously identified with Columella, Seneca the philosopher, +and C. Calpurnius Piso. Although the sphere of Meliboeus's literary +activity (as indicated in iv. 53) suits none of these, what is known of +Calpurnius Piso fits in well with what is said of Meliboeus by the poet, +who speaks of his generosity, his intimacy with the emperor, and his +interest in tragic poetry. His claim is further supported by the poem +_De Laude Pisonis_ (ed. C.F. Weber, 1859) which has come down to us +without the name of the author, but which there is considerable reason +for attributing to Calpurnius.[3] The poem exhibits a striking +similarity with the eclogues in metre, language and subject-matter. The +author of the _Laus_ is young, of respectable family and desirous of +gaining the favour of Piso as his Maecenas. Further, the similarity +between the two names can hardly be accidental; it is suggested that the +poet may have been adopted by the courtier, or that he was the son of a +freedman of Piso. The attitude of the author of the _Laus_ towards the +subject of the panegyric seems to show less intimacy than the relations +between Corydon and Meliboeus in the eclogues, and there is internal +evidence that the _Laus_ was written during the reign of Claudius +(Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Rom. Lit._ S 306, 6). + +Mention may here be made of the fragments of two short hexameter poems +in an Einsiedeln MS., obviously belonging to the time of Nero, which if +not written by Calpurnius, were imitated from him. + +Although there is nothing original in Calpurnius, he is "a skilful +literary craftsman." Of his models the chief is Virgil, of whom (under +the name of Tityrus) he speaks with great enthusiasm; he is also +indebted to Ovid and Theocritus. Calpurnius is "a fair scholar, and an +apt courtier, and not devoid of real poetical feeling. The bastard style +of pastoral cultivated by him, in which the description of nature is +made the writer's pretext, while ingenious flattery is his real purpose, +nevertheless excludes genuine pleasure, and consequently genuine +poetical achievement. He may be fairly compared to the minor poets of +the reign of Anne" (Garnett). + + Calpurnius was first printed in 1471, together with Silius Italicus + and has been frequently republished, generally with Gratius Faliscus + and Nemesianus. The separate authorship of the eclogues of Calpurnius + and Nemesianus was established by M. Haupt's _De Carminibus bucolicis + Calpurnii et Nemesiani_ (1854). Editions by H. Schenkl (1885), with + full introduction and _index verborum_, and by C.H. Keene (1887), with + introduction, commentary and appendix. English verse translation by + E.J.L. Scott (1891); see H.E. Butler, _Post-Augustan Poetry_ (Oxford, + 1909), pp. 150 foil., and F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1 (1897). (J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Iulis_ for _in ulnis_ according to the best MS. tradition. + + [2] According to Dr R. Garnett (and Mr Greswell, as stated in + Conington's _Virgil_, i. p. 123, note) the emperor referred to is the + younger Gordian (A.D. 238). His arguments in favour of this will be + found in the article on Calpurnius by him in the 9th edition of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and in the _Journal of Philology_, xvi., + 1888; see in answer J.P. Postgate, "The Comet of Calpurnius Siculus" + in _Classical Review_, June 1902. Dean Merivale (_Hist. of the Romans + under the Empire_, ch. 60) and Pompei, "Intorno al Tempo del Poeta + Calpurnio" in _Atti del Istituto Veneto_, v. 6 (1880), identify the + amphitheatre with the Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) and assign + Calpurnius to the reign of Domitian. + + [3] It has been variously ascribed to Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius + and Saleius Bassus. + + + + +CALTAGIRONE, a city and episcopal see of the province of Catania, +Sicily, situated 1999 ft. above sea-level, 36 m. S.W. of Catania direct +(55 m. by rail). Pop. (1881) 25,978; (1901) town 35,116; commune 45,956. +It is well built, and is said to be the most civilized provincial town +in Sicily. Extensive Sicel cemeteries have been explored to the north of +the town (_Not. Scavi_, 1904, 65), and a Greek necropolis of the 6th and +5th centuries B.C. has been found to the south-east (_ibid._ 132). +Remains of buildings of Roman date have also been discovered; but the +name of the ancient city which stood here is unknown. The present name +is a corruption of the Saracen _Kalat-al-Girche_ (the castle of Girche, +the chieftain who fortified it). + + + + +CALTANISETTA, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, the capital of a +province of the same name, 60 m. S.E. of Palermo direct and 83 m. by +rail, situated 1930 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 43,303. The town is +of Saracenic origin, as its name _Kalat-al-Nisa_, the "Ladies' Castle," +indicates, and some ruins of the old castle (called _Pietrarossa_) still +exist. Otherwise the town contains no buildings of artistic or +historical interest, but it commands striking views. It is the centre of +the Sicilian sulphur industry and the seat of a royal school of mines. +Two miles east is the interesting Norman abbey of S. Spirito. + + + + +CALTROP (from the Mid. Eng. _calketrappe_, probably derived from the +Lat. _calx_, a heel, and _trappa_, Late Lat. for a snare), an iron ball, +used as an obstacle against cavalry, with four spikes so arranged, that +however placed in or on the ground, one spike always points upwards. It +is also the botanical name for several species of thistles. + + + + +CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE, a town of eastern France, in the department of Rhone, +2-1/2 m. N. by E. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906) 9255. It has +manufactures of coarse earthenware and hard-ware, copper and bronze +foundries and nursery-gardens. + + + + +CALUMET (Norm. Fr. form of _chalumet_, from Lat. _calamus_, a reed), the +name given by the French in Canada to the "peace-pipe" of the American +Indians. This pipe occupied among the tribes a position of peculiar +symbolic significance, and was the object of profound veneration. It was +smoked on all ceremonial occasions, even on declarations of war, but its +special use was at the making of treaties of peace. It was usually about +2-1/2 ft. long, and in the west the bowl was made of red pipes tone +(catlinite), a fine-grained, easily-worked stone of a rich red colour +found chiefly in the Coteau des Prairies west of Big Stone Lake, Dakota. +The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring Indian +tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the locality and +its product (Longfellow, _Hiawatha_, i.). The pipe stem was of reed +decorated with eagles' quills or women's hair. Native tobacco mixed with +willow-bark or sumac leaves was smoked. The pipe was offered as a +supreme proof of hospitality to distinguished strangers, and its refusal +was regarded as a grievous affront. In the east and south-east, the bowl +was of white stone, sometimes pierced with several stem holes so that +many persons might smoke at once. + + See Joseph D. Macguire (exhaustive report,640 pages), "Pipes and + Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines" in _Smithsonian Report_ + (American Bureau of Ethnology) for 1897, vol. i.; and authorities + quoted in _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + + +CALUMPIT, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +at the junction of the Quingua river with the Rio Grande de la Pampanga, +about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 13,897. It is served by the +Manila & Dagupan railway, and the bridge across the Rio Grande is one of +the longest in the Philippines. The surrounding country is a fertile +plain, producing large quantities of rice, as well as sugar, Indian corn +and a variety of fruits. Calumpit has a large rice-mill and one of the +largest markets in the Philippines. The bridge, convent and church of +the town were fired and completely destroyed by insurgent troops in +1899. The language is Tagalog. + + + + +CALVADOS, a department of north-western France, formed in 1790 out of +Bessin, Cinglais, Hiemois, Bocage, the Campagne de Caen, Auge and the +western part of Lieuvin. Pop. (1906) 403,431. Area, 2197 sq. m. It +received its name from a ledge of rocks, stretching along the coast for +a distance of about 15 m. between the mouths of the rivers Orne and +Vire. It is bounded N. by the English Channel, E. by the department of +Eure, S. by that of Orne, W. by that of Manche. The Bocage, or +south-western part of the department, is elevated, being crossed from +south-east to north-west by the hills of Normandy, the highest of which +is 1197 ft.; the rest of the surface is gently undulating, and consists +of extensive valleys watered by numerous streams which fall into the +English Channel. The coast, formed by cliffs, sandy beaches or reefs, is +generally inaccessible, except at the mouths of the principal rivers, +such as the Touques, the Dives, the Orne and the Vire, which are +navigable at high tide for several miles inland. Trouville is the chief +of the numerous coast resorts. The climate, though humid and variable, +is healthy. The raising of cattle, sheep and horses is the mainstay of +the agriculture of the department. Pasture is good and abundant in the +east and north-west, and there is a large export trade in the butter, +eggs and cheese (Camembert, Livarot, Pont l'Eveque) of these districts, +carried on by Honfleur, Isigny and other ports. The plain of Caen is a +great centre for horse breeding. Wheat, oats, barley, colza and potatoes +are the chief crops. The orchards of Auge and Bessin produce a superior +kind of cider, of which upwards of 40,000,000 gallons are made in the +department; a large quantity of cider brandy (eau-de-vie de Calvados) is +distilled. Poultry to a considerable amount is sent to the Paris +markets, and there is a large output of honey and wax. The spinning and +weaving of wool and cotton are the chief industries. Besides these, +paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, +rope-works, dye-works, distilleries and bleach-fields, scattered +throughout the department, give employment to a number of hands. There +are productive iron-mines and building-stone, slate and lime are +plentiful. Fisheries, chiefly of lobster, oyster (Courseulles), herring +and mackerel, are prosecuted. Coal, timber, grain, salt-fish and cement +are among the imports; exports include iron, dairy products and sand. +Caen and Honfleur are the most important commercial ports. There is a +canal 9 m. in length from Caen to Ouistreham on the coast. The +department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway. It is divided into the +six arrondissements (38 cantons, 763 communes) of Caen, Falaise, Bayeux, +Vire, Lisieux and Pont l'Eveque. Caen, the capital, is the seat of a +court of appeal and the centre of an _academie_ (educational division). +The department forms the diocese of Bayeux, in the ecclesiastical +province of Rouen, and belongs to the region of the III. army-corps. The +other principal towns are Falaise, Lisieux, Conde-sur-Noireau, Vire, +Honfleur and Trouville (q.v.). + +Amongst the great number of medieval churches which the department +possesses, the fine Gothic church of St. Pierre-sur-Dives is second in +importance only to those of Lisieux and Bayeux; that of Norrey, a good +example of the Norman-Gothic style, and that of Tour-en-Bessin, in which +Romanesque and Gothic architecture are mingled, are of great interest. +Fontaine-Henri has a fine chateau of the 15th and 16th centuries. + + + + +CALVART, DENIS (1540-1619), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. After +studying landscape-painting for some time in his native city he went to +Bologna, where he perfected himself in the anatomy of the human form +under Prospero Fontana, and so completely lost the mannerism of Flemish +art that his paintings appear to be the work of an Italian. From Bologna +he went to Rome, where he assisted Lorenzo Sabbatini (1533-1577) in his +works for the papal palace, and devoted much of his time to copying and +studying the works of Raphael. He ultimately returned to Bologna and +founded a school, of which the greatest ornaments are Guido and +Domenichino. His works are especially admired for the power of grouping +and colouring which they display. + + + + +CALVARY, the conventional English rendering of the _calvaria_ of the +Vulgate, the Latin version of the Greek _[Greek: kranion]_, both meaning +"skull" and representing the Hebrew Golgotha, the name given to the +scene of Christ's crucifixion. The term "a Calvary" is applied to a +sculptured representation of the Crucifixion, either inside a church, or +adjoining one in the open air. There are many examples of the latter in +France, Italy and Spain. Among the most important are the Sacro Monte +(1486) at Varallo in Piedmont, and those at Guimiliau (1581), Plougastel +(1602), St Thegonnec (1610), and Pleyben near Quimper (1670), in +Brittany, all in good preservation. + + + + +CALVE EMMA (1864- ), Spanish operatic soprano, was born at Madrid, and +trained in Paris, making her first important appearance in opera at +Brussels in 1882. She sang mainly in Paris for some years, but in 1892 +was first engaged at Covent Garden, London, and at once became famous as +the most vivid Carmen (in Bizet's opera) of the day. + + + + +CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART (1831-1884), English poet and wit, and the +literary father of what may be called the university school of humour, +was born at Martley in Worcestershire on the 22nd of December 1831. His +father, the Rev. Henry Blayds, resumed in 1852 the old family name of +Calverley, which his grandfather had exchanged for Blayds in 1807. It +was as Charles Stuart Blayds that most of the son's university +distinctions were attained. He went up to Balliol from Harrow in 1850, +and was soon known in Oxford as the most daring and most high-spirited +undergraduate of his time. He was a universal favourite, a delightful +companion, a brilliant scholar and the playful enemy of all "dons." In +1851 he won the Chancellor's prize for Latin verse, and it is said that +the entire exercise was written in an afternoon, when his friends had +locked him into his rooms, declining to let him out till he had finished +what they were confident would prove the prize poem. A year later he +took his name off the books, to avoid the consequences of a college +escapade, and migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge. Here he was again +successful in Latin verse, and remains the unique example of an +undergraduate who has won the Chancellor's prize at both universities. +In 1856 he took second place in the first class in the Classical Tripos. +He was elected fellow of Christ's (1858), published _Verses and +Translations_ in 1862, and was called to the bar in 1865. Owing to an +accident while skating he was prevented from following up a professional +career, and during the last years of his life he was an invalid. His +_Translations into English and Latin_ appeared in 1866; his _Theocritus +translated into English Verse_ in 1869; _Fly Leaves_ in 1872; and +_Literary Remains_ in 1885. He died on the 17th of February 1884. +Calverley was one of the most brilliant men of his day; and, had he +enjoyed health, might have achieved distinction in any career he chose. +Constitutionally indolent, he was endowed with singular gifts in every +department of culture; he was a scholar, a musician, an athlete and a +brilliant talker. What is left us marks only a small portion of his +talent, but his sparkling, dancing verses, which have had many clever +imitators, are still without a rival in their own line. His humour was +illumined by good nature; his satire was keen but kind; his laughter was +of that human sort which is often on the verge of tears. Imbued with the +classical spirit, he introduced into the making of light verse the +polish and elegance of the great masters, and even in its most whimsical +mood his verse is raised to the level of poetry by the saving excellence +of style. + + His _Complete Works_, with a biographical notice by Sir W.J. Sendall, + appeared in 1901. (A. Wa.) + + + + +CALVERT, the name of three English artists: Charles (1785-1852), a +well-known landscape-painter; Edward (1803-1883), an important +wood-engraver and follower of Blake; and Frederick, an excellent +topographical draughtsman, whose work in water-colour is represented at +the Victoria and Albert Museum, and who published a volume of +_Picturesque Views in Staffordshire and Shropshire_ (1830). + + + + +CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE (1819-1873), English chemist, was born in +London on the 14th of November 1819. From about 1836 till 1846 he lived +in France, where, after a course of study at Paris, he became manager of +some chemical works, later acting as assistant to M.E. Chevreul. On his +return to England he settled in Manchester as a consulting chemist, and +was appointed professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution in that +city. Devoting himself almost entirely to industrial chemistry, he gave +much attention to the manufacture of coal-tar products, and particularly +carbolic acid, for the production of which he established large works in +Manchester in 1865. Besides contributing extensively to the English and +French scientific journals, he published a work on _Dyeing and +Calico-Printing._ He died in Manchester on the 24th of October 1873. + + + + +CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART. (c. 1763-1826), British general, was probably +born early in 1763 at Hampton, near London. He was educated at Harrow, +and at the age of fifteen entered the army. In the following year he +served with his regiment in America, being present at the siege of +Charleston, and serving through the campaign of Lord Cornwallis which +ended with the surrender of Yorktown. From 1781 to 1783 he was a +prisoner of war. Returning to England in 1784, he next saw active +service in 1793-1794 in the Low Countries, where he was aide-de-camp to +the duke of York, and in 1795 was engaged on a confidential mission to +Brunswick and Berlin. In 1799, having already served as deputy adjutant +general, he was made adjutant general, holding the post till 1818. In +this capacity he effected many improvements in the organization and +discipline of the service. He greatly improved the administration of the +army medical and hospital department, introduced regimental schools, +developed the two existing military colleges (since united at +Sandhurst), and was largely responsible for the founding of the Duke of +York's school, Chelsea. In recognition of his work as adjutant general +he was made a G.C.B. (1815), and, on retiring from office, received a +baronetcy (1818). In 1820 he was made governor of Chelsea hospital. He +died on the 3rd of September 1826, at Middle Claydon, Buckinghamshire. + + + + +CALVES' HEAD CLUB, a club established shortly after his death in +derision of the memory of Charles I. Its chief meeting was held on the +30th of each January, the anniversary of the king's execution, when the +dishes served were a cod's head to represent the individual, Charles +Stuart; a pike representing tyranny; a boar's head representing the king +preying on his subjects; and calves' heads representing Charles as king +and his adherents. On the table an axe held the place of honour. After +the banquet a copy of the king's _Ikon Basilike_ was burnt, and the +toast was "To those worthy patriots who killed the tyrant." After the +Restoration the club met secretly. The first mention of it is in a tract +reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_ entitled "The Secret History of +the Calves' Head Club." The club survived till 1734, when the diners +were mobbed owing to the popular ill-feeling which their outrages on +good taste provoked, and the riot which ensued put a final stop to the +meetings. + + + + +CALVI, a sea-port in Corsica, capital of an arrondissement in the N.W. +of the island, 112 m. N. of Ajaccio by road. Pop. (1906) 1967. It is +situated on the Bay of Calvi, in a malarial region, and is the port in +Corsica nearest to France, being 109 m. from Antibes; the harbour, +however, is exposed to the east and north-east winds. The modern town +lies at the foot of a rock, on which stands the old town with its steep +rock-paved streets and fortified walls, commanded by the Fort Muzello. +Fishing is carried on, and timber, oil, wine, lemons and other +sub-tropical fruits are exported to some extent. The most important +buildings are the old palace of the Genoese governor, used as barracks, +and the church (16th century), with the monument of the Baglioni +family, which was intimately associated with the history of the town. + +Calvi was founded in the 13th century and in 1278 passed into the hands +of the Genoese. From that date it was remarkable for its adherence to +their side, especially in 1553 when it repulsed two attacks of the +united forces of the French and Turks. In recognition thereof the +Genoese senate caused the words _Civitas Calvi semper fidelis_ to be +carved on the chief gate of the city, which still preserves the +inscription. In 1794 Calvi was captured by the English, but it was +retaken by the Corsicans in the following year. + + + + +CALVIN, JOHN (1500-1564), Swiss divine and reformer, was born at Noyon, +in Picardy, on the 10th of July 1509. His father, Gerard Cauvin or +Calvin,[1] was a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal for the lordship +of Noyon, besides holding certain ecclesiastical offices in connexion +with that diocese. The name of his mother was Jeanne le Franc; she was +the daughter of an innkeeper at Cambrai, who afterwards came to reside +at Noyon. Gerard Cauvin was esteemed as a man of considerable sagacity +and prudence, and his wife was a godly and attractive lady. She bore him +five sons, of whom John was the second. By a second wife there were two +daughters. + +Of Calvin's early years only a few notices remain. His father destined +him from the first for an ecclesiastical career, and paid for his +education in the household of the noble family of Hangest de Montmor. In +May 1521 he was appointed to a chaplaincy attached to the altar of La +Gesine in the cathedral of Noyon, and received the tonsure. The actual +duties of the office were in such cases carried out by ordained and +older men for a fraction of the stipend. The plague having visited +Noyon, the young Hangests were sent to Paris in August 1523, and Calvin +accompanied them, being enabled to do so by the income received from his +benefice. He lived with his uncle and attended as an out-student the +College de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin +Cordier, a man of character, learning and repute as a teacher, who in +later days followed his pupil to Switzerland, taught at Neuchatel, and +died in Geneva in 1564. In dedicating to him his _Commentary on the +First Epistle to the Thessalonians_, as "eximiae pietatis et doctrinae +viro," he declares that so had he been aided by his instruction that +whatever subsequent progress he had made he only regarded as received +from him, and "this," he adds, "I wish to testify to posterity that if +any utility accrue to any from my writings they may acknowledge it as +having in part flowed from thee." From the College de la Marche he +removed to the College de Montaigu,[2] where the atmosphere was more +ecclesiastical and where he had for instructor a Spaniard who is +described as a man of learning and to whom Calvin was indebted for some +sound training in dialectics and the scholastic philosophy. He speedily +outstripped all his competitors in grammatical studies, and by his skill +and acumen as a student of philosophy, and in the college disputations +gave fruitful promise of that consummate excellence as a reasoner in the +department of speculative truth which he afterwards displayed. Among his +friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and Michel Cop, +sons of the king's Swiss physician, and his own kinsman Pierre Robert, +better known as Olivetan. Such friendships testify both to the worth and +the attractiveness of his character, and contradict the old legend that +he was an unsociable misanthrope. Pleased with his success, the canons +at Noyon gave him the curacy of St Martin de Marteville in September +1527. After holding this preferment for nearly two years, he exchanged +it in July 1529 for the cure of Pont L'Eveque, a village near to Noyon, +and the place to which his father originally belonged. He appears to +have been not a little elated by his early promotion, and although not +ordained, he preached several sermons to the people. But though the +career of ecclesiastical preferment was thus early opened to him, Calvin +was destined not to become a priest. A change came over the mind both of +his father and himself respecting his future career. Gerard Cauvin began +to suspect that he had not chosen the most lucrative profession for his +son, and that the law offered to a youth of his talents and industry a +more promising sphere.[3] He was also now out of favour with the +cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said also that John himself, on the +advice of his relative, Pierre Robert Olivetan, the first translator of +the Bible into French, had begun to study the Scriptures and to dissent +from the Roman worship. At any rate he readily complied with his +father's suggestion, and removed from Paris to Orleans (March 1528) in +order to study law under Pierre Taisan de l'Etoile, the most +distinguished jurisconsult of his day. The university atmosphere here +was less ascetic than at Paris, but Calvin's ardour knew no slackening, +and such was his progress in legal knowledge that he was frequently +called upon to lecture, in the absence of one or other of the regular +staff. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him while +in this city, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age he eagerly +developed his classical knowledge. "By protracted vigils," says Beza, +"he secured indeed a solid erudition and an excellent memory; but it is +probable he at the same time sowed the seeds of that disease (dyspepsia) +which occasioned him various illnesses in after life, and at last +brought upon him premature death."[4] His friends here were Melchior +Wolmar, a German schoolmaster and a man of exemplary scholarship and +character, Francois Daniel, Francois de Connam and Nicolas Duchemin; to +these his earliest letters were written. + +From Orleans Calvin went to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to continue +his studies under the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati (1492-1550), +whom Francis I. had invited into France and settled as a professor of +law in that university. His friend Daniel went with him, and Wolmar +followed a year later. By Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced +to the study of the New Testament in the original, a service which he +gratefully acknowledges in one of his printed works.[5] The conversation +of Wolmar may also have been of use to him in his consideration of the +doctrines of the Reformation, which were now beginning to be widely +diffused through France. Twelve years had elapsed since Luther had +published his theses against indulgences--twelve years of intense +excitement and anxious discussion, not in Germany only, but in almost +all the adjacent countries. In France there had not been as yet any +overt revolt against the Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy +with any attempt to improve the church by education, by purer morals, by +better preaching and by a return to the primitive and uncorrupted faith. +Though we cannot with Beza regard Calvin at this time as a centre of +Protestant activity, he may well have preached at Lignieres as a +reformatory Catholic of the school of Erasmus. Calvin's own record of +his "conversion" is so scanty and devoid of chronological data that it +is extremely difficult to trace his religious development with any +certainty. But it seems probable that at least up to 1532 he was far +more concerned about classical scholarship than about religion. + +His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his father in May +1531. Immediately after this event he went to Paris, where the "new +learning" was now at length ousting the medieval scholasticism from the +university. He lodged in the College Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre +Danes and beginning Hebrew with Francois Vatable. It was at this time +(April 1532) that Calvin issued his first publication, a commentary in +Latin on Seneca's tract _De Clementia_. This book he published at his +own cost, and dedicated to Claude Hangest, abbot of St Eloi, a member of +the de Montmor family, with whom Calvin had been brought up. It was +formerly thought that Calvin published this work with a view to +influence the king to put a stop to the attacks on the Protestants, but +there is nothing in the treatise itself or in the commentary to favour +this opinion. + +Soon after the publication of his first book Calvin returned to Orleans, +where he stayed for a year, perhaps again reading law, and still +undecided as to his life's work. He visited Noyon in August 1533, and by +October of the same year was settled again in Paris. Here and now his +destiny became certain. The conservative theology was becoming +discredited, and humanists like Jacques Lefevre of Etaples (Faber +Stapulensis) and Gerard Roussel were favoured by the court under the +influence of Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre and sister of +Francis I. Calvin's old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected +rector of the university and had to deliver an oration according to +custom in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The +oration (certainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin) was in +effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of the doctrine of +justification by faith alone. It is to the period between April 1532 and +November 1533, and in particular to the time of his second sojourn at +Orleans, that we may most fittingly assign the great change in Calvin +which he describes (_Praef. ad Psalmos_; opera xxxi. 21-24) as his +"sudden conversion" and attributes to direct divine agency. It must have +been at least after his _Commentary on Seneca's De Clementia_ that his +heart was "so subdued and reduced to docility that in comparison with +his zeal for true piety he regarded all other studies with indifference, +though not entirely forsaking them. Though himself a beginner, many +flocked to him to learn the pure doctrine, and he began to seek some +hiding-place and means of withdrawal from people." This indeed was +forced upon him, for Cop's address was more than the conservative party +could bear, and Cop, being summoned to appear before the parlement of +Paris, found it necessary, as he failed to secure the support either of +the king, or of the university, to make his escape to Basel. An attempt +was at the same time made to seize Calvin, but, being forewarned of the +design by his friends, he also made his escape. His room in the College +Fortet, however, was searched, and his books and papers seized, to the +imminent peril of some of his friends, whose letters were found in his +repositories. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him being +dropped, soon returned to Paris. But desiring both security and solitude +for study he left the city again about New Year of 1534 and became the +guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of the cathedral, at Angouleme, where +at the request of his host he prepared some short discourses, which were +circulated in the surrounding parishes, and read in public to the +people. Here, too in du Tillet's splendid library, he began the studies +which resulted in his great work, the _Institutes_, and paid a visit to +Nerac, where the venerable Lefevre, whose revised translation of the +Bible into French was published about this time, was spending his last +years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre. + +Calvin was now nearly twenty-five years of age, and in the ordinary way +would have been ordained to the priesthood. Up till this time his work +for the evangelical cause was not so much that of the public preacher or +reformer as that of the retiring but influential scholar and adviser. +Now, however, he had to decide whether, like Roussel and other of his +friends, he should strive to combine the new doctrines with a position +in the old church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome. +His mind was made up, and on the 4th of May he resigned his chaplaincy +at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont l'Eveque. Towards the end of the +same month he was arrested and suffered two short terms of imprisonment, +the charges against him being not strong enough to be pressed. He seems +to have gone next to Paris, staying perhaps with Etienne de la Forge, a +Protestant merchant who suffered for his faith in February 1535. To this +time belongs the story of the proposed meeting between Calvin and the +Spanish reformer Servetus. Calvin's movements at this time are difficult +to trace, but he visited both Orleans and Poitiers, and each visit +marked a stage in his development. + +The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and were +disseminating many wild and fanatical opinions among those who had +seceded from the Church of Rome. Among other notions which they had +imbibed was that of a sleep of the soul after death. To Calvin this +notion appeared so pernicious that he composed a treatise in refutation +of it, under the title of _Psychopannychia_. The preface to this +treatise is dated Orleans 1534, but it was not printed till 1542. In it +he chiefly dwells upon the evidence from Scripture in favour of the +belief that the soul retains its intelligent consciousness after its +separation from the body--passing by questions of philosophical +speculation, as tending on such a subject only to minister to an idle +curiosity. At Poitiers Calvin gathered round him a company of cultured +and gentle men whom in private intercourse he influenced considerably. +Here too in a grotto near the town he for the first time celebrated the +communion in the Evangelical Church of France, using a piece of the rock +as a table. + +The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time forward his +influence became supreme, and all who had accepted the reformed +doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and instruction, attracted +not only by his power as a teacher, but still more, perhaps because they +saw in him so full a development of the Christian life according to the +evangelical model. Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him "the most +Christian man of his time," and attributes to this his success as a +reformer. Certain it is that already he had become conspicuous as a +prophet of the new religion; his life was in danger, and he was obliged +to seek safety in flight. In company with his friend Louis du Tillet, +whom he had again gone to Angouleme to visit, he set out for Basel. On +their way they were robbed by one of their servants, and it was only by +borrowing ten crowns from their other servant that they were enabled to +get to Strassburg, and thence to Basel. Here Calvin was welcomed by the +band of scholars and theologians who had conspired to make that city the +Athens of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief +pastor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the aupices and +guidance of Sebastian Munster, Calvin now gave himself to the study of +Hebrew. + +Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protestants but +anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to break with the +Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his ambassador to assure these +princes that it was only against Anabaptists, and other parties who +called in question all civil magistracy, that his severities were +exercised. Calvin, indignant at the calumny which was thus cast upon the +reformed party in France, hastily prepared for the press his _Institutes +of the Christian Religion_, which he published "first that I might +vindicate from unjust affront my brethren whose death was precious in +the sight of the Lord, and, next, that some sorrow and anxiety should +move foreign peoples, since the same sufferings threatened many." The +work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it in Latin +that it might find access to the learned in all lands.[6] Soon after it +appeared he set about translating it into French, as he himself attests +in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at rest a question, at one +time much agitated, whether the book appeared first in French or in +Latin. The earliest French edition known is that of 1540, and this was +after the work had been much enlarged, and several Latin editions had +appeared. In its first form the work consisted of only six chapters, and +was intended merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrine. The +chapters follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching: (1) The Law, +(as in the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles' Creed) (3) Prayer, +(4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False Sacraments, (6) +Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil administration. The +closing chapters of the work are more polemical than the earlier ones. +His indebtedness to Luther is of course great, but his spiritual kinship +with Martin Bucer of Strassburg is even more marked. Something also he +owed to Scotus and other medieval schoolmen. The book appeared +anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in view +beyond furnishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted +Protestants, whom he saw cruelly cut to pieces by impious and perfidious +court parasites.[7] In this work, though produced when the author was +only twenty-six years of age, we find a complete outline of the +Calvinist theological system. In none of the later editions, nor in any +of his later works do we find reason to believe that he ever changed his +views on any essential point from what they were at the period of its +first publication. Such an instance of maturity of mind and of opinion +at so early an age would be remarkable under any circumstances; but in +Calvin's case it is rendered peculiarly so by the shortness of the time +which had elapsed since he gave himself to theological studies. It may +be doubted also if the history of literature presents us with another +instance of a book written at so early an age, which has exercised such +a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both of +contemporaries and of posterity. + +After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renee, duchess of +Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), which at that time afforded an +asylum to several learned and pious fugitives from persecution, Calvin +returned through Basel to France to arrange his affairs before finally +taking farewell of his native country. His intention was to settle at +Strassburg or Basel, and to devote himself to study. But being unable, +in consequence of the war between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach +Strassburg by the ordinary route, he with his younger brother Antoine +and his half-sister Marie journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making +for Basel. In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution to +pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by what he +calls the "formidable obtestation" of Guillaume Farel.[8] After many +struggles and no small suffering, this energetic spirit had succeeded in +planting the evangelical standard at Geneva; and anxious to secure the +aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated him on his arrival to +relinquish his design of going farther, and to devote himself to the +work in that city. Calvin at first declined, alleging as an excuse his +need of securing more time for personal improvement, but ultimately, +believing that he was divinely called to this task and that "God had +stretched forth His hand upon me from on high to arrest me," he +consented to remain at Geneva. He hurried to Basel, transacted some +business, and returned to Geneva in August 1536. He at once began to +expound the epistles of St Paul in the church of St Pierre, and after +about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with the +consent of the people, an office which he would not accept until it had +been repeatedly pressed upon him. His services seem to have been +rendered for some time gratuitously, for in February 1537 there is an +entry in the city registers to the effect that six crowns had been voted +to him, "since he has as yet hardly received anything." + +Calvin was in his twenty-eighth year when he was thus constrained to +settle at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his life, with the +exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post to which he was thus +called was not an easy one. Though the people of Geneva had cast off the +obedience of Rome, it was largely a political revolt against the duke of +Savoy, and they were still (says Beza) "but very imperfectly enlightened +in divine knowledge; they had as yet hardly emerged from the filth of +the papacy."[9] This laid them open to the incursions of those fanatical +teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the Reformation had called +forth, and who hung mischievously upon the rear of the reforming body. +To obviate the evils thence resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew +up a condensed statement of Christian doctrine consisting of twenty-one +articles. This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to +profess and swear to as the confession of their faith--a process which, +though not in accordance with modern notions of the best way of +establishing men in the faith, was gone through, Calvin tells us, "with +much satisfaction." As the people took this oath in the capacity of +_citizens_, we may see here the basis laid for that theocratic system +which subsequently became peculiarly characteristic of the Genevan +polity. Deeply convinced of the importance of education for the young, +Calvin and his coadjutors were solicitous to establish schools +throughout the city, and to enforce on parents the sending of their +children to them; and as he had no faith in education apart from +religious training, he drew up a catechism of Christian doctrine which +the children had to learn whilst they were receiving secular +instruction. Of the troubles which arose from fanatical teachers, the +chief proceeded from the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public +disputation was held on the 16th and 17th of March 1537, and so excited +the populace that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the +Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About the same time +also, the peace of Calvin and his friends was much disturbed and their +work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, another native of northern France, +who, though a man of loose principle and belief, had been appointed +chief pastor at Lausanne and was discrediting the good work done by +Pierre Viret in that city. Calvin went to Viret's aid and brought Caroli +before the commissioners of Bern on a charge of advocating prayers for +the dead as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a +counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and Arianism, +because they would not enforce the Athanasian creed, and had not used +the words "Trinity" and "Person" in the confession they had drawn up. It +was a struggle between the thoroughgoing humanistic reformer who drew +his creed solely from the "word of God" and the merely semi-Protestant +reformer who looked on the old creed as a priceless heritage. In a synod +held at Bern the matter was fully discussed, when a verdict was given in +favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli deposed from his office and +banished. He returned to France, rejoined the Roman communion and spent +the rest of his life in passing to and from the old faith and the new. +Thus ended an affair which seems to have occasioned Calvin much more +uneasiness than the character of his assailant, and the manifest +falsehood of the charge brought against him, would seem to justify. Two +brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled _De fugiendis impiorum sacris_, +the other _De sacerdotio papali abjiciendo_, were also published early +in this year. + +Hardly was the affair of Caroli settled, when new and severer trials +came upon the Genevan Reformers. The austere simplicity of the ritual +which Farel had introduced, and to which Calvin had conformed; the +strictness with which the ministers sought to enforce not only the laws +of morality, but certain sumptuary regulations respecting the dress and +mode of living of the citizens; and their determination in spiritual +matters and ecclesiastical ceremonies not to submit to the least +dictation from the civil power, led to violent dissensions. Amidst much +party strife Calvin perhaps showed more youthful impetuosity than +experienced skill. He and his colleagues refused to administer the +sacrament in the Bernese form, i.e. with unleavened bread, and on Easter +Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all because of the popular tumult. +For this they were banished from the city. They went first to Bern, and +soon after to Zurich, where a synod of the Swiss pastors had been +convened. Before this assembly they pleaded their cause, and stated what +were the points on which they were prepared to insist as needful for the +proper discipline of the church. They declared that they would yield in +the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ unleavened bread in the +eucharist, to use fonts in baptism, and to allow festival days, provided +the people might pursue their ordinary avocations after public service. +These Calvin regarded as matters of indifference, provided the +magistrates did not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them; +and he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped thereby to +meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose ritual was less simple +than that established by Farel at Geneva. But he and his colleagues +insisted, on the other hand that for the proper maintenance of +discipline, there should be a division of parishes--that +excommunications should be permitted, and should be under the power of +elders chosen by the council, in conjunction with the clergy--that +order should be observed in the admission of preachers--and that only +the clergy should officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It +was proposed also, as conducive to the welfare of the church, that the +sacrament of the Lord's Supper should be administered more frequently, +at least once every month, and that congregational singing of psalms +should be practised in the churches. On these terms the synod interceded +with the Genevese to restore their pastors; but through the opposition +of some of the Bernese (especially Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) +this was frustrated, and a second edict of banishment was the only +response. + +Calvin and Farel betook themselves, under these circumstances, to Basel, +where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neuchatel and Calvin to +Strassburg. At the latter place Calvin resided till the autumn of 1541, +occupying himself partly in literary exertions, partly as a preacher and +especially an organizer in the French church, and partly as a lecturer +on theology. These years were not the least valuable in his experience. +In 1539 he attended Charles V.'s conference on Christian reunion at +Frankfort as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year he +appeared at Hagenau and Worms, as the delegate from the city of +Strassburg. He was present also at the diet at Regensburg, where he +deepened his acquaintance with Melanchthon, and formed with him a +friendship which lasted through life. He also did something to relieve +the persecuted Protestants of France. It is to this period of his life +that we owe a revised and enlarged form of his _Institutes_, his +_Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_, and his _Tract on the Lord's +Supper_. Notwithstanding his manifold engagements, he found time to +attend to the tenderer affections; for it was during his residence at +Strassburg that he married, in August 1540, Idelette de Bure, the widow +of one Jean Stordeur of Liege, whom he had converted from Anabaptism. In +her Calvin found, to use his own words, "the excellent companion of his +life," a "precious help" to him amid his manifold labours and frequent +infirmities. She died in 1549, to the great grief of her husband, who +never ceased to mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the +28th of July 1542, lived only a few days. + +During Calvin's absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed in Geneva. +An attempt was made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547), bishop of +Carpentras, to take advantage of this so as to restore the papal +supremacy in that district; but this design Calvin, at the request of +the Bernese authorities, who had been consulted by those of Geneva, +completely frustrated, by writing such a reply to the letter which the +bishop had addressed to the Genevese, as constrained him to desist from +all further efforts. The letter had more than a local or temporary +reference. It was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole +Protestant position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that +was ever written. He seems also to have kept up his connexion with +Geneva by addressing letters of counsel and comfort to the faithful +there who continued to regard him with affection. It was whilst he was +still at Strassburg that there appeared at Geneva a translation of the +Bible into French, bearing Calvin's name, but in reality only revised +and corrected by him from the version of Olivetan. Meanwhile the way was +opening for his return. Those who had driven him from the city gradually +lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. After +much hesitation, for Strassburg had strong claims, he yielded and +returned to Geneva, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm +(September 13, 1541). He entered upon his work with a firm determination +to carry out those reforms which he had originally purposed, and to set +up in all its integrity that form of church polity which he had +carefully matured during his residence at Strassburg. He now became the +sole directive spirit in the church at Geneva. Farel was retained by the +Neuchatelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin's return, removed to +Lausanne. His duties were thus rendered exceedingly onerous, and his +labour became excessive. Besides preaching every day in each alternate +week, he taught theology three days in the week, attended weekly +meetings of his consistory, read the Scriptures once a week in the +congregation, carried on an extensive correspondence on a multiplicity +of subjects, prepared commentaries on the books of Scripture, and was +engaged repeatedly in controversy with the opponents of his opinions. "I +have not time," he writes to a friend, "to look out of my house at the +blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall forget what sort of +appearance it has. When I have settled my usual business, I have so many +letters to write, so many questions to answer, that many a night is +spent without any offering of sleep being brought to nature." + +It is only necessary here to sketch the leading events of Calvin's life +after his return to Geneva. He recodified the Genevan laws and +constitution, and was the leading spirit in the negotiations with Bern +that issued in the treaty of February 1544. Of the controversies in +which he embarked, one of the most important was that in which he +defended his doctrine concerning predestination and election. His first +antagonist on this head was Albert Pighius, a Romanist, who, resuming +the controversy between Erasmus and Luther on the freedom of the will, +violently attacked Calvin for the views he had expressed on that +subject. Calvin replied to him in a work published in 1543, in which he +defends his own opinions at length, both by general reasonings and by an +appeal to both Scripture and the Fathers, especially Augustine. So +potent were his reasonings that Pighius, though owing nothing to the +gentleness or courtesy of Calvin, was led to embrace his views. A still +more vexatious and protracted controversy on the same subject arose in +1551. Jerome Hermes Bolsec, a Carmelite friar, having renounced +Romanism, had fled from France to Veigy, a village near Geneva, where he +practised as a physician. Being a zealous opponent of predestinarian +views, he expressed his criticisms of Calvin's teaching on the subject +in one of the public conferences held each Friday. Calvin replied with +much vehemence, and brought the matter before the civil authorities. The +council were at a loss which course to take; not that they doubted which +of the disputants was right, for they all held by the views of Calvin, +but they were unable to determine to what extent and in which way Bolsec +should be punished for his heresy. The question was submitted to the +churches at Basel, Bern, Zurich and Neuchatel, but they also, to +Calvin's disappointment, were divided in their judgment, some +counselling severity, others gentle measures. In the end Bolsec was +banished from Geneva; he ultimately rejoined the Roman communion and in +1577 avenged himself by a particularly slanderous biography of Calvin. +Another painful controversy was that with Sebastien Castellio +(1515-1563), a teacher in the Genevan school and a scholar of real +distinction. He wished to enter the preaching ministry but was excluded +by Calvin's influence because he had criticized the inspiration of the +Song of Solomon and the Genevan interpretation of the clause "he +descended into hell." The bitterness thus aroused developed into +life-long enmity. During all this time also the less strict party in the +city and in the council did not cease to harry the reformer. + +But the most memorable of all the controversies in which Calvin was +engaged was that into which he was brought in 1553 with Michael Servetus +(q.v.). After many wanderings, and after having been condemned to death +for heresy at Vienne, whence he was fortunate enough to make his escape, +Servetus arrived in August 1553 at Geneva on his way to Naples. He was +recognized in church and soon after, at Calvin's instigation, arrested. +The charge of blasphemy was founded on certain statements in a book +published by him in 1553, entitled _Christianismi Restitutio_, in which +he animadverted on the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, and advanced +sentiments strongly savouring of Pantheism. The story of his trial is +told elsewhere (see art. SERVETUS), but it must be noted here that the +struggle was something more than a doctrinal one. The cause of Servetus +was taken up by Calvin's Genevan foes headed by Philibert Berthelier, +and became a test of the relative strength of the rival forces and of +the permanence of Calvin's control. That Calvin was actuated by personal +spite and animosity against Servetus himself may be open to discussion; +we have his own express declaration that, after Servetus was convicted, +he used no urgency that he should be put to death, and at their last +interview he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries, +and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault if all +the pious did not give him their hands.[10] There is the fact also that +Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which had been pronounced +against Servetus mitigated, death by burning being regarded by him as an +"atrocity," for which he sought to substitute death by the sword.[11] It +can be justly charged against Calvin in this matter that he took the +initiative in bringing on the trial of Servetus, that as his accuser he +prosecuted the suit against him with undue severity, and that he +approved the sentence which condemned Servetus to death. When, however, +it is remembered that the unanimous decision of the Swiss churches and +of the Swiss state governments was that Servetus deserved to die; that +the general voice of Christendom was in favour of this; that even such a +man as Melanchthon affirmed the justice of the sentence;[12] that an +eminent English divine of the next age should declare the process +against him "just and honourable,"[13] and that only a few voices here +and there were at the time raised against it, many will be ready to +accept the judgment of Coleridge, that the death of Servetus was not +"Calvin's guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of all European +Christendom."[14] + +Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing dispute +with the Lutherans respecting the Lord's Supper, which ended in the +separation of the evangelical party into the two great sections of +Lutherans and Reformed,--the former holding that in the eucharist the +body and blood of Christ are objectively and consubstantially present, +and so are actually partaken of by the communicants, and the latter that +there is only a virtual presence of the body and blood of Christ, and +consequently only a spiritual participation thereof through faith. In +addition to these controversies on points of faith, he was for many +years greatly disquieted, and sometimes even endangered, by the +opposition offered by the libertine party in Geneva to the +ecclesiastical discipline which he had established there. His system of +church polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member +of the state was also under the discipline of the church; and he +asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested +exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders. His +attempts to carry out these views brought him into collision both with +the authorities and with the populace,--the latter being not unnaturally +restive under the restraints imposed upon their liberty by the vigorous +system of church discipline, and the former being inclined to retain in +their own hands a portion of that power in things spiritual which Calvin +was bent on placing exclusively in the hands of the church rulers. His +dauntless courage, his perseverance, and his earnestness at length +prevailed, and he had the satisfaction, before he died, of seeing his +favourite system of church polity firmly established, not only at +Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, and of knowing that it had +been adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland. The +men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into almost every +country in Europe, and in varying degree these principles did much for +the cause of civil liberty.[15] Nor was it only in religious matters +that Calvin busied himself; nothing was indifferent to him that +concerned the welfare and good order of the state or the advantage of +its citizens. His work embraced everything; he was consulted on every +affair, great and small, that came before the council,--on questions of +law, police, economy, trade, and manufactures, no less than on questions +of doctrine and church polity. To him the city owed her trade in cloths +and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her citizens; +sanitary regulations were introduced by him which made Geneva the +admiration of all visitors; and in him she reverences the founder of her +university. This institution was in a sense Calvin's crowning work. It +added religious education to the evangelical preaching and the thorough +discipline already established, and so completed the reformer's ideal of +a Christian commonwealth. + +Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin found time to +write a number of works besides those provoked by the various +controversies in which he was engaged. The most numerous of these were +of an exegetical character. Including discourses taken down from his +lips by faithful auditors, we have from him expository comments or +homilies on nearly all the books of Scripture, written partly in Latin +and partly in French. Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern +idea of a progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration, and +tact in eliciting his author's meaning, his precision, condensation, and +concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the closeness +of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all unite to confer a +high value on his exegetical works. The series began with _Romans_ in +1540 and ended with _Joshua_ in 1564. In 1558-1559 also, though in very +ill health, he finally perfected the Institutes. + +The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave himself could +not but tell on his fragile constitution. Amid many sufferings, however, +and frequent attacks of sickness, he manfully pursued his course; nor +was it till his frail body, torn by many and painful diseases--fever, +asthma, stone, and gout, the fruits for the most part of his sedentary +habits and unceasing activity--had, as it were, fallen to pieces around +him, that his indomitable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early +part of the year 1564 his sufferings became so severe that it was +manifest his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On the 6th +of February of that year he preached his last sermon, having with great +difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He was several +times after this carried to church, but never again was able to take any +part in the service. With his usual disinterestedness he refused to +receive his stipend, now that he was no longer able to discharge the +duties of his office. In the midst of his sufferings, however, his zeal +and energy kept him in continual occupation; when expostulated with for +such unseasonable toil, he replied, "Would you that the Lord should find +me idle when He comes?" After he had retired from public labours he +lingered for some months, enduring the severest agony without a murmur, +and cheerfully attending to all the duties of a private kind which his +diseases left him strength to discharge. On the 25th of April he made +his will, on the 27th he received the Little Council, and on the 28th +the Genevan ministers, in his sick-room; on the 2nd of May he wrote his +last letter--to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neuchatel to +see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died quietly, in +the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the evening of the +27th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The next day he was +buried without pomp "in the common cemetery called Plain-palais" in a +spot not now to be identified. + +Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat pallid and +dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, bespoke the acumen of +his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple in his dress; he took +but little sleep, and was capable of extraordinary efforts of +intellectual toil. He had a most retentive memory and a very keen power +of observation. He spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with +great weight. He had many acquaintances but few close friends. His +private character was in harmony with his public reputation and +position. If somewhat severe and irritable, he was at the same time +scrupulously just, truthful, and steadfast; he never deserted a friend +or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on befitting occasions +he could be cheerful and even facetious among his intimates. "God gave +him," said the Little Council after his death, "a character of great +majesty." "I have been a witness of him for sixteen years," says Beza, +"and I think I am fully entitled to say that in this man there was +exhibited to all an example of the life and death of the Christian, +such as it will not be easy to depreciate, such as it will be difficult +to emulate." + + Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by earlier + reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar gifts of + learning, of logic and of style made him pre-eminently the theologian + of the new religion. The following may be regarded as his + characteristic tenets, though not all are peculiar to him. + + The dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty of + God, to know whom is the supreme end of human endeavour. God is made + known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose writers were "sure + and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit." To the Spirit speaking + therein the Spirit-illumined soul of man makes response. While God is + the source of all good, man as a sinner is guilty and corrupt. The + first man was made in the image and likeness of God, which not only + implies man's superiority to all other creatures, but indicates his + original purity, integrity and sanctity. From this state Adam fell, + and in his fall involved the whole human race descended from him. + Hence depravity and corruption, diffused through all parts of the + soul, attach to all men, and this first makes them obnoxious to the + anger of God, and then comes forth in works which the Scripture calls + works of the flesh (Gal. v. 19). Thus all are held vitiated and + perverted in all parts of their nature, and on account of such + corruption deservedly condemned before God, by whom nothing is + accepted save righteousness innocence, and purity. Nor is that a being + bound for another's offence; for when it is said that we through + Adam's sin have become obnoxious to the divine judgment, it is not to + be taken as if we, being ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the + fault of his offence, but that, we having been brought under a curse + through his transgression, he is said to have bound us. From him, + however, not only has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence + instilled from him resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. + Thus even infants, whilst they bring their own condemnation with them + from their mother's womb, are bound not by another's but by their own + fault. For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their + iniquity, they have the seed shut up in them; nay, their whole nature + is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful and + abominable to God (_Instit._ bk. ii, ch. i. sect. 8). + + To redeem man from this state of guilt, and to recover him from + corruption, the Son of God became incarnate, assuming man's nature + into union with His own, so that in Him were two natures in one + person. Thus incarnate He took on Him the offices of prophet, priest + and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto death, + followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He has perfected + His work and fulfilled all that was required in a redeemer of men, so + that it is truly affirmed that He has merited for man the grace of + salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17). But until a man is in some way really + united to Christ so as to partake of Him, the benefits of Christ's + work cannot be attained by him. Now it is by the secret and special + operation of the Holy Spirit that men are united to Christ and made + members of His body. Through faith, which is a firm and certain + cognition of the divine benevolence towards us founded on the truth of + the gracious promise in Christ, men are by the operation of the Spirit + united to Christ and are made partakers of His death and resurrection, + so that the old man is crucified with Him and they are raised to a new + life, a life of righteousness and holiness. Thus joined to Christ the + believer has life in Him and knows that he is saved, having the + witness of the Spirit that he is a child of God, and having the + promises, the certitude of which the Spirit had before impressed on + the mind, sealed by the same Spirit on the heart (bk. iii. ch. 33-36). + From faith proceeds repentance, which is the turning of our life to + God, proceeding from a sincere and earnest fear of God, and consisting + in the mortification of the flesh and the old man within us and a + vivification of the Spirit. Through faith also the believer receives + justification, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is + held by Him as righteous, the righteousness of Christ being imputed to + him, and faith being the instrument by which the man lays hold on + Christ, so that with His righteousness the man appears in God's sight + as righteous. This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined + from real personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification + come to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the two + blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be + disjoined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation he + receives from the operation and witness of the Holy Spirit; but this + again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and this + falls back on God's eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has + predestined some to eternal life while the rest of mankind are + predestined to condemnation and eternal death. Those whom God has + chosen to life He effectually calls to salvation, and they are kept by + Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end (bk. iii. + _passim_). The external means or aids by which God unites men into the + fellowship of Christ, and sustains and advances those who believe, are + the church and its ordinances, especially the sacraments. The church + universal is the multitude gathered from diverse nations, which though + divided by distance of time and place, agree in one common faith, and + it is bound by the tie of the same religion; and wherever the word of + God is sincerely preached, and the sacraments are duly administered, + according to Christ's institute, there beyond doubt is a church of + the living God (bk. iv. ch. 1, sect. 7-11). The permanent officers in + the church are pastors and teachers, to the former of whom it belongs + to preside over the discipline of the church, to administer the + sacraments, and to admonish and exhort the members; while the latter + occupy themselves with the exposition of Scripture, so that pure and + wholesome doctrine may be retained. With them are to be joined for the + government of the church certain pious, grave and holy men as a senate + in each church; and to others, as deacons, is to be entrusted the care + of the poor. The election of the officers in a church is to be with + the people, and those duly chosen and called are to be ordained by the + laying on of the hands of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The + sacraments are two--Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is the sign + of initiation whereby men are admitted into the society of the church + and, being grafted into Christ, are reckoned among the sons of God; it + serves both for the confirmation of faith and as a confession before + men. The Lord's Supper is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that + He is the life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed unto true and + blessed immortality. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood + whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, even as if it penetrated + into our bones and marrow, He in the Supper attests and seals; and + that not by a vain or empty sign set before us but there He puts forth + the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what He promises. In the + mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited to us by the symbols + of bread and wine; and so His body and blood, in which He fulfilled + all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness for us, are + presented. There is no such presence of Christ in the Supper as that + He is affixed to the bread or included in it or in any way + circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and substantial + communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which is exhibited to + believers under the said symbols of the Supper, is to be received, and + that not as perceived by the imagination only or mental intelligence, + but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life (bk. iv. ch. 15, + 17). + + The course of time has substantially modified many of these positions. + Even the churches which trace their descent from Calvin's work and + faith no longer hold in their entirety his views on the magistrate as + the preserver of church purity, the utter depravity of human nature, + the non-human character of the Bible, the dealing of God with man. But + his system had an immense value in the history of Christian thought. + It appealed to and evoked a high order of intelligence, and its + insistence on personal individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So + also its insistence on the chief end of man "to know and do the will + of God" made for the strenuous morality that helped to build up the + modern world. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in + Puritan England and in the New England states, but its influence was + and is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be + called Calvinist. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard edition of Calvin's works is that + undertaken by the Strassburg scholars, J.W. Bauin, E. Cunitz, E. + Reuss, P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last of + these contains an elaborate bibliography which was also published + separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published + in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, + 1843-1855); the _Institutes_ have often been translated. The early + lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions. Among + modern biographies are those by P. Henry, _Das Leben J. Calvins_ (3 + vols., Hamburg, 1835-1844; Eng. trans, by H. Stebbing, London and New + York, 1849); V. Audin, _Histoire de la vie, des ouvrages, et des + doctrines de Calvin_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841; Eng. trans, by J. McGill, + London, 1843 and 1850) unfairly antagonistic; T.H. Dyer, _Life of John + Calvin_ (London, 1850); E. Stahelin_, Joh. Calvin, Leben und + ausgewahlte Schriften_ (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F.W. Kampschulte, + _Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf_ (2 vols., 1869, + 1899, unfinished); Abel Lefranc, _La Jeunesse de Calvin_ (Paris, + 1888); E. Choisy, _La Theocratie a Geneve au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, + 1897); E. Doumergue, _Jean Calvin; les hommes et les choses de son + temps_ (5 vols., 1899-1908). See also A.M. Fairbairn, "Calvin and the + Reformed Church" in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ii. (1904); + P. Schaff's, _History of the Christian Church_, vol. vii. (1892), and + R. Stahelin's article in Hauck-Herzog's _Real-encyk. fur prot. + Theologie und Kirche._ Each of these contains a useful bibliography, + as also does the excellent life by Professor Williston Walker, _John + Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protestantism_, "Heroes of the + Reformation" series (1906). See also C.S. Horne in _Mansfield Coll. + Essays_ (1909). (W. L. A.; A. J. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The family name of Calvin seems to have been written + indifferently Cauvin, Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the + contemporary notices of Gerard and his family, in the capitular + registers of the cathedral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. + The anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this in its Latinized form + Alcuinus appears in two editions of his _Instltutio_ as that of the + author (Audin, _Vie de Calvin_, i. 520). The syndics of Geneva + address him in a letter written in 1540, and still preserved, as + "Docteur Caulvin." In his letters written in French he usually signs + himself "Jean Calvin." He affected the title of "Maitre," for what + reason is not known. + + [2] Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus + and Ignatius Loyola also studied here. + + [3] Calv. _Praef. ad Comment. in Psalmos._ + + [4] _Jo. Calvini Vita, sub init._ + + [5] _Epist. Ded., Comment in Ep. II. ad Corinthios praefix._ + + [6] This edition forms a small 8vo of 514 pages, and 6 pages of + index. It appeared at Basel from the press of Thomas Platter and + Balthasar Lasius in March 1536, and was published by Johann Oporin. + The dedicatory preface is dated 23rd August 1535. It is a masterpiece + of apologetic literature. See W. Walker, _John Calvin_, 132 f., and + for an outline of the contents of the treatise, ib. 137-149. + + [7] _Praef. ad Psalmos._ + + [8] _Ibid._ + + [9] Beza, _Vit. Calv. an. 1536._ + + [10] Fidelis Expositio Errorum Serveti, _sub init._ Calvini, _Opp_. + t. ix. + + [11] Calvin to Farel, 20th Aug. 1553. + + [12] Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam vestros magistratus + juste fecisse quod hominem blasphemum, re ordine judicata, + interfecerunt.--Melanchthon to Calvin, 14th Oct. 1554. + + [13] Field _On the Church_, bk. iii. c. 27, vol. i. p. 288 (ed. + Cambridge, 1847). + + [14] _Notes on English Divines_, vol. i. p. 49. See also _Table + Talk_, vol. ii. p. 282 (ed. 1835). + + [15] W. Walker, _John Calvin_, pp. 403-8. + + + + +CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, a body of Christians forming a church of the +Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only denomination in Wales +which is of purely Welsh origin. Its beginnings may be traced to the +labours of the Rev. Griffith Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, +Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a +system of circulating charity schools for the education of children. In +striking contrast to the general apathy of the clergy of the period, +Griffith Jones's zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his +powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence, many travelling +long distances in order to attend his ministry. There was thus a +considerable number of earnest people dispersed throughout the country +waiting for the rousing of the parish clergy. An impressive announcement +of the Easter Communion Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Davies, vicar of +Talgarth, on the 30th of March 1735, was the means of awakening Howell +Harris (1714-1773) of Trevecca, and he immediately began to hold +services in his own house. He was soon invited to do the same at the +houses of others, and ended by becoming a fiery itinerant preacher, +stirring to the depths every neighbourhood he visited. Griffith Jones, +preaching at Llanddewi Brefi, Cardiganshire--the place at which the +Welsh Patron Saint, David, first became famous--found Daniel Rowland +(1713-1790), curate of Llangeitho, in his audience, and his patronizing +attitude in listening drew from the preacher a personal supplication on +his behalf, in the middle of the discourse. Rowland was deeply moved, +and became an ardent apostle of the new movement. Naturally a fine +orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his eloquence, and his fame +spread abroad. Rowland and Harris had been at work fully eighteen months +before they met, at a service in Devynock church, in the upper part of +Breconshire. The acquaintance then formed lasted to the end of Harris's +life--an interval of ten years excepted. Harris had been sent to Oxford +in the autumn of 1735 to "cure him of his fanaticism," but he left in +the following February. Rowland had never been to a university, but, +like Harris, he had been well grounded in general knowledge. About 1739 +another prominent figure appeared. This was Howell Davies of +Pembrokeshire, whose ministry was modelled on that of his master, +Griffith Jones, but with rather more clatter in his thunder. + +In 1736, on returning home, Harris opened a school, Griffith Jones +supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up societies, in +accordance with the recommendations in Josiah Wedgwood's little book on +the subject; and these exercised a great influence on the religious life +of the people. By far the most notable of Harris's converts was William +Williams (1717-1791), Pant y Celyn, the great hymn-writer of Wales, who +while listening to the revivalist preaching on a tombstone in the +graveyard of Talgarth, heard the "voice of heaven," and was "apprehended +as by a warrant from on high." He was ordained deacon in the Church of +England, 1740, but Whitefield recommended him to leave his curacies and +go into the highways and hedges. On Wednesday and Thursday, January 5th +and 6th, 1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at +Wadford, near Caerphilly, Glam., in order to organize their societies. +George Whitefield was in the chair. Rowland, Williams and John +Powell--afterwards of Llanmartin--(clergymen), Harris, John Humphreys +and John Cennick (laymen) were present. Seven lay exhorters were also at +the meetings; they were questioned as to their spiritual experience and +allotted their several spheres; other matters pertaining to the new +conditions created by the revival were arranged. This is known as the +first Methodist Association--held eighteen months before Johm Wesley's +first conference (June 25th, 1744). Monthly meetings covering smaller +districts, were organized to consider local matters, the transactions of +which were to be reported to the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, +modified, or rejected. Exhorters were divided into two classes--public, +who were allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number of +societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or two +societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be part of the +established church, as Wedgwood's were, and every attempt at estranging +them therefrom was sharply reproved; but persecution made their position +anomalous. They did not accept the discipline of the Church of England, +so the plea of conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out +licenses, so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris's +ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals to ordain +him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from persecutors, were +the only things that prevented separation. + +A controversy on a doctrinal point--"Did God die on Calvary?"--raged for +some time, the principal disputants being Rowland and Harris; and in +1751 it ended in an open rupture, which threw the Connexion first into +confusion and then into a state of coma. The societies split up into +Harrisites and Rowlandites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 +that the breach was fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the +history of the Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just published a +little volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed the people. This +led the bishop of St David's to suspend Rowland's license, and Rowland +had to confine himself to a meeting-house at Llangeitho. Having been +turned out of other churches, he had leased a plot of land in 1759, +anticipating the final withdrawal of his license, in 1763, and a +spacious building was erected to which the people crowded from all parts +on Sacrament Sunday. Llangeitho became the Jerusalem of Wales; and +Rowland's popularity never waned until his physical powers gave way. A +notable event in the history of Welsh Methodism was the publication in +1770, of a 4to annotated Welsh Bible by the Rev. Peter Williams, a +forceful preacher, and an indefatigable worker, who had joined the +Methodists in 1746, after being driven from several curacies. It gave +birth to a new interest in the Scriptures, being the first definite +commentary in the language. A powerful revival broke out at Llangeitho +in the spring of 1780, and spread to the south, but not to the north of +Wales. The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult +for Methodism to benefit from these manifestations, until the advent of +the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, having spent five years in +Somersetshire as curate of several parishes, returned to his native land +to marry Sarah Jones of Bala. Failing to find employment in the +established church, he joined the Methodists in 1784. His circulating +charity schools and then his Sunday schools gradually made the North a +new country. In 1791 a revival began at Bala; and this, strange to say, +a few months after the Bala Association had been ruffled by the +proceedings which led to the expulsion of Peter Williams from the +Connexion, in order to prevent him from selling John Canne's Bible among +the Methodists, because of some Sabellian marginal notes. + +In 1790, the Bala Association passed "Rules regarding the proper mode of +conducting the Quarterly Association," drawn up by Charles; in 1801, +Charles and Thomas Jones of Mold, published (for the association) the +"Rules and Objects of the Private Societies among the People called +Methodists." About 1795, persecution led the Methodists to take the +first step towards separation from the Church of England. Heavy fines +made it impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to continue +without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act, and the +meeting-houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels. In a large +number of cases this had only been delayed by so constructing the houses +that they were used both as dwellings and as chapels at one and the same +time. Until 1811 the Calvinistic Methodists had no ministers ordained by +themselves; their enormous growth in numbers and the scarcity of +ministers to administer the Sacrament--only three in North Wales, two of +whom had joined only at the dawn of the century--made the question of +ordination a matter of urgency. The South Wales clergy who regularly +itinerated were dying out; the majority of those remaining itinerated +but irregularly, and were most of them against the change. The lay +element, with the help of Charles and a few other stalwarts, carried the +matter through--ordaining nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo +in August. In 1823, the _Confession of Faith_ was published; it is based +on the _Westminster Confession_ as "Calvinistically construed," and +contains 44 articles. The Connexion's _Constitutional Deed_ was formally +completed in 1826. + +Thomas Charles had tried to arrange for taking over Trevecca College +when the trustees of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion removed +their seminary to Cheshunt in 1791; but the Bala revival broke out just +at the time, and, when things grew quieter, other matters pressed for +attention. A college had been mooted in 1816, but the intended tutor +died suddenly, and the matter was for the time dropped. Candidates for +the Connexional ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until +1837, when Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) and David Charles (1812-1878) +opened a school for young men at Bala. North and South alike adopted it +as their college, the associations contributing a hundred guineas each +towards the education of their students. In 1842, the South Wales +Association opened a college at Trevecca, leaving Bala to the North; the +Rev. David Charles became principal of the former, and the Rev. Lewis +Edwards of the latter. After the death of Dr Lewis Edwards, Dr. T.C. +Edwards resigned the principalship of the University College at +Aberystwyth to become head of Bala (1891), now a purely theological +college, the students of which were sent to the university colleges for +their classical training. In 1905 Mr David Davies of Llandinam--one of +the leading laymen in the Connexion--offered a large building at +Aberystwyth as a gift to the denomination for the purpose of uniting +North and South in one theological college; but in the event of either +association declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take +possession, giving the association that should decline the option of +joining at a later time. The Association of the South accepted, and that +of the North declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into a +preparatory school on the lines of a similar institution set up at Bala +in 1891. + +The missionary collections of the denomination were given to the London +Missionary Society from 1798 to 1840, when a Connexional Society was +formed; and no better instances of missionary enterprise are known than +those of the Khasia and Jaintia Hills, and the Plains of Sylhet in N. +India. There has also been a mission in Brittany since 1842. + +The constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, "Hen Gorph," i.e. +the Old Body) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and Congregationalism; +each church manages its own affairs and reports (1) to the district +meeting, (2) to the monthly meeting, the nature of each report +determining its destination. The monthly meetings are made up of all the +officers of the churches comprised in each, and are split up into +districts for the purpose of a more local co-operation of the churches. +The monthly meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly Associations, of +which all officers are members. The Associations of North and South are +distinct institutions, deliberating and determining matters pertaining +to them in their separate quarterly gatherings. For the purpose of a +fuller co-operation in matters common to both, a general assembly +(meeting once a year) was established in 1864. This is a purely +deliberative conclave, worked by committees, and all its legislation has +to be confirmed by the two Associations before it can have any force or +be legal. The annual conference of the English churches of the +denomination has no legislative standing, and is meant for social and +spiritual intercourse and discussions. + +In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far from +being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical, and, in +general, distinctly cultured. The London degree largely figures on the +Connexional Diary; and now the Welsh degrees, in arts and divinity, are +being increasingly achieved. It is a remarkable fact that every Welsh +revival, since 1735, has broken out among the Calvinistic Methodists. +Those of 1735, 1762, 1780 and 1791 have been mentioned; those of 1817, +1832, 1859 and 1904-1905 were no less powerful, and their history is +interwoven with Calvinistic Methodism, the system of which is so +admirably adapted for the passing on of the torch. The ministerial +system is quite anomalous. It started in pure itineracy; the pastorate +came in very gradually, and is not yet in universal acceptance. The +authority of the pulpit of any individual church is in the hands of the +deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so many Sundays a year--from +twelve to forty, as the case may be--and they then fill the remainder +with any preacher they choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral work, +and receives his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his Sundays from +home he fills up at the request of deacons of other churches, and it is +a breach of Connexional etiquette for a minister to apply for +engagements, no matter how many unfilled Sundays he may have. Deacons +and preachers make engagements seven or eight years in advance. The +Connexion provides for English residents wherever required, and the +English ministers are oftener in their own pulpits than their Welsh +brethren. + +The Calvinistic Methodists form in some respects the strongest church in +Wales, and its forward movement, headed by Dr. John Pugh of Cardiff, has +brought thousands into its fold since its establishment in 1891. Its +Connexional Book Room, opened in 1891, yields an annual profit of from +L1600 to L2000, the profits being devoted to help the colleges and to +establish Sunday school libraries, etc. Its chapels in 1907 numbered +1641 (with accommodation for 488,080), manses 229; its churches[1] +numbered 1428, ministers 921, unordained preachers 318, deacons 6179; +its Sunday Schools 1731, teachers 27,895, scholars 193,460, communicants +189,164, total collections for religious purposes L300,912. The +statistics of the Indian Mission are equally good: communicants 8027, +adherents 26,787, missionaries 23, native ministers (ordained) 15, +preachers (not ordained) 60. + +The Calvinistic Methodists are intensely national in sentiment and +aspirations, beyond all suspicion loyalists. They take a great interest +in social, political and educational matters, and are prominent on +public bodies. They support the Eisteddfod as the promoter and inspirer +of arts, letters and music, and are conspicuous among the annual prize +winners. They thus form a living, democratic body, flexible and +progressive in its movements, yet with a sufficient proportion of +conservatism both in religion and theology to keep it sane and safe. + (D. E. J.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending + different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one + society or church. + + + + +CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German chronologer, was born of a peasant +family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the 21st of February 1556. By the +exercise of his musical talents he earned money enough for the start, at +Helmstadt, of an university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron +enabled him to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the +music-school at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same +capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the 24th of +November 1615, despite the offers successively made to him of +mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg. In his _Opus +Chronologicum_ (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he expounded a system based +on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. An ingenious, though ineffective, +proposal for the reform of the calendar was put forward in his _Elenchus +Calendarii Gregoriani_ (Frankfort, 1612); and he published a book on +music, _Melodiae condendae ratio_ (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading. + + For details see V. Schmuck's _Leichenrede_ (1615); J. Bertuch's + _Chronicon Portense_ (1739); F.W.E. Rost's _Oratio ad renovendam S. + Calvisii memoriam_ (1805); J G. Stallbaum's _Nachrichten uber die + Cantoren an der Thomasschule_ (1842); _Allgemeine Deutsche + Biographie_; Poggendorff's _Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch._ + + + + +CALVO, CARLOS (1824-1906), Argentine publicist and historian, was born +at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February 1824, and devoted himself to the +study of the law. In 1860 he was sent by the Paraguayan government on a +special mission to London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published +in 1863 his _Derecho international teorico y practice de Europay +America_, in two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French +version. The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern +authorities on the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition had +become enlarged to six volumes. Senor Calvo's next publications were of +a semi-historical character. Between 1862 and 1869 he published in +Spanish and French his great collection in fifteen volumes of the +treaties and other diplomatic acts of the South American republics, and +between 1864 and 1875 his _Annales historiques de la revolution de +l'Amerique latine_, in five volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders +at the Ghent congress of the _Institut de Droit International._ In the +following year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his +_Dictionnaire du droit international public et prive_ in that city. +Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris. + + + + +CALW or KALW, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the +Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains +a Protestant and a Roman Catholic Church, two schools, missionary +institution, and a fine public library. The industries include spinning +and weaving operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather +are also manufactured. The timber trade, chiefly with the Netherlands, +is important. The place is in favour as a health resort. + +The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages the town was +under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, whose possessions +finally passed to Wurttemberg in 1345. In 1634 the town was taken by the +Bavarians, and in 1692 by the French. + + + + +CALYDON ([Greek: Kalydon]), an ancient town of Aetolia, according to +Pliny, 7-1/2 Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was said to +have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have been the scene of +the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of the famous Calydonian +boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the fields; and to have taken part in +the Trojan war. In historical times it is first mentioned (391 B.C.) as +in the possession of the Achaeans, who retained it for twenty years, by +the assistance of the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the +attacks of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) it +was restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of Pompey it +was a town of importance; but Augustus removed its inhabitants to +Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate his victory at Actium (31 +B.C.). The walls of Calydon are almost certainly to be recognized in the +Kastro of Kurtaga. These comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large +gate and five smaller ones, and are situated on a hill on the right or +west bank of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town +probably indicate the position of the temple of Artemis Laphria, whose +gold and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together probably with +her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all kinds of beasts, wild +and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre and consumed. + + See W.M. Leake, _Travels in N. Greece_, i. p. 109, iii. pp. 533 sqq.; + W.J. Woodhouse, _Aetolia_, pp. 95 ssq. (E. Gr.) + + + + +CALYPSO, in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus, or Nereus), +queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When Odysseus was shipwrecked on +her shores, Calypso entertained the hero with great hospitality, and +prevailed on him to remain with her seven years. Odysseus was then +seized with a longing to return to his wife and home; Calypso's promise +of eternal youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by +Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of grief. +(Homer, _Odyssey_, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.) + + + + +CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, the first +European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to explore the West +African coast between Cape St Catherine (2 deg. S.) and Cape Cross (21 +deg. 50' S.) almost from the equator to Walfish Bay. When King John II. +of Portugal revived the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam +(about midsummer (?) 1482) to open up the African coast still further +beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps +in August 1482), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only +in fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was also ascended +for a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives. Cam +then coasted down along the present Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and +erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this +voyage, at Cape Santa Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in +13 deg. 26' S. He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April +1484, when John II. ennobled him, made him a _cavalleiro_ of his +household (he was already an _escudeiro_ or esquire in the same), and +granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and 14th of April 1484). +That Cam, on his second voyage of 1483-1486, was accompanied by Martin +Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very +doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected +two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first +at another "Monte Negro" in 15 deg. 41' S., the second at Cape Cross in +21 deg. 50', this last probably marking the end of his progress +southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 map of +Henricus Martellus Germanus), Cam died off Cape Cross; but Joao de +Barros and others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a +native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cam on his two +voyages have all been discovered _in situ_, and the inscriptions on two +of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 +respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross +padrao is now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile); +those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in +the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society. + + See Barros, _Decadas da Asia_, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy de + Pina, _Chronica d' el Rei D. Joao II._; Garcia de Resende, _Chronica_; + Luciano Cordeiro, "Diogo Cao" in _Boletim_ of the _Lisbon Geog. + Soc._, 1892; E.G. Ravenstein, "Voyages of Diogo Cao," &c., in _Geog. + Jnl._ vol. xvi. (1900); also _Geog. Jnl._ xxxi. (1908). (C. R. B.) + + + + +CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO (1824-1896), Spanish statesman and financier, +was born in Cadiz in 1824. The first part of his life was devoted to +mercantile and financial pursuits at Cadiz and then in Madrid, where he +managed the affairs of and liquidated a mercantile and industrial +society to the satisfaction and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he +became a captain in the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in +the Cortes for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards +elected ten times deputy, twice senator and life senator in 1877. +Camacho took a prominent part in all financial debates and committees, +was offered a seat in the Mon cabinet of 1864, and was appointed +under-secretary of state finances in 1866 under Canovas and O'Donnell. +After the revolution of 1868 he declined the post of minister of finance +offered by Marshal Serrano, but served in that capacity in 1872 and 1874 +in Sagasta's cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in +the Cortes among the dynastic Liberals with Sagasta as leader, and +became finance minister in 1881 at a critical moment when Spain had to +convert, reduce, and consolidate her treasury and other debts with a +view to resuming payment of coupons. Camacho drew up an excellent budget +and collected taxation with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years +later Sagasta again made him finance minister under the regency of Queen +Christina, but had to sacrifice him when public opinion very clearly +pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and his severity in +collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons unsuccessful as a +governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company. He then seceded from the +Liberals, and during the last years of his life he affected to vote with +the Conservatives, who made him governor of the Bank of Spain. He died +in Madrid on the 23rd of January 1896. (A. E. H.) + + + + +CAMALDULIANS, or CAMALDOLESE, a religious order founded by St Romuald. +Born of a noble family at Ravenna _c._ 950, he retired at the age of +twenty to the Benedictine monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe; but +being strongly drawn to the eremitical life, he went to live with a +hermit in the neighbourhood of Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here +a colony of hermits grew up around him and he became the superior. As +soon as they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to +another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, only +to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other colonies of +hermits or "deserts" as they were called. In this way during the course +of his life Romuald formed a great number of "deserts" throughout +central Italy. His chief foundation was at Camaldoli on the heights of +the Tuscan Apennines not far from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during +half the year. Romuald's idea was to reintroduce into the West the +primitive eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first +Egyptian and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the +oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain days +for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to food, +clothing, silence and general observance. Besides the hermits there were +lay brothers to help in carrying out the field work and rougher +occupations. St Romuald and the early Camaldolese exercised considerable +influence on the religious movements of their time; the emperors Otto +III. and Henry II. esteemed him highly and sought his advice on +religious questions. Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the +still heathen parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them +suffered martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five +of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary, but he was +unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. After his death +mitigations were gradually introduced into the rule and manner of life; +and in the monastery of St Michael in Murano, Venice, the life became +cenobitical. From that time to the present day there have always been +both eremitical and cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to +ordinary Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and +into Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a "desert," +the primitive observance of the institute being strictly maintained. +There are a few other "deserts," all in Italy, except one in Poland; and +there are about 90 hermits. The chief monastery of the cenobitical +Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less +than forty. Since the 11th century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at +present there are five nunneries with 150 nuns, all belonging to the +cenobitical branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white. + + See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max + Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896) i. S 29; and the art. + "Camaldulenser" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), and + Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.) + + + + +CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE (1710-1770), French dancer, of Spanish +descent, was born in Brussels on the 15th of April 1710. Her father, +Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis, earned a scanty living as violinist and +dancing-master, and from childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten +years of age she was given lessons by Mlle Francoise Prevost +(1680-1741), then the first dancer at the Paris Opera, and at once +obtained an engagement as _premiere danseuse_, first at Brussels and +then at Rouen. Under her grandmother's family name of Camargo she made +her Paris _debut_ in 1726, and at once became the rage. Every new +fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair was copied by all at +court; her shoemaker--she had a tiny foot--made his fortune. She had +many titled adorers whom she nearly ruined by her extravagances, among +others Louis de Bourbon, comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from +the stage from 1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight +ballets or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the +first ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the +regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by Nicolas +Lancret in the Wallace collection, London. + + + + +CAMARGUE (_Insula Camaria_), a thinly-populated region of southern +France contained wholly in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and +comprising the delta of the Rhone. The Camargue is a marshy plain of +alluvial formation enclosed between the two branches of the river, the +Grand Rhone to the east and the Petit Rhone to the west. Its average +elevation is from 6-1/2 to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30 +m. in length and an area of 290 sq. m., of which about a quarter +consists of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the +banks of the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by the +black bulls and white horses of the region and by large flocks of sheep, +or of marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated with salt. The +region is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes, bustards, partridge, and by +sea-birds of various kinds. The Etang de Vaccares, the largest of the +numerous lagoons and pools, covers about 23 sq. m.; it receives three +main canals constructed to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is +protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of the +rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of the +lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river-water is used for +irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The climate is characterized +by hard winters and scorching summers. Rain falls in torrents, but at +considerable intervals. The mistral, blowing from the north and +north-west, is the prevailing wind. The south-eastern portion of the +Camargue is known as the Ile du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the +west of the Petit Rhone goes by the name of Petite Camargue. + + + + +CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south coast, about +17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by Syracuse in 599 B.C., +but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for attempting to assert its +independence. Hippocrates of Gela received its territory from Syracuse +and restored the town in 492, but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the +Geloans, however, founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in +general hostile to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it +gave some slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the +Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its abandonment +by Dionysius's order, but in 258 fell into the hands of the Romans. Its +complete destruction dates from A.D. 853. The site of the ancient city +is among rapidly shifting sandhills, and the lack of stone in the +neighbourhood has led to its buildings being used as a quarry even by +the inhabitants of Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above +ground but a small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few +foundations of houses; portions of the city wall have been traced by +excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see J. +Schubring in _Philologus_, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in _Monumenti dei +Lincei_, ix. 201, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north lay the lake to +which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred, [Greek: mhae kinei +Kamarinan], when the citizens inquired as to the advisability of +draining it. + + + + +CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, duke of Parma (1753-1824), French +statesman, was born at Montpellier on the 18th of October 1753. He was +descended from a well-known family of the legal nobility (_noblesse de +la robe_). He was designed for the magistracy of his province; and in +1771, when for a time the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the +others, by the chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal +tribunal substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with +ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the court of +accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing the principles of +the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned by the _noblesse_ of the +province to draw up the _cahier_ (statement of principles and +grievances); and the _senechaussee_ of Montpellier elected him deputy to +the states-general of Versailles; but the election was annulled on a +technical point. Nevertheless in 1792 the new department of Herault, in +which Montpellier is situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the +Convention which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September +1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins and the +Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself mainly with the +legal and legislative work which went on almost without intermission +even during the Terror. The action of Cambaceres at the time of the +trial of Louis XVI. (December 25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was +characteristic of his habits of thought. At first he protested against +the erection of the Convention into a tribunal in these words: "The +people has chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as +judges." He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for +his defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with the +majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended that the +penalty should be postponed until the cessation of hostilities, and that +the sentence should then be ratified by the Convention or by some other +legislative body. It is therefore inexact to count him among the +regicides, as was done by the royalists after 1815. Early in 1793 he +became a member of the Committee of General Defence, but he did not take +part in the work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public +Safety, until the close of the year 1794. In the meantime he had done +much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly with Merlin +of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of the revolutionary +epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 he also used his tact and +eloquence on behalf of the restoration of the surviving Girondins to the +Convention, from which they had been driven by the _coup d'etat_ of the +31st of May 1793. In the course of the year 1795, as president of the +Committee of Public Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign +affairs, he was largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain. +Nevertheless, not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of +the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was entrusted +after the _coup d'etat_ of Vendemiaire 1795; but, as before, his powers +of judgment and of tactful debating soon carried him to the front in the +council of Five Hundred. The moderation of his views brought him into +opposition to the Directors after the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor +(September 1797), and for a time he retired into private life. Owing, +however, to the influence of Sieyes, he became minister of justice in +July 1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieyes in their +enterprise of overthrowing the Directory (_coup d'etat_ of Brumaire +1799). + +After a short interval Cambaceres was, by the constitution of December +1799, appointed second consul of France--a position which he owed +largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the conviction which Sieyes +entertained of his value as a manipulator of public assemblies. It is +impossible here to describe in detail his relations to Napoleon, and the +part which he played in the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on +called the Code Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful +intervention of Cambaceres helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon +the consulship for life (August 1, 1802); but the second consul is known +to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, notably the +execution of the duc d'Enghien, the rupture with England, and the +proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1804). This last occurrence ended +his title of second consul; it was replaced by that of arch-chancellor +of the Empire. To him was decreed the presidence of the Senate in +perpetuity. He also became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808 +the title duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in +helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambaceres did the +state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to curb the +impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises so fatal as the +intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the invasion of Russia (1812) +proved to be. At the close of the campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph +Bonaparte the responsibility for some of the actions which zealous +Bonapartists have deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In +1815, during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at the +bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his master, he +felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time exiled from +France. A decree of 13th May 1818 restored him to his civil rights as a +citizen of France; but the last six years of his life he spent in +retirement. He was a member of the Academy till the 31st of March 1816, +when a decree of exclusion was passed. In demeanour he was quiet, +reserved and tactful, but when occasion called for it he proved himself +a brilliant orator. He was a celebrated _gourmet_, and his dinners were +utilized by Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft. + + See A. Aubriet, _Vie de Cambaceres_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1825). + (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +CAMBALUC, the name by which, under sundry modifications, the royal city +of the great khan in China became known to Europe during the middle +ages, that city being in fact the same that we now know as Peking. The +word itself represents the Mongol Khan-Balik, "the city of the khan," or +emperor, the title by which Peking continues, more or less, to be known +to the Mongols and other northern Asiatics. + +A city occupying approximately the same site had been the capital of one +of the principalities into which China was divided some centuries before +the Christian era; and during the reigns of the two Tatar dynasties that +immediately preceded the Mongols in northern China, viz. that of the +Khitans, and of the Kin or "Golden" khans, it had been one of their +royal residences. Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the +Khitan, and of Chung-tu, which it had from the Kin, it holds a +conspicuous place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter +dynasty. He captured it in 1215, but it was not till 1284 that it was +adopted as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol +steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position a few +hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu or Yenking, +where he founded the new city of Ta-tu ("great capital"), called by the +Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan-Balik; and from this time dates +the use of the latter name as applied to this site. + +The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud rampart, the +longer sides of which ran north and south. These were each about 5-1/3 +English m. in length, the shorter sides 3-3/4 m., so that the circuit was +upwards of 18 m. The palace of the khan, with its gardens and lake, +itself formed an inner enclosure fronting the south. There were eleven +city gates, viz. three on the south side, always the formal front with +the Tatars, and two on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide +and straight from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by +the palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan. + +Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the fall of the +Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming) which supplanted them +established their residence at Nan-king ("South Court"), but this proved +so inconvenient that Yunglo, the third sovereign of the dynasty, +reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it then, for the first time, the name of +Pe-king ("North Court"). This was the name in common use when the +Jesuits entered China towards the end of the 16th century, and began to +send home accurate information about China. But it is not so now; the +names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both signifying +"capital." The restoration of Cambaluc was commenced in 1409. The size +of the city was diminished by the retrenchment of nearly one-third at +the northern end, which brought the enceinte more nearly to a square +form. And this constitutes the modern (so-called) "Tatar city" of +Peking, the south front of which is identical with the south front of +the city of Kublai. The walls were completed in 1437. Population +gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of the +old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in 1544, +enclosed by a wall and called the "outer city." It is the same that is +usually called by Europeans "the Chinese city." The ruins of the +retrenched northern portion of Kublai's great rampart are still +prominent along their whole extent, so that there is no room for +question as to the position or true dimensions of the Cambaluc of the +middle ages; and it is most probable, indeed it is almost a necessity, +that the present palace stands on the lines of Kublai's palace. + +The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an +archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the +missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (d. 1330); but though some +successors were nominated it seems probable that no second metropolitan +ever actually occupied the seat. + +Maps of the 16th and 17th centuries often show Cambaluc in an imaginary +region to the north of China, a part of the misconception that has +prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is often in popular literature +written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow accented in verse _Cambalu_. But +this spelling originates in an accidental error in Ramusio's Italian +version, which was the chief channel through which Marco Polo's book was +popularly known. The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology +in calling it Cambaluc, which should be accented _Cambaluc_. + + + + +CAMBAY, a native state of India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. +It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225, showing a decrease of +16% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900. The estimated gross +revenue is L27,189; the tribute, L1460. In physical character Cambay is +entirely an alluvial plain. As a separate state it dates only from about +1730, the time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present +chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the governors of +Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law, Nizam Khan, governor +of Cambay, and established himself there. + +The town of CAMBAY had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It is supposed to +be the _Camanes_ of Ptolemy, and was formerly a very flourishing city, +the seat of an extensive trade, and celebrated for its manufactures of +silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but owing principally to the gradually +increasing difficulty of access by water, owing to the silting up of the +gulf, its commerce has long since fallen away, and the town has become +poor and dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a +channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The trade +is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is celebrated for +its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, of reputation +principally in China. The houses in many instances are built of stone (a +circumstance which indicates the former wealth of the city, as the +material had to be brought from a very considerable distance); and +remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in circumference, which formerly +surrounded the town, enclose four large reservoirs of good water and +three bazaars. To the south-east there are very extensive ruins of +subterranean temples and other buildings half-buried in the sand by +which the ancient town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the +Jains, and contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black, +the other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates, is +Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the emperor Akbar; +the black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. In 1780 Cambay was taken +by the army of General Goddard, was restored to the Mahrattas in 1783, +and was afterwards ceded to the British by the peshwa under the treaty +of 1803. It was provided with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the 11 +m. required to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda's line through Petlad. + + + + +CAMBAY, GULF OF, an inlet in the coast of India, in the Gujarat division +of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but is shallow and abounds in +shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed that the depth of water in this +gulf has been decreasing for more than two centuries past. The tides, +which are very high, run into it with amazing velocity, but at low water +the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of +the town of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the +channel by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the British +districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the railway from +Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay, has for some time past been +attracting the trade to itself. + + + + +CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _camera_, vault), in +architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and provided for the +depression or sagging, which it is liable to, before it has settled down +to its bearings. A "camber arch" is a slight rise given to the +straight-arch to correct an apparent sinking in the centre (see ARCH). + + + + +CAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), French operatic composer, was born in Paris +in 1628. He was a pupil of Chambonnieres. In 1655, after he had obtained +the post of organist at the church of St Honore, he married Marie du +Moustier. He was musical superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother +of Louis XIV., and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac. +His earlier works, the words of which were furnished by Pierre Perrin, +continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes till the death +of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin received a patent for the +founding of the _Academie Nationale de musique_, the germ of the Grand +Opera, and Cambert had a share in the administration until both he and +Perrin were discarded in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his +subsequent neglect, and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was +musical superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where +soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to Charles +II. One at least of his operas, _Pomone_, was performed in London under +his direction, but it did not suit the popular taste, and he is supposed +to have killed himself in London in 1677. His other principal operas +were _Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus_ and _Les Peines et les plaisirs +de l'amour_. + + + + +CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded +N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by Deptford and Lewisham, W. by +Lambeth, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop, +(1901) 259,339. Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the +derivation of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham +and Nunhead, and Dulwich (q.v.) with its park, picture-gallery and +schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are many good +houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and southward towards the high +ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park (72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and +Park (113 acres) are the largest of several public grounds, and +Camberwell Green was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside +the southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation, the Crystal +Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the Camberwell school of +arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a +university settlement, founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier +Trinity settlement. The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three +divisions, North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member: but is +not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the Dulwich division +extending to include Penge, outside the county of London. The borough +council consists of a mayor, ten aldermen, and sixty councillors. + + + + +CAMBIASI, LUCA (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly known as +Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also Cambiaso or Cangiagio), +was born at Moneglia in the Genoese state, the son of a painter named +Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to drawing at a very early age, imitating his +father, and developed great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of +fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's +_Metamorphoses_ on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in +conjunction with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of +execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friendship with +Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together, with so much +similarity of style that their works could hardly be told apart; from +this friend Cambiasi learned much in the way of perspective and +architecture. Luchetto's best artistic period lasted for twelve years +after his first successes; from that time he declined in power, though +not at once in reputation, owing to the agitations and vexations brought +upon him by a passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife +having died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and +children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for marrying +her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he accepted an invitation +from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial a series of frescoes which +had been begun by Castello, now deceased; and it is said that one +principal reason for his closing with this offer was that he hoped to +bring the royal influence to bear upon the pope, but in this again he +failed. Worn out with his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the +second year of his sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold +designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the +Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day with +pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting a head of a +laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh +changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The +artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty +equalling or transcending that even of Tintoret. He made a vast number +of drawings, and was also something of a sculptor, executing in this +branch of art a figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the +ablest artists of his day. In personal character, notwithstanding his +executive energy, he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His +son Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto. + + The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the church of + S. Giorgio--the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo Imperiali + Terralba, a Genoese suburb--a fresco of the "Rape of the Sabines"; in + S. Maria da Carignano--a "Pieta," containing his own portrait and + (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law. In the + Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise on the + vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture + he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to + that time, ever been given for a single work. + + + + +CAMBODIA[1] (called by the inhabitants _Sroc Khmer_ and by the French +_Cambodge_), a country of south-eastern Asia and a protectorate of +France, forming part of French Indo-China. + +_Geography_.--It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by Annam, S.E. and +S. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by Siam. Its area +is estimated at approximately 65,000 sq. m.; its population at +1,500,000, of whom some three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese, +Annamese, Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia +lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering this territory on +the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines south-west as +far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and resumes a southerly +course. The salient feature of Cambodian geography is the large lake +Tonle-Sap, in a depression 68 m. long from south-east to north-west and +15 m. wide. It is fed by several rivers and innumerable torrents, and +at flood-time serves as a reservoir for the Mekong, with which it is +connected by a channel some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and +joining the river at Pnom-Penh. In June the waters of the Mekong, +swollen by the rains and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a +height of 40 to 45 ft. and flow through the Bras du Lac towards the +lake, which then covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river +inundates the marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season +the current reverses and the depression empties so that the lake shrinks +to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. to a +maximum of 5 ft. Tonle-Sap probably represents the chief wealth of +Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over 30,000, most of whom +are Annamese; the fish, which are taken by means of large nets at the +end of the inundation, are either dried or fermented for the production +of the sauce known as _nuoc-mam_. The northern and western provinces of +Cambodia which fall outside the densely populated zone of inundation are +thinly peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly wooded +and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does not exceed 5000 +ft. The region to the east of the Mekong is traversed by spurs of the +mountains of Annam and by affluents of the Mekong, the most important of +these being the Se-khong and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into +the Mekong at Stung-treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing +population, fringe the west coast. + +_Climate, Fauna and Flora._--The climate of Cambodia, like that of +Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the monsoons. +During the north-east monsoon, from the middle of October to the middle +of April, dry weather prevails and the thermometer averages from 77 deg. +to 80 deg. F. During the south-west monsoon, from the middle of April to +the middle of October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies +between 85 deg. and 95 deg. The wild animals of Cambodia include the +elephant, which is also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and some +species of wild ox; also the tiger, panther, leopard and honey-bear. +Wild boars, monkeys and rats abound and are the chief enemies of the +cultivator. The crocodile is found in the Mekong, and there are many +varieties of reptiles, some of them venomous. The horse of Cambodia is +only from 11 to 12 hands in height, but is strong and capable of great +endurance; the buffalo is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in +large numbers. Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and +other valuable woods and gums are among the natural products. + +_People_.--The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity with their +Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The race is probably the +result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of Indo-China with the Aryan +and Mongolian invaders of the country. The men are taller and more +muscular than the Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and +inclined to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the +mouth large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown, +the hair black and, while in childhood the head is shaved with the +exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed so as +to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the langouti or loin-cloth, which +the men supplement with a short jacket, the women with a long scarf +draped round the figure or with a long clinging robe. Morose, +superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling, the Cambodians are at +the same time clean, fairly intelligent, proud and courageous. The wife +enjoys a respected position and divorce may be demanded by either party. +Polygamy is almost confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to +work, the Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them live on +the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts built upon piles or +floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is Buddhism, and involves great +respect towards the dead; the worship of spirits or local genii is also +wide-spread, and Brahmanism is still maintained at the court. Monks or +_bonzes_ are very numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach +the young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals and +the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of the +Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no hereditary +nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood-relationship--the +members of the royal family within the fifth degree (the _Brah-Vansa_) +those beyond the fifth degree (_Brah-Van_), and the _Bakou_, who, as +descendants of the ancient Brahmans, exercise certain official functions +at the court. These castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by +themselves, are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are +nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, and +are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the administration. +Under the native regime the common people attached themselves to one or +other of the mandarins, who in return granted them the protection of his +influence. Under French rule, which has modified the old usages in many +respects, local government of the Annamese type tends to supplant this +feudal system. Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897. + +Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal dialects of +south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and rich in +vowel-sounds. The king's language and the royal writing, and also +religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan origin and akin to +Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and complicated. The books +(manuscripts) are generally formed of palm-leaves upon which the +characters are traced by means of a style. + +_Industry and Commerce._--Iron, worked by the tribe of the Kouis, is +found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians show skill in working +gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats, fans and silk and cotton +fabrics, are also produced to some small extent, but fishing and the +cultivation of rice and in a minor degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton, +pepper, indigo, maize, tea and sugar are the only industries worthy of +the name. Factories exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of +cotton-seeds. The Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so +far as his own needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and +oxen are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which is +in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in commerce. + +Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China, Kampot, the +only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to coasting vessels. With +the exception of the highway from Pnom-Penh (q.v.) the capital, to +Kampot, the roads of Cambodia are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh +communicates regularly by the steamers of the "Messageries Fluviales" by +way of the Mekong with Saigon. + +_Administration_.--At the head of the government is the king (_raj_). +His successor is either nominated by himself, in which case he sometimes +abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the five chief mandarins +from among the Brah Vansa. The _upayuvraj (obbaioureach)_ or king who +has abdicated, the heir-presumptive (_uparaj, obbareach_) and the first +princess of the blood are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The +king is advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of +the class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about fifty +provinces administered by members of that body. France is represented by +a resident superior, who presides over the ministerial council and is +the real ruler of the country, and by residents exercising supervision +in the districts into which the country is split up for the purposes of +the French administration. In each residential district there is a +council, composed of natives and presided over by the resident, which +deliberates on questions affecting the district. The resident superior +is assisted by the protectorate council, consisting of heads of French +administrative departments (chief of the judicial service, of public +works. &c.) and one native "notable," and the royal orders must receive +its sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign policy, +public works, the customs and the exchequer are in French hands, while +the management of police, the collection of the direct taxes and the +administration of justice between natives remain with the native +government. A French tribunal alone is competent to settle disputes +where one of the parties is not a native. + +The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia for 1899 and +1904:-- + + Receipts. Expenditure. + 1899 L235,329 L188,654 + 1904 250,753 229,880 + +The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including the +poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which together +amounted to L172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of expenditure are the +civil list, comprising the personal allowance to the king and the royal +family (L46,018 in 1904), public works (L39,593) and government house +and residences (L29,977). + +_History_.--The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, are +conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between the +autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now represented by +the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading race from the +plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th century B.C., Chinese +chronicles, which are almost the only source for the history of Cambodia +till the 5th century A.D., mention a region called Fou-nan, in later +times appearing under the name of Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the +Menam, it extended eastwards to the Mekong and may be considered +approximately coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before +the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to +exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they introduced +Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hinduizing process became +more marked about the 5th century A.D., when, under S'rutavarman, the +Khmers as a nation rose into prominence. The name _Kambuja_, whence the +European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu _Kambu_, the name of +the mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been officially +adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country about this period. +At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of S'rutavarman ceased to rule +over the whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was divided +into two portions ruled over by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have +been re-established about the beginning of the 9th century, when with +Jayavarman III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of +Khmer greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monuments +were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see ANGKOR) was completed +under Yasovarman about A.D. 900. In the 10th century Buddhism, which had +existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival +Brahmanism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of +Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and +appears to have been carried out under the direction of the Brahman +Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the monarchs of this period. +The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern +Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later 15th century was +absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the 12th +century, in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. +War was also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and +the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have been the +immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. From the last decade +of the 13th century there dates a valuable description of Tchin-la[2] +written by a member of a Chinese embassy thereto. The same period +probably also witnessed the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of +Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been +subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of +the Menam. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of +which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the 14th +century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive and were able +repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn. These aggressions were +continued in the 15th century, in the course of which the capital was +finally abandoned by the Khmer kings, the ruin of the country being +hastened by internal revolts and by feuds between members of the royal +family. At the end of the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded +Angkor-Thorn as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During +that century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the +country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle +of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the +arrival of the French. At the beginning of the 17th century the Nguyen, +rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of +Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the 18th century, Cambodia, +governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a +field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of +the 18th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed +by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were concluded after a last and +indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a result of which Ang-Duong, +the protege of Siam, was placed on the throne at the capital of Oudong, +and the Annamese evacuated the country. In 1863, in order to counteract +Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagree was sent by Admiral la +Grandiere to the court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and +as a result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate +of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-Penh. In 1867 +a treaty between France and Siam was signed, whereby Siam renounced its +right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in +return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos +territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the +king, confirming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal +authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by it, its +provisions were not put in force till several years later. In 1904 the +territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese +provinces of Melupre and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the +latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 +exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By +the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right +bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded by his brother +Sisowath. + + See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); L. Moura, + _Le royaume de Cambodge_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883); A. Leclere, _Les + codes cambodgiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on + Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ + (Paris, 1873). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH + + [2] Translated by Abel Remusat, _Noveaux Melanges Asiatiques_ (1829). + + + + +CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman, was the son of a +wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In 1785 his father retired, +leaving the direction of the business to Pierre and his two brothers, +but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to politics, and was sent by his +fellow-citizens as deputy _suppleant_ to Versailles, where he was little +more than a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was +elected a member of the municipality, was one of the founders of the +Jacobin club in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he +drew up a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a +republic,--the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the +Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence, his +honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active member of the +committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the +treasury. Nothing could be more false than the common opinion that as a +financier his sole expedient was to multiply the emissions of +_assignats_. His remarkable speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a +convincing proof of his sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from +the clubs, and even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new +institutions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a law +passed sequestrating the possessions of the _emigres_, and demanded, +though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to French Guiana. +He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly. Re-elected to the +Convention, he opposed the pretensions of the Commune and the proposed +grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced +Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an +account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing of +military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, in spite of +the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred the hatred of +Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which +would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew +steadily. On the 15th of December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a +proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the +trial of Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or +postponement. He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public Safety he +worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On the 3rd of +February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800 millions of +_assignats_, for the expenses of the war. His courageous intervention in +favour of the Girondists on the and of June 1793 served Robespierre as a +pretext to prevent his re-election to the Committee of Public Safety. +But Cambon soon came to the conclusion that the security of France +depended upon the triumph of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to +accord his active co-operation to the second committee. He took an active +share in the various expedients of the government for stopping the +depreciation of the _assignats_. He was responsible, especially, for the +great operation known as the opening of the _Grand Livre_ (August 24), +which was designed to consolidate the public debt by cancelling the +stock issued under various conditions prior to the Revolution, and +issuing new stock of a uniform character, so that all fund-holders +should hold stock of the revolutionary government and thus be interested +in its stability. Each fund-holder was to be entered in the Great Book, +or register of the public debt, for the amount due to him every year. +The result of this measure was a rise in the face value of the +_assignats_ from 27% to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of +finance Cambon was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of +dictatorship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on the 8th +Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-revolutionary and an +aristocrat. Cambon's proud and vehement reply was the signal of the +resistance to Robespierre's tyranny and the prelude to his fall. Cambon +soon had reason to repent of that event, for he became one of those most +violently attacked by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets +and the journals of J.L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former +_Montagnard_. He was charged with being responsible for the discredit of +the _assignats_, and even accused of malversations. On the 21st of +February 1795 the project which he presented to withdraw four milliards +of _assignats_ from circulation, was rejected, and on the 3rd of April +he was excluded from the committee of finance. On the 16th Germinal, +Tallien procured a decree of accusation against him, but he was already +in safety, taking refuge probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not +seem to have remained in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial +some of the insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th +Brumaire of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to +return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near +Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow escape from +an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to find in Bonaparte the +saviour of the republic, but, deceived by the 18th Brumaire, he lived +throughout the whole of the empire in peaceful seclusion. During the +Hundred Days he was deputy for Herault in the chamber of +representatives, and pronounced himself strongly against the return of +the Bourbons, and for religious freedom. Under the Restoration the +"amnesty" law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he +withdrew to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died +on the 15th of February 1820. (R. A.*) + + See Bornarel, _Cambon_ (Paris). + + + + +CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist, was born on the 20th +of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private +secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years +of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as +prefect successively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), +Nord (1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being +nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became +French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890, +and in 1898 to London. He was decorated with the grand cross of the +Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. + +His brother, JULES MARTIN CAMBON (1845- ), was called to the bar in +1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service +in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the +Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see +Guyot, _L'oeuvre de M. Jules Cambon_, Paris, 1897), where he had served +in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at +Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of +peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United +States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin. + + + + +CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary division of +Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, 13 m. E.N.E. of +Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. It lies on the +northward slope of the central elevation of the county, and is in the +neighbourhood of some of the most productive tin and copper mines. These +and the manufacture of mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. +The parish church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient +stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art and +mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine, +the school attracting a large number of students. It was developed from +classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners' Association, and a three years' +course of instruction is provided. + +Camborne (_Cambron, Camron_) formed a portion of the extensive manor of +Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by the earl of +Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. Its +interests were economically insignificant until the beginning of the +18th century when the rich deposits of copper and tin began to be +vigorously worked at Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this +mine alone had produced ore worth L2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth +L5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other mines in +the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double that of 1830, six +times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of 1660. Camborne was the +scene of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the +engineer, born in the neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William +Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three +fairs on the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 25th of February +were granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been +transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the subject of +a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the 19th century it +has been held on Saturdays. + + + + +CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the main line of the +Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai is situated on the right +and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of which traverse the west of the +town) and at one extremity of the canal of St Quentin. The +fortifications with which it was formerly surrounded have been for the +most part demolished. The fosses have been filled up and the ramparts in +part levelled to make way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues +stretching out on all sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are +the huge square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the +chateau de Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the +13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a stone and +brick structure of the early 17th century. Handsome boulevards now skirt +the town, the streets of which are clean and well-ordered, and a large +public garden extends at the foot of the citadel, with a statue of +Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. The former cathedral of Cambrai +was destroyed after the Revolution. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame +is a church of the 19th century built on the site of the old abbey +church of St Sepulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of +Fenelon, archbishop from 1695 to 1715, by David d'Angers. The church of +St Gery (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a marble +rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place d'Armes, a large +square in the centre of the town, is bordered on the north by a handsome +hotel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt in the 19th century. The Tour +St Martin is an old church-tower of the 15th and 18th centuries +transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance +to the former archiepiscopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance +period. The present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral, +occupies the site of an old Benedictine convent. + +Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of +France. Its educational institutions include communal colleges, +ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and music. The library +has over 40,000 volumes and there is a museum of antiquities and objects +of art. The chief industry of Cambrai is the weaving of muslin +(_batiste_) and other fine fabrics (see CAMBRIC); wool-spinning and +weaving, bleaching and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the +manufacture of chicory, oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are +also large beet-sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in +cattle, grain, coal, hops, seed, &c. + +Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of _Camaracum_, which is mentioned +in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was the capital of the +Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, it was captured +and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the +Hungarians in 953. During the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries it was the +scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on +the one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately +effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained +possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, duke of +Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 16th century Charles +V. caused it to be fortified with a strong citadel, for the erection of +which the castles of Cavillers, Escaudoeuvres and many others were +demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which +assigned it to France, it frequently passed from hand to hand by capture +or treaty. In 1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League +of Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis +XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians in +1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is also called, the Ladies' +Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of +Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of +these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and +was raised in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till +the Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received the +title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in 1510 were +raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including the town +itself and its territory, called Cambresis. + + See E. Bouly, _Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambresis_ (Cambria, 1843). + + + + +CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western +Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land +round the Solway (now Cumberland and adjacent regions), and the former +came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were +sometimes interchanged by early medieval writers. + + + + +CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally employed to +designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks which possesses a +connected suite of fossils. The strata of this system rest upon the +Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the Ordovician system. Until the +fourth decade of the 19th century all stratified rocks older than the +Carboniferous had been grouped by geologists into a huge and indefinite +"Transition Series." In 1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison +began the herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of +rocks as it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England. +Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where the rocks +are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are comparatively +difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, began to work at the +upper end of the series where the stratigraphy is simple and the fossils +are abundant. Murchison naturally made the most of the fossils +collected, and was soon able to show that the transition series could be +recognized by them, just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to +themselves; as he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous +rocks further afield and continually lower in the series. This +fossil-bearing set of strata he first styled the "fossiliferous +greywacke series," changing it in 1835 to "Silurian system." + +In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name "Cambrian series" for the +older and lower members. Murchison published his Silurian system in +1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to include the barren slates +and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the Long Mynd. So far, the two +workers had been in agreement; but in his presidential address to the +Geological Society of London in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that +the Cambrian contained no fossils that differed from those of the Lower +Silurian. Whereupon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh +rocks with the assistance of J.W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in +1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the Upper +Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his _Siluria_, in which +he treated the Cambrian system as a mere local facies of the Silurian +system, and he included in the latter, under J. Barrande's term +"Primordial zone," all the lower rocks, although they had a distinctive +fauna. + +Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected from +similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of "Cambrian" +was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, it was taken to +apply only to a group of rocks without a characteristic fauna and +therefore impossible to recognize. Most of the Cambrian rocks were +coloured as Silurian on the British official geological maps. + +Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on the +British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of the +Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his Silurian system +downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick adhered to the original +grouping of his Cambrian system, and even proposed to limit the Silurian +to the Ludlow and Wenlock beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. +This attitude he maintained until the year of his death (1873), when +there appeared his introduction to Salter's _Catalogue of Cambrian and +Silurian Fossils._ + +It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was +necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was left for +the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove that the rocks +below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison did indeed possess a +characteristic fauna, and their work was confirmed by researches going +on in other countries. To-day the recognition of the earliest +fossil-bearing recks, below the Llandeilo formation of Murchison, as +belonging to the Cambrian system, and the threefold subdivision of the +system according to palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly +established. + +It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian as the +lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages being +Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use _Silurique_ to +cover the same period with the Cambrian as the lowest series, but these +differences of treatment are merely nominal. Jules Marcou and others +have used _Taconic_ (Taconian) as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C. +Lapworth proposed to apply the same term to the lowest subdivision +only; he had also used "Annelidian" in the same sense. These names are +of historical interest alone. + +_Cambrian Rocks._--The lithological characters of the Cambrian rocks +possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the globe. Muds, +sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant types. In Scotland, +North America and Canada important deposits of limestone occur and +subordinate limestones are found in the Cambrian of central Europe. + +In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the +United States, the rocks still retain their original horizontality of +deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the sands are still +incoherent; but in most parts of the world they bear abundant evidence +of the many movements and stresses to which they have been exposed +through so enormous a period of time. Thus, we find them more +frequently, folded, tilted and cleaved; the muds have become shales, +slates, phyllites or schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates +have become quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very +generally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more +recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized material +are not wanting. + +[Illustration: Distribution of Cambrian Rocks.] + +Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they form an +important feature and occur in considerable thickness; they are +represented by lavas of olivine-diabase and by contemporaneous tuffs +which are traversed by later granite and quartz felsite. In the Cambrian +of Brittany there are acid lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and +diorite appear in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada +igneous rocks have been observed. + +In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found full of +boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner that is +typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the Gaisa beds +near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These formations lie at the base of +the lowest Cambrian strata and may possibly be included in the +pre-Cambrian, though in Norway they are clearly resting upon a striated +floor of crystalline rocks. + +_Cambrian Life._--In a general survey of the life of this period, as it +is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are apparent: (1) +the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna and that of the present +day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage differs in no marked manner from +that of the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian periods; there is a +certain family likeness which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary +complexity and diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but +within certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian +strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks--if we leave out of +account the very few and very obscure organic remains hitherto recorded +from the pre-Cambrian--yet we appear to enter suddenly into the presence +of a world richly peopled with a suite of organisms already far advanced +in differentiation; the Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from +what must have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this +remote period are distant from the creatures of to-day. + +With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great classes of +animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple protozoa appear in the +form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges are represented by such forms as +_Archaeoscyphia_, Hexactinellid sponges by _Protospongia_; Graptolites +(_Dictyograptus (Dictyonema)_) come on in the higher parts of the +system. Medusa-like casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of +Scandinavia (_Medusina_) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama +(_Brooksella_). Corals, _Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus_, &c., lived in +the Cambrian seas along with starfishes (_Palaeasterina_), Cystideans, +_Protocystites, Trochocystites_ and possibly Crinoids, _Dendrocrinus_. +Annelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor +(_Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus_, &c.). Crustacea occupied an +extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as +_Hymenocaris_, and Ostracods like _Entomidella_; but by far the most +important in numbers and development were the Trilobites, now extinct, +but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the Cambrian period trilobites +had already attained their maximum size; some species of _Paradoxides_ +were nearly 2 ft. long, but in company with these monsters were tiny +forms like _Agnostus_ and _Microdiscus_. Many of the Cambrian trilobites +appear to have been blind, and they had not at this period developed +that flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later. + +Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-articulated forms +(_Obolus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis_, &c.); amongst the +articulate genera are _Kutorgina, Orthis, Khynchonella._ It is a +striking fact that certain of these non-articulate "lamp-shells" are +familiar inhabitants of our present seas. Each of the principal groups +of true mollusca was represented: Pelecypods (_Modioloides_); +Gasteropods (_Scenella, Pleurotomaria, Trochonema_); Pteropods +(_Hyohthellus, Hyolithes, Salleretta_); Cephalopods (_Orthoceras, +Cystoceras_). Of land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain +markings on slates and sandstones, such as the "fucoids" of Scandinavia +and Scotland, the _Phycoides_ of the Fichtelgebirge, _Eophyton_ and +other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be the casts of fucoid +plants; but it is by no means sure that many of them are not mere +inorganic imitative markings or the tracks or casts of worms. +_Oldhamia_, a delicate branching body, abundant in the Cambrian of the +south-east of Ireland, is probably a calcareous alga, but its precise +nature has not been satisfactorily determined. + +_Cambrian Stratigraphy._--Wherever the Cambrian strata have been +carefully studied it has now been found possible and convenient to +arrange them into three series, each of which is characterized by a +distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a Lower Cambrian with +_Olenellus_, a middle series with _Paradoxides_ and an Upper Cambrian +with _Olenus_. It is true that these fossils are not invariably present +in every occurrence of Cambrian strata, but this fact notwithstanding, +the threefold division holds with sufficient constancy. An uppermost +series lies above the _Olenus_ fauna in some areas; it is represented by +the Tremadoc beds in Britain or by the _Dictyonema_ beds or +_Euloma-Niobe_ fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: +(1) Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first +differentiated from the old "Transition Series"; (2) North America, on +account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the abundance and +perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, made classic by the great +labours of J. Barrande. + + _Great Britain and Ireland._--The table on p. 88 contains the names + that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata in + the areas of outcrop in Wales and England; at the same time it + indicates approximately their relative position in the system. + + In _Scotland_ the upper and middle series are represented by a thick + mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone (1500 ft.). In + the lower series are, in descending order, the "Serpulite grits" or + "Salterella beds," the "Fucoid beds" and the "Eriboll quartzite," + which is divided into an upper "Pipe rock" and lower "Basal + quartzite." + + The Cambrian rocks of _Ireland_, a great series of purple and green + shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded + sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh + rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in the + future to the overlying Ordovician. + + _North America._--On the North American continent, as in Europe, the + Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the lower or + "Georgian," with _Olenellus_ fauna; (2) the middle or "Acadian," with + _Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus_ fauna; (3) the upper or "Potsdam," + with _Olenus_ fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms for + Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland and Labrador + coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-west of those + points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain valley into Alabama, a + distance of some 2000 m.; and the rocks are brought up again on the + western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, western Montana and British + Columbia. The middle division covers approximately the same region as + the lower one, and in addition it is found in the states of Texas, + Oklahoma, and Arizona, in western Montana, and possibly in western + Wisconsin. The lower division, in addition to covering the areas + already indicated, spreads over the interior of the United States. + + _Bohemia_.--The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized by + J.F. Pompesk; to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian groups. + They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. The Cambrian + system is covered by his stages "B" and "C"; the former a barren + series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter a series of grey + and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, greywackes + and conglomerates. + + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | Midland and West of England. | + | | North Wales. | South Wales. +--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | | | | Shropshire. | Malvern Hills. | Nuneaton. | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Upper Cambrian,| Tremadoc slates | Tremadoc beds | Shineton shales | Bronsil shales, | Upper Stockingford | + | _Olenus_ fauna | (_Euloma-Niobe_ | | and shales with | gray (_Niobe_ | shale | + | | fauna) | | _Dictyonema_ | fauna) | (Merivaleshales) | + | | Lingula flags | Lingula flags | | Malvern black | | + | | | | | shales | | + | | | | | (White-leaved-oak | | + | | | | | shales) | | + | | (1) Dolgelly beds | | | | | + | | (2) Ffestinieg beds| | | | Middle Stockingford | + | | | | | | shales (Oldbury | + | | | | | | shales) | + | | (3) Maentwrog beds | | | | | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Middle Cambrian| Menevian beds | Menevian beds | | | | + | _Paradoxides_ | | | | | | + | fauna | | Solva group | Comley or Hollybush| Hollybush sandstone | Lower Stockingford | + | | | | sandstone with | | shales (Purley | + | | | | upper Comley | | shales) | + | | | | limestone | | | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Lower Cambrian | Harlech grits and | Caerfai group | Lower Comley | Hollybush sandstone | Upper Hartshill | + | _Olenellus_ | Llanberis slates | | limestone | with Malvern | quarzite. | + | fauna | | | | quarzite and | _Hyolithes_ shales | + | | | | | conglomerate at | and limestone | + | | | | | the base | | + | | | | Wrekin quarzite | | Middle and lower | + | | | | | | Hartshill quarzite | + | | | | | | and the quarzite of| + | | | | | | the Lickey Hills | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + + _Scandinavia_.--Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished clearly + on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found in a thin + series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing shales + play an important part. Limestones and shales with the _Euloma-Niobe_ + fauna come at the top. The upper series (_Olenus_) has been minutely + zoned by W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg and J.C. Moberg. In the middle + series (_Paradoxides_) three thin limestone bands have been + distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans-Kalk and the + Andrarums-Kalk. + + On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by the Roros + schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystalline + schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian rocks. + + _Baltic Province._--The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all + soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of + Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called "blue clay" + (really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a fucoidal + sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent of the Lower + Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an important break appears in + the system, for the _Paradoxides_ and _Olenus_ divisions are absent. + The upper members are the "Ungulite grit" and about 20 ft. of + Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been traced into Siberia (lat. + 71 deg.) and on the island of Vaigatch. + + _Central Europe._--Besides the Bohemian region previously mentioned, + Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of France, in + Spain and the Thuringer Wald. In the Ardennes the system is + represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and quartz + schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. A. + Dumont has arranged the whole series (_Terrain ardennais_) into three + systems, an upper "Salmien," a middle "Revinien" and a lower + "Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to unite the + two lower groups in one. + + _France_.---In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple + conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability upon + pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern Poitou. In the + Rennes basin limestones--often dolomitic--are associated with + quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones also occur in the + Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old lands of Languedoc, + equivalents of the two upper divisions of the Cambrian have been + recorded; and the uppermost members of the system appear in Herault. + Patches of Cambrian rocks are found in the Pyrenees. + + In _Spain_ slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than + 9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega, + thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian rocks + occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper Cambrian + strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal. + + In _Russian Poland_ is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and + shales; Some of the beds yield a _Paradoxides_ fauna. + + In the _Thuringer Wald_ are certain strata, presumably Cambrian since + the uppermost beds contain the _Euloma-Niobe_ fauna. + + _Sardinia_ contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cambrian + system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neobolus or + Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle subdivision. + The same group is probably represented in Corea and the Liao-tung by + the thick "Sinisian" formation of F. von Richthofen. + + In _South America_ upper Cambrian rocks have been recorded from north + Argentina. + + The Lower Cambrian has been found at various places in _South + Australia_; and in _Tasmania_ a thick series of strata appears to be + in part at least of Upper Cambrian age. + +_General Physical Conditions in the Cambrian Period._--The Cambrian +rocks previously described are all such as would result from deposition, +in comparatively shallow seas, of the products of degradation of land +surfaces by the ordinary agents of denudation. Evidences of shallow +water conditions are abundant; very frequently on the bedding surfaces +of sandstones and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and +pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, and +these records of the weather of this remote period are preserved as +sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our tidal reaches. +Ripple marks and current bedding further point, to the shallowness of +the water at the places where the rocks were made. + +No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses of the +sea--although the absence of well-developed eyes in the trilobites has +led some to assume that this condition was an indication that the +creatures lived in abyssal depths. + +At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of that period +must have been elevated into regions of fairly high ground; this we may +assume from the nature of the Cambrian deposits which are mainly the +product of the denudation of such ground. Over the land areas thus +formed, the seas in Cambrian time gradually spread, laying down first +the series known as Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the +land the wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits--in Europe, the middle +series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are usually +unconformable on older rocks. + +During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the crust may +have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake conditions. The common +occurrence of red strata has been cited in support of this view. + +Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free from extensive +volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in Brittany the earlier portions +of this period were marked by voluminous outpourings; a condition that +was feebly reflected in central and southern Europe. + +No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the climatic +peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red rocks may in some +cases suggest desert conditions; and there is good reason to suppose +that in what are now Norway and China a glacial cold prevailed early in +the period. + +Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian deposits, +which may generally be explained by the greater rapidity of deposition +in some areas than in others. Nothing could be more striking than the +difference between the thicknesses in western and eastern Europe; in +Brittany the deposits are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least +12,000 ft., in western England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern +Scotland 2000 ft., while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete +Cambrian succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North +America, the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous +regions on the west and on the east--reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter +and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British +Columbia)--while over the interior of the continent it is seldom more +than 1000 ft. thick. + +Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the Cambrian +period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was pointed out by +Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there appeared two marine +provinces--a northern one extending from Russia to the British Isles +through Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a southern one comprising +France, Bohemia, the Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that +some kind of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there +is a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and eastern +America; many fossils of this period are common to Britain, Sweden and +eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a north Atlantic basin +existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there was also a Pacific basin more +extensive than at present; this is borne out by the similarity between +the Cambrian faunas of China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author +postulates an Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, +Greenland and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the +present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between Australia and +India, where the faunas have much in common. + + REFERENCES.--The literature devoted to the Cambrian period is very + voluminous, important contributions having been made by A. Sedgwick, + Sir R.I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. Groom, J.W. Salter, J.E. + Marr, C.D. Walcott, G.F. Matthew, E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande, + F. Schmidt, W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg, S.L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson + and many others. A good general account of the period will be found in + Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with + references), and from an American point of view, in T.C. Chamberlin + and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American + sources). See also J.E. Marr, _The Classification of the Cambrian and + Silurian Rocks_, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of + publication); A. Geikie _Q.J. Geol. Sac._, 1891, xlvii., Ann. address, + p. 90; F. Frech, "Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des + Cambrium," _Compte Rendu. Congres Geol. Internal. 1897, + St-Petersbourg_ (1899); _Geological Literature added to the Geological + Society's Library_, published annually since 1893. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CAMBRIC, a word derived from _Kameryk_ or _Kamerijk_, the Flemish name +of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, France, where the cloth of +this name is said to have been first made. It was originally made of +fine linen. There is a record of a privy purse expenditure in 1530 for +cambric for Henry VIII.'s shirts. Cambric has been used for many years +in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine +underclothing; also for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The +yarns for this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads +and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. Embroidery +cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, said to be called +after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a kind of cambric +frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are largely copied in +cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, and in many cases cotton +alone, taking the place of the original flax line yarns. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. Under the Norman and early Plantagenet +kings of England the earldom of Cambridge was united with that of +Huntingdon, which was held among others by David I., king of Scotland, +as the husband of earl Waltheof's daughter, Matilda. As a separate +dignity the earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count +(afterwards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King +Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death) Edward created +his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cambridge, the title being +afterwards merged in that of duke of York, which was bestowed upon +Edmund in 1385. Edmund's elder son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who +succeeded his father as duke of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, +appears to have resigned the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in +this year his younger brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In +the following year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry +V., and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, +Richard, who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle +Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held by Richard, +and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, afterwards King Edward +IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the Yorkist dynasty. + +In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon James +Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created him earl of +Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor James, 3rd +marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In 1651 when William, 2nd +duke of Hamilton, died, his English title became extinct. + +Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of earl of +Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his brother Henry, duke +of Gloucester, only to become extinct on Henry's death in the following +year. In 1661 Charles, the infant son of James, duke of York, afterwards +King James II., was designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but +the child died before the necessary formalities were completed. However, +two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were actually +created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died in childhood. +After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 it was proposed to +grant an English title to George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, +who, after his grandmother, the electress Sophia, and his father, the +elector George Louis, was heir to the throne of England; and to give +effect to this proposal George Augustus was created marquess and duke of +Cambridge in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of +Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in favour +of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He and his son are +dealt with below. + +ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was born in London on +the 24th of February 1774. Having studied at the university of +Gottingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the Hanoverian and British +armies, and, in November 1801, was created earl of Tipperary and duke of +Cambridge, becoming a member of the privy council in the following year. +The duke is chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on +the conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to the +rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was appointed +viceroy. He held this position until the separation of Great Britain and +Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and moderation, appears to have +ruled the country with great success during a difficult period. +Returning to England the duke became very popular, and was active in +supporting many learned and benevolent societies. He died in London on +the 8th of July 1850. In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter +of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his +successor, George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick +William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide +(1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck. + +GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLES, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), was +born at Hanover on the 26th of March 1819. He was thus about two months +older than his cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the +line of succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover by +the Rev. J.R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November 1837, after he had +served for a short time in the Hanoverian army, the rank of colonel in +the British army was conferred upon him, and he was attached to the +staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in +Ireland with the 12th Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 +colonel of the 17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he +was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then promoted +major-general. In October 1846 he took command of the Limerick district, +and shortly afterwards of the Dublin district. In 1850 his father died, +and he succeeded to the dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry +in 1852, he held that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the +Crimean War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and +Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June of the same +year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was present at the battles +of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, and at the siege of Sevastopol. On +the 15th of July 1856 he was appointed general commanding-in-chief, on +the 9th of November 1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, +commander-in-chief. The long period during which he held the command of +the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War brought to light +great administrative defects, and led to a regrouping of the +departments, which, with the whole personnel of the army, were brought +under the authority of the secretary of state for war. The +constitutional changes involved did not, however, affect seriously the +organization of the military forces. Only in 1870, after the successes +of Prussia had created a profound impression, were drastic changes +introduced by Cardwell into the entire fabric of the army. The objects +of the reformers of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods +adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by the duke of +Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority of officers. Further +changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again the duke found much to +criticize. His opinions stand recorded in the voluminous evidence taken +by the numerous bodies appointed to inquire into the condition of the +army. They show a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations +as such, a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this +judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally supposed +is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout the period of +change, while protesting, the duke invariably accepted and loyally +endeavoured to carry out the measures on which the government decided. +In a memorandum addressed to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude +as follows:--"Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state +policy it is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, I +am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability." This attitude +he consistently maintained in all cases in which his training and +associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate changes the need +for which was not apparent to him. His judgment was especially +vindicated in the case of an ill-advised reduction of the artillery +carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under the order in council of February +1888, the whole responsibility for military duties of every kind was for +the first time centred upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out +by the Hartington commission in 1890, involved "an excessive +centralization" which "must necessarily tend to weaken the sense of +responsibility of the other heads of departments, and thus to diminish +their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose position entailed many +duties apart from those strictly appertaining to a commander-in-chief, +could not give personal attention to the vast range of matters for which +he was made nominally responsible. On the other hand, the +adjutant-general could act in his name, and the secretary of state could +obtain military advice from officials charged with no direct +responsibility. The effect was to place the duke in a false position in +the eyes of the army and of the country. If the administration of the +army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which violated +principles. His active control of its training during the whole period +of his command was less hampered, and more directly productive of good +results. + +Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge evinced a warm +interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great experience combined +with a retentive memory made him a master of detail. He was famous for +plain, and strong, language; but while quick to condemn deviations from +the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great precision +in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural kindliness made him +ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the older generation of soldiers, +he could not easily adapt himself to the new conditions, and in +dispensing patronage he was somewhat distrustful of originality, while +his position as a member of the royal family tended to narrow his scope +for selection. He was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations +of pure seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The +army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge it had a +commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly anxious amid +many difficulties to promote its well-being. The duke resigned the +commandership-in-chief on the 1st of November 1895, and was succeeded by +Lord Wolseley, the duties of the office being considerably modified. He +was at the same time gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces. +He was made ranger of Hyde Park and St James's Park in 1852, and of +Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military Academy in 1862, +and its president in 1870, and personal aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria +in 1882. He died on the 17th of March 1904 at Gloucester House, London. +The chief honours conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835; +G.C.M.G., 1845; G.C.B., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he was +president of Christ's hospital. The duke of Cambridge was married to +Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge after her marriage. +She died in 1890. + + See Rev. E. Sheppard, _George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir of his + Private Life_ (London, 1906); and Willoughby Verner, _Military Life of + the Duke of Cambridge_ (1905). + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802), English poet, was born in London on +the 14th of February 1717. He was educated at Eton and at St John's +College, Oxford. Leaving the university without taking a degree, he took +up residence at Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and +went to live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In +1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society of many +notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes many jesting +allusions to Cambridge in the character of newsmonger. He died at +Twickenham on the 17th of September 1802. His chief work is the +_Scribleriad_ (1751), a mock epic poem, the hero of which is the +Martinus Scriblerus of Pope, Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded +by a dissertation on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his +master. The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read by +literary people; but it never became popular, and the allusions, always +obscure, have little interest for the present-day reader. He made a +valuable contribution to history in his _Account of the War in +India...on the Coast of Coromandel from the year 1750 to 1760..._ +(1761). He had intended to write a history of the rise and progress of +British power in India, but this enterprise went no further than the +work just named, as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the +use of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan. + + _The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq., including several Pieces + never before published, with an Account of his Life and Character by + his Son, George Owen Cambridge_ (1803), includes, besides the + _Scribleriad_, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty + papers originally published in Edward Moore's paper called _The + World_. His poems are included in A. Chalmers's _English Poets_ + (1816). + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough, the seat of a +university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, 56 m. N. by +E. of London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the Great +Northern, London & North-Western and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379. +It lies in a flat plain at the southern border of the low Fen country, +at an elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part +of the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a tributary +of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To the south and west +the slight hills bordering the fenland rise gently. The parliamentary +borough of Cambridge returns one member. The municipal borough is under +a mayor, 12 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres. + + + History + +Cambridge University[1] shares with that of Oxford the first place among +such institutions in the British empire. It is the dominating factor in +the modern importance of the town, and it is therefore necessary to +outline the historical conditions which led to its establishment. The +geographical situation of Cambridge, in its present appearance +possessing little attraction or advantage, calls nevertheless for first +consideration. Cambridge, in fact, owed its growth to its position on a +natural line of communication between the east and the midlands of +England, flanked on the one hand by the deep forests which covered the +uplands, on the other by the unreclaimed fens, then desolate and in +great part impenetrable. The importance of this highway may be judged +from the number of early earthworks in the vicinity of Cambridge; and +the Castle Hill, at the north side of the present town (near the west +bank of the river), is perhaps a British work. Roman remains discovered +in the same locality give evidence of the existence of a small town or +village at the junction of roads; the name of _Camboritum_ is usually +attached to it, but without certainty. The modern name of Cambridge has +no connexion with this. The present form of the name has usually been +derived from a corruption of the original name Grantebrycge or +Grantabridge (Skeat); but Mr Arthur Gray points out that there is no +documentary evidence for this corruption in the shape of such probable +intermediate forms as Grantebrig or Crantebrig. On the other hand, he +brings evidence to show that the name Cantebrig, though not applied to +the whole town, was very early given to that quarter of it near the +Cante brig, i.e. the bridge over the Cante (the ward beyond the Great +Bridge was called "Parcelle of Cambridge" as late as 1340); in this +quarter, close to the bridge, Cambridge castle was built by the +Conqueror, and from the castle and the castle-quarter the name spread +within sixty years to the whole town, the similarity between the names +Grantebrig and Cantebrig playing some part in this extension (_The Dual +Origin of the Town of Cambridge_, p. 31). Granta is the earlier and +still an alternative name of the river Cam, this more common modern form +having been adopted in sympathy with the modern name of the town. +Cambridge had a further importance from its position at the head of +river navigation, and a charter of Henry I., in which the town is +already referred to as a borough, grants it exclusive rights as a +river-port, and regulates traffic and tolls. The wharves lay principally +along that part of the river where are now the celebrated "backs" of +some of the colleges, whose exquisite grounds slope down to the water. +The great Sturbridge or Stourbridge Fair at Barnwell, formerly one of +the most important in England, is a further illustration of the ancient +commercial importance of Cambridge; the oldest known charter concerning +it dates from the opening of the 13th century, though its initiation may +perhaps be placed a century before. + +Concerning the early municipal history of Cambridge little is known, but +at the time of the Domesday survey its citizens felt themselves strong +enough to protest against the exactions of the Norman sheriff, Roger +Picot; and the town had attained a considerable degree of importance +when, in 1068, William the Conqueror built a castle on the site known as +Castle Hill, and used it as a base of operations against Hereward the +Wake and the insurgents of the fenland. Cambridge, however, has +practically no further military history. From the 14th century onward +materials were taken from the castle by the builders of colleges, while +the gatehouse, the last surviving portion, was removed in 1842. + +The medieval spirit of emulation between the universities of Cambridge +and Oxford resulted in a series of remarkable fables to account for the +foundation of both. That of Cambridge was assigned to a Spanish prince, +Cantaber, in the 4321st year after the Creation. A charter from King +Arthur dated 531, and the transference of students from Cambridge to +Oxford by King Alfred, were also claimed as historical facts. The true +germ of the university is to be sought in the religious foundations in +the town. The earliest to be noticed is the Augustinian house of St +Giles, founded by Hugoline, wife of Roger Picot the sheriff, in 1092; +this was removed in 1112 to Barnwell, where the chapel dedicated to St +Andrew the Less is practically the sole remnant of its buildings. In +1224 the Franciscans came to Cambridge, and later in the same century a +number of other religious orders settled here, such as the Dominicans, +the Gilbertines and the Carmelites, who had before been established at +Newnham. Students were gradually attracted to these several religious +houses, and Cambridge was already recognized as a centre of learning +when, in 1231, Henry III. issued a writ for its governance as such, +among other provisions conferring certain disciplinary powers on the +bishop of Ely. It soon became evident that the influence of the +religious orders on those who came to them for instruction was too +narrow. This was recognized elsewhere, for it was in order to counteract +that influence that Walter de Merton drew up the statute of governance +for his foundation of Merton College, Oxford, a statute which was soon +afterwards used as a model by Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely, when, in +1281-1284 he founded the first Cambridge college, Peterhouse. + +The friction between town and university, due in the main to the +conflict of their jurisdictions, the tradition of which, as in the +sister university, died hard in the annual efforts of some +undergraduates to revive the "town and gown" riots, culminated during +the rebellion of Wat Tyler (1381) in an episode which is alone worthy of +record and may serve to illustrate the whole. This was an attack by the +rabble, instigated, it is said, by the more reputable townspeople, on +the colleges, several of which were sacked. The attack was ultimately +defeated by the courage and resource of Henry Spenser or Le Dispencer, +bishop of Norwich. The relations of the university of Cambridge with the +crown were never so intimate as those of Oxford. Henry III. fortified +the town with two gates, but these were burnt by the rebellious barons; +and in much later times the two first of the Stuart kings, and the two +first of the Georges, cultivated friendly personal relations with the +university. During the civil war the colleges even melted down their +plate for the war chest of King Charles; but Cambridge showed little of +the stubborn royalism of Oxford, and submitted to the Commonwealth +without serious resistance. + + + Colleges. + +The history of collegiate foundation in Cambridge after that of +Peterhouse may be followed through the ensuing description of the +colleges, but for ease of reference these are dealt with in alphabetical +order. The main street which traverses the town from south to north, +parallel to, and at a short distance from the river, is known +successively as Trumpington Street, King's Parade, Trinity Street, St +John's Street and Bridge Street. The majority of the colleges lie on +either side of this street, and chiefly between it and the river. Those +of St John's, Trinity, Trinity Hall, Clare, King's and Queens' present +the famous "backs" towards the river, which is crossed by a series of +picturesque bridges leading to the gardens and grounds on the opposite +bank. + +_Christ's College_ is not among the group indicated above; it stands +farther to the east, in St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1505 by +the Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII. It incorporated God's +House, which had been founded by William Bingham, a cleric of London, in +1439, had been removed when the site was required for part of King's +College, and had been refounded with the countenance of Henry VI. in +1448. This was a small house, but the Lady Margaret's endowment provided +for a master, twelve fellows and forty-seven scholars. Edward VI. added +another fellowship and three scholarships and the present number of +fellows is fifteen. There are certain exhibitions in election to which +preference is given to schools in the north of England--Giggleswick, +Kirkby Lonsdale, Skipton and Sedbergh. The buildings of Lady Margaret's +foundation were in great part faced in classical style in the 17th +century; a building east of the old quadrangle is also of this period, +and is ascribed to Inigo Jones. The rooms occupied by the foundress +herself are preserved, though in an altered condition, as are those of +the poet Milton, who was educated here, and with whom the college has +many associations. In the fine gardens is an ancient mulberry tree +believed to have been planted by him. Among illustrious names connected +with this college are John Leland the antiquary, Archdeacon Paley, +author of the _Evidences_, and Charles Darwin, while Henry More and +others of the school of Cambridge Platonists in the 17th century were +educated here. + +_Clare College_ lies close to the river, south of Trinity Hall. In 1326 +the university erected a hall, known as University Hall, to accommodate +a number of students, and in 1338 Elizabeth de Burgh, countess of +Clare, re-endowed the hall, which took the name of Clare Hall, and only +became known as college in 1856. There was a strong ecclesiastical +tendency in this foundation; six out of the twenty fellows were to be +priests when elected. The foundation now consists of a master and +fifteen fellows, besides scholars, of whom three receive emoluments from +the endowment of Lady Clare. The old college buildings were in great +part destroyed by fire in 1521; the present buildings date from 1638 to +1715, and are admirable examples of their period. They surround a very +beautiful quadrangle, and the back towards the river is also fine. +Unconfirmed tradition indicates the poet Chaucer as an _alumnus_ of this +college; other famous men associated with it were Hugh Latimer the +martyr, Ralph Cudworth, one of the "Platonists," and Archbishop +Tillotson. + +_Corpus Christi College_ (commonly called Corpus) stands on the east +side of Trumpington Street. The influence of medieval gilds in +Cambridge, the character of which was primarily religious, was +exceedingly strong. About the beginning of the 14th century there is +first mentioned the gild of St Mary, which was connected with Great St +Mary's church. The gild was at this time prosperous, but about 1350, +when the idea of the foundation of a college by the gilds was matured, +the fraternity of St Mary lacked the means to proceed save by +amalgamating with another gild, that of Corpus Christi. The age of this +institution, whose church was St Benedict's or St Bene't's, is not +known. By the two gilds, therefore, the "House of Scholars of Corpus +Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary" was founded in 1352, the foundation +being the only instance of its kind. In early times it was commonly +known as St Bene't's from the church connected with the Corpus gild +which stands over against the college, and served as its chapel for +nearly three centuries. The foundation consists of a master and twelve +fellows, with scholars of the old and later foundations. The ancient +small quadrangle remains, and is of historical rather than architectural +interest. The great quadrangle dates from 1823-1825. The library +contains the famous collection of MSS. bequeathed by Archbishop Matthew +Parker, _alumnus_ of the college, in the 16th century. + +_Downing College_ is in the southern part of the town, to the east of +Trumpington Street. Sir George Downing, baronet, of Gamlingay Park, who +died in 1749, left estates to various relations, who died without issue. +In this event, Downing's will provided for the foundation of a college, +but the heirs contested the will with the university, and in spite of a +decision against them in 1769, continued to hold the estates for many +years, so that it was not until 1800 that the charter for the college +was obtained. The foundation-stone was laid in 1807, and the two ranges +of buildings, in classical style, represent all that was completed of an +intended quadrangle. The foundation consists of a master, professors of +English law and of medicine, six fellows and six scholars. + +_Emmanuel College_ overlooks St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1584 +by Sir Walter Mildmay (_c_. 1520-1589), chancellor of the exchequer and +privy councillor under Queen Elizabeth. The foundation, considerably +enlarged from the original, consists of a master, sixteen fellows and +thirty scholars. There are further scholarships on other foundations +which are awarded by preference to pupils of Uppingham and other schools +in the midlands. Emmanuel was noted from the outset as a stronghold of +Puritanism; it is indeed recorded that Elizabeth rallied the founder on +his intention that this should be so. Mildmay assuredly had the welfare +of the church primarily at heart, and he attempted to provide against +the life residence of fellows, which he considered an unhealthy feature +in some colleges. The site of Emmanuel was previously occupied by a +Dominican friary, and some of its buildings were adapted to collegiate +uses. There is only a little of the earliest building remaining; the +greater part of the present college dates from the second half of the +18th century. The chapel, however, is by Sir Christopher Wren (1677). +Richard Holdsworth, Gresham professor, and William Sancroft, archbishop +of Canterbury, were masters of this college; Bishops Joseph Hall and +Thomas Percy were among its _alumni_, as was John Harvard, principal +founder of the great American college which bears his name. + +_Gonville and Caius College_ (commonly called Caius, pronounced Kees), +stands mainly on the west side of Trinity Street. It arose out of an +earlier foundation. In 1348 Edmund Gonvile or Gonevill founded the hall +of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which was commonly called +Gonville Hall, for the education of twenty scholars in dialectic and +other sciences, with endowment for a master and three fellows. This hall +stood on part of the present site of Corpus, but on the death of its +founder in 1351 it was moved to the north-west corner of the site of the +present Caius, by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of +Trinity Hall. The famous physician John Caius (q.v.), who was educated +at this small institution, later conceived the idea of refounding and +enlarging it, obtained a charter to do so in 1557, and became master of +the new foundation of Gonville and Caius College. The foundation +consists of a master and not less than twenty-two fellows, exclusive of +the provision under the will of William Henry Drosier (d. 1889), doctor +of medicine and fellow of the college, for the endowment of seven +additional fellowships. Since its refoundation by Caius, the college has +had a peculiar connexion with the study of medicine, while, besides many +eminent physicians, Sir Thomas Gresham, Judge Jeffreys, Robert Hare, +Jeremy Taylor, Henry Wharton and Lord Thurlow are among its noted names. +Three sides of the main quadrangle, Tree Court, including the frontage +towards Trinity Street, are modern (1870). The interior of this court is +picturesque, and the design of the smaller Caius Court was inspired by +Caius himself. He also designed the gates of Honour, Virtue and +Humility, of which the two first stand _in situ_; the gate of Honour is +a peculiarly good example of early Renaissance work. Caius is buried in +the chapel. + +_Jesus College_ lies apart from and to the north-east of the majority of +the colleges. It was founded in 1406 by John Alcock, bishop of Ely. The +site was previously occupied by a Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St +Radigund, which was already in existence in the first half of the 12th +century and was claimed by Alcock to have been founded from Ely, to the +bishops of which it certainly owed much. The name given to Alcock's +college was that of "the most Blessed Virgin Mary, St John the +Evangelist, and the glorious Virgin Saint Radigund," but it appears that +the founder himself intended the name to be Jesus College. He provided +for a master and six fellows, but the foundation now consists of a +master and sixteen fellows, with twenty scholars or more. There are +several further scholarships confined to the sons of clergymen of the +Church of England. Architecturally Jesus is one of the most interesting +colleges in Cambridge, for Alcock retained, and there still remains, a +considerable part of the old buildings of the nunnery. The most +important of these is the church, which Alcock, by removing most of the +nave and other portions, converted into the usual form of a college +chapel. The tower, however, is retained. The bulk of the building is an +admirable example of Early English work, but there are traces of Norman; +and Alcock added certain Perpendicular features. Of the rest of the +college buildings, the hall is Alcock's work, the brick gatehouse is a +fine structure of the close of the 15th century, while the cloister is a +little later, and stands on the site of the nuns' cloister. Another +court dates from the 17th and early 18th centuries, and there is a +considerable amount of modern building. The most famous name connected +with Jesus College is that of Cranmer. Among many others are Sir Thomas +Elyot, John Bale, John Pearson, bishop of Chester, Hugh Peters, Gilbert +Wakefield, Thomas Malthus, Laurence Sterne and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. + +_King's College_ has its fine frontage upon the western side of King's +Parade. It was founded by King Henry VI. in 1441. The first site was +small and circumscribed, and in 1443 the existing site was with +difficulty cleared of dwellings. The king designed a close connexion +between this college and his other foundation at Eton; he provided for a +provost and for seventy scholars, all of whom should be Etonians. In +1861 open scholarships were instituted, and the foundation now consists +of a provost, forty-six fellows and forty-eight scholars. Half the +scholarships are still appropriated to Eton. An administrative +arrangement peculiar to King's College is that by which the provost has +absolute authority within its walls, to the exclusion of officers of the +University. The chief architectural ornament of the college, and one of +the most notable in the town, is the magnificent Perpendicular chapel, +comparable with those of St George at Windsor and Henry VII. at +Westminster Abbey. The building was begun in 1446, and extended (apart +from the interior fittings) over nearly seventy years. Within, the most +splendid features are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout the +chapel, the noble range of stained-glass windows, which date for the +most part from the early part of the 16th century, and the wooden organ +screen, which, with part of the stalls, is of the time of Henry VIII. +The college services are celebrated for the beauty of their music. The +bulk of the other collegiate buildings are of the 18th century or +modern. The old court of King's College is occupied by the modern +university library, north of the chapel; the gateway, a good example +(1444), is preserved. John Frith the Martyr, Richard Croke, Giles +Fletcher, Richard Mulcaster, Sir William Temple, William Oughtred, the +poet Waller, and Horace Walpole and others of his family are among many +illustrious _alumni_ of the college. + +_Magdalene College_ (pronounced Maudlin) stands on the west bank of the +Cam, near the Great Bridge. In 1428 the Benedictines of Crowland Abbey +founded a home for student monks on this site, and in 1519 Edward, duke +of Buckingham, partly secularized this institution by founding +Buckingham College in connexion with it. After the dissolution of the +monastery, Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden, erected Magdalene in place of +the former house in 1542. The foundation consists of a master and seven +fellows, besides scholars. There are some valuable exhibitions +appropriated to Wisbech school. The appointment of the master is +peculiar, the office being in the gift of the occupant of Audley End, an +estate near Saffron Walden, Essex. Some parts of the original building +are preserved, but the most notable portion of the college is the +Pepysian library, dating _c_. 1700. It contains the very valuable +collection of books bequeathed by Samuel Pepys to the college, at which +he was a student. Buckingham College had Archbishop Cranmer as a +lecturer; Charles Kingsley and Charles Stewart Parnell were educated at +Magdalene. + +_Pembroke College_ stands to the east of Trumpington Street. It was +founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, widow of Aylmer de Valence, earl of +Pembroke. Henry VI. made notable benefactions to it. The foundation +consists of a master and thirteen fellows, and there are six +scholarships on the original foundation, besides others of later +institution. The older existing buildings are mainly of the 18th +century, but much of the original fabric was removed and rebuilt in +1874. The chapel is of the middle of the 17th century, and is ascribed +to Sir Christopher Wren. The poets Spenser and Gray, Nicholas Ridley the +martyr, Archbishop Whitgift and William Pitt were associated with this +college; and from the number of bishops whose names are associated with +it the college has obtained the style of _collegium episcopale_. + +_Peterhouse_ or St Peter's College is on the west side of Trumpington +Street, almost opposite Pembroke. It has already been indicated as the +oldest Cambridge college (1284). Hugh de Balsham, the founder, had +settled some secular scholars in the ancient Augustinian Hospital of St +John in 1280, but the experiment was not a success. Nor did he carry out +his full intentions as regards Peterhouse, the foundation of which +followed on the failure of the fusion of his scholars with the hospital; +but Simon Montagu, his successor in the bishopric of Ely, carried on his +work, and in 1344 gave the college a code of statutes in which the +influence of the Merton code is plainly visible. A master and fourteen +fellows formed the original foundation, but the present consists of a +master, and not less than eleven fellows and twenty-three scholars. The +hall retains some original work; it was first built out of a legacy from +the founder. The library building (_c_. 1590) is due to a legacy from Dr +Andrew Perne (master 1554-1580); and Dr Matthew Wren (master +1625-1634), uncle of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, directed +the building of the chapel and cloisters. The most famous name connected +with the college is that of Cardinal Beaufort. + +_Queens' College_ stands at the south of the riverside group, and one of +its ranges of buildings rises immediately from the river. A college of +St Bernard had been established in 1445 by Andrew Docket or Dokett, +rector of St Botolph's church, who had also been principal of a hostel, +or students' lodge, of St Bernard. He sought and obtained the patronage +of Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., who undertook the foundation of +a new house on another site in 1448, to bear the name of Queens'. Docket +became the first master. In 1465 Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward +IV., became the college's second foundress. The foundation consists of a +president and eleven fellows. The buildings are exceedingly picturesque. +The main quadrangle, of red brick, was completed very soon after the +foundation. The smaller cloister court, towards the river, retains +building of the same period, and the beautiful wooden gallery of the +president's lodge deserves notice. Another court is called Erasmus's; +the rooms which he is said to have occupied remain, and a walk in the +college garden across the river bears his name. + +_St Catharine's College_, on the west side of Trumpington Street, was +founded by Dr Robert Woodlark or Wodelarke, chancellor of the university +and (1452) provost of King's College. It was opened in 1473, but the +charter of incorporation dates from 1475. The foundation provided for a +master (Woodlark being the first) and three fellows; there are now six +fellows, and twenty-six scholars. The principal buildings, surrounding a +court on three sides, date mainly from a complete reconstruction of the +college at the close of the 17th century. + +_St John's College_, at the north of the riverside group of colleges, +was founded in 1511 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, also foundress of +Christ's College. It replaced the Hospital of St John, which dated from +the early years of the 13th century, and has been mentioned already in +connexion with Peterhouse. The Lady Margaret died before the college was +firmly established, and her designs were not carried out without many +difficulties, which were overcome chiefly by the exertions of John +Fisher, bishop of Rochester, one of her executors. Thirty-two +fellowships were endowed, but subsequent endowments allowed extension, +and the foundation now consists of a master, fifty-six fellows, sixty +scholars and nine sizars. A large number of exhibitions are appropriated +to special schools. Of the four courts of St John's, the easternmost is +the original, and has a very fine Tudor gateway of brick. The chapel is +modern (1863-1869), an ornate example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. +The second court, practically unaltered, dates from 1508-1602. In this +there is a beautiful Masters' gallery, panelled, with a richly-moulded +ceiling; it is now used as a combination room or fellows' common-room. +The third court, which contains the library (1624), backs on to the +river, and the fourth, which is on the opposite bank, was built _c_. +1830. A covered bridge connects the two, and is commonly called the +Bridge of Sighs from a certain resemblance to the bridge of that name at +Venice. Among the notable names connected with this college are Cecil, +Lord Burghley, Thomas Cartwright, Wentworth, earl of Strafford, Roger +Ascham, Richard Bentley, John Cleveland, the satirist, Thomas Baker, the +historian, Lord Palmerston, Professor Adams, Sir John Herschel, Bishop +Colenso, Dr Benjamin Kennedy, Dean Merivale, Horne Tooke, Samuel Parr +and William Wilberforce, and the poets Herrick (afterwards of Trinity +Hall) and Wordsworth. + +_Selwyn College_, standing west of the river (Sidgwick Avenue), was +founded in 1882 by public subscription in memory of George Augustus +Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand and afterwards of Lichfield, for the +purpose of giving university education with economy "combined," +according to the charter, "with Christian training, based upon the +principles of the Church of England." + +_Sidney Sussex College_ faces Sidney Street. It was founded under the +will (1588) of the Lady Frances Sidney, dowager countess of Sussex (d. +1589), and received its charter in 1596. The foundress provided for a +master, ten fellows and twenty scholars, but thirty-six scholarships +are now provided. The original buildings were of brick, but they were +plastered over and greatly altered by Wyatville about 1830. The Grey +Friars had occupied the site, and part of their buildings remained in +the chapel until 1777. A beautiful block of new buildings, with a +cloister, was erected in 1890. The most famous name associated with the +college is that of Oliver Cromwell, who was a fellow commoner, as also +was Thomas Fuller, author of the _Worthies of England_. + +_Trinity College_, the front of which is on Trinity Street, is the +largest collegiate foundation in Cambridge, and larger than any in +Oxford. It was founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. and absorbed several +earlier institutions--King's Hall (founded by Edward III. in 1336), St +Michael's or Michaelhouse (founded by Hervey de Stanton, chancellor of +the exchequer under Edward II., in 1323), Fyswick or Physick's Hostel, +belonging to Gonville Hall, and other hostels. Henry's original +foundation was for a master and sixty fellows and scholars, but Queen +Mary and other later benefactors enabled extensions to be made, and the +foundation now consists of a master (appointed by the crown), at least +sixty fellows, seventy-four scholars and sixteen sizars, with minor +scholars, chaplains librarian and the regius professors of Divinity, +Hebrew and Greek. Major scholarships are open to undergraduates, not +being of standing to take the degree of bachelor of arts, as well as to +non-members of the university under nineteen years of age, while minor +scholarships and exhibitions are open only to the latter. There are +valuable exhibitions appropriated to certain schools, of which the most +important are those confined to Westminster school. Trinity College is +entered from Trinity Street by the King's Gateway (1518-1535) preserved +from King's Hall, but subsequently altered. The principal or Great Court +is the largest in Cambridge and very fine. Its buildings are of +different dates. In the centre is a picturesque fountain, erected by +Thomas Neville, master (1593-1615), under whose direction much of the +building was carried out. The chapel on the north side of the court was +begun in the reign of Mary. The carved oak fittings within date from the +mastership of Richard Bentley (1700-1742). The organ is particularly +fine. A statue of Sir Isaac Newton by Roubiliac stands in the +antechapel, and Richard Porson and William Whewell are buried here. The +hall on the west of the court is Neville's work (1605), and very +beautiful. The second court is also his foundation and bears his name. +The library on the west side is the work of Sir Christopher Wren. Its +interior is excellent, and besides busts of some of the vast number of +famous men connected with Trinity, it contains a statue of Lord Byron by +the Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen. The New Court, Gothic in style, was +begun in 1823. The beautiful grounds and walks of the college extend +down to and beyond the river. The college has extended its buildings to +the opposite side of Trinity Street, where the two courts known as +Whewell's Hostel were built (c. 1860) at the charge of Dr William +Whewell during his mastership. The eminent _alumni_ of this great +college are too numerous to admit of selection. + +_Trinity Hall_, which lies near the river, south of Trinity, was founded +by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich, in 1350. On the site there had +been, for about twenty years before the foundation, a house of monastic +students from Ely. The present college is alone in preserving the term +Hall in its title. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen +fellows, and the study of law, which the founder had especially in mind, +is provided for by lectureships, and not less than three studentships +tenable by graduates of the college. The buildings are for the most part +modern or modernized, but the interior of the library well preserves its +character of the early part of the 17th century. + + + University buildings. + +Of the churches of Cambridge one has long been recognized as the church +of the university, namely Great St Mary's, which stands in the centre of +the town, between King's Parade and Market Hill. It is a fine +Perpendicular structure, founded in 1478; but the tower was not +completed until 1608. Some Decorated details are preserved from a former +building. The university preachers deliver their sermons in this +church, but it was formerly the meeting-place of the university for the +transaction of business, for learned disputations and for secular +festivals. The "Cambridge chimes" struck by the clock are famous, and a +curfew is rung each evening on the great bell. The Senate House, +standing opposite Great St Mary's, dates from 1730 and is classical in +style. The buildings of the university library, in the immediate +vicinity, enclose two quadrangles, and in part occupy the site of the +old court of King's College. One of the quadrangles was formerly +occupied by the schools or lecture rooms, but as the library grew it +usurped their place. Important modern additions date from 1842, 1864 and +1888. The facade of the old schools is an excellent work of 1758. The +library is one of those which is entitled to receive, under the +Copyright Act, a copy of every book published in the United Kingdom. The +Fitzwilliam Museum, a massive classical building, was begun in 1837 to +contain the bibliographical and art collection bequeathed by Richard, +Viscount Fitzwilliam, in 1816. The museum of archaeology (classical, +general and local, 1884), is connected with the Fitzwilliam Museum. The +Pitt Press (1833), housing the university printing establishment, was +begun out of the residue of a fund for erecting the statues of William +Pitt in Hanover Square, London, and Westminster Abbey. It stands near +Pembroke, Pitt's college. The Selwyn Divinity School (1879), opposite St +John's College, was built largely at the charge of Dr William Selwyn, +Lady Margaret professor of divinity. The museums and lecture rooms +(begun in 1863) are extensive buildings on each side of Downing Street. +Included in these are the museum of zoology, which had its origin in +collections made by Sir Busick Harwood, professor of anatomy in +1785-1814, and contains the collection of fishes made by Charles Darwin +in the ship "Beagle"; the medical school, botanical museum and +herbarium, mineralogical museum, engineering laboratory (1894), optical +and astronomical lecture room, chemical laboratory (1887), and the +Cavendish laboratory for physical research (1874), the gift of William +Cavendish, 7th duke of Devonshire and chancellor of the university. The +Sedgwick Geological Museum, opened by King Edward VII. in 1904, +commemorates Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian professor of geology, and +originated in the collections of Dr John Woodward (d. 1728). Adjoining +this building, in Downing Street is the law library, founded on a +bequest from Miss Rebecca Flower Squire (d. 1898) with the law school. +The observatory (1824) is on the outskirts of the town in Madingley +Road, and the botanic garden (founded 1762, and removed to its present +site in 1831) borders Trumpington Road. The club-rooms and debating hall +of the Cambridge Union Society are adjacent to the Holy Sepulchre +church. + +The non-collegiate students of the university (i.e. those who receive +the university education and possess the same status as collegiate +students without belonging to any college) have lecture and other rooms +and a library in Fitzwilliam Hall. This body was created in 1869. The +students reside in lodgings. There are two women's colleges--Girton, +established in 1873 on the north-western outskirts of the town, having +been previously opened at Hitchin in 1869, and Newnham (1875), +originally (1873) a hall of residence for students attending special +lectures for women. Among other educational establishments mention must +be made of the Leys school, founded in 1875 by prominent Wesleyans for +non-sectarian education, and the Perse School, an ancient foundation +remodelled in 1902. + + + Non-university buildings. + +Out of a number of ancient churches in Cambridge, two, besides Great St +Mary's, deserve special notice. In St Benedict's or Benet's, which has +been already mentioned in connexion with Corpus College, the tower is of +great interest, being the oldest surviving building in Cambridge, of +pre-Norman workmanship, having rude ornamentation on the exterior and +the tower arch within. The church of the Holy Sepulchre in Bridge Street +is one of the four ancient round churches in England. Its supposed date +is 1120-1140, but although it is doubtless to be associated with the +Knights Templars, the circumstances of its foundation are not known. +The chancel is practically a modern reconstruction, and an extensive +restoration, which has been adversely criticized, was applied by the +Cambridge Camden Society to the whole fabric in 1841. At several of the +villages neighbouring or suburban to Cambridge there are churches of +interest, as at Chesterton, Trumpington, Grantchester (where the name +indicates a Roman station, borne out by the discovery of remains), Fen +Ditton and Barnwell, near which is the Norman Sturbridge chapel. In +Cambridge itself there is a Norman house, much altered, which by a +tradition of unknown origin bears the name of the School of Pythagoras. + + + University constitution and administration. + +The university is a corporate body, including all the colleges. These, +however, are also corporations in themselves, and have their own +statutes, but they are further subject to the paramount laws of the +university. The university statutes of Queen Elizabeth were only +replaced in 1858. The statutes as revised by a commission in that year +were soon found to require emendation; in 1872 another commission was +appointed, and in 1882 new statutes received the approval of the queen +in council. The head of the university is the chancellor. He is a member +of the university, of high rank and position, elected by the senate. +Being generally non-resident, he delegates his administrative duties to +the vice-chancellor, who is the head of a college, and is elected for +one year by the senate. The principal executive officers under the +vice-chancellor are as follows. The two proctors have as their main duty +that of disciplinary officers over the members of the university _in +statu pupillari_. In each year two colleges nominate one proctor each, +according to a fixed rotation which gives the larger colleges a more +frequent choice than the smaller. The proctors are assisted by four +pro-proctors. The public orator is the spokesman of the senate upon such +public occasions as the conferring of honorary degrees. The librarian +has charge of the university library. The registrary, with his +assistant, records the proceedings of the senate, &c., and has charge of +documents. The university returns two members to parliament, elected by +the members of the senate. The chancellor and _sex viri_ (elected by the +senate) form a court for offences against the university statutes by +members not _in statu pupillari_. The chancellor and six heads of +colleges, appointed by the senate, form a court of discipline for +members _in statu pupillari_. + + + Senate. + +The senate in congregation is the legislative body. Those who have votes +in it are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of divinity, law, +medicine, science, letters and music, and masters of art, law, surgery +and music. The council of the senate, consisting of the chancellor, +vice-chancellor, four heads of colleges, four professors and eight other +members of the senate chosen by the vice-chancellor, brings all +proposals (called Graces) before the senate. The revenues of the +university are derived chiefly from fees at matriculation, for certain +examinations, and for degrees, from a tax upon all members of the +university, and from contributions by the colleges, together with the +profits of the University Press. A financial board, consisting of the +vice-chancellor _ex officio_ and certain elected members, administers +the finances of the university. There are boards for each of the various +faculties, and a General Board of Studies, with the vice-chancellor at +the head. There are university professors, readers or lecturers in a +large number of subjects. The oldest professorship is the Lady Margaret +professorship of divinity, instituted by the founders of Christ's and St +John's Colleges in 1502. In 1540 Henry VIII. founded the regius +professorships of divinity, civil law, physic, Hebrew and Greek. + + + College organization--undergraduates. + +The head of a college generally bears the title of master, as indicated +above in the account of the several colleges. It has also seen that the +foundation of each college includes a certain number of fellows and +scholars. The affairs of the college are managed by the head and the +fellows, or a committee of fellows. The scholars and other members _in +statu pupillari_ are generally termed collectively undergraduates. Those +who receive no emoluments (and therefore pay the full fees) are +technically called pensioners, and form the bulk of the undergraduates. +Another group of students receiving emoluments are termed sizars; the +primary object of sizarships is to open the university course to men of +limited means. The title of fellow-commoners belongs to wealthy students +who pay special fees and have the right of dining at the fellows' +tables. This class has virtually ceased to exist. As regards his work, +the undergraduate in college is under the intimate direction of his +tutor; the disciplinary officer in college is the dean. Besides the +foundation scholarships in each college there are generally certain +scholarships and exhibitions founded by private or special benefactions; +these are frequently awarded for the encouragement of specific branches +of study, or are confined wholly, or by preference, to students from +certain schools. + + + Residence and examinations. + +The total number of students is about 3000. The colleges cannot +accommodate this number, so that a student commonly spends some part of +his residence in lodgings, which are licensed by, and under the control +of, the university authorities. Such residence implies no sacrifice of +membership of a college. There are three terms--Michaelmas (October), +Lent and Easter (summer). They include together not less than 227 days, +though the actual period of residence for undergraduates is about 24 +weeks annually. Undergraduates usually begin residence in Michaelmas +term. An elementary examination or other evidence of qualification is +required for admission to a college. After nine terms' (three years') +residence an undergraduate can take the first degree, that of bachelor +of arts (B.A.). The examinations required for the ordinary B.A. degree +are--(1) Previous examination or Little-go (usually taken in the first +term of residence or at least in the first year), including classics, +mathematics and a gospel in Greek and Paley's _Evidences of +Christianity_, or an additional Greek or Latin classic and logic. (2) +General examination in classics and mathematics, with a portion of +English history, &c. (3) Special examination in a subject other than +classical or mathematical. Candidates for honours are required to pass +the Previous examination with certain additional subjects; they then +have only a "tripos" examination in one of the following +subjects--mathematics, classics, moral sciences, natural sciences, +theology, law, history, oriental languages, medieval and modern +languages, mechanical sciences, economics. The mathematical tripos is +divided into two parts, in the first of which, down to 1909, the +candidates were classed in the result as Wranglers, Senior Optimes and +Junior Optimes. There was also an individual order of merit, the most +proficient candidate being placed at the head of the list as Senior +Wrangler. But in 1906 a number of important reforms of this tripos were +proposed by the Mathematical Board, and among these the abolition of the +individual order of merit was recommended and passed by the senate. It +is not employed in any other tripos. The classical tripos is also in two +parts, to the second of which certain kindred subjects are added +(ancient philosophy, history, &c.). Individual order of merit is not +observed in either part, the candidates being grouped in classes. There +are a large number of university prizes and scholarships on special +foundations. Such are the Smith's prizes for mathematics and natural +philosophy, on the foundation (1768) of Robert Smith, master of Trinity, +awarded up to 1883 after examination, but since then for an essay on +some branch of each subject, and the Chancellor's medals, of which two +have been awarded annually in classics since the foundation of the +prizes in 1751 by Thomas Holles, duke of Newcastle. + + + Affiliated colleges. + +The university may adopt as affiliated colleges institutions in the +United Kingdom or in any part of the British empire which fulfil certain +conditions as to the education of adult students. Attendance at these +institutions is counted as equivalent to a certain period of residence +at Cambridge University in the event of a student wishing to pursue his +work here. There are over twenty such affiliated colleges. There are +also, in England, certain "affiliated centres." These are towns in which +there is no affiliated college, but students who have there attended a +course of education managed in connexion with the university by a +committee may enter the university with privileges similar to those +enjoyed by students from affiliated colleges. + + + May week. + +The principal social function of the university is the "May Week" at the +close of the Easter term. It actually takes place in June and lasts +longer than a week. There is a great influx of visitors into Cambridge +for this occasion. The first four days are occupied by the college +boat-races on the Cam, and on subsequent days there are college balls, +concerts, theatrical performances and other entertainments. On the +Tuesday after the races there is a Congregation, at which prize +exercises are recited, and usually, but not invariably, a number of +honorary degrees are conferred on eminent men by invitation. This final +period of the academic year is called Commencement, or in Latin _Comitia +Maxim_. + + AUTHORITIES.--For details of the administration of the university and + colleges, regulations as to studies, prizes, scholarships, &c., see + the annual _Cambridge University Calendar_ and _The Students' Handbook + to the University and Colleges of Cambridge_; see also R. Willis and + J.W. Clark, _Architectural History of the University of Cambridge_ (3 + vols., Cambridge, 1886); J. Bass Mullinger, _History of the University + of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to the Accession of Charles I._ + (2 vols., 1873-1884; third vol., 1909); and smaller _History of + Cambridge_, in Longman's "Epoch" Series (1888); J.W. Clark, + _Cambridge, Historical and Picturesque_ (London, 1890); T.D. Atkinson, + _Cambridge Described and Illustrated_, with introduction by J.W. Clark + (London, 1897); F.W. Maitland, _Township and Borough_ (Cambridge, + 1898); C.W. Stubbs, _Cambridge_, in "Mediaeval Towns" series (London, + 1905); Arthur Gray, _The Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge_ + (publications of the Cambridge Antiquarian Soc., new ser. No. I, + Cambridge, 1908); J.W. Clark, _Liber memorandorum ecclesie de + Bernewelle_ (Cambridge, 1907), with an introduction by F.W. Maitland. + For the individual colleges, see the series of _College Histories_, by + various authors (London, 1899 et seq.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See also UNIVERSITIES. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Dorchester county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on the Choptank river, near Chesapeake Bay, about 60 m. S.E. of +Baltimore. Pop. (1890) 4192; (1900) 5747 (1958 being negroes); (1910) +6407. It is served by the Cambridge branch of the Philadelphia, +Baltimore & Washington railway (Pennsylvania railway), which connects +with the main line at Seaford, 30 m. distant, and with the Baltimore, +Chesapeake & Atlantic at Hurlock, 16 m. distant; and by steamers of the +Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway company. It is a business +centre for the prosperous farming region by which it is surrounded, and +is a shipping point for oysters and fish; among its manufactures are +canned fruits and vegetables, flour, hominy, phosphates, underwear and +lumber. Cambridge was founded in 1684, received its present name in +1686, and was chartered as a city in 1900. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and one of the county-seats of Middlesex county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Charles river, in the outskirts +of Boston, of which it is in effect a part, although under separate +government. Pop. (1880) 52,669; (1890) 70,028; (1900) 91,886; (1910 +census) 104,839. Of the total population in 1900, 30,446 were +foreign-born, including 11,235 Irish, 9613 English Canadians, 1944 +English, 1483 French Canadians and 1584 Swedish; and 54,200 were of +foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 24,961 of Irish +parentage, 9829 of English-Canadian parentage, 2587 of English +parentage, and 2288 of French-Canadian parentage. Cambridge is entered +directly by only one railway, the Boston & Maine. The township, now +practically built over by the city, contained originally several +separate villages, the names of which are still used as a convenience in +designating corresponding sections of the municipality: Old Cambridge, +North Cambridge, Cambridgeport and East Cambridge, the last two being +manufacturing and commercial districts. + +Old Cambridge is noted as the seat of Harvard University (q.v.) and as a +literary and scientific centre. Radcliffe College (1879), for women, +practically a part of Harvard; an Episcopal Theological School (1867), +and the New Church (Swedenborgian or New Jerusalem) Theological School +(1866) are other educational institutions of importance. To Cambridge +also, in 1908, was removed Andover Theological Seminary, a +Congregational institution chartered in 1807, opened in Andover, +Massachusetts, in 1808 (re-incorporated under separate trustees in +1907). This seminary is one of the oldest and most famous theological +institutions in the United States; it grew out of the theological +teaching previously given in Phillips Academy, and was founded by the +widow of Lt.-Governor Samuel Phillips, her son John Phillips and Samuel +Abbot (1732-1812). The instruction was strongly Calvinistic in the +earlier period, but the seminary has always been "equally open to +Protestants of every denomination." Very liberal aid is given to +students, and there is no charge for tuition. The _Bibliotheca Sacra_, +founded in 1843 by Edward Robinson and in 1844 taken over by Professors +Bela B. Edwards and Edwards A. Park, and the _Andover Review_ +(1884-1893), have been the organs of the seminary. In 1886 some of its +professors published _Progressive Orthodoxy_, a book which made a great +stir by its liberal tone, its opposition to supernaturalism and its +evident trend toward the methods of German "higher criticism." Legal +proceedings for the removal of five professors, after the publication of +this book, failed; and their successful defence helped to secure greater +freedom in thought and in instruction in American Presbyterian and +Congregational theological seminaries. The seminary is now affiliated +with Harvard University, though it remains independent and autonomous. + +Cambridge is a typical New England city, built up in detached +residences, with irregular streets pleasantly shaded, and a considerable +wealth of historic and literary associations. There are many reminders +of the long history of Harvard, and of the War of Independence. +Cambridge was the site of the camp of the first American army, at the +outbreak of the war, and from it went the detachment which intrenched on +Bunker's Hill. Here are the Apthorp House (built in 1760), in which +General Burgoyne and his officers were lodged as prisoners of war in +1777; the elm under which, according to tradition, Washington took +command of the Continental Army on the 3rd of July 1775; the old Vassall +or Craigie House (1759), where Washington lived in 1775-1776, and which +was later the home of Edward Everett, Joseph E. Worcester, Jared Sparks +and (1837-1882) Henry W. Longfellow. Elbridge Gerry lived and James +Russell Lowell was born, lived and died in "Elmwood" (built in 1767); +Oliver Wendell Holmes was born in Cambridge also; John Fiske, the +historian, lived here; and there are many other literary associations, +attractive and important for those interested in American letters. In Mt +Auburn Cemetery are buried many artists, poets, scholars and other men +and women of fame. Cambridge is one of the few American cities +possessing a crematorium (1900). The municipal water-works are +excellent. A handsome bridge joining Cambridgeport to Boston (cost about +$2,250,000) was opened late in 1906. Four other bridges span the Charles +river between the two cities. A dam between East Cambridge and Boston, +traversed by a roadway 150 ft. wide, was in the process of construction +in 1907; and an extension of the Boston subway into Cambridge to the +grounds of Harvard University, a distance of about 3 m., was projected. +The city government is administered almost entirely under the state +civil-service laws, Cambridge having been a leader in the adoption of +its provisions. A non-partisan association for political reform did +excellent work from 1890 to 1900, when it was superseded by a +non-partisan party. Since 1887 the city has declared yearly by +increasing majorities for prohibition of the liquor traffic. The high +schools enjoy a notable reputation. A handsome city hall (cost $235,000) +and public library (as well as a manual training school) were given to +the city by Frederick H. Rindge, a one-time resident, whose benefactions +to Cambridge aggregated in value $650,000. Cambridge has many +manufacturing establishments, and in 1905 the city's factory products +were valued at $42,407,064, an increase of 45.8% over their value in +1900. The principal manufactures are slaughtering and meat-packing +products, foundry and machine-shop products, rubber boots and shoes, +rubber belting and hose, printing and publishing products, carpentering, +pianos and organs, confectionery and furniture. Cambridge is one of the +chief publishing centres of the country. The tax valuation of property +in 1906 ($105,153,235) was more than $1000 per inhabitant. + +Cambridge is "one of the few American towns that may be said to have +owed their very name and existence to the pursuit of letters" (T.W. +Higginson). Its site was selected in 1630 by Governor Winthrop and +others as suitable for fortifications and defence, and it was intended +to make it the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; but as Boston's +peninsular position gave it the advantage in commerce and in defence +against the Indians, the plan fell through, although up to 1638 various +sessions of the general court and particular courts were held here. The +township records (published) are continuous since 1632. A direct tax for +the wooden "pallysadoe" about Cambridge led the township of Watertown in +1632 to make the first protest in America against taxation without +representation. The settlement was first known as the "New Towne," but +in 1638 was named Cambridge in honour of the English Cambridge, where +several score of the first immigrants to the colony were educated. The +oldest college in America (Harvard) was founded here in 1636. In 1639 +there was set up in Cambridge the first printing press of British North +America (Boston having none until 1676). Other notable dates in history +are 1637 and 1647, when general synods of New England churches met at +Cambridge to settle disputed doctrine and define orthodoxy; the +departure for Connecticut of Thomas Hooker's congregation in 1636; the +meeting of the convention that framed the present constitution of the +commonwealth, 1779-1780; the separation of the Congregationalists and +Unitarians of the first parish church, in 1829; and the grant of a city +charter in 1846. The original township of Cambridge was very large, and +there have been successively detached from it, Newton (1691), Lexington +(1713), Brighton (1837) and Arlington (1867). + + See Lucius R. Paige, _History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630-1877_ + (Boston, Mass., 1877); T.W. Higginson, _Old Cambridge_ (New York, + 1899); Arthur Gilman (ed.), _The Cambridge of Eighteen Hundred and + Ninety-Six_ (Cambridge, 1896); and _Historic Guide to Cambridge_ + (Cambridge, 1907.) + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Guernsey county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on Wills Creek, about 75 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4361; +(1900) 8241, of whom 407 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,327. It is +served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and is +connected by an electric line with Byesville (pop. in 1910, 3156), about +7 m. S. Cambridge is built on a hill about 800 ft. above sea-level. +There is a public library. Coal, oil, natural gas, clay and iron are +found in the vicinity, and among the city's manufactures are iron, +steel, glass, furniture and pottery. The value of its factory products +in 1905 was $2,440,917. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works. Cambridge was first settled in 1798 by emigrants from the +island of Guernsey (whence the name of the county); was laid out as a +town in 1806; was incorporated as a village in 1837; and was chartered +as a city in 1893. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS, a school of philosophico-religious thinkers which +flourished mainly at Cambridge University in the second half of the 17th +century. The founder was Benjamin Whichcote and the chief members were +Ralph Cudworth, Richard Cumberland, Joseph Glanvill, Henry More and John +Norris (see separate articles). Other less important members were +Nathanael Culverwel (d. 1651?), Theophilus Gale (1628-1678), John +Pordage (1607-1681), George Rust (d. 1670), John Smith (1618-1652) and +John Worthington (1618-1671). They represented liberal thought at the +time and were generally known as Latitudinarians. Their views were due +to a reaction against three main tendencies in contemporary English +thought: the sacerdotalism of Laud and his followers, the obscurantist +sectaries and, most important of all, the doctrines of Hobbes. They +consist chiefly of a reconciliation between reason and religion, +resulting in a generally tolerant spirit. They tend always to mysticism +and the contemplation of things transcendental. In spite of inaccuracy +and the lack of critical capacity in dealing with their authorities both +ancient and modern, the Cambridge Platonists exercised a valuable +influence on English theology and thought in general. Their chief +contributions to thought were Cudworth's theory of the "plastic nature" +of God, More's elaborate mysticism, Norris's appreciation of +Malebranche, Glanvill's conception of scepticism as an aid to Faith, +and, in a less degree, the harmony of Faith and Reason elaborated by +Culverwel. The one doctrine on which they all combined to lay especial +emphasis was the absolute existence of right and wrong quite apart from +the theory of divine authority. Their chief authorities were Plato and +the Neo-platonists (between whom they made no adequate distinction), and +among modern philosophers, Descartes, Malebranche and Boehme. From these +sources they attempted to evolve a philosophy of religion, which would +not only refute the views of Hobbes, but would also free theology +finally from the errors of scholasticism, without plunging it in the +newer dangers of unfettered rationalism (see ETHICS). + + See Tulloch, _Rational Theology in England in the 17th Century_; + Hallam, _Literature of Europe_ (chap, on Philosophy from 1650 to + 1700); Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_; von Stein, _Sieben Bucher + zur Geschichte des Platonismus_ (1862), and works on individual + philosophers appended to biographies. + + + + +CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by +Lincolnshire, E. by Norfolk and Suffolk, S. by Essex and Hertfordshire, +and W. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire. The area +is 858.9 sq. m. The greater part of the county falls within the district +of the Fens, and is flat, elevated only a few feet above sea-level, and +intersected with innumerable drainage channels. The physical +characteristics of this district, and the history of its reclamation +from a marshy and in great part uninhabitable condition, fall for +consideration under the heading FENS. Except in the south of the county +the scenery of the flat land is hardly ever varied by rising ground or +wood, and owes the attraction it possesses rather to individuality than +to beauty. At the south-eastern and southern boundaries, and to the west +of Cambridge, bordering the valley of the Cam on the north, the land +rises in gentle undulations; but for the rest, such elevations as the +Gog Magog Hills, S.E. of Cambridge, and the gentle hillock on which the +city of Ely stands, are isolated and conspicuous from afar. The +principal rivers are the Ouse and its tributaries in the south and +centre, and the Nene in the north; the greater part of the waters of +both these rivers within Cambridgeshire flow in artificial channels, of +which those for the Ouse, two great parallel cuts between Earith and +Denver Sluice, in Norfolk, called the Bedford Rivers, form the most +remarkable feature in the drainage of the county. The old main channel +of the Ouse, from Ely downward to Denver (below which are tidal waters), +is filled chiefly by the waters of the Cam or Granta, which joins the +Ouse 3 m. above Ely, the Lark (which with its feeder, the Kennett, forms +the boundary of the county with Suffolk for a considerable distance) and +the Little Ouse, forming part of the boundary with Norfolk. + +_Geology_.--By its geological features, Cambridgeshire is divisible into +three well-marked regions; in the south and south-east are the low +uplands formed by the Chalk; north of this, but best developed in the +south-west, is a clay and greensand area; all the remaining portion is +alluvial Fenland. The general strike of the rocks is along a south-west +and north-east line, the dip is south-easterly. The oldest rock is the +Jurassic Oxford Clay, which appears as an irregular strip of elevated +flat ground reaching from Croxton by Conington and Fenny Drayton to +Willingham and Rampton. Eastward and northward it no doubt forms the +floor of the Fen country, and at Thorney and Whittlesea small patches +rise like islands, through the level fen alluvium. The Coralline Oolite, +with the Els worth or St Ives rock at the base, occurs as a small patch, +covered by Greensand, at Upware, whence many fossils have been obtained; +elsewhere its place is taken by the Ampthill Clays, which are passage +beds between the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. The latter clay lies in a +narrow strip by Papworth St Agnes, Oakington and Cottenham; a large +irregular outcrop surrounds Haddenham and Ely, and similar occurrences +are at March, Chatteris and Manea. Above the Kimmeridge Clay comes the +Lower Greensand, sandy for the greater part, but here and there +hardened into the condition known as "Carstone," which has been used as +an inferior building-stone. This formation is thickest in the +south-west; it extends from the border by Gamlingay, Cuxton and +Cottenham, and appears again in outliers at Upware, Ely and Haddenham. +The Gault forms a strip of flat ground, 4 to 6 m. wide, running roughly +parallel with the course of the river Cam, from Guilden Morden through +Cambridge to Soham; it is a stiff blue clay 200 ft. thick in the +south-west, but is thinner eastward. At the bottom of the chalk is the +Chalk Marl, 10 to 20 ft. thick, with a glauconitic and phosphatic +nodule-bearing layer at its base, known as the Cambridge Greensand. This +bed has been largely worked for the nodules and for cement; it contains +many fossils derived from the Gault below. Several outliers of Chalk +Marl lie upon the Gault west of the Cam. The Chalk comprises all the +main divisions of the formation, including the Totternhoe stone, +Melbourn rock and Chalk rock. Much glacial boulder clay covers all the +higher ground of the county; it is a stiff brownish clay with many chalk +fragments of travelled rocks. Near Ely there is a remarkable mass of +chalk, evidently transported by ice, resting on and surrounded by +boulder clay. Plateau gravel caps some of the chalk hills, and old river +gravels occur at lower levels with the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros and +other extinct mammals. The low-lying Fen beds are marly silt with +abundant peat beds and buried forests; at the bottom is a gravel layer +of marine origin. + +_Industries_.--The climate is as a whole healthy, the fens being so +carefully drained that diseases to which dwellers in marshy districts +are commonly liable are practically eliminated. The land is very +fertile, and although some decrease is generally apparent in the acreage +under grain crops, Cambridgeshire is one of the principal +grain-producing counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total +area is under cultivation, and an unusually small proportion is under +permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop, but large quantities +of barley and oats are also grown. Among green crops potatoes occupy a +large and increasing area. Dairy-farming is especially practised in the +south-west, where the district of the Cam valley has long been known as +the Dairies; and much butter and cheese are sent to the London markets. +Sheep are pastured extensively on the higher ground, but the number of +these and of cattle for the county as a whole is not large. Beans occupy +a considerable acreage, and fruit-growing and market-gardening are +important in many parts. There is no large manufacturing industry common +to the county in general; among minor trades brewing is carried on at +several places, and brick-making and lime-burning may also be mentioned. + +_Communications_.--The principal railway serving the county is the Great +Eastern, of which system numerous branch lines centre chiefly upon +Cambridge, Ely and March. Cambridge is also served by branches of the +Great Northern line from Hitchin, of the London & North-Western from +Bletchley and Bedford, and of the Midland from Kettering. A trunk line +connecting the eastern counties with the north and north-west of England +runs northward from March under the joint working of the Great Northern +and Great Eastern companies. The artificial waterways provide the county +with an extensive system of inland navigation; and a considerable +proportion of the industrial population is employed on these. In this +connexion the building of boats and barges is carried on at several +towns. + +_Population and Administration_.--The area of the ancient county is +549,723 acres, with a population in 1891 of 188,961, and in 1901 of +190,682. The ancient county includes the two administrative counties of +Cambridge in the south and the Isle of Ely in the north. The liberty of +the Isle of Ely was formerly of the independent nature of a county +palatine, but ceased to be so under acts of 1836 and 1837. Its area is +238,048 acres, and that of the administrative county of Cambridge +315,171 acres. Cambridgeshire contains seventeen hundreds. The municipal +boroughs are Cambridge, the county town (pop. 38,379), in the +administrative county of Cambridge, and Wisbech (9381) in the Isle of +Ely. The other urban districts are--in the administrative county of +Cambridge, Chesterton (9591), and in the Isle of Ely, Chatteris (4711), +Ely (7713), March (7565) and Whittlesey (3909). Among other considerable +towns Soham (4230) and Littleport (4181), both in the neighbourhood of +Ely, may be mentioned. The town of Newmarket, which, although wholly +within the administrative county of West Suffolk, is mainly in the +ancient county of Cambridgeshire, is famous for its race-meetings. The +county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at +Cambridge. Each administrative county has a court of quarter sessions, +and the two are divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The borough +of Cambridge has a separate court of quarter sessions, and this borough +and Wisbech have separate commissions of the peace. The university of +Cambridge exercises disciplinary jurisdiction over its members. There +are 168 entire civil parishes in the two administrative counties. +Cambridgeshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Ely and the +archdeaconries of Ely and Sudbury, but small portions are within the +dioceses of St Albans and Norwich. There are 194 ecclesiastical parishes +or districts wholly or in part within the county. The parliamentary +divisions are three, namely, Northern or Wisbech, Western or Chesterton, +and Eastern or Newmarket, each returning one member. The county also +contains the parliamentary borough of Cambridge, returning one member; +and the university of Cambridge returns two members. + +_History_.--The earliest English settlements in what is now +Cambridgeshire were made about the 6th century by bands of Engles, who +pushed their way up the Ouse and the Cam, and established themselves in +the fen-district, where they became known as the Gyrwas, the districts +corresponding to the modern counties of Huntingdonshire and +Cambridgeshire being distinguished as the lands of the North Gyrwas and +the South Gyrwas respectively. At this period the fen-district stretched +southward as far as Cambridge, and the essential unity which it +preserved is illustrated later by its inclusion under one sheriff, +chosen in successive years from Cambridgeshire proper, the Isle of Ely +and Huntingdonshire. In 656 numerous lands in the neighbourhood of +Wisbech were included in the endowment of the abbey of Peterborough, and +in the same century religious houses were established at Ely and +Thorney, both of which, however, were destroyed during the Danish +invasions of the 9th century. After the treaty of Wedmore the district +became part of the Danelaw. On the expulsion of the Danes by Edward in +the 10th century it was included in East Anglia, but in the 11th century +was again overrun by the Danes, who in the course of their devastations +burnt Cambridge. The first mention of the shire in the Saxon Chronicle +records the valiant resistance which it opposed to the invaders in 1010 +when the rest of East Anglia had taken ignominious flight. The +shire-system of East Anglia was in all probability not definitely +settled before the Conquest, but during the Danish occupation of the 9th +century the district possessed a certain military and political +organization round Cambridge, its chief town, whence probably originated +the constitution and demarcation of the later shire. At the time of the +Domesday Survey the county was divided as now, except that the Isle of +Ely, which then formed two hundreds having their meeting-place at +Witchford, is now divided into the four hundreds of Ely, Wisbech, North +Witchford and South Witchford, while Cambridge formed a hundred by +itself. The hundred of Flendish was then known as Flamingdike. +Cambridgeshire was formerly included in the diocese of Lincoln, until, +on the erection of Ely to a bishop's see in 1109, almost the whole +county was placed in that diocese. In 1291 the whole county, with the +exception of parishes in the deanery of Fordham and diocese of Norwich, +constituted the archdeaconry of Ely, comprising the deaneries of Ely, +Wisbech, Chesterton, Cambridge, Shingay, Bourn, Barton and Camps. The +Isle of Ely formerly constituted an independent franchise in which the +bishops exercised quasi-palatinate rights, and offences were held to be +committed against the bishop's peace. These privileges were considerably +abridged in the reign of Henry VIII., but the Isle still had separate +civil officers, appointed by the bishop, chief among whom were the +chief justice, chief bailiff, deputy bailiff and two coroners. The +bishop is still _custos rotulorum_ of the Isle. Cambridgeshire has +always been remarkable for its lack of county families, and for the +frequent changes in the ownership of estates. No Englishmen retained +lands of any importance after the Conquest, and at the time of the +Domesday Survey the chief lay proprietors were Alan, earl of Brittany, +whose descendants the Zouches retained estates in the county until the +15th century; Picot the sheriff, whose estates passed to the families of +Peverell and Peche; Aubrey de Vere, whose descendants retained their +estates till the 16th century; and Hardwinus de Scalariis, ancestor of +the Scales of Whaddon. + +From the time of Hereward's famous resistance to the Conqueror in the +fen-district, the Isle of Ely was intimately concerned with the great +political struggles of the country. It was defended against Stephen by +Bishop Nigellus of Ely, who fortified Ely and Aldreth, and the latter in +1144 was held for the empress Maud by Geoffrey de Mandeville. During the +struggles between John and his barons, Faukes de Breaute was made +governor of Cambridge Castle, which, however, surrendered to the barons +in the same year. The Isle of Ely was seized by the followers of Simon +de Montfort in 1266, but in 1267 was taken by Prince Edward. At the +Reformation period the county showed much sympathy with the Reformers, +and in 1642 the knights, gentry and commoners of Cambridgeshire +petitioned for the removal of all unwarrantable orders and dignities, +and the banishment of popish clergy. In the civil war of the 17th +century Cambridgeshire was one of the associated counties in which the +king had no visible party, though the university assisted him with +contributions of plate and money. + +Cambridgeshire has always been mainly an agricultural county. The +Domesday Survey mentions over ninety mills and numerous valuable +fisheries, especially eel-fisheries, and contains frequent references to +wheat, malt and honey. The county had a flourishing wool-industry in the +14th century, and became noted for its worsted cloths. The Black Death +of 1349 and the ravages committed during the Wars of the Roses were +followed by periods of severe depression, and in 1439 several +Cambridgeshire towns obtained a remission of taxation on the plea of +poverty. In the 16th century barley for malt was grown in large +quantities in the south, and the manufacture of willow-baskets was +carried on in the fen-districts. Saffron was extensively cultivated in +the 18th century, and paper was manufactured near Sturbridge. Sturbridge +fair was at this period reckoned the largest in Europe, the chief +articles of merchandise being wool, hops and leather; and the Newmarket +races and horse-trade were already famous. Large waste areas were +brought under cultivation in the 17th century through the drainage of +the fen-district, which was brought to completion about 1652 through the +labours of Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman. The coprolite industry was +very profitable for a short period from 1850 to 1880, and its decline +was accompanied by a general industrial and agricultural depression. +Cambridgeshire returned three members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 +the county returned two members, the borough of Cambridge two members, +and the city of Ely two members, this being the sole return for Ely. The +university was summoned to return members in 1300 and again in 1603, but +no returns are recorded before 1614, after which it continued to return +two members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned three +members. + +_Antiquities_.--In ecclesiastical architecture Cambridgeshire would be +rich only in the possession of the magnificent cathedral at Ely and the +round church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jesus College and King's College +chapels, and many other examples in Cambridge. But there are many fine +churches elsewhere. At Thorney, a small town in the north of the county, +which owes much in appearance to the 8th duke of Bedford (d. 1872), the +parish church is actually a portion of the church of an abbey said to +date originally from the 7th century, and refounded in 972 by Ethelwold, +bishop of Winchester, as a Benedictine monastery. The church is partly +fine Norman. Another Norman building of special interest is Sturbridge +chapel near Cambridge, which belonged to a lepers' hospital. To this +foundation King John granted a fair, which became, and continued until +the 18th century, one of the most important in England. It is still held +in September. At Swaffham Prior there are remains of two churches in one +churchyard, the tower of one being good Transitional Norman, while that +of the other is Perpendicular, the upper part octagonal. Among many +Early English examples the church of Cherry Hinton near Cambridge may be +mentioned. The churches of Trumpington and Bottisham are fine specimens +of the Decorated style; in the first is a famous brass to Sir Roger de +Trumpington (1289). As Perpendicular examples the tower and spire of St +Mary's, Whittlesey, and the rich wooden roof of Outwell church, may be +selected. Monastic remains are scanty. Excluding the town of Cambridge +there are no domestic buildings, either ancient or modern, of special +note, with the exception of Sawston Hall, in the south of the county, a +quadrangular mansion dated 1557-1584. + + AUTHORITIES.--See D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_, vol. ii. part + i. (London, 1808); C.C. Babington, _Ancient Cambridgeshire_ + (Cambridge, 1883); R. Bowes, _Catalogue of Books printed at or + relating to Cambridge_ (Cambridge, 1891 et seq.); E. Conybeare, + _History of Cambridgeshire_ (London, 1897); _Victoria County History, + Cambridgeshire_. + + + + +CAMBUSLANG, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is situated near the +Clyde, 4-1/2 m. S.E. of Glasgow (of which it is a residential suburb) by +the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891) 8323; (1901) 12,252. Its leading +industries include coal-mining, turkey-red dyeing and brick-making. It +contains one of the largest steel works in the United Kingdom. Among the +chief edifices are a public hall, institute and library. It was the +birthplace of John Claudius London (1783-1843), the landscape gardener +and writer on horticulture, whose _Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum_ +still ranks as an authority. + + + + +CAMBYSES (Pers. _Kambujiya_), the name borne by the father and the son +of Cyrus the Great. When Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 he was employed +in leading religious ceremonies (_Chronicle of Nabonidus_), and in the +cylinder which contains Cyrus's proclamation to the Babylonians his name +is joined to that of his father in the prayers to Marduk. On a tablet +dated from the first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babel. +But his authority seems to have been quite ephemeral; it was only in +530, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, that he +associated Cambyses on the throne, and numerous Babylonian tablets of +this time are dated from the accession and the first year of Cambyses, +when Cyrus was "king of the countries" (i.e. of the world). After the +death of his father in the spring of 528 Cambyses became sole king. The +tablets dated from his reign in Babylonia go down to the end of his +eighth year, i.e. March 521 B.C.[1] Herodotus (iii. 66), who dates his +reign from the death of Cyrus, gives him seven years five months, i.e. +from 528 to the summer of 521. For these dates cf. Ed. Meyer, +_Forschungen zur alien Geschichte_, ii. 470 ff. + +The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek authors, come from +two different sources. The first, which forms the main part of the +account of Herodotus (iii. 2; 4; 10-37), is of Egyptian origin. Here +Cambyses is made the legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries +(Herod, iii. 2, Dinon fr. 11, Polyaen. viii. 29), whose death he avenges +on the successor of the usurper Amasis. (In Herod, iii. 1 and Ctesias +_ap_. Athen. xiii. 560 D, this tradition is corrected by the Persians: +Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends him a daughter +of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by her Cambyses is induced to +begin the war.) His great crime is the killing of the Apis, for which he +is punished by madness, in which he commits many other crimes, kills his +brother and his sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a +wound in the hip, at the same place where he had wounded the sacred +animal. Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek +mercenaries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who +betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the crime of +Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further accused of +drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and thus accelerates his +ruin. These traditions are found in different passages of Herodotus, and +in a later form, but with some trustworthy detail about his household, +in the fragments of Ctesias. With the exception of Babylonian dated +tablets and some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary +evidence about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of Darius in +the Behistun inscription. It is impossible from these sources to form a +correct picture of Cambyses' character; but it seems certain that he was +a wild despot and that he was led by drunkenness to many atrocious +deeds. + +It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered Asia, Cambyses +should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only remaining independent +state of the Eastern world. Before he set out on his expedition he +killed his brother Bardiya (Smerdis), whom Cyrus had appointed governor +of the eastern provinces. The date is given by Darius, whereas the Greek +authors narrate the murder after the conquest of Egypt. The war took +place in 525, when Amasis had just been succeeded by his son +Psammetichus III. Cambyses had prepared for the march through the desert +by an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a large supply of +water to the stations. King Amasis had hoped that Egypt would be able to +withstand the threatened Persian attack by an alliance with the Greeks. +But this hope failed; the Cyprian towns and the tyrant Polycrates of +Samos, who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, +and the commander of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus, went +over to them. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the Egyptians were +beaten, and shortly afterwards Memphis was taken. The captive king +Psammetichus was executed, having attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian +inscriptions show that Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the +costume of the Pharaohs, although we may very well believe that he did +not conceal his contempt for the customs and the religion of the +Egyptians. From Egypt Cambyses attempted the conquest of Ethiopia +(Cush), i.e. the kingdom of Napata and Meroe, the modern Nubia. But his +army was not able to cross the deserts; after heavy losses he was forced +to return. In an inscription from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the +Ethiopian king Nastesen relates that he had beaten the troops of +Kembasuden, i.e. Cambyses, and taken all his ships (H. Schafer, _Die +Aethiopische Konigsinschrift des Berliner Museums_, 1901). Another +expedition against the great oasis failed likewise, and the plan of +attacking Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians to +operate against their kindred. Meanwhile in Persia a usurper, the Magian +Gaumata, arose in the spring of 522, who pretended to be the murdered +Bardiya (Smerdis). He was acknowledged throughout Asia. Cambyses +attempted to march against him, but, seeing probably that success was +impossible, died by his own hand (March 521). This is the account of +Darius, which certainly must be preferred to the traditions of Herodotus +and Ctesias, which ascribe his death to an accident. According to +Herodotus (iii. 64) he died in the Syrian Ecbatana, i.e. Hamath; +Josephus (_Ant._ xi. 2. 2) names Damascus; Ctesias, Babylon, which is +absolutely impossible. + + See A. Lincke, _Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und Kunst des + Mittelalters_, in _Aegyptiaca: Festschrift fur Georg Ebers_ (Leipzig + 1897), pp. 41-61; also PERSIA: _Ancient History._ (Ed. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the much discussed tablet, which is said to date from his 11th + year, the writer had at first written "10th year of Cyrus," and then + corrected this date into "1st year of Cambyses"; see Strassmaier, + _Inschriften von Cambyses_, No. 97. + + + + +CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, 1ST EARL (1714-1794), lord chancellor of England, +was born in Kensington in 1714. He was a descendant of an old Devonshire +family of high standing, the third son of Sir John Pratt, chief-justice +of the king's bench in the reign of George I. He received his early +education at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. In 1734 he became a +fellow of his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of +B.A. Having adopted his father's profession, he had entered the Middle +Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the bar. He +practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling also the +western circuit. For some years his practice was so limited, and he +became so much discouraged, that he seriously thought of turning his +back on the law and entering the church. He listened, however, to the +advice of his friend Sir Robert Henley, a brother barrister, afterwards +known as Lord Chancellor Northington, and persevered, working on and +waiting for success. The first case which brought him prominently into +notice and gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government +prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen, for a libel on the +House of Commons. + +His speech for the defence contributed much to the verdict for the +defendant. In 1757, through the influence of William Pitt (afterwards +earl of Chatham), with whom he had formed an intimate friendship while +at Eton, he received the appointment of attorney-general. The same year +he entered the House of Commons as member for the borough of Downton in +Wiltshire. He sat in parliament four years, but did not distinguish +himself as a debater. His professional practice now largely increased. +One of the most noticeable incidents of his tenure of office as +attorney-general was the prosecution of Dr. J. Shebbeare (1709-1788), a +violent party writer of the day, for a libel against the government +contained in his notorious _Letters to the People of England_, which +were published in the years 1756-1758. As a proof of Pratt's moderation +in a period of passionate party warfare and frequent state trials, it is +noted that this was the only official prosecution for libel which he set +on foot. In January 1762 Pratt was raised to the bench as chief-justice +of the common pleas. He was at the same time knighted. Soon after his +elevation the nation was thrown into great excitement about the +prosecution of John Wilkes, and the question involved in it of the +legality of "general warrants." Chief-Justice Pratt pronounced, with +decisive and almost passionate energy, against their legality, thus +giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation and winning for himself +an extraordinary degree of popularity as one of the "maintainers of +English constitutional liberty." Honours fell thick upon him in the form +of addresses from the city of London and many large towns, and of +presentations of freedom from various corporate bodies. In July 1765 he +was raised to the peerage as Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in the +county of Kent; and in the following year he was removed from the court +of common pleas to take his seat as lord chancellor (July 30, 1766). +This seat he retained less than four years; for although he discharged +its duties in so efficient a manner that, with one exception, his +decisions were never reversed on appeal, he took up a position of such +uncompromising hostility to the governments of the day, the Grafton and +North administrations, on the greatest and most exciting matters, the +treatment of the American colonies and the proceedings against John +Wilkes, that the government had no choice but to require of him the +surrender of the great seal. He retired from the court of chancery in +January 1770, but he continued to take a warm interest in the political +affairs and discussions of the time. He continued steadfastly to oppose +the taxation of the American colonists, and signed, in 1778, the protest +of the Lords in favour of an address to the king on the subject of the +manifesto of the commissioners to America. In 1782 he was appointed +president of the council under the Rockingham administration, but +retired in the following year. Within a few months he was reinstated in +this office under the Pitt administration, and held it till his death. +Lord Camden was a strenuous opponent of Fox's India Bill, took an +animated part in the debates on important public matters till within two +years of his death, introduced in 1786 the scheme of a regency on +occasion of the king's insanity, and to the last zealously defended his +early views on the functions of juries, especially of their right to +decide on all questions of libel. He was raised to the dignity of an +earl in May 1786, and was at the same time created Viscount Bayham. Earl +Camden died in London on the 18th of April 1794. His remains were +interred in Seale church in Kent. + + + + +CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT, 2ND EARL and 1ST MARQUESS (1759-1840), only +son of the 1st earl, was born on the 11th of February 1750, and was +educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1780 he was chosen member of +parliament for Bath, and he obtained the lucrative position of teller of +the exchequer, an office which he kept until his death, although after +1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it. In the +ministry of William Pitt, Pratt was successively a lord of the admiralty +and a lord of the treasury; then, having succeeded his father in the +earldom in 1794, he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1795. +Disliked in Ireland as an opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation and as +the exponent of an unpopular policy, Camden's term of office was one of +commotion and alarm, culminating in the rebellion of 1798. Immediately +after the suppression of the rising he resigned, and in 1804 became +secretary for war and the colonies under Pitt, and in 1805 lord +president of the council. He was again lord president from 1807 to 1812, +after which date he remained for some time in the cabinet without +office. In 1812 he was created earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden. He +died on the 8th of October 1840, and was succeeded by his only son, +George Charles, 2nd marquess (1799-1866). The present marquess is his +descendant. Camden was chancellor of the university of Cambridge and a +knight of the Garter. + + + + +CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623), English antiquary and historian, was born +in London on the 2nd of May 1551. His father, Sampson Camden, a native +of Lichfield, had settled in London, and, as a painter, had become a +member of the company of painter-stainers. His mother, Elizabeth, +belonged to the old Cumberland family of Curwen. Young Camden received +his early education at Christ's Hospital and St Paul's school, and in +1566 went to Magdalen College, Oxford, probably as a servitor or +chorister. Failing to obtain a demyship at Magdalen he removed to +Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College, and later to Christ +Church, where he was supported by his friend, Dr Thomas Thornton, canon +of Christ Church. As a defender of the established religion he was soon +engaged in controversy, and his failure to secure a fellowship at All +Souls' College is attributed to the hostility of the Roman Catholics. In +1570 he supplicated in vain for the degree of B.A., and although a +renewed application was granted in 1573 it is doubtful if he ever took a +degree; and in 1571 he went to London and devoted himself to antiquarian +studies, for which he had already acquired a taste. + +Camden spent some time in travelling in various parts of England +collecting materials for his _Britannia_, a work which was first +published in 1586. Owing to his friendship with Dr Gabriel Goodman, dean +of Westminster, Camden was made second master of Westminster school in +1575; and when Dr Edward Grant resigned the headmastership in 1593 he +was appointed as his successor. The vacations which he enjoyed as a +schoolmaster left him time for study and travel, and during these years +he supervised the publication of three further editions of the +_Britannia_. Although a layman he was granted the prebend of Ilfracombe +in 1589, and in 1597 he resigned his position at Westminster on being +made Clarencieux king-at-arms, an appointment which caused some +ill-feeling, and the York herald, Ralph Brooke, led an attack on the +genealogical accuracy of the _Britannia_, and accused its author of +plagiarism. Camden replied to Brooke in an appendix to the fifth edition +of the _Britannia_, published in 1600, and his reputation came through +the ordeal untarnished. Having brought out an enlarged and improved +edition of the _Britannia_ in 1607, he began to work on a history of the +reign of Queen Elizabeth, to which he had been urged by Lord Burghley in +1597. The first part of this history dealing with the reign down to 1588 +was published in 1615 under the title _Annales rerum Anglicarum et +Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha_. With regard to this work some +controversy at once arose over the author's treatment of Mary, queen of +Scots. It was asserted that Camden altered his original narrative in +order to please James I., and, moreover, that the account which he is +said to have given to his friend, the French historian, Jacques de Thou, +differed substantially from his own. It seems doubtful if there is any +truth in either of these charges. The second part of this work, finished +in 1617, was published, after the author's death, at Leiden in 1625 and +in London in 1627. In 1622 Camden carried out a plan to found a history +lectureship at Oxford. He provided an endowment from some lands at +Bexley, and appointed as the first lecturer, his friend, Degory Wheare. +The present occupant of the position is known as the Camden professor of +ancient history. His concluding years were mainly spent at Chislehurst, +where he had taken up his residence in 1609, and in spite of recurring +illnesses he continued to work at material for the improvement of the +_Britannia_ and kindred subjects. He died at Chislehurst on the 9th of +November 1623, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument now +stands to his memory. + +The _Britannia_, the first edition of which is dedicated to Burghley, is +a survey of the British islands written in elegant Latin. It was first +translated into English in 1610, probably under the author's direction, +and other translations have subsequently appeared, the best of which is +an edition edited by Richard Gough and published in three volumes in +1789, and in four volumes in 1806. The _Annales_ has been translated +into French, and English translations appeared in 1635, 1675 and 1688. +The Latin version was published at Leiden in 1639 and 1677, and under +the editorship of T. Hearne at Oxford in 1717. In addition to these +works Camden compiled a Greek grammar, _Institutio Graecae Grammatices +Compendiaria_, which became very popular, and he published an edition of +the writings of Asser, Giraldus Cambrensis, Thomas Walsingham and +others, under the title, _Anglica, Hibernica, Normannica, Cambrica, a +veteribus scripta_, published at Frankfort in 1602, and again in 1603. +He also drew up a list of the epitaphs in Westminster Abbey, which was +issued as _Reges, Reginae, Nobiles et alii in ecclesia collegiata Beati +Petri Westmonasterii sepulti_. This was enlarged and published again in +1603 and 1606. In 1605 he published his _Remains concerning Britain_, a +book of collections from the _Britannia_, which quickly passed through +seven editions; and he wrote an official account of the trial of the +Gunpowder Plot conspirators as _Actio in Henricum Garnetum, Societatis +Jesuiticae in Anglia superiorem et caeteros_. + +Camden, who refused a knighthood, was a man of enormous industry, and +possessed a modest and friendly disposition. He had a large number of +influential friends, among whom were Archbishop Ussher, Sir Robert +Cotton, John Selden, the French jurist Brisson, and Isaac Casaubon. His +correspondence was published in London in 1691 by Dr Thomas Smith under +the title, _Vita Gulielmi Camdeni et Illustrium virorum ad G. Camdenum +Epistolae_. This-volume also contains his _Memorabilia de seipso_; his +notes of the reign of James I.; and other interesting matter. In 1838 +the Camden Society was founded in his honour, and much valuable work has +been done under its auspices. + + + + +CAMDEN, a city and the county-seat of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., +on the Delaware river, directly opposite Philadelphia, Pa. Pop. (1880) +41,659; (1890) 58,313; (1900) 75,935, of whom 10,097 were foreign-born +and 5576 were negroes; (1910) 94,538. It is a terminus of the Atlantic +City, the West Jersey & Sea Shore, and the Pennsylvania (Amboy division) +railways, and is also served by river and coasting steamboat lines. +Camden is practically a suburb of Philadelphia, with which it is +connected by ferries. It has several pleasant residential sections, and +among its public buildings are the city hall, the Camden county court +house, the post office, the free public library, the Cooper hospital and +the West Jersey homeopathic hospital. The high school has a thoroughly +equipped manual training department. The city owns and operates its +water-works system, and is an important manufacturing and ship-building +centre, among its manufactories being chemical works; asbestos, +wall-paper, oil-cloth and morocco-leather factories; woollen, worsted +and yarn mills; preserving factories; iron and steel mills; boot and +shoe factories; and ship-yards. In 1900 the total value of the city's +manufactured products was $20,451,874 (of which $17,969,954 was the +value of factory products, which in 1905 had increased 86.5% to +$33,587,273), several of the largest items being worsted goods +($2,090,991 in 1900, and $2,528,040 in 1905); leather, tanned, curried +and finished ($1,515,935 in 1900, and $6,364,928 in 1905); oil-cloth +($1,638,556 in 1900); pickles, preserves and sauces ($685,358 in 1900), +and wooden ships and boats ($409,500 in 1900, and $361,089 in 1905, when +the value of the iron and steel ship-building industry was $4,673,504). +The first settlers on the site of Camden came in 1679, but for a century +the settlement consisted of isolated farms and a small group of houses +about the ferry by which travellers from the east crossed to +Philadelphia. The early settlers were largely Quakers. About 1773 Jacob +Cooper laid out a town near the ferry, and gave it the name Camden in +honour of Lord Chancellor Camden, who had been one of the strongest +opponents of the Stamp Act. The settlement, however, was known variously +as "Pluckemin," "The Ferry" and "Cooper's Ferry" until about the time of +the War of 1812. Until 1828 it was administratively a part of the town +of Newton, Gloucester county, but in that year, with more than a +thousand inhabitants, it was chartered as a city under its present name. +During the British occupation of Philadelphia in the War of +Independence, a British force was stationed here, and Camden was the +scene of several skirmishes between the British troops and the New +Jersey irregular militia. Camden was the home of Walt Whitman from 1873 +until his death. + + + + +CAMDEN, a town and the county-seat of Kershaw county, South Carolina, +U.S.A., near the Wateree river, 33 m. N.E. of Columbia. Pop. (1890) +3533; (1900) 2441; this decrease was due to the separation from Camden +during the decade of its suburb "Kirkwood," re-annexed in 1905; (1910) +3569. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and +the Southern railways. Camden is situated about 100 ft. above the river, +which is navigable to this point. The town is a winter resort, chiefly +for Northerners. Cotton, grain and rice are produced in the vicinity, +and there are some manufactories, including cotton mills, a cotton-seed +oil mill and planing mills. Camden, first known as Pine Tree Hill, is +one of the oldest interior towns of the state, having been settled in +1758; in 1768 the present name was adopted in honour of Lord Chancellor +Camden. The town was first incorporated in 1791; its present charter +dates from 1890. For a year following the capture of Charleston by the +British in May 1780, during the War of Independence, Camden was the +centre of important military operations. It was occupied by the British +under Cornwallis in June 1780, was well fortified and was garrisoned by +a force under Lord Rawdon. On the 16th of August Gen. Horatio Gates, +with an American force of about 3600, including some Virginia militia +under Charles Porterfield (1750-1780) and Gen. Edward Stevens +(1745-1820), and North Carolina militia under Gen. Richard Caswell +(1729-1789), was defeated here by the British, about 2000 strong, under +Lord Cornwallis, who had joined Rawdon in anticipation of an attack by +Gates. Soon after the engagement began a large part of the Americans, +mostly North Carolina and Virginia militia, fled precipitately, carrying +Gates with them; but Baron De Kalb and the Maryland troops fought +bravely until overwhelmed by numbers, De Kalb himself being mortally +wounded. A monument was erected to his memory in 1825, Lafayette laying +the corner-stone. The British loss in killed, wounded and missing was +324; the American loss was about 800 or 900 killed and 1000 prisoners, +besides arms and baggage. On the 3rd of December Gates was superseded by +Gen. Nathanael Greene, who after Cornwallis had left the Carolinas, +advanced on Camden and arrived in the neighbourhood on the 19th of April +1781. Considering his force (about 1450) insufficient for an attack on +the fortifications, he withdrew a short distance north of Camden to an +advantageous position on Hobkirk's Hill, where on the 25th of April +Rawdon, with a force of only 950, took him somewhat by surprise and +drove him from the field. The casualties on each side were nearly equal: +American 271; British 258. On the 8th of May Rawdon evacuated the town, +after burning most of it. On the 24th of February 1865, during the Civil +War, a part of Gen. W.T. Sherman's army entered Camden and burned +stores of tobacco and cotton, and several buildings. (See AMERICAN WAR +OF INDEPENDENCE.) + + See also T.J. Kirkland and R.M. Kennedy, _Historic Camden_ (Columbia, + S.C., 1905). + + + + +CAMEL (from the Arabic _Djemal_ or the Heb. _Gamal_), the name of the +single-humped Arabian _Camelus dromedarius_, but also applied to the +two-humped central Asian _C. bactrianus_ and to the extinct relatives of +both. The characteristics of camels and their systematic position are +discussed under the headings TYLOPODA and ARTIODACTYLA. The two living +species are distinguishable at a glance. It may be mentioned that the +Bactrian camel, which is a shorter-legged and more ponderous animal than +the Arabian species, grows an enormously long and thick winter coat, +which is shed in blanket-like masses in spring. The Arabian camel, which +is used not only in the country from which it takes its name, but also +in North Africa and India, and has been introduced into Australia and +North America, is known only as a domesticated animal. On the other +hand, the Bactrian species, which is employed throughout a large tract +of central Asia in the domesticated condition, appears, according to +recent researches, to exist in the wild state in some of the central +Asian deserts. From the examination of specimens collected by Dr Sven +Hedin, Professor W. Leche shows that the wild Bactrian camel differs +from the domesticated breed of central Asia in the following external +characters: the humps are smaller; the long hair does not occupy nearly +so much of the body; the colour is much more rufous; and the ears and +muzzle are shorter. Many important differences are also recorded between +the skulls of the two animals, and it is especially noteworthy that the +last lower molar is smaller in the wild than in the tame race. In +connexion with this point it should be noticed that, unlike what occurs +in the yak, the wild animal is not larger than the tame one, although it +is incorrect to say that the former is decidedly the inferior of the +latter in point of stature. Dr Leche also institutes a comparison +between the skeletons of the wild and the tame Bactrian camel with the +remains of certain fossil Asiatic camels, namely, _Camelus knoblochi_ +from Sarepta, Russia, and _C. alutensis_ from the Aluta valley, Rumania. +This comparison leads to the important conclusion that the wild Bactrian +_Camelus bactrianus ferus_ comes much nearer to the fossil species than +it does to the domesticated breed, the resemblance being specially +noticeable in the absolutely and relatively small size of the last +molar. In view of these differences from the domesticated breed, and the +resemblance of the skull or lower jaw to that of the extinct European +species, it becomes practically impossible to regard the wild camels as +the offspring of animals that have escaped from captivity. + +On the latter hypothesis it has been generally assumed that the wild +camels are the descendants of droves of the domesticated breed which +escaped when certain central Asian cities were overwhelmed by +sand-storms. This theory, according to Professor Leche, is rendered +improbable by Dr Sven Hedin's observations on the habits and mode of +life of the wild camel. The habitat of the latter extends from the lower +course of the Keria river to the desert at the termination of that +river, and thence to the neighbourhood of the Achik, the ancient bed of +the Tarim river. These animals also occur in the desert district south +of the Tarim; but are most abundant in the deserts and mountains to the +southward of Kuruktagh, where there are a few brackish-water pools, and +are also common in the barren mountains between Kuruktagh and Choetagh. +Large herds have also been observed in the deserts near Altyntagh. The +capacity of camels for travelling long distances without water--owing to +special structural modifications in the stomach--is familiar to all. +That the Arabian species was one of the earliest animals to be +domesticated is evident from the record of Scripture, where six thousand +camels are said to have formed part of the wealth of the patriarch Job. +Camels also formed part of the present which Pharaoh gave to Abraham, +and it was to a company of Ishmaelites travelling from Gilead to Egypt +on camels, laden with spices, much as their Arabian descendants do at +the present day, that Joseph was sold by his brothers. + +The hump (or humps) varies in size according to the condition of the +animal, becoming small and flaccid after hard work and poor diet. + +During the rutting-season male camels become exceedingly savage and +dangerous, uttering a loud bubbling roar and engaging in fierce contests +with their fellows. The female carries her young for fully eleven +months, and produces only one calf at a time, which she suckles for a +year. Eight days after birth the young Arabian camel stands 3 ft. high, +but does not reach its full growth till its sixteenth or seventeenth +year; it lives from forty to fifty years. The flesh of the young camel +resembles veal, and is a favourite food of the Arabs, while camel's milk +forms an excellent and highly nutritious beverage, although it does not +furnish butter. The long hair is shorn every summer, and woven into a +variety of stuffs used by the Arab for clothing himself and his family, +and covering his tent. It was in raiment of camel's hair that John the +Baptist appeared as a preacher. The hair imported into Europe is chiefly +used in the manufacture of small brushes used by painters, while the +thick hide is formed into a very durable leather. The droppings are used +as fuel, and from the incinerated remains of these sal-ammoniac is +extracted, which was at one time largely exported from Egypt. + +The Bactrian camel is, if possible, of still more importance to many of +the central Asian Mongol races, supplying them alike with food and +raiment. It is, however, as "the ship of the desert," without which vast +tracts of the earth's surface could scarcely be explored, that the camel +is specially valuable. In its fourth year its training as a beast of +burden begins, when it is taught to kneel and to rise at a given signal, +and is gradually accustomed to bear increasing loads. These vary in +weight from 500 to 1000 lb., according to the variety of camel employed, +for of the Arabian camel there are almost as many breeds as there are of +the horse. When crossing a desert camels are expected to carry their +loads 25 m. a day for three days without drink, getting a supply of +water, however, on the fourth; but the fleeter breeds will carry their +rider and a bag of water 50 m. a day for five days without drinking. +When too heavily laden the camel refuses to rise, but on the march it is +exceedingly patient under its burden, only yielding beneath it to die. +Relieved from its load it does not, like other animals, seek the shade, +even when that is to be found, but prefers to kneel beside its burden in +the broad glare of the sun, seeming to luxuriate in the burning sand. +When overtaken by a dust-storm it falls on its knees, and stretching its +neck along the sand, closes its nostrils and remains thus motionless +till the atmosphere clears; and in this position it affords some shelter +to its driver, who, wrapping his face in his mantle, crouches behind his +beast. + +The food of the camel consists chiefly of the leaves of trees, shrubs +and dry hard vegetables, which it is enabled to tear down and masticate +by means of its powerful front teeth. As regards temperament, if, writes +Sir F. Palgrave, "docile means stupid, well and good; in such a case the +camel is the very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to +designate an animal that takes an interest in its rider so far as a +beast can, that in some way understands his intentions, or shares them +in a subordinate fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or +half-fellow-feeling with his master, like the horse or elephant, then I +say that the camel is by no means docile--very much the contrary. He +takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention whether he be on his back +or not, walks straight on when once set agoing, merely because he is too +stupid to turn aside, and then should some tempting thorn or green +branch allure him out of the path, continues to walk on in the new +direction simply because he is too dull to turn back into the right +road. In a word, he is from first to last an undomesticated and savage +animal rendered serviceable by stupidity alone, without much skill on +his master's part, or any co-operation on his own, save that of an +extreme passiveness. Neither attachment nor even habit impresses him; +never tame, though not wide-awake enough to be exactly wild." + +For extinct camels see TYLOPODA. (R. L.*) + + The Biblical expression (Matt. xix. 24, &c.), "it is easier for a + camel to go through a needle's eye," &c., is sometimes explained by + saying that the "needle's eye" means the small gate which is opened in + the great gate of a city, when the latter is closed for the night; but + recent criticism (e.g. Post in _Hastings' Dict._, under "Camel") + throws doubt on this explanation, and assumes that the more violent + hyperbole is intended. There is a various reading [Greek: Khamilos] + (cable) for [Greek: Khamaelos] (camel), but Cheyne, in the _Ency. + Biblica_, rejects this (see CABLE). + + + + +CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT, 1ST BARON (1737-1793), English politician and +art patron, was a nephew of the 1st earl of Chatham. He sat in +parliament from 1761 till 1784, siding against his uncle and following +George Grenville, who was also a relative; and in 1784 he was raised to +the peerage. He dabbled in architecture and the arts generally, and was +a prominent figure in the artistic circles of his day. His son THOMAS +PITT, 2nd Baron Camelford (1775-1804), who succeeded him in 1793, had an +adventurous and misspent career in the navy, but is principally +remembered for his death in a duel with Mr Best on the 10th of March +1804, the title becoming extinct. + + + + +CAMELLIA, a genus or subgenus of evergreen trees or shrubs belonging to +the natural order Ternstroemiaceae, with thick dark shining leaves and +handsome white or rose-coloured flowers. The name _Camellia_ was given +by Linnaeus in honour of George Joseph Camellus or Kamel, a Moravian +Jesuit who travelled in Asia and wrote an account of the plants of the +Philippine Island, Luzon, which is included in the third volume of John +Ray's _Historia Plantarum_ (1704). Modern botanists are agreed that the +tea-plant, placed by Linnaeus in a separate genus, _Thea_, is too nearly +allied to _Camellia_ to admit of the two being regarded as distinct +genera. _Thea_ and _Camellia_ are therefore now considered to represent +one genus, which has been generally called _Camellia_, but more +correctly _Thea_, as this name was the earlier of the two. Under the +latter view _Camellia_ is regarded as a subgenus or section of _Thea_. +It contains about eight species, natives of India, China and Japan. Most +of the numerous cultivated forms are horticultural products of _C. +japonica_, a native of China and Japan, which was introduced into Europe +by Lord Petre in 1739. The wild plant has red flowers, recalling those +of the wild rose, but most of the cultivated forms are double. In the +variety _anemonaeflora_ nearly all the stamens have become transformed +into small petaloid structures which give the flower the appearance of a +double anemone. + +Another species, _C. reticulata_, a native of Hongkong, is also prized +for its handsome flowers, larger than those of _C. japonica_, which are +of a bright rose colour and as known in cultivation semi-double or +double. + +Both _C. sasanqua_ and _C. drupifera_, the former inhabiting Japan and +China, the latter Cochin-China and the mountains of India, are +oil-yielding plants. The oil of _C. sasanqua_ (of which sasankwa is the +native Japanese name) has an agreeable odour and is used for many +domestic purposes. It is obtained from the seeds by subjecting them to +pressure sufficient to reduce them to a coarse powder, and then boiling +and again pressing the crushed material. The leaves are also used in the +form of a decoction by the Japanese women for washing their hair; and in +a dried state they are mixed with tea on account of their pleasant +flavour. The oil of _C. drupifera_, which is closely allied to _C. +sasanqua_, is used medicinally in Cochin-China. The flowers of these two +species, unlike those of _C. japonica_ and _C. reticulata_, are +odoriferous. + +Camellias, though generally grown in the cool greenhouse, are hardy in +the south of England and the south-west of Scotland and Ireland. They +grow best in a rich compost of sandy peat and loam, and should not be +allowed to get too dry at the roots; a liberal supply of water is +especially necessary during the flowering period. The best +position--when grown out of doors--is one facing north or north-west, +with a wall or hedge behind for protection from cold winds. July is the +best time for planting; care must be taken that the roots are evenly +spread, not matted into a ball. + +The plants are propagated by layers or cuttings, and the single-flowered +ones also by seeds. Cuttings are taken in August and placed in sandy +peat or loam in a cold shaded frame. In the following spring those which +have struck are placed in a gentle heat, and in September or October the +rooted plants are potted off. Camellias are also propagated by grafting +or inarching in early spring on stocks of the common variety of _C. +japonica._ + +The scale insect sometimes attacks the camellia. To remove the white +scale, the plants are washed with a sponge and solution of soft soap as +soon as their growth is completed, and again before the buds begin to +swell. The brown scale may be got rid of by repeated washings with one +of the many insecticides, but it should be applied at a temperature of +90 deg. + + + + +CAMEO, a term of doubtful origin, applied in the first instance to +engraved work executed in relief on hard or precious stones. It is also +applied to imitations of such stones in glass, called "pastes," or on +the shells of molluscous animals. A cameo is therefore the converse of +an intaglio, which consists of an incised or sunk engraving in the same +class of materials. For the history of this branch of art, and for an +account of some of its most remarkable examples, see GEM. + +The origin of the word is doubtful and has been a matter of copious +controversy. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes its use in a Sarum +inventory of 1222, _"lapis unus cameu"_ and _"magnus camehu."_ The word +is in current use in the 13th century. Thus Matthew Paris, in his Life +of Abbot Leofric of St Albans, in the _Abbatum S. Albani Vitae_, says: +_"retentis quibusdam nobilibus lapidibus insculptis, quos camaeos +vulgariter appellamus."_ In variant forms the word has found its way +into most languages, e.g. Latin, _camahutus, camahelus, camaynus_; +Italian, _chammeo, chameo_; French, _camahieu, chemahou, camaut, +camaieu_. The following may be mentioned among the derivations that have +been proposed:--von Hammer: _camaut_, the hump of a camel; Littre and +others: _camateum_, an assumed Low Latin form from [Greek: kamateuein] +and [Greek: kamaton]; Chabouillet and Babelon: [Greek: keimaelia], +treasures, connecting the word in particular with the dispersion of +treasures from Constantinople, in 1204; King: Arabic _camea_, an amulet. + + For a bibliography of the question, see Babelon, _Cat. des Camees ... + de la Bibliotheque Nationale_, p. iv. + + + + +CAMERA (a Latin adaptation of Gr. [Greek: kamara], an arched chamber), +in law, a word applied at one time to the English judges' chambers in +Serjeants' Inn, as distinct from their bench in Westminster Hall. It was +afterwards applied to the judges' private room behind the court, and, +hence, in the phrase _in camera_, to cases heard in private, i.e. in +chambers. So far as criminal cases are concerned, the courts have no +power to hear them in private, nor have they any power to order adults +(men or women) out of court during the hearing. In civil proceedings at +common law, it may also be laid down that the public cannot be excluded +from the court; in _Malan_ v. _Young_, 1889, 6 T.L.R. 68, Mr Justice +Denman held that he had power to hear the case _in camera_, but he +afterwards stated that there was considerable doubt among the judges as +to the power to hear cases _in camera_, even by consent, and the case +was, by consent of the parties, finally proceeded with before the judge +_as arbitrator_. In the court of chancery it is the practice to hear in +private cases affecting wards of the court and lunatics, family disputes +(by consent), and cases where a public trial would defeat the object of +the action (_Andrew_ v. _Raeburn_, 1874, L.R. 9 Ch. 522). In an action +for infringement of a patent for a chemical process the defendant was +allowed to state a secret process _in camera (Badische Anilin und Soda +Fabrik_ v. _Gillman_, 1883, 24 Ch. D. 156). The Court of Appeal has +decided that it has power to sit in private; in _Mellor_ v. _Thompson_, +1885, 31 Ch. D. 55, it was stated that a public hearing would defeat the +object of the action, and render the respondent's success in the appeal +useless. In matrimonial causes, the divorce court, following the +practice of the ecclesiastical courts under the provisions of the +Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 22, hears suits for nullity of marriage +on physical grounds _in camera_, but not petitions for dissolution of +marriage, which must be heard in open court. It was also decided in +_Druce_ v. _Druce_, 1903, 19 T.L.R. 387, that, in cases for judicial +separation the court has jurisdiction to hear the case _in camera_, +where it is satisfied that justice cannot be done by hearing the case in +public. + + + + +CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument invented by Dr William Hyde +Wollaston for drawing in perspective. Closing one eye and looking +vertically downwards with the other through a slip of plain glass, e.g. +a microscope cover-glass, held close to the eye and inclined at an angle +of 45 deg. to the horizon, one can see the images of objects in front, +formed by reflection from the surface of the glass, and at the same +time one can also see through the transparent glass. The virtual images +of the objects appear projected on the surface of a sheet of paper +placed beneath the slip of glass, and their outline can be accurately +traced with a pencil. This is the simplest form of the camera lucida. +The image (see fig. 1) is, however, inverted and perverted, and it is +not very bright owing to the poor reflecting power of unsilvered glass. +The brightness of the image is sometimes increased by silvering the +glass; and on removing a small portion of the silver the observer can +see the image with part of the pupil while he sees the paper through the +unsilvered aperture with the remaining part. This form of the instrument +is often used in conjunction with the microscope, the mirror being +attached to the eye-piece and the tube of the microscope being placed +horizontally. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +About the beginning of the 19th century Dr Wollaston invented a simple +form of the camera lucida which gives bright and erect images. A +four-sided prism of glass is constructed having one angle of 90 deg., +the opposite angle of 135 deg., and the two remaining angles each of +67-1/2 deg. This is represented in cross-section and in position in +fig. 2. When the pupil of the eye is held half over the edge of the +prism a, one sees the image of the object with one half of the pupil and +the paper with the other half. The image is formed by successive total +reflection at the surfaces b c and a b. In the first place an inverted +image (first image) is formed in the face b c, and then an image of this +image is formed in a b, and it is the outline of this second image seen +projected on the paper that is traced by the pencil. It is desirable for +two reasons that the image should lie in the plane of the paper, and +this can be secured by placing a suitable lens between the object and +the prism. If the image does not lie in the plane of the paper, it is +impossible to see it and the pencil-point clearly at the same time. +Moreover, any slight movement of the head will cause the image to appear +to move relatively to the paper, and will render it difficult to obtain +an accurate drawing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Before the application of photography, the camera lucida was of +considerable importance to draughtsmen. The advantages claimed for it +were its cheapness, smallness and portability; that there was no +appreciable distortion, and that its field was much larger than that of +the camera obscura. It was used largely for copying, for reducing or for +enlarging existing drawings. It will readily be understood, for example, +that a copy will be half-size if the distance of the object from the +instrument is double the distance of the instrument from the copy. + (C. J. J.) + + + + +CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical apparatus consisting of a darkened chamber +(for which its name is the Latin rendering) at the top of which is +placed a box or lantern containing a convex lens and sloping mirror, or +a prism combining the lens and mirror. If we hold a common reading lens +(a magnifying lens) in front of a lamp or some other bright object and +at some distance from it, and if we hold a sheet of paper vertically at +a suitable distance behind the lens, we see depicted on the paper an +image of the lamp. This image is inverted and perverted. If now we place +a plane mirror (e.g. a lady's hand glass) behind the lens and inclined +at an angle of 45 deg. to the horizon so as to reflect the rays of light +vertically downwards, we can produce on a horizontal sheet of paper an +unperverted image of the bright object (fig. 1), i.e. the image has the +same appearance as the object and is not perverted as when the +reflection of a printed page is viewed in a mirror. This is the +principle of the camera obscura, which was extensively used in +sketching from nature before the introduction of photography, although +it is now scarcely to be seen except as an interesting side-show at +places of popular resort. The image formed on the paper may be traced +out by a pencil, and it will be noticed that in this case the image is +real--not virtual as in the case of the camera lucida. Generally the +mirror and lens are combined into a single piece of worked glass +represented in section in fig. 2. Rays from external objects are first +refracted at the convex surface _a b_, then totally reflected at the +plane surface _a c_, and finally refracted at the concave surface _b c_ +(fig. 2) so as to form an image on the sheet of paper _d e._The curved +surfaces take the place of the lens in fig. 1, and the plane surface +performs the function of the mirror. The prism _a b c_ is fixed at the +top of a small tent furnished with opaque curtains so as to prevent the +diffused daylight from overpowering the image on the paper, and in the +darkened tent the images of external objects are seen very distinctly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Quite recently, the camera obscura has come into use with submarine +vessels, the _periscope_ being simply a camera obscura under a new name. + (C. J. J.) + +_History_.--The invention of this instrument has generally been +ascribed, as in the ninth edition of this work, to the famous Neapolitan +savant of the 16th century, Giovanni Battista della Porta, but as a +matter of fact the principle of the simple camera obscura, or darkened +chamber with a small aperture in a window or shutter, was well known and +in practical use for observing eclipses long before his time. He was +anticipated in the improvements he claimed to have made in it, and all +he seems really to have done was to popularize it. The increasing +importance of the camera obscura as a photographic instrument makes it +desirable to bring together what is known of its early history, which is +far more extensive than is usually recognized. In southern climes, where +during the summer heat it is usual to close the rooms from the glare of +the sunshine outside, we may often see depicted on the walls vivid +inverted images of outside objects formed by the light reflected from +them passing through chinks or small apertures in doors or +window-shutters. From the opening passage of Euclid's _Optics_ (_c._ 300 +B.C.), which formed the foundation for some of the earlier middle age +treatises on geometrical perspective, it would appear that the above +phenomena of the simple darkened room were used by him to demonstrate +the rectilinear propagation of light by the passage of sunbeams or the +projection of the images of objects through small openings in windows, +&c. In the book known as Aristotle's _Problems_ (sect. xv. cap. 5) we +find the correlated problem of the image of the sun passing through a +quadrilateral aperture always appearing round, and he further notes the +lunated image of the eclipsed sun projected in the same way through the +interstices of foliage or lattice-work. + +There are, however, very few allusions to these phenomena in the later +classical Greek and Roman writers, and we find the first scientific +investigation of them in the great optical treatise of the Arabian +philosopher Alhazen (q.v.), who died at Cairo in A.D. 1038. He seems +to have been well acquainted with the projection of images of objects +through small apertures, and to have been the first to show that the +arrival of the image of an object at the concave surface of the common +nerve--or the retina--corresponds with the passage of light from an +object through an aperture in a darkened place, from which it falls upon +a surface facing the aperture. He also had some knowledge of the +properties of concave and convex lenses and mirrors in forming images. +Some two hundred years later, between A.D. 1266 and 1279, these problems +were taken up by three almost contemporaneous writers on optics, two of +whom, Roger Bacon and John Peckham, were Englishmen, and Vitello or +Witelo, a Pole. + +That Roger Bacon was acquainted with the principle of the camera obscura +is shown by his attempt at solving Aristotle's problem stated above, in +the treatise _De Speculis_, and also from his references to Alhazen's +experiments of the same kind, but although Dr John Freind, in his +_History of Physick_, has given him the credit of the invention on the +strength of a passage in the _Perspectiva_, there is nothing to show +that he constructed any instrument of the kind. His arrangement of +concave and plane mirrors, by which the realistic images of objects +inside the house or in the street could be rendered visible though +intangible, there alluded to, may apply to a camera on Cardan's +principle or to a method of aerial projection by means of concave +mirrors, which Bacon was quite familiar with, and indeed was known long +before his time. On the strength of similar arrangements of lenses and +mirrors the invention of the camera obscura has also been claimed for +Leonard Digges, the author of _Pantometria_ (1571), who is said to have +constructed a telescope from information given in a book of Bacon's +experiments. + +Archbishop Peckham, or Pisanus, in his _Perspectiva Communis_ (1279), +and Vitello, in his _Optics_ (1270), also attempted the solution of +Aristotle's problem, but unsuccessfully. Vitello's work is to a very +great extent based upon Alhazen and some of the earlier writers, and was +first published in 1535. A later edition was published, together with a +translation of Alhazen, by F. Risner in 1572. + +The first practical step towards the development of the camera obscura +seems to have been made by the famous painter and architect, Leon +Battista Alberti, in 1437, contemporaneously with the invention of +printing. It is not clear, however, whether his invention was a camera +obscura or a show box, but in a fragment of an anonymous biography of +him, published in Muratori's _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_ (xxv. 296), +quoted by Vasari, it is stated that he produced wonderfully painted +pictures, which were exhibited by him in some sort of small closed box +through a very small aperture, with great verisimilitude. These +demonstrations were of two kinds, one nocturnal, showing the moon and +bright stars, the other diurnal, for day scenes. This description seems +to refer to an arrangement of a transparent painting illuminated either +from the back or the front and the image projected through a hole on to +a white screen in a darkened room, as described by Porta (_Mag. Nat._ +xvii. cap. 7) and figured by A. Kircher (_Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae_), +who notes elsewhere that Porta had taken some arrangement of projecting +images from an Albertus, whom he distinguished from Albertus Magnus, and +who was probably L.B. Alberti, to whom Porta also refers, but not in +this connexion. + +G.B.I.T. Libri-Carucci dalla Sommaja (1803-1869), in his account of the +invention of the camera obscura in Italy (_Histoire des sciences +mathematiques en Italic_, iv. 303), makes no mention of Alberti, but +draws attention to an unpublished MS. of Leonardo da Vinci, which was +first noticed by Venturi in 1797, and has since been published in +facsimile in vol. ii. of J.G.F. Ravaisson-Mollien's reproductions of the +MSS. in the Institut de France at Paris (MS. _D_, fol. 8 _recto_). After +discussing the structure of the eye he gives an experiment in which the +appearance of the reversed images of outside objects on a piece of paper +held in front of a small hole in a darkened room, with their forms and +colours, is quite clearly described and explained with a diagram, as an +illustration of the phenomena of vision. Another similar passage is +quoted by Richter from folio 404b of the reproduction of the _Codice +Atlantico_, in Milan, published by the Italian government. These are +probably the earliest distinct accounts of the natural phenomena of the +camera obscura, but remained unpublished for some three centuries. +Leonardo also discussed the old Aristotelian problem of the rotundity of +the sun's image after passing through an angular aperture, but not so +successfully as Maurolycus. He has also given methods of measuring the +sun's distance by means of images thrown on screens through small +apertures. He was well acquainted with the use of magnifying glasses and +suggested a kind of telescope for viewing the moon, but does not seem to +have thought of applying a lens to the camera. + +The first published account of the simple camera obscura was discovered +by Libri in a translation of the _Architecture_ of Vitruvius, with +commentary by Cesare Caesariano, one of the architects of Milan +cathedral, published at Conio in 1521, shortly after the death of +Leonardo, and some twenty years before Porta was born. He describes an +experiment made by a Benedictine monk and architect, Dom Papnutio or +Panuce, of the same kind as Leonardo's but without the demonstration. + +About the same time Francesco Maurolico, or Maurolycus, the eminent +mathematician of Messina, in his _Theoremata de Lumine et Umbra_, +written in 1521, fully investigated the optical problems connected with +vision and the passage of rays of light through small apertures with and +without lenses, and made great advances in this direction over his +predecessors. He was the first correctly to solve Aristotle's problem, +stated above, and to apply it practically to solar observations in a +darkened room (_Cosmographia_, 1535). Erasmus Reinhold has described the +method in his edition of G. Purbach's _Theoricae Novae Planetarum_ +(1542), and probably got it from Maurolycus. He says it can also be +applied to terrestrial objects, though he only used it for the sun. His +pupil, Rainer Gemma-Frisius, used it for the observation of the solar +eclipse of January 1544 at Louvain, and fully described the methods he +adopted for making measurements and drawings of the eclipsed sun, in his +_De Radio Astronomico et Geometrico_ (1545). He says they can be used +for observation of the moon and stars and also for longitudes. The same +arrangement was used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, by M. Moestlin and his +pupil Kepler--the latter applying it in 1607 to the observation of a +transit of Mercury--also by Johann Fabricius, in 1611, for the first +observations of sun-spots. It is interesting to note this early +employment of the camera obscura in the field of astronomical research, +in which its latest achievements have been of such pre-eminent value. + +The addition of optical appliances to the simple dark chamber for the +purpose of seeing what was going on outside, was first described by +Girolamo Cardan in his _De Subtilitate_ (1550), as noted by Libri. The +sun shining, he fixed a round glass speculum (_orbem e vitro_) in a +window-shutter, and then closing it the images of outside objects would +be seen transmitted through the aperture on to the opposite wall, or +better, a white paper screen suitably placed. The account is not very +clear, but seems to imply the use of a concave mirror rather than a +lens, which might be suggested by the word _orbem_. He refers to +Maurolycus' work with concave specula. + +We now come to Giovanni Battista della Porta, whose account of the +camera obscura in the first edition of the _Magia Naturalis_, in four +books (1558, lib. iv. cap. 2), is very similar to Caesariano's--a +darkened room, a pyramidal aperture towards the sun, and a whitened wall +or white paper screens, but no lens. He discloses as a great secret the +use of a concave speculum in front of the aperture, to collect the rays +passing through it, when the images will be seen reversed, but by +prolonging them beyond the centre they would be seen larger and +unreversed. This is much the same as Cardan's method published eight +years earlier, but though more detailed is not very clear. He then notes +the application to portraiture and to painting by laying colours on the +projected images. Nothing is said about the use of a lens or of solar +observations. The second edition, in which he in the same words +discloses the use of a convex lens in the aperture as a secret he had +intended to keep, was not published till 1589, thirty-one years after +the first. In this interval the use of the lens was discovered and +clearly described by Daniello Barbaro, a Venetian noble, patriarch of +Aquileia, in his work _La Pratica della perspettiva_ (p. 192), published +in 1568, or twenty-one years before Porta's mention of it. The lens used +by Barbaro was an ordinary convex or old man's spectacle-glass; concave, +he says, will not do. He shows how the paper must be moved till it is +brought into the focus of the lens, the use of a diaphragm to make the +image clearer, and also the application of the method for drawing in +true perspective. That Barbaro was really the first to apply the lens to +the camera obscura is supported by Marius Bettinus in his _Apiaria_ +(1645), and by Kaspar Schott in his _Magia Universalis_ (1657), the +former taunting Porta with the appropriation. + +In an Italian translation of Euclid's _Optica_, with commentary, +Egnacio Danti (1573), after discussing the effects of plane, convex and +concave reflectors, fully describes the method of showing reversed +images passing through an aperture in a darkened room, and shows how, by +placing a mirror behind the aperture, unreversed images might be +obtained, both effects being illustrated by diagrams. F. Risner, who +died in 1580, also in his _Opticae_ (1606) very clearly explained the +reversal of the images of the simple camera obscura. He notes the +convenience of the method for solar observations and its previous use by +some of the observers already mentioned, as well as its advantages for +easily and accurately copying on an enlarged or reduced scale, +especially for chorographical or topographical documents. This is +probably the first notice of the application of the camera to +cartography and the reproduction of drawings, which is one of its +principal uses at the present time. In the _Diversarum Speculationum +Mathematicarum el Physicarum_ (1585), by the Venetian Giovanni Battista +Benedetti, there is a letter in which he discusses the simple camera +obscura and mentions the improvement some one had made in it by the use +of a double convex lens in the aperture; he also says that the images +could be made erect by reflection from any plane mirror. + +Thus the use of the camera and of the lens with it was well known before +Porta published his second edition of the _Magia Naturalis_ in 1589. In +this the description of the camera obscura is in lib. xvii. cap. 6. The +use of the convex lens, which is given as a great secret, in place of +the concave speculum of the first edition, is not so clearly described +as by Barbaro; the addition of the concave speculum is proposed for +making the images larger and clearer, and also for making them erect, +but no details are given. He describes some entertaining peep-show +arrangements, possibly similar to Alberti's, and indicates how the dark +chamber with a concave speculum can be used for observing eclipses. +There is no mention whatever of a portable box or construction beyond +the darkened room, nor is there in his later work, _De Refractione +Optices Parte_ (1593), in which he discusses the analogy between vision +and the simple dark room with an aperture, but incorrectly. Though +Porta's merits were undoubtedly great, he did not invent or improve the +camera obscura. His only novelty was the use of it as a peep-show; his +descriptions of it are vague, but being published in a book of general +reference, which became popular, he acquired credit for the invention. + +The first to take up the camera obscura after Porta was Kepler, who used +it in the old way for solar observations in 1600, and in his _Ad +Vitellionem Paralipomena_ (1604) discusses the early problems of the +passages of light through small apertures, and the rationale of the +simple dark chamber. He was the first to describe an instrument fitted +with a sight and paper screen for observing the diameters of the sun and +moon in a dark room. In his later book, _Dioptrice_ (1611), he fully +discusses refraction and the use of lenses, showing the action of the +double convex lens in the camera obscura, with the principles which +regulate its use and the reason of the reversal of the image. He also +demonstrates how enlarged images can be produced and projected on paper +by using a concave lens at a suitable distance behind the convex, as in +modern telephotographic lenses. He was the first to use the term _camera +obscura_, and in a letter from Sir H. Wotton written to Lord Bacon in +1620 we learn that Kepler had made himself a portable dark tent fitted +with a telescope lens and used for sketching landscapes. Further, he +extended the work of Maurolycus, and demonstrated the exact analogy +between the eye and the camera and the arrangement by which an inverted +image is produced on the retina. + +In 1609 the telescope came into use, and the danger of observing the sun +with it was soon discovered. In 1611 Johann Fabricius published his +observations of sun-spots and describes how he and his father fell back +upon the old method of projecting the sun's image in a darkened room, +finding that they could observe the spots just as well as with the +telescope. They do not seem to have used a lens, or thought of using the +telescope for projecting an enlarged imase on Kepler's principle. This +was done in 1612 by Christoph Schemer, who fully described his method +of solar observation in the _Rosa Ursina_ (1630), demonstrating very +clearly and practically the advantages and disadvantages of using the +camera, without a lens, with a single convex lens, and with a telescopic +combination of convex object-glass and concave enlarging lens, the last +arrangement being mounted with an adjustable screen or tablet on an +equatorial stand. Most of the earlier astronomical work was done in a +darkened room, but here we first find the dark chamber constructed of +wooden rods covered with cloth or paper, and used separately to screen +the observing-tablet. + +Various writers on optics in the 17th century discussed the principle of +the simple dark chamber alone and with single or compound lenses, among +them Jean Tarde (_Les Astres de Borbon_, 1623); Descartes, the pupil of +Kepler (_Dioptrique_, 1637); Bettinus (_Apiaria_, 1645); A. Kircher +(_Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae_, 1646); J. Hevelius (_Selenographia_, +1647); Schott (_Magia Universalis Naturae et Artis_, 1674); C.F.M. +Deschales (_Cursus, seu Mundus Mathematicus_, 1674); Z. Traber (_Nervus +Opticus_, 1675), but their accounts are generally more interesting +theoretically than as recording progress in the practical use and +development of the instrument. + +The earliest mention of the camera obscura in England is probably in +Francis Bacon's _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, but it is only as an +illustration of the projected images showing better on a white screen +than on a black one. Sir H. Wotton's letter of 1620, already noted, was +not published till 1651 (_Reliquiae Wottonianae_, p. 141), but in 1658 a +description of Kepler's portable tent camera for sketching, taken from +it, was published in a work called _Graphice, or the most excellent Art +of Painting_, but no mention is made of Kepler. In W. Oughtred's English +edition (1633) of the _Recreations mathematiques_ (1627) of Jean +Leurechon ("Henry van Etten") there is a quaint description, with +figures, of the simple dark chamber with aperture, and also of a sort of +tent with a lens in it and the projection on an inner wall of the face +of a man standing outside. The English translation of Porta's _Natural +Magick_ was published in 1658. + +Robert Boyle seems to have been the first to construct a box camera with +lens for viewing landscapes. It is mentioned in his essay _On the +Systematic or Cosmical Qualities of Things_ (ch. vi.), written about +1570, as having been made several years before and since imitated and +improved. It could be extended or shortened like a telescope. At one end +of it paper was stretched, and at the other a convex lens was fitted in +a hole, the image being viewed through an aperture at the top of the +box. Robert Hooke, who was some time Boyle's assistant, described +(_Phil. Trans._, 1668, 3, p. 741) a camera lucida on the principle of +the magic lantern, in which the images of illuminated and inverted +objects were projected on any desired scale by means of a broad convex +lens through an aperture into a room where they were viewed by the +spectators. If the objects could not be inverted, another lens was used +for erecting the images. From Hooke's _Posthumous Works_ (1705), p. 127, +we find that in one of the Cutlerian lectures on Light delivered in +1680, he illustrated the phenomena of vision by a darkened room, or +perspective box, of a peculiar pattern, the back part, with a concave +white screen at the end of it, being cylindrical and capable of being +moved in and out, while the fore part was conical, a double convex lens +being fixed in a hole in front. The image was viewed through a large +hole in the side. It was between 4 and 5 ft. long. + +Johann Zahn, in his _Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus_ (1685-1686), +described and figured two forms of portable box cameras with lenses. One +was a wooden box with a projecting tube in which a combination of a +concave with a convex lens was fitted, for throwing an enlarged image +upon the focusing screen, which in its proportions and application is +very similar to our modern telephotographic objectives. The image was +first thrown upon an inclined mirror and then reflected upwards to a +paper screen on the top of the box. In an earlier form the image is +thrown upon a vertical thin paper screen and viewed through a hole in +the back of the camera. There is a great deal of practical information +on lenses in connexion with the camera and other optical instruments, +and the book is valuable as a repertory of early practical optics, also +for the numerous references to and extracts from previous writers. An +improved edition was published in 1702. + +Most of the writers already noticed worked out the problems connected +with the projection of images in the camera obscura more by actual +practice than by calculation, but William Molyneux, of Dublin, seems to +have been the first to treat them mathematically in his _Dioptrica Nova_ +(1692), which was also the first work in English on the subject, and is +otherwise an interesting book. He has fully discussed the optical theory +of the dark chamber, with and without a lens, and its analogy to the +eye, also several optical problems relating to lenses of various forms +and their combinations for telescopic projection, rules for finding +foci, &c. He does not, however, mention the camera obscura as an +instrument in use, but in John Harris's _Lexicon Technicum_ (1704) we +find that the camera obscura with the arrangement called the "scioptric +ball," and known as _scioptricks_, was on sale in London, and after this +must have been in common use as a sketching instrument or as a show. + +Sir Isaac Newton, in his _Opticks_ (1704), explains the principle of the +camera obscura with single convex lens and its analogy with vision in +illustration of his seventh axiom, which aptly embodies the correct +solution of Aristotle's old problem. He also made great use of the +simple dark chamber for his optical experiments with prisms, &c. Joseph +Priestley (1772) mentions the application of the solar microscope, both +to the small and portable and the large camera obscura. Many patterns of +these two forms for sketching and for viewing surrounding scenes are +described in W.J.'s Gravesande's _Essai de perspective_ (1711), Robert +Smith's _Compleat System of Optics_ (1738), Joseph Harris's _Treatise on +Optics_ (1775), Charles Hutton's _Philosophical and Mathematical +Dictionary_, and other books on optics and physics of that period. The +camera obscura was first applied to photography (q.v.) probably about +1794, by Thomas Wedgwood. His experiments with Sir Humphrey Davy in +endeavouring to fix the images of natural objects as seen in the camera +were published in 1802 (_Journ. Roy. Inst._). (J. Wa.) + + + + +CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1500-1574), German classical scholar, was born at +Bamberg on the 12th of April 1500. His family name was Liebhard, but he +was generally called Kammermeister, previous members of his family +having held the office of chamberlain (_camerarius_) to the bishops of +Bamberg. He studied at Leipzig, Erfurt and Wittenberg, where he became +intimate with Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher of history and +Greek at the gymnasium, Nuremberg. In 1530 he was sent as deputy for +Nuremberg to the diet of Augsburg, where he rendered important +assistance to Melanchthon in drawing up the Confession of Augsburg. Five +years later he was commissioned by Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg to +reorganize the university of Tubingen; and in 1541 he rendered a similar +service at Leipzig, where the remainder of his life was chiefly spent. +He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes, Xenophon, Homer, +Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoretus, Nicephorus and other Greek +writers. He published upwards of 150 works, including a _Catalogue of +the Bishops of the Principal Sees_; _Greek Epistles_; _Accounts of his +Journeys_, in Latin verse; a Commentary on Plautus; a treatise on +Numismatics; _Euclid_ in Latin; and the Lives of Helius Eobanus Hessus, +George of Anhalt and Philip Melanchthon. His _Epistolae Familiares_ +(published after his death) are a valuable contribution to the history +of his time. He played an important part in the Reformation movement, +and his advice was frequently sought by leading men. In 1535 he entered +into a correspondence with Francis I. as to the possibility of a +reconciliation between the Catholic and Protestant creeds; and in 1568 +Maximilian II. sent for him to Vienna to consult him on the same +subject. He died at Leipzig on the 17th of April 1574. + + See article by A. Horawitz in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; C. + Bursian, _Die Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ + (1883); J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ (ed. 1908), ii. 266. + + + + +CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1534-1598), German botanist and physician, son of +the classical scholar of the same name, was born at Nuremberg on the 6th +of November 1534. After finishing his studies in Germany he visited +Italy, where he graduated as doctor of medicine. On his return he was +invited to reside at the courts of several princes, but preferred to +settle in his native town of Nuremberg, where he had a botanical garden +and formed extensive collections. He wrote a _Hortus Medicus_ (1588) and +several other works. He died at Nuremberg on the 11th of October 1598. + + + + +CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB (1665-1721), German botanist and physician, was +born at Tubingen on the 12th of February 1665, and became professor of +medicine and director of the botanical gardens at Tubingen in 1687. He +died at Tubingen on the 11th of September 1721. He is chiefly known for +his investigations on the reproductive organs of plants (_De sexu +plantarum epistola_, 1694). + + + + +CAMERINO (anc. _Camerinum_), a city and episcopal see (since 465, if not +sooner; Treia is now combined with it) of the Marches, Italy, in the +province of Macerata, 6 m. S. of the railway station of Castelraimondo +(to which there is an electric tramway) which is 24 m. W. of Macerata; +2148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4005; of commune, 12,083. +The cathedral is modern, the older building having fallen in 1799; the +church of S. Venanzio suffered similarly, but preserves a portal of the +15th century. The citadel, perhaps constructed from the plans of +Leonardo da Vinci, dates from 1503. Camerino occupies the site of the +ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which (_Camertes Umbri_) became +allies of the Romans in 310 B.C. (at the time of the attack on the +Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest). On the other hand, the [Greek: +Kamertioi] referred to in the history of the year 295 B.C. are probably +the inhabitants of Clusium. Later it appears as a dependent autonomous +community with the _foedus aequum_ (Mommsen, _Rom. Staatsrecht_, iii. +664). Two cohorts of Camertes fought with distinction under Marius +against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of Catiline, +and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under the empire it was a +_municipium_. It belonged to ancient Umbria, but was on the borders of +Picenum. No ancient buildings are visible, the Roman level lying as much +as 30 ft. below the modern. + + See P. Savini, _Storia delta Citta di Camerino_ (2nd ed., Camerino, + 1895); M. Mariani, _Intorno agli antichi Camerti Umbri_ (Camerino, + 1900). (T. As.) + + + + +CAMERON, JOHN (1579-1623), Scottish theologian, was born at Glasgow +about 1579, and received his early education in his native city. After +having taught Greek in the university for twelve months, he removed to +Bordeaux, where he was soon appointed a regent in the college of +Bergerac. He did not remain long at Bordeaux, but accepted the offer of +a chair of philosophy at Sedan, where he passed two years. He then +returned to Bordeaux, and in the beginning of 1604 he was nominated one +of the students of divinity who were maintained at the expense of the +church, and who for the period of four years were at liberty to +prosecute their studies in any Protestant seminary. During this period +he acted as tutor to the two sons of Calignon, chancellor of Navarre. +They spent one year at Paris, and two at Geneva, whence they removed to +Heidelberg. In this university, on the 4th of April 1608, he gave a +public proof of his ability by maintaining a series of theses, _De +triplici Dei cum Homine Foedere_, which were printed among his works. +The same year he was recalled to Bordeaux, where he was appointed the +colleague of Dr Primrose; and when Francis Gomarus was removed to +Leiden, Cameron, in 1618, was appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, +the principal seminary of the French Protestants. + +In 1620 the progress of the civil troubles in France obliged Cameron to +seek refuge for himself and family in England. For a short time he read +private lectures on divinity in London; and in 1622 the king appointed +him principal of the university of Glasgow in the room of Robert Boyd, +who had been removed from his office in consequence of his adherence to +Presbyterianism. Cameron was prepared to accept Episcopacy, and was +cordially disliked for his adherence to the doctrine of passive +obedience. He resigned his office in less than a year. + +He returned to France, and lived at Saumur. After an interval of a year +he was appointed professor of divinity at Montauban. The country was +still torn by civil and religious dissensions; and Cameron excited the +indignation of the more strenuous adherents of his own party. He +withdrew to the neighbouring town of Moissac; but he soon returned to +Montauban, and a few days afterwards he died at the age of about +forty-six. Cameron left by his first wife several children, whose +maintenance was undertaken by the Protestant churches in France. All his +works were published after his death. + +His name has a distinct place in the development of Calvinistic theology +in Europe. He and his followers maintained that the will of man is +determined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of +men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses +into them; and that God does not move the will physically, but only +morally, by virtue of its dependence on the judgment of the mind. This +peculiar doctrine of grace and free-will was adopted by Amyraut, Cappel, +Bochart, Daille and others of the more learned among the Reformed +ministers, who dissented from Calvin's. The Cameronites (not to be +confused with the Scottish sect called Cameronians) are moderate +Calvinists, and approach to the opinion of the Arminians. They are also +called Universalists, as holding the universal reference of Christ's +death, and sometimes Amyraldists. The rigid adherents to the synod of +Dort accused them of Pelagianism, and even of Manichaeism, and the +controversy between the parties was carried on with great zeal; yet the +whole question between them was only, whether the will of man is +determined by the immediate action of God upon it, or by the +intervention of a knowledge which God impresses on the mind. + + + + +CAMERON, RICHARD (1648?-1680), founder of a Scottish religious sect of +Cameronians, which formed the nucleus of the regiment of this name in +the British army, was born at Falkland in the county of Fife. He was +educated at the village school, and his success was so great that, while +still a youth, he was appointed schoolmaster. In this situation he +became acquainted with some of the more enthusiastic field-preachers. +Persuaded by them he resigned his post and entered the family of Sir +Walter Scott of Harden as chaplain and tutor. Refusing to acknowledge +the Indulgence, he joined the ranks of the non-conforming ministers, and +incited the inhabitants of the southern counties of Scotland to protest +openly against the new edict. So formidable was the agitation that the +government pronounced illegal all armed assemblages for religious +purposes. Cameron took refuge in Holland, where he resided for some +time; but in the autumn of 1679 (probably) he returned to Scotland, and +once more made himself formidable to the government. Shortly after the +defeat of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge in that year, Cameron was +slain in a skirmish at the Aird's, or Airs, Moss, fighting bravely at +the head of the few troops which he had been able to collect. His prayer +before going into battle became a tradition--"Lord spare the green and +take the ripe." After the accession of William III. the survivors were +amnestied, and the Cameronian regiment was formed from them. + + See Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iii. (1907); + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1897), _s.v._ "Cameronianer"; A. + Smellie, _Men of the Covenant_; Herkless, _Richard Cameron_; P. + Walker, _Six Saints of the Covenant._ + + + + +CAMERON, SIMON (1799-1889), American politician, was born in Lancaster +county, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of March 1799. Left an orphan at the +age of nine, he early entered journalism, and, in banking and railway +enterprises, accumulated a considerable fortune. He became influential +in Pennsylvania politics, and in 1845-1849 served in the United States +Senate, being elected by a combination of Democratic, Whig and +"American" votes to succeed James Buchanan. In 1854, having failed to +secure the nomination for senator from the "Know-Nothing" Party, which +he had recently joined, he became a leader of the "People's Party," as +the Republican Party was at first called in Pennsylvania. In 1857 he +was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican, despite a +Democratic majority in the state legislature, a fact that gave rise to +charges of bribery. His prominence as a candidate first for the +presidential and then for the vice-presidential nomination in the +Republican national convention of 1860 led to his being selected by +President Lincoln as secretary of war. His administration of this office +at a critical time was marked by his accustomed energy, but +unfortunately also by partiality in the letting of government contracts, +which brought about his resignation at Lincoln's request in January 1862 +and his subsequent censure by the House of Representatives. Lincoln sent +him as minister to Russia, but he returned in November 1862. He again +served in the Senate (after 1872, being chairman of the committee on +foreign relations) from 1867 until 1877, when he resigned to make room +for his son, whose election he dictated. Cameron was one of the ablest +political organizers the United States has ever known, and his long +undisputed control of Pennsylvania politics was one of the most striking +examples of "boss rule" in American history. The definition of an honest +politician as "one who when he is bought will stay bought" has been +attributed to him. He died on the 26th of June 1889. + +His son JAMES DONALD CAMERON (1833- ) was born at Middletown, +Pennsylvania, on the 14th of May 1833, graduated at Princeton in 1852, +became actively interested in his father's banking and railway +enterprises, and from 1863 to 1874 was president of the Northern Central +railway. Trained in the political school of his father, he developed +into an astute politician. From June 1876 to March 1877 he was secretary +of war in President Grant's cabinet. In the Republican national +convention of 1876 he took an influential part in preventing the +nomination of James G. Elaine, and later was one of those who directed +the policy of the Republicans in the struggle for the presidency between +Tilden and Hayes. From 1877 until 1897 he was a member of the United +States Senate, having been elected originally to succeed his father, who +resigned in order to create the vacancy. He was chairman of the +Republican national committee during the campaign of 1880. + + + + +CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT (1844-1894), English traveller in Central Africa, +was born at Radipole, near Weymouth, Dorsetshire, on the 1st of July +1844. He entered the navy in 1857, served in the Abyssinian campaign of +1868, and was employed for a considerable time in the suppression of the +East African slave trade. The experience thus obtained led to his being +selected to command an expedition sent by the Royal Geographical Society +in 1873, to succour Dr. Livingstone. He was also instructed to make +independent explorations, guided by Livingstone's advice. Soon after the +departure of the expedition from Zanzibar, Livingstone's servants were +met bearing the dead body of their master. Cameron's two European +companions turned back, but he continued his march and reached Ujiji, on +Lake Tanganyika, in February 1874, where he found and sent to England +Livingstone's papers. Cameron spent some time determining the true form +of the south part of the lake, and solved the question of its outlet by +the discovery of the Lukuga river. From Tanganyika he struck westward to +Nyangwe, the Arab town on the Lualaba previously visited by Livingstone. +This river Cameron rightly believed to be the main stream of the Congo, +and he endeavoured to procure canoes to follow it down. In this he was +unsuccessful, owing to his refusal to countenance slavery, and he +therefore turned south-west. After tracing the Congo-Zambezi watershed +for hundreds of miles he reached Bihe and finally arrived at the coast +on the 28th of November 1875, being the first European to cress +Equatorial Africa from sea to sea. His travels, which were published in +1877 under the title _Across Africa_, contain valuable suggestions for +the opening up of the continent, including the utilization of the great +lakes as a "Cape to Cairo" connexion. In recognition of his work he was +promoted to the rank of commander, made a Companion of the Bath and +given the gold medal of the Geographical Society. The remainder of +Cameron's life was chiefly devoted to projects for the commercial +development of Africa, and to writing tales for the young. He visited +the Euphrates valley in 1878-1879 in connexion with a proposed railway +to the Persian Gulf, and accompanied Sir Richard Burton in his West +African journey of 1882. At the Gold Coast Cameron surveyed the Tarkwa +region, and he was joint author with Burton of _To the Gold Coast for +Gold_ (1883). He was killed, near Leighton Buzzard, by a fall from +horseback when returning from hunting, on the 24th of March 1894. + + A second edition of _Across Africa_, with new matter and corrected + maps, appeared in 1885. A summary of Cameron's great journey, from his + own pen, appears in Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. ii. + pp. 266-279 (London, 1893). + + + + +CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN (1629-1719), Scottish Highland chieftain, +was the eldest son of John Cameron and the grandson of Alan Cameron, the +head of the clan Cameron. Having lost his father in infancy he passed +part of his youth with the marquess of Argyll at Inveraray, leaving his +guardian about 1647 to take up his duties as chief of the clan Cameron, +a position in which he succeeded his grandfather. In 1653 Lochiel joined +the earl of Glencairn in his rising on behalf of Charles II., and after +the defeat of this attempt he served the Royalist cause by harassing +General Monk. In 1681 he was knighted by Charles II., and in July 1689 +he was with Viscount Dundee at Killiecrankie. He was too old to share +personally in the Jacobite rising of 1715, but his sympathies were with +the Stuarts, and his son led the Camerons at Sheriffmuir. Lochiel, who +died in February 1719, is called by Macaulay the "Ulysses of the +Highlands." He was a man of enormous strength and size, and one who met +him in 1716 says "he wrung some blood from the point of my fingers with +a grasp of his hand." An incident showing his strength and ferocity in +single combat is used by Sir Walter Scott in _The Lady of the Lake_ +(canto v.). Lochiel's son and successor, John, who was attainted for +sharing in the rebellion of 1715, died in Flanders in 1748. John's son +Donald, sometimes called "gentle Lochiel," joined Charles Edward, the +Young Pretender, in 1745, was wounded at Culloden, and escaped to +France, dying in the same year as his father. The 79th regiment, or +Cameron Highlanders, was raised from among the members of the clan in +1793 by Sir Alan Cameron (1753-1828). + + See _Memoirs of Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel_ (Bannatyne Club, 1842). + + + + +CAMERONIANS, the name given to that section of the Scottish Covenanters +(q.v.) who followed Richard Cameron (q.v.), and who were chiefly found +among those who signed the Sanquhar Declaration in 1680. Known also as +"Society Men," "Sanquharians" and "Hillmen," they became a separate +church after the religious settlement of 1690, taking the official title +of Reformed Presbyterians in 1743. Societies of Cameronians for the +maintenance of the Presbyterian form of worship were formed about 1681; +their testimony, "The Informatory Vindication," is dated 1687; and they +quickly became the most pronounced and active adherents of the +covenanting faith. Holding fast to the two covenants, the National +Covenant of 1580 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, they wished +to restore the ecclesiastical order which had existed between 1638 and +1649, and were dissatisfied with the moderate character of the religious +settlement of 1690. Refusing to take the oaths of allegiance to an +"uncovenanted" ruler, or to exercise any civil function, they passed +through a period of trial and found some difficulty in maintaining a +regular ministry; but in 1706 they were reinforced by some converts from +the established church. They objected strongly to the proposal for the +union of England and Scotland, and were suspected of abetting a rising +which took place in the west of Scotland in 1706; but there appears to +be no foundation for the statement that they intrigued with the +Jacobites, and they gave no trouble to the government either in 1715 or +in 1745. In 1712 they publicly renewed the covenants at Auchensauch Hill +in Lanarkshire, and in 1743 their first presbytery was constituted at +Braehead, while a presbytery was formed in North America in 1774. In +1863 the Cameronians, or Reformed Presbyterians, decided to inflict no +penalties upon those members who had taken the oaths, or had exercised +civil functions, and consequently a few congregations seceded. In 1876 +the general body of the Reformed Presbyterians united with the Free +Church of Scotland, leaving the few seceding congregations as the +representatives of the principles of the Cameronians. In the British +army the first battalion of the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) is +directly descended from the "Cameronian guard," which, composed of +Cameronians, was embodied by the convention parliament in 1689, and was +afterwards employed to restore order in the Highlands. + + See J.H. Burton, _History of Scotland_, vols. vii. and viii. + (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iv. + (Edinburgh, 1907). + + + + +CAMEROON[1] (Ger. _Kamerun_), a German protectorate in West Africa, +bounded W. by the Atlantic, N.W. by British Nigeria, N. by Lake Chad, E. +and S. by French Congo, save for a short distance on the south where it +is conterminous with the Spanish Muni river settlement. + +[Illustration: CAMEROON] + +_Boundaries and Area._--The sea frontier extends from the Rio del Rey, +just where the great bend of the coast-line east to south begins, +forming the Bight of Biafra, to the Campo river, a distance of 200 m. +The north-western boundary, laid down in an agreement between Germany +and Great Britain on the 15th of November 1893, runs from the mouth of +the Rio del Rey to the "rapids" of the Cross river in 8 deg. 48' E. +Thence it is continued in a north-east line towards Yola, as far as the +confines of that town. The boundary is then deflected south so as to +leave Yola in British territory, turning north again to cross the Benue +river at a spot 3 m. west of where the Faro joins the Benue. From this +point the frontier goes north-east to the border of Lake Chad, 35 m. +east of the meridian of the town of Kuka. The southern shores of Lake +Chad for a distance of some 40 m. belong to the protectorate. The south +and east boundaries were laid down by agreements between Germany and +France on the 24th of December 1885, the 15th of March 1894 and the 18th +of April 1908. The south boundary runs in a fairly direct line from the +mouth of the Campo river to the river Dscha (or Ngoko), which it follows +to its confluence with the Sanga. The eastern boundary runs from the +Sanga irregularly north to 10 deg. N., where it approaches the British +frontier at Yola, so that at its narrowest part the protectorate is +little more than 50 m. across. From 10 deg. N. the frontier turns +eastwards to the Logone, thence going north-east to the Shari river, +which it follows to Lake Chad. The protectorate has an area of about +190,000 sq. m. Estimated population (1908) 3,500,000, of whom 1128 were +whites. + +_Origin of the Name._--The name Camaroes was first given by the +Portuguese discoverers of the 15th and 16th centuries to a large bay or +estuary, lying south-east of a great mountain close to the sea, met with +after passing the Niger delta. This estuary they called the Rio dos +Camaroes (the river of Prawns), from the abundance of the crustacea +found therein. The name Camaroes was also used to designate the +neighbouring mountains. The English usage until nearly the end of the +19th century was to confine the term "the Cameroons" to the mountain +range, and to speak of the estuary as the Cameroons river. Locally it +was often called "the Bay." On their acquisition of the country in 1884 +the Germans extended the use of the name in its Teutonic +form--Kamerun--to the whole protectorate. + +_Physical Features._--Cameroon forms the north-west corner of the great +Central African plateau. This becomes evident in its eastern section, +where are wide-spreading plains, which farther west assume an undulating +character, and gradually merge into a picturesque mountain range. This +range, running from north to south, is flanked by a parallel and lower +range in the west, with a wide valley between. In the north-west the +Upper Guinea mountains send their eastern spurs across the boundary, and +from a volcanic rift, which runs south-west to north-east, the Cameroon +peak towers up, its summit 13,370 ft. high. This mountain, whose +south-western base is washed by the Atlantic, is the highest point on +the western side of Africa, and it alone of the great mountains of the +continent lies close to the coast. From any vantage point, but +especially from the sea, it presents a magnificent spectacle, while some +30 m. westward rises Clarence peak, the culminating point of Fernando +Po. With an area, on an isolated base, of 700 to 800 sq. m., Cameroon +mountain has but two distinct peaks, Great Cameroon and Little Cameroon +(5820 ft.), which is from foot to top covered with dense forest. The +native designation of the highest peak is Mongo-ma-Loba, or the Mountain +of Thunder, and the whole upper region is usually called Mongo-mo-Ndemi, +or the Mountain of Greatness. On the principal summit there are a group +of craters. In 1909 the mountain was in eruption and huge streams of +lava were ejected. Inland the Chebchi and Mandara mountains indicate the +direction and extent of the rift. + +The mountains of the plateau sweep grandly round to the east on +reaching the eighth degree of N. lat. Here they give rise to a number of +small rivers, which collect in the rift and form the Benue, the great +eastern affluent of the Niger. This part of the protectorate is known as +Adamawa (q.v.). Farther north, beyond the Mandara mountains, the +country, here part of the ancient sultanate of Bornu, slopes to the +shores of Lake Chad, and has a general level of 800 to 1000 ft. The +greater part of Cameroon is thus a mountainous country, with, on the +coast, a strip of low land. In the south this is very narrow; it widens +towards the north savewhere the Cameroon peak reaches to the sea. + +At the foot of the Cameroon peak a number of estuaries cut deep bays +which form excellent harbours. The small rivers which empty into them +can be ascended for some miles by steam launches. The principal estuary, +which is over 20 m. wide, is called, as already noted, the Cameroon +river or bay. The term river is more particularly confined to a +ramification of the estuary which receives the waters of the Mungo river +(a considerable stream which flows south from the Cameroon mountains), +the Wuri, a river coming from the north-east, and various smaller +rivers. Under the shadow of Cameroon peak lies the bay of Ambas, with +the islands of Ndami (Ambas) and Mondola. It forms a tolerable harbour, +capable of receiving large vessels. + +Traversing the central portion of the country is a large river known in +its upper course as the Lom, and in its lower as the Sanaga, which +enters the ocean just to the south of the Cameroon estuary. Both the Lom +and the Nyong (a more southerly stream) rise in the central plateau, +from which they descend in splendid cascades, breaking through the +parallel coast range in rapids, which indicate the extent of their +navigability. The Lokunja and Kribi are smaller rivers with courses +parallel to and south of the Nyong. In the south-east of the colony the +streams--of which the chief are the Dscha and Bumba--are tributaries of +the Sanga, itself an affluent of the Congo (q.v.). About 100 m. of the +right bank of the Sanga, from the confluence of the Dscha upwards, are +in German territory. In the north the country drains into Lake Chad +through the Logone and Shari (q.v.). Including the headwaters of the +Benue the colony has four distinct river-systems, one connecting with +the Niger, another with the Congo, and a third with Lake Chad, the +fourth being the rivers which run direct to the sea. The Niger and Shari +systems communicate, with, at high water, but one obstruction to +navigation. The connecting link is a marshy lake named Tuburi. From it +issues the Kebbi (Mao Kebi) a tributary of the Benue, and through it +flows a tributary of the Logone, the chief affluent of the Shari. The +one obstruction in the waterway is a fall of 165 ft. in the Kebbi. + +_Geology._--The oldest rocks, forming the greater mass of the +hinterland, are gneisses, schists and granites of Archaean age. Along +the Benue river a sandstone (Benue sandstone) forms the banks to 14 deg. +E. Cretaceous rocks occur around the basalt platform of the Cameroon +mountain and generally along the coastal belt. Basalt and tuff, probably +of Tertiary age, form the great mass of the Cameroon mountain, also the +island of Fernando Po. Extensive areas in the interior, more especially +towards Lake Chad, are covered with black earth of alluvial or +lacustrine origin. + +_Climate._--The country lies wholly within the tropics and has a +characteristic tropical climate. In the interior four seasons can be +distinguished; a comparatively dry and a wet one alternating. July to +October are the coldest months, and also bring most rain, but there is +hardly a month without rain. On the coast the temperature is high all +the year round, but on the plateau it is cooler. Malarial fever is +frequent, and even the Africans, especially those coming from other +countries, suffer from it. The middle zone of the Cameroon mountain has, +however, a temperate climate and affords excellent sites for sanatoria. + +_Flora and Fauna._--The southern part of the low coast is chiefly grass +land, while the river mouths and arms of the bays are lined with +mangroves. The mountainous region is covered with primeval forest, in +which timber and valuable woods for cabinet-making are plentiful. Most +important are the _Elaeis guineensis, Sterculia acuminata_ and the wild +coffee tree. On Cameroon peak the forest ascends to 8000 ft.; above it +is grass land. Towards the east the forest gradually grows thinner, +assumes a park-like appearance, and finally disappears, wide grass +uplands taking its place. The country north of the Benue is rich and +well cultivated. Cotton and rubber are found in considerable quantities, +and fields of maize, corn, rice and sugarcane bear witness to the +fertility of the soil. + +Animals are plentiful, including the great pachyderms and carnivora. The +latter prey on the various kinds of antelopes which swarm on the grass +lands. Two kinds of buffaloes are found in the forests, which are the +home of the gorilla and chimpanzee. Large rodents, like the porcupine +and cane rat, are numerous. Of birds there are 316 species, and several +of venomous snakes. + +_Inhabitants._--The north of Cameroon is inhabited by Fula (q.v.) and +Hausa (q.v.) and allied tribes, the south by Bantu-speaking races. The +Fula came from the north and north-east, gradually driving the +Bantu-negroes before them. They brought horses and horned cattle, +unknown in these regions until then, and they founded well-organized +states, like that of Adamawa, now divided between Cameroon and the +British protectorate of Nigeria. In the vicinity of the rivers Benue, +Faro and Kebbi, the people, who are good agriculturists, raise cereals +and other crops, while on the plateaus stock-raising forms the chief +pursuit of the inhabitants. In this northern region villages are built +in the Sudanese zeriba style, surrounded with thorn fences; more +important places are enclosed by a well-built wall and strongly +fortified. Of martial disposition, the people often waged war with their +neighbours, and also amongst themselves until the pacification of the +hinterland by Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. + +The Bantu-negroes inhabit the country south of about 7 deg. N. Chief +among the tribes are the Dualla (q.v.), the Ba-kwiri (q.v.), the +Ba-Long, the Ba-Farami, the Wuri, the Abo and the Ba-Kundu. They build +square houses, are active traders and are ruled by independent chiefs, +having no political cohesion. Among the Dualla a curious system of drum +signals is noteworthy. In the coast towns are numbers of Krumen, who, +however, rarely settle permanently in the country. The Fula, as also +most of the Hausa, are Moslems, the other tribes are pagans. Missionary +societies, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, are represented in the +colony, and their schools are well attended, as are the schools +belonging to the government. In all the schools German is taught, but +pidgin-English is largely spoken at the coast towns. + +_Chief Towns._--Duala, the chief town in the protectorate, is situated +on the Cameroon estuary at the mouth of the Wuri river in 4 deg. 2' N. 9 +deg. 42' E. It consists of various trading stations and native towns +close to one another on the south bank of the river and known, before +the German occupation, as Cameroon, Bell town, Akwa town, &c. Hickory, +on the north side of the stream and the starting point of the railway to +the interior, is also part of Duala, which has a total population of +22,000, including about 170 Europeans. Duala is the headquarters of the +merchants and missionaries. The principal streets are wide and tree +lined, the sanitation is good. The government offices are placed in a +fine park in which are statues of Gustav Nachtigal and others. The port +is provided with a floating dock. The seat of government is Buea, a post +3000 ft. above the sea on the slopes of the Cameroon mountain. Victoria +is a flourishing town in Ambas Bay, founded by the British Baptist +missionaries expelled from Fernando Po in 1858 (see below). Batanga and +Campo are trading stations in the southern portion of the colony. On the +route from Duala to Lake Chad is the large commercial town of Ngaundere, +inhabited chiefly by Hausas and occupied by the Germans in 1901. Another +large town is Garua on the Benue river. Farther north and within 30 m. +of Lake Chad is Dikwa (Dikoa), in Bornu, the town chosen by Rabah (q.v.) +as his capital after his conquest of Bornu. Gulfei on the lower Shari +and Kusseri on the Logone are also towns of some note. Ngoko is a +trading station on the Dscha, in the south-east of the protectorate, +near the confluence of that river with the Sanga. + +_Products and Industry._--Cameroon is rich in natural products, one of +the most important being the oil-palm. Cocoa cultivation was introduced +by the Germans and proved remarkably successful. Rubber is collected +from the Landolphia and various species of Ficus. Palm-oil, palm +kernels, cocoa, copal, copra, Calabar beans, kola-nuts and ivory are the +principal exports. There are several kinds of finely-grained wood, +amongst which a very dark ebony is specially remarkable. Cotton, indigo +and various fibres of plants deserve notice. The natives grow several +kinds of bananas, yams and batatas, maize, pea-nuts, sugar-cane, sorghum +and pepper. Minerals have not been found in paying quantities. Iron is +smelted by the natives, who, especially amongst the Hausas, are very +clever smiths, and manufacture fine lances and arrow heads, knives and +swords, and also hoes. Dikwa is the centre of an important trade of +which the chief articles are coffee, sugar, velvet, silk and weapons, as +well as gold and silver objects brought by caravans from Tripoli. The +natives round the Cameroon estuary are clever carvers of wood, and make +highly ornamental figure heads for their canoes, which also sometimes +show very fine workmanship. In the interior the people use the +wild-growing cotton and fibres of plants to manufacture coarse drapery +and plait-work. Plantations founded by German industry are fairly +successful. Large reserves are set apart for the natives by government +when marking off the land granted to plantation companies. The +best-known of these companies, the _Sud-Kamerun_, holds a concession +over a large tract of country by the Sanga river, exporting its rubber, +ivory and other produce via the Congo. The principal imports are cotton +goods, spirits, building material, firearms, hardware and salt. The +annual value of the external trade in the period 1900-1905 averaged +about L800,000. In 1907 the value of the trade had increased to +L1,700,000. Some 70% of the import and export trade was with Germany, +the remainder being almost entirely with Great Britain. The percentage +of the trade with Germany was increasing, that with Britain decreasing. + +_Communications._--There is regular steamship communication with Europe +by German and British boats. On the rivers which run into the Cameroon +estuary small steam launches ply. The protectorate belongs to the Postal +Union, and is connected by cable with the British telegraph station at +Bonny in the Niger delta. + +An imperial guarantee of interest was obtained in 1905 for the +construction of a railway from Hickory to Bayong, a place 100 m. to the +north, the district traversed being fertile and populous. From Victoria +a line runs to Soppo (22 m.) near Buea and is continued thence +northward. Another line, sanctioned in 1908, runs S.E. from Duala to the +upper waters of the Nyong. In the neighbourhood of government stations +excellent roads have been built. The chief towns in the coast region are +connected by telegraph and telephone. + +_Government Revenue, &c._--The administration is under the direction of +a governor appointed by and responsible to the imperial authorities. The +governor is assisted by a chancellor and other officials and an advisory +council whose members are merchants resident in the protectorate. +Decrees having the force of law are issued by the imperial chancellor on +the advice of the governor. In Adamawa and German Bornu are various +Mahommedan sultanates controlled by residents stationed at Garua and +Kusseri. Revenue is raised chiefly by customs dues on spirits and +tobacco and a general 10% _ad valorem_ duty on most goods. A poll tax is +imposed on the natives. The local revenue (L131,000 in 1905) is +supplemented by an imperial grant, the protectorate in the first +twenty-one years of its existence never having raised sufficient revenue +to meet its expenditure, which in 1905 exceeded L230,000. Order is +maintained by a native force officered by Germans. + +_History._--Cameroon and the neighbouring coast were discovered by the +Portuguese navigator, Fernando Po, towards the close of the 15th +century. They were formerly regarded as within the Oil Rivers district, +sometimes spoken of as the Oil Coast. Trading settlements were +established by Europeans as early as the 17th century. The trade was +confined to the coast, the Dualla and other tribes being recognized +intermediaries between the coast "factories" and the tribes in the +interior, whither they allowed no strange trader to proceed. They took a +quantity of goods on trust, visited the tribes in the forest, and +bartered for ivory, rubber and other produce. This method of trade, +called the trust system, worked well, but when the country came under +the administration of Germany, the system broke down, as inland traders +were allowed to visit the coast. Before this happened the "kings" of the +chief trading stations--Akwa and Bell--were wealthy merchant princes. +From the beginning until near the end of the 19th century they were very +largely under British influence. In 1837 the king of Bimbia, a district +on the mainland on the north of the estuary, made over a large part of +the country round the bay to Great Britain. In 1845, at which time there +was a flourishing trade in slaves between Cameroon and America, the +Baptist Missionary Society made its first settlement on the mainland of +Africa, Alfred Saker (1814-1880) obtaining from the Akwa family the site +for a mission station. In 1848 another mission station was established +at Bimbia, the king agreeing to abolish human sacrifices at the funerals +of his great men. Into the Cameroon country Saker and his colleagues +introduced the elements of civilization, and with the help of British +men-of-war the oversea slave trade was finally stopped (_c._ 1875). The +struggles between the Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa families were also largely +composed. In 1858, on the expulsion of the Baptists from Fernando Po +(q.v.), Saker founded at Ambas Bay a colony of the freed negroes who +then left the island, the settlement being known as Victoria. Two years +after this event the first German factory was established in the estuary +by Messrs Woermann of Hamburg. In 1870 the station at Bimbia was given +up by the missionaries, but that at Akwa town continued to flourish, the +Dualla showing themselves eager to acquire education, while Saker +reduced their language to writing. He left Cameroon in 1876, the year +before George Grenfell, afterwards famous for his work on the Congo, +came to the country, where he remained three years. Like the earlier +missionaries he explored the adjacent districts, discovering the Sanaga +in its lower course. Although British influence was powerful and the +British consul for the Oil Rivers during this period exercised +considerable authority over the native chiefs, requests made by them--in +particular by the Dualla chiefs in 1882--for annexation by Great +Britain, were refused or neglected, with the result that when Germany +started on her quest to pick up unappropriated parts of the African +coast she was enabled to secure Cameroon. A treaty with King Bell was +negotiated by Dr Gustav Nachtigal, the signature of the king and the +other chiefs being obtained at midnight on the 15th of July 1884. Five +days later Mr E.H. Hewett, British consul, arrived with a mission to +annex the country to Great Britain.[2] Though too late to secure King +Bell's territory, Mr Hewett concluded treaties with all the neighbouring +chiefs, but the British government decided to recognize the German claim +not only to Bell town, but to the whole Cameroon region. Some of the +tribes, disappointed at not being taken over by Great Britain, refused +to acknowledge German sovereignty. Their villages were bombarded and +they were reduced to submission. The settlement of the English Baptists +at Victoria, Ambas Bay, was at first excluded from the German +protectorate, but in March 1887 an arrangement was made by which, while +the private rights of the missionaries were maintained, the sovereignty +of the settlement passed to Germany. The Baptist Society thereafter made +over its missions, both at Ambas Bay and in the estuary, to the Basel +Society. + +The extension of German influence in the interior was gradually +accomplished, though not without considerable bloodshed. That part of +Adamawa recognized as outside the British frontier was occupied in 1901 +after somewhat severe fighting. In 1902 the imperial troops first +penetrated into that part of Bornu reserved to Germany by agreements +with Great Britain and France. They found the country in the military +occupation of France. The French officers, who stated that their +presence was due to the measures rendered necessary by the ravages of +Rabah and his sons, withdrew their troops into French territory. The +shores of Lake Chad were first reached by a German military force on the +2nd of May 1902. In 1904 and again in 1905 there were native risings in +various parts of the protectorate. These disturbances were followed, +early in 1906, by the recall of the governor, Herr von Puttkamer, who +was called upon to answer charges of maladministration. He was succeeded +in 1907 by Dr T. Seitz. Collisions on the southern border of the +protectorate between French and German troops led in 1905-1906 to an +accurate survey of the south and east frontier regions and to a new +convention (1908) whereby for the straight lines marking the frontier in +former agreements natural features were largely substituted. Germany +gained a better outlet to the Sanga river. + +The ascent of the Cameroon mountain was first attempted by Joseph +Merrick of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1847; but it was not till +1861 that the summit was gained, when the ascent was made by Sir Richard +Burton, Gustav Mann, a noted botanist, and Senor Calvo. The +starting-point was Babundi, a place on the seashore west of the +mountain. From the south-east the summit was reached by Mary Kingsley in +1895. + + See Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); Sir R. + Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_ (2 vols., London, + 1863); E.B. Underhill, _Alfred Saker ... A Biography_ (London, 1884); + Sir H.H. Johnston, _George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on the + Cameroons ..._ (London, 1908); Max Buchner, _Kamerun Skizzen und + Betrachtungen_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Passarge, _Adamaua_ (Berlin, 1895); + E. Zintgraph, _Nord-Kamerun_ (Berlin, 1895); F. Hutter, _Wanderungen + und Forschungen im Nord-Hinterland von Kamerun_ (Brunswick, 1902); F. + Bauer, _Die deutsche Niger-Benue-Tsadsee-Expedition_, 1902-1903 + (Berlin, 1904); C. Rene, _Kamerun und die deutsche Tsadsee Eisenbahn_ + (Berlin, 1905); O. Zimmermann, _Durch Busch und Steppe vom Campo bis + zum Schari, 1892-1902_ (Berlin, 1909); also British Foreign Office + Reports. For special study of particular sciences see F. Wohltmann, + _Der Plantagenbau in Kamerun und seine Zukunft_ (Berlin, 1896); F. + Plehn, _Die Kamerunkuste, Studien zur Klimatologie, Physiologie und + Pathologie in den Tropen_ (Berlin, 1898); E. Esch, F. Solger, M. + Oppenheim and 0. Jaekel, _Beitrage zur Geologie von Kamerun_ + (Stuttgart, 1904). For geology the following works may also be + consulted: Stromer von Reichenbach, _Geologie der deutschen + Schutzgebiete in Afrika_ (Berlin, 1896); A. von Koenen, "Uber + Fossilien der unteren Kreide am Ufer des Mungo in Kamerun," _Abh. k. + Wiss._, Gottingen, 1897; E. Cohen, "Lava vom Camerun-Gebirge," _Neues + Jahrb. f. Min._, 1887. (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This English form of the name, adopted in the 10th ed. of the + _Ency. Brit._, from the German, appears preferable both to the + un-English Kamerun and to the older and clumsy "the Cameroons." + + [2] On the 26th of July a French gunboat also entered the estuary on + a belated annexation mission. + + + + +CAMILING, a town of the province of Tarlac, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on the Camiling river, about 80 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 25,243. +In 1903 after the census had been taken, the adjacent towns of Santa +Ignacia (pop. 1911) and San Clemente (pop. 1822) were annexed to +Camiling. Its products are rice, Indian corn and sugar. Fine timber +grows in the vicinity. The principal language is Ilocano; Pangasinan, +too, is spoken. Being in an isolated position, very difficult of access +during the rainy season, Camiling has always been infested with thieves +and bands of outlaws, who come here for concealment. + + + + +CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, Roman soldier and statesman, of patrician +descent, censor in 403 B.C. He triumphed four times, was five times +dictator, and was honoured with the title of Second Founder of Rome. +When accused of having unfairly distributed the spoil taken at Veii, +which was captured by him after a ten years' siege, he went into +voluntary exile at Ardea. The real cause of complaint against him was no +doubt his patrician haughtiness and his triumphal entry into Rome in a +chariot drawn by white horses. Subsequently the Romans, when besieged in +the Capitol by the Gauls, created him dictator; he completely defeated +the enemy (but see BRENNUS and ROME: _History_, ii., "The Republic") and +drove them from Roman territory. He dissuaded the Romans, disheartened +by the devastation wrought by the Gauls, from migrating to Veii, and +induced them to rebuild the city. He afterwards fought successfully +against the Aequi, Volsci and Etruscans, and repelled a fresh invasion +of the Gauls in 367. Though patrician in sympathy, he saw the necessity +of making concessions to the plebeians and was instrumental in passing +the Licinian laws. He died of the plague in the eighty-first year of his +age (365). The story of Camillus is no doubt largely traditional. To +this element probably belongs the story of the schoolmaster who, when +Camillas was attacking Falerii (q.v.), attempted to betray the town by +bringing into his camp the sons of some of the principal inhabitants of +the place. Camillus, it is said, had him whipped back into the town by +his pupils, and the Faliscans were so affected by this generosity that +they at once surrendered. + + See Livy v. 10, vi. 4; Plutarch, _Camillus_. For the Gallic retreat, + see Polybius ii. 18; T. Mommsen, _Romische Forschungen_, ii. pp. + 113-152 (1879). + + + + +CAMILLUS and CAMILLA, in Roman antiquity, originally terms used for +freeborn children. Later, they were used to denote the attendants on +certain priests and priestesses, especially the flamen dialis and +flaminica and the curiones. It was necessary that they should be +freeborn and the children of parents still alive (Dion. Halic. ii. 21). +The name Camillus has been connected with the Cadmilus or Casmilus of +the Samothracian mysteries, identified with Hermes (see CABEIRI). + + + + +CAMISARDS (from _camisade_, obsolete Fr. for "a night attack," from the +Ital. _camiciata_, formed from _camicia_--Fr. _chemise_--a shirt, from +the fact of a shirt being worn over the armour in order to distinguish +friends from foes), the name given to the peasantry of the Cevennes who, +from 1702 to 1705 and for some years afterwards, carried on an organized +military resistance to the _dragonnades_, or conversion by torture, +death and confiscation of property, by which, in the Huguenot districts +of France, the revocation of the edict of Nantes was attempted to be +enforced. The Camisards were also called Barbets ("water-dogs," a term +also applied to the Waldenses), Vagabonds, Assemblers (_assemblee_ was +the name given to the meeting or conventicle of Huguenots), Fanatics and +the Children of God. They belonged to that romance-speaking people of +Gothic descent whose mystic imagination and independent character made +the south of France the most fertile nursing-ground of medieval heresy +(see CATHARS and ALBIGENSES). At the time of the Reformation the same +causes produced like results. Calvin was warmly welcomed when he +preached at Nimes; Montpellier became the chief centre for the +instruction of the Huguenot youth. It was, however, in the great +triangular plateau of mountain called the Cevennes that, among the small +farmers, the cloth and silk weavers and vine dressers, Protestantism was +most intense and universal. These people were (and still are) very poor, +but intelligent and pious, and of a character at once grave and fervent. +From the lists of Huguenots sent from Languedoc to the galleys (1684 to +1762), we gather that the common type of _physique_ is "belle taille, +cheveux bruns, visage ovale." The chief theatre of the revolt comprised +that region of the Cevennes bounded by the towns of Florac, +Pont-de-Montvert, Alais and Lasalle, thus embracing the southern portion +of the department of Lozere (the Bas-Gevaudan) and the neighbouring +district in the east of the department of Gard. + +In order to understand the War of the Cevennes it is necessary to recall +the persecutions which preceded and followed the revocation of the edict +of Nantes. It is also necessary to remember the extraordinary religious +movement which had for a great number of years agitated the Protestants +of France. Faced by the violation of that most solemn of treaties, a +treaty which had been declared perpetual and irrevocable by Henry IV., +Louis XIII. and even Louis XIV. himself, they could not, in the +enthusiasm of their faith, believe that such a crime would be left +unpunished. But being convinced that no human power could give them +liberty of conscience, they went to the Bible to find when their +deliverance would come. As far back as 1686 Pierre Jurieu published his +work _L'Accomplissement des propheties_, in which, speaking of the +Apocalypse, he predicted the end of the persecution and the fall of +Babylon--that is to say of Roman Catholicism--for 1689. The Revolution +in England seemed to provide a striking corroboration of his prophecies, +and the apocalyptic enthusiasm took so strong a hold on people's minds +that Bossuet felt compelled to refute Jurieu's arguments in his +_Apocalypse expliquee_, published in 1689. The _Lettres pastorales_ of +Jurieu (Rotterdam, 1686-1687), a series of brief tracts which were +secretly circulated in France, continued to narrate events and +prodigies in which the author saw the intervention of God, and thus +strengthened the courage of his adherents. This religious enthusiasm, +under the influence of Du Serre, was manifested for the first time in +the Dauphine. Du Serre, who was a pupil of Jurieu, communicated his +mystic faith to young children who were called the "petits prophetes," +the most famous of whom was a girl named "La belle Isabeau." Brought up +on the study of the prophets and the Apocalypse, these children went +from village to village quoting and requoting the most obscure and +terrible passages from these ancient prophecies (see ANTICHRIST). It is +necessary to remember that at this time the Protestants were without +ministers, all being in exile, and were thus deprived of all real +religious instruction. They listened with enthusiasm to this strange +preaching, and thousands of those who were called New Catholics were +seen to be giving up attendance at Mass. The movement advanced in +Languedoc with such rapidity that at one time there were more than three +hundred children shut up in the prisons of Uzes on the charge of +prophesying, and the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier, which was +entrusted with their examination, went so far in their ignorance as to +pronounce these irresponsible infants guilty of fanaticism. After the +peace of Ryswick, 1697, the fierceness of the persecution was redoubled +in the South. "I will show no mercy to the preachers," wrote the +terrible Baville, the so-called "king of Languedoc," and he kept his +word. The people of the Cevennes were in despair, for their loyalty to +the king had been remarkable. In 1683 on the 6th of September an +assembly composed of fifty pastors, sixty-four noblemen and thirty-four +notables, held at Colognac, had drawn up a statement of its unalterable +loyalty to Louis XIV. It is important to notice that the revolt of the +Cevennes was essentially a popular movement. Among its leaders there was +not a single nobleman, but only men of the people, a baker, a +blacksmith, some ex-soldiers; but by far the most extraordinary +characterisic is the presence, no longer of children, but of men and +women who declared themselves inspired, who fell into religious +ecstasies and roused in their comrades the most heroic bravery in battle +and at the stake. + +The assassination of the abbe du Chayla marks the beginning of the war +of the Cevennes. The abbe, a veteran Catholic missionary from Siam, had +been appointed inspector of missions in the Cevennes. There he +introduced the "squeezers" (which resembled the Scottish "boot"), and +his systematic and refined cruelty at last broke the patience of his +victims. His murder, on the 23rd of July 1702, at Pont de Monvert, was +the first blow in the war. It was planned by Esprit Seguier, who at once +began to carry out his idea of a general massacre of the Catholic +priests. He soon fell, and was succeeded by Laporte, an old soldier, +who, as his troop increased, assumed the title of "the Colonel of the +Children of God," and named his camp the "Camp of the Eternal." He used +to lead his followers to the fight, singing Clement Marot's grand +version of the 68th Psalm, "Que Dieu se montre seulement," to the music +of Goudimel. Besides Laporte, the forest-ranger Castanet, the +wool-carders Conderc and Mazel, the soldiers Catinat, Joany and Ravenel +were selected as captains--all men whom the _theomanie_ or prophetic +malady had visited. But the most important figures are those of Roland, +who afterwards issued the following extraordinary despatch to the +inhabitants of St Andre:--"Nous, comte et seigneur Roland, generalissime +des Protestants de France, nous ordonnons que vous ayez a congedier dans +trois jours tous les pretres et missionnaires qui sont chez vous, sous +peine d'etre brules tout vifs, vous et eux" (Court, i.p. 219); and Jean +Cavalier, the baker's boy, who, at the age of seventeen, commanded the +southern army of the Camisards, and who, after defeating successively +the comte de Broglie and three French marshals, Montrevel, Berwick and +Villars, made an honourable peace. (See CAVALIER, JEAN.) + +Cavalier for nearly two years continued to direct the war. Regular taxes +were raised, arsenals were formed in the great limestone caves of the +district, the Catholic churches and their decorations were burned and +the clergy driven away. Occasionally routed in regular engagements, the +Camisards, through their desperate valour and the rapidity of their +movements, were constantly successful in skirmishes, night attacks and +ambuscades. A force of 60,000 was now in the field against them; among +others, the Irish Brigade which had just returned from the persecutions +of the Waldenses. The rising was far from being general, and never +extended to more than three or four thousand men, but it was rendered +dangerous by the secret and even in many places the open support of the +people in general. On the other hand their knowledge of a mountainous +country clothed in forests and without roads, gave the insurgents an +enormous advantage over the royal troops. The rebellion was not finally +suppressed until Baville had constructed roads throughout this almost +savage country. + +Montrevel adopted a policy of extermination, and 466 villages were +burned in the Upper Cevennes alone, the population being for the most +part put to the sword. Pope Clement XI. assisted in this work by issuing +a bull against the "execrable race of the ancient Albigenses," and +promising remission of sins to the holy militia which was now formed +among the Catholic population, and was called the Florentines, Cadets of +the Cross or White Camisards. Villars, the victor of Hochstadt and +Friedlingen, saw that conciliation was necessary; he took advantage of +the feeling of horror with which the quiet Protestants of Nimes and +other towns now regarded the war, and published an amnesty. In May 1704 +a formal meeting between Cavalier and Villars took place at Nimes. The +result of the interview was that a document entitled _Tres humble +requete des reformes du Languedoc au Roi_ was despatched to the court. +The three leading requests for liberty of conscience and the right of +assembly outside walled towns, for the liberation of those sentenced to +prison or the galleys under the revocation, and for the restitution to +the emigrants of their property and civil rights, were all granted,--the +first on condition of no churches being built, and the third on +condition of an oath of allegiance being taken. The greater part of the +Camisard army under Roland, Ravenel and Joany would not accept the terms +which Cavalier had arranged. They insisted that the edict of Nantes must +be restored,--"_point de paix, que nous n'ayons nos temples_." They +continued the war till January 1705, by which time all their leaders +were either killed or dispersed. + +In 1709 Mazel and Claris, with the aid of two preaching women, Marie +Desubas and Elizabeth Catalon, made a serious effort to rekindle revolt +in the Vivarais. In 1711 all opposition and all signs of the reformed +religion had disappeared. On the 8th of March 1715, by medals and a +proclamation, Louis XIV. announced the entire extinction of heresy. + +What we know of the spiritual manifestations in the Cevennes (which much +resembled those of the Swedish Raestars of Smaland in 1844) is chiefly +derived from _Le Theatre sacre des Cevennes_, London, 1707, reprinted at +Paris in 1847; _A Cry From the Desert_, &c., by John Lacy, London, 1707; +_La Clef des propheties de M. Marion_, London, 1707; _Avertissements +prophetiques d'Elie Marion_, &c., London, 1707. About the date of these +publications the three prophets of the Cevennes, Marion, Durand-Fage and +Cavalier (a cousin of the famous Jean Cavalier) were in London and were +objects of lively curiosity. The consistory of the French church in the +Savoy sent a protest to the lord mayor against "cette secte impie et +extravagante" and the matter was tried at the Guildhall. Misson, author +of the _Theatre sacre_, declared in defence of the accused, that the +same spirit which had caused Balaam's ass to speak could speak through +the mouths of these prophets from the Cevennes. Marion and his two +friends Fatio, a member of the Royal Society of London, and Daude, a +leading savant, who acted as his secretaries, were condemned to the +pillory and to the stocks. Voltaire relates (_Siecle de Louis XIV._ c. +36) that Marion wished to prove his inspiration by attempting to raise a +dead body (Thomas Ernes) from St Paul's churchyard. He was at last +compelled to leave England.[1] + +The inspiration (of which there were four degrees, _avertissement, +souffle, prophetie, dons_) was sometimes communicated by a kiss at the +assembly. The patient, who had gone through several fasts three days in +length, became pale and fell insensible to the ground. Then came violent +agitations of the limbs and head, as Voltaire remarks, "quite according +to the ancient custom of all nations, and the rules of madness +transmitted from age to age." Finally the patient (who might be a little +child, a woman, a half-witted person) began to speak in the good French +of the Huguenot Bible words such as these: "Mes freres, amendez-vous, +faites penitence, la fin du monde approche; le jugement general sera +dans trois mois; repentez-vous du grand peche que vous avez commis +d'aller a la messe; c'est le Saint-Esprit qui parle par ma bouche" +(Brueys, _Histoire du fanatisme de notre temps_, Utrecht, 1737, vol. i. +p. 153). The discourse might go on for two hours; after which the +patient could only express himself in his native patois,--a Romance +idiom,--and had no recollection of his "ecstasy." All kinds of miracles +attended on the Camisards. Lights in the sky guided them to places of +safety, voices sang encouragement to them, shots and wounds were often +harmless. Those entranced fell from trees without hurting themselves; +they shed tears of blood; and they subsisted without food or speech for +nine days. The supernatural was part of their life. Much literature has +been devoted to the discussion of these marvels. The Catholics Flechier +(in his _Lettres choisies_) and Brueys consider them the product of +fasting and vanity, nourished on apocalyptic literature. The doctors +Bertrand (_Du magnetisme animal_, Paris, 1826) and Calmeil (_De la +folie_, Paris, 1845) speak of magnetism, hysteria and epilepsy, a +prophetic monomania based on belief in divine possession. The +Protestants especially emphasized the spirituality of the inspiration of +the Camisards; Peyral, _Histoire des pasteurs du desert_, ii. 280, +wrote: "Il fallait a cet effort gigantesque un ressort prodigieux, +l'enthousiasme ordinaire n'y eut pas suffi." Dubois, who has made a +careful study of the problem, says: "L'inspiration cevenole nous +apparait comme un phenomene purement spirituel." Conservative Catholics, +such as Hippolyte Blanc in his book on _L'inspiration des Camisards_ +(1859), regard the whole thing as the work of the devil. The publication +of J.F.K. Hecker's work, _Die Volkskrankheiten des Mittelalters_, made +it possible to consider the subject in its true relation. This was +translated into English in 1844 by B.G. Babington as _The Epidemics of +the Middle Ages_. + +Although the Camisards were guilty of great cruelties in the prosecution +of the war, there does not seem to be sufficient ground for the charge +made by Marshal de Villars: "Le plupart de leurs chefs ont leurs +demoiselles" (letter of 9th August 1704, in the _War Archives_, vol. +1797). Court replied to these unjust charges: "Their enemies have +accused them of leading a life of licence because there were women in +their camps. These were their wives, their daughters, their mothers, who +were there to prepare their food and to nurse the wounded" (_Histoire_, +vol. i. p. 71). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The works devoted to the history of the Camisards are + very numerous. Nevertheless there exists no work specifically devoted + to this extremely interesting period in French history, for in none of + the published works has proper use been made of the valuable documents + preserved in the archives of the ministry of war. Among the chief + works are:--Pere Louvreleuil (priest, former cure of St. Germain de + Calberte), _Histoire du fanatisme renouvele ou l'on raconte les + sacrileges, les maladies et les meurtres commis dans les Cevennes_ + (Toulouse, 1704); M. de Brueys, _Suite de l'histoire du fanatisme de + notre temps ou l'on voit les derniers troubles des Cevennes_ (Paris, + 1709); _Lettres choisies de M. Flechier eveque de Nimes avec une + relation des fanatiques du Vivarez_ (Paris, 1715); Madame de Merez de + l'Incarnation, _Memoires et journal tres fidele de ce qui s'est passe + le 11 de may 1703 jusqu'au 1 juin 1705 a Nimes touchant les + phanatiques_, published by E. de Barthelemy (Montpellier, 1874). These + works are written by Catholic writers immediately after the war of the + Cevennes, and, despite their partiality, include some valuable + documents. _Memoires du marquis de Guiscard_ (Delft, 1705); Maximilien + Misson, _Le Theatre sacre des Cevennes ou Recit de diverses merveilles + nouvellement operees dans cette partie de la province de Languedoc_ + (London, 1707); Misson, the author of the _Voyages en Italie_, which + met with such a great success, gave prominence to the facts relating + to the inspiration of the Camisards; the _Theatre_ also contains + important extracts from the works of Benoit, Brueys, Guiscard and + Boyer, and several original letters from Camisards; _Histoire des + Camisards, &c._ (London, 1740), the anonymous work of a distinguished + writer, which was eventually condemned by the parlement of Toulouse + to be torn up and burnt in 1759; Antoine Court, _Histoire des troubles + des Cevennes_ (3 vols., 1760), the best work of this period, compiled + from numerous manuscript references. The war of the Cevennes has been + treated in several English works, e.g. _A Compleat History of the + Cevennes, giving a Particular Account of the Situation, &c._, by a + doctor of civil law (London, 1703). This work includes a dedication to + the queen, an historical account of the people of the Cevennes, the + bull of Pope Clement against the Camisards, and the bishop of Nimes's + mandate publishing the bull, and a discourse on the obligations of the + English to help the Camisards, and a form of prayer used in the + Camisard assembly, printed in London in 1703 under the title + _Formulaire de prieres des Cevennois dans leurs assemblees. The + History of the Rise and Downfal of the Camisards, &c._ (London, 1709), + dealt with the prophets of the Cevennes in London, and is only an + abridged translation of Pere Louvreleuil's work. Among modern works + are, Ernest Moret, _Quinze ans du regne de Louis XIV_ (3 vols., 1859), + a work which gives a remarkable history of the war of the Cevennes; + _Les Insurges protestants sous Louis XIV._, studies and unedited + documents published by G. Frosterus (1868); _Memoires de Bonbonnoux_, + chief Camisard and pastor of the desert, published by Vielles (1883); + Bonnemere, _Histoire de la guerre des Camisards_ (1859). Two popular + works are--F. Puaux, _Histoire populaire de la guerre des Camisards_ + (1875); Anna E. Bray, _The Revolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes + with some Account of the Huguenots of the Seventeenth Century_ + (London, 1870). (F. Px.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This curious affair provoked a lengthy controversy, which is + described in "La Relation historique de ce qui s'est passe a Londres + au sujet des prophetes camisards" (_Republique des Lettres_, 1708), + in the study of M. Vesson, _Les Prophetes camisards a Londres_ + (1893), and also in the book _Les Prophetes cevenols_, ch. iii. + (1861) by Alfred Dubois. + + + + +CAMOENS [CAMOES], LUIS VAZ DE (1524-1580), the prince of Portuguese +poets, sprang from an illustrious and wealthy family of Galician origin, +whose seat, called the castle of Camoens, lay near Cape Finisterre. His +ancestor, the poet Vasco Pires de Camoens, followed the party of Peter +the Cruel of Castile against Henry II., and on the defeat of the former +had to take refuge along with other Galician nobles in Portugal, where +he founded the Portuguese family of his name. King Fernando received him +well, and gave him posts of honour and estates, and though the master of +Aviz sequestered some of these and Vasco lost others after the battle of +Aljubarrota, where he fought on the Spanish side, considerable +possessions still remained to him. Antao Vaz, the grandfather of Luis, +married one of the Algarve Gamas, so that Vasco da Gama and Camoens, the +discoverer of the sea route to India and the poet who immortalized the +voyage in his _Lusiads_, were kinsmen. Antao's eldest son Simao Vaz was +born in Coimbra at the close of the 15th century, and married Anna de Sa +e Macedo, who bore him an only son, Luis Vaz de Camoens; thus the poet, +like his father and grandfather, was a _cavalleiro fidalgo_, that is, an +untitled noble. + +Four cities dispute the honour of being his birthplace, though Lisbon +has the better title; and there is a like dispute about the year, which, +however, was almost certainly 1524. The poet spent his childhood in +Coimbra, where his father owned a property, and made his first studies +at the college of All Saints, designed for "honourable poor students," +and there contracted friendships with noblemen like D. Goncalo da +Silveira and his brother D. Alvaro, who were inmates of the nobles' +college of St Michael. These colleges were offshoots from and attached +to the Augustinian monastery of Santa Cruz, an important religious and +scholastic establishment, where the poet's uncle D. Bento de Camoens, a +virtuous and very learned man, was professed. The Renaissance, though +late in penetrating into Portugal, had by this time definitely +triumphed, and the university of Coimbra, after its reform in 1537 under +the auspices of King John III., boasted the best teachers drawn from +every country, among them George Buchanan. The possession of classical +culture was regarded as the mark of a gentleman; the colleges of Santa +Cruz required conversation within the walls to be in Greek or Latin, and +the university, when it absorbed the colleges, adopted the same rule. In +these surroundings, aided by a retentive memory, Camoens steeped himself +in the literature and mythology of the ancients, as his works show, and +he was thus able in after years to perfect the Portuguese language and +to enrich it with many neologisms of classical origin. It is fortunate, +however, for his country and his fame that he never followed the fashion +of writing in Latin; on the contrary, except for his Spanish poems, he +always employed his native tongue. After completing his grammar and +rhetoric the poet entered on his university course for the degree of +bachelor of arts, which lasted for three years, from 1539 to 1542, and +during this period he met Jorge de Montemayor, the author of _Diana_, +who was then studying music. He seems to have imbibed much of that +encyclopaedic instruction to which the humanists aspired, for his +writings show a very extensive reading, and his scientific knowledge and +faculty of observation compelled the admiration of the great Humboldt. +The thoroughness of his teaching is apparent when we remember that he +wrote his epic in the fortresses of Africa and Asia, far from books, and +yet gave proof of acquaintance with universal history, geography, +astronomy, Greek and Latin literature, and the modern poetry of Italy +and Spain. Much of the credit for this learning must be attributed to +the encouragement of D. Bento, now prior of Santa Cruz, who became +chancellor of the university the very year when Camoens entered it. +There is a tradition that this uncle destined him for the church and +caused him to study theology. The poet's knowledge of dogma and the +Bible, his friendly intercourse with the Lisbon Dominicans at the end of +his life, and the share he is said to have taken in their disputations, +make the hypothesis a likely one, but he made his own choice and +preferred a lay life. We have very little verse of his Coimbra time, but +it seems that he began in the Italian manner, following the new +classical school of Sa de Miranda (q.v.), and that, though attached to +the popular muse and well acquainted with the national songs and +romances, legends and lore, his poetry in the old style (_medida velha_) +is mostly of later date. An exception may perhaps be found in his _Auto_ +after the manner of Gil Vicente (q.v.), _The Amphitryons_, a Portuguese +adaptation from Plautus which was very well received. At the age of +eighteen Camoens left Coimbra, bidding adieu to the old city in verses +breathing the most tender _saudade_. Lisbon, which impressed Cervantes +so much as to draw from him a classic description in the novel _Persiles +y Sigismunda_, made an even greater impression on the youthful Camoens, +and the _Lusiads_ are full of eulogistic epithets on the city and the +Tagus. + +Arriving in 1543, it has been conjectured that he became tutor to D. +Antonio de Noronha, son of the great noble D. Francisco de Noronha, +count of Linhares, who had lately returned from a French embassy to his +palace at Xabregas. The poet's birth and talents admitted him to the +society of men like D. Constantine de Braganza, the duke of Aveiro, the +marquis of Cascaes, the count of Redondo, D. Manoel de Portugal and D. +Goncalo da Silveira, son of the count of Sortelha, who died a Christian +martyr in Monomotapa. At Xabregas Camoens must have met Francisco de +Moraes (q.v.), who had served as secretary to the count of Linhares on +his embassy, and there he probably read the MS. of _Palmeirim_; this +would explain the origin of two of his roundels which are clearly +founded on passages in the romance. Camoens had had a youthful love +affair in Coimbra, but on Good Friday of the year 1544 he experienced +the passion of his life. On that day in some Lisbon church he caught +sight of D. Catherina de Ataide (daughter of D. Antonio de Lima, high +chamberlain to the infant D. Duarte), who had recently become a +lady-in-waiting to the queen. This young girl, the Nathercia of his +after songs, counted then some thirteen years, and was destined to be +his Beatrice. To see more of her, he persuaded the count of Linhares to +introduce him to the court, where his poetical gifts and culture ensured +him a ready welcome, and his fifth idyll, addressed to his patron on +this occasion, paved the way for his entrance. Though inferior to his +later compositions, it excels in harmony any verse previously written in +Portuguese. At first his suit probably met with few difficulties, and if +Catherina's family regarded it seriously, their poverty, combined with +the fact that the poet came of a good stock and had the future in his +hands, may have prevented any real opposition. It was his own imprudence +that marred his fortunes, and his consciousness of this fact gave his +muse that moving expression, truth and _saudade_, which are lacking in +the somewhat artificial productions of the sentimental Petrarch. But +while Camoens gained protectors and admirers, his temperament and +conduct ensured him envious foes, and the secret of his love got out and +became the subject of gossip. All was not smooth with the lady, who +showed herself coy; now yielding to her heart, she was kind; and then +listening to her friends, who would have preferred a better match for +her, she repelled her lover. Jealousy then seized him, and sick of court +life for the moment, he gladly accompanied his patron to the latter's +country house; but once there he recognized that Lisbon was the centre +of attraction for him and that he could not be happy at a distance. His +verses at this time reveal his parlous condition. He oscillates between +joy and depression. He passes from tender regrets to violent outbursts, +which are followed by calm and peace, while expressions of passionate +love alternate with bold desires and lofty ambitions. It is clear that +there was an understanding between him and Catherina and that they +looked forward to a happy ending, and this encouraged him in his weary +waiting and his search for a lucrative post which would enable him to +approach her family and ask for her hand. From this period date the +greater part of his roundels and sonnets, some of the odes and nearly +all the eclogues. + +His fifth eclogue shows that he was seriously thinking of his patriotic +poem in 1544; and from the fourth it seems likely that the _Lusiads_ +were in course of composition, and that cantos 3 and 4 were practically +completed. He had by now established his fame and was known as the +Lusitanian Virgil, but presently he had a rude awakening from his dreams +of love and glory. He had shown his affection too openly, and some +infraction of court etiquette, about which the queen was strict, caused +the tongue of scandal to wag; perhaps it was an affair with one of +Catherina's brothers, even a duel, that led to the decree which exiled +him from Lisbon. + +Camoens's rashness, self-confidence and want of respect for the +authorities all contributed to the penalty, and the composition of the +play _El Rei Seleuco_ would aggravate his offence in the eyes of John +III. Produced in 1545 and derived from Plutarch, the plot was calculated +to draw attention to the relations between the king and his stepmother, +and to recall the action of D. Manoel in robbing his son John III. of +his intended bride. Camoens composed it for a wedding festivity in the +house of Estacio da Fonseca, and some of the verses refer so openly to +his passion, that if, as is likely, he spoke them himself, emphasizing +them with voice and gesture so as to publish his love to the world, this +new boldness, combined with the subject of the piece, must have rendered +his exile a certainty. All we know definitely, however, is that the +court was henceforth closed to him, and in 1546 he had to leave Lisbon, +the abode of his love and the scene of his triumph. Tradition says that +he went to the Ribatejo and spent seven or eight months with his +mother's relatives in or near Santarem, whence he poured out a number of +his finest poems, including his _Elegy of Exile_ and some magnificent +sonnets, which, in vigour of ideas and beauty of expression, exceeded +anything he had hitherto produced. Poets cannot live on bays, however, +and pressed by necessity he determined to become a soldier. + +One of his best modern biographers thinks that he petitioned the king +for liberty to commute his penalty into military service in Africa; but +whether this be so, or whether he merely went there to gain his spurs, +certain it is that in the autumn of 1547 he proceeded to Ceuta. For the +next two years, the usual period of service there, he lived the routine +life of a common soldier in this famous trade emporium and outpost-town, +and he lost his right eye in a skirmish with the Moroccans, though some +writers make the incident occur on the voyage across the straits when +his ship was attacked by Sallee rovers. Elegy ii. and a couple of odes +date from his stay in Ceuta. He is full of sadness and almost in +despair, but is saved from suicide by love and memory of the past. He +has intervals of calm and resignation, even of satirical humour, and +these become more frequent as the term of his exile draws near, and in +one of them he wrote his prose letter to a "Lisbon friend." The octaves +on the _Discontent of the World_, which breathe a philosophic equanimity +and lift the reader out of the tumult of daily life, go to show that his +restless heart had found peace at last and that he had accustomed +himself to solitude. + +In November 1549 the aged governor of Ceuta, D. Affonso de Noronha, was +summoned to court and created viceroy of India, and Camoens accompanied +him to Lisbon, intending to follow him to the East in the armada which +was due to sail in the spring of 1550. Reaching the capital in December, +the poet almost immediately enlisted, but when the time came for +departure he had changed his mind. His affection for Catherina and +dreams of literary glory detained him, and he lived on in the +expectation of obtaining a post on the strength of his services and +wound. But month after month passed by without result, and in his +disappointment he allied himself with a group of hot-blooded youths, +including the ex-friar Antonio Ribeiro, nicknamed "the Chiado", after +whom the main street of Lisbon takes its name, and endeavoured to forget +his troubles in their society. He took part in their extravagances and +gained the name of "Trinca-fortes" ("Crack-braves") from his bohemian +companions, while there were ladies who mocked at his disfigurement, +dubbing him "devil" and "eyeless face". In the course of his adventures +he had often to draw his sword, either as attacker or attacked, and he +boasted that he had seen the soles of the feet of many but none had seen +his. When the reply to his application came from the palace it was a +negative one, and he had now nothing further to expect. His stock of +money brought from Ceuta was certainly exhausted, and misery stared him +in the face, making him desperate. On the feast of Corpus Christi, the +16th of June 1552, he found two masked friends of his engaged in a +street fight near St Dominic's convent, and joining in the fray he +wounded one Goncalo Borges, a palace servant, with the result that he +was apprehended and lodged in gaol. This unprovoked attack upon a royal +servant on so holy a day constituted a serious offence and cost him +eight months' imprisonment. In a pathetic sonnet he describes his +terrible experiences, which made such an impression on him that years +afterwards he recurred to them in his great autobiographical Canzon 10. +When Borges' wound was completely healed, the poet's friends intervened +to assist him, and it was arranged that on his formally imploring pardon +Borges should grant it and desist from proceeding with the case. This +was effected on the 13th of February 1553, and on the 7th of March the +king, taking into consideration that Camoens was "a youth and poor and +decided to serve this year in India", confirmed the pardon. He had been +obliged to humble his pride and enlist again, but while he complained of +his troubles he recognized, in his frank, honest way, that his own +mistakes were in part the causes of them. + +After bidding good-bye to Catherina for the last time, Camoens set sail +on Palm Sunday, the 24th of March 1553, in the "S. Bento", the flagship +of a fleet of four vessels, under Fernao Alvares Cabral. His last words, +he says in a letter, were those of Scipio Africanus, "Ingrata patria, +non possidebis ossa mea". + +He relates some of his experiences on board and the events of the voyage +in various sonnets in Elegy iii. and in the _Lusiads_. In those days the +sailors navigated the ships, while the men-at-arms kept the day and +night watches, helped in the cleaning and, in case of necessity, at the +pumps, but the rank of Camoens doubtless saved him from manual work. He +had much time to himself in his six months' voyage and was able to lay +in a store of nautical knowledge, while tempestuous weather off the Cape +of Good Hope led him to conceive the dramatic episode of Adamastor +(_Lusiads_, canto 5). The "S. Bento", the best ship of the fleet, +weathered the Cape safely, and without touching at Mozambique, the +watering-place of ships bound for India, anchored at Goa in September. +It seems probable that the idea of the _Lusiads_ took further shape on +the voyage out, and that Camoens modified his plan; cantos 3 and 4 were +already written, but from an historical he now made it a maritime epic. +The discovery of India became the main theme, while the history of +Portugal was interlaced with it, and the poem ended with the espousals +between Portugal and the ocean, and a prophecy of the future greatness +of the fatherland. + +At the time of his arrival Goa boasted 100,000 inhabitants, and with its +magnificent harbour was the commercial capital of the west of India. The +first viceroy had been content with a sea dominion, but the great +Affonso de Albuquerque saw that this was not enough to secure the +supremacy of the Portuguese; recognizing the strategic value of Goa, he +seized it and made it the capital of a land empire, and built fortresses +in every important point through the East. Since his death a succession +of remarkable victories had made the flag of Portugal predominant, but +the enervating climate, the pleasures and the plunder of Asia, began to +tell on the conquerors. Corruption was rife from the governor downwards, +because the ruling ambition was to get rich and return home, and the +hero of one day was a pirate the next. After all, it was only human +nature, for a governorship lasted but three years and Portugal was far +away, so the saying went round--"They are installed the first year, they +rob the second, and then pack up in the third to sail away." Camoens was +well received at first, owing to his talents and bravery, and he found +the life cheap and merry, but having left his country with high ideals, +the injustice and demoralization of manners he found in India soon +disgusted him. He compared Goa to Babylon, and called it "the mother of +villains and the stepmother of honest men." + +His first military service in the East took place in November 1553, when +he went with a force led by the viceroy to chastise a petty king on the +Malabar coast. The expedition only lasted two or three months, and after +some trivial combats it returned to Goa. In February of the following +year Camoens accompanied the viceroy's son, D. Fernando de Menezes, who +led an armada to the mouth of the Red Sea and thence up the Arabian +coast to snap up hostile merchantmen and suppress piracy. Next the fleet +went on to Ormuz, as was the custom with these annual cruises, and then +to Bassora, where the poet helped to make some valuable prizes, and +wrote a sonnet--it was ever, with him, "in one hand the sword, in the +other the pen"! Returning to Goa in November he learnt of the deaths of +Prince John, and of his friend and pupil the young D. Antonio de +Noronha, and paid his tribute in a feeling sonnet and eclogue. In +February 1555 he sailed on another pirate hunt and spent six weary +months off Cape Guardafui, varied by a visit to Mombasa and by further +work on his epic, and only got back to Goa in the following September. +His experiences are recorded in the profound and sad 10th Canzon. + +Meanwhile Francisco Barreto, an honourable and generous man, had become +governor-general of India in the June of 1555, and, his appointment +being popular, a reign of festivities began in Golden Goa to welcome his +succession, in the course of which Camoens produced his _Filodemo_, a +dramatized novel written in his court days. The same occasion probably +gave birth to the _Disparates na India_ ("Follies of India"), and +certainly to the _Satyra do Torneio_ ("Satire of the Tourney"), which +confirmed the poet's reputation as a sayer of sharp things and gave +considerable umbrage to those whom the cap fitted. However, it was not +the enmities thus aroused but military duty which compelled him to quit +Goa once more in the spring of 1556. He had enlisted in Lisbon for five +years, the usual term, and in compliance with the orders of the governor +he sailed for the Moluccas in April and there fought and versified for +two years, though nearly all is guesswork at this period of his life. He +appears to have spent the time between September 1556 and February 1557 +in the island of Ternate, where he wrote Canzon 6, revealing a state of +moral depression similar to that of Canzon 10, and he perhaps visited +Banda and Amboina. In the following year he took part in the military +occupation of Macao, which the emperor of China had presented to the +Portuguese in return for their destruction of a pirate fleet which had +besieged Canton. The poet's five years' term of service was now over, +and he remained at Macao many months waiting for a ship to carry him +back to India. He had made some profit out of the _Merci de Viagem_, +granted by the governor Barreto to free him from the poverty in which he +habitually lived, and he spent his money royally. At the same time he +continued his epic, working in the grotto which still bears his name. + +All seemed to be going smoothly with him until suddenly his fortunes +took a serious turn for the worse. As the result of an intrigue the +captain of the yearly ship from China to India, who acted as governor of +Macao during his stay in port, imprisoned Camoens, and took him on +board with a view of bringing him to trial in India. The ship, however, +was wrecked in October 1559 at the mouth of the Mekong river, and the +poet had to save his life and his _Lusiads_ by swimming to shore, and +though he preserved the six or seven finished cantos of the poem, he +lost everything else. While wandering about on the Cambodian coast +awaiting the monsoon and a vessel to take him to Malacca, he composed +those magnificent stanzas "By the Waters of Babylon," called by Lope de +Vega "the pearl of all poetry," in which he recalls the happy days of +his youth, sighs for Lisbon (Sion) and his love, and mourns his long +exile from home. He got somehow to Malacca, and after a short stay there +reached Goa, still as prisoner, in June 1561. He was straightway lodged +in gaol, where he heard for the first time of the death of Catherina, +and he poured out his grief in the great sonnet, _Alma Minha Gentil_. +The viceroy, D. Constantius de Braganca, had recently returned from +Jafanapatam, bringing as prize a tooth of Buddha, and Camoens approached +him with a splendid epistle in twenty octaves, after the manner of +Horace's ode to Augustus. It failed, however, to hasten the +consideration of his case, but in September the Conde de Redondo, a good +friend, came into office and immediately ordered his release from +prison. His troubles were not yet at an end, however, for one Miguel +Rodriguez Coutinho, a well-known soldier and citizen of Goa who lent +money at usurious rates, thought the opportunity a good one to obtain +repayment of a debt, and had Camoens lodged once more in gaol. As soon +as he came out the poet composed a burlesque roundel satirizing his +persecutor under the nickname of Fios Seccos ("dry threads"). + +Though very poor he now led an easier, even a pleasant life for a time. +He was able to see his friends D. Vasco de Ataide, D. Francisco de +Almeida, Heitor da Silveira, Joao Lopes Leitao and Francisco de Mello, +all men of family and note. One day he invited them to a banquet, at +which, instead of the usual dishes, each guest was served with a set of +witty verses, and after these had been read out and chaff had gone +round, the food came and they formed a merry party. The poet used his +interest with the viceroy to recommend to him the naturalist Garcia da +Orta, whose _Colloquies_ on the simples and drugs of the East, the first +product of the press in India, appeared in April 1563 with an ode by +Camoens. His life for the next three years is almost a blank, but we +know that he was hard at work finishing his epic, assisted by the advice +of the historian Diogo do Couto, who became its commentator, and further +that the new viceroy, his friend D. Antao de Noronha, nominated him to a +reversion of the factory of Chaul, which, however, never fell into +possession. It is clear from his writings that fourteen years in the +East had told on Camoens. His best friends were dead or scattered, and +he was overwhelmed with _saudade_. His sole ambition was to go home and +print his poem, but he had no money to pay his passage. In September +1567, however, Pedro Barreto was named captain of Mozambique, and +insisted on the poet accompanying him to Sofala, at the same time +lending him two hundred cruzades. It was part of the way home, so +Camoens accepted, but after they reached Mozambique Barreto called in +this money, and his debtor, being unable to pay, was detained there for +two whole years. Here Diogo do Couto found him "so poor that he ate at +the cost of friends, and in order that he might embark for the Kingdom +we friends collected for him the clothes he needed and some gave him to +eat, and that winter he finished perfecting the _Lusiads_ for the press +and wrote much in a book he was making, which he called _Parnaso of Luiz +de Camoes_, a book of much learning, doctrine and philosophy, which was +stolen from him." Thanks to Couto and others, Camoens was able to +liquidate his debt and set sail in November 1569 in the "Santa Clara," +and he reached Portugal on the 7th of April 1570, after an absence of +seventeen years. + +The only wealth he brought with him from India was the MS. of his great +poem, a _"Tesoro del Luso"_ in the words of Cervantes. Moreover, he +returned at an unfortunate moment--one of pest and famine. The great +plague which had killed a quarter, or, as some say, half of the +population of the capital, was declining, but a rigid quarantine +prevailed, and the ship had to lie off Cascaes until the sanitary +authorities allowed her to enter the Tagus. Camoens was welcomed by his +mother, whom he found "very old and very poor"--his father had died at +Goa about 1555--and after a visit to Catherina's tomb, which inspired +the poignant sonnet 337, he set about obtaining the royal licence to +print the _Lusiads_. This was dated the 24th of September 1571 and gave +him a ten years' copyright, and as soon as the book appeared some +friendly and influential hand, perhaps D. Manoel de Portugal, perhaps D. +Francisca de Aragao for whom he had rhymed in the happy days of his +youth, presented the national epic to King Sebastian. Shortly +afterwards, on the 28th of July 1572, the king gave the poet a pension +of fifteen milreis for the term of three years, as a reward for his +services in India and for his poem. It was relatively a considerable +sum, seeing that he had no great military record, and it seems even +generous when we remember that Magellan had only received twelve, and +had left Portugal because King Manoel would not give him a slight +increase. Many functionaries with families had less to live on, and +Camoens's subsistence was secure for the time being, and he could afford +an attendant, so that the legend of the slave Antonio may well be true. +Moreover, he was in the enjoyment of the fame his poem brought him. +Philip II. is said to have read and admired it, and the powerful +minister, Pedro de Alcacova Carneiro, echoed the general opinion when he +remarked that it had only one defect, in not being short enough to learn +by heart or long enough to have no ending. Tributes came from abroad +too. Tasso wrote and sent Camoens a sonnet in his praise, Fernando de +Herrera celebrated him, and the year 1580 saw the publication of two +Spanish versions, one at Alcala, the other at Salamanca. His pension +lapsed in 1575, but on the 2nd of August it was renewed for a further +term; owing, however, to a mistake of the treasury officials, Camoens +drew nothing for about a year and a half and fell into dire distress. +This explains the story of Ruy da Camara, who had engaged him to +translate the penitential psalms, and not receiving the version, called +on the poet, who said in excuse that he had no spirit for such work now +that he wanted for everything, and that his slave had asked him for a +penny for fuel and he could not give it. + +On the 2nd of June 1578, just before his start for the expedition to +Africa which cost him his life and Portugal her independence, King +Sebastian had renewed the poet's pension for a further period. Though +Camoens had neither the health nor the means to accompany the splendid +train of nobles and courtiers who followed the last crusading monarch to +his doom, he began an epic to celebrate the enterprise, but burnt it +when he heard the news of the battle of Alcacer. Instead, he mourned the +death of his royal benefactor in a magnificent sonnet, and in Elegy x. +reproached the cowardly soldiery who contributed to the rout. On the +31st of January 1580 the cardinal king Henry died, and, foreseeing the +Spanish invasion, Camoens wrote in March to his old friend D. Francisco +de Almeida: "All will see that I so loved my country that I was content +not only to die in her but with her." A great plague had been raging in +Lisbon since the previous year, and the poet, who lay ill in his poor +cottage in the rua de Santa Anna, depressed by the calamities of his +country, fell a victim to it. He was removed to a hospital and there +passed away, unmarried and the last of his line, on the 10th of June +1580. A Carmelite, Frei Jose Indio, attended him in his last moments and +received the only recognition Camoens could give, his copy of the +_Lusiads_. He wrote afterwards: "What more grievous thing than to see so +great a genius thus unfortunate. I saw him die in a hospital in Lisbon, +without a sheet to cover him, after having triumphed in the East Indies +and sailed 5000 leagues by sea." The house of Vimioso supplied the +winding-sheet, and Camoens was buried with other victims of the plague +in a common grave in the cemetery of Santa Anna. Years later D. Goncalo +Coutinho erected in the church of that invocation an _in memoriam_ slab +of marble with an inscription, and subsequently epitaphs were added by +other admirers, but the earthquake of 1755 damaged the building, and all +traces of these last acts of homage to genius have disappeared. The +third centenary of the poet's death was made the occasion of a national +apotheosis, and on the 8th of June 1880 some remains, piously believed +to be his, were borne with those of Vasco da Gama to the national +pantheon, the Jeronymos at Belem. + +The masterpiece of Camoens, the _Lusiads_, is the _epos_ of discovery. +It is written in hendecasyllabic _ottava rima_, and is divided into ten +cantos containing in all 1102 stanzas. Its argument is briefly as +follows. After an exordium proposing the subject, invoking the Tagus +muses and addressing King Sebastian, Vasco da Gama's ships are shown +sailing up the East African coast on their way to India. At a council of +the gods the fate of the fleet is discussed, and Bacchus promises to +thwart the voyage, while Venus and Mars favour the navigators. They +arrive at Mozambique, where the governor endeavours to destroy them by +stratagem, and, this failing, Bacchus tries other plots against them at +Quiloa and Mombasa which are foiled by Venus. In answer to her appeal, +Jupiter foretells the glorious feats of the Portuguese in the East, and +sends Mercury to direct the voyagers to Melinde, where they are +hospitably received and get a pilot to guide them to India. The local +ruler visits the fleet and asks Gama about his country and its history, +and in response the latter gives an account of the origin of the kingdom +of Portugal, its kings and principal achievements, ending with the +incidents of the voyage out. This recital occupies cantos 3, 4 and 5, +and includes some of the most admired and most powerful episodes in the +poem, e.g. those of Ignez de Castro, King Manoel's dream of the rivers +Ganges and Indus, the speech of the old man of Belem and the apparition +of Adamastor off the Cape of Good Hope. Canto 6 describes the crossing +of the Indian Ocean from Melinde to Calicut and a fresh hostile attempt +on the part of Bacchus. He descends to Neptune's palace, and at a +council of the sea-gods it is resolved to order Aeolus to loose the +winds against the Portuguese, but the tempest is quelled by Venus and +her nymphs in answer to Gama's prayer, and the morning light reveals the +Ghats of India. Just before the storm, occurs the night scene in which +Velloso entertains his shipmates with the story of the Twelve of +England, another of the famous episodes. Canto 7 is taken up with the +arrival at Calicut, a description of the country and the details of +Gama's reception by the raja. The governor of the city visits the fleet +and inquires about the pictures on their banners, whereupon Paulo da +Gama, Vasco's brother, tells him of the deeds of the early Portuguese +kings. Meanwhile Bacchus, not to be baulked, appears to a priest in the +guise of Mahomet, and stirs up the Moslems against the Christian +adventurers, with the result that the raja charges Gama with being a +leader of convicts and pirates. To this the captain makes a spirited +reply and gets his despatch, but he has new snares to avoid and further +difficulties to overcome before he is finally able to set sail on the +return voyage. Pitying their toils, Venus determines to give the +voyagers repose and pleasure on their way home, and directs their course +to an enchanted island, which is described in canto 9, in the longest +and perhaps the most beautiful episode in the poem. On landing they are +received by the goddess and her nymphs, and general joy ensues, +heightened by banquets and amorous play. In a prophetic song, the siren +tells of the exploits of the Portuguese viceroys, governors and captains +in India until the time of D John de Castro, after which Tethys ascends +a mountain with Gama, shows him the spheres after the system of Ptolemy +and the globe of Asia and Africa, and describes the Indian life of St +Thomas the apostle. Finally the navigators quit the island and reach +Lisbon, and an epilogue contains a patriotic exhortation to King +Sebastian and visions of glory, which ended so disastrously at the +battle of Alcacer. + +Though the influence of Camoens on Portuguese has been exaggerated, it +was very considerable, and he so far fixed the written language that at +the present day it is commonly and not inaccurately called "the language +of Camoens." The _Lusiads_ is the most successful modern epic cast in +the ancient mould, and it has done much to preserve the corporate life +of the Portuguese people and to keep alive the spirit of nationality in +times of adversity like the "Spanish Captivity" and the Napoleonic +invasion. Even now it forms a powerful bond between the mother-country +and her potentially mighty daughter-nation across the Atlantic, the +United States of Brazil. The men of the Renaissance saw nothing +incongruous in that mixture of paganism and Christianity which is found +in the _Lusiads_ as in Ariosto, though some modern critics, like +Voltaire, consider it a grave artistic defect in the poem. The fact that +the _Lusiads_ is written in a little-known language, and its intensely +national and almost exclusively historical character, undoubtedly +militate against a right estimate of its value, now that Portugal, once +a world power, has long ceased to hold the East in fee or to guide the +destinies of Europe. But though political changes may and do react on +literary appreciations, the _Lusiads_ remains none the less a great +poem, breathing the purest religious fervour, love of country and spirit +of chivalry, with splendid imaginative and descriptive passages full of +the truest and deepest poetry. The structure is Virgilian, but the whole +conception is the author's own, while the style is natural and noble, +the diction nearly always correct and elegant, and the verse, as a rule, +sonorous and full of harmony. + +In addition to his epic, Camoens wrote sonnets, canzons, odes, sextines, +eclogues, elegies, octaves, roundels, letters and comedies. The roundels +include _cartas, motes, voltas, cantigas, trovas, pastorals_ and +_endechas_. In the opinion of many competent judges Camoens only attains +his true stature in his lyrics; and a score of his sonnets, two or three +of the canzons, eclogues and elegies, and the Babylonian roundels will +bear comparison with any composition of the same kind that other +literatures can show. Referring to the _Lusiads_, A. von Humboldt calls +Camoens a "great maritime painter," but in his best lyrics he is a +thinker as well as a poet, and when free from the trammels of the epic +and inherited respect for classical traditions, he reveals a personality +so virile and deep, a philosophy so broad and human, a vision so wide, +and a form and style so nearly perfect, as not only to make him the +foremost of Peninsular bards but to entitle him to a place in that small +company of universal poets of the first rank. + +The oldest and most authentic portrait of Camoens appeared in 1624 with +his life, by Manoel Severim de Faria. It is a kitcat and shows the poet +in armour wearing a laurel crown; his right hand holds a pen, his left +rests on a copy of the _Lusiads_, while a shield above shows the family +arms, a dragon rising from between rocks. The likeness exhibits a Gothic +or northern type, and the tradition of his red beard and blue eyes +confirms it. Except for an ode, sonnet and elegy, all Camoens's lyrics +were published posthumously. + + AUTHORITIES.--The most modern and most critical biographies are those + of Dr Theophilo Braga, _Camoes, epoca e Vide_ (Oporto, 1907), and of + Dr Wilhelm Storck, _Luis de Camoes Leben_ (Paderborn, 1890), while the + most satisfactory edition of the complete works is due to the Visconde + de Juromenha (6 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1869), though it contains some + spurious matter. While rejecting without good reason many of the + traditions accepted by Juromenha in his life of the poet, Storck + embroiders on his own account, and Braga must be preferred to him. Two + volumes of Innocencio da Silva's _Diccionario Bibliographico + Portuguez_ (14 and 15) are entirely devoted to Camoens and Camoniana, + the second of them dealing fully with the tercentenary celebrations. + Among modern Portuguese studies of the national epic the most + important are perhaps _Camoes e a Renascenca em Portugal_, by Oliveira + Martins, and _Camoes e o Sentimento Nacional_, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, + 1891). The latter volume contains useful information on the various + editions of Camoens, with an account of the texts and remarks on his + plagiarists. Very few poets have been so often translated, and a list + and estimate of the English translations of the _Lusiads_ from the + time of Sir Richard Fanshawe (1655) downwards, will be found in Sir + Richard Burton's _Camoens: His Life and His Lusiads_, which, + notwithstanding some errors, is a most informing book, and the result + of a curious similarity of temperament and experience between master + and disciple. Burton translated the _Lusiads_ (2 vols., London, 1880) + and the _Lyricks_ (sonnets, canzons, odes and sextines; 2 vols., + London, 1884), and left a version of all the minor works in MS. The + accurate and readable version of the epic by Mr J.J. Aubertin, with + the Portuguese text opposite, has gone through two editions (2nd ed., + 2 vols., London, 1884), and there is a version of seventy of the + sonnets, accompanied by the Portuguese text, by the same author + (London, 1881). (E. Pr.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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