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diff --git a/32975.txt b/32975.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0d92e12 --- /dev/null +++ b/32975.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17483 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 1, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1 + "Calhoun" to "Camoens" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 25, 2010 [EBook #32975] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article CALIPH: "Mohallab was soon after deprived of the government + of Khorasan, Hajjaj accusing him of partiality towards the rebels + of Yemenite extraction." 'Hajjaj' amended from 'Majjaj'. + + Article CALIPH: "Moreover, Hajjaj, in order to maintain the regular + revenue from taxation, had been obliged to introduce stringent + regulations ..." 'maintain' amended from 'maintian'. + + Article CALIPH: "Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Hajjaj, was made + governor of Irak." 'Hajjaj' amended from 'Majjaj'. + + Article CALIPH: "Still, they could not believe that it was + according to the will of the caliph that they were thus treated, + until a certain number of their chiefs went as a deputation to + Hisham ..." 'were' amended from 'here'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME V, SLICE I + + Calhoun to Camoens + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL CALW + CALI CALYDON + CALIBRATION CALYPSO + CALICO CAM (CAO), DIOGO + CALICUT CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO + CALIFORNIA CAMALDULIANS + CALIFORNIA, LOWER CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE + CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF CAMARGUE + CALIPASH and CALIPEE CAMARINA + CALIPH CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE + CALIPHATE CAMBALUC + CALIVER CAMBAY + CALIXTUS (popes) CAMBAY, GULF OF + CALIXTUS, GEORG CAMBER + CALL CAMBERT, ROBERT + CALLANDER CAMBERWELL + CALLAO CAMBIASI, LUCA + CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL CAMBODIA + CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH + CALLIAS CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL + CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS CAMBORNE + CALLIMACHUS (Athenian sculptor) CAMBRAI + CALLIMACHUS (Greek poet) CAMBRIA + CALLINUS CAMBRIAN SYSTEM + CALLIOPE CAMBRIC + CALLIRRHOE CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF + CALLISTHENES CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN + CALLISTO CAMBRIDGE (of England) + CALLISTRATUS (grammarian) CAMBRIDGE (Maryland, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (Athenian poet) CAMBRIDGE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (Greek sophist) CAMBRIDGE (Ohio, U.S.A.) + CALLISTRATUS (of Aphidnae) CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS + CALLOT, JACQUES CAMBRIDGESHIRE + CALLOVIAN CAMBUSLANG + CALM CAMBYSES + CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT + CALNE CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT + CALOMEL CAMDEN, WILLIAM + CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE CAMDEN (New Jersey, U.S.A.) + CALORESCENCE CAMDEN (South Carolina, U.S.A.) + CALORIMETRY CAMEL + CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT + CALPURNIUS, TITUS CAMELLIA + CALTAGIRONE CAMEO + CALTANISETTA CAMERA + CALTROP CAMERA LUCIDA + CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE CAMERA OBSCURA + CALUMET CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (classical scholar) + CALUMPIT CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (German botanist) + CALVADOS CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB + CALVART, DENIS CAMERINO + CALVARY CAMERON, JOHN + CALVE EMMA CAMERON, RICHARD + CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART CAMERON, SIMON + CALVERT (English artists) CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT + CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN + CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART CAMERONIANS + CALVES' HEAD CLUB CAMEROON + CALVI CAMILING + CALVIN, JOHN CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS + CALVINISTIC METHODISTS CAMILLUS and CAMILLA + CALVISIUS, SETHUS CAMISARDS + CALVO, CARLOS CAMOENS, LUIS VAZ DE + + + + +CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1850), American statesman and +parliamentarian, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in Abbeville +District, South Carolina, on the 18th of March 1782. His father, Patrick +Calhoun, is said to have been born in Donegal, in North Ireland, but to +have left Ireland when a mere child. The family seems to have emigrated +first to Pennsylvania, whence they removed, after Braddock's defeat, to +Western Virginia. From Virginia they removed in 1756 to South Carolina +and settled on Long Cane Creek, in Granville (now Abbeville) county. +Patrick Calhoun attained some prominence in the colony, serving in the +colonial legislature, and afterwards in the state legislature, and +taking part in the War of Independence. In 1770 he had married Martha +Caldwell, the daughter of another Scottish-Irish settler. + +The opportunities for obtaining a liberal education in the remote +districts of South Carolina at that time were scanty. Fortunately, young +Calhoun had the opportunity, although late, of studying under his +brother-in-law, the Rev. Moses Waddell (1770-1840), a Presbyterian +minister, who afterwards, from 1819 to 1829, was president of the +University of Georgia. In 1802 Calhoun entered the junior class in Yale +College, and graduated with distinction in 1804. He then studied first +at the famous law school in Litchfield, Conn., and afterwards in a law +office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was admitted to the bar. He +began practice in his native Abbeville District, and soon took a leading +place in his profession. In 1808 and 1809 he was a member of the South +Carolina legislature, and from 1811 to 1817 was a member of the national +House of Representatives. + +When he entered the latter body the strained relations between Great +Britain and the United States formed the most important question for the +deliberation of Congress. Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, being +eager for war and knowing Calhoun's hostility to Great Britain, gave him +the second place on the committee of foreign affairs, of which he soon +became the actual head. In less than three weeks the committee reported +resolutions, evidently written by Calhoun, recommending preparations for +a struggle with Great Britain; and in the following June Calhoun +submitted a second report urging a formal declaration of war. Both sets +of resolutions the House adopted. Clay and Calhoun did more, probably, +than any other two men in Congress to force the reluctant president into +beginning hostilities. + +In 1816 Calhoun delivered in favour of a protective tariff a speech that +was ever after held up by his opponents as evidence of his inconsistency +in the tariff controversy. The embargo and the war had crippled American +commerce, but had stimulated manufactures. With the end of the +Napoleonic wars in Europe the industries of the old world revived, and +Americans began to feel their competition. In the consequent distress in +the new industrial centres there arose a cry for protection. Calhoun, +believing that there was a natural tendency in the United States towards +the development of manufactures, supported the Tariff Bill of 1816, +which laid on certain foreign commodities duties higher than were +necessary for the purposes of revenue. He believed that the South would +share in the general industrial development, not having perceived as yet +that slavery was an insuperable obstacle. His opposition to protection +in later years resulted from an honest change of convictions. He always +denied that in supporting this bill he had been inconsistent, and +insisted that it was one for revenue. + +From 1817 to 1825 Calhoun was secretary of war under President Monroe. +To him is due the fostering and the reformation of the National Military +Academy at West Point, which he found in disorder, but left in a most +efficient state. Calhoun was vice-president of the United States from +1825 to 1832, during the administration of John Quincy Adams, and during +most of the first administration of Andrew Jackson. This period was for +Calhoun a time of reflection. His faith in a strong nationalistic policy +was gradually undermined, and he finally became the foremost champion of +particularism and the recognized leader of what is generally known as +the "States Rights" or "Strict Construction" party. + +In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties. In 1828 a +still higher tariff act, the so-called "Bill of Abominations," was +passed, avowedly for the purpose of protection. The passage of these +acts caused great discontent, especially among the Southern states, +which were strictly agricultural. They felt that the great burden of +this increased tariff fell on them, as they consumed, but did not +produce, manufactured articles. Under such conditions the Southern +states questioned the constitutionality of the imposition. Calhoun +himself now perceived that the North and the South represented diverse +tendencies. The North was outstripping the South in population and +wealth, and already by the tariff acts was, as he believed, selfishly +levying taxes for its sole benefit. The minority must, he insisted, be +protected from "the tyranny of the majority." In his first important +political essay, "The South Carolina Exposition," prepared by him in the +summer of 1828, he showed how this should be done. To him it was clear +that the Federal Constitution was a limited instrument, by which the +sovereign states had delegated to the Federal government certain general +powers. The states could not, without violating the constitutional +compact, interfere with the activities of the Federal government so long +as the government confined itself to its proper sphere; but the attempt +of Congress, or any other department of the Federal government, to +exercise any power which might alter the nature of the instrument would +be an act of usurpation. The right of judging such an infraction +belonged to the state, being an attribute of sovereignty of which the +state could not be deprived without being reduced to a wholly +subordinate condition. As a remedy for such a breach of compact the +state might resort to nullification (q.v.), or, as a last resort, to +secession from the Union. Such doctrines were not original with Calhoun, +but had been held in various parts of the Union from time to time. It +remained for him, however, to submit them to a rigid analysis and reduce +them to a logical form. + +Meantime the friendship between Calhoun and Jackson had come to an end. +While a member of President Monroe's cabinet, Calhoun had favoured the +reprimanding of General Jackson (q.v.) for his high-handed course in +Florida in 1818, during the first Seminole War. In 1831 W.H. Crawford, +who had been a member of this cabinet, desiring to ruin Calhoun +politically by turning Jackson's hostility against him, revealed to +Jackson what had taken place thirteen years before. Jackson could brook +no criticism from one whom he had considered a friend; Calhoun, +moreover, angered the president still further by his evident sanction of +the social proscription of Mrs Eaton (q.v.); the political views of the +two men, furthermore, were becoming more and more divergent, and the +rupture between the two became complete. + +The failure of the Jackson administration to reduce the Tariff of 1828 +drew from Calhoun his "Address to the People of South Carolina" in 1831, +in which he elaborated his views of the nature of the Union as given in +the "Exposition." In 1832 a new tariff act was passed, which removed the +"abominations" of 1828 but left the principle of protection intact. The +people of South Carolina were not satisfied, and Calhoun in a third +political tract, in the form of a letter to Governor James Hamilton +(1786-1857) of South Carolina, gave his doctrines their final form, but +without altering the fundamental principles that have already been +stated. + +In 1832 South Carolina, acting in substantial accordance with Calhoun's +theories, "nullified" the tariff acts passed by Congress in 1828 and +1832 (see NULLIFICATION; SOUTH CAROLINA; and UNITED STATES). On the 28th +of December 1832 Calhoun resigned as vice-president, and on the 4th of +January 1833 took his seat in the Senate. President Jackson had, in a +special message, taken strong ground against the action of South +Carolina, and a bill was introduced to extend the jurisdiction of the +courts of the United States and clothe the president with additional +powers, with the avowed object of meeting the situation in South +Carolina. Calhoun, in turn, introduced resolutions upholding the +doctrine held by South Carolina, and it was in the debate on the +first-named measure, termed the "Force Bill," and on these resolutions, +that the first intellectual duel took place between Daniel Webster and +Calhoun. Webster declared that the Federal government through the +Supreme Court was the ultimate expounder and interpreter of its own +powers, while Calhoun championed the rights of the individual state +under a written contract which reserved to each state its sovereignty. + +The practical result of the conflict over the tariff was a compromise. +Congress passed an act gradually reducing the duties to a revenue basis, +and South Carolina repealed her nullification measures. As the result of +the conflict, Calhoun was greatly strengthened in his position as the +leader of his party in the South. Southern leaders generally were now +beginning to perceive, as Calhoun had already seen, that there was a +permanent conflict between the North and the South, not only a +divergence of interests between manufacturing and agricultural sections, +but an inevitable struggle between free and slave labour. Should enough +free states be admitted into the Union to destroy the balance of power, +the North would naturally gain a preponderance in the Senate, as it had +in the House, and might, within constitutional limits, legislate as it +pleased. The Southern minority recognized, therefore, that they must +henceforth direct the policy of the government in all questions +affecting their peculiar interests, or their section would undergo a +social and economic revolution. The Constitution, if strictly +interpreted according to Calhoun's views, would secure this control to +the minority, and prevent an industrial upheaval. + +An element of bitterness was now injected into the struggle. The +Northern Abolitionists, to whom no contract or agreement was sacred that +involved the continuance of slavery, regarded the clauses in the Federal +Constitution which maintained the property rights of the slave-owners as +treaties with evil, binding on no one, and bitterly attacked the +slave-holders and the South generally. Their attacks may be said to have +destroyed the moderate party in that section. Any criticism of their +peculiar institution now came to be highly offensive to Southern +leaders, and Calhoun, who always took the most advanced stand in behalf +of Southern rights, urged (but in vain) that the Senate refuse to +receive abolitionist petitions. He also advocated the exclusion of +abolitionist literature from the mails. + +Indeed from 1832 until his death Calhoun may be said to have devoted his +life to the protection of Southern interests. He became the exponent, +the very embodiment, of an idea. It is a mistake, however, to +characterize him as an enemy to the Union. His contention was that its +preservation depended on the recognition of the rights guaranteed to the +states by the Constitution, and that aggression by one section could +only end in disruption. Secession, he contended, was the only final +remedy left to the weaker. Calhoun was re-elected to the Senate in 1834 +and in 1840, serving until 1843. From 1832 to 1837 he was a man without +a party. He attacked the "spoils system" inaugurated by President +Jackson, opposed the removal of the government deposits from the Bank of +the United States, and in general was a severe critic of Jackson's +administration. In this period he usually voted with the Whigs, but in +1837 he went over to the Democrats and supported the "independent +treasury" scheme of President Van Buren. He was spoken of for the +presidency in 1844, but declined to become a candidate, and was +appointed as secretary of state in the cabinet of President Tyler, +serving from the 1st of April 1844, throughout the remainder of the +term, until the 10th of March 1845. While holding this office he devoted +his energies chiefly to the acquisition of Texas, in order to preserve +the equilibrium between the South and the constantly growing North. One +of his last acts as secretary of state was to send a despatch, on the +3rd of March 1845, inviting Texas to accept the terms proposed by +Congress. Calhoun was once more elected to the Senate in 1845. The +period of his subsequent service covered the settlement of the Oregon +dispute with Great Britain and the Mexican War. On the 19th of February +1847 he introduced in the Senate a series of resolutions concerning the +territory about to be acquired from Mexico, which marked the most +advanced stand as yet taken by the pro-slavery party. The purport of +these resolutions was to deny to Congress the power to prohibit slavery +in the territories and to declare all previous enactments to this effect +unconstitutional. + +In 1850 the Union seemed in imminent danger of dissolution. California +was applying for admission to the Union as a state under a constitution +which did not permit slavery. Her admission with two Senators would have +placed the slave-holding states in the minority. In the midst of the +debate on this application Calhoun died, on the 31st of March 1850, in +Washington. + +Calhoun is most often compared with Webster and Clay. The three +constitute the trio upon whom the attention of students at this period +naturally rests. Calhoun possessed neither Webster's brilliant rhetoric +nor his easy versatility, but he surpassed him in the ordered method and +logical sequence of his mind. He never equalled Clay in the latter's +magnetism of impulse and inspiration of affection, but he far surpassed +him in clearness and directness and in tenacity of will. He surpassed +them both in the distinctness with which he saw results, and in the +boldness with which he formulated and followed his conclusions. + +Calhoun in person was tall and slender, and in his later years was +emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh, but with a +striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue. To his slaves +he was just and kind. He lived the modest, unassuming life of a country +planter when at his home, and at Washington lived as unostentatiously as +possible, consistent with his public duties and position. His character +in other respects was always of stainless integrity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collected edition of Calhoun's _Works_ (6 vols., New + York, 1853-1855) has been edited by Richard K. Cralle. The most + important speeches and papers are:--_The South Carolina Exposition_ + (1828); _Speech on the Force Bill_ (1833); _Reply to Webster_ (1833); + _Speech on the Reception of Abolitionist Petitions_ (1836), _and on + the Veto Power_ (1842); a _Disquisition on Government_, and a + _Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States_ + (1849-1850)--the last two, written a short time before his death, + defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a government + such as that of the United States. Calhoun's _Correspondence_, edited + by J. Franklin Jameson, has been published by the American Historical + Association (see _Report_ for 1899, vol. ii.). The biography of + Calhoun by Dr Hermann von Holst in the "American Statesmen Series" + (Boston, 1882) is a condensed study of the political questions of + Calhoun's time. Gustavus M. Pinckney's _Life of John C. Calhoun_ + (Charleston, 1903) gives a sympathetic Southern view. Gaillard Hunt's + _John C. Calhoun_ (Philadelphia, 1908) is a valuable work. + (H. A. M. S.) + + + + +CALI, an inland town of the department of Cauca, Colombia, South +America, about 180 m. S.W. of Bogota and 50 m. S.E. of the port of +Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch of the Cauca. Pop. (1906 +estimate) 16,000. Cali stands 3327 ft. above sea-level on the western +side of the Cauca valley, one of the healthiest regions of Colombia. The +land-locked character of this region greatly restricts the city's trade +and development; but it is considered the most important town in the +department. It has a bridge across the Cali, and a number of religious +and public edifices. A railway from Buenaventura will give Cali and the +valley behind it, with which it is connected by over 200 m. of river +navigation, a good outlet on the Pacific coast. Coal deposits exist in +the immediate vicinity of the town. + + + + +CALIBRATION, a term primarily signifying the determination of the +"calibre" or bore of a gun. The word _calibre_ was introduced through +the French from the Italian _calibro_, together with other terms of +gunnery and warfare, about the 16th century. The origin of the Italian +equivalent appears to be uncertain. It will readily be understood that +the calibre of a gun requires accurate adjustment to the standard size, +and further, that the bore must be straight and of uniform diameter +throughout. The term was subsequently applied to the accurate +measurement and testing of the bore of any kind of tube, especially +those of thermometers. + +In modern scientific language, by a natural process of transition, the +term "calibration" has come to denote the accurate comparison of any +measuring instrument with a standard, and more particularly the +determination of the errors of its scale. It is seldom possible in the +process of manufacture to make an instrument so perfect that no error +can be discovered by the most delicate tests, and it would rarely be +worth while to attempt to do so even if it were possible. The cost of +manufacture would in many cases be greatly increased without adding +materially to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in +all cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correction of +errors, is to economize time and labour in production by taking pains in +the subsequent verification or calibration. This process of calibration +is particularly important in laboratory research, where the observer has +frequently to make his own apparatus, and cannot afford the time or +outlay required to make special tools for fine work, but is already +provided with apparatus and methods of accurate testing. For +non-scientific purposes it is generally possible to construct +instruments to measure with sufficient precision without further +correction. The present article will therefore be restricted to the +scientific use and application of methods of accurate testing. + +_General Methods and Principles._--The process of calibration of any +measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two parts, which +differ greatly in importance in different cases, and of which one or the +other may often be omitted. (1) The determination of the value of the +unit to which the measurements are referred by comparison with a +standard unit of the same kind. This is often described as the +_Standardization_ of the instrument, or the determination of the +_Reduction factor_. (2) The verification of the accuracy of the +subdivision of the scale of the instrument. This may be termed +calibration of the scale, and does not necessarily involve the +comparison of the instrument with any independent standard, but merely +the verification of the accuracy of the relative values of its +indications. In many cases the process of calibration adopted consists +in the comparison of the instrument to be tested with a standard over +the whole range of its indications, the relative values of the +subdivisions of the standard itself having been previously tested. In +this case the distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, +and the term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to +include both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part +only, but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall +restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning. + + The methods of standardization or calibration employed have much in + common even in the cases that appear most diverse. They are all + founded on the axiom that "things which are equal to the same thing + are equal to one another." Whether it is a question of comparing a + scale with a standard, or of testing the equality of two parts of the + same scale, the process is essentially one of interchanging or + substituting one for the other, the two things to be compared. In + addition to the things to be tested there is usually required some + form of balance, or comparator, or gauge, by which the equality may be + tested. The simplest of such comparators is the instrument known as + the _callipers_, from the same root as calibre, which is in constant + use in the workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions, or + uniformity of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated forms of + optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and screw + adjustments are essentially similar in principle, being finely + adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can be + successively fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison is + that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the gauge + or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most accurate + and most important methods of calibration. The common balance for + testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate and so easily tested + that the process of calibration may frequently with advantage be + reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the calibration + of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities of mercury + required to fill it to different marks. The balance may, however, be + regarded more broadly as the type of a general method capable of the + widest application in accurate testing. It is possible, for instance, + to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical resistances + against each other, or to measure the refractivity of a gas by + balancing it against a column of air adjusted to produce the same + retardation in a beam of light. These "equilibrium," or "null," or + "balance" methods of comparison afford the most accurate measurements, + and are generally selected if possible as the basis of any process of + calibration. In spite of the great diversity in the nature of things + to be compared, the fundamental principles of the methods employed are + so essentially similar that it is possible, for instance, to describe + the testing of a set of weights, or the calibration of an electrical + resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and to represent the + calibration correction of a mercury thermometer or of an ammeter by + precisely similar curves. + + _Method of Substitution._--In comparing two units of the same kind and + of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general method of + substitution is invariably adopted. The same method in a more + elaborate form is employed in the calibration of a series of multiples + or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method depend on the + system of subdivision adopted, which is to some extent a matter of + taste. The simplest method of subdivision is that on the binary scale, + proceeding by multiples of 2. With a pair of submultiples of the + smallest denomination and one of each of the rest, thus 1, 1, 2, 4, 8, + 16, &c., each weight or multiple is equal to the sum of all the + smaller weights, which may be substituted for it, and the small + difference, if any, observed. If we call the weights A, B, C, &c., + where each is approximately double the following weight, and if we + write a for observed excess of A over the rest of the weights, b for + that of B over C + D + &c., and so on, the observations by the method + of substitution give the series of equations, + + A - rest = a, B - rest = b, C - rest = c, &c. (1) + + Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second, and + so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of the + preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest, which + is most conveniently taken as the standard + + B = A/2 + (b - a)/2, C = B/2 + (c - b)2, &c. (2) + + The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in + addition to its extreme simplicity, are (1) that there is only one + possible combination to represent any given weight within the range of + the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights is required + to cover any given range; (3) that the smallest number of + substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These + advantages are important in cases where the accuracy of calibration is + limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in the + case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the case + when it is a question of accuracy of estimation by an observer. + + In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded by + familiarity with the decimal system is the most important + consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal system + for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens, hundreds, &c., + arranged in groups of four adjusted in the proportion of the numbers + 1, 2, 3, 4. The relative values of the weights in each group of four + can then be determined by substitution independently of the others, + and the total of each group of four, making ten times the unit of the + group, can be compared with the smallest weight in the group above. + This gives a sufficient number of equations to determine the errors of + all the weights by the method of substitution in a very simple manner. + A number of other equations can be obtained by combining the different + groups in other ways, and the whole system of equations may then be + solved by the method of least squares; but the equations so obtained + are not all of equal value, and it may be doubted whether any real + advantage is gained in many cases by the multiplication of + comparisons, since it is not possible in this manner to eliminate + constant errors or personal equation, which are generally aggravated + by prolonging the observations. A common arrangement of the weights in + each group on the decimal system is 5, 2, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1. These + do not admit of the independent calibration of each group by + substitution. The arrangement 5, 2, 1, 1, 1, or 5, 2, 2, 1, 1, permits + independent calibration, but involves a larger number of weights and + observations than the 1, 2, 3, 4, grouping. The arrangement of ten + equal weights in each group, which is adopted in "dial" + resistance-boxes, and in some forms of chemical balances where the + weights are mechanically applied by turning a handle, presents great + advantages in point of quickness of manipulation and ease of + numeration, but the complete calibration of such an arrangement is + tedious, and in the case of a resistance-box it is difficult to make + the necessary connexions. In all cases where the same total can be + made up in a variety of ways, it is necessary in accurate work to make + sure that the same weights are always used for a given combination, or + else to record the actual weights used on each occasion. In many + investigations where time enters as one of the factors, this is a + serious drawback, and it is better to avoid the more complicated + arrangements. The accurate adjustment of a set of weights is so simple + a matter that it is often possible to neglect the errors of a + well-made set, and no calibration is of any value without the most + scrupulous attention to details of manipulation, and particularly to + the correction for the air displaced in comparing weights of different + materials. Electrical resistances are much more difficult to adjust + owing to the change of resistance with temperature, and the + calibration of a resistance-box can seldom be neglected on account of + the changes of resistance which are liable to occur after adjustment + from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to remember that the + order of accuracy required, and the actual values of the smaller + resistances, depend to some extent on the method of connexion, and + that the box must be calibrated with due regard to the conditions + under which it is to be used. Otherwise the method of procedure is + much the same as in the case of a box of weights, but it is necessary + to pay more attention to the constancy and uniformity of the + temperature conditions of the observing-room. + + _Method of Equal Steps_.--In calibrating a continuous scale divided + into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale + divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees of + temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by a + method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the method + of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers or tubes of + small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution employing a + column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge for comparing the + capacities of different parts of the tube. A precisely similar method, + employing a pair of microscopes at a fixed distance apart as a + standard of length, is applicable to the calibration of a divided + scale. The interval to be calibrated is divided into a whole number of + equal steps or sections, the points of division at which the + corrections are to be determined are called _points of calibration._ + + _Calibration of a Mercury Thermometer_.--To facilitate description, we + will take the case of a fine-bore tube, such as that of a thermometer, + to be calibrated with a thread of mercury. The bore of such a tube + will generally vary considerably even in the best standard + instruments, the tubes of which have been specially drawn and + selected. The correction for inequality of bore may amount to a + quarter or half a degree, and is seldom less than a tenth. In ordinary + chemical thermometers it is usual to make allowance for variations of + bore in graduating the scale, but such instruments present + discontinuities of division, and cannot be used for accurate work, in + which a finely-divided scale of equal parts is essential. The + calibration of a mercury thermometer intended for work of precision is + best effected after it has been sealed. A thread of mercury of the + desired length is separated from the column. The exact adjustment of + the length of the thread requires a little manipulation. The + thermometer is inverted and tapped to make the mercury run down to the + top of the tube, thus collecting a trace of residual gas at the end of + the bulb. By quickly reversing the thermometer the bubble passes to + the neck of the bulb. If the instrument is again inverted and tapped, + the thread will probably break off at the neck of the bulb, which + should be previously cooled or warmed so as to obtain in this manner, + if possible, a thread of the desired length. If the thread so obtained + is too long or not accurate enough, it is removed to the other end of + the tube, and the bulb further warmed till the mercury reaches some + easily recognized division. At this point the broken thread is + rejoined to the mercury column from the bulb, and a microscopic bubble + of gas is condensed which generally suffices to determine the + subsequent breaking of the mercury column at the same point of the + tube. The bulb is then allowed to cool till the length of the thread + above the point of separation is equal to the desired length, when a + slight tap suffices to separate the thread. This method is difficult + to work with short threads owing to deficient inertia, especially if + the tube is very perfectly evacuated. A thread can always be separated + by local heating with a small flame, but this is dangerous to the + thermometer, it is difficult to adjust the thread exactly to the + required length, and the mercury does not run easily past a point of + the tube which has been locally heated in this manner. + + Having separated a thread of the required length, the thermometer is + mounted in a horizontal position on a suitable support, preferably + with a screw adjustment in the direction of its length. By tilting or + tapping the instrument the thread is brought into position + corresponding to the steps of the calibration successively, and its + length in each position is carefully observed with a pair of reading + microscopes fixed at a suitable distance apart. Assuming that the + temperature remains constant, the variations of length of the thread + are inversely as the variations of cross-section of the tube. If the + length of the thread is very nearly equal to one step, and if the tube + is nearly uniform, the average of the observed lengths of the thread, + taking all the steps throughout the interval, is equal to the length + which the thread should have occupied in each position had the bore + been uniform throughout and all the divisions equal. The error of each + step is therefore found by subtracting the average length from the + observed length in each position. Assuming that the ends of the + interval itself are correct, the correction to be applied at any point + of calibration to reduce the readings to a uniform tube and scale, is + found by taking the sum of the errors of the steps up to the point + considered with the sign reversed. + + + Table I.--_Calibration by Method of Gay Lussac_. + + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | No. of | | | | | | | | | | | + | Step. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Ends of |+.010|-.016|-.020|-.031|+.016|+.008|+.013|+.017|+.004|-.088| + | thread. |+.038|+.017|-.003|-.022|+.010|+.005|+.033|+.018|+.013|-.003| + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Excess- |-.028|-.033|-.017|-.009|+.006|-.003|-.020|-.001|-.004|+.005| + | Length | | | | | | | | | | | + | Error of |-17.6|-22.6|- 6.6|+ 1.4|+16.4|+ 7.4|- 9.6|+ 9.4|+ 6.4|+15.4| + | step. | | | | | | | | | | | + | Correc- |+17.6|+40.2|+46.8|+45.4|+29.0|+21.6|+31.2|+21.8|+15.4| 0 | + | tion. | | | | | | | | | | | + +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + In the preceding example of the method an interval of ten degrees is + taken, divided into ten steps of 1 deg. each. The distances of the + ends of the thread from the nearest degree divisions are estimated by + the aid of micrometers to the thousandth of a degree. The error of any + one of these readings probably does not exceed half a thousandth, but + they are given to the nearest thousandth only. The excess length of + the thread in each position over the corresponding degree is obtained + by subtracting the second reading from the first. Taking the average + of the numbers in this line, the mean excess-length is -10.4 + thousandths. The error of each step is found by subtracting this mean + from each of the numbers in the previous line. Finally, the + corrections at each degree are obtained by adding up the errors of the + steps and changing the sign. The errors and corrections are given in + thousandths of 1 deg. + + _Complete Calibration._--The simple method of Gay Lussac does very + well for short intervals when the number of steps is not excessive, + but it would not be satisfactory for a large range owing to the + accumulation of small errors of estimation, and the variation of the + personal equation. The observer might, for instance, consistently + over-estimate the length of the thread in one half of the tube, and + under-estimate it in the other. The errors near the middle of the + range would probably be large. It is evident that the correction at + the middle point of the interval could be much more accurately + determined by using a thread equal to half the length of the interval. + To minimize the effect of these errors of estimation, it is usual to + employ threads of different lengths in calibrating the same interval, + and to divide up the fundamental interval of the thermometer into a + number of subsidiary sections for the purpose of calibration, each of + these sections being treated as a step in the calibration of the + fundamental interval. The most symmetrical method of calibrating a + section, called by C.E. Guillaume a "Complete Calibration," is to use + threads of all possible lengths which are integral multiples of the + calibration step. In the example already given nine different threads + were used, and the length of each was observed in as many positions as + possible. Proceeding in this manner the following numbers were + obtained for the excess-length of each thread in thousandths of a + degree in different positions, starting in each case with the + beginning of the thread at 0 deg., and moving it on by steps of 1 deg. + The observations in the first column are the excess-lengths of the + thread of 1 deg. already given in illustration of the method of Gay + Lussac. The other columns give the corresponding observations with the + longer threads. The simplest and most symmetrical method of solving + these observations, so as to find the errors of each step in terms of + the whole interval, is to obtain the differences of the steps in pairs + by subtracting each observation from the one above it. This method + eliminates the unknown lengths of the threads, and gives each + observation approximately its due weight. Subtracting the observations + in the second line from those in the first, we obtain a series of + numbers, entered in column 1 of the next table, representing the + excess of step (1) over each of the other steps. The sum of these + differences is ten times the error of the first step, since by + hypothesis the sum of the errors of all the steps is zero in terms of + the whole interval. The numbers in the second column of Table III. are + similarly obtained by subtracting the third line from the second in + Table II., each difference being inserted in its appropriate place in + the table. Proceeding in this way we find the excess of each interval + over those which follow it. The table is completed by a diagonal row + of zeros representing the difference of each step from itself, and by + repeating the numbers already found in symmetrical positions with + their signs changed, since the excess of any step, say 6 over 3, is + evidently equal to that of 3 over 6 with the sign changed. The errors + of each step having been found by adding the columns, and dividing by + 10, the corrections at each point of the calibration are deduced as + before. + + + TABLE II.--_Complete Calibration of Interval of 10 deg. in 10 Steps._ + + +--------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Lengths of Threads. |1 deg.|2 deg.|3 deg.|4 deg.|5 deg.|6 deg.|7 deg.|8 deg.|9 deg.| + +--------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Observed excess-lengths 0 deg. | -28 | -32 | -47 | -62 | -11 | -15 | -48 | - 2 | - 8 | + | of threads, in various 1 deg. | -33 | -21 | -47 | -28 | +14 | - 8 | -22 | +21 | +24 | + | positions, the 2 deg. | -17 | + 2 | - 8 | + 1 | +26 | +23 | + 6 | +58 | | + | beginning of the 3 deg. | - 9 | +26 | + 5 | - 3 | +41 | +36 | +28 | | | + | thread being set 4 deg. | + 6 | +31 | - 7 | + 4 | +45 | +49 | | | | + | near the points. 5 deg. | - 3 | + 5 | -15 | - 6 | +43 | | | | | + | 6 deg. | -20 | + 7 | -16 | + 2 | | | | | | + | 7 deg. | - 1 | +23 | +10 | | | | | | | + | 8 deg. | - 4 | +29 | | | | | | | | + | 9 deg. | + 5 | | | | | | | | | + +--------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + + TABLE III.--_Solution of Complete Calibration._ + + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Step No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 1 | 0 | - 5 | +11 | +20 | +34 | +25 | + 7 | +26 | +23 | +32 | + | 2 | + 5 | 0 | +16 | +23 | +39 | +29 | +12 | +31 | +28 | +37 | + | 3 | -11 | -16 | 0 | + 8 | +24 | +13 | - 4 | +15 | +13 | +22 | + | 4 | -20 | -23 | - 8 | 0 | +15 | + 5 | -12 | + 7 | + 4 | +13 | + | 5 | -34 | -39 | -24 | -15 | 0 | - 9 | -26 | - 8 | -10 | - 2 | + | 6 | -25 | -29 | -13 | - 5 | + 9 | 0 | -17 | + 2 | - 1 | + 8 | + | 7 | - 7 | -12 | + 4 | +12 | +26 | +17 | 0 | +19 | +16 | +26 | + | 8 | -26 | -31 | -15 | - 7 | + 8 | - 2 | -19 | 0 | - 3 | + 6 | + | 9 | -23 | -28 | -13 | - 4 | +10 | + 1 | -16 | + 3 | 0 | + 9 | + | 10 | -32 | -37 | -22 | -13 | + 2 | - 8 | -26 | - 6 | - 9 | 0 | + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Error of | | | | | | | | | | | + | step. | -17.3| -22.0| - 6.4| + 1.9| +16.7| + 7.1| -10.1| + 8.9| + 6.1| +15.1| + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + |Corrections.| +17.3| +39.3| +45.7| +43.8| +27.1| +20.0| +30.1| +21.2| +15.1| 0| + +------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + The advantages of this method are the simplicity and symmetry of the + work of reduction, and the accuracy of the result, which exceeds that + of the Gay Lussac method in consequence of the much larger number of + independent observations. It may be noticed, for instance, that the + correction at point 5 is 27.1 thousandths by the complete calibration, + which is 2 thousandths less than the value 29 obtained by the Gay + Lussac method, but agrees well with the value 27 thousandths obtained + by taking only the first and last observations with the thread of 5 + deg. The disadvantage of the method lies in the great number of + observations required, and in the labour of adjusting so many + different threads to suitable lengths. It is probable that + sufficiently good results may be obtained with much less trouble by + using fewer threads, especially if more care is taken in the + micrometric determination of their errors. + + The method adopted for dividing up the fundamental interval of any + thermometer into sections and steps for calibration may be widely + varied, and is necessarily modified in cases where auxiliary bulbs or + "ampoules" are employed. The Paris mercury-standards, which read + continuously from 0 deg. to 100 deg. C., without intermediate + ampoules, were calibrated by Chappuis in five sections of 20 deg. + each, to determine the corrections at the points 20 deg., 40 deg., 60 + deg., 80 deg., which may be called the "principal points" of the + calibration, in terms of the fundamental interval. Each section of 20 + deg. was subsequently calibrated in steps of 2 deg., the corrections + being at first referred, as in the example already given, to the mean + degree of the section itself, and being afterwards expressed, by a + simple transformation, in terms of the fundamental interval, by means + of the corrections already found for the ends of the section. + Supposing, for instance, that the corrections at the points 0 deg. and + 10 deg. of Table III. are not zero, but C deg. and C' respectively, + the correction C_n at any intermediate point n will evidently be given + by the formula, + + C_n = C deg. + c_n + (C' - C deg.)n/10 (3) + + where c_n is the correction already given in the table. + + If the corrections are required to the thousandth of a degree, it is + necessary to tabulate the results of the calibration at much more + frequent intervals than 2 deg., since the correction, even of a good + thermometer, may change by as much as 20 or 30 thousandths in 2 deg. + To save the labour and difficulty of calibrating with shorter threads, + the corrections at intermediate points are usually calculated by a + formula of interpolation. This leaves much to be desired, as the + section of a tube often changes very suddenly and capriciously. It is + probable that the graphic method gives equally good results with less + labour. + + _Slide-Wire._--The calibration of an electrical slide-wire into parts + of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that of a capillary tube + into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster method, employing short + steps of equal resistance, effected by transferring a suitable small + resistance from one side of the slide-wire to the other, is exactly + analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers from the same defect + of the accumulation of small errors unless steps of several different + lengths are used. The calibration of a slide-wire, however, is much + less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube for several reasons. + It is easy to obtain a wire uniform to one part in 500 or even less, + and the section is not liable to capricious variations. In all work of + precision the slide-wire is supplemented by auxiliary resistances by + which the scale may be indefinitely extended. In accurate electrical + thermometry, for example, the slide-wire itself would correspond to + only 1 deg., or less, of the whole scale, which is less than a single + step in the calibration of a mercury thermometer, so that an accuracy + of a thousandth of a degree can generally be obtained without any + calibration of the slide-wire. In the rare cases in which it is + necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as the cylinder + potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best effected by + comparison with a standard, such as a Thomson-Varley slide-box. + +_Graphic Representation of Results._--The results of a calibration are +often best represented by means of a correction curve, such as that +illustrated in the diagram, which is plotted to represent the +corrections found in Table III. The abscissa of such a curve is the +reading of the instrument to be corrected. The ordinate is the +correction to be added to the observed reading to reduce to a uniform +scale. The corrections are plotted in the figure in terms of the whole +section, taking the correction to be zero at the beginning and end. As a +matter of fact the corrections at these points in terms of the +fundamental interval were found to be -29 and -9 thousandths +respectively. The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in +terms of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the +points +29 and +9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates from this +line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may be replotted with +the new ordinates thus obtained. In drawing the curve from the +corrections obtained at the points of calibration, the exact form of the +curve is to some extent a matter of taste, but the curve should +generally be drawn as smoothly as possible on the assumption that the +changes are gradual and continuous. + +The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the +corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to the +first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under the term +"Standardization." It effects the reduction of the readings to a common +standard, and may be neglected if relative values only are required. A +precisely analogous correction occurs in the case of electrical +instruments. A potentiometer, for instance, if correctly graduated or +calibrated in parts of equal resistance, will give correct relative +values of any differences of potential within its range if connected to +a constant cell to supply the steady current through the slide-wire. But +to determine at any time the actual value of its readings in volts, it +is necessary to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or +reduction-factor, by comparison with a standard cell. + +[Illustration: CALIBRATION CURVE.] + + A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by Professor + W.A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of dividing machines + or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as applied by + Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect in point of + uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced by the + method of mounting. In the production of divided scales, and more + particularly in the case of optical gratings, it is most important + that the errors should be as small as possible, and should be + automatically corrected during the process of ruling. With this object + a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the uncorrected + screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal template may + then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correction curve on a + suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut which feeds the + carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour of the + template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each point of the + travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the screw. A small + periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each revolution, + may be similarly corrected by means of a suitable cam or eccentric + revolving with the screw and actuating the template. This kind of + error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to determine + and correct. + +_Calibration by Comparison with a Standard._--The commonest and most +generally useful process of calibration is the direct comparison of the +instrument with a standard over the whole range of its scale. It is +necessary that the standard itself should have been already calibrated, +or else that the law of its indications should be known. A continuous +current ammeter, for instance, can be calibrated, so far as the relative +values of its readings are concerned, by comparison with a tangent +galvanometer, since it is known that the current in this instrument is +proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an +alternating current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an +electrodynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the +current. But in either case it is neccessary, in order to obtain the +readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some particular +value of the current by comparison with a voltameter, or in some +equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters and voltmeters are +calibrated by comparison of their readings with those of a +potentiometer, the calibration of which can be reduced to the comparison +and adjustment of resistances, which is the most accurate of electrical +measurements. The commoner kinds of mercury thermometers are generally +calibrated and graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases +this is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A mercury +thermometer of limited scale reading between 250 deg. and 400 deg. C., +with gas under high pressure to prevent the separation of the mercury +column, cannot be calibrated on itself, or by comparison with a mercury +standard possessing a fundamental interval, on account of difficulties +of stem exposure and scale. The only practical method is to compare its +readings every few degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under +the conditions for which it is to be used. This method has the +advantage of combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, +&c., with the calibration correction in a single curve, except the +correction for variation of zero which must be tested occasionally at +some point of the scale. + + AUTHORITIES.--Mercurial Thermometers: Guillaume, _Thermometrie de + Precision_ (Paris, 1889), gives several examples and references to + original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and testing of + standards are generally to be found in publications of Standards + Offices, such as those of the Bureau International des Poids et + Mesures at Paris. Dial Resistance-Box: Griffiths, _Phil. Trans._ A, + 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box: J.A. Harker and P. Chappuis, _Phil. + Trans._ A, 1900; Thomson-Varley Potentiometer and Binary Scale Box: + Callendar and Barnes, _Phil. Trans._ A, 1901. (H. L. C.) + + + + +CALICO, a general name given to plain cotton cloth. The word was spelt +in various forms, including "calicut," which shows its derivation from +the Indian city of Calicut or Kolikod, a seaport in the presidency of +Madras, and one of the chief ports of intercourse with Europe in the +16th century, where cotton cloths were made. The name seems to have been +applied to all kinds of cotton cloths imported from the East. In England +it is now applied particularly to grey or bleached cotton cloth used for +domestic purposes, and, generally, to any fairly heavy cotton cloth +without a pattern. In the United States there is a special application +to printed cloth "of a coarser quality than muslin." In England "printed +calico" is a comprehensive term. + + + + +CALICUT, a city of British India, in the Malabar district of Madras; on +the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypur. In 1901 the population was 76,981, showing +an increase of 14% in the decade. The weaving of cotton, for which the +place was at one time so famous that its name became identified with its +_calico_, is no longer of any importance. Calicut is of considerable +antiquity; and about the 7th century it had its population largely +increased by the immigration of the Moplahs, a fanatical race of +Mahommedans from Arabia, who entered enthusiastically into commercial +life. The Portuguese traveller Pero de Covilham (q.v.) visited Calicut +in 1487 and described its possibilities for European trade; and in May +1498 Vasco da Gama, the first European navigator to reach India, arrived +at Calicut. At that time it was a very flourishing city, and contained +several stately buildings, among which was especially mentioned a +Brahminical temple, not inferior to the largest monastery in Portugal. +Vasco da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he met with persistent +hostility from the local chief (_zamorin_), and a similar attempt made +by Cabral two years later ended in the destruction of the factory by the +Moplahs. In revenge the Portuguese bombarded the town, but no further +attempt was made for some years to establish a trading settlement there. +In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an unsuccessful attack on +the city; and in the following year it was again assailed by Albuquerque +with 3000 troops. On this occasion the palace was plundered and the town +burnt; but the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships +after heavy loss. In the following year they concluded a peace with the +zamorin and were allowed to build a fortified factory on the north bank +of the Kallayi river, which was however again, and finally, abandoned in +1525. In 1615 the town was visited by an English expedition under +Captain Keeling, who concluded a treaty with the zamorin; but it was not +until 1664 that an English trading settlement was established by the +East India Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was +founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali, who expelled +all the merchants and factors, and destroyed the cocoa-nut trees, +sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country reduced to ruin might +present no temptation to the cupidity of Europeans. In 1782 the troops +of Hyder were driven from Calicut by the British; but in 1788 it was +taken and destroyed by his son Tippoo, who carried off the inhabitants +to Beypur and treated them with great cruelty. In the latter part of +1790 the country was occupied by the British; and under the treaty +concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his dominions, +Calicut fell to the British. After this event the inhabitants returned +and rebuilt the town, which in 1800 consisted of 5000 houses. + +As the administrative headquarters of the district, Calicut maintains +its historical importance. It is served by the Madras railway, and is +the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, and the principal exports are +coffee, timber and coco-nut products. There are factories for +coffee-cleaning, employing several hundred hands; for coir-pressing and +timber-cutting. The town has a cotton-mill, a saw-mill, and tile, coffee +and oil works. A detachment of European troops is generally stationed +here to overawe the fanatical Moplahs. + + + + +CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific Coast states of the United States of +America, physically one of the most remarkable, economically one of the +more independent, and in history and social life one of the most +interesting of the Union. It is bounded N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and +Arizona, from which last it is separated by the Colorado river, and S. +by the Mexican province of Lower California. The length of its medial +line N. and S. is about 780 m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350 m., +and its total area is 158,207 sq. m., of which 2205 are water surface. +In size it ranks second among the states of the Union. The coast is bold +and rugged and with very few good harbours; San Diego and San Francisco +bays being exceptions. The coast line is more than 1000 m. long. There +are eight coast islands, all of inconsiderable size, and none of them as +yet in any way important. + +_Physiography._--The physiography of the state is simple; its main +features are few and bold: a mountain fringe along the ocean, another +mountain system along the east border, between them--closed in at both +ends by their junction--a splendid valley of imperial extent, and +outside all this a great area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to +the Great Basin and partly to the Open Basin region. + +Along the Pacific, and some 20-40 m. in width, runs the mass of the +Coast Range, made up of numerous indistinct chains--most of which have +localized individual names--that are broken down into innumerable ridges +and spurs, and small valleys drained by short streams of rapid fall. The +range is cut by numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of +recent activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause +the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of which seem +to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast Range vary from about 2000 to +8000 ft.; in the neighbourhood of San Francisco Bay the culminating +peaks are about 4000 ft. in height (Mount Diablo, 3856 ft.; Mount St +Helena, 4343 ft.), and to the north and south the elevation of the +ranges increases. In the east part of the state is the magnificent +Sierra Nevada, a great block of the earth's crust, faulted along its +eastern side and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west +and a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system of +the United States. The Sierra proper, from Lassen's Peak to Tehachapi +Pass in Kern county, is about 430 m. long (from Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou +county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside county, more than 600 m.). It +narrows to the north and the altitude declines in the same direction. +Far higher and grander than the Coast Range, the Sierra is much less +complicated, being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of +structure. It is only here and there that a double line of principal +summits exists. The slope is everywhere long and gradual on the west, +averaging about 200 ft. to the mile. Precipitous gorges or canyons often +from 2000 to 5000 ft. in depth become a more and more marked feature of +the range as one proceeds northward; over great portions of it they +average probably not more than 20 m. apart. Where the volcanic +formations were spread uniformly over the flanks of the mountains, the +contrast between the canyons and the plain-like region of gentle slope +in which they have been excavated is especially marked and +characteristic. The eastern slope is very precipitous, due to a great +fault which drops the rocks of the Great Basin region abruptly downward +several thousand feet. Rare passes cross the chain, opening at the foot +of the mountains on the east and the west high on their flanks, +7000-10,000 ft. above the sea. Between 36 deg. 20' and 38 deg. the +lowest gap of any kind is above 9000 ft., and the average height of +those actually used is probably not less than 11,000 ft. The Kearsarge, +most used of all, is still higher. Very few in the entire Sierra are +passable by vehicles. Some forty peaks are catalogued between 5000 and +8000 ft., and there are eleven above 14,000. The highest portion of the +system is between the parallels of 36 deg. 30' and 37 deg. 30'; here the +passes are about 12,000 ft. in elevation, and the peaks range from +13,000 ft. upward, Mount Whitney, 14,502 ft., being the highest summit +of the United States, excluding Alaska. From this peak northward there +is a gradual decline, until at the point where the Central Pacific +crosses in lat. 39 deg. 20' the elevation is only 7000 ft. + +Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of the highest +Sierra opposite Owen's Lake, where there is a drop eastward into the +valley of about 10,000 ft. in 10 m.; the snowy volcanic cone of Mt +Shasta, rising 10,000 ft. above the adjacent plains; and the lovely +valleys of the Coast Range, and the south fork of the King river--all +these have their charms; but most beautiful of all is the unique scenery +of the Yosemite Valley (q.v.). Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the +mountains is due to the erosive action of many alpine glaciers that once +existed on the higher summits, and which have left behind their +evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with towering walls, polished +rock-expanses, glacial lakes and meadows and tumbling waterfalls. +Remnants of these glaciers are still to be seen,--as notably on Mt. +Shasta,--though shrunk to small dimensions. Glacial action may be +studied well as far south as 36 deg. The canyons are largely the work of +rivers, modified by glaciers that ran through them after the rivers had +formed them. All of the Sierra lakes and ponds are of glacial origin and +there are some thousands of them. The lower lake line is about 8000 ft.; +it is lower to the north than to the south, owing to the different +climate, and the different period of glacial retrogression. Of these +lakes some are fresh, and some--as those of the north-east +counties--alkali. The finest of all is Tahoe, 6225 ft. above the sea, +lying between the true Sierras and the Basin Ranges, with peaks on +several sides rising 4000-5000 ft. above it. It is 1500 ft. deep and its +waters are of extraordinary purity (containing only three grains of +solid matter to the gallon). Clear Lake, in the Coast Range, is another +beautiful sheet of water. It is estimated by John Muir that on an +average "perhaps more than a mile" of degradation took place in the last +glacial period; but with regard to the whole subject of glacial action +in California as in other fields, there is considerable difference of +opinion. The same authority counted 65 small residual glaciers between +36 deg. 30' and 39 deg.; two-thirds of them lie between 37 deg. and 38 +deg., on some of the highest peaks in the district of the San Joaquin, +Merced, Tuolumne and Owen's rivers. They do not descend, on an average, +below 11,000 ft.; the largest of all, on Mt. Shasta, descends to 9500 +ft. above the sea. + +Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, especially in the +northern half of the range, whereas the evidences of glacial action are +most perfect (though not most abundant) in the south. Lava covers most +of the northern half of the range, and there are many craters and +ash-cones, some recent and of perfect form. Of these the most remarkable +is Mt. Shasta. In Owen's Valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant +volcanoes. + +Among the other indications of great geological disturbances on the +Pacific Coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes to which California +like the rest of the coast is liable. From 1850 to 1887 almost 800 were +catalogued by Professor E.H. Holden for California, Oregon and +Washington. They occur in all seasons, scores of slight tremors being +recorded every year by the Weather Bureau; but they are of no +importance, and even of these the number affecting any particular +locality is small. From 1769 to 1887 there were 10 "destructive" and 24 +other "extremely severe" shocks according to the Rossi Forel +nomenclatural scale of intensity. In 1812 great destruction was wrought +by an earthquake that affected all the southern part of the state; in +1865 the region about San Francisco was violently disturbed; in 1872 the +whole Sierra and the state of Nevada were violently shaken; and in 1906 +San Francisco (q.v.) was in large part destroyed by a shock that caused +great damage elsewhere in the state. + +North of 40 deg. N. lat. the Coast Range and Sierra systems unite, +forming a country extremely rough. The eastern half of this area is +covered chiefly with volcanic plains, very dry and barren, lying between +precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges; the western half is +magnificently timbered, and toward the coast excessively wet. Between 35 +deg. and 36 deg. N. lat. the Sierra at its southern end turns westward +toward the coast as the Tehachapi Range. The valley is thus closed to +the north and south, and is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is +broken down in but a single place, the gap behind the Golden Gate at San +Francisco. Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The +length of the valley is about 450 m., its breadth averages about 40 m. +if the lower foothills be included, so that the entire area is about +18,000 sq. m. The drainage basin measured from the water-partings of the +enclosing mountains is some three times as great. From the mouth of the +Sacramento to Redding, at the northern head of the valley, the rise is +552 ft. in 192 m., and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to +Kern lake it is 282 ft. in 260 m. + +Two great rivers drain this central basin,--the San Joaquin, whose +valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire basin, and the +Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder. The San Joaquin is a +very crooked stream flowing through a low mud-plain, with tule banks; +the Sacramento is much less meandering, and its immediate basin, which +is of sandy loam, is higher and more attractive than that of the San +Joaquin. The eastward flanks of the Coast Range are very scantily +forested, and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach +either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season. On the +eastern side of both rivers are various important tributaries, fed by +the more abundant rains and melting snows of the western flank of the +Sierra; but these streams also shrink greatly in the dry season. The +Feather, emptying into the Sacramento river about 20 m. N. of the city +of Sacramento, is the most important tributary of the Sacramento river. +A striking feature of the Sacramento system is that for 200 m. north of +the Feather it does not receive a single tributary of any importance, +though walled in by high mountains. Another peculiar and very general +feature of the drainage system of the state is the presence of numerous +so-called river "sinks," where the waters disappear, either directly by +evaporation or (as in Death Valley) after flowing for a time beneath the +surface. These "sinks" are therefore not the true sinks of limestone +regions. The popular name is applied to Owen's lake, at the end of +Owen's river; to Mono lake, into which flow various streams rising in +the Sierra between Mount Dana and Castle Peak; and to Death Valley, +which contains the "sink" of the Amargosa river, and evidently was once +an extensive lake, although now only a mud-flat in ordinary winters, and +a dry, alkaline, desert plain in summer. All these lakes, and the other +mountain lakes before referred to, show by the terraces about them that +the water stood during the glacial period much higher than it does now. +Tulare lake, which with Buena Vista lake and Kern lake receives the +drainage of the southern Sierra, shows extreme local variations of +shore-line, and is generally believed to have shrunk extremely since +1850, though of this no adequate proof yet exists. In 1900 it was about +200 sq. m. in area. In wet seasons it overflows its banks and becomes +greatly extended in area, discharging its surplus waters into the San +Joaquin; but in dry seasons the evaporation is so great that there is no +such discharge. The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou and Modoc counties has +no outlet to the sea and is collected in a number of great alkaline +lakes. + +Finally along the sea below Pt. Conception are fertile coastal plains of +considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts by various +mountain ranges from 5000 to 7000 ft. high, and with peaks much higher +(San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto, 10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). +Unlike the northern Sierra, the ranges of Southern California are broken +down in a number of places. It is over these passes--Soledad, 2822 ft., +Cajon, San Gorgonio, 2560 ft.--that the railways cross to the coast. +That part of California which lies to the south and east of the southern +inosculation of the Coast Range and the Sierra comprises an area of +fully 50,000 sq. m., and belongs to the Basin Range region. For the most +part it is excessively dry and barren. The Mohave desert--embracing +Kern, Los Angeles and San Bernardino, as also a large part of San Diego, +Imperial and Riverside counties--belong to the "Great Basin," while a +narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the "Open Basin Region." +They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for slight areas through +the Colorado river. The Mohave desert is about 2000 ft. above the sea in +general altitude. The southern part of the Great Basin region is vaguely +designated the Colorado desert. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside +counties a number of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are +normally dry, flow centrally toward the desert of Salton Sink or "Sea"; +this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the +level of the sea,--at Salton 263 ft., and 287 ft. at the lowest point. +In 1900 the Colorado river (q.v.) was tapped south of the Mexican +boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial Valley +along the Southern Pacific railway, adjoining Salton Sea. The river +enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than that to its +mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding Salton Sea;[1] +and when the break in this river was closed for the second time in +February 1907, though much of its water still escaped through minor +channels and by seepage, a lake more than 400 sq. m. in area was left. A +permanent 60 ft. masonry dam was completed in July 1907. The region to +the east of the Sierra, likewise in the Great Basin province, between +the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very mountainous. +Owen's river runs through it from north to south for some 180 m. Near +Owen's lake the scenery is extremely grand. The valley here is very +narrow, and on either side the mountains rise from 7000 to 10,000 ft. +above the lake and river. The Inyo range, on the east, is quite bare of +timber, and its summits are only occasionally whitened with snow for a +few days during the winter, as almost all precipitation is cut off by +the higher ranges to the westward. Still further to the east some 40 m. +from the lake is Death Valley (including Lost or Mesquite Valley)--the +name a reminder of the fate of a party of "forty-niners" who perished +here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death Valley, some 50 m. +long and on an average 20-25 m. broad from the crests of the inclosing +mountain ranges (or 5-10 m. at their base), constitutes an independent +drainage basin. It is below sea level (about 276 ft. according to recent +surveys), and altogether is one of the most remarkable physical features +of California. The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant +with varied colours. The Amargosa river, entering the valley from +Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities of borax, +already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known to be present in +the surrounding country, the former as almost pure borate of lime in +Tertiary lake sediments. + +The physiography of the state is the evident determinant of its climate, +fauna and flora. California has the highest land and the lowest land of +the United States, the greatest variety of temperature and rainfall, and +of products of the soil. + +[Illustration: Map of CALIFORNIA and NEVADA] + +_Climate._--The climate is very different from that of the Atlantic +coast; and indeed very different from that of any part of the country +save that bordering California. Amid great variations of local weather +there are some peculiar features that obtain all over the state. In the +first place, the climate of the entire Pacific Coast is milder and more +uniform in temperature than that of the states in corresponding latitude +east of the mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57 +deg. N. lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of +Halifax, Nova Scotia, in latitude 44 deg. 39'. And going south along the +coast, we find the mean temperature of San Diego 6 deg. or 7 deg. less +than that of Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. The quantity of total +annual heat supply at Puget Sound exceeds that at Philadelphia, +Pittsburg, Cleveland or Omaha, all more than 500 m. farther south; +Cape Flattery, exposed the year round to cold ocean fogs, receives more +heat than Eastport, Maine, which is 3 deg. farther south and has a +warmer summer. In the second place, the means of winter and summer are +much nearer the mean of the year in California than in the east. This +condition of things is not so marked as one goes inward from the coast; +yet everywhere save in the high mountains the winters are comparatively +mild. In the third place, the division of the year into two seasons--a +wet one and a dry (and extremely dusty) one--marks this portion of the +Pacific Coast in the most decided manner, and this natural climatic area +coincides almost exactly in its extension with that of California; being +truly characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part +of Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally, in the +fourth place, except on the coast the disagreeableness of the heat of +summer is greatly lessened by the dryness of the air and the consequent +rapidity of evaporation. Among the peculiarities of Californian climate +it is not one of the least striking that as one leaves the Sacramento or +San Joaquin plains and travels into the mountains it becomes warmer, at +least for the first 2000 or 3000 ft. of ascent. + +Along both the Coast Range and the Sierra considerable rainfall is +certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumulations of the former, +its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy rain-belt, with a normal +fall of more than 40 in., covers all the northern half of the Sierra and +the north-west counties; shading off from this is the region of 10-20 +in. fall, which covers all the rest of the state save Inyo, Kern and San +Bernardino counties, Imperial county and the eastern portion of +Riverside county; the precipitation of this belt is from 0 to 10 in. In +excessively dry years the limits of this last division may include all +of the state below Fresno and the entire Central Valley as well. In the +mountains the precipitation increases with the altitude; above 6000 or +7000 ft. it is almost wholly in the form of snow; and this snow, melting +in summer, is of immense importance to the state, supplying water once +for placer mining and now for irrigation. The north-west counties are +extremely wet; many localities here have normal rainfalls of 60-70 in. +and even higher annually, while in extreme seasons as much as 125 in. +falls. Along the entire Pacific Coast, but particularly N. of San +Francisco, there is a night fog from May to September. It extends but a +few miles inland, but within this belt is virtually a prolongation of +the rainy season and has a marked effect on vegetation. Below San +Francisco the precipitation decreases along the coast, until at San +Diego it is only about 10 in. The south-east counties are the driest +portions of the United States. At Ogilby, Volcano, Indio and other +stations on the Southern Pacific line the normal annual precipitation is +from 1.5 to 2.5 in.; and there are localities near Owen's lake, even on +its very edge, that are almost dry. For days in succession when it +storms along the Southern California coasts and dense rain clouds blow +landwards to the mountains, leaving snow or rain on their summits, it +has been observed that within a few miles beyond the ridge the contact +of the desert air dissipates the remaining moisture of the clouds into +light misty masses, like a steam escape in cold air. The extreme heat of +the south-east is tempered by the extremely low humidity characteristic +of the Great Basin, which in the interior of the two southernmost +counties is very low. The humidity of places such as Fresno, Sacramento +and Red Bluff in the valley varies from 48 to 58. Many places in +northern, southern, central, mountain and southern coastal California +normally have more than 200 perfectly clear days in a year; and many in +the mountains and in the south, even on the coast, have more than 250. +The extreme variability in the amount of rainfall is remarkable.[2] The +effects of a season of drought on the dry portions of the state need not +be adverted to; and as there is no rain or snow of any consequence on +the mountains during summer, a succession of dry seasons may almost bare +the ranges of the accumulated stock of previous winter snows, thus +making worse what is already bad. + +The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila Valley of Arizona) is +the hottest part of the United States. Along the line of the Southern +Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently from 124 deg. to 129 deg. F. +(i.e. in the shade, which is almost if not quite the greatest heat ever +actually recorded in any part of the world). At the other extreme, +temperatures of -20 deg. to -36 deg. are recorded yearly on the Central +(Southern) Pacific line near Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the +coldest localities of the state are from 37 deg. to 44 deg. F.; the +monthly means from 20 deg. to 65 deg. F. The normal annual means on +Indio, Mammoth Tanks, Salton and Volcano Springs are from 73.9 deg. to +78.4 F.; the monthly means from 52.8 deg. to 101.3 deg. (frequently 95 +deg. to 98 deg.). The normal trend of the annual isotherms of the state +is very simple: a low line of about 40 deg. circles the angle in the +Nevada boundary line; 50 deg. normally follows the northern Sierra +across the Oregon border; lines of higher temperature enclose the Great +Valley; and lines of still higher temperature--usually 60 deg. to 70 +deg., in hotter years 60 deg. to 75 deg.--run transversely across the +southern quarter of the state. + +Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely regular in +their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes, and seasonal +trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an on-shore breeze blows +every summer day; in the evening it is replaced by a night-fog, and the +cooler air draws down the mountain sides in opposition to its movement +during the day. In the upper air a dry off-shore wind from the Rocky +Mountain plateau prevails throughout the summer; and in winter an +on-shore rain wind. The last is the counter-trade, the all-year wind of +Alaska and Oregon; it prevails in winter even off Southern California. + +There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates. At +Truckee, for example, lying about 5800 ft. above the sea near Lake +Tahoe, the lowest temperature of the year may be -25 deg. F. or colder, +when 70 m. westward at Rocklin, which lies in the foothills about 250 +ft. above the sea, the mercury does not fall below 28 deg. Snow never +falls at Rocklin, but falls in large quantity at Truckee; ice is the +crop of the one, oranges of the other, at the same time. There are +points in Southern California where one may actually look from sea to +desert and from snow to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, +situation with reference to the mountain ranges, and altitude are all +important determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the +last seems to be most important. At any rate it may be said that +generally speaking the maximum, minimum and mean temperatures of points +of approximately equal altitude are respectively but slightly different +in northern or southern California.[3] + +Death Valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any meteorological +stations on earth where regular observations are taken, although for +extremes of heat it is exceeded by places in the Colorado desert. The +minimum daily temperature in summer is rarely below 70 deg. F. and often +above 90 deg. F. (in the shade), while the maximum may for days in +succession be as high as 120 deg. F. A record of 6 months (1891) showed +an average daily relative humidity of 30.6 in the morning and 15.6 in +the evening, and the humidity sometimes falls to 5. Yet the surrounding +country is not devoid of vegetation. The hills are very fertile when +irrigated, and the wet season develops a variety of perennial herbs, +shrubs and annuals. + +_Fauna._--California embraces areas of every life-zone of North America: +of the boreal, the Hudsonian and Canadian subzones; of the transition, +the humid Pacific subzone; of the upper austral, the arid or upper +Sonoran subzone; of the lower austral, the arid or lower Sonoran; of the +tropical, the "dilute arid" subzone. As will be inferred from the above +account of temperature, summer is longer in the north, and localities +in the Valley have more hours of heat than do those of south California. +Hence that climatic characteristic of the entire Pacific Coast--already +referred to and which is of extreme importance in determining the +life-zones of California--the great amount of total annual heat supply +at comparatively high latitudes. A low summer temperature enables +northern species to push far southward, while the high heat total of the +year enables southern species to push far north. The resultant +intermingling of forms is very marked and characteristic of the Pacific +Coast states. The distribution of life-zones is primarily a matter of +altitude and corresponds to that of the isotherms. The mountain goat and +mountain sheep live in the Sierran upper-land, though long ago well-nigh +exterminated. The Douglas red squirrel is ubiquitous in the Sierran +forests and their most conspicuous inhabitant. White-tailed deer and +especially black-tails are found on the high Sierra; the mule deer, too, +although its habitat is now mainly east of the range, on the plateau, is +also met with. Grizzly, black, cinnamon and brown bears are all +Californian species once common and to-day rare. When Americans began to +rule in California elk and antelope herded in great numbers in the Great +Valley; the former may to-day sometimes be seen, possibly, in the +northern forests, and the latter occasionally cross into the state from +Nevada. The sage-hen is abundant on the eastern flank of the Sierra. +Grouse, quail, crows and woodpeckers (_Melanerpes formicivorus_) furnish +species characteristic of the state. There are various species of +ground-squirrels and gophers, which are very abundant. Noteworthy in the +animal life of the lower Sonoran and tropic region are a variety of +snakes and lizards, desert rats and mice; and, among birds, the cactus +wren, desert thrasher, desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk, mocking-bird +and ground cuckoo or road runner (_Geococcyx Californianus_). The +California vulture, the largest flying bird in North America and fully +as large as the Andean condor, is not limited to California but is +fairly common there. In the zoology and botany of California as of the +rest of the Pacific Coast, the distinctions between the upper austral +and humid transition zones are largely obliterated; and as one passes +southward into the arid lands, life forms of both these zones +intermingle with those of the arid transition. + +Fish are abundant. The United States fish commission, and an active +state commission established in 1869, have done much to preserve and +increase this source of food. In 1904 the yield of the fisheries of the +three Pacific Coast states was 168,600,000 lbs., valued at +$6,681,000,--nearly half that of the New England states, more than +one-third that of the Middle Atlantic states and more than that of the +South Atlantic and Gulf states combined. Of the total, California +yielded between a quarter and a third. A third of her fish comes from +the Sacramento river. Some 230--more or less--marine food fishes are to +be found in the market at San Francisco. The exports of fish from that +port from 1892-1899 were valued at from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000 +annually. Native oysters are small and of peculiar flavour; eastern +varieties also are fattened, but not bred in California waters. Shrimp +are abundant; the shrimp fishers are Chinese and four-fifths of the +catch is exported to China. Sturgeon were once the cheapest fish after +salmon; to-day, despite all efforts to increase the supply, they are the +dearest. Salmon, once threatened with extinction, have been saved, +maintained in good supply, and indeed have probably regained their +pristine abundance. Shad and striped bass are both very abundant and +cheap. Black bass, flounders, terrapin, sea-turtles, perch, turbot, sole +and catfish are also common. Great herds of seals once lay like +toll-gatherers off the Golden Gate and other bays of the coast, taking a +large share of the salmon and other fish; but they are no longer common. +The sea-lions sometimes raid the rivers for 100 m. inland. They have +greatly increased since hunting them for their hides and oil ceased to +be profitable, and thousands sometimes gather on the Farallones, off the +Golden Gate. + +_Flora._--Inclusiveness of range in the distribution of vegetable life +is perhaps more suggestive than the distribution of animal species. The +variation is from dwarf mountain pine to giant cactus and dates. The +humid transition belt is the habitat of California's magnificent +forests. Nut pine, juniper and true sage-brush (_Artemisia tridentata_) +characterize the upper Sonoran,--although the latter grows equally in +the transition zone. Cereals, orchard fruits and alfalfa are of primary +importance in the upper and of secondary importance in the lower +Sonoran. In the arid portions of this and the tropic areas the +indigenous plants are creosote, mesquite and alfileria bushes, desert +acacias, paloverdes, alkali-heath, salt grass, agaves, yuccas +(especially the Spanish-bayonet and Joshua tree) and cactuses. Among +exotics the Australian saltbush spreads successfully over the worst +alkali land. The introduction of other exotics into these zones,--made +humid by irrigation, which converts them, the one into true +austro-riparian the other into true humid tropical,--has revolutionized +the agricultural, and indeed the whole, economy of California. At the +two ends of Cajon Pass, only four or five kilometres apart, are the two +utterly distinct floras of the Mohave desert and the San Bernardino +valley. Despite the presence of the pass, plants do not spread, so great +is the difference of climatic conditions. On the desert the same plant +will vary in different years from 4 in. to 10 ft. in height when equally +mature, according to the rainfall and other conditions of growth. Many +mature plants are not taller than 0.4 to 0.8 in. The tree yucca often +attains a height of 20 to 25 ft., and a diameter of 1.5 ft. About 600 +species of plants were catalogued in desert California in 1891 by a +government botanical party. The flora of the coast islands of California +is very interesting. On Santa Cruz Professor Joseph Le Conte found 248 +species, nearly all of which are distinctively Californian, 48 being +peculiar to the surrounding islands and 28 peculiar to Southern +California. Various other things indicate a separation of the islands +from the mainland in quaternary times; since which, owing to the later +southward movement on the continent of northern forms in glacial times, +there has been a struggle for existence on the mainland from which the +islands have largely escaped. + +_Forests._--The forests and agricultural crops of the state demand +particular notice. In 1900 the woodland was estimated by the United +States census at 22% of the state's area, and the total stand at 200,000 +million ft. of timber. The variety of forest trees is not great, but +some of the California trees are unique, and the forests of the state +are, with those of Oregon and Washington, perhaps the most magnificent +of the world. At least the coniferous forests which make up nine-tenths +of California's woodland surpass all others known in number of species +and in the size and beauty of the trees. Forty-six species occur, +namely, 32 species of pitch trees (18 pines), 12 species of the +cypresses and their allies (2 sequoia), and 2 species of yews or their +allies. Peculiar to California are the two species of sequoia +(q.v.),--the redwood (_S. sempervirens_), and the big-tree (_S. +gigantea_), remnants of an earlier age when they were common in other +parts of the world. The redwood grows only in a narrow strip on the +Coast Range from Southern Oregon (where there are not more than 1000 +acres) down nearly to the Golden Gate, in a habitat of heavy rains and +heavy fogs. They cover an area of about 2000 sq. m. almost unmixed with +other species. One fine grove stands S. of San Francisco near Santa +Cruz. These noble trees attain very often a height of more than 300 ft., +frequently of 350 and even more, and a butt diameter of more than 15 to +20 ft., with clean, straight fluted trunks rising 200 ft. below the +lowest branches. They grow in a very dense timber stand; single acres +have yielded 1,500,000 ft. B.M. of lumber, and single trees have cut as +high as 100,000 ft. The total stand in 1900 was estimated by the United +States census as 75,000,000,000 ft., and the ordinary stand per acre +varies from 25,000 to 150,000 ft., averaging probably 60,000 ft. The +redwood is being rapidly used for lumber. There is nowhere any +considerable young growth from seed, although this mode of reproduction +is not (as often stated) unknown; the tree will reproduce itself more +than once from the stump (hence its name). In thirty years a tree has +been known to grow to a height of 80 ft. and a diameter of 16 in. The +wood contains no pitch and much water, and in a green condition will not +burn. To this fact it owes its immunity from the forest fires which +wreak frightful havoc among the surrounding forests. As the redwood is +limited to the Coast Range, so the big tree is limited wholly to the +Sierra Nevada. Unlike the redwood the big tree occurs in scattered +groves (ten in all) among other species. Its habitat extends some 200 +m., from latitude 36 deg. to 39 deg., nowhere descending much below an +altitude of 5000 ft., nor rising above 8000 ft. The most northerly grove +and the nearest to San Francisco is the Calaveras Grove near Stockton; +the Mariposa Grove just south of the Yosemite National Park, is a state +reservation and easily accessible to tourists. The noblest groves are +near Visalia, and are held as a national park. The average height is +about 275 ft., and the diameter near the ground 20 ft.; various +individuals stand over 300 ft., and a diameter of 25 ft. is not rare. +One tree measures 35.7 ft. inside the bark 4 ft. above the ground, 10 +ft. at 200 ft. above the ground, and is 325 ft. tall. Specimens have +been cut down that were estimated to be 1300 and even 2200 years old; +many trees standing are presumably 2500 years old. It is the opinion of +John Muir that the big tree would normally live 5000 years or more; that +the California groves are still in their prime; that, contrary to +general ideas, the big tree was never more widely distributed than now, +at least not within the past 8000 or 10,000 years; that it is not a +decaying species, but that on the contrary "no tree of all the forest is +more enduringly established in concord with climate and soil," growing +like the mountain pine even on granite, and in little danger save from +the greed of the lumberman; but other excellent authorities consider it +as hardly holding its own, especially in the north. Three main wood +belts cover the flanks of the Sierra: the lower or main pine belt, the +silver fir belt, and the upper pine belt. The sugar pine, the yellow or +silver pine and the Douglas spruce (considerably smaller than in Oregon +and Washington), are rivals in stature and nobility, all attaining 200 +ft. or more when full grown; and the incense cedar reaches a height of +150 ft. In this belt and the following one of firs the big tree also +grows. The white silver fir (_abies concolor_) and the silver or red fir +(_ab. magnifica_), standing 200 to 250 ft., make up almost wholly the +main forest belt from 5000 to 9000 ft. for some 450 m. Above the firs +come the tamarack, constituting the bulk of the lower Alpine forest; the +hardy long-lived mountain pine; the red cedar or juniper, growing even +on the baldest rocks; the beautiful hemlock spruce; the still higher +white pine, nut pine, needle pine; and finally, at 10,000 to 12,000 ft., +the dwarf pine, which grows in a tangle on the earth over which one +walks, and may not show for a century's growth more than a foot of +height or an inch of girth. The Nevada slope of the mountains below 7500 +ft. is covered with the nut pine down to the sage plains. Its nuts are +gathered in enormous amounts by the Indians for food; and it is +estimated that the yearly harvest of these nuts exceeds in bulk that of +all the cereals of California (John Muir). On the Sierra the underbrush +is characterized by the pungent manzanita, the California buckeye and +the chamiso; the last two growing equally abundantly on the Coast Range. +The chamiso and the manzanita, with a variety of shrubby oaks and thorny +plants, often grow together in a dense and sometimes quite impenetrable +undergrowth, forming what is known as "chaparral"; if the chamiso occurs +alone the thicket is a "chamisal." The elm, the hickory, the beech, the +chestnut, and many others of the most characteristic and useful trees of +the eastern states were originally entirely wanting in California. Oaks +are abundant; they are especially characteristic of the Great Valley, +where they grow in magnificent groves. Up to 1910 national forest +reserves amounted to 27,968,510 acres. In 1909 Congress created a +national forest to include the big tree groves in Calaveras and Tuolumne +counties. One of the noblest redwood areas (that of Santa Cruz county) +is a state reservation (created in 1901). Even within reservations +almost all the merchantable timber is owned by private individuals. In +addition to native trees many others--especially ornamental +species--have been successfully introduced from various parts of the +world. + +_Soil._--Sand and loams in great variety, grading from mere sand to +adobe, make up the soils of the state. The plains of the north-east +counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east sandy. It is +impossible to say with accuracy what part of the state may properly be +classed as tillable. The total farm acreage in 1900 was 28,828,951 +acres, of which 41.5% were improved; since 1880 the absolute amount of +improved land has remained practically constant, despite the +extraordinary progress of the state in these years. Much land is too +rough, too elevated or too arid ever to be made agriculturally +available; but irrigation, and the work of the state and national +agricultural bureaus in introducing new plants and promoting scientific +farming, have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. The +peculiarities of the climate, especially its division into two seasons, +make Californian (and Southern Arizona) agriculture very different from +that of the rest of the country. During the winter no shelter is +necessary for live-stock, nor, during summer, for the grains that are +harvested in June and July, and may lie for weeks or months in the +field. The mild, wet winter is the season of planting and growth, and so +throughout the year there is a succession of crops. The dangers of +drought in the long dry seasons particularly increase the uncertainties +of agriculture in regions naturally arid. Irrigation was introduced in +Southern California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its +spread slow till after 1850. In 1900 almost 1,500,000 acres were +irrigated--an increase of 46% since 1890. About half of this total was +in San Joaquin Valley. California has the greatest area of irrigated +land of any state in the Union, and offers the most complete utilization +of resources. In the south artesian wells, and in the Great Valley the +rivers of the Sierra slope, are the main source of water-supply. On +nearly all lands irrigated some crops will grow in ordinary seasons +without irrigation, but it is this that makes possible selection of +crops; practically indispensable for all field and orchard culture in +the south, save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases +the yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the state. Of +the acreage devoted to alfalfa in 1899, 76.2% was irrigated; of that +devoted to subtropical fruits, 71.7%. Small fruits, orchard fruits, +hay, garden products and grains are decreasingly dependent on +irrigation; wheat, which was once California's great staple, is (for +good, but not for best results) comparatively independent of it,--hence +its early predominance in Californian agriculture, due to this success +on arid lands since taken over for more remunerative irrigated crops. + +_Agriculture._--The spread of irrigation and of intensive cultivation, +and the increase of small farms during the last quarter of the 19th +century, have made California what it is to-day. Agriculture had its +beginning in wheat-raising on great ranches, from 50,000 even to several +hundred thousand acres in extent. A few of these, particularly in the +Great Valley, are still worked, but only a few. The average size of +farms in 1850 (when the large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, +and these unbroken) was 4466 acres; in 1860 it was 466.4, and in 1900 +only 397.4 acres. Stock ranches, tobacco plantations, and hay and grain +farms, average from 800 to 530 acres, and counteract the tendency of +dairy farms, beet plantations, orchards, vegetable gardens and nurseries +to lower the size of the farm unit still further. The renting of large +holdings prevails to a greater extent than in any other state except +Texas. From 1880 to 1900 the number of farms above 500 and below 1000 +acres doubled; half of the total in 1900 were smaller than 100 acres. +The most remunerative and most characteristic farming to-day is +diversified and intensive and on small holdings. The essential character +of California's economic life has been determined by the successive +predominance of grass, gold, grain and fruits. Omitting the second it +may be truly said that the order of agricultural development has been +mainly one of blind experiment or fortuitous circumstances. Staple +products have changed with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, +of life-zones and of the fitness of crops; first hides and tallow, then +wool, wheat, grapes (which in the early eighteen-nineties were the +leading fruit), deciduous orchard fruits, and semi-tropical citrus +fruits successively. Prunes were introduced in 1854, but their +possibilities were only slightly appreciated for some thirty years. Of +various other crops much the same is true. Of late years progress has +been very intelligent; in earlier years it was gained through a +multitude of experiments and failures, and great pecuniary loss, and +progress was a testimonial chiefly to courage and perseverance. The +possibilities of the lower Sonoran and tropical areas are still +imperfectly known. Nature has been niggard of rain but lavish in soil +and sun. Irrigation has shown that with water, arid and barren plains, +veritable deserts may be made to bloom with immense wealth of +semi-tropical fruits; and irrigation in the tropical area along the +Colorado river, which is so arid that it naturally bears only desert +vegetation, has made it a true humid-tropical region like Southern +Florida, growing true tropical fruits. + +In 1900 California ranked eleventh among the states in total value of +farm property ($796,527,955) and in 1899 fourteenth in the value of farm +products ($131,690,606). The growth of the former from 1890 to 1900 was +only 2.5%, one of the smallest increases among all the states. + +The pastoral period extended from 1769 to 1848. The live-stock industry +was introduced by the Franciscans and flourished exceedingly. In 1834, +when the missions had already passed their best days, there were some +486,000 cattle, horses, mules and asses on the ranges, and 325,000 small +animals, principally sheep. Throughout the pre-American period +stock-raising was the leading industry; it built up the prosperity of +the missions, largely supported the government and almost exclusively +sustained foreign commerce. Hides and tallow were the sum and substance +of Californian economy. Horses were slaughtered wholesale at times to +make way for cattle on the ranges. There was almost no dairying; olive +oil took the place of butter, and wine of milk, at the missions; and in +general indeed the Mexicans were content with water. In the development +of the state under the American regime the live-stock industry has been +subordinate. A fearful drought in 1862-1864 greatly depressed it, and +especially discouraged cattle ranching. Sheep then became of primary +importance, until the increase of the flocks threatened ranges and +forests with destruction. As late as 1876 there were some 7,000,000 +sheep, in 1900 only 2,581,000, and in 1906 only 1,750,000. In the total +value of all live stock (5,402,297 head) in 1900 ($65,000,000) the rank +of the state was 15th in the Union, and in value of dairy products in +1899 (12.84 million dollars) 12th. The live-stock industry showed a +tendency to decline after 1890, and the dairy industry also, despite +various things--notably irrigation and alfalfa culture--that have +favoured them. + +Cereals replaced hides and tallow in importance after 1848. Wheat was +long California's greatest crop. Its production steadily increased till +about 1884, the production in 1880, the banner year, being more than 54 +million bushels (32,537,360 centals). Since 1884 its production has +markedly fallen off; in 1905 the wheat crop was 17,542,013 bushels, and +in 1906, 26,883,662 bushels (valued at $20,162,746). There has been a +general parallelism between the amount of rain and the amount of wheat +produced; but as yet irrigation is little used for this crop. In the +eighth decade of the 19th century, the value of the wheat product had +come to exceed that of the annual output of gold. Barley has always been +very important. The acreage given to it in 1899 was one-fourth the total +cereal acreage, and San Francisco in 1902-1904 was the shipping point of +the larger part of American exported barley, of (roughly) three-quarters +in 1902, seven-eighths in 1903 and four-fifths in 1904. In 1906 +California produced 38,760,000 bushels of barley, valued at $20,930,400. +The great increase in the acreage of barley, which was 22.5% of the +country's barley acreage in 1906, and 24.2% in 1905, is one reason for +the decreased production of wheat. The level nature of the great grain +farms of the valley led to the utilization of machinery of remarkable +character. Combined harvesters (which enter a field of standing grain +and leave this grain piled in sacks ready for shipment), steam +gang-ploughs, and other farm machinery are of truly extraordinary size +and efficiency. In 1899 cereals represented more than a third of the +total crop acreage and crop product ($93,641,334) of the state. Wheat +and other cereals are in part cut for hay, and the hay crop of 1906 was +1,133,465 tons, valued at $12,751,481. California is one of the leading +hop-producing states of the Union, the average annual production since +1901 being more than 10,000,000 lb. The product of sugar beets increased +between 1888 and 1902 from 1910 to 73,761 tons (according to the state +board of trade), and in 1909 (according to the department of +agriculture) it was 882,084 tons, from which 254,544,000 lb of sugar was +manufactured. In this industry California in 1909 ranked second to +Colorado. Truck gardening for export is an assured industry, especially +in the north. Great quantities of vegetables, fresh and canned, are +shipped yearly, and the same is true on a far larger scale of fruit. +Vegetable exports more than doubled between 1894 and 1903. In 1899 hay +and grain represented slightly more than a third of the farm acreage and +capital and also of the value of all farm products; live-stock and dairy +farms represented slightly more than half the acreage, and slightly +under 30% of the capital and produce; fruit farms absorbed 6.2% of the +acreage and 27% of the capital, and returned 22.5% of the value of +farm produce. + +_Fruit-growing._--Horticulture is now the principal industry, and in +this field California has no rival in the United States, although +ranking after Florida in the growth of some tropical or semi-tropical +fruits,--pineapples, guava, limes, pomeloes or grape-fruit and Japanese +persimmons. In 1899 California's output of fruit was more than a fifth +of that of the whole Union. The supremacy of the state is established in +the growth of oranges, lemons, citrons, olives, figs, almonds, Persian +(or English) walnuts, plums and prunes, grapes and raisins, nectarines, +apricots and pomegranates; it also leads in pears, and peaches, but here +its primacy is not so assured. Southern California by no means +monopolizes the warm-zone fruits. Oranges, lemons and walnuts come +chiefly from that section, but citrus fruits grow splendidly in the +Sierra foothills of the Sacramento Valley, and indeed ripen earlier +there than in the southern district. Almonds, as well as peaches, pears, +plums, cherries and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over half of +the prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the raisin +output from Fresno county. Olives thrive as far north as the head of the +Great Valley, growing in all the valleys and foothills up to 1500 or +2000 ft. They were introduced by the Franciscans (as were various other +subtropical fruits, pears and grapes), but their scientific betterment +and commercial importance date from about 1885. They grow very +abundantly and of the finest quality; for many years poor methods of +preparation prejudiced the market against the Californian product, but +this has ceased to be the case. The modern orange industry practically +began with the introduction into Southern California in 1873 of two +seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have been developed +by budding millions of trees bearing a seedless fruit known as the +"Washington navel," which now holds first rank in American markets; +other varieties, mainly seedlings, are of great but secondary +importance. Shipments continue the year round. There has been more than +one horticultural excitement in California, but especially in orange +culture, which was for a time almost as epidemic a fever as gold seeking +once was. By reason of the co-operative effort demanded for the large +problems of irrigation, packing and marketing, the citrus industry has +done much for the permanent development of the state, and its +extraordinary growth made it, towards the close of the 19th century, the +most striking and most potent single influence in the growth of +agriculture. State legislation has advanced the fruit interest in all +possible ways. Between 1872 and 1903 exports of canned fruits increased +from 91 to 94,205 short tons; between 1880 and 1903 the increase of +dried fruit exports was from 295 to 149,531 tons; of fresh deciduous +fruits, from 2590 to 101,199; of raisins, from 400 to 39,963; of citrus +fruits, from 458 to 299,623; of wines and brandies between 1891 and +1903, from 47,651 to 97,332 tons. Of the shipments in 1903 some 44% +were from Southern California,--i.e. from the seven southernmost +counties. + +Grape culture has a great future in California. Vines were first +introduced by the Franciscans in 1771 from Spain, and until after 1860 +"Mission" grapes were practically the only stock in California. +Afterwards many hundreds of European varieties were introduced with +great success. "The state has such a variety of soil, slope, elevation, +temperature and climatic conditions as to reproduce, somewhere within +its borders, any wine now manufactured" (United States Census, 1900); +but experience has not as yet divided the state into districts of +specialized produce, nor determined just how far indigenous American +vines may profitably be used, either as base or graftings, with European +varieties. Grapes are grown very largely over the state. Raisins do well +as far north as Yolo county, but do best in Madera, Fresno, Kings, +Tulare and San Diego counties. The product is more than sufficient for +the markets of the United States. Dry wine grapes do best in the +counties around San Francisco Bay, on unirrigated lands; while sweet +wine stocks do best in Yolo, San Joaquin and the counties of the raisin +grape, and on irrigated lands. In 1900 California produced about +three-fifths in value ($3,937,871) and in 1905 the same proportion +($6,688,620) of the wine output of the United States. The value of +product more than sextupled from 1880 to 1900. In quantity the product +was more than four times the combined product of all other states. The +better California wines are largely sold under French labels. Brandies +are an important product. They are made chiefly from grapes, and are +used to fortify wines. It was officially estimated that in the spring of +1904 there were some 227,000 acres of vineyards in the state, of which +exactly five-tenths were in wine grapes and four-tenths in raisin +grapes. + +_Gold._--Between the pastoral period and the era of wheat was the golden +epoch of Californian history. The existence of gold had long been +suspected, and possibly known, in California before 1848, and there had +been desultory washings in parts where there was very little to reward +prospectors. The first perfectly authenticated discovery was made near +Los Angeles in 1842. The discovery of real historical importance was +made in January 1848 (the 24th is the correct date) at John A. Sutter's +mill, on the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman, +James W. Marshall (1810-1885). His monument now marks the spot. From +1848 to the 1st of January 1903, according to the state mining bureau, +California produced $1,379,275,408 in gold. There were two periods of +intense excitement. The first ended in 1854, at which time there was a +decided reaction throughout the United States in regard to mining +matters. The Californian discoveries had given rise to a general search +for metalliferous deposits in the Atlantic states, and this bad been +followed by wild speculations. At the time of their greatest +productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of the washings was +probably not less than $65,000,000 a year; according to the state mining +bureau the average production from 1851-1854 was $73,570,087 +($81,294,270 in 1852, the banner year), and from 1850-1861 $55,882,861, +never falling below $50,000,000. The estimates of other competent +authorities differ considerably, and generally are somewhat less +generous than these figures. + +At first the diggings were chiefly along the rivers. These were +"flumed,"--that is, the water was diverted by wooden flumes from the +natural channel and the sand and gravel in the bed were washed. All the +"gulches" or ravines leading down into the canyons were also worked +over, with or without water. These were the richest "placers," but in +them the gold was very unequally distributed. Those who first got +possession of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, Feather, Stanislaus +and the other smaller streams in the heart of the gold region, made +sometimes from $1000 to $5000 a day; but after one rich spot was worked +out it might be days or weeks before another was found. In 1848 $500-700 +a day was not unusual luck; but, on the other hand, the income of the +great majority of miners was certainly far less than that of men who +seriously devoted themselves to trade or even to common labour. Many +extraordinary nuggets were found, varying from $1000 to $20,000 in +value. The economic stimulus given by such times may be imagined. For +several years gold-dust was a regular circulating medium in the cities +as well as in the mining districts of the state. An ounce of dust in +1848 frequently went for $4 instead of $17; for a number of years +traders in dust were sure of a margin of several dollars, as for example +in private coinage, mints for which were common by 1851. From the record +of actual exports and a comparison of the most authoritative estimates +of total production, it may be said that from 1848 to 1856 the yield was +almost certainly not less than $450,000,000, and that about 1870 the +billion dollar mark had been passed. Just at this time came the highest +point and the sudden fall of the second great mining fever of the state. +This was a stock speculation based on the remarkable output +($300,000,000 in 20 years) of the silver "bonanzas" of the Comstock lode +at Virginia City, Nevada, which were opened and financed by San +Francisco capitalists. The craze pervaded all classes. Shares that at +first represented so many dollars per foot in a tangible mine were +multiplied and remultiplied until they came to represent paper +thicknesses or almost nothing, yet still their prices mounted upward. In +April 1872 came the revulsion; there was a shrinkage of $60,000,000 in +ten days; then in 1873 a tremendous advance, and in 1875 a final and +disastrous collapse; in ten years thereafter the stock of the Comstock +lode shrank from $3,000,000 to $2,000,000. This Comstock fever belongs +to Californian rather than to Nevadan history, and is one of the most +extraordinary in mining annals. + +First the "rocker," then the "tom," the "flume," and the hydraulic +stream were the tools of the miner. Into the "rocker" and the "tom" the +miner shovelled dirt, rocking it as he poured in water, catching the +gold on riffles set across the bottom of his box; thus imitating in a +wooden box the work of nature in the rivers. The "flume" enabled him to +dry the bed of a stream while he worked over its gravels. The hydraulic +stream came into use as early as 1852 (or 1853) when prospecting of the +higher ground made it certain that the "deep" or "high" gravels--i.e. +the detrital deposits of tertiary age--contained gold, though in too +small quantities to be profitably worked in the ordinary way. The +hydraulic process received an immense development through successive +improvements of method and machinery. In this method tremendous blasts +of powder, sometimes twenty-five or even fifty tons, were used to loosen +the gravel, which was then acted on by the jet of water thrown from the +"pipes." To give an idea of the force of the agent thus employed it may +be stated that when an eight-inch nozzle is used under a heavy head, +more than 3000 ft. may be discharged in a minute with a velocity of 150 +ft. per second. The water as it thus issues from the nozzle feels to the +touch like metal, and the strongest man cannot sensibly affect it with a +crowbar. A gravel bank acted on by such tremendous force crumbled +rapidly, and the disintegrated material could be run readily through +sluices to the "dumps." Hydraulic mining is no longer practised on the +scale of early days. The results were wonderful but disastrous, for the +"dumps" were usually river-beds. From 1870-1879 the bed of Bear river +was raised in places in its lower course 97 ft. by the detritus wash of +the hydraulic mines, and that of Sleepy Hollow Creek 136 ft. The total +filling up to that time on the streams in this vicinity had been from +100 to 250 ft., and many thousand acres of fine farming land were buried +under gravel,--some 16,000 on the lower Yuba alone. For many years the +mining interests were supreme, and agriculture, even after it had become +of great importance, was invariably worsted when the two clashed; but in +1884 the long and bitter "anti-debris" or "anti-slickins" fight ended in +favour of the farmers. In 1893 the United States government created a +California Debris Commission, which has acted in unison with the state +authorities. Permits for hydraulic mining are granted by the commission +only when all gravel is satisfactorily impounded and no harm is done to +the streams; and the improvement of these, which was impossible so long +as limits were not set to hydraulic mining, can now be effectively +advanced. Quartz mining began as early as 1851. In 1908 about +five-eighths of the gold output was from such mines. Quartz veins are +very often as good at a depth of 3000 ft. as at the surface. A +remarkable feature of recent years (especially since 1900) is gold +"dredging." Thousands of acres even of orchard, vineyard and farming +land have been thus treated in recent years. Gold was being produced in +1906 in more than thirty counties. The annual output since 1875 has been +about $15,000,000 to $17,000,000; in 1905, according to the Mines +Report, it was $18,898,545. Colorado now excels California as a gold +producer. + +_Mineral Products._--California produces more than forty mineral +substances that are of commercial significance. Gold, petroleum, copper, +borax and its products, clays, quicksilver and silver lead, in order of +importance, representing some four-fifths of the total. From 1894 to +1902 the aggregate production increased from 20.2 to 35.1 million +dollars; in 1908 it was $65,137,636. Metallic products long represented +three-fourths of the total, but the feature of recent years has been the +rising importance of hydrocarbons and gases, and of structural +materials, and indeed of non-metallic products generally. The production +of crude petroleum has grown very rapidly since about 1895. Oil is found +from north to south over some 600 m., but especially in Southern +California. The high cost of coal, which has always been a hindrance to +the development of manufactures, makes the petroleum deposits of +peculiar value. Their total output increased from 4,250,000 to +44,854,737 barrels between 1900 and 1908, and the value of the product +in 1908 was $23,433,502. The Kern river field is the most important in +the state and one of the greatest in the world. Those of Coalinga, Santa +Maria and Lompoc, and Los Angeles are next in importance. Both in 1900 +and in 1905 California ranked fifth among the states of the United +States in the petroleum refining industry. Copper has risen in +importance in very recent years; it is mined mainly in Shasta county; +the value of the state's total product in 1908 was $5,232,986. Gold +mining still centres in the mountainous counties north of Tuolumne. This +is the region of quartz mining. In borax (of which California's output +in 1904 was 45,647 tons) and structural materials San Bernardino has a +long lead. More than nine-tenths of the borax product of the country +comes from about Death Valley. San Bernardino marbles have a very high +repute. California was the fourth state of the Union in 1908 in the +production of granite. It furnishes about two-fifths of the quicksilver +of the world. This has been mined since 1824; the output was greatest +from 1875-1883, when it averaged about 43,000,000 pounds. The New +Almaden mine (opened in 1824) in Santa Clara county produced from 1850 +to 1896 some 73,000,000 pounds. The centre of production is north and +south of San Francisco Bay. Californian coal is almost wholly inferior +brown lignite, together with a small quantity of bituminous coals of +poor quality; the state does not produce a tenth part of the coal it +consumes. Of growing importance are the gems found in California: a few +diamonds in Butte county; rock crystal in Calaveras county; and +tourmalines, kunzite, the rare pink beryl and bright blue topazes in San +Diego county. Chrysoprase, mined near Porterville and near Visalia +(Tulare county), is used partly for gems, but more largely (like the +vesuvianite found near Exeter, in the same county) for mosaic work; and +there are ledges of fine rose quartz in the Coahuila mountains of +Riverside county and near Lemon Cove, Tulare county. + +A vivid realization of the industrial revolution in the state is to be +gained from the reflection that in 1875 California was pre-eminent only +for gold and sheep; that the aggregate mineral output thirty years later +was more than a third greater than then, and that nevertheless the value +of farm produce at the opening of the 20th century exceeded by more than +$100,000,000 the value of mineral produce, and exceeded by $50,000,000 +the most generous estimate of the largest annual gold output in the +annals of the state. + +_Manufactures._--Previous to 1860 almost every manufactured article used +in the state was imported from the east or from Europe. Dairy products, +for example, for whose production good facilities always existed, were +long greatly neglected, and not for two decades at least after 1848 was +the state independent in this respect. The high cost of coal, the +speculative attractions of mining, and the high wages of labour, +handicapped the development of manufactures in early years. The first +continued to be a drag on such industries, until after 1895 the +increasing use of crude petroleum obviated the difficulty. Several +remarkable electric power and lighting plants utilize the water power of +the mountains.[4] Geographic isolation has somewhat fostered state +industries. The value of gross manufactured products increased 41.9% +from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year California ranked 12th among the +states in the gross value of all manufactures ($302,874,761); the +per-capita value of manufactured and agricultural products being +$293,--$89 of the latter, $204 of the former. Of the wage-earners 61% +were engaged in manufacturing. Fourteen industries represented from 41% +to 45% of the employees, wages, capital and product of the aggregate +manufacturers of the state. The leading ones in order of importance and +the value of product in millions of dollars were: the manufacture of +railway, foundry, and machine shop products (19.6 million dollars), +lumber and timber industries (18.57), sugar and molasses refining +(15.91), beef slaughtering (15.72), canning and preserving (13.08), +flour and grist milling (13.10), the manufacture of malt, vinous and +distilled liquors (9.26), leather industries (7.40), printing and +publishing (6.86). In the second, third and fifth of these industries +the state ranked respectively fifth, fourth and first in the Union.[5] +The canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables is in the main an +industry of the northern and central counties. In 1890 the state board +of forestry estimated that the redwood forests were in danger of +exhaustion by 1930. The redwood is a general utility lumber second only +to the common white pine, and the drain on the woods has been continuous +since 1850. The wood has a fine, straight and even grain; and though +light and soft, is firm and extremely durable, lying, it is +authoritatively asserted, for centuries in the forest without +appreciable decay. It takes a beautiful polish. The colour varies from +cedar colour to mahogany. A small southern belt in San Mateo, Santa +Clara and Santa Cruz counties is not being commercially exploited. The +annual lumber cut from 1898-1903 averaged more than 663,348,000 ft.; of +the 852,638,000 ft. cut in 1903, 465,460,000 were of redwood, and +264,890,000 of yellow pine; fir and sugar pines contributing another +104,600,000, and spruce and cedar 17,670,000 ft. In 1900 California +ranked 16th among the states in value of product ($13,764,647, out of a +total of $566,852,984). The total cut was under 1/2 of 1% of the +estimated stand. In Humboldt county, in the redwood belt near Eureka, +are probably the most modern and remarkable lumber mills of the world. +In 1900 it was estimated that lumbermen controlled somewhat less than a +fifth of the timber of the state, and the same part of the redwood. +After 1890 important shipyards were established near San Francisco. The +most important naval station of the United States on the Pacific coast +is at Mare Island at the northern end of San Francisco Bay, and the +private Union Iron Works, on the peninsula near San Francisco, is one of +the largest shipyards of the country. In 1905 more than one-half of the +factory product was the output of four cities: San Francisco +($137,788,233), Los Angeles ($34,814,475), Sacramento ($10,319,416) and +Fresno ($9,849,001); next ranked Oakland, Stockton, and San Jose. + +The transportation facilities in California increased rapidly after +1870. The building of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific lines are +among the romances of American railway history. They joined tracks near +Ogden, Utah, in May 1869. The New Orleans line of the Southern Pacific +was opened in January 1883; the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe completed +its line to San Diego in 1885, and to San Francisco Bay in 1900. The San +Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, with trans-continental connexions at the +eastern terminus, was chartered in 1901 and fully opened in March 1903. +Railway mileage increased 137.3% from 1870 to 1880, and 154.6% from +1880 to 1900. At the close of 1908 the total mileage was 7039.36 m., +practically all of which is either owned or controlled by the two great +trans-continental systems of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, +Topeka & Santa Fe. From 1869 to 1875 registered mail exchanges were +opened with China, Japan, Hawaii and Australia. There are now frequent +mail connexions from San Francisco with Hawaii, Australasia, and eastern +Asia, as well as with American ports north and south. The commerce of +San Francisco amounts to some $80,000,000 or $90,000,000 yearly, about +equally divided between imports and exports, until after 1905--in 1907 +the imports were valued at $54,207,011, and the exports at $30,378,355 +(less than any year since 1896). San Diego has a very good harbour, and +the harbours of San Pedro (Los Angeles) and Eureka are fairly good and +of growing importance. Grains, lumber, fish, fruits and fruit products, +petroleum, vegetables and sugar are the leading items in the commerce of +San Francisco. Other ports are of very secondary importance. Navigation +on the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers was very important in early +days, but is to-day of relatively slight importance in comparison with +railway traffic. + +_Population._--The population of California increased in successive +decades from 1850 to 1910 respectively by 310.3, 47.3, 54.3, 40.3, 22.4 +and 60.1%. (The percentage of increase in 1900-1910 was exceeded in +Washington, Oklahoma, Idaho, Nevada, North Dakota and Oregon.) In 1910 +the total population was 2,377,549, or 15.2 per sq. m. In 1900 there were +116 incorporated towns and cities; and of the total population 43.3% +was urban,--i.e. resident in cities (11 in number) of 8000 or more +inhabitants. These 11 cities were: San Francisco (pop. 342,782), Los +Angeles (102,479), Oakland (66,960), Alameda (16,464), Berkeley +(13,214),--the last three being suburbs of San Francisco, and the last +the seat of the state university,--Sacramento, the state capital +(29,282), San Jose (21,500), San Diego (17,700), Stockton (17,506), +Fresno (12,470), and Pasadena (9117). Eight other cities had populations +of more than 5000--Riverside City (7973), Vallejo (7965), Eureka (7327), +Santa Rosa (6673), Santa Barbara (6587), San Bernardino (6156), Santa +Cruz (5659), and Pomona (5526). + +Of the entire population in 1900 persons of foreign birth or parentage +(one or both parents being foreign) constituted 54.2 and those of native +birth were 75.3%. Of the latter six-tenths were born in California. The +foreign element included 45,753 Chinese (a falling off of 25,313 since +1890), and 10,151 Japanese (an increase of 9004 in the same decade). +Twenty-two foreign countries contributed over 1000 residents each, the +leading ones being the United Kingdom (91,638), Germany (72,449), Canada +(29,618; 27,408 being English Canadians), Italy (22,777), Sweden +(14,549), France (12,256), Portugal (12,068), Switzerland (10,974), +Japan, Denmark, and Mexico, in the order named. Persons of negro descent +numbered 11,045. Almost all the Indians of the state are taxed as +citizens. In 1906 of 611,464 members of religious denominations 354,408 +were Roman Catholics, 64,528 Methodist Episcopalians, 37,682 +Presbyterians, 26,390 Congregationalists, 24,801 Baptists, 21,317 +Protestant Episcopalians, 11,371 Lutherans, and 9,110 members of +Eastern Orthodox churches. A peculiar feature in the population +statistics of California is the predominance of males, which in 1900 was +156,009; the Asiatic element accounts for a third of this number. Since +1885 the eight counties south of the Tehachapi Range, which are known +collectively and specifically as Southern California have greatly +advanced in population. In 1880 their population was 7.3, in 1890 17.2, +and in 1900 20.1% of the total population of the state. The initial +impulse to this increase was the beginning of the "fruit epoch" in these +counties, combined with a railway "rate-war" following the completion to +the coast in 1885 of the Santa Fe, and an extraordinary land boom +prevailing from 1886 to 1888. The conjuncture of circumstances, and the +immigration it induced, were unusual. The growth of the South, as of the +rest of the state, has been continuous and steady. + +The Indians were prominent in early Californian history, but their +progress toward their present insignificance began far back in the +Spanish period. It proceeded much more rapidly after the restraining +influence of the missions was removed, leaving them free to revert to +savagery; and the downward progress of the race was fearfully +accelerated during the mining period, when they were abused, depraved, +and in large numbers killed. There have been no Indian wars in +California's annals, but many butcheries. The natives have declined +exceedingly in number since 1830, in 1900 numbering 15,377. They have +always been mild-tempered, low, and unintelligent, and are to-day a poor +and miserable race. They are all called "Digger Indians" +indiscriminately, although divided by a multiplicity of tongues. + +_Government and Institutions._--In the matter of constitution-making +California has been conservative, having had only two between 1849 and +1910. The first was framed by a convention at Monterey in 1849, and +ratified by the people and proclaimed by the United States military +governor in the same year. The present constitution, framed by a +convention in 1878-1879, came into full effect in 1880, and was +subsequently amended. It was the work of the labour party, passed at a +time of high discontent, and goes at great length into the details of +government, as was demanded by the state of public opinion. The +qualifications required for the suffrage are in no way different from +those common throughout the Union, except that by a constitutional +amendment of 1894 it is necessary for a voter to be able to read the +state constitution and write his name. As compared with the earlier +constitution it showed many radical advances toward popular control, the +power of the legislature being everywhere curtailed. The power of +legislation was taken from it by specific inhibition in thirty-one +subjects before within its power; its control of the public domain, its +powers in taxation, and its use of the state credit were carefully +safe-guarded. "Lobbying" was made a felony; provisions were inserted +against lotteries and stock-exchange gambling, to tax and control common +carriers and great corporations, and to regulate telegraph, telephone, +storage and wharfage charges. The powers of the executive department +were also somewhat curtailed. For the judiciary, provisions were made +for expediting trials and decisions. Notable was the innovation that +agreement by three-fourths of a jury should be sufficient in civil cases +and that a jury might be waived in minor criminal cases, a provision +which of course was based on experience under the Mexican law. All these +changes in the organic law reflect bitter experience after 1850; and, +read with the history of those years as a commentary, few American +constitutions are more instructive. The constitution of 1879 corresponds +very closely to the ordinary state constitution of to-day. The +incorporation of banks issuing circulating notes is forbidden. Marriage +is not only declared a civil contract, but the laws expressly recognize +that the mere consent of the parties is adequate to constitute a binding +marriage. The union of whites with persons of African descent is +forbidden. Felons twice convicted may not be pardoned except on the +recommendation of a majority of the judges of the supreme court. Judges +and state executive officers are elected for terms longer than is usual +in the different states (supreme judges 12 years, executive officers 4 +years). These few provisions are mentioned, not as of particular +importance in themselves, but as exceptions of some moment to the usual +type of state Constitutions (see UNITED STATES). The Australian ballot +was introduced in 1891. In local government there are no deviations from +the usual types that demand notice. In the matter of liquor-laws there +is local option, and a considerable proportion of the towns and smaller +cities, particularly in the south, adopt prohibition. In most of the +rest high licence is more or less strictly enforced. + +The total assessed valuation of property grew from $666,399,985 in 1880 +to $1,217,648,683 in 1900 and $1,879,728,763 in 1907. In 1904, when the +U.S. Census Report showed California to be the twenty-first state of the +Union in population but the sixth in wealth, the total estimated true +value of all property was $4,115,491,106, of which $2,664,472,025 was +the value of real property and improvements thereon. The per capita +wealth of the state was then reported as $2582.32, being exceeded only +by the three sparsely settled states of Montana, Wyoming and Nevada. In +1898 California had the largest savings-bank deposit per depositor +($637.75) of any state in the Union; the _per caput_ deposit was $110 in +1902, and about one person in seven was a depositor. The state bonded +debt in 1907 amounted to three and a half million dollars, of which all +but $767,529.03 was represented by bonds purchased by the state and held +for the school and university funds; for the common school fund on the +1st of July 1907 there were held bonds for $4,890,950, and $800,000 in +cash available for investment; for the university fund there were held +$751,000 in state bonds, and a large amount in other securities. The +total bonded county indebtedness was $4,879,600 in 1906 (not including +that of San Francisco, a consolidated city and county, which was +$4,568,600). A homestead, entered upon record and limited to a value of +$5000 if held by the head of a family and to a value of $1000 if held by +one not the head of a family, is exempt from liability for debts, except +for a mortgage, a lien before it was claimed as a homestead or a lien +afterward for improvements. A homestead held by a married man cannot be +mortgaged without consent of his wife. + +Under an act approved on the 25th of March 1903 a state board of +charities and corrections,--consisting of six members, not more than +three being of the same political party, appointed by the governor, with +the advice and consent of the senate, and holding office for twelve +years, two retiring at the end of each quadrennium,--investigates, +examines, and makes "reports upon the charitable, correctional and penal +institutions of the state," excepting the Veterans' Home at Yountville, +Napa county, and the Woman's Relief Corps Home at Evergreen, Santa Clara +county. There are state prisons with convicts working under the public +account system, at San Quentin, Marin county, and Folsom, Sacramento +county. The Preston (Sonoma county) School of Industry, for older boys, +and the Whittier (Los Angeles county) State School, for girls and for +boys under sixteen, are the state reformatories, each having good +industrial and manual training departments. There are state hospitals +for the insane at Agnew, Santa Clara county; at Stockton, San Joaquin +county; at Napa, Napa county; at Patton, San Bernardino county; and, +with a colony of tubercular patients, at Ukiah, Mendocino county. In +1906 the ratio of insane confined to institutions, to the total +population, was 1 to every 270. Also under state control are the home +for care and training of feeble-minded children, at Eldridge, Sonoma +county; the institution for the deaf and the blind at Berkeley, and the +home of mechanical trades for the adult blind at Oakland. A Juvenile +Court Law was enacted in 1903 and modified in 1905. + +The educational system of California is one of the best in the country. +The state board of education is composed of the governor of the state, +who is its president; the superintendent of public instruction, who is +its secretary; the presidents of the five normal schools and of the +University of California, and the professor of pedagogy in the +university. Sessions are long in primary schools, and attendance was +made compulsory in 1874 (and must not be less than two-thirds of all +school days). The state controlled the actual preparation and sale of +text-books for the common schools from 1885 to 1903, when the Perry +amendment to the constitution (ratified by popular vote in 1884) was +declared to mean that such text-books must be manufactured within the +state, but that the texts need not be prepared in California. The +experiment of state-prepared text-books was expensive, and its effect +was bad on the public school system, as such text-books were almost +without exception poorly written and poorly printed. After 1903 +copyrights were leased by the state. Secondary schools are closely +affiliated with, and closely inspected by, the state university. All +schools are generously supported, salaries are unusually good, and +pension funds in all cities are authorized by state laws. The value of +school property in 1900 was $19,135,722, and the expenditure for the +public schools $6,195,000; in 1906 the value of school property was +$29,013,150, and the expenditure for public schools $10,815,857. The +average school attendance for all minors of school age (5-20 years) was +59.9%; of those native-born 61.5, of those foreign-born 34.6; of +coloured children, including Asiatics and Indians, 35.8, and of white, +60.8%. In 1900, 6.2% of the males of voting age, and 2.4% of the +native-born males of voting age, were illiterate (could not write). Some +3% of the total population could not speak English; Chinese and +Japanese constituting almost half of the number, foreign-born whites +somewhat less, and Indians and native-born whites of foreign parentage +together less than a tenth of the total. Of the higher educational +institutions of the state the most important are the state university at +Berkeley and Leland Stanford Jr. University at Palo Alto. The former is +supported with very great liberality by the state; and the latter, the +endowment of which is private (the state, however, exempting it from +taxation), is one of the richest educational institutions of America. In +1906 there were also five state normal schools (at Chico, Los Angeles, +San Diego, San Francisco, and San Jose), and a considerable number of +denominational colleges. There is also a state polytechnic school at San +Luis Obispo (1903). + +_History._--The name "California" was taken from Ordonez de Montalvo's +romance of chivalry _Las Sergas de Esplandian_ (Madrid, 1510), in which +is told of black Amazons ruling an island of this name "to the right of +the Indies, very near the quarter of the terrestrial paradise." The name +was given to the unknown north-west before 1540. It does not show that +the namers were prophets or wise judges, for the Spaniards really knew +California not at all for more than two centuries, and then only as a +genial but rather barren land; but it shows that the _conquistadores_ +mixed poetry with business and illustrates the glamour thrown about the +"Northern Mystery." Necessarily the name had for a long time no definite +geographical meaning. The lower Colorado river was discovered in 1540, +but the explorers did not penetrate California; in 1542-1543 Juan +Rodriguez Cabrillo explored at least the southern coast; in 1579 Sir +Francis Drake repaired his ships in some Californian port (almost +certainly not San Francisco Bay), and named the land New Albion; two +Philippine ships visited the coast in 1584 and 1595, and in 1602 and +1603 Sebastian Vizcaino discovered the sites of San Diego and Monterey. +There was apparently no increase of knowledge thereafter for 150 years. +Most of this time California was generally supposed to be an island or a +group of islands. Jesuit missionaries entered Lower California as early +as 1697, maintaining themselves there until Charles III.'s expulsion in +1767 of all Jesuits from his dominions; but not until Russian +explorations in Alaska from 1745-1765 did the Spanish government show +interest in Upper California. Because of these explorations, and also +the long-felt need of a refitting point on the California coast for the +galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 and Monterey in +1770 as a result of urgent orders from Charles III. San Francisco Bay +was discovered in the former year. Meanwhile the Jesuit property in the +Peninsula had been turned over to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the +Dominicans took over the missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly +withdrew to Upper California, where they were to thrive remarkably for +some fifty years. + + + The rule of the missions. + +This is the mission period--or from an economic standpoint, the +pastoral period--of Californian history. In all, twenty-one missions +were established between 1769 and 1823. The leader in this movement was +a really remarkable man, Miguel Jose Serra (known as Junipero Serra, +1713-1784), a friar of very great ability, purest piety, and tireless +zeal. He possessed great influence in Mexico and Madrid. "The theory of +the mission system," says H.H. Bancroft, "was to make the savages work +out their own salvation and that of the priests also." The last phrase +scarcely does justice to the truly humane and devout intentions of the +missionaries; but in truth the mission system was a complete failure +save in the accumulation of material wealth. Economically the missions +were the blood and life of the province. At them the neophytes worked up +wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cultivated hemp and wheat, raised a +few oranges, made soap, some iron and leather articles, mission +furniture, and a very little wine and olive oil. Such as it was, this +was about the only manufacturing or handicraft in California. Besides, +the hides and tallow yielded by the great herds of cattle at the +missions were the support of foreign trade and did much toward paying +the expenses of the government. The Franciscans had no sympathy for +profane knowledge, even among the Mexicans,--sometimes publicly burning +quantities of books of a scientific or miscellaneous nature; and the +reading of Fenelon's _Telemaque_ brought excommunication on a layman. As +for the intellectual development of the neophytes the mission system +accomplished nothing; save the care of their souls they received no +instruction, they were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal +dependence, so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once into +barbarism. It cannot be said, however, that Anglo-Americans have done +much better for them. + +The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808 made little +stir in this far-off province. Joseph was never recognized, and +allegiance was sworn to Ferdinand (1809). When revolution broke out in +Mexico (1811), California remained loyal, suffering much by the +cessation of supplies from Mexico, the resulting deficits falling as an +added burden upon the missions. The occupation of Monterey for a few +hours by a Buenos Aires privateer (1818) was the only incident of actual +war that California saw in all these years; and it, in truth, was a +ridiculous episode, fit introduction to the bloodless play-wars, soon to +be inaugurated in Californian politics. In 1820 the Spanish constitution +was duly sworn to in California, and in 1822 allegiance was given to +Mexico. Under the Mexican Federal constitution of 1824 Upper California, +first alone (it was made a distinct province in 1804) and then with +Lower California, received representation in the Mexican congress. + +The following years before American occupation may be divided into two +periods of quite distinct interest. From about 1840 to 1848 foreign +relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to 1840 there is a +complicated and not uninteresting movement of local politics and a +preparation for the future,--the missions fall, republicanism grows, the +sentiment of local patriotism becomes a political force, there is a +succession of sectional controversies and personal struggles among +provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign commerce, of foreign +immigration and of foreign influence. + +The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in sympathies. They +viewed with displeasure and foreboding the fall of Iturbide's empire and +the creation of the republic. They were not treasonable, but talked +much, refusing allegiance to the new government; and as they controlled +the resources of the colony and the good will of the Indians, they felt +their strength against the local authority; besides, they were its +constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with the growth +of republican ideas. There was talk in California of the rights of man +and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The missions were never +intended to be permanent. The missionaries were only the field workers +sent out to convert and civilize the Indians, who were to be turned over +then to the regular clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new +fields. This was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the +Spanish Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America +that were ten years old, but this decree was not published in +California until 1821. After that secularization was the burning +question in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made +in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough +secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was +consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and by 1840 at all. +At some of the missions the monks acted later as temporary curates for +the civil authorities, until in 1845-1846 all the missions were sold by +the government. Unfortunately the manner of carrying it out discredited +a policy neither unjust nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in +the political struggles of the time. The friars were in no way +mistreated: Californians did not share Mexican resentments against +Spaniards, and the national laws directed against these were in the main +quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question led to a +rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor Manuel +Victoria. He was driven out of the province. + +This was the first of the opera bouffe wars. The causes underlying them +were serious enough. In the first place, there was a growing +dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accomplished nothing tangible +for good in California,--although its plans were as excellent as could +be asked had there only been peace and means to realize them; however, +it made the mistake of sending convicts as soldiers. Californians were +enthusiastic republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow +in coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of these and +other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of foreign residents, +and the ambitions of leading Californian families united to foment and +propagate discontent. The feeling against Mexicans--those "de la otra +banda" as they were significantly termed--invaded political and even +social life. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between +northern towns and southern towns, northern families and southern +families. These entered into disputes over the location of the capital +and the custom-house, in the Franciscan question also (because the +friars came some from a northern and some from a southern college), and +in the question of the distribution of commands in the army and offices +in the civil government. Then there was the mission question; this +became acuter about 1833 when the friars began to destroy, or sell and +realize on, the mission property. The next decade was one of plunder and +ruin in mission history. Finally there was a real growth of +republicanism, and some rulers--notably Victoria--were wholly out of +sympathy with anything but personal, military rule. From all these +causes sprang much unrest and considerable agitation. + +In 1828-1829 there was a revolution of unpaid soldiers aided by natives, +against alleged but not serious abuses, that really aimed at the +establishment of an independent native government. In 1831 Governor +Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Governor Mariano Chico was frightened out +of the province; in 1836 Governor Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1844-1845 +Governor Manuel Micheltorena were driven out of office. The leading +natives headed this last rising. There was talk of independence, but +sectional and personal jealousies could not be overcome. In all these +wars there was not enough blood shed to discolour a sword. The rising of +1836 against Gutierrez seems to-day most interesting, for it was in part +a protest against the growth of federalism in Mexico. California was +even deferred to as (declared to be seems much too strong a statement) +an Estado Libre y Soberano; and from 1836 to 1838, when the +revolutionary governor, Juan B. Alvarado, was recognized by the Mexican +government, which had again inclined to federalism and, besides, did not +take the matter very seriously, the local government rested simply on +local sentiment. The satisfaction of this ended all difficulties. + + + American immigration. + + American and European intriques. + +By this time foreign influence was showing itself of importance. Foreign +commerce, which of course was contraband, being contrary to all Spanish +laws, was active by the beginning of the 19th century. It was greatly +stimulated during the Spanish-American revolutions (the Lima and Panama +trade dating from about 1813), for, as the Californian authorities +practically ignored the law, smuggling was unnecessary; this was, +indeed, much greater after 1822 under the high duties (in 1836-1840 +generally about 100%) of the Mexican tariffs. In the early 'forties some +three-fourths of the imports, even at Monterey itself, are said to have +paid no duties, being landed by agreement with the officials. Wholesale +and retail trade flourished all along the coast in defiance of +prohibitory laws. American trade was by far most important. The Boston +traders--whose direct trade began in 1822, but the indirect ventures +long before that--were men of decided influence in California. The trade +supplied almost all the clothing, merchandise and manufactures used in +the province; hides and furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade +was not to be received, still less were foreign travellers, under the +Spanish laws. However, the Russians came in 1805, and in 1812 founded on +Bodega Bay a post they held till 1841, whence they traded and hunted +(even in San Francisco Bay) for furs. From the day of the earliest +foreign commerce sailors and traders of divers nationalities began to +settle in the province. In 1826 American hunters first crossed to the +coast; in 1830 the Hudson's Bay Company began operations in northern +California. By this time the foreign element was considerable in number, +and it doubled in the next six years, although the true overland +immigration from the United States began only about 1840. As a class +foreigners were respected, and they were influential beyond proportion +to their numbers. They controlled commerce, and were more energetic, +generally, than were the natives; many were naturalized, held generous +grants of land, and had married into Californian families, not excluding +the most select and influential. Most prominent of Americans in the +interior was John A. Sutter (1803-1880), who held a grant of eleven +square leagues around the present site of Sacramento, whereon he built a +fort. His position as a Mexican official, and the location of his +fortified post on the border, commanding the interior country and lying +on the route of the overland immigrants, made him of great importance in +the years preceding and immediately following American occupation; +although he was a man of slight abilities and wasted his great +opportunities. Other settlers in the coast towns were also of high +standing and importance. In short, Americans were hospitably received +and very well treated by the government and the people; despite some +formalities and ostensible surveillance there was no oppression +whatever. There was, however, some jealousy of the ease with which +Americans secured land grants, and an entirely just dislike of "bad" +Americans. The sources from which all the immigrants were recruited made +inevitable an element of lawlessness and truculence. The Americans +happened to predominate. Along with a full share of border individuality +and restlessness they had the usual boisterous boastfulness and a racial +contempt, which was arrogantly proclaimed, for Mexicans,--often too for +Mexican legal formalities. The early comers were a conservative force in +politics, but many of the later comers wanted to make California a +second Texas. As early as 1805 (at the time of James Monroe's +negotiations for Florida), there are traces of Spain's fear of American +ambitions even in this far-away province. It was a fear she felt for all +her American possessions. Spain's fears passed on to Mexico, the +Russians being feared only less than Americans. An offer was made by +President Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern part of California, +including San Francisco Bay, but was refused. In 1836 and 1844 Americans +were prominent in the incidents of revolution; divided in opinion in +both years they were neutral in the actual "hostilities" of the latter, +but some gave active support to the governor in 1836. From 1836 on, +foreign interference was much talked about. Americans supposed that +Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; France +also was thought to be watching for an opening for gratifying supposed +ambitions; and all parties saw that even without overt act by the United +States the progress of American settlement seemed likely to gain them +the province, whose connexion with Mexico had long been a notoriously +loose one. A considerable literature written by travellers of all the +countries named had before this discussed all interests. In 1840 for too +active interest in politics some Americans and Englishmen were +temporarily expelled. + + + The "Bear Flag." + +In 1842 Commodore T.A.C. Jones (1789-1858) of the United States navy, +believing that war had broken out between his country and Mexico and +that a British force was about to seize California, raised the American +flag over Monterey (October 21st), but finding that he had acted on +misinformation he lowered the flag next day with due ceremony and warm +apology. In California this incident served only to open up agreeable +personal relations and social courtesies, but it did not tend to clarify +the diplomatic atmosphere. It showed the ease of seizing the country, +the indifference of the natives, and the resolution of the United States +government. Mexico sought to prevent American immigration, but the local +authorities would not enforce such orders, however positive. Between +1843 and 1845, Great Britain, the United States, and France opened +consulates. By 1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among +all American residents (then not 700 in number) as regards the future of +the country. The policy of France and Great Britain in these years is +unknown. That of the United States is fully known. In 1845 the American +consul at Monterey, Thomas O. Larkin (1802-1858), was instructed to work +for the secession of California from Mexico, without overt aid from the +United States, but with their good-will and sympathy. He very soon +gained from leading officers assurances of such a movement before 1848. +At the same time American naval officers were instructed to occupy the +ports in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the +good-will of the natives. In 1845 Captain J.C. Fremont,--whose doings in +California in the next two years were among the main assets in a +life-long reputation and an unsuccessful presidential campaign,--while +engaged in a government surveying expedition, aroused the apprehensions +of the Californian authorities by suspicious and very possibly +intentionally provocative movements, and there was a show of military +force by both parties. Fremont had information beyond that of ordinary +men that made him believe early hostilities between the United States +and Mexico to be inevitable; he was also officially informed of Larkin's +secret task and in no way authorized to hamper it. Resentment, however, +incited him to personal revenge on the Californian government, and an +ambition that clearly saw the gravity of the crisis prompted him to +improve it unscrupulously for his own advancement, leaving his +government to support or disavow him according as war should come or +not. In violation therefore of international amities, and practically in +disobedience of orders, he broke the peace, caused a band of Mexican +cavalry mounts to be seized, and prompted some American settlers to +occupy Sonoma (14th June 1846). This episode is known as the "Bear Flag +War," inasmuch as there was short-lived talk of making California an +independent state, and a flag with a bear as an emblem (California is +still popularly known as the Bear Flag State) flew for a few days at +Sonoma. It was a very small, very disingenuous, inevitably an anomalous, +and in the vanity of proclamations and other concomitant incidents +rather a ridiculous affair; and fortunately for the dignity of +history--and for Fremont--it was quickly merged in a larger question, +when Commodore John Drake Sloat (1780-1867) on the 7th of July raised +the flag of the United States over Monterey, proclaiming California a +part of the United States. The opening hostilities of the Mexican War +had occurred on the Rio Grande. The excuses and explanations later given +by Fremont--military preparations by the Californian authorities, the +imminence of their attack, ripening British schemes for the seizure of +the province, etc.--made up the stock account of historians until the +whole truth came out in 1886 (in Royce's _California_). Californians had +been very friendly to Americans, but Larkin's intimates thought they had +been tricked, and the people resented the stealthy and unprovoked +breaking of peace, and unfortunately the Americans did not known how to +treat them except inconsiderately and somewhat contemptuously. The +result was a feeble rising in the south. The country was fully pacified +by January 1847. The aftermath of Fremont's filibustering acts, followed +as they were by wholly needless hostilities and by some injustice then +and later in the attitude of Americans toward the natives, was a growing +misunderstanding and estrangement, regrettable in Californian history. +Thus there was an end to the "lotos-land society" of California. Another +society, less hospitable, less happy, less contented, but also less +mild, better tempered for building states, and more "progressive," took +the place of the old. + + + California ceded to the United States. + + The rush for gold. + +By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 Mexico ceded California to +the United States. It was just at this time that gold was discovered, +and the new territory took on great national importance. The discussion +as to what should be done with it began in Congress in 1846, immediately +involving the question of slavery. A furious conflict developed, so that +nothing was accomplished in two successive sessions; even at the end of +a third, in March 1849, the only progress made toward creating a +government for the territory was that the national revenue laws had been +extended over it and San Francisco had been made a port of entry. +Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabitants. Before the +end of the war Mexican laws not incompatible with United States laws +were by international law supposed to be in force; but nobody knew what +they were, and the uncertainties of vague and variable alcalde +jurisdictions were increased when Americans began to be alcaldes and +grafted English common-law principles, like the jury, on Californian +practice. Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the +motley Californian people of 1848-1849, yet they had none when, with +peace, military rule and Mexican law technically ended. There was a +curious extra-legal fusion of laws, a half-breed legal system, and no +definite basis for either law or government. Even the acts and theories +of the officials were very inconsistent. Early in 1849 temporary local +governments were set up in various towns, and in September a convention +framed a free-state constitution and applied for admission to the Union. +On the 7th of September 1850 a bill finally passed Congress admitting +California as a free state. This was one of the bargains in the +"Compromise Measures of 1850" that were intended to dispose of the +question of slavery in the Territories. Meanwhile the gold discoveries +culminated and surpassed "three centuries of wild talk about gold in +California." For three months there was little excitement, then a wild +rush. Settlements were completely deserted; homes, farms and stores +abandoned. Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San +Francisco--there were 500 of them in July 1850; soldiers deserted +wholesale, churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit, +merchants, clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody, flocked +to the foothills. Soon, from Hawaii, Oregon and Sonora, from the Eastern +states, the South Seas, Australia, South America and China came an +extraordinary flow of the hopeful and adventurous. In the winter of '48 +the rush began from the states to Panama, and in the spring across the +plains. It is estimated that 80,000 men reached the coast in 1849, about +half of them coming overland; three-fourths were Americans. Rapid +settlement, excessive prices, reckless waste of money, and wild +commercial ventures that glutted San Francisco with all objects usable +and unusable made the following years astounding from an economic point +of view; but not less bizarre was the social development, nor less +extraordinary the problems of state-building in a society "morally and +socially tried as no other American community ever has been tried" +(Royce). There was of course no home life in early California. In 1850 +women numbered 8% of the population, but only 2% in the mining +counties. The miners were an energetic, covetous, wandering, abnormally +excitable body of men. Occasionally a kind of frenzy even would seem to +seize on them, and lured by the hope of new deposits of unheard-of +richness thousands would flock on unfounded rumours to new and perhaps +distant localities, where many might perish from disease and starvation, +the rest returning in poverty and rags. Such were the Kern River fever +of 1855 and the greater "Fraser River rush" of 1858, the latter, which +took perhaps 20,000 men out of the state, causing a terrible amount of +suffering. Many interior towns lost half their population and some +virtually all their population as a result of this emigration; and it +precipitated a real estate crash in San Francisco that threatened +temporary ruin. Mining times in California brought out some of the most +ignoble and some of the best traits of American character. Professor +Josiah Royce has pictured the social-moral process by which society +finally impressed its "claims on wayward and blind individuals" who +"sought wealth and not a social order," and so long as possible shirked +all social obligations. Through varied instruments--lynch law, popular +courts, vigilance committees--order was, however, enforced, better as +times went on, until there was a stable condition of things. In the +economic life and social character of California to-day the legacies of +1848 are plain. + + + Disputed land grants. + +The slavery question was not settled for California in 1850. Until the +Civil War the division between the Whig and Democratic parties, whose +organization in California preceded statehood, was essentially based on +slavery. The struggle fused with the personal contests of two men, +rivals for the United States Senate, William McKendree Gwin (1805-85, +U.S. senator, 1850-55 and 1857-61), the leader of the pro-slavery party, +and David Colbreth Broderick (1819-1859), formerly a leader of Tammany +in New York, and after 1857 a member from California of the United +States Senate, the champion of free labour, who declared in 1860 for the +policy of the Republican party. Broderick's undoing was resolved upon by +the slavery party, and he was killed in a duel. The Gwin party hoped to +divide California into two states and hand the southern over to slavery; +on the eve of the Civil War it considered the scheme of a Pacific coast +republic. The decade 1850-1860 was also marked by the activity of +filibusters against Sonora and Central America. Two of these--a French +adventurer, one Gaston Raoux, comte de Raousset-Boulbon (1817-1854), and +William Walker, had very picturesque careers. The state was thoroughly +loyal when war came. The later 'fifties are characterized by H.H. +Bancroft as a period of "moral, political and financial night." National +politics were put first, to the complete ignoring of excessive taxation, +financial extravagance, ignorant legislation and corruption in +California. The public was exploited for many years with impunity for +the benefit of private interests. One legacy that ought to be briefly +noted here is that of disputed land grants. Under the Mexican regime +such grants were generous and common, and the complicated formalities +theoretically essential to their validity were very often, if not +usually, only in part attended to. Titles thus gained would never have +been questioned under continued Mexican government, but Americans were +unaccustomed to such riches in land and to such laxity. From the very +first hundreds "squatted" on large claims, contesting the title. Instead +of confirming all claims existing when the country passed to the United +States, and so ensuring an immediate settlement of the matter, which was +really the most important thing for the peace and purse of the +community, the United States government undertook through a land +commission and courts to sift the valid from the fraudulent. Claims of +enormous aggregate value were thus considered and a large part of those +dating from the last years of Mexican dominion (many probably artfully +concocted and fraudulently antedated after the commission was at work) +were finally rejected. This litigation filled the state and federal +courts for many years. The high value of realty in San Francisco +naturally offered extraordinary inducements to fraud, and the largest +part of the city was for years involved in fraudulent claims, and its +peace broken by "squatter"-troubles. Twenty or thirty years of the +state's life were disturbed by these controversies. Land monopoly is an +evil of large proportions in California to-day, but it is due to the +laxness of the United States government in enabling speculators to +accumulate holdings and not to the original extent of Mexican grants. + +In state gubernatorial elections after the Civil War the Democrats won +in 1867, 1875, 1882, 1886, 1894; the Republicans in 1871, 1879, 1890, +1898, 1902, 1906, 1910. Features of political life and of legislation +after 1876 were a strong labour agitation, the struggle for the +exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of hydraulic mining, +irrigation, and the advancement by state-aid of the fruit interests; the +last three of which have already been referred to above. Labour +conditions were peculiar in the decade following 1870. Mining, war times +and the building of the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices +and prosperity. Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather +that money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there was +any over-supply of labour. The turning off of some 15,000 Chinese +(principally in 1869-1870) from the Central Pacific lines who flocked to +San Francisco, augmented the discontent of incompetents, of disappointed +late immigrants, and the reaction from flush times. Labour unions became +strong and demonstrative. In 1877-1878 Denis Kearney (1847-1907), an +Irish drayman and demagogue of considerable force and daring, headed the +discontented. This is called the "sand-lots agitation" from the +favourite meeting-place (in San Francisco) of the agitators. + +The outcome of these years was the Constitution of 1879, already +described, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law. In 1879 +California voted against further immigration of Chinese by 154,638 to +883. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in 1902. All authorities +agree that the Chinese in early years were often abused in the mining +country and their rights most unjustly neglected by the law and its +officers. Men among the most respected in California (Joaquin Miller, +H.H. Bancroft and others) have said most in praise and defence of the +Chinaman. From railroad making to cooking he has proved his abilities +and trustworthiness. He is found to-day in the mines and fisheries, in +various lines of manufacture, in small farming, and in all branches of +domestic service. The question of the economic development of the state, +and of trade to the Orient, the views of the mercenary labour-contractor +and of the philanthropist, the factor of "upper-race" repugnance, the +"economic-leech" argument, the "rat-rice-filth-and-opium" argument, have +all entered into the problem. Certain it is that though the unprejudiced +must admit that exclusion has not been at all an unmixed blessing, yet +the consensus of opinion is that a large population, non-citizen and +non-assimilable, sending--it is said--most of their earnings to China, +living in the main meanly at best, and practically without wives, +children or homes, is socially and economically a menace outweighing the +undoubted convenience of cheaper (and frequently more trustworthy) +menial labour than the other population affords. The exclusion had much +to do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable and in +leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops. Many of +the Chinese now in the state are wealthy. Race feeling against them has +become much less marked. + +One outcome of early mission history, the "Pious Fund of the +Californias," claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague Tribunal. (See +ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL, Hague cases section.) In 1906-1907 there was +throughout the state a remarkable anti-Japanese agitation, centring in +San Francisco (q.v.) and affecting international relations and national +politics. + + GOVERNORS OF CALIFORNIA (State)[6] + + I. SPANISH + + Gasper de Portola served 1767-1770 + Filipe de Barri " 1771-1774 + Felipe de Neve " 1774-1782 + Pedro Pages " 1782-1791 + Jose Antonio Romeu " 1791-1792 + *Jose Joaquin de Arillaga " 1792-1794 + Diego de Borica " 1794-1800 + *Jose Joaquin de Arillaga " 1800-1804 + Jose Joaquin de Arillaga " 1804-1814 + *Jose Diario Arguello " 1814-1815 + Pablo Vicente de Sola " 1815-1822 + + II. Mexican + + Pablo Vicente de Sola served 1822 + *Luis Antonio Arguello " 1822-1825 + Jose Maria Echeandia " 1825-1831 + Manuel Victoria " 1831 + Jose Maria Echeandia[7] " 1831-1832 + Pio Pico[8] " 1832 + Jose Figueroa " 1832-1835 + *Jose Castro " 1835-1836 + *Nicolas Gutierrez " 1836 + Mariano Chico " 1836 + Nicolas Gutierrez " 1836 + Juan Bautista Alvarado[9] " 1836-1842 + Carlos Antonio Carrillo[10] " 1837-1838 + Manuel Micheltorena " 1842-1845 + Pio Pico " 1845-1846 + + III AMERICAN + (a) _Military_ + + John D. Sloat appointed 1846 + Richard F. Stockton " 1846-1847 + Stephen W. Kearny " 1847 + R.B. Mason " 1847-1849 + Bennett Riley " 1849 + + (b) _State_. + + Peter H. Burnett 1849-1851 Democrat + *John H. McDougall 1851-1852 " + John Bigler 1852-1856 " + John M. Johnson 1856-1858 Know Nothing + John B. Weller 1858-1860 Lecompton Democrat + Milton S. Latham 1869 (6 days) " " + *John G. Downey 1860-1862 " " + Leland Stanford 1862-1863 Republican + Frederick F. Low 1863-1867 " + Henry H. Haight 1867-1871 Democrat + Newton Booth 1871-1875 Republican + *Romualdo Pacheco 1875 " + William Irwin 1875-1880 Democrat + George G. Perkins 1880-1883 Republican + George C. Stoneman 1883-1887 Democrat + Washington Bartlett 1887 " + *Robert W. Waterman 1887-1891 Republican + Henry H. Markham 1891-1895 " + James H. Budd 1895-1899 Democrat + Henry T. Gage 1899-1903 Republican + George C. Pardee 1903-1907 " + James N. Gillett 1907-1911 " + Hiram W. Johnson 1911- " + + The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors indicates + that he acted only _ad interim_, and, in the case of governors since + 1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor and + succeeded to the office of governor. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For list of works on California, see University of + California _Library Bulletin_, No. 9, 1887, "List of Printed Maps of + California"; catalogue of state official publications by State Library + (Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on different + aspects:-- + + TOPOGRAPHY.--J. Muir, _Mountains of California_ (New York, 1894); H. + Gannett, "Dictionary of Elevations" (1898), and "River Profiles," + publications of _United States Geological Survey_; G.W. James, _The + Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906). + + CLIMATE, &c.--_U.S. Department of Agriculture, California Climate and + Crop Service_, monthly reports; E.S. Holden, _Recorded, Earthquakes + in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington Territory_ + (California State University, 1887); _United States Department + Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins_, Alexander G. McAdie, + "Climatology of California" (Washington, 1903). There is a great mass + of general descriptive literature, especially on Southern California, + such as Charles Dudley Warner, _Our Italy_ (New York, 1891); Kate + Sanborn, _A Truthful Woman in Southern California_ (New York, 1893); + W. Lindley and J.P. Widney, _California of the South_ (New York, + 1896); J.W. Hanson, _American Italy_ (Chicago, 1896); T.S. Van Dyke, + _Southern California_ (New York, 1886), &c. + + FAUNA, FLORA.--Muir, _op. cit._; _United States Geological Survey, + 19th Annual Report_, pt. v., H. Gannett, "Forests of the United + States"; idem, _20th Annual Report_, pt. v., "United States Forest + Reserves"; _United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin_ No. 28, "A + Short Account of the Big Trees of California" (1900), No. 38, "The + Redwood" (a volume, 1903), also _Professional Papers, e.g._ No. 8, + J.B. Leiberg, "Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada" + (1902); _California Board of Forestry, Reports_ (1885- ); _United + States Censuses_, reports on forests; _United States Biological + Survey, North American Fauna_, No. 16, 1899, C.H. Merriam, + "Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta"; _United States Department + Agriculture, Contributions from United States National Herbarium_, + iv., 1893, F.V. Coville, "Botany of Death Valley Expedition"; _State + Board of Fish Commissioners, Reports_, from 1877; _United States Fish + Commissioners, Annual Reports_, from 1871, and _Bulletins_ from 1882; + J. le Conte, "Flora of the Coast Islands" (1887), being _Bulletin_ No. + 8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its _Proceedings_, + _Memoirs_, and _Occasional Papers;_ G.J. Peirce, _Studies on the + Coast Redwood_ (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University, 1901). + + AGRICULTURE.--_California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins_ + from 1884; _Reports of the State Dairy Bureau_, from 1898; _State + Board of Horticulture, Reports_, 1889-1894; _United States Censuses_, + 1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation. + + INDUSTRIES.--J.S. Hittell, _Resources of California_ (7th ed., San + Francisco, 1879); J.S. Hittell, _Commerce and Industries of the + Pacific Coast_ (San Francisco, 1882); T.F. Cronise, _Natural Wealth + of California_ (San Francisco, 1868); E.W. Maslin, _Resources of + California_, prepared by order of Governor H. H. Markham (Sacramento, + 1893); _United States Treasury, Bureau of Statistics_, report by T.J. + Vivian on "Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, Transportation and + Other Industries of California" (Washington 1890, valuable for whole + period before 1890); _United States Censuses_, 1890 and 1900, reports + on agriculture, manufactures, mines and fisheries; _California State + Board of Trade_ (San Francisco), _Annual Report_ from 1890. On Mineral + Industries:--J.R. Browne, Report on "Mineral Resources of the States + and Territories west of the Rocky Mountains" (_United States + Treasury_, 2 vols., Washington, 1867-1868); _United States Geological + Survey, Annual Reports, Mineral Resources;_ consult also the + bibliographies of publications of the _Survey_, issued as _Bulletins; + California State Mining Bureau, Bulletins_ from 1888, note especially + No. 30, 1904, by A.W. Vodges, "Bibliography relating to the Geology, + Palaeontology and Mineral Resources of California" (2nd ed., the 1st + being _Bulletin_ No. 10, 1896); _California Debris Commission_, + _Reports_ (in _Annual Reports Chief of Engineers, United States Army_, + from 1893). + + GOVERNMENT.--E.F. Treadwell, _The Constitution of the State of + California ... Annotated_ (San Francisco, 1902); _Johns Hopkins + University, Studies in History and Political Science_, xiii., R.D. + Hunt, "Genesis of California's First Constitution"; _Annals of the + American Academy of Political and Social Science_, xii., R.D. Hunt, + "Legal Status of California, 1846-1849"; Reports of the various + officers, departments and administrative boards of the state + government (Sacramento), and also the _Appendix to the Journals of the + Senate and Assembly_, which contains, especially in the earlier + decades of the state's history, many of these state official reports + along with valuable legislative reports of varied character. + + HISTORY.--Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by Z.E. + Eldridge in _California Genealogical Society_ (1901); elaborate + bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many + works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work of two + men, Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The former has + published a _History of California, 1542-1890_ (7 vols., San + Francisco, 1884-1890), also _California Pastoral, 1769-1848_ (San + Francisco, 1888), _California Inter-Pocula, 1848-1856_ (San Francisco, + 1888), and _Popular Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887). These + volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft's direction and + control by an office staff, and are of very unequal value; they are a + vast storehouse of detailed material which is of great usefulness, + although their judgments of men are often inadequate and prejudiced. + As regards events the histories are of substantial accuracy and + adequacy. Written by one hand and more uniform in treatment and good + judgment, is T.H. Hittell's _History of California_ (4 vols., San + Francisco, 1885-1897). The older historian of the state was Francisco + Palou, a Franciscan, the friend and biographer of Serra; his "Noticias + de la Nueva California" (Mexico, 1857, in the _Doc. Hist. Mex._, ser. + iv., tom, vi.-viii.; also San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer + of importance save for its historical interest. Of the contemporary + material on the period of Mexican domination the best is afforded by + R.H. Dana's _Two Years Before the Mast_ (New York, 1840, many later + and foreign editions); also A. Robinson, _Life in California_ (New + York, 1846); and Alexander Forbes, _California: A History of Upper and + Lower California from their First Discovery to the Present Time_ + (London, 1839); see also F.W. Blackmar, "Spanish Institutions of the + Southwest" (_Johns Hopkins University Studies_, 1891). A beautiful, + vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is given + in Helen Hunt Jackson's novel, _Ramona_ (New York, 1884). There is no + really scientific separate account of mission history; there are books + by Father Z. Engelhart, _The Franciscans in California_ (Harbor + Springs, Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan + standpoint; C.F. Carter, _Missions of Nueva California_ (San + Francisco, 1900); Bryan J. Clinch, _California and its Missions: Their + History to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo_ (2 vols., San Francisco, + 1904); Francisco Palou, _Relacion Historica de la Vida ... del Fray + Junipero Serra_ (Mexico, 1787), the standard contemporary source; the + _Craftsman_ (Syracuse, N.Y., vol. v.), a series of articles on + "Mission Buildings," by G.W. James. On the case of the Pious Fund of + the missions see J.F. Doyle, _History of the Pious Fund_ (San + Francisco, 1887); _United States Department of State_, "United States + _v._ Mexico. Report of J.H. Ralston, agent of the United States and of + counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Californias" + (Washington, 1902). On the "flush" mining years the best books of the + time are J.Q. Thornton's _Oregon and California_ (2 vols., New York, + 1849); Edward Bryant's _What I Saw in California_ (New York, 1848); W. + Shaw's _Golden Dreams_ (London, 1851); Bayard Taylor's _Eldorado_ (2 + vols., New York, 1850); W. Colton's _Three Years in California_ (New + York, 1850); E.G. Buffum's _Six Months in the Gold Mines; from a + Journal of Three Years' Residence in Upper and Lower California_ + (London, 1850); J.T. Brooks' _Four Months among the Gold Finders_ + (London, 1849); G.G. Foster, _Gold Regions of California_ (New York, + 1884). On this same period consult Bancroft's _Popular Tribunals_; + D.Y. Thomas, "A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired + Territory of the United States," in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of + _Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law_; + C.H. Shinn's _Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government_ + (New York, 1885); J. Royce, _California ... A Study of American + Character, 1846-1856_ (Boston, 1886); and, for varied pictures of + mining and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret + Harte. See also P.H. Burnet, _Recollections and Opinions of an Old + Pioneer_ (New York, 1880); S.J. Field, _Personal Reminiscences of + Early Days in California_ (privately published, copyright 1893). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was + occupied by a lake 60 m. long. + + [2] During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at San + Francisco ranged from 11.37 to 49.27 in.; from 1850 to 1904 the + average was 22.74, and the probable annual variation 4 in. + + [3] The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and Fresno, + of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey and + Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them lie + between 56 deg. and 63 deg. F. The places mentioned are scattered + over 3-1/2 deg. of longitude and 6-1/2 deg. of latitude. + + [4] Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use of + turbines are important features of such plants. One on the North Yuba + river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves Oakland, San + Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in San Francisco + (220 m. away) 75% of its power. Other plants are one at Electra (154 + m. from San Francisco), and one on the San Joaquin, which delivers to + Fresno 62 m. distant. + + [5] The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments + under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for + 1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows:--total value of + products, 1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of + 42.7%; leading industries, with value of product in millions of + dollars--canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23.8 millions, + third in 1900 with 13.4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing, + second in 1905 with 21.79 millions, first in 1900 with 15.71 + millions; flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20.2 + millions, fourth in 1900 with 13.04 millions; lumber and timber, + fourth in 1905 with 18.27 millions, second in 1900 with 13.71 + millions; printing and publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17.4 millions, + sixth in 1900 with 9.6 millions; foundry and machine shop products, + sixdth in 1905 with 15.7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12.04 millions; + planing mill products, seventh in 1905 with 13.9 millions, twelfth in + 1900 with 4.8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in + 1905 with 10.6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4.87 millions. + + [6] As months and even years often elapsed between the date when + early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual + service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of + service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at + Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto in + Lower California. All the Spanish and Mexican governors were + appointed by the national government, except in the case of the + semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose + title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national + statute regarding gubernatorial vacancies. + + [7] Acting political chief, revolutionary title. + + [8] Briefly recognized in South. + + [9] Revolutionary title, 1836-1838. + + [10] Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North. + + + + +CALIFORNIA, LOWER (_Baja California_), a long narrow peninsula between +the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, forming a territory of the +republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), 42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California +is a southward extension of the State of California, United States, and +is touched by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E. +The peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and has +an area of 58,328 sq. m. It is traversed throughout its entire length by +an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes toward the Pacific +in a succession of low hills, but breaks down abruptly toward the Gulf. +The coast has two or three good sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the +Gulf side and of Magdalena on the Pacific side being best known. The +coast is bordered by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. +The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly +because of the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty +rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of +the desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern part is +hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern part receives +more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild and pleasant climate. +The principal natural product in this region is _orchil_, or Spanish +moss, but by means of irrigation the soil produces a considerable +variety of products, including sugar cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, +tobacco and grapes. Horses, sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile +valleys, but only to a limited extent. The territory is rich in +minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and +salt. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early +as 1700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz +being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W. +coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of mining and +other industries in the territory has led to an extension of the +California railway system southward into the peninsula, with the Mexican +government's permission, the first section of 37 m. from the northern +frontier being completed and opened to traffic in 1907. The territory is +divided into two districts, the northern having its capital at the +insignificant little village of La Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and +the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay +opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamships running +between Mazatlan and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in +1900. La Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San +Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory, +and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m. +inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures and +exports flour and leather. + +By orders of Cortes the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539 +by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It was called +California, the name (according to E.E. Hale) being derived from a +popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled _Sergas de Esplandian_, +in which an island named California was mentioned and situated "on the +right hand of the Indies, very near the terrestrial paradise." The name +must have been given derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower +California could not have suggested the proximity of a "terrestrial +paradise." The exploration of the coast did not extend above the +peninsula until 1842. The name California was at first applied +exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait +connected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name +Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous theory was held as +late as 1721. The first settlement was made in 1597, but was abandoned. +From 1633 to 1683 five unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a +settlement at La Paz. Finally the Jesuits succeeded in founding a +mission at Loreto on the Gulf coast, in about 26 deg. N. lat., in 1697, +and at La Paz in 1720. At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had +sixteen missions which were either self-supporting or were maintained by +funds invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper +California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were +distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, the +seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. The two +provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one governor +residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then reunited in a single +department through the political changes of 1836, which lasted no later +than 1847. Lower California was only slightly disturbed by the struggle +for independence among the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822 +Admiral Lord Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean +revolutionists, appeared on the coast and plundered San Jose del Cabo, +Todos Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United States +La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small detachments from +California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under +William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic +consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the +mainland, the filibusters first withdrew to La Ensenada, near the +American frontier, and then in the following year broke up altogether +during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the +leadership of Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, +but died for want of material support in 1880. The development of mining +and other industries since that time, together with vigorous efforts to +found colonies in the more favoured localities, have greatly improved +the situation in the territory. + + See the two volumes of H.H. Bancroft's _North Mexican States and + Texas_, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his _Works_; also Arthur Walbridge + North, _The Mother of California_ (San Francisco, 1908). + + + + +CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most important of +state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, California, on the +E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place of the College of +California (founded in 1855), received California's portion of the +Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered as a state institution by the +legislature in 1868, and opened its doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it +was removed to its present site. In the revised state constitution of +1879 provision is made for it as the head of the state's educational +system. The grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes +(299-900 ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above +the university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the Golden +Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings have gradually +been provided. In 1896 an international architectural competition was +opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. Hearst (made a regent of the +university in 1898) for plans for a group of buildings harmonizing with +the university's beautiful site, and ignoring all buildings already +existing. The first prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Benard, of Paris. +The first building begun under the new plans was that for the college of +mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, providing worthily +for the important school of mining, from 1885 directed by Prof. S.B. +Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, built by state appropriation, had +been completed in 1906. The Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium +seating 7500 spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering +eucalypts, was the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used +regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra, under +the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), who originated +the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free public concerts are given on +Sunday afternoons; and there have been some remarkable dramatic +performances here, notably Sudraka's _Mricchakattika_ in English, and +Aeschylus's _Eumenides_ in Greek, in April 1907. There are no +dormitories. Student self-government works through the "Undergraduate +Students' Affairs Committee" of the Associated Students. The faculty of +the university has its own social club, with a handsome building on the +grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the colleges of letters, +social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, agriculture, mechanical, +mining and civil engineering, and chemistry, and the first two years' +course of the college of medicine--the Toland Medical College having +been absorbed by the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of +the Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of +dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post graduate +or clinical) years of the medical course--the San Francisco Polyclinic +having become a part of the university in 1892. Three of the San +Francisco departments occupy a group of three handsome buildings in the +western part of the city, overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick +astronomical department (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San +Jose, occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by +James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with $700,000, +$610,000 of this being used for the original buildings and equipments, +which were formally transferred to the university in 1888. The art +department (San Francisco Institute of art) was until 1906 housed in the +former home of Mark Hopkins, a San Francisco "railroad king"; it dated +from 1893, under the name "Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building +was destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under its +present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the old site. At the +university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davisville, Yolo county, +instruction is given in practical agriculture, horticulture, dairying, +&c.; courses in irrigation are given at Berkeley; a laboratory of plant +pathology, established in 1907 at Whittier, Riverside county, and an +experiment station on 20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study +of plant and tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine +biological laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and +another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; the +Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. The +university has excellent anthropological and archaeological collections, +mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by Mrs Hearst, to Peru +and to Egypt. In 1907 the university library contained 160,000 volumes, +ranking, after the destruction of most of the San Francisco libraries in +1906, as the largest collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe +library (given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of +the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has also the +valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and countless pamphlets +and manuscripts, dealing principally with the history of the Pacific +Coast from Alaska through Central America, and of the Rocky Mountain +region, including Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico +and Western Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe +Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr Bancroft +contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the newly organized +Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library of Karl Weinhold +(1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich in Germanic linguistics +and "culture history," was presented to the university in 1903 by John +D. Spreckels. The university publishes _The University of California +Chronicle_, an official record; and there are important departmental +publications, especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, +edited by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of +various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physiology, edited by +Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited by William Albert Setchell (b. +1864); in zoology, edited by William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in +astronomy, the publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William +Wallace Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry Morse +Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of history, a department +of university extension was organized; lecture courses, especially on +history and literature, were delivered in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension +"centres," at most of which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the +university, but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley +Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological Seminary +(Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary and a Unitarian +school. + +The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From 1890 to 1900 +the number of students increased fourfold. In the latter year the +university of California was second to Harvard only in the number of +academic graduate and undergraduate students, and fifth among the +educational institutions of the country in total enrolment. In July 1907 +there were 519 officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 +were in the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there +were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for 1906-1907 +thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. The university +conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in 1905. The affairs of +the university are administered by a board of twenty-three regents, +seven state officials and heads of educational institutions, being +members _ex officio_, and sixteen other members being appointed by the +governor and senate of the state; its instruction is governed by the +faculties of the different colleges, and an academic senate in which +these are joined. The gross income from all sources for 1905-1906 was +$1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from investments, state +and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder was gifts and +endowments. There is a permanent endowment of more than $3,000,000, +partly from munificent private gifts, especially from Mrs Hearst and +from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The financial support of the state has always +been generous. No tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to +students resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students +from without the state. The university maintains about 90 undergraduate +scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellowships. All +able-bodied male students are required to take the courses in military +science, under instruction by an officer of the United States army +detailed for the purpose. Physical culture and hygiene are prescribed +for all men and women. A state law forbids the sale of liquor within one +mile of the university grounds. To realize the ideal of the university +as the head of the educational system of the state, a system of +inspection of high schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching +the prescribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for +admission to the university without examination. It was anticipated at +one time that the foundation of the Leland Stanford Junior University at +Palo Alto would injure the state institution at Berkeley; but in +practice this was not found to be the case; on the contrary, the +competition resulted in giving new vigour and enterprise to the older +university. Joseph Le Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. +Oilman (president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly +connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler (b. 1854) +became president. He had been a graduate (1875) of Brown University, and +was professor first of comparative philology and then of Greek at +Cornell University; his chief publications are _Der griechische +Nominalaccent_ (1885); _Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in +Language_ (1887); _Principles of Language Growth_ (1891); _The +Organization of Higher Education in the United States_ (1897); _Dionysos +and Immortality_ (1899); and _Life of Alexander the Great_ (1900). + + + + +CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with _carapace_, the upper +shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper and lower +shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull +greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour. + + + + +CALIPH, CALIF, or KHALIF (Arab, _khalifa_; the lengthening of the a is +strictly incorrect), literally "successor," "representative," a title +borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the death of Mahomet, became the +civil and religious head of the Mahommedan state. In the same sense the +term is used in the Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of +God. Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known as +the "perfect" caliphs; after them the title was borne by the thirteen +Omayyad caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by the thirty-seven +Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell before the Turks in 1258. +By some rigid Moslems these rulers were regarded as only amirs, not +caliphs. There were titular caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from +that date till 1517 when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the +fall of the Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the +Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova (755-1031), +and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended to descent from Ali, and +Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also assumed the name (see FATIMITES). + +According to the Shi'ite Moslems, who call the office the "imamate" or +leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of +the Prophet. The Sunnites insist that the office belongs to the tribe of +Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet himself belonged, but this condition +would vitiate the claim of the Turkish sultans, who have held the office +since its transference by the last caliph to Selim I. According to a +tradition falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a +time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he "is a rebel." +(See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) + + + + +CALIPHATE.[1] The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the East who bore +the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three main +divisions:--(_a_) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of +Mahomet; (_b_) The Omayyad caliphs; (_c_) The Abbasid caliphs. To these +three groups the present article is confined; for the Western caliphs, +see SPAIN: _History_ (and minor articles such as ALMOHADES, +ALMORAVIDES); for the Egyptian caliphs see EGYPT: _History_ (S +Mahommedan) and FATIMITES. The history of Arabia proper will be found +under ARABIA: _History_. + + +A.--THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS + +After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be his +"representative." The choice lay with the community of Medina; so much +was understood; but whom were they to choose? The natives of Medina +believed themselves to be now once more masters in their own house, and +wished to promote one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see MAHOMET) +asserted their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into +the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to terrorize +the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into two parties. The +Emigrants' leading spirit was Omar; he did not, however, cause homage to +be paid to himself, but to Abu Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the +Prophet. + +The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the opportune +defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward schism which +threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once more limited to the +community of Medina; only Mecca and Taif (Tayef) remained true. The +Bedouins were willing enough to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay +taxes; their defection, as might have been expected, was a political +movement.[2] None the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the +political society and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment +to Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion in +the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as +prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam's success. + +1. _Reign of Abu Bekr_.--Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal to the +perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the expedition +against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, quietly to set out, +limiting himself for the time to the defence of Medina. On the return of +the army he proceeded to attack the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam +kept the men of Medina together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing +zeal for the faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and +no better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was to be +expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns of the Moslems, +sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell the revolt. Those who +submitted were forthwith received back into favour; those who persevered +in rebellion were punished with death. The majority accordingly +converted, the obstinate were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was +there a severe struggle; the Banu Hanifa under their prophet Mosailima +fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed. + +The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to say, +brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border +countries which Mahomet had already inaugurated, was the best means for +making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at +the same time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was +organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by quite +other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means the first +occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; once and again in +former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins had settled on the borders of +the wilderness. This had last happened in consequence of the events +which destroyed the prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time +the small Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira had arisen in the western +and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented to Moslem +conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch as Hira was subject +to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to the Greeks, the annexation of +the Arabians involved the extension of the war beyond the limits of +Arabia to a struggle with the two great powers (see further ARABIA: +_History_). + +After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. +al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the conquest of the +districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where +hostilities had also broken out. Damascus fell late in the summer of +635, and on the 20th of August 636 was fought the great decisive battle +on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) +finally to abandon Syria.[3] Left to themselves, the Christians +henceforward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified +cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of the +Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was also carried on +against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at first, until the tide +turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, Qadisiya) (end of 637). In +consequence of the defeat which they here sustained, the Persians were +forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit +themselves to Iran proper. The Moslems made themselves masters of +Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and +conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two +rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face to face in +Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the +principal old Semitic lands--Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and +Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little +difficulty by 'Amr ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) in 640. (See EGYPT: _History_, S +Mahommedan.) This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the +wilderness of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and +natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously occurred. The +kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts hitherto, now became the +headquarters of the Arabs; the new empire had its centres on the one +hand at Damascus, on the other hand at Kufa and Basra, the two +newly-founded cities in the region of old Babylonia. The capital of +Islam continued indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz +(Hijaz) and the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of +affairs. + +The ease with which the native populations of the conquered districts, +exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted themselves to the new +rule is very striking. Their nationality had been broken long ago, but +intrinsically it was more closely allied to the Arabian than to the +Greek or Persian. Their religious sympathy with the West was seriously +impaired by dogmatic controversies; from Islam they might at any rate +hope for toleration, even though their views were not in accordance with +the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the masses from +Christianity to Islam, however, which took place during the first +century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that +in reality they had no inward relation to the gospel at all. They +changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of +Moslem citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so; indeed the +Omayyad caliphs saw with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the +poll-tax derived from their Christian subjects (see MAHOMMEDAN +INSTITUTIONS). + +It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian +empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic +lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so +ready as the Greeks to give up the contest; they did not rest until the +Moslems had subjugated the whole of the Sassanid empire. The most +important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, +was the battle of Nehawend in 641;[4] the most obstinate resistance was +offered by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr +(Persepolis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous +provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into the +hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III. (q.v.), was +compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came +to a miserable end.[5] But it was long before the Iranians learned to +accept the situation. Unlike the Christians of western Asia, they had a +vigorous feeling of national pride, based upon glorious memories and +especially upon a church having a connexion of the closest kind with the +state. Internal disturbances of a religious and political character and +external disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids +indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They were +fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, in defence of +their holiest possessions, their nationality and their faith. Their +subjection was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating +them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated. Even when in process of +time they did accept the religion of the prophet, they leavened it +thoroughly with their own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it +of the practical political and national character which it had assumed +after the flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a +thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its internal +order, and it was from them also that it at last received its outward +death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their work, and with the +Omayyads fell the Arabian empire. + +2. _Reign of Omar_.--Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the 22nd of +August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by Omar. To Omar's +ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests. He +himself did not take the field, but remained in Medina with the +exception of his visit to Syria in 638; he never, however, suffered the +reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the influence of his +personality and the Moslem community of feeling. His political insight +is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite +extension of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national +Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam,[6] and especially to +promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying with which he +began his reign will never grow antiquated: "by Allah, he that is +weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have +vindicated for him his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as +the weakest, until he complies with the laws." After the administration +of justice he directed his organizing activity, as the circumstances +demanded, chiefly towards financial questions--the incidence of taxation +in the conquered territories,[7] and the application of the vast +resources which poured into the treasury at Medina. It must not be +brought against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with these +he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the chartered plunderers +of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone by his death for the +fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Kufan +workman and died in November 644. + +3. _Reign of Othman._--Before his death Omar had nominated six of the +leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the caliph from among +themselves--Othman, Ali, Zobair, Talha, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, and +Abdarrahman b. Auf. The last-named declined to be a candidate, and +decided the election in favour of Othman. Under this weak sovereign the +government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish +nobility. We have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for +this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the Emigrants +were unanimous among themselves in thinking that the precedence and +leadership belonged to them as of right. Thanks to the energy of Omar, +they were successful in appropriating to themselves the succession to +the Prophet. They indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority +of their services to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood +relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right to the +inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with the Koreish in +general. In point of fact they felt a closer connexion with these than, +for example, with the natives of Medina; nature had not been expelled by +faith.[8] The supremacy of the Emigrants naturally furnished the means +of transition to the supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all +in his power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged +to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he should favour +his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every possible way, seemed +to him a matter of course. Every position of influence and emolument was +assigned to them; they themselves boastingly called the important +province of Irak the garden of Koreish. In truth, the entire empire had +become that garden. Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization +of Islam the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew the +world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca, and after +them those of Taif, people like Khalid b. al-Walid, Amr-ibn-el-Ass, +'Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghira b. Sho'ba, and, above all, old Abu Sofian +with his son Moawiya. + +Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began +to appear. It was led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of +Islam, which, as distinguished from the hereditary nobility of Mecca, +might also be designated as the nobility of merit, consisting of the +"Defenders" (_Ansar_), and especially of the Emigrants who had lent +themselves to the elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the +intention of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition +was headed by Ali, Zobair, Talha, both as leading men among the +Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate. Their +motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their own, not religion +but power and preferment, were what they sought.[9] Their party was a +mixed one. To it belonged the men of real piety, who saw with +displeasure the promotion to the first places in the commonwealth of the +great lords who had actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined +themselves to it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a +band of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system, but of +persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the provinces there was +agitation against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where +Othman's cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu Sofian (see below), carried on a +wise and strong administration. The movement was most energetic in Irak +and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of +Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet +seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then there were +enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah. + +The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands they came +from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions from Othman, who, +though his armies were spreading terror from the Indus and Oxus to the +Atlantic, had no troops at hand in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers +by concessions, but as soon as they had gone, he let matters resume +their old course. Thus things went on from bad to worse. In the +following year (656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt +and Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph again +tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend to keep. But +the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his word,[10] and now +demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own house, where he was +defended by a few faithful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last +took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty. +His death in the act of maintaining his rights was of the greatest +service to his house and of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy. + +4. _Reign of Ali._--Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose +among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mutineers summoned +Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zobair to do him +homage. But soon these two, along with Ayesha, the mother of the +faithful, who had an old grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their +escape to Irak, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. +Ali in point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover +was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the desire of +power, so that men of penetration, even although they condemned Othman's +method of government, yet refused to recognize his successor. The new +caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at +the battle of the Camel, fought at Basra in November 656, Talha and +Zobair were slain, and Ayesha was taken prisoner. + +But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of Othman the +dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate +cry--that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired caliph and a +distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya, whose position in Syria +was impregnable. The kernel of his subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, +not only recent immigrants along with Islam, but also old settlers who, +through contact with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had +become to some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter had +become habituated to monarchical government and loyal obedience, and for +a long time much better order had prevailed amongst them than elsewhere +in Arabia. Syria was the proper soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, +and Moawiya was just the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited +Othman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited +his Syrians to vengeance. + +Ali's position in Kufa was much less advantageous. The population of +Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, +and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters +here; Kufa and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, +the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was +that had raised Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any +personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and +more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of +Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either act or refrain from acting +as he chose, secure in either case of the obedience of his subjects. +Ali, on the other hand, was unable to convert enthusiasm for the +principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was +necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his +supporters, which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him +suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on +the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians fastened copies +of the Koran to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word +of God should decide the contest (see further below, B.1; also ALI). But +in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of +the minority, the genuine zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the +enemy of Islam, and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him +as a denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was +resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had to turn +his armies in the first instance against them. He succeeded in disposing +of them without difficulty at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success +he lost the soul of his following. For they were the true champions of +the theocratic principle; through their elimination it became clear that +the struggle had in no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali's +defeat was a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed +him; the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far +superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January 661), +thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes of a large part +of the Mahommedan world (Shi'a) which he had never possessed during his +life. + + +B.--THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY + +_Summary of Preceding Movements._--The conquest of Mecca had been of the +greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because Islam thus obtained +possession of this important city with its famous sanctuary, but above +all because his late adversaries were at last compelled to acknowledge +him as the Envoy of God. Among these there were many men of great +ability and influence, and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the +Arabic expression has it, "to mellow their hearts" by concessions and +gifts, that his loyal helpers (_Ansar_) at Medina became dissatisfied +and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it. Mahomet +was a practical man; he realized that the growing state needed skilful +administrators, and that such were found in much greater number among +the antagonists of yesterday than among the honest citizens of Medina. +The most important positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and +Yemen, were entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the +Makhzum and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's +example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the death of +Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the Moslems, the +principal generals belonged to them. Omar did not deviate from that line +of conduct. It was he who appointed Yazid, the son of Abu Sofian, and +after his death, his brother Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned +the province of Egypt to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b. As). It is even +surprising to find among the leading men so few of the house of Hashim, +the nearest family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain +this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too noble +to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they could not be +spared at Medina, where their counsel was required in all important +affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which Ali himself calls the +Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar lived opposition was silent. But +Othman had not the strong personality of his predecessor, and, although +he practically adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of +favouring the members of his own family--the caliph belonged himself to +the house of Omayya--at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar. The +jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the +governorship and military commands had become not only much more +important, but also much more lucrative, while power and money again +procured many adherents. The truly devout Moslems on the other hand were +scandalized by the growing luxury which relaxed the austere morals of +the first Moslems, and this also was imputed to Othman. + +We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya developed itself, and +how there arose against it an opposition, which led in the first place +to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali, and furthermore, +during the whole period of the Omayyad caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous +outbreaks, culminating in the great catastrophe which placed the +Abbasids on the throne. The elements of this opposition were of very +various kinds:--(1) The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the _Ansar_ and +_Mohajir_, who had been Mahomet's first companions and supporters, and +could not bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the +Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed _tolaqa_ (freedmen), should be in +control of the imamate, which carried with it the management of affairs +both civil and religious. This party was in the foreground, chiefly in +the first period. (2) The partisans of Ali, the Shi'a (Shi'ites), who in +proportion as their influence with the Arabs declined, contrived to +strengthen it by obtaining the support of the non-Arabic Moslems, aided +thereto, especially in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the +decisive moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves. +(3) The Kharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sustained at +the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining new adherents from +among those austere Moslems, who held both Omayyads and Alids as +usurpers, and have often been called, not unjustly, the Puritans of +Islam. (4) The non-Arabic Moslems, who on their conversion to Islam, had +put themselves under the patronage of Arabic families, and were +therefore called maula's (clients). These were not only the most +numerous, but also, in virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the +most dangerous. The largest and strongest group of these were the +Persians, who, before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the +ruling class of that country, so that Persian was the dominant language. +With them all malcontents, in particular the Shi'ites, found support; by +them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the supremacy of the Arabs was +finally overthrown. To these elements of discord we must add:--(1) That +the Arabs, notwithstanding the bond of Islam that united them, +maintained their old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds +and factions; (2) that the old antagonism between Ma'adites[11] +(original northern tribes) and Yemenites (original southern tribes), +accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged to the +former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter division, gave +rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one dangerous +pretender--some of them of the reigning family itself--contended with +the caliph for the sovereignty, and must be crushed _coute que coute_. +It is only by the detailed enumeration of these opposing forces that we +can form an idea of the heavy task that lay before the Prince of the +Believers, and of the amount of tact and ability which his position +demanded. + +The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely difficult. +Never perhaps has the system of undermining authority by continual +slandering been applied on such a scale as by the Alids and the +Abbasids. The Omayyads were accused by their numerous missionaries of +every imaginable vice; in their hands Islam was not safe; it would be a +godly work to extirpate them from the earth. When the Abbasids had +occupied the throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion. +But not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves, +they carried their hostility to a further point. The official history of +the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is coloured by Abbasid +feeling to such an extent that we can scarcely distinguish the true from +the false. An example of this occurs at the outset in the assertion that +Moawiya deliberately refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and +indeed that it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of +the plot. The facts seem to contradict this view. When, ten weeks before +the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt and Irak, +pretending that they were on their pilgrimage to Mecca, but wanted to +bring before the caliph their complaints against his vicegerents, nobody +could have the slightest suspicion that the life of the caliph was in +danger; indeed it was only during the few days that Othman was besieged +in his house that the danger became obvious. If the caliph then, as the +chroniclers tell, sent a message to Moawiya for help, his messenger +could not have accomplished half the journey to Damascus when the +catastrophe took place. There is no real reason to doubt that the +painful news fell on Moawiya unexpectedly, and that he, as mightiest +representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his own the duty of +avenging the crime. He could not but view Ali in the light of an +accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did not abet the murderers, +yet he took them under his protection. An acknowledgment of Ali as +caliph by Moawiya before he had cleared himself from suspicion was +therefore quite impossible. + +1. _The Reign of Moawiya._--Moawiya, son of the well-known Meccan chief +Abu Sofian, embraced Islam together with his father and his brother +Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and was, like them, treated +with the greatest distinction. He was even chosen to be one of the +secretaries of Mahomet. When Abu Bekr sent his troops for the conquest +of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of Abu Sofian, held one of the chief +commands, with Moawiya as his lieutenant. In the year 639 Omar named him +governor of Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the +north of Syria and Mesopotamia. To him was committed the conduct of the +war against the Byzantine emperor, which he continued with energy, at +first only on land, but later, when the caliph had at last given in to +his urgent representations, at sea also. In the year 34 (A.D. 655) was +fought off the coast of Lycia the great naval battle, which because of +the great number of masts has been called "the mast fight," in which the +Greek[12] fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans II. in person, was +utterly defeated. Moawiya himself was not present, as he was conducting +an attack (the result of which we do not know) on Caesarea in +Cappadocia. The Arabic historians are so entirely preoccupied with the +internal events that they have no eye for the war at the frontier. The +contention which Moawiya had with Ali checked his progress in the north. + +Moawiya was a born ruler, and Syria was, as we have seen, the best +administered province of the whole empire. He was so loved and honoured +by his Syrians that, when he invited them to avenge the blood of Othman, +they replied unanimously, "It is your part to command, ours to obey." +Ali was a valiant man, but had no great talent as a ruler. His army +numbered a great many enthusiastic partisans, but among them not a few +wise-acres; there were also others of doubtful loyalty. The battle at +Siffin (657), near the Euphrates, which lasted two months and consisted +principally in, sometimes bloody, skirmishes, with alternate success, +ended by the well-known appeal to the decision of the Koran on the part +of Moawiya. This appeal has been called by a European scholar "one of +the unworthiest comedies of the whole world's history," accepting the +report of very partial Arabic writers that it happened when the Syrians +were on the point of losing the battle. He forgot that Ali himself, +before the Battle of the Camel, appealed likewise to the decision of the +Koran, and began the fight only when this had been rejected. There is in +reality no room for suspecting Moawiya of not having been in earnest +when making this appeal; he might well regret that internecine strife +should drain the forces which were so much wanted for the spread of +Islam. That the Book of God could give a solution, even of this arduous +case, was doubtless the firm belief of both parties. But even if the +appeal to the Koran had been a stratagem, as Ali himself thought, it +would have been perfectly legitimate, according to the general views of +that time, which had been also those of the Prophet. It is not unlikely +that the chief leader of the Yemenites in Ali's army, Ash'ath b. Qais, +knew beforehand that this appeal would be made. Certainty is not to be +obtained in the whole matter. + +On each side an umpire was appointed, Abu Musaa al-Ash'ari, the +candidate of Ash'ath, on that of Ali, Amr-ibn-el-Ass (q.v.) on that of +Moawiya. The arbitrators met in the year 37 (A.D. 658) at Adhroh, in the +south-east of Syria, where are the ruins of the Roman Castra described +by Brunnow and Domaszewsky (_Die Provincio Arabia_, i. 433-463). Instead +of this place, the historians generally put Dumat-al-Jandal, the +biblical Duma, now called Jauf, but this rests on feeble authority. The +various accounts about what happened in this interview are without +exception untrustworthy. J. Wellhausen, in his excellent book _Das +arabische Reich und sein Sturz_, has made it very probable that the +decision of the umpires was that the choice of Ali as caliph should be +cancelled, and that the task of nominating a successor to Othman should +be referred to the council of notable men (_shura_), as representing the +whole community. Ali refusing to submit to this decision, Moawiya became +the champion of the law, and thereby gained at once considerable support +for the conquest of Egypt, to which above all he directed his efforts. +As soon as Amr returned from Adhroh, Moawiya sent him with an army of +four or five thousand men against Egypt. About the same time the +constitutional party rose against Ali's vicegerent Mahommed, son of Abu +Bekr, who had been the leader of the murderous attack on Othman. +Mahommed was beaten, taken in his flight, and, according to some +reports, sewn in the skin of an ass and burned. + +Moawiya, realizing that Ali would take all possible means to crush him, +took his measures accordingly. He concluded with the Greeks a treaty, by +which he pledged himself to pay a large sum of money annually on +condition that the emperor should give him hostages as a pledge for the +maintenance of peace. Ali, however, had first to deal with the +insurrection of the Kharijites, who condemned the arbitration which +followed the battle of Siffin as a deed of infidelity, and demanded that +Ali should break the compact (see above, A.4). Freed from this +difficulty, Ali prepared to direct his march against Moawiya, but his +soldiers declined to move. One of his men, Khirrit b. Rashid, renounced +him altogether, because he had not submitted to the decision of the +umpires, and persuaded many others to refuse the payment of the +poor-rate. Ali was obliged to subdue him, a task which he effected not +without difficulty. Not a few of his former partisans went over to +Moawiya, as already had happened before the days of Siffin, amongst +others Ali's own brother 'Aqil. Lastly, there were in Kufa, and still +more in Basra, many Othmaniya or legitimists, on whose co-operation he +could not rely. Moawiya from his side made incessant raids into Ali's +dominion, and by his agents caused a very serious revolt in Basra. The +statement that a treaty was concluded between Moawiya and Ali to +maintain the _status quo_, in the beginning of the year 40 (A.D. 660), +is not very probable, for it is pretty certain that just then Ali had +raised an army of 40,000 men against the Syrians, and also that in the +second or third month of that year Moawiya was proclaimed caliph at +Jerusalem. At the same time Bosr b. Abi Artat made his expedition +against Medina and Mecca, whose inhabitants were compelled to +acknowledge the caliphate of Moawiya. On the murder of Ali in 661, his +son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he recoiled before the prospect of a +war with Moawiya, having neither the ambition nor the energy of Ali. +Moawiya stood then with a large army in Maskin, a rich district lying to +the north of the later West Bagdad, watered by the Dojail, or Little +Tigris, a channel from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The army of Trak was +near Madain, the ancient Ctesiphon. The reports about what occurred are +confused and contradictory; but it seems probable that Abdallah b. +Abbas, the vicegerent of Ali at Basra and ancestor of the future Abbasid +dynasty, was in command. No battle was fought. Hasan and Ibn Abbas +opened, each for himself, negotiations with Moawiya. The latter made it +a condition of surrender that he should have the free disposal of the +funds in the treasury of Basra. Some say that he had already before the +death of Ali rendered himself master of it. Notwithstanding the protest +of the Basrians, he transported this booty safely to Mecca. When his +descendants had ascended the throne and he had become a demi-saint, the +historians did their best to excuse his conduct. Hasan demanded, in +exchange for the power which he resigned, the contents of the treasury +at Kufa, which amounted to five millions of dirhems, together with the +revenues of the Persian province of Darabjird (Darab). When these +negotiations became known, a mutiny broke out in Hasan's camp. Hasan +himself was wounded and retired to Medina, where he died eight or nine +years afterwards. The legend that he was poisoned by order of Moawiya is +without the least foundation. It seems that he never received the +revenues of Darabjird, the Basrians to whom they belonged refusing to +cede them. + +Moawiya now made his entry into Kufa in the summer of A.H. 41 (A.D. 661) +and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the Believers. This +year is called the year of union (_jama'a_). Moghira b. Sho'ba was +appointed governor of Kufa. Homran b. Aban had previously assumed the +government of Basra. This is represented commonly as a revolt, but as +Homran was a client of Othman, and remained in favour with the Omayyads, +it is almost certain that he took the management of affairs only to +maintain order. + +One strong antagonist to Moawiya remained, in the person of Ziyad. This +remarkable man was said to be a bastard of Abu Sofian, the father of +Moawiya, and was, by his mother, the brother of Abu Bakra, a man of +great wealth and position at Basra. He thus belonged to the tribe of +Thaqif at Taif, which produced many very prominent men. At the age of +fourteen years Ziyad was charged with the financial administration of +the Basrian army. He had won the affection of Omar, by his knowledge of +the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet, and by the fact that he had +employed the first money he earned to purchase the freedom of his mother +Somayya. He was a faithful servant of Ali and put down for him the +revolt excited by Moawiya's partisans in Basra. Thence he marched into +Fars and Kirman, where he maintained peace and kept the inhabitants in +their allegiance to Ali. After Ali's death he fortified himself in his +castle near Istakhr and refused to submit. Moawiya, therefore, sent Bosr +b. Abi Artat to Basra, with orders to capture Ziyad's three sons, and to +force Ziyad into submission by threatening to kill them. Ziyad was +obdurate; and it was due to his brother Abu Bakra, who persuaded Moawiya +to cancel the order, that the threat was not executed. On his return to +Damascus, Moawiya charged Moghira b. Sho'ba to bring his countryman to +reason. Abdallah b. 'Amir was made governor of Basra. + +As soon as Moawiya had his hands free, he directed all his forces +against the Greeks. Immediately after the submission of Irak, he had +denounced the existing treaty, and as early as 662 had sent his troops +against the Alans and the Greeks. Since then, no year passed without a +campaign. Twice he made a serious effort to conquer Constantinople, in +669 when he besieged it for three months, and in 674. On the second +occasion his fleet occupied Cyzicus, which it held till shortly after +his death in 680, when a treaty was signed. In Africa also the extension +of Mahommedan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took place the +famous march of 'Okba ('Oqba) b. Nafi' and the foundation of Kairawan, +where the great mosque still bears his name. Our information about these +events, though very full, is untrustworthy, while of the events in Asia +Minor the accounts are scarce and short. The Arabic historians are still +absorbed by the events in Irak and Khorasan. + +The talented prefect of Kufa, Moghira b. Sho'ba, eventually broke down +the resistance of Ziyad, who came to Damascus to render an account of +his administration, which the caliph ratified. Moawiya seems also to +have acknowledged him as the son of Abu Sofian, and thus as his brother; +in 664 this recognition was openly declared.[13] In the next year Ziyad +was appointed governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to +it. As the austere champion of the precepts of Islam, he soon restored +order in the whole district. Outwardly, this was the case in Kufa also. +A rising of Kharijites in the year 663 had ended in the death of their +chief. But the Shi'ites were dissatisfied and even dared to give public +utterance to their hostility. Moghira contented himself with a warning. +He was already aged and had no mind to enter on a conflict. He died +about the year 670, and his province also was entrusted to Ziyad, who +appointed 'Amr b. Horaith as his vicegerent. At a Friday service in the +great mosque 'Amr was insulted and pelted with pebbles. Ziyad then came +himself, arrested the leader of the Shi'ites, and sent fourteen rebels +to Damascus, among them several men of consideration. Seven of them who +refused to pledge themselves to obedience were put to death; the +Shi'ites considered them as martyrs and accused Moawiya of committing a +great crime. But in Kufa peace was restored, and this not by military +force, but by the headmen of the tribes. We must not forget that Kufa +and Basra were military colonies, and that each tribe had its own +quarter of the city. A wholesome diversion was provided by the serious +resumption of the policy of eastern expansion, which had been +interrupted by the civil war. For this purpose Irak had to furnish the +largest contingent. The first army sent by Ziyad into Khorasan +recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered Tokharistan and advanced as +far as the Oxus. In 673 'Obaidallah, the son of Ziyad, crossed the +river, occupied Bokhara, and returned laden with booty taken from the +wandering Turkish tribes of Transoxiana. He brought 2000 Turkish archers +with him to Basra, the first Turkish slaves to enter the Moslem empire. +Sa'id, son of the caliph Othman, whom Moawiya made governor of Khorasan, +in 674 marched against Samarkand. Other generals penetrated as far as +the Indus and conquered Kabul, Sijistan, Makran and Kandahar. + +Ziyad governed Irak with the greatest vigour, but as long as discontent +did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death (672-673), order +was so generally restored that "nobody had any more to fear for life or +estate, and even the unprotected woman was safe in her house without +having her door bolted." + +Moawiya was a typical Arab _sayyid_ (gentleman). He governed, not by +force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-control, his mildness +and magnanimity. The following anecdote may illustrate this. One of +Moawiya's estates bordered on that of Abdallah b. Zobair, who complained +in a somewhat truculent letter that Moawiya's slaves had been guilty of +trespassing. Moawiya, disregarding his son Yazid's advice that he should +exact condign punishment for Zobair's disrespect, replied in flattering +terms, regretting the trespass and resigning both slaves and estate to +Zobair. In reply Zobair protested his loyalty to Moawiya, who thereupon +pointed a moral for the instruction of Yazid. + +Moawiya has been accused of having poisoned more than one of his +adversaries, among them Malik Ashtar, Abdarrahman the son of the great +captain Khalid b. Walid, and Hasan b. Ali. As for the latter, European +scholars have long been agreed that the imputation is groundless. As to +Abdarrahman the story is in the highest degree improbable. Madaini says +that Moawiya was prompted to it, because when he consulted the Syrians +about the choice of his son Yazid as his successor, they had proposed +Abdarrahman. The absurdity of this is obvious, for Abdarrahman died in +the year 666.[14] Others say[15] that Moawiya was afraid lest +Abdarrahman should become too popular. Now, Abdarrahman had not only +been a faithful ally of Moawiya in the wars with Ali, but after the +peace devoted all his energy to the Greek war. It is almost incredible +that Moawiya out of petty jealousy would have deprived himself of one of +his best men. The probability is that Abdarrahman was ill when returning +from the frontier, that Moawiya sent him his own medical man, the +Christian doctor Ibn Othal, and that the rumour arose that the doctor +had poisoned him. It is remarkable withal that this rumour circulated, +not in Homs (Emesa), where Abdarrahman died, but in Medina. There a +young relation of Abdarrahman was so roused by the taunt that the death +of his kinsman was unavenged, that he killed Ibn Othal near the mosque +of Damascus. Moawiya imprisoned him and let him pay a high ransom, the +law not permitting the talio against a Moslem for having killed a +Christian. The story that this relative was Khalid, the son of +Abdarrahman, is absurd inasmuch as Moawiya made this Khalid commander +against the Greeks in succession to his father. In the third case--that +of Malik Ashtar--the evidence is equally inadequate. In fact, since +Moawiya did not turn the weapon of assassination against such men as +Abdallah b. Zobair and Hosain b. Ali, it is unlikely that he used it +against less dangerous persons. These two men were the chief obstacles +to Moawiya's plan for securing the Caliphate for his son Yazid. The +leadership with the Arabic tribes was as a rule hereditary, the son +succeeding his father, but only if he was personally fit for the +position, and was acknowledged as such by the principal men of the +tribe. The hereditary principle had not been recognized by Islam in the +cases of Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman; it had had some influence upon the +choice of Ali, the husband of Fatima and the cousin of the Prophet. But +it had been adopted entirely for the election of Hasan. The example of +Abu Bekr proved that the caliph had the right to appoint his successor. +But this appointment must be sanctioned by the principal men, as +representing the community. Moawiya seems to have done his best to gain +that approbation, but the details given by the historians are altogether +unconvincing. This only seems to be certain, that the succession of +Yazid was generally acknowledged before the death of his father, except +in Medina. (See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) + +Moawiya died in the month of Rajab 60 (A.D. 680). His last words are +said to have been: "Fear ye God, the Elevated and Mighty, for God, +Praise be to Him, protects the man that fears Him; he who does not fear +God, has no protection." Moawiya was, in fact, a religious man and a +strict disciple of the precepts of Islam. We can scarcely, therefore, +credit the charges made by the adversaries of his chosen successor +Yazid, that he was a drinker of wine, fond of pleasure, careless about +religion. All the evidence shows that, during the reign of the Omayyads, +life in Damascus and the rest of Syria was austere and in striking +contrast to the dissolute manners which prevailed in Medina. + +2. _Rule of Yazid._--When Moawiya died, the opposition had already been +organized. On his accession Yazid sent a circular to all his prefects, +officially announcing his father's death, and ordering them to +administer the oath of allegiance to their subjects. In that sent to +Walid b. 'Otba, the governor of Medina, he enclosed a private note +charging him in particular to administer the oath to Hosain, Abdallah b. +Omar and Abdallah b. Zobair, if necessary, by force. Walid sent a +messenger inviting them to a conference, thus giving them time to +assemble their followers and to escape to Mecca, where the prefect Omar +b. Sa'id could do nothing against them. In the month Ramadan this Omar +was made governor of Medina and sent an army against Ibn Zobair. This +army was defeated, and from that time Ibn Zobair was supreme at Mecca. + +On the news of Yazid's accession, the numerous partisans of the family +of Ali in Kufa sent addresses to Hosain, inviting him to take refuge +with them, and promising to have him proclaimed caliph in Irak. Hosain, +having learned that the majority of the inhabitants were apparently +ready to support him strenuously, prepared to take action. Meanwhile +Yazid, having been informed of the riotous behaviour of the Shi'ites in +Kufa, sent Obaidallah, son of the famous Ziyad and governor of Basra, to +restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used before, +Obaidallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made them responsible +for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijja Hosain set out +from Mecca with all his family, expecting to be received with enthusiasm +by the citizens of Kufa, but on his arrival at Kerbela west of the +Euphrates, he was confronted by an army sent by Obaidallah under the +command of Omar, son of the famous Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, the founder of +Kufa. Hosain gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid from Kufa, +and fell with almost all his followers on the 10th of Muharram 61 (10th +of October 680). + +No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. But, as +it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of Ali, and so many +members of his family, Hosain's devout partisans at Kufa, who by their +overtures had been the principal cause of the disaster, regarded it as +a tragedy, and the facts gradually acquired a wholly romantic colouring. +Omar b. Sa'd and his officers, Obaidallah and even Yazid came to be +regarded as murderers, and their names have ever since been held +accursed by all Shi'ites. They observe the 10th of Muharram, the day of +'Ashura, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages are +erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted, representing +the misfortunes of the family of Ali.[16] "Revenge for Hosain" became +the watchword of all Shi'ites, and the Meshed Hosain (Tomb of the martyr +Hosain) at Kerbela is to them the holiest place in the world (see +KERBELA). Obaidallah sent the head of Hosain to Damascus, together with +the women and children and Ali b. Hosain, who, being ill, had not taken +part in the fight. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the +prisoners under safe-conduct to Medina. Ali remained faithful to the +caliph, taking no share in the revolt of the Medinians, and openly +condemning the risings of the Shi'ites. + +Ibn Zobair profited greatly by the distress caused by Hosain's death. +Though he named himself publicly a refugee of the House of God, he had +himself secretly addressed as caliph, and many of the citizens of Medina +acknowledged him as such. Yazid, when informed of this, swore in his +anger to have him imprisoned. But remembering the wisdom of his father, +he sent messengers with a chain made of silver coins, and bearing +honourable proposals. At the same time he received a number of the chief +men of Medina, sent by the prefect, with great honour and loaded them +with gifts and presents. But Ibn Zobair refused, and the Medinians, of +whom the majority probably had never before seen a prince's court, +however simple, were only confirmed in their rancour against Yazid, and +told many horrible tales about his profligacy, that he hunted and held +wild orgies with Bedouin sheikhs, and had no religion. A +characteristically Arabic ceremony took place in the mosque of Medina. +"I cast off the oath of allegiance to Yazid, as I cast off my turban," +exclaimed the first, and all others followed, casting off one of their +garments, till a heap of turbans and sandals lay on the floor. Ibn +Hanzala was made commander. The Omayyads, though they with their clients +counted more than 1000 men, were not able to maintain themselves, and +were allowed to depart only on condition of strict neutrality. + +At last the patience of Yazid was exhausted. An army--the accounts about +the number vary from 4000 to 20,000--was equipped in all haste and put +under the command of Moslim b. 'Oqba, with orders first to exact +submission from the Medinians, if necessary by force, and then to march +against Ibn Zobair. Moslim, having met the expelled Omayyads at Wadi +'l-Qora, encamped near the city (August 683) and gave the inhabitants +three days in which to return to obedience, wishing to spare the city of +the Prophet and to prevent the shedding of blood. When, however, after +the lapse of three days, a final earnest appeal had been answered +insultingly, he began the battle. The Medinians fought valiantly, but +could not hold out against the well-disciplined Syrians. Moreover, they +were betrayed by the Medinian family of the Banu Haritha, who introduced +Syrian soldiers into the town. Medina lies between two volcanic hills, +called _harra_. After one of these the battle has been named "The Day of +Harra." For three days the city was given up to plunder. It is said that +a thousand bastards (the "children of the Harra") were born in +consequence of these days. The remaining citizens were compelled to take +the oath of allegiance to Yazid in a humiliating form; the few who +refused were killed. Ali b. Hosain, who had refused to have anything to +do with the revolt, was treated with all honour. Mahommed b. +al-Hanafiya, the son of Ali, and Abdallah b. Omar had likewise +abstained, but they had left Medina for Mecca. + +Moslim then proceeded towards Mecca. He was already ill, and died about +midway between the two cities, after having given the command, according +to the orders of the caliph, to Hosain b. Nomair. It is quite natural +that the man who delivered up the city of the Prophet to plunder, and at +whose hands so many prominent Moslems fell, should have been an object +of detestation to the devout. Even some European scholars have drawn a +false picture of his personality, as has been clearly shown by +Wellhausen. About Medina also false statements have been made. The city +recovered very soon from the disaster, and remained the seat not only of +holy tradition and jurisdiction, but also of the Arabic aristocracy. In +no city of the empire, during the reign of the Omayyads, lived more +singers and musicians than in Medina. + +Hosain b. Nomair arrived before Mecca in September 683 and found Ibn +Zobair ready to defend it. A number of the citizens of Medina had come +to the aid of the Holy City, as well as many Kharijites from Yamama +under Najda b. 'Amir. The siege had lasted 65--others say 40--days, when +the news came of the death of Yazid, which took place presumably on the +14th of Rabia I, 64 (12th November 683). Eleven days before a fire, +caused by imprudence, had consumed all the woodwork of the Ka'ba and +burst the black stone in three places. The evidence is quite conclusive; +yet the fire has been imputed to the Syrians, and a tale was invented +about ballistas which hurled against the House of God enormous stones +and vessels full of bitumen. In fact, the siege had been confined to +enclosure and skirmishes. It is said that on the news of the death of +Yazid a conference took place between Hosain and Ibn Zobair, and that +the former offered to proclaim the latter as caliph provided he would +accompany him to Syria and proclaim a general amnesty. Ibn Zobair +refused haughtily, and Hosain, with a contemptuous criticism of his +folly, ordered his army to break up for Syria. + +Hitherto Ibn Zobair had confined himself to an appeal to the Moslems to +renounce Yazid and to have a caliph elected by the council (_shura_) of +the principal leading men. He now openly assumed the title of caliph and +invited men to take the oath of allegiance. He was soon acknowledged +throughout Arabia, in Egypt and in Irak. The Omayyads, who had returned +to Medina, were again expelled. + +Yazid is described in the _Continuatio Isidori Byz._S27, as +"iucundissimus et cunctis nationibus regni eius subditis vir gratissime +habitus, qui nullam unquam, ut omnibus moris est, sibi regalis fastigii +causa gloriam appetivit, sed communis[17] cum omnibus civiliter vixit." +This is confirmed by the fact that Moawiya II. is said to have been a +mild ruler, like his father, and goes far to outweigh the prejudiced +account given by his opponents and coloured still further by tradition. +Against the accusation of being a drinker of wine he himself protested +in verses which he recited when he sent the army against Ibn Zobair. +Decisive is also the testimony of Ibn al-Hanafiya, who declared that all +the accusations brought by the Medinians were false. It may be true that +he was fond of hunting, but he was a peace-loving, generous prince. It +is uncertain at what age he died. Accounts vary between 33 and 39. The +latter finds confirmation in the statement that he was born in A.H. 25, +though another account places his birth in 22. As his son Moawiya who +succeeded him was certainly adult (the accounts vary between 17 and 23), +the latter date seems to be preferable. + +3. Moawiya II. had reigned a very short time--how long is again wholly +uncertain--when he fell sick and died. Then commenced a period of the +greatest confusion. The mother of Yazid, Maisun, belonged to the most +powerful tribe in Syria, the Kalb, and it seems that this and the +cognate tribes of Qoda'a (Yemenites) had enjoyed certain prerogatives, +which had aroused the jealousy of the Qais and the cognate tribes of +Modar. Immediately after the death of Yazid, Zofar b. Harith, who had +already fought with Ibn Zobair against Yazid, had induced northern Syria +and Mesopotamia to declare for Ibn Zobair. In Homs (Emesa) the governor +No'man b. Bashir had pledged himself to the same cause. The prefect of +Damascus, Dahhak b. Qais, seemed to be wavering in his loyalty. Khalid, +the brother of Moawiya II., was still a youth and appears to have had no +strength of character. There was, however, a much more dangerous +candidate, viz. Merwan b. Hakam, of another branch of the Omayyads, who +had been Othman's right-hand man. He had pledged himself after some +hesitation to Yazid, but now his turn had come. The amir of the Kalb, +Ibn Bahdal, persuaded probably by Obaidallah b. Ziyad, conceived that +only a man of distinction could win the contest, and proclaimed Merwan +caliph, on condition that his successor should be Khalid b. Yazid, and +after him 'Amr b. Sa'id al-Ashdaq, who belonged to the third branch of +the Omayyads. Meanwhile Dahhak had declared himself openly for Ibn +Zobair. A furious battle (A.D. 684) ensued at Merj Rahit, near Damascus, +in which Dahhak and Zofar, though they had the majority of troops, were +utterly defeated. This battle became the subject of a great many poems +and had pernicious consequences, especially as regards the antagonism +between the Qais-Modar and Kalb-Yemenite tribes. + +4. _Reign of Merwan I._--Merwan strengthened his position according to +the old oriental fashion by marrying the widow of Yazid, and soon felt +himself strong enough to substitute his own son Abdalmalik for Khalid b. +Yazid as successor-designate. Khalid contented himself with protesting; +he was neither a politician nor a soldier, but a student of alchemy and +astronomy; translations of Greek books have been ascribed to him (Jahiz, +_Bayan_, i. p. 126). In the year A.H. 435 there was still in Egypt a +brazen globe attributed to Ptolemy which had belonged to Khalid (Ibn +Qifti, p. 440, 1.15). He was also consulted about future events. There +were, however, not a few who deplored the fact that the throne had +passed from the descendants of Abu Sofian. This feeling gave rise to the +prophecy that there should appear later a Sofiani on the throne, who +would reign with might and wisdom. 'Amr Ashdaq made no opposition till +the death of Merwan. After the victory at Merj Rahit, Merwan conquered +Egypt, and installed as governor his second son Abdalaziz. An army sent +to the rescue by Ibn Zobair under the command of his brother Mus'ab was +beaten in Palestine by 'Amr Ashdaq. But a division sent by Merwan to the +Hejaz was cut to pieces. Obaidallah b. Ziyad set out with the purpose of +subduing Mesopotamia and marching thence against Irak. But he was +detained a whole year in the former country, by a rising of the Shi'ites +in Kufa, who were still in mourning for Hosain and had formed an army +which called itself "the army of the penitent." They were routed at Ras +'Ain, but Obaidallah had still to fight Zofar. + +Meanwhile Mokhtar (son of that Abu 'Obaid the Thaqifite who had +commanded the Arabs against the Persians in the unfortunate battle of +the Bridge), a man of great talents and still greater ambition, after +having supported Ibn Zobair in the siege of Mecca, had gone to Kufa, +where he joined the Shi'ites, mostly Persians, and acquired great power. +He claimed that he was commissioned by Ali's son, Mahommed ibn +al-Hanafiya, who after the death of Hosain was recognized by the +Shi'ites as their Mahdi. A vague message from Mahommed, that it was the +duty of every good Moslem to take part with the family of the Prophet, +was interpreted in favour of Mokhtar, and thenceforward all the +Shi'ites, among them the powerful Ibrahim, son of Ali's right hand Malik +Ashtar, followed him blindly as their chief. Afterwards Ibn al-Hanafiya +seems to have acknowledged him distinctly as his vicegerent. Ibn +Zobair's representative in Kufa was compelled to flee, and all those who +had participated in the battle of Kerbela were put to death. An army +despatched against Obaidallah under Ibrahim routed the Syrians near +Mosul (battle of Khazir); Obaidallah and Hosain b. Nomair were slain. +Mokhtar was now at the zenith of power, but Ibn Zobair, determined to +get rid at all costs of so dangerous an enemy, named his brother Mus'ab +governor of Basra and ordered him to march against Kufa. Basra was at +that time full of fugitives from Kufa, Arabian chiefs who resented the +arrogance of Mokhtar's adherents, and desired eagerly to regain their +former position in Kufa. The troops of Basra had been, since the death +of Yazid, at war with the Kharijites, who had supported Ibn Zobair +during the siege of Mecca, but had deserted him later. Their caliph, +Nafi' b. Azraq, after whom they were called also Azraqites, threatened +even the city itself, when Mohallab b. Abi Sofra, a very able general, +compelled them to retire. Mohallab then marched with Mus'ab against +Kufa. Mokhtar fell, and with him the ephemeral dominion of the Persian +Shi'ites. This had been their first attempt to dispute the authority of +their Arabian conquerors, but it was not to be the last. Ibrahim b. +Ashtar, Mokhtar's governor of Mesopotamia, submitted and acknowledged +the Caliphate of Ibn Zobair. + +5. Reign of Abdalmalik.--Merwan died on the 27th of Ramadan 65 (7th May +685); according to tradition, he was suffocated by his wife, because he +had insulted her son Khalid and herself. The accession of Abdalmalik was +attended with no difficulty, but the first years of his reign were +occupied by troubles in northern Syria, where, instigated by the Greeks, +the Mardaites of the Amanus, called Jarajima by the Arabs, penetrated +into the Lebanon. He was obliged to conclude an unfavourable treaty +first with them, later with the emperor of Constantinople. Moreover, in +the year 68 (A.D. 687-688) Syria was afflicted by a serious famine. Ibn +Zobair, however, was occupied at Mecca with the rebuilding of the Ka'ba, +and Mus'ab was harassed not only by the Kharijites, but also by a noble +freebooter, Obaidallah b. Horr, who had created for himself a +principality in the vicinity of Madain (Ctesiphon). + +The period of the pilgrimage caused a momentary truce to all these +struggles, and in Dhu 'l-hijja, A.H. 68 (January 688), was seen the +curious spectacle of four different standards planted near Mecca, +belonging respectively to four chiefs, each of whom was a pretender to +the empire; the standard of Abdallah b. Zobair, caliph of Mecca; that of +the caliph of Damascus, Abdalmalik; that of Ali's son Mahommed b. +al-Hanafiya, Mahdi of the Shi'ites; and that of the Kharijites, who were +at that time under the command of Najda b. 'Amir. Such, however, was the +respect inspired by the holy places, that no disorders resulted. + +When, in the year (69 A.H.) 689 Abdalmalik had at last encamped at Botan +Habib in the vicinity of Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin),[18] with the purpose of +marching against Mus'ab, his cousin 'Amr Ashdaq, to whom by the treaty +of Jabia, before the battle of Merj Rahit, the succession to Merwan had +been promised, took advantage of his absence to lay claim to the supreme +power, and to have himself proclaimed caliph by his partisans. +Abdalmalik was obliged to retrace his steps and to lay siege to his own +capital. The garrison of Damascus took fright, and deserted their posts, +so that 'Amr Ashdaq was compelled to surrender. The caliph Abdalmalik +summoned him to his palace and slew him with his own hand. Abdalmalik +has every claim to our esteem as one of the ablest monarchs that ever +reigned, but this murder remains a lasting blot on his career. + +Abdalmalik could now give his whole attention to the projected +expedition against Irak. Mus'ab was encamped at Bajomaira in the +neighbourhood of Takrit. But Abdalmalik's first task was to subdue Zofar +and his Qaisites at Kerkesia (Qarqisia), and the rest of the partisans +of Mokhtar at Nisibis. Meanwhile, Mus'ab had to curb a violent revolt in +Basra, brought about by agents of Abdalmalik, and called after a place +in the city the revolt of the Jofrites. About the middle of A.D. 691 +Abdalmalik at last encamped at Dair al-Jathaliq (the monastery of the +Catholicus) between Maskin, not far from the site of Bagdad, and +Bajomaira. Mus'ab's best troops were fighting under Mohallab against the +Kharijites; many Basrians were secretly favourable to the Omayyads, nor +were the Kufian soldiers to be trusted. The people of Irak had never +been accustomed to discipline, and no improvement had taken place during +the troubles of the last years. Abdalmalik, therefore, wrote secretly to +the chiefs of Mus'ab's army, and persuaded them to desert to him, with +the exception of Ibrahim b. Ashtar, the brave son of a brave father, +who, after the fall of Mokhtar, had become a faithful supporter of Ibn +Zobair. His death, in the beginning of the battle, decided the fate of +Mus'ab, who was slain sword in hand by a Shi'ite of Kufa. + +This victory opened the gates of Kufa to Abdalmalik, and all Irak +received him with acclamation. Thence, a few days later, he sent Hajjaj +b. Yusuf at the head of 2000 Syrians against Ibn Zobair in Mecca, and +despatched a messenger to Tariq b.'Amr, who was encamped at Wadi +'l-Qora with 5000 men, to make himself master of Medina and thence to +rejoin Hajjaj. Before the arrival of this reinforcement, Hajjaj confined +himself to skirmishes, in which his soldiers always had the advantage. +Then, in Dhu 'l Qa'da 72 (March 25th, 692) Mecca was invested. The +blockade lasted more than six months, during which the city was a prey +to all the horrors of siege and famine. Hajjaj had set up a balista on +the hill of Abu Qobais, whence he poured on the city a hail of stones, +which was suspended only in the days of the pilgrimage. Ibn Zobair +employed against him Abyssinians armed with Greek-fire-tubes, who, +however, quitted him soon under the pressure of famine. This at length +triumphed over his last adherents. Ten thousand fighting men, and even +two of the sons of the pretender (it is said, on his own advice), left +the city and surrendered. Mecca being thus left without defenders, Ibn +Zobair saw that ruin was inevitable. Hajjaj having promised him amnesty +if he would surrender, he went to his mother Asma, the daughter of Abu +Bekr, who had reached the age of a hundred years, and asked her counsel. +She answered that, if he was confident in the justice of his cause, he +must die sword in hand. In embracing him for the last time, she felt the +cuirass he wore and exclaimed that such a precaution was unworthy of a +man resolved to die. He, therefore, took off the cuirass, and, when the +Omayyad troops made their way into the city, attacked them furiously, +notwithstanding his advanced age, and was slain. His head was cut off, +and sent by Hajjaj to Damascus. + +With Ibn Zobair perished the influence which the early companions of +Mahomet had exercised over Islam. Medina and Mecca, though they +continued to be the holy cities, had no longer their old political +importance, which had already been shaken to its foundations by the +murder of Othman and the subsequent troubles. Henceforward we shall find +temporal interests, represented by Damascus, predominating over those of +religion, and the centre of Islam, now permanently removed beyond the +limits of Arabia, more susceptible to foreign influence, and +assimilating more readily their civilizing elements. Damascus, Kufa and +Basra will attract the flower of all the Moslem provinces, and thus that +great intellectual, literary and scientific movement, which reached its +apogee under the first Abbasid Caliphs at Bagdad, steadily becomes more +marked. + +After the burning of the Ka'ba during the siege of Mecca by Hosain b. +Nomair, Ibn Zobair had rebuilt and enlarged the house of God. It is said +that he thus carried out a design of the Prophet, which he had not +ventured to undertake for fear of offending the newly converted +Koreishites. Hajjaj pulled down the enlargements and restored the Ka'ba +to its old state. Meanwhile, the caliph committed to him the government +of the Hejaz. The Medinians, whose loyalty was suspected, were treated +by him with severity; not a few _maulas_ (clients) were obliged to wear +a leaden badge on their neck (Tabari, ii. p. 854 seq.). + +Thus the protracted war against Ibn Zobair was brought to an end; hence +this year (71) also is called the "year of union" (_jama'a_). But the +storms in Irak and Mesopotamia had not yet altogether subsided. The Qais +could not leave unavenged the blood shed at Merj Rahit. For about ten +years the Syrian and Mesopotamian deserts were the scene of a series of +raids, often marked by great cruelty, and which have been the subject of +a great many poems. Abdalmalik had need of all his tact and energy to +pacify ultimately the zealous sectaries, but the antagonism between +Yemenites (Kalb and Azd) and Modarites (Qais and Tamim) had been +increased by these struggles, and even in the far east and the far west +had fatal consequences. + +When Abdalmalik, after a stay of forty days, returned from Irak to +Syria, he left two Omayyad princes as his vicegerents in Kufa and Basra. +Mohallab, who at the time of the battle of Bajomaira was in the field +against the Azraqites (Kharijites), and had put himself at the disposal +of the caliph, had orders to carry on the war. But the two princes +proved unequal to their task and did not support Mohallab sufficiently, +so that the Kharijites gained more than one victory. Abdalmalik in alarm +made Hajjaj governor of Irak with the most extensive powers. The troops +of Kufa, who accompanied Mohallab in an expedition against the +Kharijites, had abandoned their general and dispersed to their homes, +and nothing could induce them to return to their duty. Then, in the year +75 (A.D. 694), at the moment when the people were assembled in the +mosque for morning prayers, an unknown young man of insignificant +appearance, with a veil over his face, ascended the pulpit. It seemed at +first that he could not find his words. One of the audience, with a +contemptuous remark, took a handful of pebbles to pelt him with. But he +let them fall when Hajjaj lifted his veil and began to speak. + +"Men of Kufa," he said, "I see before me heads ripe for the sickle, and +the reaper--I am he. It seems to me, as if I saw already the blood +between your turbans and your shoulders. I am not one of those who can +be frightened by inflated bags of skin, nor need any one think to +squeeze me like a fig. The Prince of the Believers has spread before him +the arrows of his quiver, and has tried every one of them by biting its +wood. It is my wood that he has found the hardest and strongest, and I +am the arrow which he shoots against you." + +At the end of this address he ordered his clerk to read the letter of +the caliph. He began: "From the servant of God, Abdalmalik, Prince of +the Believers, to the Moslems that are in Kufa, peace be with you." As +nobody uttered a word in reply, Hajjaj said: "Stop, boy," and exclaimed: +"The Prince of the Believers salutes you, and you do not answer his +greeting! You have been but poorly taught. I will teach you afresh, +unless you behave better. Read again the letter of the Prince of the +Believers." Then, as soon as he had read: "peace upon ye," there +remained not a single man in the mosque who did not respond, "and upon +the Prince of the Believers be peace." Thereupon Hajjaj ordered that +every man capable of bearing arms should immediately join Mohallab in +Khuzistan (Susiana), and swore that all who should be found in the town +after the third day should be beheaded. This threat had its effect, and +Hajjaj proceeded to Basra, where his presence was followed by the same +results. Mohallab, reinforced by the army of Irak, at last succeeded, +after a struggle of eighteen months, in subjugating the Kharijites and +their caliph Qatara b. Foja'a, and was able at the beginning of the year +78 (A.D. 697) to return to Hajjaj at Basra. The latter loaded him with +honours and made him governor of Khorasan, whence he directed several +expeditions into Transoxiana. In the meantime Hajjaj himself had, in 695 +and 696, with great difficulty suppressed Shabib b. Yazid at the head of +the powerful tribe of Shaiban, who, himself a Kharijite, had assumed the +title of Prince of the Believers, and had even succeeded in occupying +Kufa. In the east the realm of Islam had been very much extended under +the reign of Moawiya, when Ziyad was governor of Irak and Khorasan. +Balkh and Tokharistan, Bokhara, Samarkand and Khwarizm (modern Khiva), +even Kabul and Kandahar had been subdued; but in the time of the civil +war a great deal had been lost again. Now at last the task of recovering +the lost districts could be resumed. When, in 697, Hajjaj gave the +government of Khorasan to Mohallab, he committed that of Sijistan +(Seistan) to Obaidallah b. Abi Bakra, a cousin of Ziyad. This prefect +allowed himself to be enticed by Zanbil, prince of Zabulistan, to +penetrate into the country far from his base, and escaped narrowly, not +without severe losses. The command over Sijistan was now given to +Abdarrahman b. Ash'ath, a descendant of the old royal family of Kinda, +and a numerous army was entrusted to him, so magnificently equipped that +it was called "the peacock army." Not long after his arrival in +Sijistan, Ibn Ash'ath, exasperated by the masterful tone of Hajjaj, the +plebeian, towards himself, the high-born, decided to revolt. The +soldiers of Irak, who did not love the governor, and disliked the +prospect of a long and difficult war far from home, eagerly accepted the +proposition of returning to Irak, and even proclaimed the dethronement +of Abdalmalik, in favour of Ibn Ash'ath. The new pretender entered Fars +and Ahwaz (Susiana), and it was in this last province near Tostar +(Shuster) that Hajjaj came up with him, after receiving from Syria the +reinforcements which he had demanded in all haste from the caliph. Ibn +Ash'ath drove him back to Basra, entered the city, and then turned his +arms against Kufa, of which he took possession with aid from within. +Hajjaj, afraid lest his communications with Syria should be cut off, +pitched his camp at Dair Qorra, eighteen miles west from Kufa towards +the desert, where Mahommed, the brother of the caliph, and Abdallah, his +son, brought him fresh troops. Ibn Ash'ath encamped not far from him at +Dair al-Jamajim with a far more numerous army. In great alarm Abdalmalik +endeavoured to stifle the revolt by offering to dismiss Hajjaj from his +post. The insurgents rejected this offer, and hostilities recommenced. +At the end of three months and a half, in July 702, a decisive action +took place. Victory declared for Hajjaj. Ibn Ash'ath fled to Basra, +where he managed to collect fresh troops; but having been again beaten +in a furious battle that took place at Maskin near the Dojail, he took +refuge at Ahwaz, from which he was soon driven by the troops of Hajjaj +under 'Omara b. Tamim. The rebel then retired to Sijistan, and +afterwards sought an asylum with the king of Kabul. His partisans fled +before 'Omara's army and penetrated into Khorasan, where they were +isarmed by the governor Yazid, son of the celebrated Mohallab, who had +died in the year 701. The pretender was betrayed by the king of Kabul +and killed himself. His head was sent to Hajjaj and then to Damascus. +This happened in the year 703 or 704. Yazid b. Mohallab was soon after +deprived of the government of Khorasan, Hajjaj accusing him of +partiality towards the rebels of Yemenite extraction. He appointed in +his stead first his brother Mofaddal b. Mohallab, and nine months after +Qotaiba b. Moslim, who was destined in a later period to extend the sway +of Islam in the east as far as China. + +The struggle of Ibn Ash'ath was primarily a contest for hegemony between +Irak and Syria. The proud Arabic lords could not acquiesce in paying to +a plebeian like Hajjaj, invested with absolute power by the caliph, the +strict obedience he required. They considered it further as an injustice +that the Syrian soldiers received higher pay than those of Irak. This is +apparent from the fact that one of the conditions of peace proposed by +Abdalmalik before the battle of Dair al-Jamajim had been that henceforth +the Irakian troops should be paid equally with the Syrian. Moreover, +Hajjaj, in order to maintain the regular revenue from taxation, had been +obliged to introduce stringent regulations, and had compelled a great +many villagers who had migrated to the cities to return to their +villages. Several of these were _faqihs_, students of Koranic science +and law, and all these seconded Ibn Ash'ath with all their might. But, +as Wellhausen has shown, it is not correct to consider the contest as a +reaction of the _maula's_ (Persian Moslems) against the Arabic +supremacy. + +Immediately after the victories of Dair al-Jamajim and Maskin, in 702, +Hajjaj, built a new residence on the Tigris, between Basra and Kufa, +which he called Wasit ("Middle"). There his Syrian soldiers were not in +contact with the turbulent citizens of the two capitals, and were at any +moment ready to suppress any fresh outburst. + +At the beginning of his reign Abdalmalik had replaced the humble mosque +built by Omar on the site of the temple at Jerusalem by a magnificent +dome, which was completed in the year 691. Eutychius and others pretend +that he desired to substitute Jerusalem for Mecca, because Ibn Zobair +had occupied the latter place, and thus the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba had +become difficult for the Syrians. This is quite improbable. Abdalmalik +was born and educated in Islam, and distinguished himself in his youth +by piety and continence. He regarded himself as the champion of Islam +and of the communion of the believers, and had among his intimates men +of acknowledged devoutness such as Raja b. Haywa. The idea of +interfering with the pilgrimage to the House of God at Mecca, which +would have alienated from him all religious men, and thus from a +political point of view would have been suicidal, cannot have entered +his mind for a moment. But the glorification of Jerusalem, holy alike +for Moslems, Christians and Jews, could not but exalt the glory of Islam +and its rulers within and without. + +As soon as the expedition to Irak against Mus'ab had terminated, the +holy war against the Greeks was renewed. The operations in Asia Minor +and Armenia were entrusted to Mahommed b. Merwan, the caliph's brother, +who was appointed governor of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 692 beat +the army of Justinian II. near Sebaste in Cilicia. From this time forth +the Moslems made yearly raids, the chief advantage of which was that +they kept the Syrian and Mesopotamian Arabs in continual military +exercise. After the victorious march of Okba (Oqba) b. Nafi' through +north Africa and the foundation of Kairawan, his successor Qais b. +Zohair had been obliged to retreat to Barca (Cyrenaica). In the year 696 +Abdalmalik sent Hassan b. No'man into Africa at the head of a numerous +army. He retook Kairawan, swept the coast as far as Carthage, which he +sacked, expelling the Greek garrisons from all the fortified places; he +then turned his arms against the Berbers, who, commanded by the Kahina +(Diviner), as the Arabs called their queen, beat him so completely that +he was compelled to retreat to Barca. Five years later he renewed the +war, defeated and killed the Kahina, and subdued the Berbers, who +henceforward remained faithful to the Arabs. Hassan continued to be +governor of Kairawan till after the death of Abdalmalik. + +In the meantime Abdalmalik reconstituted the administration of the +empire on Arabic principles. Up to the year 693 the Moslems had no +special coinage of their own, and chiefly used Byzantine and Persian +money, either imported or struck by themselves. Moawiya, indeed, had +struck dinars and dirhems with a Moslem inscription, but his subjects +would not accept them as there was no cross upon them. Abdalmalik +instituted a purely Islamitic coinage. If we may believe Theophanes, who +says that Justinian II. refused to receive these coins in payment of the +tribute and therefore declared the treaty at an end, we must put the +beginning of the coinage at least two years earlier. Hajjaj coined +silver dirhems at Kufa in 694. A still greater innovation was that +Arabic became the official language of the state. In the conquered +countries till then, not only had the Greek and Persian administration +been preserved, but Greek remained the official language in the western, +Persian in the eastern provinces. All officials were now compelled to +know Arabic and to conduct their administration in that language. To +this change was due in great measure the predominance of Arabic +throughout the empire. Lastly, a regular post service was instituted +from Damascus to the provincial capitals, especially destined for +governmental despatches. The postmasters were charged with the task of +informing the caliph of all important news in their respective +countries. + +All the great rivals of Abdalmalik having now disappeared, he was no +longer like his predecessors _primus inter pares_, but _dominus_. Under +his rule the members of the Omayyad house enjoyed a greater amount of +administrative control than had formerly been the case, but high office +was given only to competent men. He succeeded in reconciling the sons of +'Amr Ashdaq, and also Khalid b. Yazid, to whom he gave his own daughter +in marriage. He himself had married 'Atika, a daughter of Yazid, a union +which was in all respects a happy one. He took great care in the +education of his sons, whom he destined as his successors. His brother +Abdalaziz, governor of Egypt, whom Merwan had marked out as his +successor, died in the year 703 or 704, and Abdalmalik chose as heirs to +the empire first his son Walid, and after him his second son Suleiman. +He himself died on the 14th Shawwal 86 (9th October 705) at the age of +about sixty. His reign was one of the most stormy in the annals of +Islam, but also one of the most glorious. Abdalmalik not only brought +triumph to the cause of the Omayyads, but also extended and strengthened +the Moslem power as a whole. He was well versed in old Arabic tradition +and in the doctrine of Islam, and was passionately fond of poetry. His +court was crowded with poets, whom he loaded with favours, even if they +were Christians like Akhtal. In his reign flourished also the two +celebrated rivals of Akhtal, Jarir and Farazdaq. + +6. _Reign of Walid I._--This is the most glorious epoch in the history +of Islam. In Asia Minor and Armenia, Maslama, brother of the caliph, and +his generals obtained numerous successes against the Greeks. Tyana was +conquered after a long siege, and a great expedition against +Constantinople was in preparation. In Armenia Maslama advanced even as +far as the Caucasus. In Africa, Musa b. Nosair, who succeeded Hassan b. +No'man as governor, in a short time carried his conquests as far as Fez, +Tangier and Ceuta, and one of his captains even made a descent on Sicily +and plundered Syracuse. When he returned from the west to Kairawan, he +made his client Tariq (or Tarik) governor of Tangier and of the whole +western part of Africa. Under him the chiefs who had submitted to the +Moslem arms retained their authority. One of them was the Greek exarch +of Tangier, Julian, who, supported by the powerful Berber tribe of +Ghomera, had long resisted and even asked for aid from Spain, but had +been compelled to surrender and was left governor of Ceuta. Meanwhile in +Spain, after the death of the Gothic king Witiza in the year 90 +(708-709), anarchy arose, which was terminated by the council of +noblemen at Toledo electing Roderic, the powerful duke of Baetica, to be +his successor in the fifth year of Walid. The eldest son of Witiza then +applied to Julian, and asked the aid of the Arabs for the recovery of +his father's throne. Tariq forwarded the embassy to Kairawan, and Musa +asked the caliph's permission to send an expedition into Spain. +Authorized by Musa, Tariq now sent, in Ramadan 91 (July 710), 500 +Berbers under the command of Tarif to reconnoitre the country. This +expedition, seconded by partisans of Witiza, was successful. In the +beginning of A.D. 711 Roderic had been summoned to the north on account +of an invasion of Navarra by the Franks, caused, it is said, by the +conspirators. Tariq, thus certain of meeting no serious opposition to +his landing, passed into Spain himself with an army composed mainly of +Berbers of the Ghomera tribe under the guidance of Julian. The spot +where he landed thence acquired the name of Jebel Tariq, "Mountain of +Tariq," afterwards corrupted into Gibraltar. Having made himself master +of Algeciras and thereby secured his communication with Africa, Tariq +set out at once in the direction of Cordova. At the news of the invasion +Roderic hastened back and led a numerous army against the combined +forces of Tariq and the partisans of Witiza. A fierce battle took place +in the plain of Barbata on the little river of Guadaleta (north of +Medina Sidonia), in which Roderic was completely routed. The spoils of +the victors were immense, especially in horses, but the king himself had +disappeared. Fearing lest he should have escaped to Toledo and should +there fit out another army, the partisans of Witiza insisted that Tariq +should march immediately against the capital. Tariq complied with their +wishes, notwithstanding the express command of Musa b. Nosair that he +should not venture too far into the country, and the protests of Julian. +Having made himself master of Ecija and having despatched a detachment +under Moghith against Cordova, Tariq took Mentesa (Villanueva de la +Fuente) and marched upon Toledo, which he soon conquered. At the same +time Moghith took Cordova. But, notwithstanding these successes, Tariq +knew that his situation was most critical. King Roderic, who had escaped +to Lusitania, and the noble Goths, who had fled from Toledo, would +certainly not be slow in making efforts to regain what they had lost. He +therefore sent a message in all haste to Musa, entreating him to come +speedily. Musa, though angered by the disobedience of Tariq, hastened to +the rescue and embarked in April 712 with 18,000 men, among them many +noble Arabs, and began, advised by Julian, a methodical campaign, with +the purpose of establishing and securing a line of communication between +the sea and Toledo. After having taken Seville, Carmona and Merida, he +marched from the latter place by the Via Romana to Salamanca, after +having ordered Tariq to rejoin him in order to encounter king Roderic. +Not far from Tamames the king was defeated and killed. King Alphonso the +Great found his tombstone at Viseo with the inscription, "Hic requiescit +Rodericus rex Gothorum." After this battle Musa reconquered Toledo, +which, after the departure of Tariq, had recovered its independence, and +entered the capital in triumph. Already, before the expedition to +Salamanca, he had perceived that the sons of Witiza had neither military +nor political ability. He therefore proclaimed the caliph of Damascus as +sole ruler of the whole peninsula. The Gothic princes must content +themselves with honours and apanages, in which they readily acquiesced. +In the same year 93 (A.D. 712) Musa struck Moslem coins with Latin +inscriptions. Musa then continued the subjugation of Spain, till Walid +recalled him to Damascus. He obeyed after having appointed his son +Abdalaziz governor of Andalos (Andalusia), as the Arabs named the +peninsula, and assigned Seville as his residence. Abdalaziz consolidated +his power by marrying the widow of the late king Roderic. Musa left +Spain about August 714, and reached Damascus shortly before the death of +Walid. Notwithstanding the immense booty he brought, he did not receive +his due reward. Accused of peculation, he was threatened with +imprisonment unless he paid a fine of 100,000 pieces of gold. The old +man--he was born in the year 640--was released by Yazid b. Mohallab, the +then mighty favourite of the caliph Suleiman, but died in the same year +716 on his way to Mecca. His son Abdalaziz was an excellent ruler, who +did much for the consolidation of the new conquests, but he reigned only +one year and eleven months, when he was murdered. His death has been +falsely imputed by some historians to the caliph Suleiman.[19] + +In the East the Moslem armies gained the most astonishing successes. In +the course of a few years Qotaiba b. Moslim conquered Paikend, Bokhara, +Samarkand, Khwarizm (mod. Khiva), Ferghana and Shash (Tashkent), and +even Kashgar on the frontiers of China. Meanwhile Mahommed b. Qasim +invaded Makran, took Daibol, passed the Indus, and marched, after having +beaten the Indian king Daher, through Sind upon Multan, which he +conquered and whence he carried off an immense booty. + +Walid was the first caliph, born and trained as prince, who felt the +majesty of the imamate and wished it to be felt by his subjects. He +desired to augment the splendours of Islam and its sovereign, as +Abdalmalik had already done by building the dome of Jerusalem. In the +time of the conquest of Damascus, one half of the great church had been +made a mosque, while the remaining half had been left to the Christians. +Walid annexed this part, indemnifying the Christians elsewhere, and +restored the whole building sumptuously and magnificently. In his time +many fine palaces and beautiful villas were built in Syria, and Becker's +conjecture seems not altogether improbable, that from this period dates +the palace of Mashetta, the facade of which is now in the Kaiser +Friedrich Museum at Berlin, as perhaps also the country houses +discovered by Musil in the land of Moab. Walid also caused the mosque of +Medina to be enlarged. For this purpose, the apartments of the Prophet +and his wives were demolished, which at first caused much discontent in +Medina, some crying out that thereby a verse of the Book of God (S. 49, +v. 4) was cancelled. With this exception, the citizens of Medina had +nothing to complain of. The vicegerent of Abdalmalik had treated them +harshly. Walid immediately on his accession appointed as governor of +Hejaz his cousin Omar b. Abdalaziz, who was received there with joy, his +devoutness and gentle character being well known. But the reputation of +Omar attracted to the two holy cities a great number of the inhabitants +of Irak, who had been deeply involved in the rebellion of Ibn Ash'ath. +Hajjaj, however, was not the man to allow the formation of a fresh +nucleus of sedition, and persuaded the caliph to dismiss Omar in the +year 712, and appoint Othman b. Hayyan at Medina and Khalid al-Qasri at +Mecca. These two prefects compelled the refugees to return to Irak, +where many of them were severely treated and even put to death by +Hajjaj. + +Few people have been so slandered as this great viceroy of the Orient. +In reality he was a man of extraordinary ability, and accomplished the +task committed to him with vigour and energy. To his unflagging +constancy was due the suppression of the dangerous rebellion of Ibn +Ash'ath. After the restoration of peace his capacity for organization +was displayed in all directions. The draining and tilling of submerged +or uncultivated land on a large scale, the promotion of agriculture in +every way, in particular by the digging of channels, and the regulation +of the system of taxation, were carried out on his initiative. He showed +the utmost wisdom in the selection of his lieutenants. The fear of his +name was so great that even in the desert there was security for life +and property, and his brilliant military successes were unquestionably +due in a great measure to the care which he bestowed on equipment and +commissariat. The heavy expenses entailed thereby were largely met by +the booty which he won. Hajjaj was a sincere Moslem; this, however, did +not prevent him from attacking Ibn Zobair in the Holy City, nor again +from punishing rebels, though they bore the name of holy men. He enjoyed +the entire confidence of Abdalmalik with Walid, but Suleiman, the +appointed successor, regarded him with disfavour. Yazid b. Mohallab, +whom he had recalled from Khorasan, and imprisoned, had escaped and put +himself under the protection of Suleiman, who made himself surety for +the fine to which Yazid had been condemned. Hajjaj foreboded evil, and +prayed eagerly that he might die before Walid. His death took place +about the end of Ramadan 95 (June or July 714). + +7. _Reign of Suleiman_ (_Solaiman_).--Suleiman had early missed the +throne. Walid wished to have his son Abdalaziz chosen as his successor, +and had offered Suleiman a large sum of money to induce him to surrender +his rights. Walid went still further and sent letters to the governors +of all the provinces, calling on them to take the oath of allegiance to +his son. None, except Hajjaj and his two generals Qotaiba b. Moslim and +Mahommed b. Qasim, consented thus to set at naught the order of +succession established by Abdalmalik; and Suleiman succeeded without +difficulty on the death of his brother Jomada II. 96 (February 715). We +can easily conceive the hatred felt by Suleiman for Hajjaj and for all +that belonged to him. Hajjaj himself was dead; but Suleiman poured out +his wrath on his family and his officers. The governors of Medina and +Mecca were dismissed; Mahommed b. Qasim, the conqueror of India, cousin +of Hajjaj, was dismissed from his post and outlawed. Qotaiba b. Moslim, +the powerful governor of Khorasan, tried to anticipate the caliph by a +revolt, but a conspiracy was formed against him, which ended in his +murder. Some historians say that he was falsely accused of rebellion. + +Yazid b. Mohallab, the enemy of Hajjaj, was made governor of Irak. His +arrival was hailed with joy, especially by the Azd, to whom his family +belonged, and the other Yemenite tribes. Yazid discovered soon that the +system of taxation as regulated by Hajjaj could not be altered without +serious danger to the finances of the empire, and that he could not +afford the expenses which his prodigal manner of life involved. He +therefore asked the caliph to give him the governorship of Khorasan +also, and took his residence in Merv, where he was free from control. On +his return to Khorasan he set on foot a series of new expeditions +against Jorjan and Tabaristan, with only partial success. He sent, +however, to the caliph an exaggerated account of his victories and the +booty he had made. He had cause to repent this later. + +Walid had, in the last years of his reign, made preparations for a great +expedition against Constantinople. Suleiman carried them on with energy, +and as early as the autumn of A.D. 715 Maslama invaded Asia Minor at the +head of a numerous army, whilst a well-equipped fleet under Omar b. +Hobaira sailed out to second him. It is said that Suleiman was firmly +persuaded that Constantinople would be conquered during his reign, in +accordance with a Sibylline prophecy which said that the city would be +subdued by a caliph bearing the name of a prophet, he himself being the +first to fulfil this condition.[20] Moreover, the Byzantine empire was +in these years disturbed by internal troubles. The first year of the +expedition was not unsuccessful. The siege of Amorium in Phrygia was +broken up, but Pergamum and Sardis were taken. On the 25th of August 716 +the blockade of Constantinople began from the land side, and two weeks +later from the sea side. A few months before, Leo the Isaurian had +ascended the throne and prepared the city for the siege. This lasted +about a year. The besieged were hard pressed, but the besiegers suffered +by the severe winter, and were at last obliged to raise the siege. +Maslama brought back the rest of his army in a pitiful state, while the +fleet, on its return, was partly destroyed by a violent tempest. The +Moslems regard this failure as one of the great evils that have befallen +the human race, and one which retarded the progress of the world for +ages,[21] the other calamity being the defeat in the battle of Tours by +Charles Martel. + +Maslama was still on his way back when Suleiman died at Dabiq in +northern Syria, which was the base of the expeditions into Asia Minor. +He seems not to have had the firmness of character nor the frugality of +Walid; but he was very severe against the looseness of manners that +reigned at Medina, and was highly religious. Raja b. Haywa, renowned for +his piety, whose influence began under Abdalmalik and increased under +Walid, was his constant adviser and even determined him to designate as +his successor his devout cousin Omar b. Abdalaziz. Suleiman was kind +towards the Alids and was visited by several of them, amongst others by +Abu Hashim, the son of Mahommed b. al Hanafiya, who after his father's +death had become the secret Imam (head) of the Shi'ites. On his way back +to Hejaz this man visited the family of Abdallah b. 'Abbas, which +resided at Homaima, a place situated in the vicinity of 'Amman, and died +there, after having imparted to Mahommed b. Ali b. Abdallah b. Abbas the +names of the chiefs of the Shi'a in Irak and Khorasan, and disclosed his +way of corresponding with them. From that time the Abbasids began their +machinations against the Omayyads in the name of the family of the +Prophet, avoiding all that could cause suspicion to the Shi'ites, but +holding the strings firmly in their own hands. + +8. _Reign of Omar II._--Omar b. Abdalaziz did his best to imitate his +grandfather Omar in all things, and especially in maintaining the simple +manner of life of the early Moslems. He was, however, born in the midst +of wealth; thus frugality became asceticism, and in so far as he +demanded the same rigour from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused +uneasiness and discontent. By paying the highest regard to integrity in +the choice of his officers, and not to ability, he did not advance the +interests of his subjects, as he earnestly wished to do. In the matter +of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he did harm to the +public revenues. The principle of Islam was, that no Moslem, whatever +might be his nationality, should pay any tax other than the _zakat_ or +poor-rate (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). In practice, this privilege was +confined to the Arabic Moslems. Omar wished to maintain the principle. +The original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as +agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for each +district. If one of these adopted Islam, Omar permitted him to leave his +place, which had been strictly forbidden by Hajjaj in Irak and the +eastern provinces, because by it many hands were withdrawn from the +tilling of the ground, and those who remained were unable to pay the +allotted amount. Omar's system not only diminished the actual revenue, +but largely increased in the cities the numbers of the _maula's_ +(clients), mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their +Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. Their short +dominion in Kufa under Mokhtar had been suppressed, but the discontent +continued. In North Africa particularly, and in Khorasan the effect of +Omar's proclamation was that a great multitude embraced Islam. When it +became necessary to impose a tribute upon the new converts, great +discontent arose, which largely increased the number of those who +followed the Shi'ite preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was +promoted by the severe regulations which Omar introduced for the +non-believers, such as Christians and Jews. It was he who issued those +humiliating rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to +Omar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than one illegal +impost. He endeavoured above all to procure justice for all his +subjects. Complaints against oppression found in him a ready listener, +and many unlawfully acquired possessions were restored to the legal +owners, for instance, to the descendants of Ali and Talha. Even to the +Kharijites he contrived to give satisfaction, as far as possible. In all +these matters he followed the guidance of divines and devotees, in whose +congenial company he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at +that these men saw in Omar the ideal of a prince, and that in Moslem +history he has acquired the reputation of a saint. + +After the failure of the siege of Constantinople, the advanced posts in +Asia Minor were withdrawn, but the raids were continued regularly. It +has been said that it was Omar's intention to give up his Spanish +conquests, but the facts argue the contrary. The governor, named by +Omar, Samh b. Abdallah, even crossed the Pyrenees and took possession of +Narbonne; but he was beaten and killed at Toulouse in July 720. But Omar +did all he could to prevent the degradation of the Holy War, which, +instead of being the ultimate expedient for the propagation of Islam, if +all other means had failed, had often degenerated into mere pillaging +expeditions against peaceful nations. + +9. _Reign of Yazid II._--Omar's reign was as short as that of his +predecessor. He died on the 24th of Rajab 101 (A.D. 9th February 720). +Yazid II., son of Abdalmalik and, by his mother 'Atika, grandson of +Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposition. He had at once, +however, to put down a dangerous rebellion. Yazid b. Mohallab had +returned to Irak, after the conquest of Jorjan, when Suleiman was still +alive. Shortly after, Adi b. Artat, whom Omar II. had appointed +governor, arrived, arrested Yazid, and sent him to Omar, who called him +to account for the money he had mentioned in his letter to Suleiman, and +imprisoned him when he pretended not to be able to pay the amount. Yazid +II. had personal grounds for ill-will to Yazid b. Mohallab. One of the +wives of the new caliph, the same who gave birth to that son of Yazid +II. who afterwards reigned as Walid II., was niece to the celebrated +Hajjaj, whose family had been ill-treated by the son of Mohallab, when +he was governor of Irak under Suleiman. Aware that Yazid b. Abdalmalik, +on ascending the throne, would spare neither him nor his family, Yazid +b. Mohallab had succeeded in escaping to Basra, the home of his family, +where his own tribe the Azd was predominant. Meanwhile 'Adi b. Artat had +all the brothers of Yazid and other members of the family of Mohallab +arrested, and tried to prevent Yazid from entering the city. But 'Adi +was too scrupulous to employ the public money for raising the pay of his +soldiers, whilst Yazid promised mountains of gold. Yazid stormed the +castle and took 'Adi prisoner, the public treasury fell into his hands, +and he employed the money to pay his troops largely and to raise fresh +ones. A pardon obtained for him from the caliph came too late; he had +already gone too far. He now proclaimed a Holy War against the Syrians, +whom he declared to be worse enemies of Islam than even the Turks and +the Dailam. Notwithstanding the warnings of the aged Hasan al-Basri, the +friend of Omar II., the religious people, took the part of Yazid, and +were followed by the _maulas_. Though the number of his adherents thus +increased enormously, their military value was small. Ahwaz (Khuzistan), +Fars and Kirman were easily subdued, but in Khorasan the Azd could not +prevail over the Tamim, who were loyal to the caliph. As the rebellion +threatened to spread far and wide, Yazid II. was obliged to appeal to +his brother, the celebrated Maslama. With the approach of the Syrians, +Yazid b. Mohallab tried to forestall them at Kufa. He took his way over +Wasit, which he mastered--the Syrian garrison seems to have been +withdrawn in the days of Omar II.--but, before he could get hold of +Kufa, the Syrian troops arrived. The meeting took place at 'Aqr in the +vicinity of Babel, and Yazid was completely defeated and fell in the +battle. His brothers and sons fled to Basra; thence they went by sea to +Kirman and then to Kandabil in India; but they were pursued relentlessly +and slain with only two exceptions by the officers of Maslama. The +possessions of the Mohallabites were confiscated. + +Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of Irak and Khorasan, but +was soon replaced by Omar b. Hobaira, who under Omar II. had been +governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to the tribe of Qais, and was very +severe against the Azd and other Yemenite tribes, who had more or less +favoured the part of Yazid b. Mohallab. In these years the antagonism +between Qais (Modar) and Yemenites became more and more acute, +especially in Khorasan. The real cause of the dismissal of Maslama was, +that he did not send the revenue-quota to Damascus. Omar b. Hobaira, to +supply the deficiency, ordered the prefect of Khorasan, +Sa'id-al-Harashi, to take tribute from the Sogdians in Transoxiana, who +had embraced Islam on the promise of Omar II. The Sogdians raised a +revolt in Ferghana, but were subdued by Sa'id and obliged to pay. A +still more questionable measure of Ibn Hobaira was his ordering the +successor of Sa'id Harashi to extort large sums of money from several of +the most respectable Khorasanians. The discontent roused thereby became +one of the principal causes of the fall of the Omayyads. + +In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause. Yazid b. Abi +Moslim, who had been at the head of the financial department in Irak +under Hajjaj, and had been made governor of Africa by Yazid II., issued +orders that the villagers who, having adopted Islam, were freed from +tribute according to the promise of Omar II., and had left their +villages for the towns, should return to their domiciles and pay the +same tribute as before their conversion. The Berbers rose in revolt, +slaughtered the unfortunate governor, and put in his place the former +governor Mahommed b. Yazid. The caliph at first ratified this choice, +but soon after dismissed Mahommed from his post, and replaced him by +Bishr b. Safwan, who under Hisham made an expedition against Sicily. + +Yazid II. was by natural disposition the opposite of his predecessor. He +did not feel that anxiety for the spiritual welfare of his subjects +which had animated Omar II. Poetry and music, not beloved by Suleiman +and condemned by Omar, were held by him in great honour. Two +court-singers, Sallama and Hababa, exercised great influence, tempered +only by the austerity of manners that prevailed in Syria. He was so +deeply affected by the death of Hababa, that Maslama entreated him not +to exhibit his sorrow to the eyes of the public. He died a few days +later, on the 26th of January 724, according to the chroniclers from +grief for her loss. As his successor he had appointed in the first place +his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid. + +10. _Reign of Hisham_.--Hisham was a wise and able prince and an enemy +of luxury, not an idealist like Omar II., nor a worldling like Yazid +II., but more like his father Abdalmalik, devoting all his energy to the +pacification of the interior, and to extending and consolidating the +empire of Islam. But the discontent, which had been sown under his +predecessors, had now developed to such an extent that he could not +suppress it in detail. His first care was to put an end to the +tyrannical rule of the Qaisites (Modarites) in Irak and Khorasan by +dismissing Omar b. Hobaira and appointing in his place Khalid al-Qasri. +This very able man, who under Hajjaj had been prefect of Mecca, belonged +properly neither to the Qaisites nor to the Yemenites, but as he took +the place of Ibn Hobaira and dismissed his partisans from their posts, +the former considered him as their adversary, the latter as their +benefactor. After his death, in particular, the Yemenites celebrated him +as their chief, and assigned as the reason for their revolt the injuries +which he suffered. Khalid himself assuredly did not intend it. He was a +loyal servant of the dynasty, and remained such even after receiving +very harsh treatment from them. For fifteen years Khalid governed the +eastern half of the empire, and continued to maintain peace with only +few exceptions throughout. He did much for the reclaiming and improving +of lands in Irak, in which the caliph himself and several princes took +an active part. The great revenues obtained thereby naturally caused +much jealousy. Khalid lived on a very rich scale and was extraordinarily +liberal, and he was charged with having carried out all his improvements +for his own interests, and upbraided for selling the corn of his estates +only when the prices were high. To these charges were added the +accusation that he was too tolerant to Christians, Jews and +Zoroastrians. As his mother professed the Christian religion, he was +accused of infidelity. At last a conspiracy, into which the principal +engineer of Khalid, Hassan the Nabataean, had been drawn, succeeded in +inciting Hisham against Khalid. They told him that Khalid had used +disrespectful terms in speaking of the caliph, and that he had +appropriated revenues belonging to the state. The latter imputation +especially influenced Hisham, who was very parsimonious. When the +dismissal of Khalid had been resolved upon, Yusuf b. Omar, his appointed +successor, was sent secretly to Kufa, where he seized on Khalid +unawares. For eighteen months Khalid remained in prison. But when he +declined even under torture to confess that he had been guilty of +extensive peculation, he was finally released. He settled at Damascus +and made a noble return for his injuries by taking an active part in the +war against the Greeks. In the summer of A.D. 740, while he was in Asia +Minor, a great fire broke out in Damascus, the guilt of which was +attributed to Khalid. Though it soon appeared that the imputation was +false, Khalid, on his return, was furious, and uttered very offensive +words against the caliph. Hisham, however, would not again punish his +old servant; on the contrary, he seems to have regarded his indignation +as a proof of innocence. + +The successor of Khalid in Irak had not long been in office when Zaid b. +Ali, grandson of Hosain b. Ali, who had come to Kufa for a lawsuit, was +persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi'a to organize a revolt. He succeeded +in so far that 15,000 Kufians swore to fight with him for the +maintenance of the commandments of the Book of God and the _Sunna_ +(orthodox tradition) of his Prophet, the discomfiture of the tyrants, +the redress of injury, and last, not least, the vindication of the +family of the Prophet as the rightful caliphs. The revolt broke out on +the 6th of January 740. Unfortunately for Zaid he had to do with the +same Kufians whose fickleness had already been fatal to his family. He +was deserted by his troops and slain. His body was crucified in Kufa, +his head sent to Damascus and thence to Medina. His son Yahya, still a +youth, fled to Balkh in Khorasan, but was discovered at last and hunted +down, till he fell sword in hand under Walid II. Abu Moslim, the founder +of the Abbasid dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that +occasion adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive +colour of the dynasty. + +In Khorasan also there were very serious disturbances. The Sogdians, +though subdued by Sa'id al Harashi, were not appeased, but implored the +assistance of the Turks, who had long been contending earnestly against +the Arabs for the dominion of Transoxiana. They found besides a most +valuable ally in Harith b. Soraij, a distinguished captain of the Arabic +tribe of Tamim, who, with many pious Moslems, was scandalized by the +government's perfidy in regard to the new converts. Harith put himself +at the head of all the malcontents, and raised the black flag, in +compliance with a Sibylline prophecy, holding that the man with the +black flag (the Prophet's flag) would put an end to the tyranny, and be +the precursor of the Mahdi.[22] The government troops suffered more than +one defeat, but in the last month of the year 118 (A.D. 736) the +governor Asad al-Qasri, the brother of Khalid, after having defeated +Harith, gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, which finally caused +them to retreat. Asad died almost simultaneously with the dismissal of +Khalid. Hisham then separated Khorasan from Irak and chose as governor +of the former Nasr b. Sayyar, a valiant soldier who had grown grey in +war, and who, besides all his other capacities, was an excellent poet. +Nasr instituted a system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced +earlier, would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that +which later on was generally adopted, viz. that all possessors of +conquered lands (i.e. nearly the whole empire except Arabia), whether +Moslems or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in addition to pay a +poll-tax, from which they were relieved on conversion to Islam. During +the reign of Hisham, Nasr made a successful expedition against Harith +and the Turks. The propaganda of the Shi'a by the Abbasids was +continued in these years with great zeal. + +In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam under the +Caliphate of Omar II. declared themselves independent, because the +promise of equal rights for all Moslems was not kept under the reign of +his successors. This led to the evacuation of the eastern part of India +(called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the name of the western part), and +to the founding of the strong cities of Mahfuza and Mansura for the +purpose of controlling the land. + +In the north and north-west of the empire there were no internal +disorders, but the Moslems had hard work to maintain themselves against +the Alans and the Khazars. In the year 112 (A.D. 730) they suffered a +severe defeat, in which the general Jarrah perished. But the illustrious +Maslama b. Abdalmalik, and Merwan b. Mahommed (afterwards caliph), +governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan (Adherbaijan), succeeded in repelling +the Khazars, imposing peace on the petty princes of the eastern +Caucasus, and consolidating the Arab power in that quarter. The war +against the Byzantines was continued with energy during the whole of +Hisham's reign. Moawiya, the son of Hisham, whose descendants reigned +later in Spain, was in command till 118 (A.D. 736), when he met his +death accidentally in Asia Minor by a fall from his horse. After his +death, Suleiman, another son of the caliph, had the supreme command. +Both were eager and valiant warriors. But the hero of all the battles +was Abdallah b. Hosain, surnamed al-Battal (the brave). He has been the +subject of many romantic tales. Tabari tells how he took the emperor +Constantine prisoner in the year 114 (A.D. 732; but Constantine V. +Copronymus only began to reign in 740 or 741 A.D.); another Arabic +author places this event in the year 122, adding that al-Battal, having +defeated the Greeks, was attacked and slain in returning with his +captives. The Greek historians say nothing about Constantine having been +made prisoner. It is probable that the Arabs took another Greek soldier +for the prince.[23] The victories of the Moslems had no lasting results. +During the troubles that began in the reign of Walid II., the Greeks +reconquered Marash (Germanicia), Malatia (Malatiyeh) and Erzerum +(Theodosiopolis). + +In Spain the attention of the Moslems was principally turned to avenge +the defeat of Samh beyond the Pyrenees. As early as the second year of +the reign of Hisham, 'Anbasa, the governor of Spain, crossed the +Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations vigorously. Carcassonne and +Nimes were taken, Autun sacked. The death of 'Anbasa in A.D. 725 and +internal troubles put a stop to further hostilities. The Berbers were +the chief contingent of the Moslem troops, but were treated by their +Arab masters as inferior people. They began to resent this, and one of +their chiefs, Munisa (Munuza), made himself independent in the north and +allied himself with Odo, king of Aquitaine, who gave him his daughter in +marriage. In the year 113 Abdarrahman b. Abdallah subdued Munisa, +crossed the mountains and penetrated into Gascony by the valley of +Roncesvalles. The Moslems beat Odo, gained possession of Bordeaux, and +overran the whole of southern Gaul nearly as far as the Loire. But in +October 732 their march was checked between Tours and Poitiers by +Charles Martel and after some days of skirmishing a fierce but +indecisive battle was fought. Abdarrahman was among the slain and the +Moslems retreated hastily in the night, leaving their camp to the +Franks. They were, however, not yet discouraged. In 739 the new governor +of Spain, Oqba (Aucupa) b. Hajjaj, a man of high qualities, re-entered +Gaul and pushed forward his raids as far as Lyons, but the Franks again +drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne. Thenceforth the continual +revolts of the Berbers in Africa, and the internal troubles which +disturbed Spain until the reign of Abdarrahman I., effectually checked +the ambition of the Moslems. + +In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The Berbers, though +they had pledged themselves to Islam and had furnished the latest +contingents for the Holy War, were treated as tributary serfs, +notwithstanding the promises given by Omar II. The Kharijites, of whom a +great many had emigrated to Africa, found them eager listeners. Still, +they could not believe that it was according to the will of the caliph +that they were thus treated, until a certain number of their chiefs went +as a deputation to Hisham, but failed to obtain an audience. Thereupon a +fierce insurrection broke out, against which the governor of Africa was +powerless. Hisham at once sent an army of more than 30,000 men, under +the command of Kolthum al-Qoshairi, and Balj b. Bishr. Not far from the +river Sabu in Algeria,[24] the meeting with the army of the insurgents +took place (A.D. 740). Kolthum was beaten and killed; Balj b. Bishr led +the rest of the Syrian army to Ceuta, and thence, near the end of 741, +to Spain, where they aided in the suppression of the dangerous revolt of +the peninsular Berbers. Balj died in 742. A year later the governor, +Abu'l-Khattar, assigned to his troops for settlement divers countries +belonging to the public domain.[25] An effort of the African Berbers to +make themselves masters of Kairawan failed, their army being utterly +defeated by the governor Hanzala. + +Hisham died in February 743, after a reign of twenty years. He had not +been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins of the government +in his own hands. He was a correct Moslem and tolerant towards +Christians and Jews. His financial administration was sound and he +guarded against any misuse of the revenues of the state. But he was not +popular. His residence was at Rosafa on the border of the desert, and he +rarely admitted visitors into his presence; as a rule they were received +by his chamberlain Abrash. Hisham tried to keep himself free from and +above the rival parties, but as his vicegerents were inexorable in the +exaction of tribute, the Qaisites against the Yemenites, the Yemenites +against the Qaisites, both parties alternately had reason to complain, +whilst the non-Arabic Moslems suffered under the pressure and were +dissatisfied. He caused a large extent of land to be brought into +cultivation, and many public works to be executed, and he was accused of +overburdening his subjects for these purposes. Therefore, Yazid III. (as +also the Abbasids) on taking office undertook to abstain from spending +money on building and digging. The principle that a well-filled treasury +is the basis of a prosperous government was pushed by him too far. +Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to the management of +affairs, the Moslem power declined rather than advanced, and signs of +the decay of the Omayyad dynasty began to show themselves. The history +of his four successors, Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim and Merwan II., +is but the history of the fall of the Omayyads. + +11. _Reign of Walid II._--Walid II. was a handsome man, possessed of +extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished poet. But Hisham, +to whom he was successor-designate, foolishly kept him in the +background, and even made earnest efforts to get his own son Maslama +acknowledged as his successor. Walid therefore retired to the country, +and passed his time there in hunting, cultivating poetry, music and the +like, waiting with impatience for the death of Hisham and planning +vengeance on all those whom he suspected of having opposed him. His +first public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10 +dirhems, that of the Syrians by 20. The Omayyads who came to pay their +respects to him received large donations. Many philanthropic +institutions were founded. As to the family of his predecessor, he +contented himself with confiscating their possessions, with the single +exception of Suleiman b. Hisham, whom he had whipped and put in prison. +But the Makhzumites, who were related to Hisham by his mother, he +deprived of all their power and had them tortured to death. The +vicegerents of Hisham were replaced by Qaisites; Yusuf b. Omar, the +governor of Irak, being a Qaisite, was not only confirmed in his office, +but received with it the supreme command of Khorasan. He made use of it +immediately by ordering Nasr b. Sayyar to collect a rich present of +horses, falcons, musical instruments, golden and silver vessels and to +offer it to the caliph in person, but before the present was ready the +news came that Walid had been murdered. + +It is not certain that Walid also suspected Khalid al-Qasri of having +intrigued against him. But Yusuf b. Omar did not rest until he had his +old enemy in his power. It is said that he guaranteed Walid a large sum +of money, which he hoped to extort from Khalid. This unfortunate man +died under torture, which he bore with fortitude, in Muharram 126 +(November 743). + +Walid designated his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate. These were +still under age and were not the children of a freeborn, noble mother. +Both circumstances, according to the then prevailing notions, made them +unfit for the imamate. Moreover, it was an affront, in particular, for +the sons of Walid I., who already had considered the nomination of Yazid +II. as a slight to themselves. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. +Walid I., and joined by the majority of the Merwanid princes and many +Kalbites and other Yemenites who regarded the ill-treatment of Khalid +al-Qasri as an insult to themselves. Various stories were circulated +about the looseness of Walid's manner of life; Yazid accused him of +irreligion, and, by representing himself as a devout and God-fearing +man, won over the pious Moslems. The conspirators met with slight +opposition. A great many troops had been detached by Hisham to Africa +and other provinces, the caliph himself was in one of his country +places; the prefect of Damascus also was absent. Without difficulty, +Yazid made himself master of Damascus, and immediately sent his cousin +Abdalaziz with 2000 men against Walid, who had not more than 200 +fighting men about him. A few men hastened to the rescue, among others +'Abbas b. Walid with his sons and followers. Abdalaziz interrupted his +march, took him prisoner and compelled him to take the oath of +allegiance to his brother Yazid. Walid's small body of soldiers was soon +overpowered. After a valiant combat, the caliph retired to one of his +apartments and sat with the Koran on his knee, in order to die just as +Othman had died. He was killed on the 17th of April 744. His head was +taken to Damascus and carried about the city at the end of a spear. + +On the news of the murder of the caliph, the citizens of Homs (Emesa) +put at their head Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani, a grandson of Yazid I., and +marched against Damascus. They were beaten by Suleiman b. Hisham at a +place called Solaimania, 12 m. from the capital. Abu Mahommed was taken +prisoner and shut up with several of his brethren and cousins in the +Khadra, the old palace of Moawiya, together with the two sons of Walid +II. One or two risings in Palestine were easily suppressed. But the +reigning family had committed suicide. Their unity was broken. The +holiness of their Caliphate, their legitimate authority, had been +trifled with; the hatred of the days of Merj Rahit had been revived. The +orthodox faith also, whose strong representative and defender had +hitherto been the caliph, was shaken by the fact that Yazid III. +belonged to the sect of the Qadaris who rejected the doctrine of +predestination. The disorganization of the empire was at hand. + +12. _Reign of Yazid III._--Yazid III., on his accession, made a fine +speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected from a +good and wise ruler, even offering to make place immediately for the man +whom his subjects should find better qualified for the Caliphate than +himself. He cancelled, however, the increase of the pay granted by Walid +and thus earned the nickname of the _Naqis_ (diminisher). As he owed his +position to the aid of the Kalbites, he chose his officers from among +them. The governorship of Irak was confided to a Kalbite, Mansur b. +Jomhur, a hot-headed and unscrupulous man. Yusuf b. Omar was unable to +offer resistance, and was ultimately taken and confined in the Khadra. +Mansur had hardly been three months in office when Yazid replaced him by +Abdallah, son of Omar II. The distant provinces, with the exception of +Sind and Sijistan, renounced the authority of the new caliph. In Africa +Abdarrahman b. Habib, a descendant of the famous 'Oqba b. Nafi', was +almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself from a +suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Nasr b. Sayyar, the +governor of Khorasan, had not yet decided whether he ought to take the +oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a reign of only five months +and a half, on the 12th of Dhu'l-Hijja A.H. 126 (25th September A.D. +744). + +13. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. He was +acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned no longer +than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and to submit to the +authority of Merwan II. + +14. Merwan II., the son of Mahommed b. Merwan and cousin of Maslama, was +a man of energy, and might have revived the strength of the Omayyad +dynasty, but for the general disorder which pervaded the whole empire. +In 732 Hisham had entrusted to him the government of Armenia and +Azerbaijan, which he held with great success till the death of Walid II. +He had great military capacity and introduced important reforms. On the +murder of Walid he prepared to dispute the supreme power with the new +caliph, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in alarm, offered him as +the price of peace the government of this province together with Armenia +and Azerbaijan. Merwan resolved to accept those conditions, and sent a +deputation to Damascus, which, however, had just reached Manbij +(Hierapolis) when Yazid died. Leaving his son Abdalmalik with 40,000 men +in Rakka, Merwan entered Syria with 80,000 men. Suleiman b. Hisham, at +the head of 120,000 men, was defeated at 'Ain al-Jarr, between Baalbek +and Damascus. Merwan made many prisoners, whom he treated with the +greatest mildness, granting them freedom on condition that they should +take the oath of allegiance to the sons of Walid II. He then marched +upon Damascus. But Suleiman b. Hisham, Yazid, the son of Khalid +al-Qasri, and other chiefs, hastened to the Khadra and killed the two +princes, together with Yusuf b. Omar. Suleiman then made himself master +of the treasury and fled with the caliph Ibrahim to Tadmor (Palmyra). +Only Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani escaped the murderers. When Merwan entered +Damascus this man testified that the sons of Walid II., who had just +become adult, had named Merwan successor to the Caliphate, and was the +first to greet him as Prince of the Believers. All the generals and +officers followed his example and took the oath of allegiance (7th +December A.D. 744). Merwan did all he could to pacify Syria, permitting +the Arabs of the four provinces to choose their own prefects, and even +acquiescing in the selection as prefect of Palestine of Thabit b. +No'aim, who had behaved very treacherously towards him before, but whom +he had forgiven. He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but +transplanted the seat of government to his own town, Harran in +Mesopotamia. Suleiman b. Hisham and Ibrahim tendered their submission +and were pardoned. + +But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Omayyad princes +considered Merwan as an upstart, his mother being a slave-girl; the +Damascenes were angry because he had chosen Harran for his residence; +the Kalbites felt themselves slighted, as the Qaisites predominated. +Thabit b. No'aim revolted in Palestine, Emesa (Homs) and Tadmor were +turbulent, Damascus was besieged by Yazid b. Khalid al Qasri. Merwan, +who wanted to march against Irak, was obliged to return to Syria, where +he put an end to the troubles. This time Thabit b. No'aim had to pay for +his perfidy with his life. After this new pacification, Merwan caused +the Syrians to acknowledge his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate, and +married them to two daughters of Hisham. All the Omayyad princes were +invited to the wedding, Merwan hoping still to conciliate them. He then +equipped 10,000 Syrians, and ordered them to rejoin the army of 20,000 +men from Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin) and Mesopotamia, who, under Yazid b. Omar +b. Hobaira, were already on the march towards Irak. When these Syrians +came to Rosafa (Rusafa), Suleiman b. Hisham persuaded them to proclaim +himself caliph, and made himself master of Kinnesrin. From all sides +Syrians flocked to his aid till he had 70,000 men under his orders. +Merwan immediately ordered Ibn Hobaira to stop his march and to wait for +him at Durin, and marched with the main force against Suleiman, whom he +utterly defeated at Khosaf in the district of Kinnesrin. Suleiman fled +to Homs and thence to Tadmor and on to Kufa, leaving his brother Sa'id +in Homs. The siege of this place by Merwan lasted nearly five months. +After the victory the walls were demolished, and likewise those of +Baalbek, Damascus, Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, +and therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until the +summer of 128 (A.D. 746) could Merwan resume his campaign against Irak. + +The governor of this province, Abdallah, the son of Omar II., was a man +of small energy, whose principal care was his personal ease and comfort. +An ambitious man, Abdallah b. Moawiya, a great-grandson of Ali's brother +Ja'far, put himself at the head of a band of Shi'ites and _maulas_, made +himself master of Kufa and marched upon Hira, where, since Yusuf b. +Omar, the governor and the Syrian troops had resided. The rebels were +defeated, and Kufa surrendered (October 744) under condition of amnesty +for the insurgents and freedom for Abdallah b. Moawiya. This adventurer +now went into Media (Jabal), where a great number of _maulas_ and +Shi'ites, even members of the reigning dynasty and of the Abbasid +family, such as the future caliph Mansur, rejoined him. With their help +he became master of a vast empire, which, however, lasted scarcely three +years. + +Ibn Omar did not acknowledge Merwan as caliph. For the moment Merwan +could do no more than send a new governor, Ibn Sa'id al Harashi. This +officer was supported only by the Qaisite troops, the Kalbites, who were +numerically superior, maintaining Ibn Omar in his residence at Hira. +There were many skirmishes between them, but a common danger soon forced +them to suspend their hostilities. The general disorder after the death +of Hisham had given to the Khawarij an opportunity of asserting their +claims such as they had never had before. They belonged for the greater +part to the Rabi'a, who always stood more or less aloof from the other +Arabs, and had a particular grudge against the Modar. Their leading +tribe, the Shaiban, possessed the lands on the Tigris in the province of +Mosul, and here, after the murder of Walid II., their chief proclaimed +himself caliph. Reinforced by many Kharijites out of the northern +provinces, he marched against Kufa. Ibn Omar and Ibn Sa'id al Harashi +tried to defend their province, but were completely defeated. Harashi +fled to Merwan, Ibn Omar to Hira, which, after a siege of two months, he +was obliged to surrender in Shawwal 127 (August A.D. 745). Mansur b. +Jomhur was the first to pass over to the Khawarij; then Ibn Omar himself +took the oath of allegiance. That a noble Koreishite, a prince of the +reigning house, should pledge himself to follow Dahhak the Shaibanite as +his Imam, was an event of which the Khawarij were very proud. Ibn Omar +was rewarded with the government of eastern Irak, Khuzistan and Fars. + +Whilst Merwan besieged Homs, Dahhak returned to Mesopotamia and took +Mosul, whence he threatened Nisibis, where Abdallah, the son of Merwan, +maintained himself with difficulty. Suleiman b. Hisham also had gone +over to the Khawarij, who now numbered 120,000 men. Mesopotamia itself +was in danger, when Merwan at last was able to march against the enemy. +In a furious battle at Kafartutha (September A.D. 746) the Khawarij were +defeated; Dahhak and his successor Khaibari perished; the survivors were +obliged to retire to Mosul, where they crossed the Tigris. Merwan +followed them and encamped on the western bank. Immediately after the +battle of Kafartutha, Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira directed his troops +towards Irak. He beat the Kharijites repeatedly and entered Kufa in May +or June 747. Ibn Omar was taken prisoner; Mansur b. Jomhur fled to Ibn +Moawiya. Ibn Hobaira was at last free to send Ibn Dobara with an army to +Mesopotamia. At his approach the Kharijites left their camp and fled to +Abdallah b. Moawiya, who was now at the height of his power. But it was +not destined to last. The two generals of Ibn Hobaira, Ibn Dobara and +Nobata b. Hanzala defeated his army; Ibn Moawiya fled to Khorasan, where +he met his death; the chief of the Kharijites, Shaiban Yashkori went to +eastern Arabia; Suleiman b. Hisham and Mansur b. Johmur escaped to +India. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern parts of the empire +lay at the feet of Merwan. But in the north-east, in Khorasan, meanwhile +a storm had arisen, against which his resources and his wisdom were +alike of no avail. + +When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khorasan, Nasr b. +Sayyar did not at once acknowledge the Caliphate of Yazid III., but +induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir of Khorasan, until a +caliph should be universally acknowledged. Not many months later +(Shawwal 126) he was confirmed in his post by Yusuf b. Omar, the +governor of Irak. But Nasr had a personal enemy, the chief of the Azd +(Yemenites) Jodai' al-Kirmani, a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose, +and in a short time the Azd under Kirmani, supported by the Rabi'a, who +always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection, which +Nasr tried in vain to put down by concessions. + +So stood matters when Harith b. Soraij, seconded by Yazid III., +reappeared on the scene, crossed the Oxus and came to Merv. Nasr +received him with the greatest honour, hoping to get his aid against +Kirmani, but Harith, to whom 3000 men of his tribe, the Tamim, had gone +over, demanded Nasr's abdication and tried to make himself master of +Merv. Having failed in this, he allied himself with Kirmani. Nasr could +hold Merv no longer, and retired to Nishapur. But the Tamim of Harith +could not endure the supremacy of the Azd. In a moment the allies were +divided into two camps; a battle ensued, in which Harith was defeated +and killed. Originally, Harith seems to have had the highest aims, but +in reality he did more than any one else to weaken the Arabic dominion. +He brought the Turks into the field against them; he incited the native +population of Transoxiana against their Arab lords, and stirred up +discord between the Arabs themselves. Being a Tamimite, he belonged to +the Modar, on whom the government in Khorasan depended; but he aided the +Yemenites to gain the upper hand of them. Thus he paved the way for Abu +Moslim. + +Since the days of Ali there had been two tendencies among the Shi'ites. +The moderate party distinguished itself from the other Moslems only by +their doctrine that the imamate belonged legally to a man of the house +of the Prophet. The other party, that of the ultra-Shi'ites, named +Hashimiya after Abu Hashim the son of Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, preached +the equality of all Moslems, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the +same divine spirit that had animated the Prophet, incorporated itself +again in his heirs (see SHI'ITES). After the death of Hosain, they chose +for their Imam Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, and at his decease his son Abu +Hashim, from whom Mahommed b. Ali, the grandson of Abdallah b. Abbas, +who resided at Homaima in the south-east of Syria, obtained the secrets +of the party and took the lead (A.H. 98, see above). This Mahommed, the +father of the two first Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability +and great ambition. He directed his energies primarily to Khorasan. The +missionaries were charged with the task of undermining the authority of +the Omayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took place +under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of the court, as +contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects. God would not +suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe that time could not +be far off--He would send a saviour--and out of the house of the +Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore Islam to its original purity. All +who desired to co-operate in this holy purpose must pledge themselves to +unlimited obedience to the Imam, and place their lives and property at +his disposal. As a proof of their sincerity they were required at once +to pay a fixed sum for the Imam. The missionaries had great success, +especially among the non-Arabic inhabitants of Khorasan and Transoxiana. + +Mahommed b. Ali died A.H. 126 (A.D. 743-744), and his son Ibrahim, the +Imam, took his place. Ibrahim had a confidant about whose antecedents +one fact alone seems certain, that he was a _maula_ (client) of Persian +origin. This man, Abu Moslim by name, was a man of real ability and +devoted to his master's cause. To him, in 745-746, the management of +affairs in Khorasan was entrusted, with instructions to consult in all +weighty matters the head of the mission, the Arab Suleiman b. Kathir. At +first the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize +Abu Moslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet. In the +year 129 he judged that the time for open manifestation had arrived. His +partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides on a fixed day at +Siqadenj in the province of Merv. Then, on the 1st Shawwal (15th June +747), the first solemn meeting took place and the black flags were +unfolded. On that occasion Suleiman b. Kathir was still leader, but by +the end of the year Abu Moslim, whom the majority believed to belong +himself to the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a +strong army. Meantime, Nasr had moved from Nishapur to Merv, and here +the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last, the true +significance of Abu Moslim's work was recognized. Nasr warned the Arabs +against their common enemy, "who preaches a religion that does not come +from the Envoy of God, and whose chief aim is the extirpation of the +Arabs." In vain he had entreated Merwan and Ibn Hobaira to send him +troops before it should be too late. When at last it was possible to +them to fulfil his wish, it was in fact too late. For a moment it seemed +as though the rival Arab factions, realizing their common peril, would +turn their combined forces against the Shi'ites. But Abu Moslim +contrived to re-awaken their mutual distrust and jealousy, and, taking +advantage of the opportunity, made himself master of Merv, in Rabia II. +A.H. 130 (December 747). Nasr escaped only by a headlong flight to +Nishapur. This was the end of the Arabic dominion in the East. Many Arab +chiefs were killed, partly by order of Abu Moslim, partly by their +clients. The latter, however, was strictly forbidden by Abu Moslim. So +severe indeed was the discipline he exercised, that one of the chief +missionaries, who by a secret warning had rendered possible the escape +of Nasr from Merv, paid for it with his life. + +As soon as Abu Moslim had consolidated his authority, he sent his chief +general Qahtaba against Nishapur. Nasr's son Tamim was vanquished and +killed, and Nasr retreated to Kumis (Qumis) on the boundary of Jorjan, +whither also advanced from the other side Nobata at the head of an army +sent by Merwan. Qahtaba detached his son Hasan against Nasr and went +himself to meet Nobata, whom he beat on the 1st of Dhu'l-hijja 130 (6th +August 748). Nasr could not further resist. He reached Sawa in the +vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of +eighty-five years. Rei and Hamadan were taken without serious +difficulty. Near Nehawend, Ibn Dobara, at the head of a large army, +encountered Qahtaba, but was defeated and killed. In the month of +Dhu'l-qa'da 131 (June 749) Nehawend (Nehavend) surrendered, and thereby +the way to Irak lay open to Qahtaba. Ibn Hobaira was overtaken and +compelled to retire to Wasit. Qahtaba himself perished in the combat, +but his son Hasan entered Kufa without any resistance on the 2nd of +September 740. + +Merwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the movement in +Khorasan, and had seized upon Ibrahim the Imam and imprisoned him at +Harran. There he died, probably from the plague, though Merwan was +accused of having killed him. When the other Abbasids left Homaima is +not certain. But they arrived at Kufa in the latter half of September +749, where in the meantime the head of the propaganda, Abu Salama, +called the wazir of the family of Mahomet, had previously undertaken the +government. This Abu Salama seems to have had scruples against +recognizing Abu'l-Abbas as the successor of his brother Ibrahim, and to +have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked for from Medina, would not +be slow in making his appearance, little thinking that an Abbasid would +present himself as such. But Abu Jahm, on the instructions of Abu +Moslim, declared to the chief officers of the Khorasanian army that the +Mahdi was in their midst, and brought them to Abu'l-Abbas, to whom they +swore allegiance. Abu Salama also was constrained to take the oath. On +Friday, the 12th Rabia II. A.H. 132 (28th November 749) Abu'l-Abbas was +solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal mosque of Kufa. The trick +had been carried out admirably. On the point of gathering the ripe +fruit, the Alids were suddenly pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched +away by the Abbasids. The latter gained the throne and they took good +care never to be deprived of it. + +After the conquest of Nehawend, Qahtaba had detached one of his +captains, Abu 'Aun, to Shahrazur, where he defeated the Syrian army +which was stationed there. Thereupon Abu 'Aun occupied the land of +Mosul, where he obtained reinforcements from Kufa, headed by Abdallah b. +Ali, an uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, who was to have the supreme command. +Merwan advanced to meet him, and was completely defeated near the +Greater Zab, an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted eleven +days. Merwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to +Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle towards the end of 132 (August +750). His head was cut off and sent to Kufa.[26] Abu Aun, who had been +the real leader of the campaign against Merwan, remained in Egypt as its +governor. Ibn Hobaira, who had been besieged in Wasit for eleven months, +then consented to a capitulation, which was sanctioned by Abu'l-Abbas. +Immediately after the surrender, Ibn Hobaira and his principal officers +were treacherously murdered. In Syria, the Omayyads were persecuted with +the utmost rigour. Even their graves were violated, and the bodies +crucified and destroyed. In order that no members of the family should +escape, Abdallah b. Ali pretended to grant an amnesty to all Omayyads +who should come in to him at Abu Fotros (Antipatris) and acknowledge the +new caliph, and even promised them the restitution of all their +property. Ninety men allowed themselves to be entrapped, and Abdallah +invited them to a banquet. When they were all collected, a body of +executioners rushed into the hall and slew them with clubs. He then +ordered leathern covers to be thrown upon the dying men, and had the +banquet served upon them. In Medina and Mecca Da'ud b. Ali, another +uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, conducted the persecution; in Basra, Suleiman b. +Ali. Abu'l-Abbas himself killed those he could lay his hands on in Hira +and Kufa, amongst them Suleiman b. Hisham, who had been the bitterest +enemy of Merwan. Only a few Omayyads escaped the massacre, several of +whom were murdered later. A grandson of Hisham, Abdarrahman, son of his +most beloved son Moawiya, reached Africa and founded in Spain the +Omayyad dynasty of Cordova. + +With the dynasty of the Omayyads the hegemony passes finally from Syria +to Irak. At the same time the supremacy of the Arabs came to an end. +Thenceforth it is not the contingents of the Arabic tribes which compose +the army, and on whom the government depends; the new dynasty relies on +a standing army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers. +The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations begins +to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic language and the +Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and spread more and more over +the whole empire. + + +C.--THE ABBASIDS + +We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under which the power +of Islam reached its highest point. + +1. Abu'l-Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue in which he +announced the era of concord and happiness which was to begin now that +the House of the Prophet had been restored to its right. He asserted +that the Abbasids were the real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants +of his oldest uncle Abbas. Addressing the Kufians, he said, "Inhabitants +of Kufa, ye are those whose affection towards us has ever been constant +and true; ye have never changed your mind, nor swerved from it, +notwithstanding all the pressure of the unjust upon you. At last our +time has come, and God has brought you the new era. Ye are the happiest +of men through us, and the dearest to us. I increase your pensions with +100 dirhems; make now your preparations, for I am the lavish shedder of +blood[27] and the avenger of blood." + +Notwithstanding these fine words, Abu'l-Abbas did not trust the +Kufians. He resided outside the town with the Khorasanian troops, and +with them went first to Hira, then to Hashimiya, which he caused to be +built in the neighbourhood of Anbar. For their real sympathies, he knew, +were with the house of Ali, and Abu Salama their leader, who had +reluctantly taken the oath of allegiance, did not conceal his +disappointment. Abu Jahm, the vizier (q.v.; also MAHOMMEDAN +INSTITUTIONS), or "helper," of Abu Moslim, advised that Abu Ja'far, the +caliph's brother, should be sent to Khorasan to consult Abu Moslim. The +result was that Abu Salama was assassinated, and at the same time +Suleiman b. Kathir, who had been the head of the propaganda in Khorasan, +and had also expected that the Mahdi would belong to the house of Ali. +It is said that Abu Ja'far, whilst in Khorasan, was so impressed by the +unlimited power of Abu Moslim, and saw so clearly that, though he called +his brother and himself his masters, he considered them as his +creatures, that he vowed his death at the first opportunity. + +The ruin of the Omayyad empire and the rise of the new dynasty did not +take place without mighty convulsions. In Bathaniya and the Hauran, in +the north of Syria, in Mesopotamia and Irak Khorasan insurrections had +to be put down with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the +provinces among the principal members of his family and his generals. To +his brother Abu Ja'far he gave Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and Armenia; to +his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, Syria; to his uncle Da'ud, Hejaz, Yemen and +Yamama (Yemama); to his cousin 'Isa b. Musa, the province of Kufa. +Another uncle, Suleiman b. Ali, received the government of Basra with +Bahrein and Oman; Isma 'il b. Ali that of Ahwaz; Abu Moslim, Khorasan +and Transoxiana; Mahommed b. Ash'ath, Fars; Abu 'Aun, Egypt. In Sind the +Omayyad governor, Mansur b. Jomhur, had succeeded in maintaining +himself, but was defeated by an army sent against him under Musa b. +Ka'b, and the black standard of the Abbasids was raised over the city of +Mansura. Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the +Abbasids never gained any real footing in Spain, while Africa remained, +at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection to the new +dynasty. In 754 Abu Moslim came to Irak to visit Abu'l-Abbas and to ask +his permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was received with +great honour, but the caliph said that he was sorry not to be able to +give him the leadership of the pilgrimage, which he had already +purposely entrusted to his brother, Abu Ja'far. + +Abu'l-Abbas died on the 13th of Dhu'l-hijja 136 (5th June 754). He seems +to have been a man of limited capacity, and had very little share in the +achievements accomplished in his name. He initiated practically nothing +without the consent of Abu Jahm, who was thus the real ruler. In the few +cases where he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his +brother Abu Ja'far. + +2. _Reign of Mansur._--Abu'l-Abbas had designated as his successors +first Abu Ja'far, surnamed al-Mansur (the victorious), and after him his +cousin 'Isa b. Musa. Abu Ja'far was, according to the historians, older +than Abu'l-Abbas, but while the mother of the latter belonged to the +powerful Yemenite tribe of al-Harith b. Ka'b, the mother of Abu Ja'far +was a Berber slave-girl. But he was a son of Mahommed b. Ali, and was +therefore preferred by Abu Moslim to his uncles and cousins. +Abu'l-Abbas, however, had promised the succession to his uncle Abdallah +b. Ali, when he marched against Merwan. When the news of the death of +Abu'l-Abbas reached Abdallah, who at the head of a numerous army was on +the point of renewing the Byzantine war, he came to Harran, furious at +his exclusion, and proclaimed himself caliph. Abu Moslim marched against +him, and the two armies met at Nisibis, where, after a number of +skirmishes, a decisive engagement took place (28th November 754). +Abdallah was defeated and escaped to Basra, where he found a refuge with +his brother Suleiman. A year later he asked for pardon, and took the +oath of allegiance to Mansur. The caliph spared his life for a time, but +he did not forget. In 764 Abdallah met his death by the collapse of his +house, which had been deliberately undermined. + +The first care of Mansur was now to get rid of the powerful Abu Moslim, +who had thus by another brilliant service strengthened his great +reputation. On pretence of conferring with him on important business of +state, Mansur induced him, in spite of the warnings of his best general, +Abu Nasr, to come to Madain (Ctesiphon), and in the most perfidious +manner caused him to be murdered by his guards. Thus miserably perished +the real founder of the Abbasid dynasty, the _Sahib addaula_, as he is +commonly called, the _Amin_ (trustee) of the House of the Prophet. A +witty man, being asked his opinion about Abu Ja'far (Mansur) and Abu +Moslim, said, alluding to the Koran 21, verse 22, "if there were two +Gods, the universe would be ruined." The Khorasanian chiefs were bribed +into submission, and order was at last re-established by Mansur's +general Khazim b. Khozaima in Mesopotamia, and by Abu Da'ud, the +governor of Khorasan in the east. + +About the same time Africa[28] and Spain escaped from the dominion of +the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season, the latter permanently. +The cause of the revolt of Africa was as follows. Mansur had written to +Abdarrahman, announcing the death of Abu'l-Abbas, and requiring him to +take the oath of allegiance. Abdarrahman sent in his adhesion, together +with a few presents of little value. The caliph replied by a threatening +letter which angered Abdarrahman. He called the people together at the +hour of prayer, publicly cursed Mansur from the pulpit and declared him +deposed. He next caused a circular letter, commanding all Maghribins to +refuse obedience to the caliph, to be read from the pulpit throughout +the whole extent of the Maghrib (western North Africa). A brother of +Abdarrahman, Ilyas, saw in this revolt an opportunity of obtaining the +government of Africa for himself. Seconded by many of the inhabitants of +Kairawan, who had remained faithful to the cause of the Abbasids, he +attacked his brother, slew him, and proclaimed himself governor in his +stead. This revolution in favour of the Abbasids was, however, not of +long duration. Habib, the eldest son of Abdarrahman, who had fled in the +night of his father's murder, was captured, but the vessel which was to +convey him to Spain having been detained by stress of weather, his +partisans took arms and rescued him. Ilyas was marching against them, +when the idea occurred to Habib of challenging him to single combat. +Ilyas hesitated, but his own soldiers compelled him to accept the +challenge. He measured arms with Habib, and was slain. The party of +independence thus triumphed, but in the year 144 (761) Mahommed b. +Ash'ath, the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained possession +of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the year 800, it must +be added, Africa only nominally belonged to the Abbasids; for, under the +reign of Harun al-Rashid, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with +the government of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, +that of the Aghlabites. + +At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent Caliphate of +the western Omayyads was founded in Spain. The long dissensions which +had preceded the fall of that dynasty in the East had already prepared +the way for the independence of a province so distant from the centre of +the empire. Every petty amir then tried to seize sovereign power for +himself, and the people groaned under the consequent anarchy. Weary of +these commotions, the Arabs of Spain at last came to an understanding +among themselves for the election of a caliph, and their choice fell +upon one of the last survivors of the Omayyads, Abdarrahman b. Moawiya, +grandson of the caliph Hisham. This prince was wandering in the deserts +of Africa, pursued by his implacable enemies, but everywhere protected +and concealed by the desert tribes, who pitied his misfortunes and +respected his illustrious origin. A deputation from Spain sought him out +in Africa and offered him the Caliphate, which he accepted with joy. On +the 1st Rabia I. 138 (14th August 755) Abdarrahman landed in the Iberian +peninsula, where he was universally welcomed, and speedily founded at +Cordova the Western Omayyad Caliphate (see SPAIN: _History_). + +While Mansur was thus losing Africa and Spain, he was trying to redeem +the losses the empire had sustained on the northern frontier by the +Byzantines. In 750-751 the emperor Constantine V. (Copronymus) had +unsuccessfully blockaded Malatia; but five years later he took it by +force and razed its wall to the ground. Mansur now sent in 757 an army +of 70,000 men under the command of his cousin Abdalwahhab, the son of +Ibrahim the Imam, whom he had made governor of Mesopotamia, the real +chief being Hasan b. Qahtaba. They rebuilt all that the emperor had +destroyed, and made this key of Asia Minor stronger than ever before. +The Moslems then made a raid by the pass of Hadath (Adata) and invaded +the land of the Byzantines. Two aunts of the caliph took part in this +expedition, having made a vow that if the dominion of the Omayyads were +ended they would wage war in the path of God. Constantine advanced with +a numerous army, but was afraid of attacking the invaders. The Moslems +also rebuilt Mopsuestia. But from 758 till 763 Mansur was so occupied +with his own affairs that he could not think of further raids. + +In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called +Rawendis (q.v.), went to Hashimiya, the residence of the caliph, not far +from Kufa. They believed that the caliph was their lord, to whom they +owed their daily bread, and came to pay him divine honours. They began +by marching in solemn procession round the palace, as if it had been the +Ka'ba. Mansur being told of it said: "I would rather they went to hell +in obedience to us, than to heaven in disobedience." But as they grew +tumultuous, and he saw that this impious homage gave offence to his men, +he caused the principal leaders to be seized and thrown into prison. The +Rawendis immediately rose in revolt, broke the prison doors, rescued +their chiefs, and returned to the palace. The unfortunate fanatics were +hunted down and massacred to the last man, and thereby the ties that +bound the Abbasids to the ultra-Shi'ites were severed. From that time +forward the Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam, +just as the Omayyads had been. The name of Hashimiya, which the reigning +family still retained, was henceforward derived not from Abu Hashim, but +from Hashim, the grandfather of Abbas, the great-grandfather of the +Prophet. + +A much greater danger now threatened Mansur. In the last days of the +Omayyads, the Shi'ites had chosen as caliph, Mahommed b. Abdallah b. +Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi and the "pure soul," and Mansur had +been among those who pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, +the Alids in Medina were indignant at being supplanted by the Abbasids, +and Mansur's chief concern was to get Mahommed into his power. +Immediately after his occupying the throne, he named Ziyad b. Obaidallah +governor of Medina, with orders to lay hands on Mahommed and his brother +Ibrahim, who, warned betimes, took refuge in flight. In 758 Mansur, +informed that a revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and +ordered Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or +would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other +relatives were seized and transported to Irak, where Abdallah and his +brother Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned. Notwithstanding all +these precautions, a vast conspiracy was formed. On the same day +Mahommed was to raise the standard of revolt in Medina, Ibrahim in +Basra. But the Alids, though not devoid of personal courage, never +excelled in politics or in tactics. In A.D. 762 Mahommed took Medina and +had himself proclaimed caliph. The governor of Kufa, 'Isa b. Musa, +received orders to march against him, entered Arabia, and captured +Medina, which, fortified by Mahommed by the same means as the Prophet +had employed against the besieging Meccans, could not hold out against +the well-trained Khorasanians. Mahommed was defeated and slain. His head +was cut off and sent to Mansur. When on the point of death, Mahommed +gave the famous sword of the Prophet called Dhu'l-Fiqar to a merchant to +whom he owed 400 dinars. It came later into the possession of Harun +al-Rashid. In the meanwhile Ibrahim had not only gained possession of +Basra, Ahwaz and Fars, but had even occupied Wasit. The empire of the +Abbasids was in great jeopardy. For fifty days Mansur stayed in his +room, neither changing his clothes nor allowing himself a moment's +repose. The greater part of his troops were in Rei with his son +al-Mahdi, who had conquered Tabaristan, in Africa, with Mahommed b. +Ash'ath, and in Arabia with 'Isa b. Musa. Had Ibrahim marched at once +against Kufa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the +opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Ba-Khamra, 48 m. from +Kufa. Homaid b. Qahtaba, the commander of Mansur's army, was defeated, +only a small division under 'Isa b. Musa holding its ground. At that +moment Salm, the son of the famous Qotaiba b. Moslim, came to the rescue +by attacking the rear of Ibrahim. Homaid rallied his troops, and Ibrahim +was overpowered. At last he fell, pierced by an arrow, and, in spite of +the desperate efforts of his followers, his body remained in the hands +of the enemy. His head was cut off and brought to Mansur. + +Mansur could now give his mind to the founding of the new capital. When +the tumult of the Rawendis took place he saw clearly that his personal +safety was not assured in Hashimiya,[29] where a riot of the populace +could be very dangerous, and his troops were continually exposed to the +perverting influence of the fickle and disloyal citizens of Kufa. He had +just made choice of the admirable site of the old market-town of Bagdad +when the tidings came of the rising of Mahommed in Medina. In those days +he saw that he had been very imprudent to denude himself of troops, and +decided to keep henceforth always with him a body of 30,000 soldiers. So +Bagdad, or properly "the round city" of Mansur, on the western bank of +the Tigris, was built as the capital. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in +the centre of which was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. +But around this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which +was to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate +lasted.[30] The building lasted three years and was completed in the +year 149 (A.D. 766). That year is really the beginning of the new era. +"The Omayyads," says the Spanish writer Ibn Hazm, "were an Arabic +dynasty; they had no fortified residence, nor citadel; each of them +dwelt in his villa, where he lived before becoming caliph; they did not +desire that the Moslems should speak to them as slaves to their master, +nor kiss the ground before them or their feet; they only gave their care +to the appointment of able governors in the provinces of the empire. The +Abbasids, on the contrary, were a Persian dynasty, under which the Arab +tribal system, as regulated by Omar, fell to pieces; the Persians of +Khorasan were the real rulers, and the government became despotic as in +the days of Chrosroes." The reign of Abu'l-Abbas and the first part of +that of Mansur had been almost a continuation of the former period. But +now his equals in birth and rank, the Omayyads and the Alids, had been +crushed; the principal actors in the great struggle, the leaders of the +propaganda and Abu Moslim were out of the way; the caliph stood far +above all his subjects; and his only possible antagonists were the +members of his own family. + +'Isa b. Musa had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu'l-Abbas as +successor to Mansur. The latter having vainly tried to compel 'Isa to +renounce his right of succession, in favour of Mansur's son Mahommed +al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who swore that he had done so. +However unwillingly, 'Isa was obliged at last to yield, but it was +understood that, in case of Mahommed's death, the succession should +return to 'Isa. One of the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khalid +b. Barmak, the head of that celebrated family the Barmecides (q.v.), +which played so important a part in the reign of Harun al-Rashid. This +Khalid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family in Balkh, and +had been one of the trusty supporters of Abu Moslim, Mansur appointed as +minister of finance. + +A son of Mahommed the Alid had escaped to India, where, with the +connivance of the governor Omar b. Hafs Hazarmerd, he had found refuge +with an Indian king. Mansur discovered his abode, and caused him to be +killed. His infant son was sent to Medina and delivered to his family. +Omar Hazarmerd lost his government and received a command in Africa, +where he died in 770. + +In A.H. 158 (A.D. 775) Mansur undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca, but +succumbed to dysentery at the last station on the route. He was about +sixty-five years of age, and had reigned for twenty-two years. He was +buried at Mecca. He was a man of rare energy and strength of mind. His +ambition was boundless and no means, however perfidious, were despised +by him. But he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able +officers for all places. He was thrifty and anxious to leave to his son +a full treasury. He seems to have cherished the ideal that this son, +called Mahommed b. Abdallah, after the Prophet, should fulfil the +promises of peace and happiness that had been tendered to the believers, +and therefore to have called him al-Mahdi. For that purpose it was +necessary that he should have the means not only to meet all state +expenses, but also to be bounteous. But from the report of the historian +Haitham b. 'Adi[31] about the last discourse which father and son had +together, we gather that the former had misgivings in regard to the +fulfilment of his wishes. + +Khalid b. Barmak took the greatest care of the revenues, but contrived +at the same time to consult his own interests. Mansur discovered this in +the same year in which he died, and threatened him with death unless he +should pay to the treasury three millions of dirhems within three days. +Khalid already had so many friends that the sum was brought together +with the exception of 30,000 dirhems. At that moment tidings came about +a rising in the province of Mosul, and a friend of Khalid said to the +caliph that Khalid was the only man capable of putting it down. +Thereupon Mansur overlooked the deficiency and gave Khalid the +government of Mosul. "And," said a citizen of that town, "we had such an +awe and reverence for Khalid, that he appeased the disorders, almost +without punishing anybody." + +3. _Reign of Mahdi._--As soon as Mansur was dead, Rabi', his client and +chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals who accompanied the +caliph, to take the oath of allegiance to his son Mahommed al-Mahdi, who +was then at Bagdad. Isa b. Musa hesitated, but was compelled to give in. +In 776 Mahdi constrained him for a large bribe to renounce his right of +succession in favour of his sons, Musa and Harun. Mansur wrote in his +testament to his son that he had brought together so much money that, +even if no revenue should come in for ten years, it would suffice for +all the wants of the state. Mahdi, therefore, could afford to be +munificent, and in order to make his accession doubly welcome to his +subjects, he began by granting a general amnesty to political prisoners. +Among these was a certain Ya'qub b. Da'ud, who, having insinuated +himself into the confidence of the caliph, especially by discovering the +hiding places of certain Alids, was afterwards (in 778) made prime +minister. The provincial governors in whom his father had placed +confidence, Mahdi superseded by creatures of his own. + +In Khorasan many people were discontented. The promises made to them +during the war against the Omayyads had not been fulfilled, and the new +Mahdi did not answer at all to their ideal. A revolt in 160 under the +leadership of a certain Yusuf b. Ibrahim, surnamed al-Barm, was +suppressed by Yazid b. Mazyad, who, after a desperate struggle, defeated +Yusuf, took him prisoner and brought him in triumph to Bagdad, where he +with several of his officers was killed and crucified. In the following +year, Mahdi was menaced by a far more dangerous revolt, led by a +sectary, known generally as Mokanna (q.v.), or "the veiled one," because +he always appeared in public wearing a mask. He took up his abode in the +Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he gathered around +him a great number of adherents. After some successes, the pretender was +ultimately cornered at the castle of Sanam near Kish, and took poison +together with all the members of his family. His head was cut off and +sent to Mahdi in the year 163. + +Mahdi had been scarcely a year on the throne when he resolved to +accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca. The chroniclers relate that on this +occasion for the first time camels loaded with ice for the use of the +caliph came to Mecca. Immediately on his arrival in the Holy City he +applied himself, at the request of the inhabitants, to the renewal of +the curtains which covered the exterior walls of the Ka'ba. For a very +long time no care had been taken to remove the old covering when a new +one was put on; and the accumulated weight caused uneasiness respecting +the stability of the walls. Mahdi caused the house to be entirely +stripped and anointed with perfumes, and covered the walls again with a +single cloth of great richness. The temple itself was enlarged and +restored. On this occasion he distributed considerable largesses among +the Meccans. From Mecca Mahdi went to Medina, where he caused the mosque +to be enlarged, and where a similar distribution of gifts took place. +During his stay in that city he formed for himself a guard of honour, +composed of 500 descendants of the Ansar,[32] to whom he assigned a +quarter in Bagdad, named after them the Qati'a (Fief) of the Ansar. +Struck by the difficulties of every kind which had to be encountered by +poor pilgrims to Mecca from Bagdad and its neighbourhood, he ordered +Yaqtin, his freedman, to renew the milestones, to repair the old +reservoirs, and to dig wells and construct cisterns at every station of +the road where they were missing. He also had new inns built and decayed +ones repaired. Yaqtin remained inspector of the road till 767. + +During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the Byzantines had +taken place almost without intermission, but the only feat of importance +had been the conquest of Laodicea, called "the burnt" ([Greek: hae +katakekaumenae]), by Ma'yuf b. Yahya in the year 770. At first the +armies of Mahdi were not successful. The Greeks even conquered Marash +(Germanicia) and annihilated the Moslem army sent from Dabiq. In 778, +however, Hasan b. Qahtaba made a victorious raid as far as Adhruliya +(Dorylaeum); it was on his proposition that Mahdi resolved on building +the frontier town called Hadath (Adata), which became an outpost. In 779 +the caliph decided on leading his army in person. He assembled his army +in the plains of Baradan north of Bagdad and began his march in the +early spring of 780, taking with him his second son Harun, and leaving +his elder son Musa as his lieutenant in Bagdad. Traversing Mesopotamia +and Syria, he entered Cilicia, and established himself on the banks of +the Jihan (Pyramus). Thence he despatched an expeditionary force, +nominally under the command of Harun, but in reality under that of his +tutor, the Barmecide Yahya b. Khalid. Harun captured the fortress Samalu +after a siege of thirty-eight days, the inhabitants surrendering on +condition that they should not be killed or separated from one another. +The caliph kept faith with them, and settled them in Bagdad, where they +built a monastery called after their native place. In consequence of +this feat, Mahdi made Harun governor of the whole western part of the +empire, including Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out +afresh between the Moslems and the Greeks. Leo IV., the East Roman +emperor, had recently died, leaving the crown to Constantine VI. This +prince being only ten years old, his mother Irene acted as regent and +assumed the title Augusta. By her orders an army of 90,000 men, under +the command of Michael Lachanodrakon, entered Asia Minor. The Moslems, +on their side, invaded Cilicia under the orders of Abdalkabir who, being +afraid of encountering the enemy, retired with his troops. Irritated by +this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Harun, accompanied by his +chamberlain Rabi', with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with orders to +carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. The patrician +Nicetas, count of Opsikion, who sought to oppose his march, was defeated +by Harun's general, Yazid b. Mazyad, and put to flight. Harun then +marched against Nicomedia, where he vanquished the domesticus, the chief +commander of the Greek forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the +Bosporus. Irene took alarm, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for +three years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual +tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Moslems with guides and +markets on their way home. This brilliant success so increased Mahdi's +affection for Harun that he appointed him successor-designate after Musa +and named him _al-Rashid_ ("the follower of the right cause"). Three +years later, he resolved even to give to him the precedence in the +succession instead of Musa, yielding to the importunity of Khaizoran, +the mother of the two princes, and to his own predilection. It was +necessary first to obtain from Musa a renunciation of his rights; and +for that purpose he was recalled from Jorjan, where he was engaged on an +expedition against the rebels of Tabaristan. Musa, informed of his +father's intentions, refused to obey this order, and Mahdi determined to +march in person against him. But, after his arrival at Masabadhan, a +place in Jabal (Media, the later Persian Irak), he died suddenly, at the +age of only forty-three. Some attribute his death to an accident met +with in hunting; others believe him to have been poisoned. Some European +scholars have suspected Musa of having been concerned in it, but of this +we have no proof whatever. + +The reign of Mahdi was a time of great prosperity. Much was done for the +organization of the huge empire; agriculture and commerce flourished; +the revenues were increasing, whilst the people fared well. The power of +the state was acknowledged even in the far east: the emperor of China, +the king of Tibet, and many Indian princes concluded treaties with the +caliph. He was an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, repudiating all +the extravagant doctrine preached by the Abbasid missionaries and +formerly professed by his father. In particular he persecuted +mercilessly the Manichaeans and all kinds of freethinkers. + +4. _Reign of Hadi_.--On the death of Mahdi, Harun, following the advice +of Yahya. b. Khalid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate, with letters of +condolence and congratulation, to Musa in Jorjan, and brought the army +which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully back from Media to Bagdad. Musa +returned in all haste to the capital, and assumed the title of _al-Hadi_ +("he who directs"). The accession of a new caliph doubtless appeared to +the partisans of the house of Ali a favourable opportunity for a rising. +Hosain b. Ali b. Hasan III. raised an insurrection at Medina with the +support of numerous adherents, and proclaimed himself caliph. Thence he +went to Mecca, where on the promise of freedom many slaves flocked to +him, and many pilgrims also acknowledged him. Suleiman b. Mansur, the +caliph's representative in the pilgrimage of that year, was entrusted +with the command against him. Hosain was attacked at Fakh, 3 m. from +Mecca, and perished in the combat with many other Alids. His maternal +uncle, Idris b. Abdallah, a brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, the rivals +of Mansur, succeeded in escaping, and fled to Egypt, whence by the help +of the postmaster, himself a secret partisan of the Shi'ites, he passed +into West Africa, where at a later period his son founded the Idrisite +dynasty in Fez (see MOROCCO). + +Hadi, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly escaped +being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for excluding him from +the Caliphate and transmitting the succession to his own son Ja'far. To +this he obtained the assent of his ministers and the principal chiefs of +his army, with the exception of Yahya b. Khalid, Harun's former tutor, +who showed such firmness and boldness that Hadi cast him into prison and +resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already given +orders for his execution, when he himself was killed (September 14th, +786) by his mother Khaizoran, who had systematically and successfully +intrigued against him with the object of gaining the real power for +herself. Hadi, indignant at the fact that she was generally regarded as +the real source of authority, had attempted to poison her, and +Khaizoran, hoping to find a more submissive instrument of her will in +her second and favourite son, caused Hadi to be smothered with cushions +by two young slaves whom she had presented to him. She herself died +three years later. + +5. _Reign of Harun al-Rashid_.--We have now reached the most celebrated +name among the Arabian caliphs, celebrated not only in the East, but in +the West as well, where the stories of the _Thousand and One Nights_ +have made us familiar with that world which the narrators represent in +such brilliant colours. Harun ascended the throne without opposition. +His first act was to choose as prime minister his former tutor, the +faithful Yahya b. Khalid, and to confide important posts to the two sons +of Yahya, Fadl and Ja'far, of whom the former was his own +foster-brother, the latter his intimate friend. The Barmecide family +were endowed in the highest degree with those qualities of generosity +and liberality which the Arabs prized so highly, and the chronicles +never weary in their praises. Loaded with all the burdens of government, +Yahya brought the most distinguished abilities to the exercise of his +office. He put the frontiers in a good state of defence; he filled the +public treasury, and carried the splendour of the throne to the highest +point. His sons, especially Fadl, were worthy of their father. + +Although the administration of Harun's states was committed to skilful +hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free from +troubles. Towards the year 176 (A.D. 792-793) a man of the house of Ali, +named Yahya b. Abdallah, another brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, who +had taken refuge in the land of Dailam on the south-western shores of +the Caspian Sea, succeeded in forming a powerful party, and publicly +claimed the Caliphate. Harun immediately sent against him an army of +50,000 men, under the command of Fadl, whom he made governor of all the +Caspian provinces. Reluctant, however, to fight against a descendant of +the Prophet, Fadl first attempted to induce him to submit by promising +him safety and a brilliant position at the court of Bagdad. +Yahyaaccepted the proposal, but required that the caliph should send him +letters of pardon countersigned by the highest legal authorities and the +principal personages of the empire. Harun consented and Yahya went to +Bagdad, where he met with a splendid reception. At the end of some +months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy, and the +caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a possible rival, +threw him into prison, where he died, according to the majority of the +historians, of starvation. Others say that Ja'far b. Yahya b. Khalid, to +whose care he had been entrusted, suffered him to escape, and that this +was the real cause of Harun's anger against the Barmecides (q.v.). +Dreading fresh insurrections of the Alids, Harun secured the person of +another descendant of Ali, Musa b. Ja'far, surnamed al-Kazim, who +enjoyed great consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and +released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by the caliph +himself to Bagdad, and there died, apparently by poison. + +Meanwhile Harun did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam. In the +first year of his reign all the strong places of Kinnesrin and +Mesopotamia were formed into a special province, which received the name +of al-'Awasim ("the defending fortresses"), with Manbij (Hierapolis) as +its capital. The building of the fortress of Hadath having been +completed, Harun committed to Faraj the Turk the task of rebuilding and +fortifying the city of Tarsus. Thanks to these and similar measures, the +Moslem armies were able to advance boldly into Asia Minor. Almost every +year successful raids were made, in the year 797 under the command of +the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to sue for peace. An +attack by the Khazars called the caliph's attention from his successes +in Asia Minor. This people had made an irruption into Armenia, and their +attack had been so sudden that the Moslems and Christians were unable to +defend themselves, and 100,000 had been reduced to captivity. Two +valiant generals, Khozaima b. Khazim and Yazid b. Mazyad, marched +against the Khazars and drove them out of Armenia. + +In the midst of the cares of war, Harun was assiduous in his religious +duties, and few years passed without his making the pilgrimage. Having +determined to fix the order of succession in so formal a manner as to +take away all pretext for future contentions, he executed a deed by +which he appointed his eldest son Mahommed his immediate heir, and after +him the second, Abdallah, and after Abdallah the third, Qasim. Mahommed +received the surname of _al-Amin_ ("the Sure"), Abdallah that of +_al-Ma'mun_ ("he in whom men trust"), and Qasim that of _al-Mo'tamin +billah_ ("he who trusts in God"). Harun further stipulated that Mamun +should have as his share during the lifetime of his brother the +government of the eastern part of the empire. Each of the parties +concerned swore to observe faithfully every part of this deed, which the +caliph caused to be hung up in the Ka'ba, imagining that it would be +thus guaranteed against all violation on the part of men, a precaution +which was to be rendered vain by the perfidy of Amim. + +It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very moment when +the Barmecides thought their position most secure, that Harun brought +sudden ruin upon them. The causes of their disgrace have been +differently stated by the annalists (see BARMECIDES). The principal +cause appears to have been that they abused the sovereign power which +they exercised. Not a few were jealous of their greatness and sought for +opportunities of instilling distrust against them into the mind of +Harun, and of making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The +secret dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some +apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the Alid Yahya +b. Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Harun resolved on their +destruction, and Ja'far b. Yahya, who had just taken leave of him after +a day's hunting, was arrested, taken to the castle of Harun, and +beheaded. The following day, his father Yahya, his brother Fadl, and all +the other Barmecides were arrested and imprisoned; all their property +was confiscated. The only Barmecide who remained unmolested with his +family was Mahommed the brother of Yahya, who had been the chamberlain +of the caliph till 795, when Fadl b. Rabi' got his place. This latter +had henceforward the greatest influence at court. + +In the same year a revolution at Constantinople overthrew the empress +Irene. The new emperor Nicephorus, thinking himself strong enough to +refuse the payment of tribute, wrote an insulting letter to Harun, who +contented himself with replying: "Thou shall not hear, but see, my +answer." He entered Asia Minor and took Heraclea, plundering and burning +along his whole line of march, till Nicephorus, in alarm, sued for +peace. Scarcely had the caliph returned into winter quarters when +Nicephorus broke the treaty. When the news came to Rakka, where Harun +was residing, not one of the ministers ventured to tell him, until at +last a poet introduced it in a poem which pleased the monarch. +Notwithstanding the rigour of the season, Harun retraced his steps, and +Nicephorus was compelled to observe his engagements. In 805 the first +great ransoming of Moslem prisoners took place on the banks of the +little river Lamus in Cilicia. But Nicephorus, profiting by serious +disturbances in Khorasan, broke the treaty again, and overran the +country as far as Anazarba and Kanisat as-sauda ("the black church") on +the frontier, where he took many prisoners, who were, however, recovered +by the garrison of Mopsuestia. Thus Harun was obliged to take the field +again. He entered Asia Minor with an army of 135,000 regulars, beside +volunteers and camp followers. Heraclea was taken, together with many +other places, and Tyana was made a military station. At the same time +his admiral, Homaid b. Ma'yuf, conquered Cyprus, which had broken the +treaty, and took 16,000 of its people captive. Nicephorus was now so +completely beaten that he was compelled to submit to very harsh +conditions. In the year 808 the second ransoming between the Moslems and +the Greeks took place near the river Lamus. + +The disturbances in Khorasan were caused by the malversations of the +governor of that province, Ali b. 'Isa b. Mahan. The caliph went in +person to Merv, in order to judge of the reality of the complaints which +had reached him. Ali b. 'Isa hastened to meet the caliph on his arrival +at Rai (Rhagae), near the modern Teheran, with a great quantity of +costly presents, which he distributed with such profusion among the +princes and courtiers that no one was anxious to accuse him. Harun +confirmed him in his post, and, after having received the chiefs of +Tabaristan who came to tender their submission, returned through Bagdad +to Rakka on the Euphrates, which city was his habitual residence. In the +following year Rafi' b. Laith, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyar, raised the +standard of revolt in Samarkand, and, at the head of a numerous army, +defeated the son of Ali b. 'Isa. Thereupon Ali fled from Balkh, leaving +the treasury, which was plundered by the populace after his departure. +The caliph on learning that the revolt was due to Ali's tyranny, sent +Harthama b. A'yan with stringent orders to seize Ali and confiscate his +possessions. This order was carried out, and it is recorded that 1500 +camels were required to transport the confiscated treasures. The +caliph's hope that Rafi' would submit on condition of receiving a free +pardon was not fulfilled, and he resolved to set out himself to +Khorasan, taking with him his second son Mamun. On the journey he was +attacked by an internal malady, which carried him off, ten months after +his departure from Bagdad, A.H. 193 (March 809), just on his arrival at +the city of Tus. Harun was only forty-five years of age. He was far from +having the high qualifications of his grandfather Mansur; indeed he did +not even possess the qualities of his father and his brother. When the +latter asked him to renounce his right of succession, he was willing to +consent, saying that a quiet life with his beloved wife, the princess +Zobaida, was his highest wish, but he obeyed his mother and Yahya b. +Khalid. As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on their +direction. After their disgrace he was led into many impolitic actions +by his violent and often cruel propensities. But the empire was, +especially in the earlier part of his reign, in a very prosperous state, +and was respected widely by foreign powers. Embassies passed between +Charlemagne and Harun in the years 180 (A.D. 797) and 184 (A.D. 801), by +which the former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, +the latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean +ports. The ambassadors brought presents with them; on one of these +occasions the first elephant reached the land of the Franks. + +Under the reign of Harun, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, the governor of Africa, +succeeded in making himself independent of the central government, on +condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his suzerain the caliph. +This was, if we do not take Spain into the account, the first instance +of dismemberment, later to be followed by many others. + +In the days of this caliph the first paper factories were founded in +Bagdad. + +6. _Reign of Amin_.--On the death of Harun his minister, Fadl b. Rabi', +with the view of gaining the new caliph's confidence, hastened to call +together all the troops of the late caliph and to lead them back to +Bagdad, in order to place them in the hands of the new sovereign, Amin. +He even, in direct violation of Harun's will, led back the corps which +was intended to occupy Khorasan under the authority of Mamun. Aware, +however, that in thus acting he was making Mamun his irreconcilable +enemy, he persuaded Amin to exclude Mamun from the succession. Mamun, on +receiving his brother's invitation to go to Bagdad, was greatly +perplexed; but his tutor and later vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, a Zoroastrian +of great influence, who in 806 had adopted Islam, reanimated his +courage, and pointed out to him that certain death awaited him at +Bagdad. Mamun resolved to hold out, and found pretexts for remaining in +Khorasan. Amin, in anger, caused the will of his father, which, as we +have seen, was preserved in the Ka'ba, to be destroyed, declared on his +own authority that Mamun's rights of succession were forfeited, and +caused the army to swear allegiance to his own son Musa, a child of +five, on whom he bestowed the title of _an-Natiq bil-Haqq_ ("he who +speaks according to truth"), A.H. 194 (A.D. 809-810). On hearing the +news, Mamun, strong in the rightfulness of his claim, retaliated by +suppressing the caliph's name in all public acts. Amin immediately +despatched to Khorasan an army of 40,000 under the command of Ali b. +'Isa, who had regained his former influence, and told the caliph that, +at his coming to Khorasan, all the leading men would come over to his +side. Zobaida, the mother of the caliph, entreated Ali to treat Mamun +kindly when he should have made him captive. It is said that Fadl b. +Sahl had, through a secret agent, induced Fadl b. Rabi' to select Ali, +knowing that the dislike felt towards him by the Khorasanians would +double their strength in fighting against him. Mamun, on his side, sent +in all haste an army of less than 4000 men of his faithful Khorasanians, +and entrusted their command to Tahir b. Hosain, who displayed +remarkable abilities in the war that ensued. The two armies met under +the walls of Rai (Shaaban 195, May 811). By a bold attack, in the manner +of the Kharijites of yore, Tahir penetrated into the centre of the +hostile army and killed Ali. The frightened army fled, leaving the camp +with all its treasures to Tahir, who from that day was named "the man +with the two right hands." A courier was despatched immediately to Merv, +who performed the journey, a distance of about 750 miles, in three days. +On the very day of his arrival, Harthama b. A'yan had left Merv with +reinforcements. Mamun now no longer hesitated to take the title of +caliph. + +When the news of Ali's defeat came to Bagdad, Amin sent Abdarrahman b. +Jabala to Hamadan with 20,000 men. Tahir defeated him, forced Hamadan to +surrender, and occupied all the strong places in Jabal (Media). The year +after, Amin placed in the field two new armies commanded respectively by +Ahmad b. Mazyad and Abdallah b. Homaid b. Qahtaba. The skilful Tahir +succeeded in creating divisions among the troops of his adversaries, and +obtained possession, without striking a blow, of the city of Holwan, an +advantage which opened the way to the very gates of Bagdad. He was here +reinforced by troops sent from Khorasan under the command of Harthama b. +A'yan, who was appointed leader of the war against Amin, with orders to +send Tahir to Ahwaz. Tahir continued his victorious march, conquered +Ahwaz, took Wasit and Madain, and pitched his camp near one of the gates +of the capital, where he was rejoined by Harthama. One after the other +the provinces fell away from Amin, and he soon found himself in +possession of Bagdad alone. The city, though blockaded on every side, +made a desperate defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern +part of the city fell into the hands of Tahir, and Amin, deserted by his +followers, was compelled to surrender. He resolved to treat with +Harthama, as he was averse to Tahir; but this step caused his ruin. +Tahir succeeded in intercepting him on his way to Harthama, and +immediately ordered him to be put to death. His head was sent to Mamun +(September 813). It was presented to him by his vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, +surnamed Dhu'l-Riyasatain, or "the man with two governments," because +his master had committed to him both the ministry of war and the general +administration. Mamun hid his joy beneath a feigned display of sorrow. + +Amin was only twenty-eight years old. As a ruler he was wholly +incompetent. He hardly comprehended the importance of the affairs with +which he was called upon to deal. He acted invariably on the advice of +those who for the time had his confidence, and occupied himself mainly +with the affairs of his harem, with polo, fishing, wine and music. The +five years of his reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular +to Bagdad which never entirely recovered its old splendour. + +7. _Reign of Mamun._--On the day following the death of Amin Tahir +caused Mamun to be proclaimed at Bagdad, and promised in his name a +general amnesty. The accession of this prince appeared likely to restore +to the empire the order necessary for its prosperity. It was not so, +however. The reign of Mamun--that reign in which art, science and +letters, under the patronage of the caliph, threw so brilliant a +lustre--had a very stormy beginning. Mamun was in no haste to remove to +Bagdad, but continued to reside at Merv. In his gratitude to Fadl b. +Sahl, to whose service he owed his success, he not only chose him as +prime minister of the empire, but also named his brother, Hasan b. Sahl, +governor of Media, Fars, Ahwaz, Arabia and Irak. The two generals to +whom he owed still more were not treated as they deserved. Harthama was +ordered to return to Khorasan; Tahir was made governor of Mesopotamia +and Syria, with the task of subduing Nasr b. Shabath, who with numerous +adherents refused submission to the caliph. The Alids seized on the +elevation of Mamun as a pretext for fresh revolts. At Kufa a certain Ibn +Tabataba placed an army in the field under Abu'l-Saraya, who had been a +captain in the army of Harthama. An army sent by Hasan b. Sahl was +defeated, and Abu'l-Saraya, no longer content to play a second part, +poisoned his chief, Ibn Tabataba, and put in his place another of the +family of Ali, Mahommed b. Mahommed, whom, on account of his extreme +youth, he hoped to govern at his will. Abu'l-Saraya's success continued, +and several cities of Irak--Basra, Wasit and Madain--fell into his +hands. Mecca, Medina and Yemen also were mastered by the Alids, who +committed all kinds of atrocities and sacrilege. Abu'l-Saraya, who even +struck money in Kufa, began to menace the capital, when Hasan b. Sahl +hastily sent a messenger to Harthama b. A'yan, who was already at Holwan +on his way back to Merv, entreating him to come to his aid. Harthama, +who was deeply offended by his dismissal, refused at first, but at last +consented, and at once checked the tide of disaster. The troops of the +Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of Irak fell again into +the hands of the Abbasids. Kufa opened its gates; Basra was taken by +assault. Abu'l-Saraya and Mahommed b. Mahommed fled to Mesopotamia, but +were made prisoners. The former was decapitated, the latter was sent to +Khorasan, the revolt in Arabia was quickly suppressed, and peace seemed +within reach. This, however, was by no means the case. The disorder of +civil war had caused a multitude of robbers and vagabonds to emerge from +the purlieus of Bagdad. These ruffians proceeded to treat the capital as +a conquered city, and it became necessary for all good citizens to +organize themselves into a regular militia. Harthama, having vanquished +Abu'l-Saraya, did not go to Hasan b. Sahl, but proceeded towards Merv +with the purpose of telling Mamun that the state of affairs was not as +Fadl b. Sahl represented it to him, and urging him to come to Bagdad, +where his presence was necessary. Fadl, informed of his intentions, +filled the caliph's mind with distrust against the old general, so that +when Harthama arrived Mamun had him cast into prison, where he died +shortly afterwards. When the tidings of his disgrace came to Bagdad, the +people expelled the lieutenant of Hasan b. Sahl, called by them the +Majuzi ("the Zoroastrian"), who had chosen Madain for his residence, and +put at their head Mansur, a son of Mahdi, who refused to assume the +title of caliph, but consented to be Mamun's vicegerent instead of Hasan +b. Sahl. + +Meanwhile, at Merv, Mamun was adopting a decision which fell like a +thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In A.H. 201 (A.D. 817), under pretence of +putting an end to the continual revolts of the partisans of Ali, and +acting on the advice of his prime minister Fadl, he publicly designated +as his successor in the Caliphate Ali ar-Rida, a son of that Musa +al-Kazim who perished in the prison of Mahdi, a direct descendant of +Hosain, the son of Ali, and proscribed black, the colour of the +Abbasids, in favour of that of the house of Ali, green. This step was +well calculated to delight the followers of Ali, but it could not fail +to exasperate the Abbasids and their partisans. The people of Bagdad +refused to take the oath to Ali b. Musa, declared Mamun deposed, and +elected his uncle, Ibrahim, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate.[33] It was +only indirectly that the news reached the caliph, who then saw that Fadl +had been treating him as a puppet. His anger was great, but he kept it +carefully to himself. Fadl was one day found murdered, and Ali b. Musa +died suddenly. The historians bring no open accusation against Mamun, +but it seems clear that the opportune removal of these men was not due +to chance. Mamun affected the profoundest grief, and, in order to disarm +suspicion, appointed as his prime minister the brother of Fadl, Hasan b. +Sahl, whose daughter Buran he afterwards married. Soon after the news +came to him that Hasan b. Sahl had become insane. Mamun appointed an +officer to act as his lieutenant, and wrote that he was coming to Bagdad +in a short time. From that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrahim found +himself deserted, and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His +precarious reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Mamun had found +out also that the general uneasiness was largely due to his treatment of +Harthama and Tahir, the latter having been put in a rebellious country +without the men and the money to maintain his authority. The caliph +therefore wrote to Tahir to meet him at Nahrawan, where he was received +with the greatest honour. Having taken all precautions, Mamun now made +his solemn entry into Bagdad, but, to show that he came as a master, he +still displayed for several days the green colours, though at last, at +the request of Tahir, he consented to resume the black. From this time, +A.H. 204 (August 819), the real reign of Mamun began, freed as he now +was from the tutelage of Fadl. + +When welcoming Tahir, Mamun bade him ask for any reward he might desire. +Tahir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to endure the sight of +the murderer of his brother, should change his mind towards him, +contrived to get himself appointed governor of Khorasan. Like most of +the great Moslem generals, Tahir, it is said, had conceived the project +of creating an independent kingdom for himself. His death, A.H. 207 +(A.D. 822), prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded +him one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in +reality to have founded a dynasty in Khorasan. His son Abdallah b. Tahir +was a special favourite of Mamun, He brought Nasr b. Shabath to +subjection in Mesopotamia, and overcame by great ability a very +dangerous rebellion in Egypt. When he returned thence, the caliph gave +him the choice between the government of Khorasan and that of the +northern provinces, where he would have to combat Babak the Khorramite. +Abdallah chose the former (see below, S 8). + +The pseudo-caliph, Ibrahim, who, since Mamun's entry into Bagdad, had +led a wandering life, was eventually arrested. But Mamun generously +pardoned him, as well as Fadl b. Rabi', the chief promoter of the +terrible civil war which had so lately shaken the empire. After that +time, Ibrahim lived peacefully at the court, cultivating the arts of +singing and music. + +Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Mamun gave himself up +to science and literature. He caused works on mathematics, astronomy, +medicine and philosophy to be translated from the Greek, and founded in +Bagdad a kind of academy, called the "House of Science," with a library +and an observatory. It was also by his orders that two learned +mathematicians undertook the measurement of a degree of the earth's +circumference. Mamun interested himself too in questions of religious +dogma. He had embraced the Motazilite doctrine about free will and +predestination, and was in particular shocked at the opinion which had +spread among the Moslem doctors that the Koran was the uncreated word of +God. In the year 212 (A.D. 827) he published an edict by which the +Motazilite (Mu'tazilite) doctrine was declared to be the religion of the +state, the orthodox faith condemned as heretical. At the same time he +ordered all his subjects to honour Ali as the best creature of God after +the Prophet, and forbade the praise of Moawiya. In A.H. 218 (A.D. 833) a +new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors were summoned to +renounce the error of the uncreated word of God. Several distinguished +doctors, and, among others, the celebrated Ahmad b. Hanbal (q.v.), +founder of one of the four orthodox Moslem schools, were obliged to +appear before an inquisitorial tribunal; and as they persisted in their +belief respecting the Koran, they were thrown into prison. Mamun, being +at Tarsus, received from the governor of Bagdad the report of the +tribunal, and ordered that the culprits should be sent off to him. +Happily for these unfortunate doctors, they had scarcely reached Adana, +when news of the caliph's death arrived and they were brought back to +Bagdad. The two successors of Mamun maintained the edicts--Ahmad b. +Hanbal, who obstinately refused to yield, was flogged in the year +834--but it seems that Motasim did not himself take much interest in the +question, which perhaps he hardly understood, and that the prosecution +of the inquisition by him was due in great part to the charge which was +left him in Mamun's will. In the reign of Motawakkil the orthodox faith +was restored, never to be assailed again.[34] + +In spite of these manifold activities Mamun did not forget the +hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 832 he made +expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theophilus, the Greek +emperor, sued for peace, which Mamun haughtily refused to grant. +Accordingly, he decided on marching in the following year against +Amorium, and thence to Constantinople itself. Having sent before him his +son Abbas to make Tyana a strong fortress, he set out for Asia Minor to +put himself at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by +bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 40 m. from Tarsus, in Rajab 218 +(A.D. August 833), at the age of forty-eight. + +Mamun was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers of the +whole dynasty after Mansur. By him the ascendancy of the Persian element +over the Arabian was completed. Moreover, he began to attract young +Turkish noblemen to his court, an example which was followed on a much +larger scale by his successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a +later period. + +8. _Reign of Motasim._--Abu Ishak al-Mo'tasim had for a long time been +preparing himself for the succession. Every year he had bought Turkish +slaves, and had with him in the last expedition of Mamun a bodyguard of +3000. Backed by this force he seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph +to designate him as his successor. The chroniclers content themselves +with recording that he himself wrote in the name of the caliph to the +chief authorities in Bagdad and elsewhere that he was to be the +successor. His accession, however, met at first with active opposition +in the army, where a powerful party demanded that Abbas should take the +place of his father. Abbas, however, publicly renounced all pretension +to the Caliphate, and the whole army accepted Motasim, who immediately +had the fortifications of Tyana demolished and hastened back to Bagdad, +where he made his public entry on the 20th of September 833. + +Motasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately after his coming +to Bagdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves living there who had +distinguished themselves. Among them were Ashnas, Itakh, Wasif, Sima, +all of whom later became men of great influence. The guard was composed +of an undisciplined body of soldiers, who, moreover, held in open +contempt the religious precepts of Islam. Tired of the excesses +committed by these Turks, the people of Bagdad beat or killed as many of +them as they could lay hands on, and Motasim, not daring to act with +severity against either his guard or the citizens, took the course of +quitting the city. Having bought in 834 territories at Samarra, a small +place situated a few leagues above Bagdad, he caused a new residence to +be built there, whose name, which could be interpreted "Unhappy is he +who sees it," was changed by him into Sorra-man-ra'a, "Rejoiced is he +who sees it." Leaving the government of the capital in the hands of his +son Harun al-Wathiq, he established himself at Samarra in 836. This +resolution of Motasim was destined to prove fatal to his dynasty; for it +placed the caliphs at the mercy of their praetorians. In fact, from the +time of Wathiq, the Caliphate became the plaything of the Turkish guard, +and its decline was continuous. + +In the time of the civil war the marshlands in Irak between Basra and +Wasit had been occupied by a large population of Indians, called _yat_, +or, according to the Arabic pronunciation, _Zott_, who infested the +roads and levied a heavy tribute from the ships ascending and descending +the Tigris. From the year 821 onwards Mamun had tried in vain to bring +them to submission. When Motasim came back to Bagdad, after the death of +his brother, he found the people in great distress, their supply of +dates from Basra having been cut off by the Zott, and resolved to put +them down with all means. After seven months of vigorous resistance, +they at last yielded on condition of safety of life and property. In +January 835 the Zott in their national costume and with their own music +were conducted on a great number of boats through Bagdad. Thence they +were transported to Ainzarba (Anazarba) on the frontier of the Greek +empire. Twenty years later they entered Asia Minor, whence in a later +period they came into Europe, under the name of Athinganoi (Ziganes) and +Egyptians (gipsies).[35] + +A far more difficult task lay before Motasim, the subjection of Babak +al-Khorrami in Azerbaijan. Though the name Khorrami is often employed by +the Moslem writers to designate such extravagant Moslem sectaries as +the Hashimiya, the real Khorrami were not Moslems, but Persian +Mazdaqites, or communists. The name Khorrami, or Khorramdini, "adherent +of the pleasant religion," seems to be a nickname. As they bore red +colours, they were also called Mohammira, or Redmakers. Their object was +to abolish Islam and to restore "the white religion." We find the first +mention of them in the year 808, when Harun al-Rashid sent an army +against them. During the civil war their power was steadily increasing, +and spread not only over Azerbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and +Khorasan. The numerous efforts of Mamun to put them down had been all in +vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor. +Therefore, in the year 835, Motasim made Afshin, a Turkish prince who +had distinguished himself already in the days of Mamun, governor of +Media, with orders to take the lead of the war against Babak. After +three years' fighting, Babak was taken prisoner. He was carried to +Samarra, led through the city on the back of an elephant, and then +delivered to the executioners, who cut off his arms and legs. His head +was sent to Khorasan, his body was crucified. For long afterwards the +place where this happened bore the name of "Babak's Cross." + +In the hope of creating a diversion in Babak's favour, Theophilus in 837 +fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of Zibatra. There and in +several other places he took a great number of prisoners, whom he +mutilated. The news arrived just after that of the capture of Babak, and +Motasim swore to take exemplary vengeance. He assembled a formidable +army, penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium, where he +gained rich plunder. During his return the caliph was informed of a +conspiracy in the army in favour of 'Abbas the son of Mamun, of which +'Ojaif b. 'Anbasa was the ringleader. The unfortunate prince was +arrested and died soon after in prison. The conspirators were killed, +many of them with great cruelty. (For the campaign see Bury in _J.H.S._, +1909, xxix. pt. i.) + +Motasim had just returned to Samarra when a serious revolt broke out in +Tabaristan, Maziyar, one of the hereditary chiefs of that country, +refusing to acknowledge the authority of Abdallah Ibn Tahir, the +governor of Khorasan, of which Tabaristan was a province. The revolt was +suppressed with great difficulty, and it came out that it was due to the +secret instigation of Afshin, who hoped thereby to cause the fall of the +Tahirids, and to take their place, with the ulterior object of founding +an independent kingdom in the East. Afshin, who stood at that moment in +the highest favour of the caliph, was condemned and died in prison. +Motasim died a year later, January 842. + +9. _Reign of Wathiq._--His son Wathiq, who succeeded, though not in the +least to be compared with Mamun, had yet in common with him a thirst for +knowledge--perhaps curiosity would be a more appropriate term--which +prompted him, as soon as he became caliph, to send the famous astronomer +Mahommed b. Musa into Asia Minor to find out all about the Seven +Sleepers which he discovered in the neighbourhood of Arabissus,[36] and +Sallam the Interpreter to explore the situation of the famous wall of +Gog and Magog, which he reached at the north-west frontier of China.[37] +For these and other personal pursuits he raised money by forcing a +number of high functionaries to disgorge their gains. In so vast an +empire the governors and administrators had necessarily enjoyed an +almost unrestricted power, and this had enabled them to accumulate +wealth. Omar had already compelled them to furnish an account of their +riches, and, when he found that they had abused their trust, to +relinquish half to the state. As time went on, nomination to an office +was more and more generally considered a step to wealth. During the +reign of the Omayyads a few large fortunes were made thus. But with the +increasing luxury after Mansur, the thirst for money became universal, +and the number of honest officials lessened fast. Confiscation of +property had been employed with success by Harun al-Rashid after the +disgrace of the Barmecides, and occasionally by his successors, but +Wathiq was the first to imprison high officials and fine them heavily on +the specific charge of peculation. + +The caliph also shared Mamun's intolerance on the doctrinal question of +the uncreated Koran. He carried his zeal to such a point that, on the +occasion of an exchange of Greek against Moslem prisoners in 845, he +refused to receive those Moslem captives who would not declare their +belief that the Koran was created. The orthodox in Bagdad prepared to +revolt, but were discovered in time by the governor of the city. The +ringleader Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khoza'i was seized and brought to Samarra, +where Wathiq beheaded him in person. The only other event of importance +in the reign of Wathiq was a rising of the Arabian tribes in the +environs of Medina, which the Turkish general Bogha with difficulty +repressed. When he reached Samarra with his prisoners, Wathiq had just +died (August 846). That the predominance of the praetorians was already +established is clear from the fact that Wathiq gave to two Turkish +generals, Ashnas and Itakh respectively, the titular but lucrative +supreme government of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In +his days the soldiery at Samarra was increased by a large division of +Africans (Maghribis). + +10. _Reign of Motawakkil._--As Wathiq had appointed no successor the +vizier Mahommed Zayyat had cast his eye on his son Mahommed, who was +still a child, but the generals Wasif and Itakh, seconded by the upper +cadi Ibn abi Da'ud, refused their consent, and offered the supreme power +to Wathiq's brother Ja'far, who at his installation adopted the name of +_al-Motawakkil 'ala 'llah_ ("he who trusts in God"). The new caliph +hated the vizier Zayyat, who had opposed his election, and had him +seized and killed with the same atrocious cruelty which the vizier +himself had inflicted on others. His possessions, and those of others +who had opposed the caliph's election, were confiscated. But the +arrogance of Itakh, to whom he owed his Caliphate, became insufferable. +So, with the perfidy of his race, the caliph took him off his guard, and +had him imprisoned and killed at Bagdad. He was succeeded by Wasif. + +About this time an impostor named Mahmud b. Faraj had set himself up as +a prophet, claiming to be Dhu'l-Qarnain (Alexander the Great) risen from +the dead. Asserting that Gabriel brought him revelations, he had +contrived to attract twenty-seven followers. The caliph had him flogged, +and compelled each of the twenty-seven to give him ten blows on the head +with his fist. The "prophet" expired under the blows (850). + +One of the first acts of Motawakkil was the release of all those who had +been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the created Koran, +and the strict order to abstain from any litigation about the Book of +God. The upper cadi Ibn abi Da'ud, the leader of the movement against +orthodoxy, who had stood in great esteem with Mamun and had fulfilled +his high office under the reigns of Motasim and Wathiq, had a stroke of +paralysis in the year 848. His son Mahommed was put in his place till +851, when all the members of the family were arrested. They released +themselves by paying the enormous sum of 240,000 dinars and 16,000,000 +dirhems, which constituted nearly their whole fortune, and were then +sent to Bagdad, where father and son died three years later. An orthodox +upper cadi was named instead, and the dogma of the created Koran was +declared heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of +that doctrine and other Motazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed, never +again to lose its place as the state religion. Hand in hand with these +reactionary measures came two others, one against Jews and Christians, +one against the Shi'ites. The first caliph who imposed humiliating +conditions on the Dhimmis, or Covenanters, who, on condition of paying a +certain not over-heavy tribute, enjoyed the protection of the state and +the free exercise of their cult, was Omar II., but this policy was not +continued. A proposition by the cadi Abu Yusuf to Harun al-Rashid to +renew it had not been adopted. Motawakkil, in 850, formulated an edict +by which these sectaries were compelled to wear a distinctive dress and +to distinguish their houses by a figure of the devil nailed to the +door, excluding them at the same time from all public employments, and +forbidding them to send their children to Moslem schools. Nevertheless, +he kept his Christian medical men, some of whom were high in favour. He +showed his hatred for the Shi'ites by causing the mausoleum erected over +the tomb of Hosain at Kerbela, together with all the buildings +surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be ploughed +up, and by forbidding any one to visit the spot. A year before, a +descendant of Hosain, Yahya b. Omar, had been arrested and flogged on +his orders. He escaped afterwards, rose in rebellion at Kufa in 864, and +was killed in battle. It is reported that the caliph even permitted one +of his buffoons to turn the person of Ali into mockery. + +In the year 848-849 Ibn Ba'ith, who had rendered good service in the war +against Babak, but had for some cause been arrested, fled from Samarra +to Marand in Azerbaijan and revolted. Not without great difficulty +Bogha, the Turkish general, succeeded in taking the town and making Ibn +Ba'ith prisoner. He was brought before Motawakkil and died in prison. In +the year 237 (A.D. 851-852) a revolt broke out in Armenia. +Notwithstanding a vigorous resistance, Bogha subdued and pacified the +province in the following year. In that same year, 852-853, the +Byzantines made a descent on Egypt with 300 vessels. 'Anbasa the +governor had ordered the garrison of Damietta to parade at the capital +Fostat. The denuded town was taken, plundered and burned. The Greeks +then destroyed all the fortifications at the mouth of the Nile near +Tinnis, and returned with prisoners and booty. The annual raids of +Moslems and Greeks in the border districts of Asia Minor were attended +with alternate successes, though on the whole the Greeks had the upper +hand. In 856 they penetrated as far as Amid (Diarbekr), and returned +with 10,000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a heavy +defeat with losses of men and cattle, the emperor Michael himself was in +danger, whilst the fleet of the Moslems captured and sacked Antalia. +This was followed by a truce and an exchange of prisoners in the +following year. + +In 855 a revolt broke out in Homs (Emesa), where the harsh conditions +imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews had caused great +discontent. It was repressed after a vigorous resistance. A great many +leading men were flogged to death, all churches and synagogues were +destroyed and all the Christians banished. + +In the year 851 the Boja (or Beja), a wild people living between the Red +Sea and the Nile of Upper Egypt, the Blemmyes of the ancients, refused +to pay the annual tribute, and invaded the land of the gold and emerald +mines, so that the working of the mines was stopped. The caliph sent +against them Mahommed al-Qommi, who subdued them in 856 and brought +their king Ali Baba to Samarra before Motawakkil, on condition that he +should be restored to his kingdom. + +About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy of the +Tahirids. Ya'qub b. Laith al-Saffar proclaimed himself amir of that +province in the year 860, and was soon after confirmed in this dignity +by the caliph. + +In 858 Motawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant patronage of +Wasif, who had taken the place of Itakh as head of the Turkish guard, +transferred his residence to Damascus. But the place did not agree with +him, and he returned to Samarra, where he caused a magnificent quarter +to be built 3 m. from the city, which he called after his own name +Ja'fariya, and on which he spent more than two millions of dinars (about +L900,000). He found the means by following the example of his +predecessor in depriving many officials of their ill-gotten gains. He +contrived to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater +part Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. In the year of his elevation to +the Caliphate, he had regulated the succession to the empire in his own +family by designating as future caliphs his three sons, _al-Montasir +billah_ ("he who seeks help in God"), _al-Mo'tazz billah_ ("he whose +strength is of God"), and _al-Mowayyad billah_ ("he who is assisted by +God"). By and by he conceived an aversion to his eldest son, and wished +to supplant him by Motazz, the son of his favourite wife Qabiha. The day +had been fixed on which Montasir, Wasif and several other Turkish +generals were to be assassinated. But Wasif and Montasir had been +informed, and resolved to anticipate him. In the night before, Shawwal +A.H. 247 (December 861), Motawakkil, after one of his wonted orgies, was +murdered, together with his confidant, Fath b. Khaqan. The official +report, promulgated by his successor, was that Fath b. Khaqan had +murdered his master and had been punished for it by death. For the +administrative system in this reign see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. + +11. _Reign of Montasir._--On the very night of his father's +assassination Montasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was a man of +very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands of his vizier +Ahmad b. Khasib and the Turkish generals. He was compelled to send +Wasif, the personal enemy of Ibn Khasib, to the frontier for a term of +four years, and then to deprive his two brothers Motazz and Mowayyad, +who were not agreeable to them, of their right of succession. He died +six months after, by poison, it is said. + +12. _Reign of Mosta'in._--The Turkish soldiery, now the chief power in +the state, chose, by the advice of Ibn Khasib, in succession to +Montasir, his cousin Ahmad, who took the title of _al-Mosta'in billah_ +("he who looks for help to God"). In the reign of this feeble prince the +Greeks inflicted serious losses on the Moslems in Asia Minor. A great +many volunteers from all parts, who offered their services, were hunted +down as rioters by the Turkish generals, who were wholly absorbed by +their own interests. The party which had placed Mosta'in on the throne, +led by Ibn Khasib and Otamish, were soon overpowered by Wasif and Bogha. +Ibn Khasib was banished to Crete, Otamish murdered. The superior party, +however, maintained Mosta'in on the throne, because they feared lest +Motazz should take vengeance upon them for the murder of his father +Motawakkil. But in the year 865 Wasif and Bogha fled with Mosta'in to +Bagdad, and Motazz was proclaimed caliph at Samarra. A terrible war +ensued; Mosta'in was obliged to abdicate, and was killed in the +following year. + +In 864 a descendant of Ali, named Hasan b. Zaid, gained possession of +Tabaristan and occupied the great city of Rai (Rey) near Teheran. A year +later the province was reconquered by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan, +so that Hasan was obliged to retreat for refuge to the land of the +Dailam. But he returned soon, and after many reverses ruled over +Tabaristan and Jorjan for many years. + +13. _Reign of Motazz._--Motazz, proclaimed caliph at Bagdad in the first +month of 252 (January 866), devoted himself to the object of freeing +himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals, especially Wasif and +Bogha, who had opposed his election. But such a task demanded an ability +and energy which he did not possess. He was obliged to grant them +amnesty and to recall them to Samarra. He mistrusted also his brothers +Mowayyad and Mowaffaq, who had interceded for them. He put the former to +death and drove the latter into exile to Bagdad. Some time after he had +the satisfaction of seeing Wasif killed by his own troops, and +succeeded, a year later, in having Bogha assassinated. But a more +difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish, Persian and African +guards, which was said to have amounted in A.H. 252 to 200,000,000 +dirhems[38] (about L6,500,000), or apparently twice the revenue derived +from the land tax. As the provincial revenues annually decreased, it +became impossible to pay this sum, and Salih the son of Wasif, in spite +of the remonstrances of the caliph, confiscated the property of state +officials. Upon a further demand, Motazz, having failed to procure money +from his mother Qabiha, who was enormously rich, was seized upon and +tortured, and died of starvation in prison (Shaaban 255, July 868). + +The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these years, and the +caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual independence of the +governors Ya'qub the Saffarid (see SAFFARIDS and PERSIA, _History_, S B) +in Seistan, and Ahmad b. Tulun in Egypt. + +14. _Reign of Mohtadi._--Immediately after the seizure of Motazz, the +Turks, led by Salih b. Wasif, proclaimed as caliph one of the sons of +Wathiq with the title of al-Mohtadi billah ("the guided by God"), who, +however, refused to occupy the throne until his predecessor had solemnly +abdicated. Mohtadi, who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had +no lack of energy, began by applying the precarious measure of power +which was left him to the reform of the court. He banished the musicians +and singers, and forbade all kinds of games; he devoted himself to the +administration of justice, and gave public audiences to the people for +the redress of their grievances. At the same time he contrived to +elevate the power of the Abna, the descendants of those Persian soldiers +who had established the dynasty of the Abbasids, in order to break the +supremacy of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Mohtadi came too late, +and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work. + +On the news of the conspiracy against Motazz, Musa, the son of the +famous general Bogha,[39] then governor of Media (Jabal), ordered his +deputy-general Moflih to return at once from a proposed invasion of +Dailam, and moved with his army towards Samarra, notwithstanding the +peremptory orders of the caliph. At his approach Salih, who was afraid +of Musa, hid himself, but was soon discovered and killed. At that moment +a Kharijite, named Mosawir, who in 867 had risen in Mesopotamia and +beaten more than one general of the government, took Balad and menaced +Mosul. Musa could not refuse to comply with the formal command of the +caliph to march against him. During the absence of these troops, Mohtadi +seems to have tried to get rid of the principal Turkish leaders. A +brother of Musa and one of his best generals, Bayikbeg (Baiekbak), were +killed, but the soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong +enough. Mohtadi was overwhelmed and killed, Rajab 256 (June 870). + +15. _Reign of Motamid._--Whether from weariness or from repentance, the +Turkish soldiery discontinued for a time their hateful excesses, and +their new leader, Musa b. Bogha, was without the greed and ambition of +his predecessors. A son of Motawakkil was brought out of prison to +succeed his cousin, and reigned for twenty-three years under the name of +_al-Mo'tamid 'ala'llah_ ("he whose support is God"). He was a feeble, +pleasure-loving monarch, but Mohtadi had regained for the Caliphate some +authority, which was exercised by Obaidallah b. Khaqan, the able vizier +of Mohtadi, and by Motamid's talented brother Abu Ahmad al-Mowaffaq; +Musa b. Bogha himself remained till his death a staunch servant of the +government. During the reign of Motamid great events took place. The +great power long wielded by the Tahirids, not only in the eastern +provinces, but also at Bagdad itself, had been gradually diminishing, +and came to an end in the year 873, when Ya'qub the Saffarid occupied +Nishapur and imprisoned Mahommed b. Tahir with his whole family. The +power of Ya'qub then increased to such an extent that he was not content +with the caliph's offer to recognize him as supreme in the provinces he +had conquered, and military governor of Bagdad, but marched against +Irak. The caliph himself, wearing the mantle and the staff of the +Prophet, then went out against him, and after a vigorous resistance he +was beaten by Mowaffaq, who had the command of the troops, and fled to +Jondisapur in Khuzistan, where he died three years later, leaving his +empire to his brother 'Amr. This prince maintained himself in power till +the year 900, when he was beaten and taken prisoner by Isma'il b. Ahmed +the Samanid. The Samanids had been governors of Transoxiana from the +time of Mamun, and after the fall of the Tahirids, had been confirmed in +this office by the caliph. After 287 (900) they were independent +princes, and under their dominion these districts attained to high +prosperity. + +Motamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves in the +province of Basra, led by one Ali b. Mahommed, who called himself a +descendant of Ali. It lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked the government +to its utmost.[40] + +In the west, Ahmad b. Tulun became a mighty prince, whose sway extended +over Syria and a part of Mesopotamia. Motamid, who wished to free +himself from the guardianship of his brother Mowaffaq, concerted with +him a plan to emigrate to Egypt, Ahmad being himself angered against +Mowaffaq on personal grounds. Motamid's flight was stopped by his vizier +Ibn Makhlad, and the caliph himself was reconducted to Samarra as a +prisoner in the year 882. From that time there was war between the +Abbasids and the Tulunids. Ahmad died in 270 (884). His son Khomaruya +succeeded him, and maintained himself in power till his death in 896, in +which year his daughter was married to the caliph Motadid. Ten years +later Egypt was conquered by a general of the caliph Moktafi. + +During the reign of Motamid the emperor Basil I. conducted the war +against the Moslems with great success, till in the year 270 (A.D. 884) +his army suffered a terrible defeat near Tarsus, in which the greater +part of the army, the commander Andreas, and many other patricians +perished. + +Motamid had appointed his son al-Mofawwid as successor to the Caliphate, +and after him his brother Mowaffaq. When the latter died in the year +891, his son Abu 'l-'Abbas, _al-Mo'tadid_ ("he who seeks his support in +God"), was put in his place. Next year Mofawwid was compelled to +abdicate in favour of his cousin. Shortly after Motamid died, Rajab 279 +(October 892). Not long before these events, the seat of the Caliphate +had been restored to Bagdad. + +16. _Reign of Motadid_.--Motadid may be called, after Mansur, the most +able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers. He took good care of the +finances, reformed the administration, was an excellent commander in +war, and maintained order as far as possible. The Kharijites in +Mesopotamia, who for many years had molested the government, were +finally crushed with the aid of their former ally Hamdan, who became the +founder of the well-known dynasty of the Hamdanites. The mighty house of +Abu Dolaf in the south-west of Media, which had never ceased to encroach +on the Caliphate, was put down. The governor of Azerbaijan and Armenia, +belonging to the powerful Turkish house of the Sajids or Sajites, whose +loyalty was always doubtful, planned an invasion of Syria and Egypt. +Motadid frustrated it by a quick movement. The citizens of Tarsus who +were involved in the plot were severely punished. The chief punishment, +however, the burning of the fleet, was a very impolitic measure, as it +strengthened the hands of the Byzantines. + +Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves in Basra there +arose in the province of Kufa the celebrated sect of the Carmathians +(q.v.), Fatimites[41] or Isma'ilites. This powerful sect, which save for +a difference of opinion would have joined the negro rising, remained +outwardly quiet during Motamid's reign, but under Motadid the government +began to have misgivings about them. Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, who had +founded a Carmathian state in Bahrein, the north-eastern province of +Arabia (actually called Lahsa), which could become dangerous for the +pilgrim road as well as for the commerce of Basra, in the year 900 +routed an army sent against him by Motadid, and warned the caliph that +it would be safer to let the Carmathians alone. In the same year the +real chief of the sect, whose abode had been discovered by the caliph, +fled from Salamia in Syria, where he lived, to Africa, and hid himself +at Sijilmasa (in Tafilalt) in the far west, whence he reappeared ten +years later at Kairawan as the Mahdi, the first caliph of the +Fatimites.[42] + +Motadid died in Rabia II. A.H. 289 (March 902), leaving the Caliphate to +his son _al-Moktafi billah_ ("he who sufficeth himself in God"). + +17. _Reign of Moktafi_.--Moktafi inherited his father's intrepidity, and +seems to have had high personal qualities, but his reign of six years +was a constant struggle against the Carmathians in Syria, who defeated +the Syrian and Egyptian troops, and conquered Damascus and other +cities. Moktafi led his troops in person, and his general, Mahommed b. +Suleiman, gained a signal victory. Three of their chiefs were taken and +put to death. But, to avenge their defeat, they lay in wait for the +great pilgrim caravan on its return from Mecca in the first days of 294 +(906), and massacred 20,000 pilgrims, making an immense booty. This +horrible crime raised the whole Moslem world against them. Zikruya their +chief was defeated at last and perished. + +After the defeat of the Syrian Carmathians, Mahommed b. Suleiman was +sent by the caliph to Egypt, where he overthrew the dominion of the +Tulunids. 'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari was made governor in their stead +(905). + +The war with the Byzantines was conducted with great energy during the +reign of Moktafi. In the year 905 the Greek general Andronicus took +Marash, and penetrated as far as Haleb (Aleppo), but the Moslems were +successful at sea, and in 907 captured Iconium, whilst Andronicus went +over to the caliph's side, so that the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy +to Bagdad to ask for a truce and an exchange of prisoners. + +18. _Reign of Moqtadir._--The sudden death of Moktafi, Dhu'l-qa'da 295 +(August 908), was a fatal blow to the prestige of the Caliphate, which +had revived under the successive governments of Mowaffaq, Motadid and +himself. The new caliph, _al-Moqtadir billah_ ("the powerful through +God"), a brother of Moktafi, was only thirteen years of age when he +ascended the throne. Owing to his extreme youth many of the leading men +at Bagdad rebelled and swore allegiance to Abdallah, son of the former +caliph Motazz, a man of excellent character and of great poetical gifts; +but the party of the house of Motadid prevailed, and the rival caliph +was put to death. Moqtadir, though not devoid of noble qualities, +allowed himself to be governed by his mother and her ladies and eunuchs. +He began by squandering the 15,000,000 dinars which were in the treasury +when his brother died in largesses to his courtiers, who, however, +merely increased their demands. His very able vizier, the noble and +disinterested Ali b. 'Isa, tried to check this foolish expenditure, but +his efforts were more than counterbalanced by the vizier Ibn abi'l-Forat +and the court. The most shameless bribery and the robbery of the +well-to-do went together with the most extravagant luxury. The +twenty-four years of Moqtadir's reign are a period of rapid decay. The +most important event in the reign was the foundation of the Fatimite +dynasty, which reigned first in the Maghrib and then in Egypt for nearly +three centuries (see FATIMITES and EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan"). + +Far more dangerous, however, for the Caliphate of Bagdad at the time +were the Carmathians of Bahrein, then guided by Abu Tahir, the son of +Abu Sa'id Jannabi. In 311 (A.D. 923) they took and ransacked Basra; in +the first month of the following year the great pilgrim caravan on its +return from Mecca was overpowered; 2500 men perished, while an even +larger number were made prisoners and brought to Lahsa, the residence of +the Carmathian princes, together with an immense booty. The caravan +which left Bagdad towards the end of this year returned in all haste +before it had covered a third of the way. Then Kufa underwent the fate +that had befallen Basra. In 313 (A.D. 926) the caravan was allowed to +pass on payment of a large sum of money. The government of Bagdad +resolved to crush the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated +by Abu Tahir in 315 (927), and Bagdad was seriously threatened. Next +year Mecca was taken and plundered; even the sacred Black Stone was +transported to Lahsa, where it remained till 339 (950), when by the +express order of the Imam, the Fatimite caliph, it was restored to the +Ka'ba. + +In 317 (929) a conspiracy was formed to dethrone Moqtadir, to which +Munis, the chief commander of the army, at first assented, irritated by +false reports. Very soon he withdrew, and though he could not prevent +the plundering of the palace, and the proclamation as caliph of another +son of Motadid with the title _al-Qahir billah_ ("the victorious through +God"), he rescued Moqtadir and his mother, and at the same time his +imprisoned friend Ali b. 'Isa, and brought them to his own house. A few +days later, a counter-revolution took place; the leaders of the revolt +were killed, and Moqtadir, against his wish, was replaced on the throne. +In 320 (A.D. 932) Munis, discovering a court intrigue against him, set +out for Mosul, expecting that the Hamdanids, who owed to him their +power, would join him. Instead of doing this, they opposed him with a +numerous army, but were defeated. Munis took Mosul, and having received +reinforcements from all parts, marched against Bagdad. The caliph, who +wished nothing more than to be reconciled to his old faithful servant, +was forced to take arms against him, and fell in battle Shawwal 320 +(October 932), at the age of 38 years. His reign, which lasted almost +twenty-five years, was in all respects injurious to the empire. + +19. _Reign of Qahir_.--After the victory Munis acted with great +moderation and proclaimed a general amnesty. His own wish was to call +Abu Ahmad, a son of Moktafi, or a son of Moqtadir, to the Caliphate, but +the majority of generals preferring Qahir because he was an adult man +and had no mother at his side, he acquiesced, although he had a personal +dislike for him, knowing his selfish and cruel character. Qahir was a +drunkard, and derived the money for his excesses from promiscuous +confiscation. He ill-treated the sons of Moqtadir and Abu Ahmad, and +ultimately assassinated his patrons Munis and Yalbak, whose guardianship +he resented. In Jomada I. 322 (April 934) he was dethroned and blinded, +and died in poverty seven years later. + +During the last years of Moqtadir and the reign of Qahir a new dynasty +rose. Buya, the chief of a clan of the Dailam, a warlike people who +inhabit the mountainous country south-west of the Caspian Sea, had +served under the Samanids, and found a footing in the south of Media +(Jabal), whence his three sons--well known under the titles they assumed +at a later period: 'Imad addaula ("prop of the dynasty"), Rokn addaula +("pillar of the dynasty"), and Mo'izz addaula ("strengthener of the +dynasty")--succeeded in subduing the province of Fars, at the time of +Qahir's dethronement (see PERSIA: _History_). + +20. _Reign of Radi_.--Moqtadir's son, who was then proclaimed caliph +under the name of _ar-Radi billah_ ("the content through God"), was +pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the shadow of power. The +vizier Ibn Moqla tried to maintain his authority at least in Irak and +Mesopotamia, but without success. The treasury was exhausted, the troops +asked for pay, the people in Bagdad were riotous. In this extremity the +caliph bade Ibn Raiq, who had made himself master of Basra and Wasit, +and had command of money and men, to come to his help. He created for +him the office of Amir al-Omara, "Amir of the Amirs," which nearly +corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace among the Franks.[43] +Thenceforth the worldly power of the Caliphate was a mere shadow. The +empire was by this time practically reduced to the province of Bagdad; +Khorasan and Transoxiana were in the hands of the Samanids, Fars in +those of the Buyids; Kirman and Media were under independent sovereigns; +the Hamdanids possessed Mesopotamia; the Sajids Armenia and Azerbaijan; +the Ikshidites Egypt; as we have seen, the Fatimites Africa, the +Carmathians Arabia. The Amir al-Omara was obliged to purchase from the +latter the freedom of the pilgrimage to Mecca, at the price of a +disgraceful treaty. + +During the troubles of the Caliphate the Byzantines had made great +advances; they had even taken Malatia and Samosata (Samsat). But the +great valour of the Hamdanid prince Saif-addaula checked their march. +The Greek army suffered two severe defeats and sued for peace. + +21. _Reign of Mottaqi_.--Radi died in Rabia I. A.H. 329 (December 940). +Another son of Moqtadir was then proclaimed caliph under the name of +_al-Mottaqi billah_ ("he who guards himself by God"). At the time of his +accession the Amir al-Omara was the Turkish general Bajkam, in whose +favour Ibn Raiq had been obliged to retire. Unfortunately Bajkam died +soon after, and his death was followed by general anarchy. A certain +Baridi, who had carved out for himself a principality in the province of +Basra, marched against Bagdad and made himself master of the capital, +but was soon driven out by the Dailamite general Kurtakin. Ibn Raiq +came back and reinstated himself as Amir al-Omara. But Baridi again laid +siege to Bagdad, and Mottaqi fled to Nasir addaula the Hamdanid prince +of Mosul, who then marched against Bagdad, and succeeded in repelling +Baridi. In return he obtained the office of Amir al-Omara. But the +Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer him to keep this office +longer than several months. Tuzun, a former captain of Bajkam, compelled +him to return to Mosul and took his place. Mottaqi fled again to Mosul +and thence to Rakka. The Ikshid, sovereign of Egypt and Syria, offered +him a refuge, but Tuzun, fearing to see the caliph obtain such powerful +support, found means to entice him to his tent, and had his eyes put +out, Saphar 333 (October 944). + +22. _Reign of Mostakfi._--As successor Tuzun chose _al-Mostakfi billah_ +("he who finds full sufficiency with God"), a son of Moktafi. This +prince, still more than his predecessors, was a mere puppet in the hands +of Tuzun, who died a few months later, and his successor Ibn Shirzad. +Such was the weakness of the caliph that a notorious robber, named +Hamdi, obtained immunity for his depredations by a monthly payment of +25,000 dinars. One of the Buyid princes, whose power had been steadily +increasing, marched about this time against Bagdad, which he entered in +Jomada I. A.H. 334 (December 945), and was acknowledged by the caliph as +legal sovereign, under the title of Sultan. He assumed at this time the +name of Mo'izz addaula. Mostakfi was soon weary of this new master, and +plotted against him. At least Mo'izz addaula suspected him and deprived +him of his eyesight, Jomada II. A.H. 334 (January 946). There were thus +in Bagdad three caliphs who had been dethroned and blinded, Qahir, +Mottaqi and Mostakfi. + +23. _Reign of Moti._--Mo'izz addaula soon abandoned his original idea of +restoring the title of caliph to one of the descendants of Ali, fearing +a strong opposition of the people, and also dreading lest this should +lead to the recovery by the caliphs of their former supremacy. His +choice fell on a son of Moqtadir, who took the title of _al-Moti' +billah_ ("he who obeys God"). The sultan, reserving to himself all the +powers and revenues of the Caliphate, allowed the caliph merely a +secretary and a pension of 5000 dirhems a day. Though in public prayers +and on the coins the name of the caliph remained as that of the supreme +authority, he had in reality no authority out of the palace, so that the +saying became proverbial, "he contents himself with sermon and coin." + +The Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who began to think his possessions +threatened by Mo'izz addaula, tried without success to wrest Bagdad from +him, and was obliged to submit to the payment of tribute. He died in 358 +(A.D. 969), and ten years later the power of this branch of the +Hamdanids came to an end. The representative of the other branch, Saif +addaula, the prince of Haleb (Aleppo), conducted the war against the +Byzantines with great valour till his death in 356 (A.D. 967), but could +not stop the progress of the enemy. His descendants maintained +themselves, but with very limited power, till A.H. 413 (A.D. 1022). + +Mo'izz addaula died in the same year as Saif addaula, leaving his power +to his son Bakhtiyar 'Izz addaula, who lacked his father's energy and +loved pleasure more than business. + +While the Abbasid dynasty was thus dying out in shame and degradation, +the Fatimites, in the person of Mo'izz li-din-allah (or Mo'izz Abu Tamin +Ma'add) ("he who makes God's religion victorious"), were reaching the +highest degree of power and glory in spite of the opposition of the +Carmathians, who left their old allegiance and entered into negotiations +with the court of Bagdad, offering to drive back the Fatimites, on +condition of being assisted with money and troops, and of being rewarded +with the government of Syria and Egypt. The former condition was +granted, but the caliph emphatically refused the latter demand, saying: +"Both parties are Carmathians, they profess the same religion and are +enemies of Islam." The Carmathians drove the Fatimites out of Syria, and +threatened Egypt, but, notwithstanding their intrepidity, they were not +able to cope with their powerful rival, who, however, in his turn could +not bring them to submission. In 978-979 peace was made on condition +that the Carmathians should evacuate Syria for an annual payment of +70,000 dinars. But the losses sustained by the Carmathians during that +struggle had been enormous. Their power henceforward declined, and came +to an end in A.H. 474 (A.D. 1081). + +Mo'izz addaula, as we have seen, professed a great veneration for the +house of Ali. He not only caused the mourning for the death of Hosain +and other Shi'ite festivals to be celebrated at Bagdad, but also allowed +imprecations against Moawiya and even against Mahomet's wife Ayesha and +the caliphs Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, to be posted up at the doors of +the mosques. These steps annoyed the people and the Turkish soldiery, +who were Sunnites, and led at last to an insurrection. Moti was +compelled to abdicate, and Bakhtiyar was driven out of Bagdad +Dhu'l-qa'da 363 (August 974). + +24. _Reign of Tai._--Moti left the empty title of caliph to his son +_al-Ta'i li-amri'llah_ ("the obedient to the command of God"). The Turks +who had placed him on the throne could not maintain themselves, but so +insignificant was the person of the caliph that 'Adod addaula, who +succeeded his cousin Bakhtiyar in Bagdad, did not think of replacing him +by another. Under this prince, or king, as he was called, the power of +the Buyids reached its zenith. His empire stretched from the Caspian to +the Persian Sea, and in the west to the eastern frontier of Syria. He +did his best to remedy the misery caused by the intestine Wars, repaired +the ruined mosques and other public edifices, founded hospitals and +libraries--his library in Shiraz was one of the wonders of the +world--and improved irrigation. It was also he who built the mausoleum +of Hosain at Kerbela, and that of Ali at Kufa. But after his death in +the year 372 (A.D. 983), his sons, instead of following the example of +their predecessors, the three sons of Buya, fought one against the +other. In 380 (A.D. 990) the youngest of them, Baha addaula, had the +upper hand. This prince, who was as avaricious as he was ambitious, +wishing to deprive the caliph Ta'i of his possessions, compelled him to +abdicate A.H. 381 (A.D. 991). + +25. _Reign of Qadir._--A grandson of Moqtadir was then made caliph under +the name of _al-Qadir billah_ ("the powerful through God"). The only +deed of power, however, that is recorded of him, is that he opposed +himself to the substitution of a Shi'ite head cadi for the Sunnite, so +that Baha addaula had to content himself with giving to the Shi'ites a +special judge, to whom he gave the title of _naqib_ (superintendent). +During this caliphate the Buyid princes were in continual war with one +another. Meanwhile events were preparing the fall of their dynasty. In +350 (A.D. 961) a Turkish general of the Samanids had founded for himself +a principality in Ghazni, arid at his death in 366 (A.D. 976) his +successor Sabuktagin had conquered Bost in Sijistan and Qosdar in +Baluchistan, beaten the Indian prince Diaya Pala, and been acknowledged +as master of the lands west of the Indus. At his death in 387 his son +Mahmud conquered the whole of Khorasan and Sijistan, with a great part +of India. He then attacked the Buyids, and would have destroyed their +dynasty but for his death in the year 421 (A.D. 1030). + +In 389 (A.D. 999) Ilek-khan, the prince of Turkistan, took Bokhara and +made an end to the glorious state of the Samanids, the last prince of +which was murdered in 395 (A.D. 1005). The Samanids had long been a +rampart of the Caliphate against the Turks, whom they held under firm +control. From their fall dates the invasion of the empire by that +people. The greatest gainer for the moment was Mahmud of Ghazni. In +Mesopotamia and Irak several petty states arose on the ruins of the +dominions of the Hamdanids and of the Abbasids. + +Qadir died in the last month of A.H. 422 (November 1031). He is the +author of some theological treatises. + +26. _Reign of Qaim_.--He was succeeded by his son, who at his accession +took the title of _al-Qaim bi-amri'llah_ ("he who maintains the cause of +God"). During the first half of his long reign took place the +development of the power of the Ghuzz, a great Turkish tribe, who took +the name Seljuk from Seljuk their chief in Transoxiana. Already during +the reign of Mahmud large bodies had passed the Oxus and spread over +Khorasan and the adjacent countries. In the time of his successor the +bulk of the tribe followed, and in the year 429 (A.D. 1038) Toghrul Beg, +their chief, beat the army of the Ghaznevids and made his entry into +Nishapur. Thenceforth this progress was rapid (see SELJUKS). The +situation in Bagdad had become so desperate that the caliph called +Toghrul to his aid. This prince entered Bagdad in the month of Ramadan +A.H. 447 (December 1055), and overthrew finally the dynasty of the +Buyids.[44] In 449 (A.D. 1058) the caliph gave him the title of "King of +the East and West." But in the following year, 450, during his absence, +the Shi'ites made themselves masters of the metropolis, and proclaimed +the Caliphate of the Fatimite prince Mostansir. They were soon +overthrown by Toghrul, who was now supreme, and compelled the caliph to +give him his daughter in marriage. Before the marriage, however, he +died, and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan, who died in 465 (25th +December) (A.D. 1072). Qaim died two years later, Shaaban A.H. 467 +(April 1075). + +In the year 440 Mo'izz b. Badis, the Zeirid ruler of the Maghrib, made +himself independent, and substituted in prayer the name of the Abbasid +caliph for that of Mostansir. In order to punish him, the latter gave +permission to the Arab tribes in Egypt to cross the Nile, and granted +them possession of all the lands they should conquer. This happened in +442 (A.D. 1050) and was of the greatest significance for the subsequent +fate of Africa. + +27. _Reign of Moqtadi_.--In the first year of the Caliphate of +_al-Moqtadi bi-amri'llah_ ("he who follows the orders of God"), a +grandson of Qaim, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its zenith. All +the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor, Syria with the +exception of a few towns on the shore, the main part of West Africa +acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad as the Imam. Yemen had been subjected, +and at Mecca and Medina his name was substituted in the public prayers +for that of the Fatimite caliph. But after the death of Malik-Shah a +contest for the sultanate took place. The caliph, who had in 1087 +married the daughter of Malik-Shah, had been compelled two years after +to send her back to her father, as she complained of being neglected by +her husband. Just before his death, the Sultan had ordered him to +transfer his residence from Bagdad to Basra. After his death he stayed +and supported the princess Turkan Khatun. This lost him his life. The +day after Barki-yaroq's triumphant entry into Bagdad, Muharram 487 +(February 1094), he died suddenly, apparently by poison. + +28. _Reign of Mostazhir_.--_Al-Mostazhir billah_ ("he who seeks to +triumph through God"), son of Moqtadi, was only sixteen years old when +he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable chiefly for the growing +power of the Assassins (q.v.) and for the first Crusade (see CRUSADES). +The Seljuk princes were too much absorbed by internal strife to +concentrate against the new assailants. After the death of Barkiyaroq in +November 1104, his brother Mahommed reigned till April 1118. His death +was followed about four months later by that of Mostazhir. + +29. _Reign of Mostarshid._--_Al-Mostarshid billah_ ("he who asks +guidance from God"), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512 (August +1118), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to reestablish the power +of the caliph. Towards the end of the year 529 (October 1134) he was +compelled to promise that he would confine himself to his palace and +never again take the field. Not long after he was assassinated. About +the same time Dobais was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu +Mazyad, who had founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of +the ruins of Babel in 1102. + +30. _Reign of Rashid._--_Al-Rashid billah_ ("the just through God") +tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of Zengi, the +prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas'ud beat the army of the allies, took +Bagdad and had Rashid deposed (August 1136). Rashid escaped, but was +murdered two years later. + +31. _Reign of Moqtafi._--His successor _Al-Moqtafi li-amri'llah_ ("he +who follows the orders of God"), son of Mostazhir, had better success. +He was real ruler not only of the district of Bagdad, but also of the +rest of Irak, which he subdued by force. He died in the month of Rabia +II. 555 (March 1160). Under his reign the central power of the Seljuks +was rapidly sinking. In the west of Atabeg (prince's guardian) Zengi, +the prince of Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the +north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam against +the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (A.D. 1146), his noble son, the +well-known Nureddin, who was called "the just king," continued his +father's glorious career. Transoxiana was conquered by the heathen +hordes of Khata, who towards the end of 535 (A.D. 1141) under the king +Ghurkhan defeated the great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the +Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan. + +32. _Reign of Mostanjid._--_Al-Mostanjid billah_ ("he who invokes help +from God"), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the dominion of the Caliphate +by making an end to the state of the Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies +were the Arabic tribe of the Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in +southern Irak. The greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was +the conquest of Egypt by the army of Nureddin, the overthrow of the +Fatimite dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his +majordomo in Rabia II. 566 (December 1170). + +33. _Reign of Mostadi._--His son and successor _al-Mostadi' +bi-amri'llah_ ("he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God "), +though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers for that +of the Fatimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real authority. By the +death of Nureddin in 569 (A.D. 1174) Saladin's power became firmly +rooted. The dynasty founded by him is called that of the Ayyubites, +after the name of his father Ayyub. Mostadi died in the month of +Dhu'l-qa'da 575 (March 1180). + +34. _Reign of Nasir._--Quite a different man from his father was his +successor _al-Nasir li-dini'llah_ ("he who helps the religion of God"). +During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab 583 +(October 2nd, 1187). Not long before that event the well-known Spanish +traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin, and came to Bagdad +in 580, where he saw the caliph himself. Nasir was very ambitious; he +had added Khuzistan to his dominions, and desired to become also master +of Media (Jabal, or Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the +Seljuks). Here, however, he came into conflict with the then mighty +prince of Khwarizm (Khiva), who, already exasperated because the caliph +refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved to overthrow the +Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a descendant of Ali on the +throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety, Nasir took a step which brought the +greatest misery upon western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival. + +In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish tribes +(Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known under his +honorific title Jenghiz Khan, had conquered the northern provinces of +China, and extended its power to the frontiers of the Transoxianian +regions. To this heathen chief the Imam of the Moslems sent a messenger, +inducing him to attack the prince of Khwarizm, who already had provoked +the Mongolian by a disrespectful treatment of his envoys. Neither he nor +the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they conjured +up. When Nasir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225), the eastern provinces +of the empire had been trampled down by the wild hordes, the towns +burned, and the inhabitants killed without mercy. + +35. _Reign of Zahir_.--_Al-Zahir bi-amri'llah_ ("the victorious through +the orders of God") died within a year after his father's death, in +Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor are praised as +beneficent and just princes. + +36. _Reign of Mostansir_.--_Al-Mostansir billah_ ("he who asks help from +God") was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640 (December 1242). In +the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khan died, but the Mongol invasion continued +to advance with immense strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes +with success, to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwarizm, +but after his death in 628 (A.D. 1231) all resistance was paralysed. + +37. _Reign of Mostasim_.--_Al-Mosta'sim billah_ ("he who clings to God +for protection"), son of Mostansir, the last caliph of Bagdad, was a +narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover by bad counsellors. In +the last month of the year 653 (January 1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the +brother of the gteat khan of the Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by +destroying all the strongholds of the Isma'ilis. Then the turn of Bagdad +came. On the 11th of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived under +the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for peace. Totally +devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by surrendering and imploring +mercy from the barbarian victor. On the 4th of Saphar (February 10th) he +came with his retinue into the camp. The city was then given up to +plunder and slaughter; many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, +after having been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of +the family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. With him +expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, which had lasted 524 +years, from the entry of Abu'I-Abbas into Kufa. + +In vain, three years later, did Abu'I-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of the race +of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with Bibars the Mameluke +sultan, and who had been proclaimed caliph under the title _al-Mostansir +billah_ ("he who seeks help from God"), make an effort to restore a +dynasty which was now for ever extinct. At the head of an army he +marched against Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached +that city. Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found +an asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name of +_al-Hakim bi-amrillah_ ("he who decides according to the orders of +God"). His sons inherited his title, but, like their father, remained in +Egypt without power or influence (see EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan +period"). This shadow of sovereignty continued to exist till the +conquest of Egypt by the Turkish sultan Selim I., who compelled the last +of them, Motawakkil, to abdicate in his favour (see TURKEY: _History_). +He died at Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538. + +Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great-grandson of the +caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a refuge in India, where the +sultan of Delhi received him with the greatest respect, named him +Makhdumzadeh, "the Master's son," and treated him as a prince. Ibn +Batuta saw him when he visited India, and says that he was very +avaricious. On his return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young +man, son of this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as +imam in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father. +It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to Sumatra, +where in the old Samutra the graves of their descendants have been +lately discovered. (M. J. de G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places + appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents or + other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles on + these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such + cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration + adopted, are there given in addition. + + [2] See Noldeke, _Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ + (1864), pp. 89 seq. + + [3] De Goeje, _Memoires d'hist. et de geog. orient._ No. 2 (2nd ed., + Leiden, 1864); Noldeke, _D.M.Z._, 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Baladhuri 137. + + [4] The accounts differ; see Baladhuri 305. The chronology of the + conquests is in many points uncertain. + + [5] Baladhuri 315 sq.; Tabari. i. 1068. + + [6] He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the Arabs + were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire + landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made + state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a + perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the + army. + + [7] Noldeke, _Tabari_, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of + the Era of the Flight (Hegira). + + [8] Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the + Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and + distinguished from the men of Medina. + + [9] It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular + nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred + cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the + elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual + nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage + was as apparent in Ali's hostilities against Zobair and Talha, as in + that of the Abbasids against the followers af Ali. + + [10] Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to + 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh seems to have been a trick played on the + caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it. + + [11] Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Modar and + the Rab'ia tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Modar. + + [12] The Arabs always call them Rum, i.e. Romans. + + [13] A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazan, says that he was a legitimate + son of Abu Sofian, and that his mother was Asma, daughter of A'war. + But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a + slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofian, and who became later also + the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofian + acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid + caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyad and his descendants struck off + the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, the persons concerned + gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names + replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479). + + [14] Aghani xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118. + + [15] Tabari ii. p. 82. + + [16] See Chodzko, _Theatre persan_ (Paris, 1878). + + [17] Dozy took _communis_ for a gloss to _civiliter_ + + [18] Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; it + lies a day's march west from Haleb (Aleppo). + + [19] This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches + of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in his _Estudio sobre la + Invasion de los Arabes en Espana_ (Madrid, 1892). Some of the + details, however, e.g. the battle near Tamames and the part played by + the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but on + probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa and + Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir, _Caliphate_ (London, 1891), pp. 368-9. + + [20] Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to be + found in the _Kitab al-Oyun_, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138. + + [21] Seyid Ameer Ali, _A Critical Examination of the Life and + Teachings of Mahomet_, pp. 341-343. + + [22] Cf. Van Vloten, _Recherches sur la domination arabe, le + Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des + Omayades_ (Amsterdam, 1894), p. 63 seq. + + [23] Cf. Wellhausen, _Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der Zeit + der Umaijiden_ (Gottingen, 1901), p. 31. + + [24] Bayan i. p. 42; Dozy, _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne_, i. p. + 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist + Nauam. + + [25] Dozy i. p. 268. + + [26] Merwan has been nicknamed _al-Ja'di_ and _al-Himar_ (the Ass). + As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, + it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarani (ed. de Jong, p. 31), + who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja'd b. Durham, killed + under the reign of Hisham for heretical opinions, had followers in + Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khorasanians + called him a Ja'd, pretending that all'Ja'd had been his teacher. As + to al-Himar this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his + usual title, al-Faras, "the race-horse." + + [27] The Arabic word for "shedder of blood," _as-Saffah_, which by + that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host + who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have + taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it + an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the + same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abu'l-Abbas finally + established his power. + + [28] The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly + established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent + princes (see MOROCCO, _History_). + + [29] This Hashimiya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded + by Abu'l-Abbas near Anbar. + + [30] Cf. G. le Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ + (Oxford, 1900). + + [31] Tabari iii. p. 443 seq. + + [32] The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called + Ansar ("helpers"). + + [33] On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in + the _Journal Asiatique_ for March-April, 1869. + + [34] Cf. W.M. Patton, _Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_ (Leiden, + 1897); and article MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. + + [35] See M.J. de Goeje, _Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes + travers l'Asie_ (Leiden, 1903); also GIPSIES. + + [36] See M.J. de Goeje, "De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze," + _Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk._ 4^e Reeks, + iii., 1900. + + [37] See M.J. de Goeje, "De muur van Gog en Magog," _Versl. en + Meded._ 3^e Reeks, v., 1888. + + [38] "Dinars" in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for + "dirhems." + + [39] This Bogha was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Wasif, a + man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor. + + [40] See Noldeke, _Orientalische Skizzen_, pp. 155 seq. + + [41] For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under + FATIMITES. + + [42] M.J. de Goeje, _Memoire sur les Carmathes du Bahrain et les + Fatimides_ (Leiden, 1886). + + [43] See Defremery, _Memoire sur les Emirs al-Omara_ (Paris, 1848). + + [44] Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the + Seljuk princes (see SELJUKS). + + + + +CALIVER, a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is an English +corruption of "calibre," and arises from the "arquebus of calibre," that +is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. "Caliver," +therefore, is practically synonymous with "arquebus." The heavier +musket, fired from a rest, replaced the caliver or arquebus towards the +close of the century. + + + + +CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS, the name of three popes. + +CALIXTUS I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery +of the book of the _Philosophumena_. From this work, which is in part a +pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a +slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into +collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured +his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope +Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the government +of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus (217) he was elected in +his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological +adversary Hippolytus, the author of the _Philosophumena_, accused him of +having favoured the medalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and +after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most +prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him also of +certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus reduced the +penitential severities applied until his time to those guilty of +adultery and other analogous sins. Under Calixtus and his two immediate +successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized +by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in +222, in circumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine +the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr popes. + (L. D.*) + +CALIXTUS II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a +noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and +belonged to the party which favoured reform in the Church. In September +1112, after Pope Paschal II. had made a surrender to the emperor Henry +V., Guido called a council at Vienne, which declared against lay +investiture, and excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen +pope at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the +anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he +opened negotiations with the emperor with a view to settling the dispute +over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment +difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 +both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. +The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He +was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory, having +fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands and treated with great +ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations +between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of +Worms made in September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible +by concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, and +was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. During his short +reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern +Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the +city of Rome. During preparations for a crusade he died in Rome on the +13th or 14th of December 1124. + + See M. Maurer, _Pabst Calixt II._ (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, _Hisloire + du pape Calixte II._ (Paris, 1891); and A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, + Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). + +CALIXTUS III. (_c._1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a Spaniard +named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a +great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor at Lerida; in 1429 he +was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion +mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and +Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a +crusade against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, +succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the people of +Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, and very little result +came from the pope's exertions. During his papacy Calixtus became +involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now +also king of Naples, and after the king's death in June 1458 he refused +to recognize his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, +asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was +notorious for nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, +Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on the +6th of August 1458. + + See A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). + + + + +CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelby, a +village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying philology, philosophy and +theology at Helmstadt, Jena, Giessen, Tubingen and Heidelberg, he +travelled through Holland, France and England, where he became +acquainted with the leading Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was +appointed professor of theology at Helmstadt by the duke of Brunswick, +who had admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute +with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a book, +_Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus_, which +provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he +published his _Epitome theologiae_, and some years later his _Theologia +Moralis_ (1634) and _De Arte Nova Nihusii_. Roman Catholics felt them to +be aimed at their own system, but they gave so great offence to +Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher to charge the author with a +secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refuted the accusation of +Buscher, when, on account of his intimacy with the Reformed divines at +the conference of Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a +reconciliation between them and the Lutherans, a new charge was +preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius +(1612-1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim +of his life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant +differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, known in the +Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime +of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran church, till a new controversy +arose with P.J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656. + + There is a monograph on Calixtus by E.L.T. Henke (2 vols., 1853-1856); + see also Isaak Dorner, _Gesch. d. protest. Theol._ pp. 606-624; and + especially Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. + + + + +CALL (from Anglo-Saxon _ceallian_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch +_kallen_, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and +particularly to attract some one's attention by a loud utterance. Hence +its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the occupier, to whom +the visit was made, was called aloud, in early times, to indicate the +presence of the visitor. It is thus transferred to a short stay at a +place, but usually with the idea of a specific purpose, as in "port of +call," where ships stop in passing. Connected with the idea of summoning +by name are such uses as "roll-call" or "call-over," where names are +called over and answered by those present; similar uses are the "call to +the bar," the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students qualified +to practise as barristers, and the "call within the bar" to the +appointment of king's counsel. In the first case the "bar" is that which +separates the benchers from the rest of the body of members of the Inn, +in the other the place in a court of law within which only king's +counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law, are allowed to plead. "Call" is +also used with a particular reference to a divine summons, as of the +calling of the apostles. It is thus used in nonconformist churches of +the invitation to serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. +It is from this sense of a _vocatio_ or summons that the word "calling" +is used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man's ordinary +profession, occupation or business. In card games "call" is used, in +poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest bettor be exposed or +seen, exercised by that player who equals his bet; in whist or bridge, +of a certain method of play, the "call" for a suit or for trumps on the +part of one partner, to which the other is expected to respond; and in +many card games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is +laid face up on the table, and may be thus "called" for, at any point +the opponent may choose. + +"Call" is also a term on the English and American stock exchanges for a +contract by which, in consideration of a certain sum, an "option" is +given by the person making or signing the agreement to another named +therein or his order or to bearer, to "call" for a specified amount of +stock at a certain day for a certain price. A "put," which is the +reverse of a "call," is the option of selling (putting) stock at a +certain day for a certain price. A combined option of either calling or +putting is termed a "straddle," and sometimes on the American stock +exchange a "spread-eagle." (See further STOCK EXCHANGE.) The word is +also used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand +for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company has not +been demanded or "called" up at once. (See COMPANY.) + + + + +CALLANDER, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m. north-west of +Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 1458. Situated on the +north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a three-arched bridge, and +sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is in growing repute as a +health resort. A mile and a half north-east are the Falls of Bracklinn +(Gaelic, "white-foaming pool"), formed by the Keltie, which takes a leap +of 50 ft. down the red sandstone gorge on its way to the Teith. Two +miles north-west of Callander is the Pass of Leny, "the gate of the +Highlands," and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the +shores of which stand the ruins of St Bride's chapel. Callander owes +much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from which the +Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that described in Scott's +_Lady of the Lake_. The ascent of Ben Ledi is commonly made from the +town. + + + + +CALLAO, a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8-1/2 m. west of +Lima, in 12 deg. 04' S., 77 deg. 13' W. Pop. (1905) 31,128, of whom 3349 +were foreigners. The department includes the city and its environs, +Bellavista and La Punta, and the neighbouring islands, San Lorenzo, +Fronton, the Palominos, &c., and covers an area of 14-1/2 sq. m. Callao +is the principal port of the republic, its harbour being a large bay +sheltered by a tongue of land on the south called La Punta, and by the +islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and +the harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. +The city stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a flat +point of land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most +part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly paved, +irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast is swept by cool +ocean breezes, the average temperatures ranging from 65 deg. to 77 deg. +F., but notwithstanding this, Callao has a bad reputation for fevers and +contagious diseases, chiefly because of its insanitary condition. Its +noteworthy public buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses +which occupy the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish +government between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, +the military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three +Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some modern +commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north of the site of +the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake and tidal wave in +1746. For a short time the commercial interests of the stricken city +centred at Bellavista, 1-1/4 m. east, where wheat granaries were built +and still remain, but later the greater convenience of a waterside site +drew the merchants and population back to the vicinity of the submerged +town. The importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only +open port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political +order, because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss of +its monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked, and the modern +development of the port began, when a railway was built from Callao into +the heart of the Andes, and Callao is now an important factor in the +development of copper-mining. The port is connected with Lima by two +railways and an electric tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and +with Cerro de Pasco by railway 221 m. A short railway also runs from the +port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with modern +harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete blocks, two +fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels, and a large +floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable of receiving +vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight), which was built in +Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863. The docks are provided with +gas and electric lights, 18 steam cranes for loading and discharging +vessels, a triple line of railway and a supply of fresh water. Callao +was formerly the headquarters in South America of the Pacific Steam +Navigation Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies +that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of Lima, few +industrial establishments in the city; among them are a large sugar +refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory for making effervescent +drinks, and a number of foundries and repair shops. Being a port of the +first class, Callao is an important distributing centre for the coasting +trade, in which a large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign +steamship companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific +Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compania Sud-America (Chilean), the +Kosmos and Roland lines (German), the Merchants line (New York), and a +Japanese line from the ports of Japan and China. A subsidized Peruvian +line is also contemplated to ply between the Pacific ports of South +America with an eventual extension of the service to Europe. The +arrivals from and clearances for foreign ports in 1907 were as +follows:-- + + Steamers. Sailing Vessels. + No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. + Arrivals 518 937,302 924 174,165 + Clearances 517 937,706 931 163,365 + +The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides, silver, +copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include timber and +other building materials, cotton and other textiles, general merchandise +for personal, household and industrial uses, railway material, coal, +kerosene, wheat, flour and other food stuffs. The maintenance of peace +and order, and the mining development of the interior, have added to the +trade and prosperity of the port. + +The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was founded in +1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima. As the port of that +capital and the only open port below Panama it grew rapidly in +importance and wealth. It was raised to the dignity of a city in 1671. +The appearance of Sir Francis Drake in the bay in 1578 led to the +fortification of the port, which proved strong enough to repel an attack +by the Dutch in 1624. The city was completely destroyed and partly +submerged by the great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which +about 6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and +figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also in the +various revolutions which have convulsed the republic. Its political +autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a coast department. The +Callao fortifications were bombarded by a Spanish fleet under Admiral +Mendez Nunez on the 2nd of May 1866, when there were heavy losses both +in lives and material. Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the +Chileans, though it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession +of the invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before +the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were sunk, +to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy. + + + + +CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL (1779-1844), English landscape painter, was +born at Kensington in 1779 and died there in 1844. His first study was +music; and he sang for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. +But at the age of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had +exhibited his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to +distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an academician in +1810. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood; and, seven years +later, was appointed surveyor of the royal pictures. His two principal +subject pictures--"Raphael and the Fornarina," and "Milton dictating to +his Daughters," are much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in +the highest class by their refined taste and quiet beauty. + +His wife, MARIA, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married in 1827, was +a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. +(d. 1822). With her first husband she travelled in India, South Africa +and South America, where she acted for some time as teacher of Donna +Maria, who became queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her +second husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She published +accounts of her visits to India (1812), and to the environs of Rome +(1820); _Memoirs of Poussin_ (1820); a _History of France_; a _History +of Spain_ (1828); _Essays toward a History of Painting_ (1836); _Little +Arthur's History of England_ (1836); and the _Scripture Herbal_ (1842). + + + + +CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL (1766-1821), English musician, brother of Sir +Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the 20th of November 1766. +At the age of seven he was sent to a neighbouring day-school, where he +continued for five years, studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this +time he frequently went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which +his father was employed, and the impression he received on hearing the +organ of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The +organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott received his +first musical instruction. He did not, however, choose music as a +profession, as he wished to become a surgeon. But on witnessing a +surgical operation he found his nervous system so seriously affected by +the sight, that he determined to devote himself to music. His intimacy +with Dr Arnold and other leading musicians of the day procured him +access to artistic circles; he was deputy organist at St George the +Martyr, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, from 1783 to 1785, in which year his +successful competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by +the "Catch Club" soon spread his reputation as composer of glees, +catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music. The +compositions with which he won these medals were--the catch "O beauteous +fair," the canon "Blessed is he," and the glee "Dull repining sons of +care." In these and other similar compositions he displays considerable +skill and talent, and some of his glees retain their popularity at the +present day. In 1787 Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the +"Glee Club." In 1789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul's, +Covent Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for +Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never succeeded, +not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But of far greater +importance than his compositions are his theoretical writings. His +_Musical Grammar_, published in 1806 (3rd ed., 1817), was long +considered the standard English work of musical instruction, and in +spite of its being antiquated when compared with modern standards, it +remains a scholarly and lucid treatment of the rudiments of the art. +Callcott was a much-esteemed teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he +took his degree of Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had +received his degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr +Crotch as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of +his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of his +mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on the 15th of +May 1821. A posthumous collection of his most favourite vocal pieces was +published in 1824 with a memoir of his life by his son-in-law, William +Horsley, himself a composer of note. + +Callcott's son, WILLIAM HUTCHINS CALLCOTT (1807-1882), inherited to a +large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song, "The last man," +and his anthem, "Give peace in our time, O Lord," were his best-known +compositions. + + + + +CALLIAS, tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance of Philip II. +of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contemplated the subjugation of +the whole island. But finding that Philip was unwilling to help him, +Callias had recourse to the Athenians, although he had previously (350 +B.C.) been engaged in hostilities with them. With the support of +Demosthenes, he was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the +tribute formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over to +him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his rule, with +Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up tyrants chosen +by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently, when Philip's attention +was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians in conjunction with Callias drove +out these tyrants, and Callias thus became master of the island +(Demosthenes, _De Pace_, p. 58; _Epistola Philippi_, p. 159; Diod. Sic. +xvi. 74). At the end of his life he appears to have lived at Athens, and +Demosthenes proposed to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines, +_Contra Ctesiphontem_, 85, 87). + + + + +CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, two names borne alternately by the heads of a +wealthy and distinguished Athenian family. During the 5th and 4th +centuries B.C. the office of _daduchus_ or torch-bearer at the +Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary privilege of the family till its +extinction. The following members deserve mention. + +1. CALLIAS, the second of the name, fought at the battle of Marathon +(490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of Cimon, probably +about 445 B.C., he was sent to Susa to conclude with Artaxerxes, king of +Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards misnamed the "peace of Cimon." +Cimon had nothing to do with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea +of peace with Persia (see CIMON). At all events Callias's mission does +not seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason on +his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents. + + See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes, _De Falsa + Legatione_, p. 428; Grote recognizes the treaty as a historical fact, + _History of Greece_, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii. ch. ii., denies + the conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, + _Forschungen_, ii.; J.B. Bury in _Hermathena_, xxiv. (1898). + +2. HIPPONICUS, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon he commanded +the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian territory (426 B.C.) +and was slain at the battle of Delium (424). His wife, whom he +divorced, subsequently became the wife of Pericles; one of his +daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades; another, the wife of +Theodorus, was the mother of the orator Isocrates. + + See Thucydides iii. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides, _Contra + Alcibiadem_, 13. + +3. CALLIAS, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was +notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed by the +comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian (Aristophanes, +_Frogs_, 429, _Birds_, 283, and schol. Andocides, _De Mysteriis_, +110-131). The scene of Xenophon's _Symposium_ and Plato's _Protagoras_ +was laid at his house. He was reduced to a state of absolute poverty +and, according to Aelian (_Var. Hist._ iv. 23), committed suicide, but +there is no confirmation of this. In spite of his dissipated life he +played a certain part in public affairs. In 392 he was in command of the +Athenian hoplites at Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by +Iphicrates. In 371 he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms +with Sparta. The peace which was the result was called after him the +"peace of Callias." + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv. 5, vi. 3; and DELIAN LEAGUE. + + + + +CALLIMACHUS, an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the 5th century +B.C. Ancient critics associate him with Calamis, whose relative he may +have been. He is given credit for two inventions, the Corinthian column +and the running borer for drilling marble. The most certain facts in +regard to him are that he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and +made a golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408 B.C.); and that he used +to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour. + + + + +CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Cyrene and a +descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae, flourished about +250 B.C. He opened a school in the suburbs of Alexandria, and some of +the most distinguished grammarians and poets were his pupils. He was +subsequently appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the +Alexandrian library, which office he held till his death (about 240). +His _Pinakes_ (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically +arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history of +Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800 works, in +verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four epigrams and some +fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of the _Hecale_, an +idyllic epic, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon +in _Classical Review_, November 1893). His _Coma Berenices_ is only +known from the celebrated imitation of Catullus. His _Aitia_ (causes) +was a collection of elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the +foundation of cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According +to Quintilian (_Instit._ x. i. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac +poets; his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by +Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns are extremely +learned, and written in a laboured and artificial style. The epigrams, +some of the best specimens of their kind, have been incorporated in the +Greek Anthology. Art and learning are his chief characteristics, +unrelieved by any real poetic genius; in the words of Ovid (_Amores_, i. +15)-- + + "Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet." + + EDITIONS.--Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by + Bentley) by J.A. Ernesti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) (with + elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke + (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff (1897). See _Neue Bruchstucke + aus der Hekale des Kallimachus_, by T. Gomperz (1893); also G. Knaack, + _Callimachea_ (1896); A. Bertrami, _Gl' Inni di Callimacho e il Nomo + di Terpandro_ (1896); K. Kuiper, _Studia Callimachea_ (1896); A. + Hamette, _Les Epigrammes de Callimaque: etude critique et litteraire_ + (Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd + (1755) and H.W. Tytler (1793); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). See also + Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (ed. 1906), p. 122. + + + + +CALLINUS of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets and the +creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed to have +flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the Cimmerii and their +expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 B.C.). During his lifetime his own +countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the +Magnesians. These two events give the key to his poetry, in which he +endeavours to rouse the indolent Ionians to a sense of patriotism. Only +scanty fiagments of his poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in +Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus. + + Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bergk, _Poetae + Lyrici Graeci_ (1882). On the date of Callinus, see the histories of + Greek literature by Mure and Muller; G.H. Bode, _Geschichte der + hellenischen Dichtkunst_, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger, _De + Callini Aetate_ (1877), who places him earlier, about 642. + + + + +CALLIOPE, the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweetness of her +vioce (Gr. [Greek: kallos], beauty; [Greek: ops], voice). In Hesiod she +was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over the +others. (See also MUSES, THE.) + + + + +CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-god Achelous +and wife of Alcmaeon (q.v.). At her earnest request her husband induced +Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia, and the father of his first wife +Arsinoe (or Alphesiboea), to hand over to him the necklace and peplus +(robe) of Harmonia (q.v.), that he might dedicate them at Delphi to +complete the cure of his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were +really meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid +and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102). Callirrhoe +now implored the gods that her two young sons might grow to manhood at +once and avenge their father's death. This was granted, and her sons +Amphoterus and Acarnan slew Phegeus with his two sons, and returning +with the necklace and peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, _Metam._ +ix. 413). + + + + +CALLISTHENES (_c._ 360-328 B.C.), of Olynthus, Greek historian, a +relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation he was +appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. He +censured Alexander's adoption of oriental customs, inveighing especially +against the servile ceremony of adoration. Having thereby greatly +offended the king, he was accused of being privy to a treasonable +conspiracy and thrown into prison, where he died from torture or +disease. His melancholy end was commemorated in a special treatise +([Greek: Kallisthenaes ae peri penthous]) by his friend Theophrastus, +whose acquaintance he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote +an account of Alexander's expedition, a history of Greece from the peace +of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a history of the Phocian +war and other works, all of which have perished. The romantic life of +Alexander, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the middle ages, +originated during the time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form +belongs to the 3rd century A.D. Its author is usually known as +pseudo-Callisthenes, although, in the Latin translation by Julius +Valerius Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is +ascribed to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and +Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are also +Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek +versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle ages (see +Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_, 1897, p. 849). +Valerius's translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, +arch-priest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-called _Historia de +Preliis_. + + See _Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni_ (by C.W. Muller, in the Didot + edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments and the + text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduction; A. + Westermann, _De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene + Commentatio_ (1838-1842); J. Zacher, _Pseudo-Callisthenes_ (1867); W. + Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1898), pp. 363, 819; + article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyklopadie_; A. Ausfeld, _Zur Kritik des griechischen + Alexanderromans_ (Bruchsal, 1894); Plutarch, _Alexander_, 52-55; + Arrian, _Anab_. iv. 10-14; Diog. Laertius v. I; Quintus Curtius viii. + 5-8; Suidas _s.v._ See also ALEXANDER THE GREAT (_ad fin._). For the + Latin translations see Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ + (Eng, trans.), S 399; and M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen + Litteratur_, iv. i., p. 43. + + + + +CALLISTO, in Greek mythology, an Arcadian nymph, daughter of Lycaon and +companion of Artemis. She was transformed into a bear as a penalty for +having borne to Zeus a son, Arcas, the ancestor of the Arcadians. Hera, +Zeus and Artemis are all mentioned as the authors of the transformation. +Arcas, when hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot +her, had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where he +placed them as a constellation. In another version, she was slain by +Artemis. Callisto was originally only an epithet of the Arcadian Artemis +herself. + + See Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ ii. 381-530; R. Franz, _De + Callistus fabula_ (1890), which deals exhaustively with the various + forms of the legend. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at the beginning of the +2nd century B.C. He was one of the pupils of Aristophanes of Byzantium, +who were distinctively called Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted +himself to the elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his +commentaries have been preserved in the various collections of scholia +and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscellaneous work called +[Greek: Summikta] used by the later lexicographers, and of a treatise on +courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D). He is not to be confused +with Callistratus, the pupil and successor of Isocrates and author of a +history of Heraclea in Pontus. + + See R. Schmidt, _De Callistrato Aristophaneo_, appended to A. Nauck's + _Aristophanis Byzantii Fragmenta_ (1848); also C.W. Muller, _Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum_, iv. p. 353 note. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, only known as the author of a hymn in +honour of Harmodius (q.v.) and Aristogeiton. This ode, which is to be +found in Athenaeus (p. 695), has been beautifully translated by Thomas +Moore. + + + + +CALLISTRATUS, Greek sophist and rhetorician, probably flourished in the +3rd century. He wrote [Greek: Ekfraseis], descriptions of fourteen works +of art in stone or brass by distinguished artists. This little work, +which is written in a dry and affected style, without any real artistic +feeling, is usually edited with the [Greek: Eikones] of Philostratus. + + Edition by Schenkl-Reisch (Teubner series, 1902); see also C.G. Heyne, + _Opuscula Academica_, v. pp. 196-221, with commentary on the + _Descriptiones_; F. Jacobs, _Animadversiones criticae in Callistrati + statuas_ (1797). + + + + +CALLISTRATUS of Aphidnae, Athenian orator and general in the 4th century +B.C. For many years, as _prostates_, he supported Spartan interests at +Athens. On account of the refusal of the Thebans to surrender Oropus, +which on his advice they had been allowed to occupy temporarily, +Callistratus, despite his magnificent defence (which so impressed +Demosthenes that he resolved to study oratory), was condemned to death, +361 B.C. He fled to Methone in Macedonia, and on his return to Athens in +355 he was executed. + + See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii. 3, vi. 2; Lycurgus, _In Leocr._ 93. + + + + +CALLOT, JACQUES (1592-1635), French engraver, was born at Nancy in +Lorraine, where his father, Jean Callot, was a herald-at-arms. He early +discovered a very strong predilection for art, and at the age of twelve +quitted home without his father's consent, and set out for Rome where he +intended to prosecute his studies. Being utterly destitute of funds he +joined a troop of Bohemians, and arrived in their company at Florence. +In this city he had the good fortune to attract the notice of a +gentleman of the court, who supplied him with the means of study; but he +removed in a short time to Rome, where, however, he was recognized by +some relatives, who immediately compelled him to return home. Two years +after this, and when only fourteen years old, he again left France +contrary to the wishes of his friends, and reached Turin before he was +overtaken by his elder brother, who had been despatched in quest of him. +As his enthusiasm for art remained undiminished after these +disappointments, he was at last allowed to accompany the duke of +Lorraine's envoy to the papal court. His first care was to study the art +of design, of which in a short time he became a perfect master. Philip +Thomasin instructed him in the use of the graver, which, however, he +ultimately abandoned, substituting the point as better adapted for his +purposes. From Rome he went to Florence, where he remained till the +death of Cosimo II., the Maecenas of these times. On returning to his +native country he was warmly received by the then duke of Lorraine, who +admired and encouraged him. As his fame was now spread abroad in various +countries of Europe, many distinguished persons gave him commissions to +execute. By the Infanta Isabella, sovereign of the Low Countries, he was +commissioned to engrave a design of the siege of Breda; and at the +request of Louis XIII. he designed the siege of Rochelle and the attack +on the Isle of Re. When, however, in 1631 he was desired by that +monarch to execute an engraving of the siege of Nancy, which he had just +taken, Callot refused, saying, "I would rather cut off my thumb than do +anything against the honour of my prince and of my country"; to which +Louis replied that the duke of Lorraine was happy in possessing such +subjects as Callot. Shortly after this he returned to his native place, +from which the king failed to allure him with the offer of a handsome +pension. He engraved in all about 1600 pieces, the best of which are +those executed in aquafortis. No one ever possessed in a higher degree +the talent for grouping a large number of figures in a small space, and +of representing with two or three bold strokes the expression, action +and peculiar features of each individual. Freedom, variety and _naivete_ +characterize all his pieces. His Fairs, his Miseries of War, his Sieges, +his Temptation of St Anthony and his Conversion of St Paul are the +best-known of his plates. + + See also Edouard Meaume, _Recherches sur la vie de Jacques Callot_ + (1860). + + + + +CALLOVIAN (from _Callovium_, the Latinized form of Kellaways, a village +not far from Chippenham in Wiltshire), in geology, the name introduced +by d'Orbigny for the strata which constitute the base of the Oxfordian +or lowermost stage of the Middle Oolites. The term used by d'Orbigny in +1844 was "Kellovien," subsequently altered to "Callovien" in 1849; +William Smith wrote "Kellaways" or "Kelloways Stone" towards the close +of the 18th century. In England it is now usual to speak of the +Kellaways Beds; these comprise (1) the Kellaways Rock, alternating clays +and sands with frequent but irregular concretionary calcareous +sandstones, with abundant fossils; and (2) a lower division, the +Kellaways Clay, which often contains much selenite but is poor in +fossils. The lithological characters are impersistent, and the sandy +phase encroaches sometimes more, sometimes less, upon the true Oxford +Clay. The rocks may be traced from Wiltshire into Bedfordshire, +Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, where they are well exposed in the cliffs at +Scarborough and Gristhorpe, at Hackness (90 ft.), Newtondale (80 ft.) +and Kepwick (100 ft.). In Yorkshire, however, the Callovian rocks lie +upon a somewhat higher palaeontological horizon than in Wiltshire. In +England, _Kepplerites calloviensis_ is taken as the zone fossil; other +common forms are _Cosmoceras modiolare_, _C. gowerianum_, _Belemnites +oweni_, _Ancyloceras calloviense_, _Nautilus calloviensis_, _Avicula +ovalis_, _Gryphaea bilobata_, &c. + +On the European continent the "Callovien" stage is used in a sense that +is not exactly synonymous with the English Callovian; it is employed to +embrace beds that lie both higher and lower in the time-scale. Thus, the +continental Callovien includes the following zones:-- + + Upper Callovien / Zone of _Peltoceras athleta_, _Cosmoceras Duncani_, + (Divesien) \ _Quenstedtoceras Lamberti_ and _Q. mariae._ + + / Zone of _Reineckia anceps_, _Stephanoceras + Lower Callovien < coronatum_ and _Cosmoceras jason_ and a lower zone + | of _C. gowerianum_ and _Macrocephalites + \ macrocephalus_. + +Rocks of Callovian age (according to the continental classification) are +widely spread in Europe, which, with the exception of numerous insular +masses, was covered by the Callovian Sea. The largest of these land +areas lay over Scandinavia and Finland, and extended eastward as far as +the 40th meridian. In arctic regions these rocks have been discovered in +Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, the east coast of Greenland, and Siberia. +They occur in the Hebrides and Skye and in England as indicated above. +In France they are well exposed on the coast of Calvados between +Trouville and Dives, where the marls and clays are 200 ft. thick. In the +Ardennes clays bearing pyrites and oolitic limonite are about 30 ft. +thick. Around Poitiers the Callovian is 100 ft. thick, but the formation +thins in the direction of the Jura. + +Clays and shales with ferruginous oolites represent the Callovian of +Germany; while in Russia the deposits of this age are mainly +argillaceous. In North America Callovian fossils are found in +California; in South America in Bolivia. In Africa they have been found +in Algeria and Morocco, in Somaliland and Zanzibar, and on the west +coast of Madagascar. In India they are represented by the shales and +limestones of the Chari series of Cutch. Callovian rocks are also +recorded from New Guinea and the Moluccas. + + See JURASSIC; also A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_, vol. ii. + (5th ed., 1906), and H.B. Woodward, "The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," + _Mem. Geol. Survey_, vol. v. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CALM, an adjective meaning peaceful, quiet; particularly used of the +weather, free from wind or storm, or of the sea, opposed to rough. The +word appears in French _calme_, through which it came into English, in +Spanish, Portuguese and Italian _calma_. Most authorities follow Diez +(_Etym. Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen_) in tracing the origin to +the Low Latin _cauma_, an adaptation of Greek [Greek: kauma], burning +heat, [Greek: kaiein], to burn. The Portuguese _calma_ has this meaning +as well as that of quiet. The connexion would be heat of the day, rest +during that period, so quiet, rest, peacefulness. The insertion of the +_l_, which in English pronunciation disappears, is probably due to the +Latin _calor_, heat, with which the word was associated. + + + + +CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1672-1757), French Benedictine, was born at +Mesnil-la-Horgne on the 26th of February 1672. At the age of seventeen +he joined the Benedictine order, and in 1698 was appointed to teach +theology and philosophy at the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was +successively prior at Lay, abbot at Nancy and of Senones in Lorraine. He +died in Paris on the 25th of October 1757. The erudition of Calmet's +exegetical writings won him a reputation that was not confined to the +Roman Catholic Church, but they have failed to stand the test of modern +scholarship. The most noteworthy are:--_Commentaire de la Bible_ (Paris, +23 vols. 1707-1716), and _Dictionnaire historique, geographique, +critique, chronologique et litteral de la Bible_ (Paris, 2 vols., 1720). +These and numerous other works and editions of the Bible are known only +to students, but as a pioneer in a branch of Biblical study which +received a wide development in the 19th century, Calmet is worthy of +remembrance. As a historical writer he is best known by his _Histoire +ecclesiastique et civile de la Lorraine_ (Nancy, 1728), founded on +original research and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full +list is given In Vigouroux's _Dictionnaire de la Bible_. + + See A. Digot, _Notice biographique et litteraire sur Dom Augustin + Calmet_ (Nancy, 1860). + + + + +CALNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99 m. west of London by +the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3457. Area, 356 acres. It lies in +the valley of the Calne, and is surrounded by the high table-land of +Salisbury Plain and the Marlborough Downs. The church of St Mark has a +nave with double aisles, and massive late Norman pillars and arches. The +tower, which fell in 1628, was perhaps rebuilt by Inigo Jones. Other +noteworthy buildings are a grammar school, founded by John Bentley in +1660, and the town-hall. Bacon-curing is the staple industry, and there +are flour, flax and paper mills. The manufacture of broadcloth, once of +great importance, is almost extinct. Calne is governed by a mayor, four +aldermen and twelve councillors. + +In the 10th century Calne (_Canna_, _Kalne_) was the site of a palace of +the West-Saxon kings. Calne was the scene of the synod of 978 when, +during the discussion of the question of celibacy, the floor suddenly +gave way beneath the councillors, leaving Archbishop Dunstan alone +standing upon a beam. Here also a witenagemot was summoned in 997. In +the Domesday Survey Calne appears as a royal borough; it comprised +forty-seven burgesses and was not assessed in hides. In 1565 the borough +possessed a gild merchant, at the head of which were two gild stewards. +Calne claimed to have received a charter from Stephen and a confirmation +of the same from Henry III., but no record of these is extant, and the +charter actually issued to the borough by James II. in 1687 apparently +never came into force. The borough returned two members to parliament +more or less irregularly from the first parliament of Edward I. until +the Reform Bill of 1832. From this date the borough returned one member +only until, by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the privilege +was annulled. In 1303 Lodovicus de Bello Monte, prebendary of +Salisbury, obtained a grant of a Saturday market at the manor of Calne, +and a three days' fair at the feast of St Mary Magdalene; the latter was +only abandoned in the 19th century. Calne was formerly one of the chief +centres of cloth manufacture in the west of England, but the industry is +extinct. + + + + +CALOMEL, a drug consisting of mercurous chloride, mercury subchloride, +Hg2Cl2, which occurs in nature as the mineral horn-quicksilver, found as +translucent crystals belonging to the tetragonal system, with an +adamantine lustre, and a dirty white grey or brownish colour. The chief +localities are Idria, Obermoschel, Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in +Spain. It was used in medicine as early as the 16th century under the +names _Draco mitigatus, Manna metallorum, Aquila alba, Mercurius +dulcis_; later it became known as calomel, a name probably derived from +the Greek [Greek: kalos], beautiful, and [Greek: melas], black, in +allusion to its blackening by ammonia, or from [Greek: kalos] and +[Greek: meli], honey, from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by +heating mercury in chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive +sublimate) with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by +heating a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron retorts, +and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers. In the wet way it +is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt with hydrochloric acid. +Calomel is a white powder which sublimes at a low red heat; it is +insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. Boiling with stannous chloride +solution reduces it to the metal; digestion with potassium iodide gives +mercurous iodide. Nitric acid oxidizes it to mercuric nitrate, while +potash or soda decomposes it into mercury and oxygen. Long continued +boiling with water gives mercury and mercuric chloride; dilute +hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline chlorides convert it into +mercuric chloride on long boiling. + +The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion for much +discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour density to be 8.3 (air += 1), corresponding to HgCl. The supporters of the formula Hg2Cl2 +pointed out that dissociation into mercury and mercuric chloride would +give this value, since mercury is a monatomic element. After +contradictory evidence as to whether dissociation did or did not occur, +it was finally shown by Victor Meyer and W. Harris (1894) that a rod +moistened with potash and inserted in the vapour was coloured yellow, +and so conclusively proved dissociation. A. Werner determined the +molecular weights of mercurous, cuprous and silver bromides, iodides and +chlorides in pyridine solution, and obtained results pointing to the +formula HgCl, etc. However, the double formula, Hg2Cl2, has been +completely established by H.B. Baker (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p. +646) by vapour density determinations of the absolutely dry substance. + +Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in medicine which +are dealt with here as a supplement to the general discussion of the +pharmacology and therapeutics of mercury (q.v.). Calomel exerts remote +actions in the form of mercuric chloride. The specific value of +mercurous chloride is that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric +chloride in the safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is +continuously and freshly generated in small quantities. Its +pharmacopeial preparations are the "Black wash," in which calomel and +lime react to form mercurous oxide, a pill still known as "Plummer's +pill" and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any particular +advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the existence of the +official ointment. Internally the salt is given in doses--for an adult +of from one-half to five grains. It is an admirable aperient, acting +especially on the upper part of the intestinal canal, and causing a +slight increase of intestinal secretion. The stimulant action occurring +high up in the canal (duodenum and jejunum), it is well to follow a dose +of calomel with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special +value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power and its +stimulation of the liver. The stools are dark green, containing calomel, +mercuric sulphide and bile which, owing to the antiseptic action, has +not been decomposed. The salt is often used in the treatment of +syphilis, but is probably less useful than certain other mercurial +compounds. It is also employed for fumigation; the patient sits naked +with a blanket over him, on a cane-bottomed chair, under which twenty +grains of calomel are volatilized by a spirit-lamp; in about twenty +minutes the calomel is effectually absorbed by the skin. + + + + +CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (1734-1803), French statesman, was born at +Douai of a good family. He entered the profession of the law, and became +in succession advocate to the general council of Artois, _procureur_ to +the parlement of Douai, master of requests, then intendant of Metz +(1768) and of Lille (1774). He seems to have been a man of great +business capacity, gay and careless in temperament, and thoroughly +unscrupulous in political action. In the terrible crisis of affairs +preceding the French Revolution, when minister after minister tried in +vain to replenish the exhausted royal treasury and was dismissed for +want of success, Calonne was summoned to take the general control of +affairs. He assumed office on the 3rd of November 1783. He owed the +position to Vergennes, who for three years and a half continued to +support him; but the king was not well disposed towards him, and, +according to the testimony of the Austrian ambassador, his reputation +with the public was extremely poor. In taking office he found "600 +millions to pay and neither money nor credit." At first he attempted to +develop the latter, and to carry on the government by means of loans in +such a way as to maintain public confidence in its solvency. In October +1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he developed the _caisse d' +escompte_. But these measures failing, he proposed to the king the +suppression of internal customs, duties and the taxation of the property +of nobles and clergy. Turgot and Necker had attempted these reforms, and +Calonne attributed their failure to the malevolent criticism of the +parlements. Therefore he had an assembly of "notables" called together +in January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury, and +proposed the establishment of a _subvention territoriale_, which should +be levied on all property without distinction. This suppression of +privileges was badly received by the privileged notables. Calonne, +angered, printed his reports and so alienated the court. Louis XVI. +dismissed him on the 8th of April 1787 and exiled him to Lorraine. The +joy was general in Paris, where Calonne, accused of wishing to augment +the imposts, was known as "Monsieur Deficit." In reality his audacious +plan of reforms, which Necker took up later, might have saved the +monarchy had it been firmly seconded by the king. Calonne soon +afterwards passed over to England, and during his residence there kept +up a polemical correspondence with Necker on the finances. In 1789, when +the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over to Flanders +in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for election, but he was +sternly forbidden to enter France. In revenge he joined the _emigre_ +party at Coblenz, wrote in their favour, and expended nearly all the +fortune brought him by his wife, a wealthy widow. In 1802, having again +taken up his abode in London, he received permission from Napoleon to +return to France. He died on the 30th of October 1802, about a month +after his arrival in his native country. + + See Ch. Gomel, _Les Causes financieres de la Revolution_ (Paris, + 1893); R. Stourm, _Les Finances de l'ancien regime et de la + Revolution_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); Susane, _La Tactique financiere de + Calonne_, with bibliography (Paris, 1902). + + + + +CALORESCENCE (from the Lat. _calor_, heat), a term invented by John +Tyndall to describe an optical phenomenon, the essential feature of +which is the conversion of rays belonging to the dark infra-red portion +of the spectrum into the more refrangible visible rays, i.e. heat rays +into rays of light. Such a transformation had not previously been +observed, although the converse phenomenon, i.e. the conversion of short +waves of light into longer or less refrangible waves, had been shown by +Sir G.G. Stokes to occur in fluorescent bodies. Tyndall's experiments, +however, were carried out on quite different lines, and have nothing to +do with fluorescence (q.v.). His method was to sift out the long dark +waves which are associated with the short visible waves constituting the +light of the sun or of the electric arc and to concentrate the former to +a focus. If the eye was placed at the focus, no sensation of light was +observed, although small pieces of charcoal or blackened platinum foil +were immediately raised to incandescence, thus giving rise to visible +rays. + +The experiment is more easily carried out with the electric light than +with sunlight, as the former contains a smaller proportion of visible +rays. According to Tyndall, 90% of the radiation from the electric arc +is non-luminous. The arc being struck in the usual way between two +carbons, a concave mirror, placed close behind it, caused a large part +of the radiation to be directed through an aperture in the camera and +concentrated to a focus outside. In front of the aperture were placed a +plate of transparent rock-salt, and a flat cell of thin glass containing +a solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide. Both rock-salt and carbon +bisulphide are extremely transparent to the luminous and also to the +infra-red rays The iodine in the solution, however, has the property of +absorbing the luminous rays, while transmitting the infra-red rays +copiously, so that in sufficient thicknesses the solution appears nearly +black. Owing to the inflammable nature of carbon bisulphide, the plate +of rock-salt was found to be hardly a sufficient protection, and Tyndall +surrounded the iodine cell with an annular vessel through which cold +water was made to flow. Any small body which was a good absorber of dark +rays was rapidly heated to redness when placed at the focus. Platinized +platinum (platinum foil upon which a thin film of platinum had been +deposited electrolytically) and charcoal were rendered incandescent, +black paper and matches immediately inflamed, ordinary brown paper +pierced and burned, while thin white blotting-paper, owing to its +transparency to the invisible rays, was scarcely tinged. A simpler +arrangement, also employed by Tyndall, is to cause the rays to be +reflected outwards parallel to one another, and to concentrate them by +means of a small flask, containing the iodine solution and used as a +lens, placed some distance from the camera. The rock-salt and cold water +circulation can then be dispensed with. + +Since the rays used by Tyndall in these experiments are similar to those +emitted by a heated body which is not hot enough to be luminous, it +might be thought that the radiation, say from a hot kettle, could be +concentrated to a focus and employed to render a small body luminous. It +would, however, be impossible by such means to raise the receiving body +to a higher temperature than the source of radiation. For it is easy to +see that if, by means of lenses of rock-salt or mirrors, we focused all +or nearly all the rays from a small surface on to another surface of +equal area, this would not raise the temperature of the second surface +above that of the first; and we could not obtain a greater concentration +of rays from a large heated surface, since we could not have all parts +of the surface simultaneously in focus. The desired result could be +obtained if it were possible, by reflection or otherwise, to cause two +different rays to unite without loss and pursue a common path. Such a +result must be regarded as impossible of attainment, as it would imply +the possibility of heat passing from one body to another at a higher +temperature, contrary to the second law of thermodynamics (q.v.). +Tyndall used the dark rays from a luminous source, which are emitted in +a highly concentrated form, so that it was possible to obtain a high +temperature, which was, however, much lower than that of the source. + + A full account of Tyndall's experiments will be found in his _Heat, a + Mode of Motion_. (J. R. C.) + + + + +CALORIMETRY, the scientific name for the measurement of quantities of +heat (Lat. _calor_), to be distinguished from thermometry, which +signifies the measurement of temperature. A calorimeter is any piece of +apparatus in which heat is measured. This distinction of meaning is +purely a matter of convention, but it is very rigidly observed. +Quantities of heat may be measured indirectly in a variety of ways in +terms of the different effects of heat on material substances. The most +important of these effects are (_a_) rise of temperature, (_b_) change +of state, (_c_) transformation of energy. + +S 1. The rise of temperature of a body, when heat is imparted to it, is +found to be in general nearly proportional to the quantity of heat +added. The _thermal capacity_ of a body is measured by the quantity of +heat required to raise its temperature one degree, and is necessarily +proportional to the mass of the body for bodies of the same substance +under similar conditions. The _specific heat_ of a substance is +sometimes defined as the thermal capacity of unit mass, but more often +as the ratio of the thermal capacity of unit mass of the substance to +that of unit mass of water at some standard temperature. The two +definitions are identical, provided that the thermal capacity of unit +mass of water, at a standard temperature, is taken as the unit of heat. +But the specific heat of water is often stated in terms of other units. +In any case it is necessary to specify the temperature, and sometimes +also the pressure, since the specific heat of a substance generally +depends to some extent on the external conditions. The methods of +measurement, founded on rise of temperature, may be classed as +_thermometric methods_, since they depend on the observation of change +of temperature with a thermometer. The most familiar of these are the +method of mixture and the method of cooling. + + S 2. The _Method of Mixture_ consists in imparting the quantity of + heat to be measured to a known mass of water, or some other standard + substance, contained in a vessel or calorimeter of known thermal + capacity, and in observing the rise of temperature produced, from + which data the quantity of heat may be found as explained in all + elementary text-books. This method is the most generally convenient + and most readily applicable of calorimetric methods, but it is not + always the most accurate, for various reasons. Some heat is generally + lost in transferring the heated body to the calorimeter; this loss may + be minimized by performing the transference rapidly, but it cannot be + accurately calculated or eliminated. Some heat is lost when the + calorimeter is raised above the temperature of its enclosure, and + before the final temperature is reached. This can be roughly estimated + by observing the rate of change of temperature before and after the + experiment, and assuming that the loss of heat is directly + proportional to the duration of the experiment and to the average + excess of temperature. It can be minimized by making the mixing as + rapid as possible, and by using a large calorimeter, so that the + excess of temperature is always small. The latter method was generally + adopted by J.P. Joule, but the rise of temperature is then difficult + to measure with accuracy, since it is necessarily reduced in nearly + the same proportion as the correction. There is, however, the + advantage that the correction is rendered much less uncertain by this + procedure, since the assumption that the loss of heat is proportional + to the temperature-excess is only true for small differences of + temperature. Rumford proposed to eliminate this correction by starting + with the initial temperature of the calorimeter as much below that of + its enclosure as the final temperature was expected to be above the + same limit. This method has been very generally recommended, but it is + really bad, because, although it diminishes the absolute magnitude of + the correction, it greatly increases the uncertainty of it and + therefore the probable error of the result. The coefficient of heating + of a calorimeter when it is below the temperature of its surroundings + is seldom, if ever, the same as the coefficient of cooling at the + higher temperature, since the convection currents, which do most of + the heating or cooling, are rarely symmetrical in the two cases, and + moreover, the duration of the two stages is seldom the same. In any + case, it is desirable to diminish the loss of heat as much as possible + by polishing the exterior of the calorimeter to diminish radiation, + and by suspending it by non-conducting supports, inside a polished + case, to protect it from draughts. It is also very important to keep + the surrounding conditions as constant as possible throughout the + experiment. This may be secured by using a large water-bath to + surround the apparatus, but in experiments of long duration it is + necessary to use an accurate temperature regulator. The method of + lagging the calorimeter with cotton-wool or other non-conductors, + which is often recommended, diminishes the loss of heat considerably, + but renders it very uncertain and variable, and should never be used + in work of precision. The bad conductors take so long to reach a + steady state that the rate of loss of heat at any moment depends on + the past history more than on the temperature of the calorimeter at + the moment. A more serious objection to the use of lagging of this + kind is the danger of its absorbing moisture. The least trace of damp + in the lagging, or of moisture condensed on the surface of the + calorimeter, may produce serious loss of heat by evaporation. This is + another objection to Rumford's method of cooling the calorimeter below + the surrounding temperature before starting. Among minor difficulties + of the method may be mentioned the uncertainty of the thermal capacity + of the calorimeter and stirrer, and of the immersed portion of the + thermometer. This is generally calculated by assuming values for the + specific heats of the materials obtained by experiment between 100 + deg. C. and 20 deg. C. Since the specific heats of most metals + increase rapidly with rise of temperature, the values so obtained are + generally too high. It is best to make this correction as small as + possible by using a large calorimeter, so that the mass of water is + large in proportion to that of metal. Analogous difficulties arise in + the application of other calorimetric methods. The accuracy of the + work in each case depends principally on the skill and ingenuity of + the experimentalist in devising methods of eliminating the various + sources of error. The form of apparatus usually adopted for the + method of mixtures is that of Regnault with slight modifications, and + figures and descriptions are given in all the text-books. Among + special methods which have been subsequently developed there are two + which deserve mention as differing in principle from the common type. + These are (1) the constant temperature method, (2) the continuous flow + method. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + The _constant temperature method of mixtures_ was proposed by N. + Hesehus (_Jour. Phys._, 1888, vii. p. 489). Cold water at a known + temperature is added to the calorimeter, immediately after dropping in + the heated substance, at such a rate as to keep the temperature of the + calorimeter constant, thus eliminating the corrections for the water + equivalent of the calorimeter and the external loss of heat. The + calorimeter is surrounded by an air-jacket connected to a petroleum + gauge which indicates any small change of temperature in the + calorimeter, and enables the manipulator to adjust the supply of cold + water to compensate it. The apparatus as arranged by F.A. Waterman is + shown in fig. 1 (_Physical Review_, 1896, iv. p. 161). A is the + calorimetric tube, B the air-jacket and L the gauge. H is an electric + heater for raising the body to a suitable temperature, which can swing + into place directly over the calorimeter. W is a conical can + containing water cooled by ice I nearly to 0 deg., which is swung over + the calorimeter as soon as the hot body has been introduced and the + heater removed. The cold water flow is regulated by a tap S with a + long handle O, and its temperature is taken by a delicate thermometer + with its bulb at G. The method is interesting, but the manipulations + and observations involved are more troublesome than with the ordinary + type of calorimeter, and it may be doubted whether any advantage is + gained in accuracy. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + The _continuous flow method_ is specially applicable to the important + case of calorific value of gaseous fuel, where a large quantity of + heat is continuously generated at a nearly uniform rate by combustion. + Fig. 2 illustrates a recent type of gas calorimeter devised by C.V. + Boys (_Proc. R.S._, 1906, A. 77, p. 122). The heated products of + combustion from the burner B impinge on a metal box H, through which + water is circulating, and then pass downwards and outwards through a + spiral cooler which reduces them practically to the atmospheric + temperature. A steady stream of water enters the apparatus by the + inflow thermometer O, flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and + finally through the box H, where it is well mixed before passing the + outflow thermometer P. As soon as a steady state is reached, the + difference of temperature between the outflow and inflow thermometers, + multiplied by the current of water in grammes per minute gives the + heat per minute supplied by combustion. The gas current is + simultaneously observed by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary + corrections for pressure, temperature, &c., gives the necessary data + for deducing calorific value. + + A continuous flow calorimeter has been used by the writer for + measuring quantities of heat conveyed by conduction (see CONDUCTION OF + HEAT), and also for determining the variation of the specific heat of + water. In the latter case two steady currents of water at different + temperatures, say 0 deg. and 100 deg. are passed through an equalizer, + and the resulting temperature measured without mixing the currents, + which are then separately determined by weighing. This is a very good + method of comparing the mean specific heats over two ranges of + temperature such as 0-50, and 50-100, or 0-20 and 20-40, but it is not + so suitable as the electric method described below for obtaining the + actual specific heat at any point of the range. + +S 3. _Method of Cooling._--A common example of this method is the +determination of the specific heat of a liquid by filling a small +calorimeter with the liquid, raising it to a convenient temperature, and +then setting it to cool in an enclosure at a steady temperature, and +observing the time taken to fall through a given range when the +conditions have become fairly steady. The same calorimeter is afterwards +filled with a known liquid, such as water, and the time of cooling is +observed through the same range of temperature, in the same enclosure, +under the same conditions. The ratio of the times of cooling is equal to +the ratio of the thermal capacities of the calorimeter and its contents +in the two cases. The advantage of the method is that there is no +transference or mixture; the defect is that the whole measurement +depends on the assumption that the rate of loss of heat is the same in +the two cases, and that any variation in the conditions, or uncertainty +in the rate of loss, produces its full effect in the result, whereas in +the previous case it would only affect a small correction. Other sources +of uncertainty are, that the rate of loss of heat generally depends to +some extent on the rate of fall of temperature, and that it is difficult +to take accurate observations on a rapidly falling thermometer. As the +method is usually practised, the calorimeter is made very small, and the +surface is highly polished to diminish radiation. It is better to use a +fairly large calorimeter to diminish the rate of cooling and the +uncertainty of the correction for the water equivalent. The surface of +the calorimeter and the enclosure should be permanently blackened so as +to increase the loss of heat by radiation as much as possible, as +compared with the losses by convection and conduction, which are less +regular. For accurate work it is essential that the liquid in the +calorimeter should be continuously stirred, and also in the enclosure, +the lid of which must be water-jacketed, and kept at the same steady +temperature as the sides. When all these precautions are taken, the +method loses most of the simplicity which is its chief advantage. It +cannot be satisfactorily applied to the case of solids or powders, and +is much less generally useful than the method of mixture. + +S 4. _Method of Fusion._--The methods depending on change of state are +theoretically the simplest, since they do not necessarily involve any +reference to thermometry, and the corrections for external loss of heat +and for the thermal capacity of the containing vessels can be completely +eliminated. They nevertheless present peculiar difficulties and +limitations, which render their practical application more troublesome +and more uncertain than is usually supposed. They depend on the +experimental fact that the quantity of heat required to produce a given +change of state (e.g. to convert one gramme of ice at 0 deg. C. into +water at 0 deg. C., or one gramme of water at 100 deg. C. into steam at +100 deg. C.) is always the same, and that there need be no change of +temperature during the process. The difficulties arise in connexion with +the determination of the quantities of ice melted or steam condensed, +and in measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization in terms of +other units for the comparison of observations. The earlier forms of +ice-calorimeter, those of Black, and of Laplace and Lavoisier, were +useless for work of precision, on account of the impossibility of +accurately estimating the quantity of water left adhering to the ice in +each case. This difficulty was overcome by the invention of the Bunsen +calorimeter, in which the quantity of ice melted is measured by +observing the diminution of volume, but the successful employment of +this instrument requires considerable skill in manipulation. The sheath +of ice surrounding the bulb must be sufficiently continuous to prevent +escape of heat, but it must not be so solid as to produce risk of +strain. The ideal condition is difficult to secure. In the practical use +of the instrument it is not necessary to know both the latent heat of +fusion of ice and the change of volume which occurs on melting; it is +sufficient to determine the change of volume per calorie, or the +quantity of mercury which is drawn into the bulb of the apparatus per +unit of heat added. This can be determined by a direct calibration, by +inserting a known quantity of water at a known temperature and observing +the contraction, or weighing the mercury drawn into the apparatus. In +order to be independent of the accuracy of the thermometer employed for +observing the initial temperature of the water introduced, it has been +usual to employ water at 100 deg. C., adopting as unit of heat the "mean +calorie," which is one-hundredth part of the heat given up by one gramme +of water in cooling from 100 deg. to 0 deg. C. The weight of mercury +corresponding to the mean calorie has been determined with considerable +care by a number of observers well skilled in the use of the instrument. +The following are some of their results:--Bunsen, 15.41 mgm.; Velten, +15.47 mgm.; Zakrevski, 15.57 mgm.; Staub, 15.26 mgm. The explanation of +these discrepancies in the fundamental constant is not at all clear, but +they may be taken as an illustration of the difficulties of manipulation +attending the use of this instrument, to which reference has already +been made. It is not possible to deduce a more satisfactory value from +the latent heat and the change of density, because these constants are +very difficult to determine. The following are some of the values +deduced by well-known experimentalists for the latent heat of +fusion:--Regnault, 79.06 to 79.24 calories, corrected by Person to +79.43; Person, 79.99 calories; Hess, 80.34 calories; Bunsen, 80.025 +calories. Regnault, Person and Hess employed the method of mixture which +is probably the most accurate for the purpose. Person and Hess avoided +the error of water sticking to the ice by using dry ice at various +temperatures below 0 deg. C., and determining the specific heat of ice +as well as the latent heat of fusion. These discrepancies might, no +doubt, be partly explained by differences in the units employed, which +are somewhat uncertain, as the specific heat of water changes rapidly in +the neighbourhood of 0 deg. C; but making all due allowance for this, it +remains evident that the method of ice-calorimetry, in spite of its +theoretical simplicity, presents grave difficulties in its practical +application. + + One of the chief difficulties in the practical use of the Bunsen + calorimeter is the continued and often irregular movement of the + mercury column due to slight differences of temperature, or pressure + between the ice in the calorimeter and the ice bath in which it is + immersed. C.V. Boys (_Phil. Mag._, 1887, vol. 24, p. 214) showed that + these effects could be very greatly reduced by surrounding the + calorimeter with an outer tube, so that the ice inside was separated + from the ice outside by an air space which greatly reduces the free + passage of heat. The present writer has found that very good results + may be obtained by enclosing the calorimeter in a vacuum jacket (as + illustrated in fig. 3), which practically eliminates conduction and + convection. If the vacuum jacket is silvered inside, radiation also is + reduced to such an extent that, if the vacuum is really good, the + external ice bath may be dispensed with for the majority of purposes. + If the inner bulb is filled with mercury instead of water and ice, the + same arrangement answers admirably as a Favre and Silbermann + calorimeter, for measuring small quantities of heat by the expansion + of the mercury. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.] + + The question has been raised by E.L. Nichols (_Phys. Rev._ vol. 8, + January 1899) whether there may not be different modifications of ice + with different densities, and different values of the latent heat of + fusion. He found for natural pond-ice a density 0.9179 and for + artificial ice 0.9161. J. Vincent (_Phil. Trans._ A. 198, p. 463) also + found a density .9160 for artificial ice, which is probably very + nearly correct. If such variations of density exist, they may + introduce some uncertainty in the absolute values of results obtained + with the ice calorimeter, and may account for some of the + discrepancies above enumerated. + +S 5. The _Method of Condensation_ was first successfully applied by J. +Joly in the construction of his steam calorimeter, a full description of +which will be found in text-books. The body to be tested is placed in a +special scale-pan, suspended by a fine wire from the arm of a balance +inside an enclosure which can be filled with steam at atmospheric +pressure. The temperature of the enclosure is carefully observed before +admitting steam. The weight of steam condensed on the body gives a means +of calculating the quantity of heat required to raise it from the +atmospheric temperature up to 100 deg. C. in terms of the latent heat of +vaporization of steam at 100 deg. C. There can be no appreciable gain or +loss of heat by radiation, if the admission of the steam is sufficiently +rapid, since the walls of the enclosure are maintained at 100 deg. C., +very nearly. The thermal capacity of the scale-pan, &c., can be +determined by a separate experiment, or, still better, eliminated by the +differential method of counterpoising with an exactly similar +arrangement on the other arm of the balance. The method requires very +delicate weighing, as one calorie corresponds to less than two +milligrammes of steam condensed; but the successful application of the +method to the very difficult problem of measuring the specific heat of a +gas at constant volume, shows that these and other difficulties have +been very skilfully overcome. The application of the method appears to +be practically limited to the measurements of specific heat between the +atmospheric temperature and 100 deg. C. The results depend on the value +assumed for the latent heat of steam, which Joly takes as 536.7 +calories, following Regnault. Joly has himself determined the mean +specific heat of water between 12 deg. and 100 deg. C. by this method, +in terms of the latent heat of steam as above given, and finds the +result .9952. Assuming that the mean specific heat of water between 12 +deg. and 100 deg. is really 1.0011 in terms of the calorie at 20 deg. C. +(see table, p. 66), the value of the latent heat of steam at 100 deg. +C., as determined by Joly, would be 540.2 in terms of the same unit. The +calorie employed by Regnault is to some extent uncertain, but the +difference is hardly beyond the probable errors of experiment, since it +appears from the results of recent experiments that Regnault made an +error of the same order in his determination of the specific heat of +water at 100 deg. C. + +S 6. _Energy Methods._--The third general method of calorimetry, that +based on the transformation of some other kind of energy into the form +of heat, rests on the general principle of the conservation of energy, +and on the experimental fact that all other forms of energy are readily +and completely convertible into the form of heat. It is therefore often +possible to measure quantities of heat indirectly, by measuring the +energy in some other form and then converting it into heat. In addition +to its great theoretical interest, this method possesses the advantage +of being frequently the most accurate in practical application, since +energy can be more accurately measured in other forms than in that of +heat. The two most important varieties of the method are (_a_) +mechanical, and (_b_) electrical. These methods have reached their +highest development in connexion with the determination of the +mechanical equivalent of heat, but they may be applied with great +advantage in connexion with other problems, such as the measurement of +the variation of specific heat, or of latent heats of fusion or +vaporization. + +S 7. _Mechanical Equivalent of Heat._--The phrase "mechanical equivalent +of heat" is somewhat vague, but has been sanctioned by long usage. It is +generally employed to denote the number of units of mechanical work or +energy which, when completely converted into heat without loss, would be +required to produce one heat unit. The numerical value of the mechanical +equivalent necessarily depends on the particular units of heat and work +employed in the comparison. The British engineer prefers to state +results in terms of foot-pounds of work in any convenient latitude per +pound-degree-Fahrenheit of heat. The continental engineer prefers +kilogrammetres per kilogramme-degree-centigrade. For scientific use the +C.G.S. system of expression in ergs per gramme-degree-centigrade, or +"calorie," is the most appropriate, as being independent of the value of +gravity. A more convenient unit of work or energy, in practice, on +account of the smallness of the erg, is the _joule_, which is equal to +10.7 ergs, or one _watt-second_ of electrical energy. On account of its +practical convenience, and its close relation to the international +electrical units, the _joule_ has been recommended by the British +Association for adoption as the absolute unit of heat. Other convenient +practical units of the same kind would be the _watt-hour_, 3600 joules, +which is of the same order of magnitude as the kilo-calorie, and the +_kilowatt-hour_, which is the ordinary commercial unit of electrical +energy. + + S 8. _Joule_.--The earlier work of Joule is now chiefly of historical + interest, but his later measurements in 1878, which were undertaken on + a larger scale, adopting G.A. Hirn's method of measuring the work + expended in terms of the torque and the number of revolutions, still + possess value as experimental evidence. In these experiments (see fig. + 4) the paddles were revolved by hand at such a speed as to produce a + constant torque on the calorimeter _h_, which was supported on a float + _w_ in a vessel of water _v_, but was kept at rest by the couple due + to a pair of equal weights _k_ suspended from fine strings passing + round the circumference of a horizontal wheel attached to the + calorimeter. Each experiment lasted about forty minutes, and the rise + of temperature produced was nearly 3 deg. C. The calorimeter contained + about 5 kilogrammes of water, so that the rate of heat-supply was + about 6 calories per second. Joule's final result was 772.55 + foot-pounds at Manchester per pound-degree-Fahrenheit at a temperature + of 62 deg. F., but individual experiments differed by as much as 1%. + This result in C.G.S. measure is equivalent to 4.177 joules per + calorie at 16.5 deg. C., on the scale of Joule's mercury thermometer. + His thermometers were subsequently corrected to the Paris scale by A. + Schuster in 1895, which had the effect of reducing the above figure to + 4.173. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + S 9. _Rowland_.--About the same time H.A. Rowland (_Proc. Amer. Acad._ + xv. p. 75, 1880) repeated the experiment, employing the same method, + but using a larger calorimeter (about 8400 grammes) and a petroleum + motor, so as to obtain a greater rate of heating (about 84 calories + per second), and to reduce the importance of the uncertain correction + for external loss of heat. Rowland's apparatus is shown in fig. 5. The + calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire, the torsion of which made + the equilibrium stable. The torque was measured by weights O and P + suspended by silk ribbons passing over the pulleys n and round the + disk kl. The power was transmitted to the paddles by bevel wheels, f, + g, rotating a spindle passing through a stuffing box in the bottom of + the calorimeter. The number of revolutions and the rise of temperature + were recorded on a chronograph drum. He paid greater attention to the + important question of thermometry, and extended his researches over a + much wider range of temperature, namely 5 deg. to 35 deg. C. His + experiments revealed for the first time a diminution in the specific + heat of water with rise of temperature between 0 deg. and 30 deg. C., + amounting to four parts in 10.000 per 1 deg. C. His thermometers were + compared with a mercury thermometer standardized in Paris, and with a + platinum thermometer standardized by Griffiths. The result was to + reduce the coefficient of diminution of specific heat at 15 deg. C. by + nearly one half, but the absolute value at 20 deg. C. is practically + unchanged. Thus corrected his values are as follows:-- + + Temperature 10 deg. 15 deg. 20 deg. 25 deg. 30 deg. 35 deg. + Joules per cal. 4.197 4.188 4.181 4.176 4.175 4.177 + + These are expressed in terms of the hydrogen scale, but the difference + from the nitrogen scale is so small as to be within the limits of + experimental error in this particular case. Rowland himself considered + his results to be probably correct to one part in 500, and supposed + that the greatest uncertainty lay in the comparison of the scale of + his mercury thermometer with the air thermometer. The subsequent + correction, though not carried out strictly under the conditions of + the experiment, showed that the order of accuracy of his work about + the middle of the range from 15 deg. to 25 deg. was at least 1 in + 1000, and probably 1 in 2000. At 30 deg. he considered that, owing to + the increasing magnitude and uncertainty of the radiation correction, + there "might be a small error in the direction of making the + equivalent too great, and that the specific heat might go on + decreasing to even 40 deg. C." The results considered with reference + to the variation of the specific heat of water are shown in the curve + marked Rowland in Fig. 6. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + S 10. _Osborne Reynolds and W.H. Moorby (Phil. Trans._, 1897, p. 381) + determined the mechanical equivalent of the mean thermal unit between + 0 deg. and 100 deg. C., on a very large scale, with a Froude-Reynolds + hydraulic brake and a steam-engine of 100 h.p. This brake is + practically a Joule calorimeter, ingeniously designed to churn the + water in such a manner as to develop the greatest possible resistance. + The admission of water at 0 deg. C. to the brake was controlled by + hand in such a manner as to keep the outflow nearly at the + boiling-point, the quantity of water in the brake required to produce + a constant torque being regulated automatically, as the speed varied, + by a valve worked by the lifting of the weighted lever attached to the + brake. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + The accompanying illustration (fig. 7) shows the brake lagged with + cotton-wool, and the 4-ft. lever to which the weights are suspended. + The power of the brake may be estimated by comparison with the size of + the rope pulley seen behind it on the same shaft. With 300 pounds on a + 4-ft. lever at 300 revolutions per minute, the rate of generation of + heat was about 12 kilo-calories per second. In spite of the large + range of temperature, the correction for external loss of heat + amounted to only 5%, with the brake uncovered, and was reduced to less + than 2% by lagging. This is the special advantage of working on so + large a scale with so rapid a generation of heat. But, for the same + reason, the method necessarily presents peculiar difficulties, which + were not overcome without great pains and ingenuity. The principal + troubles arose from damp in the lagging which necessitated the + rejection of several trials, and from dissolved air in the water, + causing loss of heat by the formation of steam. Next to the radiation + loss, the most uncertain correction was that for conduction of heat + along the 4-in. shaft. These losses were as far as possible eliminated + by combining the trials in pairs, with different loads on the brake, + assuming that the heat-loss would be the same in the heavy and light + trials, provided that the external temperature and the gradient in the + shaft, as estimated from the temperature of the bearings, were the + same. The values deduced in this manner for the equivalent agreed as + closely as could be expected considering the impossibility of + regulating the external condition of temperature and moisture with any + certainty in an engine-room. The extreme variation of results in any + one series was only from 776.63 to 779.46 ft.-pounds, or less than + 1/2%. This variation may have been due to the state of the lagging, + which Moorby distrusted in spite of the great reduction of the + heat-loss, or it may have been partly due to the difficulty of + regulating the speed of the engine and the water-supply to the brake + in such a manner as to maintain a constant temperature in the outflow, + and avoid variations in the heat capacity of the brake. Since hand + regulation is necessarily discontinuous, the speed and the temperature + were constantly varying, so that it was useless to take readings + nearer than the tenth of a degree. The largest variation recorded in + the two trials of which full details are given, was 4-9 deg. F. in two + minutes in the outflow temperature, and four or five revolutions per + minute on the speed. These variations, so far as they were of a purely + accidental nature, would be approximately eliminated on the mean of a + large number of trials, so that the accuracy of the final result would + be of a higher order than might be inferred from a comparison of + separate pairs of trials. Great pains were taken to discuss and + eliminate all the sources of constant error which could be foreseen. + The results of the light trials with 400 ft.-pounds on the brake + differ slightly from those with 600 ft.-pounds. This might be merely + accidental, or it might indicate some constant difference in the + conditions requiring further investigation. It would have been + desirable, if possible, to have tried the effect of a larger range of + variation in the experimental conditions of load and speed, with a + view to detect the existence of constant errors; but owing to the + limitations imposed by the use of a steam-engine, and the difficulty + of securing steady conditions of running, this proved to be + impossible. There can be no doubt, however, that the final result is + the most accurate direct determination of the value of the mean + calorie between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C. in mechanical units. Expressed + in joules per calorie the result is 4.1832, which agrees very closely + with the value found by Rowland as the mean over the range 15 deg. to + 20 deg. C. The value 4.183 is independently confirmed in a remarkable + manner by the results of the electrical method described below, which + give 4.185 joules for the mean calorie, if Rowland's value is assumed + as the starting-point, and taken to be 4.180 joules at 20 deg. C. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +S 11. _Electrical Methods._--The value of the international electrical +units has by this time been so accurately determined in absolute measure +that they afford a very good, though indirect, method of determining the +mechanical equivalent of heat. But, quite apart from this, electrical +methods possess the greatest value for calorimetry, on account of the +facility and accuracy of regulating and measuring the quantity of heat +supplied by an electric current. The frictional generation of heat in a +metallic wire conveying a current can be measured in various ways, which +correspond to slightly different methods. By Ohm's law, and by the +definition of difference of electric pressure or potential, we obtain +the following alternative expressions for the quantity of heat H in +joules generated in a time T seconds by a current of C amperes flowing +in a wire of resistance R ohms, the difference of potential between the +ends of the wire being E = CR volts:-- + + H = ECT = C^2RT = E^2T/R (1). + +The method corresponding to the expression C^2RT was adopted by Joule +and by most of the early experimentalists. The defects of the earlier +work from an electrical point of view lay chiefly in the difficulty of +measuring the current with sufficient accuracy owing to the imperfect +development of the science of electrical measurement. These difficulties +have been removed by the great advances since 1880, and in particular by +the introduction of accurate standard cells for measurements of +electrical pressure. + + S 12. _Griffiths_.--The method adopted by E.H. Griffiths (_Phil. + Trans._, 1893, p. 361), whose work threw a great deal of light on the + failure of previous observers to secure consistent results, + corresponded to the last expression E^2T/R, and consisted in + regulating the current by a special rheostat, so as to keep the + potential difference E on the terminals of the resistance R balanced + against a given number of standard Clark cells of the Board of Trade + pattern. The resistance R could be deduced from a knowledge of the + temperature of the calorimeter and the coefficient of the wire. But in + order to obtain trustworthy results by this method he found it + necessary to employ very rapid stirring (2000 revolutions per minute), + and to insulate the wire very carefully from the liquid to prevent + leakage of the current. He also made a special experiment to find how + much the temperature of the wire exceeded that of the liquid under the + conditions of the experiment. This correction had been neglected by + previous observers employing similar methods. The resistance R was + about 9 ohms, and the potential difference E was varied from three to + six Clark cells, giving a rate of heat-supply about 2 to 6 watts. The + water equivalent of the calorimeter was about 85 grammes, and was + determined by varying the quantity of water from 140 to 260 or 280 + grammes, so that the final results depended on a difference in the + weight of water of 120 to 140 grammes. The range of temperature in + each experiment was 14 deg. to 26 deg. C. The rate of rise was + observed with a mercury thermometer standardized by comparison with a + platinum thermometer under the conditions of the experiment. The time + of passing each division was recorded on an electric chronograph. The + duration of an experiment varied from about 30 to 70 minutes. Special + observations were made to determine the corrections for the heat + supplied by stirring, and that lost by radiation, each of which + amounted to about 10% of the heat-supply. The calorimeter C, fig. 8, + was gilded, and completely surrounded by a nickel-plated steel + enclosure B, forming the bulb of a mercury thermo-regulator, immersed + in a large water-bath maintained at a constant temperature. In spite + of the large corrections the results were extremely consistent, and + the value of the temperature-coefficient of the diminution of the + specific heat of water, deduced from the observed variation in the + rate of rise at different points of the range 15 deg. to 25 deg., + agreed with the value subsequently deduced from Rowland's experiments + over the same range, when his thermometers were reduced to the same + scale. Griffiths' final result for the average value of the calorie + over this range was 4.192 joules, taking the E.M.F. of the Clark cell + at 15 deg. C. to be 1.4342 volts. The difference from Rowland's value, + 4.181, could be explained by supposing the E.M.F. of the Clark cells + to have in reality been 1.4323 volts, or about 2 millivolts less than + the value assumed. Griffiths subsequently applied the same method to + the measurement of the specific heat of aniline, and the latent heat + of vaporization of benzene and water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + S 13. _Schuster and Gannon._--The method employed by A. Schuster and + W. Gannon for the determination of the specific heat of water in terms + of the international electric units (_Phil. Trans._ A, 1895, p. 415) + corresponded to the expression ECT, and differed in many essential + details from that of Griffiths. The current through a platinoid + resistance of about 31 ohms in a calorimeter containing 1500 grammes + of water was regulated so that the potential difference on its + terminals was equal to that of twenty Board of Trade Clark cells in + series. The duration of an experiment was about ten minutes, and the + product of the mean current and the time, namely CT, was measured by + the weight of silver deposited in a voltameter, which amounted to + about 0.56 gramme. The uncertainty due to the correction for the water + equivalent was minimized by making it small (about 27 grammes) in + comparison with the water weight. The correction for external loss was + reduced by employing a small rise of temperature (only 2.22 deg.), and + making the rate of heat-supply relatively rapid, nearly 24 watts. The + platinoid coil was insulated from the water by shellac varnish. The + wire had a length of 760 cms., and the potential difference on its + terminals was nearly 30 volts. The rate of stirring adopted was so + slow that the heat generated by it could be neglected. The result + found was 4.191 joules per calorie at 19 deg. C. This agrees very well + with Griffiths considering the difficulty of measuring so small a rise + of temperature at 2 deg. with a mercury thermometer. Admitting that the + electro-chemical equivalent of silver increases with the age of the + solution, a fact subsequently discovered, and that the E.M.F. of the + Clark cell is probably less than 1.4340 volts (the value assumed by + Schuster and Gannon), there is no difficulty in reconciling the result + with that of Rowland. + + S 14. _H.L. Callendar and H.T. Barnes_ (_Brit. Assoc. Reports_, 1897 + and 1899) adopted an entirely different method of calorimetry, as well + as a different method of electrical measurement. A steady current of + liquid, Q grammes per second, of specific heat, Js joules per degree, + flowing through a fine tube, A B, fig. 9, is heated by a steady + electric current during its passage through the tube, and the + difference of temperature d[theta] between the inflowing and the + outflowing liquid is measured by a single reading with a delicate pair + of differential platinum thermometers at A and B. The difference of + potential E between the ends of the tube, and the electric current C + through it, are measured on an accurately calibrated potentiometer, in + terms of a Clark cell and a standard resistance. If hd[theta] is the + radiation loss in watts we have the equation, + + EC = JsQd[theta] + hd[theta] (2). + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + The advantage of this method is that all the conditions are steady, so + that the observations can be pushed to the limit of accuracy and + sensitiveness of the apparatus. The water equivalent of the + calorimeter is immaterial, since there is no appreciable change of + temperature. The heat-loss can be reduced to a minimum by enclosing + the flow-tube in a hermetically sealed glass vacuum jacket. Stirring + is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs + of the thermometers and the heating conductor as indicated in the + figure. The conditions can be very easily varied through a wide range. + The heat-loss hd[theta] is determined and eliminated by varying the + flow of liquid and the electric current simultaneously, in such a + manner as to secure approximately the same rise of temperature for two + or more widely different values of the flow of liquid. An example + taken from the _Electrician_, September 1897, of one of the earliest + experiments by this method on the specific heat of mercury will make + the method clearer. The flow-tube was about 1 metre long and 1 millim. + in diameter, coiled in a short spiral inside the vacuum jacket. The + outside of the vacuum jacket was immersed in a water jacket at a + steady temperature equal to that of the inflowing mercury. + + + SPECIFIC HEAT OF MERCURY BY CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC METHOD + + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + |Flow of Hg.| Rise of Temp. |Watts.| Heat-loss. | Specific Heat. | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + | gm./sec. | d[theta] | EC | hd[theta] | Per gm. deg. | + | 8.753 | 11.764 |14.862| 0.655 | \ .13780 joules| + | 4.594 | 12.301 | 7.912| 0.865 | / .03297 cals. | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+----------------+ + + It is assumed as a first approximation that the heat-loss is + proportional to the rise of temperature _d[theta]_, provided that + _d[theta]_ is nearly the same in both cases, and that the distribution + of temperature in the apparatus is the same for the same rise of + temperature whatever the flow of liquid. The result calculated on + these assumptions is given in the last column in joules, and also in + calories of 20 deg. C. The heat-loss in this example is large, nearly + 4.5% of the total supply, owing to the small flow and the large rise + of temperature, but this correction was greatly reduced in subsequent + observations on the specific heat of water by the same method. In the + case of mercury the liquid itself can be utilized to conduct the + electric current. In the case of water or other liquids it is + necessary to employ a platinum wire stretched along the tube as + heating conductor. This introduces additional difficulties of + construction, but does not otherwise affect the method. The absolute + value of the specific heat deduced necessarily depends on the absolute + values of the electrical standards employed in the investigation. But + for the determination of relative values of specific heats in terms of + a standard liquid, or of the variations of specific heat of a liquid, + the method depends only on the constancy of the standards, which can + be readily and accurately tested. The absolute value of the E.M.F. of + the Clark cells employed was determined with a special form of + electrodynamometer (Callendar, _Phil. Trans._ A. 313, p. 81), and + found to be 1.4334 volts, assuming the ohm to be correct. Assuming + this value, the result found by this method for the specific heat of + water at 20 deg. C. agrees with that of Rowland within the probable + limits of error. + + S 15. _Variation of Specific Heat of Water._--The question of the + variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest and + importance in connexion with the choice of a thermal unit. Many of the + uncertainties in the reduction of older experiments, such as those of + Regnault, arise from uncertainty in regard to the unit in terms of + which they are expressed, which again depends on the scale of the + particular thermometer employed in the investigation. The first + experiments of any value were those of Regnault in 1847 on the + specific heat of water between 110 deg. C. and 192 deg. C. They were + conducted on a very large scale by the method of mixture, but showed + discrepancies of the order of 0.5%, and the calculated results in many + cases do not agree with the data. This may be due merely to deficient + explanation of details of tabulation. We may probably take the + tabulated values as showing correctly the rate of variation between + 110 deg. and 190 deg. C., but the values in terms of any particular + thermal unit must remain uncertain to at least 0.5% owing to the + uncertainties of the thermometry. Regnault himself adopted the + formula, + + s = 1 + 0.00004t + 0.0000009t^2 (Regnault), (3) + + for the specific heat _s_ at any temperature _t_ C. in terms of the + specific heat at 0 deg. C. taken as the standard. This formula has + since been very generally applied over the whole range 0 deg. to 200 + deg. C., but the experiments could not in reality give any information + with regard to the specific heat at temperatures below 100 deg. C. The + linear formula proposed by J. Bosscha from an independent reduction of + Regnault's experiments is probably within the limits of accuracy + between 100 deg. and 200 deg. C., so far as the mean rate of variation + is concerned, but the absolute values require reduction. It may be + written-- + + s = S_100 + .00023(t - 100) (Bosscha-Regnault) (4). + + The work of L. Pfaundler and H. Platter, of G.A. Hirn, of J.C. Jamin + and Amaury, and of many other experimentalists who succeeded Regnault, + appeared to indicate much larger rates of increase than he had found, + but there can be little doubt that the discrepancies of their results, + which often exceeded 5%, were due to lack of appreciation of the + difficulties of calorimetric measurements. The work of Rowland by the + mechanical method was the first in which due attention was paid to the + thermometry and to the reduction of the results to the absolute scale + of temperature. The agreement of his corrected results with those of + Griffiths by a very different method, left very little doubt with + regard to the rate of diminution of the specific heat of water at 20 + deg. C. The work of A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati by the method of + mixture between 0 deg. and 30 deg. C., though their curve is otherwise + similar to Rowland's, had appeared to indicate a minimum at 20 deg. + C., followed by a rapid rise. This lowering of the minimum was + probably due to some constant errors inherent in their method of + experiment. The more recent work of Ludin, 1895, under the direction + of Prof. J. Pernet, extended from 0 deg. to 100 deg. C., and appears + to have attained as high a degree of excellence as it is possible to + reach by the employment of mercury thermometers in conjunction with + the method of mixture. His results, exhibited in fig. 6, show a + minimum at 25 deg. C., and a maximum at 87 deg. C., the values being + .9935 and 1.0075 respectively in terms of the mean specific heat + between 0 deg. and 100 deg. C. He paid great attention to the + thermometry, and the discrepancies of individual measurements at any + one point nowhere exceed 0.3%, but he did not vary the conditions of + the experiments materially, and it does not appear that the well-known + constant errors of the method could have been completely eliminated by + the devices which he adopted. The rapid rise from 25 deg. to 75 deg. + may be due to radiation error from the hot water supply, and the + subsequent fall of the curve to the inevitable loss of heat by + evaporation of the boiling water on its way to the calorimeter. It + must be observed, however, that there is another grave difficulty in + the accurate determination of the specific heat of water near 100 deg. + C. by this method, namely, that the quantity actually observed is not + the specific heat _at_ the higher temperature _t_, but the _mean + specific heat_ over the range 18 deg. to _t_. The specific heat itself + can be deduced only by differentiating the curve of observation, which + greatly increases the uncertainty. The peculiar advantage of the + electric method of Callendar and Barnes, already referred to, is that + the specific heat itself is determined over a range of 8 deg. to 10 + deg. at each point, by adding accurately measured quantities of heat + to the water at the desired temperature in an isothermal enclosure, + under perfectly steady conditions, without any possibility of + evaporation or loss of heat in transference. These experiments, which + have been extended by Barnes over the whole range 0 deg. to 100 deg., + agree very well with Rowland and Griffiths in the rate of variation at + 20 deg. C., but show a rather flat minimum of specific heat in the + neighbourhood of 38 deg. to 40 deg. C. At higher points the rate of + variation is very similar to that of Regnault's curve, but taking the + specific heat at 20 deg. as the standard of reference, the actual + values are nearly 0.56% less than Regnault's. It appears probable that + his values for higher temperatures may be adopted with this reduction, + which is further confirmed by the results of Reynolds and Moorby, and + by those of Ludin. According to the electric method, the whole range + of variation of the specific heat between 10 deg. and 80 deg. is only + 0.5%. Comparatively simple formulae, therefore, suffice for its + expression to 1 in 10,000, which is beyond the limits of accuracy of + the observations. It is more convenient in practice to use a few + simple formulae, than to attempt to represent the whole range by a + single complicated expression:-- + + Below 20 deg. C. s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t - 40)^2 - 0.0000005(t - 20)^3. + + From 20 deg. to 60 deg., s = 0.9982 + 0.0000045(t - 40)^2 (5). + + / s = 0.9944 + .00004t + 0.0000009t^2 + Above 60 deg. to 200 deg. < (Regnault corrd.) + \ s = 1.000 + 0.00022(t - 60), (Bosscha corrd.) + + The addition of the cubic term below 20 deg. is intended to represent + the somewhat more rapid change near the freezing-point. This effect is + probably due, as suggested by Rowland, to the presence of a certain + proportion of ice molecules in the liquid, which is also no doubt the + cause of the anomalous expansion. Above 60 deg. C. Regnault's formula + is adopted, the absolute values being simply diminished by a constant + quantity 0.0056 to allow for the probable errors of his thermometry. + Above 100 deg. C., and for approximate work generally, the simpler + formula of Bosscha, similarly corrected, is probably adequate. + + The following table of values, calculated from these formulae, is + taken from the _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1899, with a slight modification + to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 20 deg. C. This + was estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the + constant quantity 0.20 to the values of the total heat h of the liquid + as reckoned by the parabolic formula (5). This quantity is now, as the + result of further experiments, added to the values of h, and also + represented in the formula for the specific heat itself by the cubic + term. + + + SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER IN TERMS OF UNIT AT 20 deg. C. 4.180 JOULES + + +-----------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + | t deg. C. |Joules.| s. | h | Rowland. | + +-----------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + | 0 deg. | 4.208 | 1.0094 | 0 | 0 | + | 5 deg. | 4.202 | 1.0054 | 5.037 | 5.037 | + | 10 deg. | 4.191 | 1.0027 | 10.056 | 10.058 | + | 15 deg. | 4.184 | 1.0011 | 15.065 | 15.068 | + | 20 deg. | 4.180 | 1.0000 | 20.068 | 20.071 | + | 25 deg. | 4.177 | 0.9992 | 25.065 | 25.067 | + | 30 deg. | 4.175 | 0.9987 | 30.060 | 30.057 | + | 35 deg. | 4.173 | 0.9983 | 35.052 | 35.053 | + | 40 deg. | 4.173 | 0.9982 | 40.044 | | + | 50 deg. | 4.175 | 0.9987 | 50.028 | | + | 60 deg. | 4.180 | 1.0000 | 60.020 | | + | 70 deg. | 4.187 | 1.0016 | 70.028 | | + | 80 deg. | 4.194 | 1.0033 | 80.052 | | + | 90 deg. | 4.202 | 1.0053 | 90.095 | Shaw | + | 100 deg. | 4.211 | 1.0074 | 100.158 | Regnault | + | 120 deg. | 4.231 | 1.0121 | 120.35 | 120.73 | + | 140 deg. | 4.254 | 1.0176 | 140.65 | 140.88 | + | 160 deg. | 4.280 | 1.0238 | 161.07 | 161.20 | + | 180 deg. | 4.309 | 1.0308 | 181.62 | 182.14 | + | 200 deg. | 4.341 | 1.0384 | 202.33 | | + | 220 deg. | 4.376 | 1.0467 | 223.20 | | + +-----------+-------+--------+---------+----------+ + + The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the specific + heat of water at 20 deg. C. for the reasons given below. This unit is + taken as being 4.180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade on the scale + of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute scale as + explained in the article THERMOMETRY, which has been shown to be + practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4.180 joules + at 20 deg. C. is the mean between Rowland's corrected result 4.181 and + the value 4.179, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds and Moorby + on the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific heat 0 deg. to + 100 deg. to that at 20 deg. is 1.0016, as given by the formulae + representing the results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate + that Rowland's corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In + any case the value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at + least 1 in 2000. + + The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be obtained + by integrating the formulae between the limits required, or by taking + the difference of the corresponding values of the total heat h, and + dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity actually observed + by Rowland was the total heat. It may be remarked that starting from + the same value at 5 deg., for the sake of comparison, Rowland's values + of the total heat agree to 1 in 5000 with those calculated from the + formulae. The values of the total heat observed by Regnault, as + reduced by Shaw, also show a very fair agreement, considering the + uncertainty of the units. It must be admitted that it is desirable to + redetermine the variation of the specific heat above 100 deg. C. This + is very difficult on account of the steam-pressure, and could not + easily be accomplished by the electrical method. Callendar has, + however, devised a continuous method of mixture, which appears to be + peculiarly adapted to the purpose, and promises to give more certain + results. In any case it may be remarked that formulae such as those of + Jamin, Henrichsen, Baumgartner, Winkelmann or Dieterici, which give + far more rapid rates of increase than that of Regnault, cannot + possibly be reconciled with his observations, or with those of + Reynolds and Moorby, or Callendar and Barnes, and are certainly + inapplicable above 100 deg. C. + +S 16. _On the Choice of the Thermal Unit._--So much uncertainty still +prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed over without +reference. There are three possible kinds of unit, depending on the +three fundamental methods already given: (1) the thermometric unit, or +the thermal capacity of unit mass of a standard substance under given +conditions of temperature and pressure on the scale of a standard +thermometer. (2) The latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required +to melt or vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given +conditions. This unit has the advantage of being independent of +thermometry, but the applicability of these methods is limited to +special cases, and the relation of the units to other units is difficult +to determine. (3) The absolute or mechanical unit, the quantity of heat +equivalent to a given quantity of mechanical or electrical energy. This +can be very accurately realized, but is not so convenient as (1) for +ordinary purposes. + + In any case it is necessary to define a thermometric unit of class + (1). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always + selected, although some less volatile liquid, such as aniline or + mercury, would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of + temperature, there is very general agreement that the absolute scale + as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be adopted as + the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen thermometer is + not directly available for the majority of experiments, it is + necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition of + the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum presents + very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury thermometer in + point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability to the practical + conditions of experiment. The conditions of use of a mercury + thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are necessarily different + from those under which its corrections are determined, and this + difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in practical + work. The primary consideration in the definition of a unit is to + select that method which permits the highest order of accuracy in + comparison and verification. For this reason the definition of the + thermal unit will in the end probably be referred to a scale of + temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum thermometer. + + There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question of the + standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Regnault's formula, have + selected 0 deg. C. as the standard temperature, but this cannot be + practically realized in the case of water, and his formula is + certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite temperature to + select is 4 deg. C., the temperature of maximum density, since at this + point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that at + constant pressure But this is really of no consequence, since the + specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized. The + specific heat at 4 deg. could be accurately determined at the mean + over the range 0 deg. to 8 deg. keeping the jacket at 0 deg. C. But + the change appears to be rather rapid near 0 deg., the temperature is + inconveniently low for ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4 + deg. would be so much larger than the specific heat at ordinary + temperatures that nearly all experiments would require reduction. The + natural point to select would be that of minimum specific heat, but if + this occurs at 40 deg. C. it would be inconveniently high for + practical realization except by the continuous electrical method. It + was proposed by a committee of the British Association to select the + temperature at which the specific heat was 4.200 joules, leaving the + exact temperature to be subsequently determined. It was supposed at + the time, from the original reduction of Rowland's experiments, that + this would be nearly at 10 deg. C., but it now appears that it may be + as low is 5 deg. C., which would be inconvenient. This is really only + an absolute unit in disguise, and evades the essential point, which is + the selection of a standard temperature for the water thermometric + unit. A similar objection applies to selecting the temperature at + which the specific heat is equal to its mean value between 0 deg. and + 100 deg. The mean calorie cannot be accurately realized in practice + in any simple manner, and is therefore unsuitable as a standard of + comparison. Its relation to the calorie at any given temperature, such + as 15 deg. or 20 deg., cannot be determined with the same degree of + accuracy as the ratio of the specific heat at 15 deg. to that at 20 + deg., if the scale of temperature is given. The most practical unit is + the calorie at 15 deg. or 20 deg. or some temperature in the range of + ordinary practice. The temperature most generally favoured is 15 deg., + but 20 deg. would be more suitable for accurate work. These units + differ only by 11 parts in 10,000 according to Callendar and Barnes, + or by 13 in 10,000 according to Rowland and Griffiths, so that the + difference between them is of no great importance for ordinary + purposes. But for purposes of definition it would be necessary to take + the mean value of the specific heat _over a given range_ of + temperature, preferably at least 10 deg., rather than the specific + heat _at a point_ which necessitates reference to some formula of + reduction for the rate of variation. The specific heat at 15 deg. + would be determined with reference to the mean over the range 10 deg. + to 20 deg., and that at 20 deg. from the range 15 deg. to 25 deg. + There can be no doubt that the range 10 deg. to 20 deg. is too low for + the accurate thermal regulation of the conditions of the experiment. + The range 15 deg. to 25 deg. would be much more convenient from this + point of view, and a mean temperature of 20 deg. is probably nearest + the average of accurate calorimetric work. For instance 20 deg. is the + mean of the range of the experiments of Griffiths and of Rowland, and + is close to that of Schuster and Gannon. It is readily attainable at + any time in a modern laboratory with adequate heating arrangements, + and is probably on the whole the most suitable temperature to select. + +S 17. _Specific Heat of Gases._--In the case of solids and liquids under +ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of expansion is so +small that it may generally be neglected; but with gases or vapours, or +with liquids near the critical point, the external work becomes so large +that it is essential to specify the conditions under which the specific +heat is measured. The most important cases are, the specific heats (1) +at constant volume; (2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure +in the case of a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal +capacity of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the +difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except in case +(2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat meagre and +conflicting, but the question of the relation of the specific heats of +gases is one of great interest in connexion with the kinetic theory and +the constitution of the molecule. The well-known experiments of Regnault +and Wiedemann on the specific heat of gases at constant pressure agree +in showing that the _molecular specific heat_, or the thermal capacity +of the molecular weight in grammes, is approximately independent of the +temperature and pressure in case of the more stable diatomic gases, such +as H2, O2, N2, CO, &c., and has nearly the same value for each gas. They +also indicate that it is much larger, and increases considerably with +rise of temperature, in the case of more condensible vapours, such as +Cl2, Br2, or more complicated molecules, such as CO2, N2O, NH3, C2H4. +The direct determination of the specific heat at constant volume is +extremely difficult, but has been successfully attempted by Joly with +his steam calorimeter, in the case of air and CO2. Employing pressures +between 7 and 27 atmospheres, he found that the specific heat of air +between 10 deg. and 100 deg. C. increased very slightly with increase of +density, but that of CO2 increased nearly 3% between 7 and 21 +atmospheres. The following formulae represent his results for the +specific heat s at constant volume in terms of the density d in gms. per +c. c.:-- + + Air, s = 0.1715 + 0.028d, + + CO2, s = 0.165 + 0.213d + 0.34d^2. + + S 18. _Ratio of Specific Heats._--According to the elementary kinetic + theory of an ideal gas, the molecules of which are so small and so far + apart that their mutual actions may be neglected, the kinetic energy + of translation of the molecules is proportional to the absolute + temperature, and is equal to 3/2 of pv, the product of the pressure + and the volume, per unit mass. The expansion per degree at constant + pressure is v/[theta] = R/p. The external work of expansion per degree + is equal to R, being the product of the pressure and the expansion, + and represents the difference of the specific heats S - s, at constant + pressure and volume, assuming as above that the internal work of + expansion is negligible. If the molecules are supposed to be like + smooth, hard, elastic spheres, incapable of receiving any other kind + of energy except that of translation, the specific heat at constant + volume would be the increase per degree of the kinetic energy namely + 3pv/2[theta] - 3R/2, that at constant pressure would be 5R/2, and the + ratio of the specific heats would be 5/3 or 1.666. This appears to be + actually the case for monatomic gases such as mercury vapour (Kundt + and Warburg, 1876), argon and helium (Ramsay, 1896). For diatomic or + compound gases Clerk Maxwell supposed that the molecule would also + possess energy of rotation, and endeavoured to prove that in this case + the energy would be equally divided between the six degrees of + freedom, three of translation and three of rotation, if the molecule + were regarded as a rigid body incapable of vibration-energy. In this + case we should have s = 3R, S = 4R, S/s = 4/3 = 1.333. In 1879 Maxwell + considered it one of the greatest difficulties which the kinetic + theory had yet encountered, that in spite of the many other degrees of + freedom of vibration revealed by the spectroscope, the experimental + value of the ratio S/s was 1.40 for so many gases, instead of being + less than 4/3. Somewhat later L. Boltzmann suggested that a diatomic + molecule regarded as a rigid dumb-bell or figure of rotation, might + have only five effective degrees of freedom, since the energy of + rotation about the axis of symmetry could not be altered by collisions + between the molecules. The theoretical value of the ratio S/s in this + case would be the required 7/5. For a rigid molecule on this theory + the smallest value possible would be 4/3. Since much smaller values + are found for more complex molecules, we may suppose that, in these + cases, the energy of rotation of a polyatomic molecule may be greater + than its energy of translation, or else that heat is expended in + splitting up molecular aggregates, and increasing energy of vibration. + A hypothesis doubtfully attributed to Maxwell is that each additional + atom in the molecule is equivalent to two extra degrees of freedom. + From an m-atomic molecule we should then have S/s = 1 + 2/(2m + 1). + This gives a series of ratios 5/3, 7/5, 9/7, 11/9, &c., for 1, 2, 3, + 4, &c., atoms in the molecule, values which fall within the limits of + experimental error in many cases. It is not at all clear, however, + that energy of vibration should bear a constant ratio to that of + translation, although this would probably be the case for rotation. + For the simpler gases, which are highly diathermanous and radiate + badly even at high temperature, the energy of vibration is probably + very small, except under the special conditions which produce + luminosity in flames and electric discharges. For such gases, assuming + a constant ratio of rotation to translation, the specific heat at low + pressures would be very nearly constant. For more complex molecules + the radiative and absorptive powers are known to be much greater. The + energy of vibration may be appreciable at ordinary temperatures, and + would probably increase more rapidly than that of translation with + rise of temperature, especially near a point of dissociation. This + would account for an increase of S, and a diminution of the ratio S/s, + with rise of temperature which apparently occurs in many vapours. The + experimental evidence, however, is somewhat conflicting, and further + investigations are very desirable on the variation of specific heat + with temperature. Given the specific heat as a function of the + temperature, its variation with pressure may be determined from the + characteristic equation of the gas. The direct methods of measuring + the ratio S/s, by the velocity of sound and by adiabatic expansion, + are sufficiently described in many text-books. + + S 19. _Atomic and Molecular Heats._--The ideal atomic heat is the + thermal capacity of a gramme-atom in the ideal state of monatomic gas + at constant volume. This would be nearly three calories. For a + diatomic gas, the molecular heat would be nearly five calories, or the + atomic heat of a gas in the diatomic state would be 2.5. Estimated at + constant pressure the atomic heat would be 3.5. Some authors adopt 2.5 + and some 3.5 for the ideal atomic heat. The atomic heat of a metal in + the solid state is in most cases larger than six calories at ordinary + temperatures. Considering the wide variations in the physical + condition and melting points, the comparatively close agreement of the + atomic heats of the metals at ordinary temperatures, known as Dulong + and Petit's Law, is very remarkable. The specific heats as a rule + increase with rise of temperature, in some cases, e.g. iron and + nickel, very rapidly. According to W.A. Tilden (_Phil. Trans._, 1900), + the atomic heats of pure nickel and cobalt, as determined from + experiments at the boiling-points of O2, and CO2, diminish so rapidly + at temperatures below 0 deg. C. as to suggest that they would reach + the value 2.42 at the absolute zero. This is the value of the minimum + of atomic heat calculated by Perry from diatomic hydrogen, but the + observations themselves might be equally well represented by taking + the imaginary limit 3, since the quantity actually observed is the + mean specific heat between 0 deg. and -182.5 deg. C. Subsequent + experiments on other metals at low temperatures did not indicate a + similar diminution of specific heat, so that it may be doubted whether + the atomic heats really approach the ideal value at the absolute zero. + No doubt there must be approximate relations between the atomic and + molecular heats of similar elements and compounds, but considering the + great variations of specific heat with temperature and physical state, + in alloys, mixtures or solutions, and in allotropic or other + modifications, it would be idle to expect that the specific heat of a + compound could be accurately deduced by any simple additive process + from that of its constituents. + + AUTHORITIES.--Joule's _Scientific Papers_ (London, 1890); Ames and + Griffiths, _Reports to the International Congress_ (Paris, 1900), "On + the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat," and "On the Specific Heat of + Water"; Griffiths, _Thermal Measurement of Energy_ (Cambridge, 1901); + Callendar and Barnes, _Phil. Trans._ A, 1901, "On the Variation of the + Specific Heat of Water"; for combustion methods, see article + THERMOCHEMISTRY, and treatises by Thomsen, Pattison-Muir and + Berthelot; see also articles THERMODYNAMICS and VAPORIZATION. + (H. L. C.) + + + + +CALOVIUS, ABRAHAM (1612-1686), German Lutheran divine, was born at +Mohrungen in east Prussia, on the 16th of April 1612. After studying at +Konigsberg, in 1650 he was appointed professor of theology at +Wittenberg, where he afterwards became general superintendent and +primarius. He died on the 25th of February 1686. Calovius was the most +noteworthy of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century. +He strongly opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians, attacked in +particular the reconciliation policy or "syncretism" of Georg Calixtus +(cf. the _Consensus repetitus fidei vere lutheranae_, 1665), and as a +writer of polemics he had few equals. His chief dogmatic work, _Systema +locorum theologicorum_ (12 vols. 1655-1677), represents the climax of +Lutheran scholasticism. In his _Biblia Illustrata_ (4 vols.), written +from the point of view of a very strict belief in inspiration, his +object is to refute the statements made by Hugo Grotius in his +Commentaries. His _Historia Syncretistica_ (1682) was suppressed. + + + + +CALPURNIUS, TITUS, Roman bucolic poet, surnamed SICULUS from his +birthplace or from his imitation of the style of the Sicilian +Theocritus, most probably flourished during the reign of Nero. Eleven +eclogues have been handed down to us under his name, of which the last +four, from metrical considerations and express MS. testimony, are now +generally attributed to Nemesianus (q.v.), who lived in the time of the +emperor Carus and his sons (latter half of the 3rd century A.D.). Hardly +anything is known of the life of Calpurnius; we gather from the poems +themselves (in which he is obviously represented by "Corydon") that he +was in poor circumstances and was on the point of emigrating to Spain, +when "Meliboeus" came to his aid. Through his influence Calpurnius +apparently secured a post at Rome. The time at which Calpurnius lived +has been much discussed, but all the indications seem to point to the +time of Nero. The emperor is described as a handsome youth, like Mars +and Apollo, whose accession marks the beginning of a new golden age, +prognosticated by the appearance of a comet, doubtless the same that +appeared some time before the death of Claudius; he exhibits splendid +games in the amphitheatre (probably the wooden amphitheatre erected by +Nero in 57); and in the words + + maternis causam qui vicit Iulis[1] (i. 45), + +there is a reference to the speech delivered in Greek by Nero on behalf +of the Ilienses (Suetonius, _Nero_, 7; Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 58), from +whom the Julii derived their family.[2] Meliboeus, the poet's patron, +has been variously identified with Columella, Seneca the philosopher, +and C. Calpurnius Piso. Although the sphere of Meliboeus's literary +activity (as indicated in iv. 53) suits none of these, what is known of +Calpurnius Piso fits in well with what is said of Meliboeus by the poet, +who speaks of his generosity, his intimacy with the emperor, and his +interest in tragic poetry. His claim is further supported by the poem +_De Laude Pisonis_ (ed. C.F. Weber, 1859) which has come down to us +without the name of the author, but which there is considerable reason +for attributing to Calpurnius.[3] The poem exhibits a striking +similarity with the eclogues in metre, language and subject-matter. The +author of the _Laus_ is young, of respectable family and desirous of +gaining the favour of Piso as his Maecenas. Further, the similarity +between the two names can hardly be accidental; it is suggested that the +poet may have been adopted by the courtier, or that he was the son of a +freedman of Piso. The attitude of the author of the _Laus_ towards the +subject of the panegyric seems to show less intimacy than the relations +between Corydon and Meliboeus in the eclogues, and there is internal +evidence that the _Laus_ was written during the reign of Claudius +(Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Rom. Lit._ S 306, 6). + +Mention may here be made of the fragments of two short hexameter poems +in an Einsiedeln MS., obviously belonging to the time of Nero, which if +not written by Calpurnius, were imitated from him. + +Although there is nothing original in Calpurnius, he is "a skilful +literary craftsman." Of his models the chief is Virgil, of whom (under +the name of Tityrus) he speaks with great enthusiasm; he is also +indebted to Ovid and Theocritus. Calpurnius is "a fair scholar, and an +apt courtier, and not devoid of real poetical feeling. The bastard style +of pastoral cultivated by him, in which the description of nature is +made the writer's pretext, while ingenious flattery is his real purpose, +nevertheless excludes genuine pleasure, and consequently genuine +poetical achievement. He may be fairly compared to the minor poets of +the reign of Anne" (Garnett). + + Calpurnius was first printed in 1471, together with Silius Italicus + and has been frequently republished, generally with Gratius Faliscus + and Nemesianus. The separate authorship of the eclogues of Calpurnius + and Nemesianus was established by M. Haupt's _De Carminibus bucolicis + Calpurnii et Nemesiani_ (1854). Editions by H. Schenkl (1885), with + full introduction and _index verborum_, and by C.H. Keene (1887), with + introduction, commentary and appendix. English verse translation by + E.J.L. Scott (1891); see H.E. Butler, _Post-Augustan Poetry_ (Oxford, + 1909), pp. 150 foil., and F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1 (1897). (J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Iulis_ for _in ulnis_ according to the best MS. tradition. + + [2] According to Dr R. Garnett (and Mr Greswell, as stated in + Conington's _Virgil_, i. p. 123, note) the emperor referred to is the + younger Gordian (A.D. 238). His arguments in favour of this will be + found in the article on Calpurnius by him in the 9th edition of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and in the _Journal of Philology_, xvi., + 1888; see in answer J.P. Postgate, "The Comet of Calpurnius Siculus" + in _Classical Review_, June 1902. Dean Merivale (_Hist. of the Romans + under the Empire_, ch. 60) and Pompei, "Intorno al Tempo del Poeta + Calpurnio" in _Atti del Istituto Veneto_, v. 6 (1880), identify the + amphitheatre with the Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) and assign + Calpurnius to the reign of Domitian. + + [3] It has been variously ascribed to Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius + and Saleius Bassus. + + + + +CALTAGIRONE, a city and episcopal see of the province of Catania, +Sicily, situated 1999 ft. above sea-level, 36 m. S.W. of Catania direct +(55 m. by rail). Pop. (1881) 25,978; (1901) town 35,116; commune 45,956. +It is well built, and is said to be the most civilized provincial town +in Sicily. Extensive Sicel cemeteries have been explored to the north of +the town (_Not. Scavi_, 1904, 65), and a Greek necropolis of the 6th and +5th centuries B.C. has been found to the south-east (_ibid._ 132). +Remains of buildings of Roman date have also been discovered; but the +name of the ancient city which stood here is unknown. The present name +is a corruption of the Saracen _Kalat-al-Girche_ (the castle of Girche, +the chieftain who fortified it). + + + + +CALTANISETTA, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, the capital of a +province of the same name, 60 m. S.E. of Palermo direct and 83 m. by +rail, situated 1930 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 43,303. The town is +of Saracenic origin, as its name _Kalat-al-Nisa_, the "Ladies' Castle," +indicates, and some ruins of the old castle (called _Pietrarossa_) still +exist. Otherwise the town contains no buildings of artistic or +historical interest, but it commands striking views. It is the centre of +the Sicilian sulphur industry and the seat of a royal school of mines. +Two miles east is the interesting Norman abbey of S. Spirito. + + + + +CALTROP (from the Mid. Eng. _calketrappe_, probably derived from the +Lat. _calx_, a heel, and _trappa_, Late Lat. for a snare), an iron ball, +used as an obstacle against cavalry, with four spikes so arranged, that +however placed in or on the ground, one spike always points upwards. It +is also the botanical name for several species of thistles. + + + + +CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE, a town of eastern France, in the department of Rhone, +2-1/2 m. N. by E. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906) 9255. It has +manufactures of coarse earthenware and hard-ware, copper and bronze +foundries and nursery-gardens. + + + + +CALUMET (Norm. Fr. form of _chalumet_, from Lat. _calamus_, a reed), the +name given by the French in Canada to the "peace-pipe" of the American +Indians. This pipe occupied among the tribes a position of peculiar +symbolic significance, and was the object of profound veneration. It was +smoked on all ceremonial occasions, even on declarations of war, but its +special use was at the making of treaties of peace. It was usually about +2-1/2 ft. long, and in the west the bowl was made of red pipes tone +(catlinite), a fine-grained, easily-worked stone of a rich red colour +found chiefly in the Coteau des Prairies west of Big Stone Lake, Dakota. +The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring Indian +tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the locality and +its product (Longfellow, _Hiawatha_, i.). The pipe stem was of reed +decorated with eagles' quills or women's hair. Native tobacco mixed with +willow-bark or sumac leaves was smoked. The pipe was offered as a +supreme proof of hospitality to distinguished strangers, and its refusal +was regarded as a grievous affront. In the east and south-east, the bowl +was of white stone, sometimes pierced with several stem holes so that +many persons might smoke at once. + + See Joseph D. Macguire (exhaustive report,640 pages), "Pipes and + Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines" in _Smithsonian Report_ + (American Bureau of Ethnology) for 1897, vol. i.; and authorities + quoted in _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + + +CALUMPIT, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +at the junction of the Quingua river with the Rio Grande de la Pampanga, +about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 13,897. It is served by the +Manila & Dagupan railway, and the bridge across the Rio Grande is one of +the longest in the Philippines. The surrounding country is a fertile +plain, producing large quantities of rice, as well as sugar, Indian corn +and a variety of fruits. Calumpit has a large rice-mill and one of the +largest markets in the Philippines. The bridge, convent and church of +the town were fired and completely destroyed by insurgent troops in +1899. The language is Tagalog. + + + + +CALVADOS, a department of north-western France, formed in 1790 out of +Bessin, Cinglais, Hiemois, Bocage, the Campagne de Caen, Auge and the +western part of Lieuvin. Pop. (1906) 403,431. Area, 2197 sq. m. It +received its name from a ledge of rocks, stretching along the coast for +a distance of about 15 m. between the mouths of the rivers Orne and +Vire. It is bounded N. by the English Channel, E. by the department of +Eure, S. by that of Orne, W. by that of Manche. The Bocage, or +south-western part of the department, is elevated, being crossed from +south-east to north-west by the hills of Normandy, the highest of which +is 1197 ft.; the rest of the surface is gently undulating, and consists +of extensive valleys watered by numerous streams which fall into the +English Channel. The coast, formed by cliffs, sandy beaches or reefs, is +generally inaccessible, except at the mouths of the principal rivers, +such as the Touques, the Dives, the Orne and the Vire, which are +navigable at high tide for several miles inland. Trouville is the chief +of the numerous coast resorts. The climate, though humid and variable, +is healthy. The raising of cattle, sheep and horses is the mainstay of +the agriculture of the department. Pasture is good and abundant in the +east and north-west, and there is a large export trade in the butter, +eggs and cheese (Camembert, Livarot, Pont l'Eveque) of these districts, +carried on by Honfleur, Isigny and other ports. The plain of Caen is a +great centre for horse breeding. Wheat, oats, barley, colza and potatoes +are the chief crops. The orchards of Auge and Bessin produce a superior +kind of cider, of which upwards of 40,000,000 gallons are made in the +department; a large quantity of cider brandy (eau-de-vie de Calvados) is +distilled. Poultry to a considerable amount is sent to the Paris +markets, and there is a large output of honey and wax. The spinning and +weaving of wool and cotton are the chief industries. Besides these, +paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, +rope-works, dye-works, distilleries and bleach-fields, scattered +throughout the department, give employment to a number of hands. There +are productive iron-mines and building-stone, slate and lime are +plentiful. Fisheries, chiefly of lobster, oyster (Courseulles), herring +and mackerel, are prosecuted. Coal, timber, grain, salt-fish and cement +are among the imports; exports include iron, dairy products and sand. +Caen and Honfleur are the most important commercial ports. There is a +canal 9 m. in length from Caen to Ouistreham on the coast. The +department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway. It is divided into the +six arrondissements (38 cantons, 763 communes) of Caen, Falaise, Bayeux, +Vire, Lisieux and Pont l'Eveque. Caen, the capital, is the seat of a +court of appeal and the centre of an _academie_ (educational division). +The department forms the diocese of Bayeux, in the ecclesiastical +province of Rouen, and belongs to the region of the III. army-corps. The +other principal towns are Falaise, Lisieux, Conde-sur-Noireau, Vire, +Honfleur and Trouville (q.v.). + +Amongst the great number of medieval churches which the department +possesses, the fine Gothic church of St. Pierre-sur-Dives is second in +importance only to those of Lisieux and Bayeux; that of Norrey, a good +example of the Norman-Gothic style, and that of Tour-en-Bessin, in which +Romanesque and Gothic architecture are mingled, are of great interest. +Fontaine-Henri has a fine chateau of the 15th and 16th centuries. + + + + +CALVART, DENIS (1540-1619), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. After +studying landscape-painting for some time in his native city he went to +Bologna, where he perfected himself in the anatomy of the human form +under Prospero Fontana, and so completely lost the mannerism of Flemish +art that his paintings appear to be the work of an Italian. From Bologna +he went to Rome, where he assisted Lorenzo Sabbatini (1533-1577) in his +works for the papal palace, and devoted much of his time to copying and +studying the works of Raphael. He ultimately returned to Bologna and +founded a school, of which the greatest ornaments are Guido and +Domenichino. His works are especially admired for the power of grouping +and colouring which they display. + + + + +CALVARY, the conventional English rendering of the _calvaria_ of the +Vulgate, the Latin version of the Greek _[Greek: kranion]_, both meaning +"skull" and representing the Hebrew Golgotha, the name given to the +scene of Christ's crucifixion. The term "a Calvary" is applied to a +sculptured representation of the Crucifixion, either inside a church, or +adjoining one in the open air. There are many examples of the latter in +France, Italy and Spain. Among the most important are the Sacro Monte +(1486) at Varallo in Piedmont, and those at Guimiliau (1581), Plougastel +(1602), St Thegonnec (1610), and Pleyben near Quimper (1670), in +Brittany, all in good preservation. + + + + +CALVE EMMA (1864- ), Spanish operatic soprano, was born at Madrid, and +trained in Paris, making her first important appearance in opera at +Brussels in 1882. She sang mainly in Paris for some years, but in 1892 +was first engaged at Covent Garden, London, and at once became famous as +the most vivid Carmen (in Bizet's opera) of the day. + + + + +CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART (1831-1884), English poet and wit, and the +literary father of what may be called the university school of humour, +was born at Martley in Worcestershire on the 22nd of December 1831. His +father, the Rev. Henry Blayds, resumed in 1852 the old family name of +Calverley, which his grandfather had exchanged for Blayds in 1807. It +was as Charles Stuart Blayds that most of the son's university +distinctions were attained. He went up to Balliol from Harrow in 1850, +and was soon known in Oxford as the most daring and most high-spirited +undergraduate of his time. He was a universal favourite, a delightful +companion, a brilliant scholar and the playful enemy of all "dons." In +1851 he won the Chancellor's prize for Latin verse, and it is said that +the entire exercise was written in an afternoon, when his friends had +locked him into his rooms, declining to let him out till he had finished +what they were confident would prove the prize poem. A year later he +took his name off the books, to avoid the consequences of a college +escapade, and migrated to Christ's College, Cambridge. Here he was again +successful in Latin verse, and remains the unique example of an +undergraduate who has won the Chancellor's prize at both universities. +In 1856 he took second place in the first class in the Classical Tripos. +He was elected fellow of Christ's (1858), published _Verses and +Translations_ in 1862, and was called to the bar in 1865. Owing to an +accident while skating he was prevented from following up a professional +career, and during the last years of his life he was an invalid. His +_Translations into English and Latin_ appeared in 1866; his _Theocritus +translated into English Verse_ in 1869; _Fly Leaves_ in 1872; and +_Literary Remains_ in 1885. He died on the 17th of February 1884. +Calverley was one of the most brilliant men of his day; and, had he +enjoyed health, might have achieved distinction in any career he chose. +Constitutionally indolent, he was endowed with singular gifts in every +department of culture; he was a scholar, a musician, an athlete and a +brilliant talker. What is left us marks only a small portion of his +talent, but his sparkling, dancing verses, which have had many clever +imitators, are still without a rival in their own line. His humour was +illumined by good nature; his satire was keen but kind; his laughter was +of that human sort which is often on the verge of tears. Imbued with the +classical spirit, he introduced into the making of light verse the +polish and elegance of the great masters, and even in its most whimsical +mood his verse is raised to the level of poetry by the saving excellence +of style. + + His _Complete Works_, with a biographical notice by Sir W.J. Sendall, + appeared in 1901. (A. Wa.) + + + + +CALVERT, the name of three English artists: Charles (1785-1852), a +well-known landscape-painter; Edward (1803-1883), an important +wood-engraver and follower of Blake; and Frederick, an excellent +topographical draughtsman, whose work in water-colour is represented at +the Victoria and Albert Museum, and who published a volume of +_Picturesque Views in Staffordshire and Shropshire_ (1830). + + + + +CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE (1819-1873), English chemist, was born in +London on the 14th of November 1819. From about 1836 till 1846 he lived +in France, where, after a course of study at Paris, he became manager of +some chemical works, later acting as assistant to M.E. Chevreul. On his +return to England he settled in Manchester as a consulting chemist, and +was appointed professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution in that +city. Devoting himself almost entirely to industrial chemistry, he gave +much attention to the manufacture of coal-tar products, and particularly +carbolic acid, for the production of which he established large works in +Manchester in 1865. Besides contributing extensively to the English and +French scientific journals, he published a work on _Dyeing and +Calico-Printing._ He died in Manchester on the 24th of October 1873. + + + + +CALVERT, SIR HARRY, BART. (c. 1763-1826), British general, was probably +born early in 1763 at Hampton, near London. He was educated at Harrow, +and at the age of fifteen entered the army. In the following year he +served with his regiment in America, being present at the siege of +Charleston, and serving through the campaign of Lord Cornwallis which +ended with the surrender of Yorktown. From 1781 to 1783 he was a +prisoner of war. Returning to England in 1784, he next saw active +service in 1793-1794 in the Low Countries, where he was aide-de-camp to +the duke of York, and in 1795 was engaged on a confidential mission to +Brunswick and Berlin. In 1799, having already served as deputy adjutant +general, he was made adjutant general, holding the post till 1818. In +this capacity he effected many improvements in the organization and +discipline of the service. He greatly improved the administration of the +army medical and hospital department, introduced regimental schools, +developed the two existing military colleges (since united at +Sandhurst), and was largely responsible for the founding of the Duke of +York's school, Chelsea. In recognition of his work as adjutant general +he was made a G.C.B. (1815), and, on retiring from office, received a +baronetcy (1818). In 1820 he was made governor of Chelsea hospital. He +died on the 3rd of September 1826, at Middle Claydon, Buckinghamshire. + + + + +CALVES' HEAD CLUB, a club established shortly after his death in +derision of the memory of Charles I. Its chief meeting was held on the +30th of each January, the anniversary of the king's execution, when the +dishes served were a cod's head to represent the individual, Charles +Stuart; a pike representing tyranny; a boar's head representing the king +preying on his subjects; and calves' heads representing Charles as king +and his adherents. On the table an axe held the place of honour. After +the banquet a copy of the king's _Ikon Basilike_ was burnt, and the +toast was "To those worthy patriots who killed the tyrant." After the +Restoration the club met secretly. The first mention of it is in a tract +reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_ entitled "The Secret History of +the Calves' Head Club." The club survived till 1734, when the diners +were mobbed owing to the popular ill-feeling which their outrages on +good taste provoked, and the riot which ensued put a final stop to the +meetings. + + + + +CALVI, a sea-port in Corsica, capital of an arrondissement in the N.W. +of the island, 112 m. N. of Ajaccio by road. Pop. (1906) 1967. It is +situated on the Bay of Calvi, in a malarial region, and is the port in +Corsica nearest to France, being 109 m. from Antibes; the harbour, +however, is exposed to the east and north-east winds. The modern town +lies at the foot of a rock, on which stands the old town with its steep +rock-paved streets and fortified walls, commanded by the Fort Muzello. +Fishing is carried on, and timber, oil, wine, lemons and other +sub-tropical fruits are exported to some extent. The most important +buildings are the old palace of the Genoese governor, used as barracks, +and the church (16th century), with the monument of the Baglioni +family, which was intimately associated with the history of the town. + +Calvi was founded in the 13th century and in 1278 passed into the hands +of the Genoese. From that date it was remarkable for its adherence to +their side, especially in 1553 when it repulsed two attacks of the +united forces of the French and Turks. In recognition thereof the +Genoese senate caused the words _Civitas Calvi semper fidelis_ to be +carved on the chief gate of the city, which still preserves the +inscription. In 1794 Calvi was captured by the English, but it was +retaken by the Corsicans in the following year. + + + + +CALVIN, JOHN (1500-1564), Swiss divine and reformer, was born at Noyon, +in Picardy, on the 10th of July 1509. His father, Gerard Cauvin or +Calvin,[1] was a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal for the lordship +of Noyon, besides holding certain ecclesiastical offices in connexion +with that diocese. The name of his mother was Jeanne le Franc; she was +the daughter of an innkeeper at Cambrai, who afterwards came to reside +at Noyon. Gerard Cauvin was esteemed as a man of considerable sagacity +and prudence, and his wife was a godly and attractive lady. She bore him +five sons, of whom John was the second. By a second wife there were two +daughters. + +Of Calvin's early years only a few notices remain. His father destined +him from the first for an ecclesiastical career, and paid for his +education in the household of the noble family of Hangest de Montmor. In +May 1521 he was appointed to a chaplaincy attached to the altar of La +Gesine in the cathedral of Noyon, and received the tonsure. The actual +duties of the office were in such cases carried out by ordained and +older men for a fraction of the stipend. The plague having visited +Noyon, the young Hangests were sent to Paris in August 1523, and Calvin +accompanied them, being enabled to do so by the income received from his +benefice. He lived with his uncle and attended as an out-student the +College de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin +Cordier, a man of character, learning and repute as a teacher, who in +later days followed his pupil to Switzerland, taught at Neuchatel, and +died in Geneva in 1564. In dedicating to him his _Commentary on the +First Epistle to the Thessalonians_, as "eximiae pietatis et doctrinae +viro," he declares that so had he been aided by his instruction that +whatever subsequent progress he had made he only regarded as received +from him, and "this," he adds, "I wish to testify to posterity that if +any utility accrue to any from my writings they may acknowledge it as +having in part flowed from thee." From the College de la Marche he +removed to the College de Montaigu,[2] where the atmosphere was more +ecclesiastical and where he had for instructor a Spaniard who is +described as a man of learning and to whom Calvin was indebted for some +sound training in dialectics and the scholastic philosophy. He speedily +outstripped all his competitors in grammatical studies, and by his skill +and acumen as a student of philosophy, and in the college disputations +gave fruitful promise of that consummate excellence as a reasoner in the +department of speculative truth which he afterwards displayed. Among his +friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and Michel Cop, +sons of the king's Swiss physician, and his own kinsman Pierre Robert, +better known as Olivetan. Such friendships testify both to the worth and +the attractiveness of his character, and contradict the old legend that +he was an unsociable misanthrope. Pleased with his success, the canons +at Noyon gave him the curacy of St Martin de Marteville in September +1527. After holding this preferment for nearly two years, he exchanged +it in July 1529 for the cure of Pont L'Eveque, a village near to Noyon, +and the place to which his father originally belonged. He appears to +have been not a little elated by his early promotion, and although not +ordained, he preached several sermons to the people. But though the +career of ecclesiastical preferment was thus early opened to him, Calvin +was destined not to become a priest. A change came over the mind both of +his father and himself respecting his future career. Gerard Cauvin began +to suspect that he had not chosen the most lucrative profession for his +son, and that the law offered to a youth of his talents and industry a +more promising sphere.[3] He was also now out of favour with the +cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said also that John himself, on the +advice of his relative, Pierre Robert Olivetan, the first translator of +the Bible into French, had begun to study the Scriptures and to dissent +from the Roman worship. At any rate he readily complied with his +father's suggestion, and removed from Paris to Orleans (March 1528) in +order to study law under Pierre Taisan de l'Etoile, the most +distinguished jurisconsult of his day. The university atmosphere here +was less ascetic than at Paris, but Calvin's ardour knew no slackening, +and such was his progress in legal knowledge that he was frequently +called upon to lecture, in the absence of one or other of the regular +staff. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him while +in this city, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age he eagerly +developed his classical knowledge. "By protracted vigils," says Beza, +"he secured indeed a solid erudition and an excellent memory; but it is +probable he at the same time sowed the seeds of that disease (dyspepsia) +which occasioned him various illnesses in after life, and at last +brought upon him premature death."[4] His friends here were Melchior +Wolmar, a German schoolmaster and a man of exemplary scholarship and +character, Francois Daniel, Francois de Connam and Nicolas Duchemin; to +these his earliest letters were written. + +From Orleans Calvin went to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to continue +his studies under the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati (1492-1550), +whom Francis I. had invited into France and settled as a professor of +law in that university. His friend Daniel went with him, and Wolmar +followed a year later. By Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced +to the study of the New Testament in the original, a service which he +gratefully acknowledges in one of his printed works.[5] The conversation +of Wolmar may also have been of use to him in his consideration of the +doctrines of the Reformation, which were now beginning to be widely +diffused through France. Twelve years had elapsed since Luther had +published his theses against indulgences--twelve years of intense +excitement and anxious discussion, not in Germany only, but in almost +all the adjacent countries. In France there had not been as yet any +overt revolt against the Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy +with any attempt to improve the church by education, by purer morals, by +better preaching and by a return to the primitive and uncorrupted faith. +Though we cannot with Beza regard Calvin at this time as a centre of +Protestant activity, he may well have preached at Lignieres as a +reformatory Catholic of the school of Erasmus. Calvin's own record of +his "conversion" is so scanty and devoid of chronological data that it +is extremely difficult to trace his religious development with any +certainty. But it seems probable that at least up to 1532 he was far +more concerned about classical scholarship than about religion. + +His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his father in May +1531. Immediately after this event he went to Paris, where the "new +learning" was now at length ousting the medieval scholasticism from the +university. He lodged in the College Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre +Danes and beginning Hebrew with Francois Vatable. It was at this time +(April 1532) that Calvin issued his first publication, a commentary in +Latin on Seneca's tract _De Clementia_. This book he published at his +own cost, and dedicated to Claude Hangest, abbot of St Eloi, a member of +the de Montmor family, with whom Calvin had been brought up. It was +formerly thought that Calvin published this work with a view to +influence the king to put a stop to the attacks on the Protestants, but +there is nothing in the treatise itself or in the commentary to favour +this opinion. + +Soon after the publication of his first book Calvin returned to Orleans, +where he stayed for a year, perhaps again reading law, and still +undecided as to his life's work. He visited Noyon in August 1533, and by +October of the same year was settled again in Paris. Here and now his +destiny became certain. The conservative theology was becoming +discredited, and humanists like Jacques Lefevre of Etaples (Faber +Stapulensis) and Gerard Roussel were favoured by the court under the +influence of Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre and sister of +Francis I. Calvin's old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected +rector of the university and had to deliver an oration according to +custom in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The +oration (certainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin) was in +effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of the doctrine of +justification by faith alone. It is to the period between April 1532 and +November 1533, and in particular to the time of his second sojourn at +Orleans, that we may most fittingly assign the great change in Calvin +which he describes (_Praef. ad Psalmos_; opera xxxi. 21-24) as his +"sudden conversion" and attributes to direct divine agency. It must have +been at least after his _Commentary on Seneca's De Clementia_ that his +heart was "so subdued and reduced to docility that in comparison with +his zeal for true piety he regarded all other studies with indifference, +though not entirely forsaking them. Though himself a beginner, many +flocked to him to learn the pure doctrine, and he began to seek some +hiding-place and means of withdrawal from people." This indeed was +forced upon him, for Cop's address was more than the conservative party +could bear, and Cop, being summoned to appear before the parlement of +Paris, found it necessary, as he failed to secure the support either of +the king, or of the university, to make his escape to Basel. An attempt +was at the same time made to seize Calvin, but, being forewarned of the +design by his friends, he also made his escape. His room in the College +Fortet, however, was searched, and his books and papers seized, to the +imminent peril of some of his friends, whose letters were found in his +repositories. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him being +dropped, soon returned to Paris. But desiring both security and solitude +for study he left the city again about New Year of 1534 and became the +guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of the cathedral, at Angouleme, where +at the request of his host he prepared some short discourses, which were +circulated in the surrounding parishes, and read in public to the +people. Here, too in du Tillet's splendid library, he began the studies +which resulted in his great work, the _Institutes_, and paid a visit to +Nerac, where the venerable Lefevre, whose revised translation of the +Bible into French was published about this time, was spending his last +years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre. + +Calvin was now nearly twenty-five years of age, and in the ordinary way +would have been ordained to the priesthood. Up till this time his work +for the evangelical cause was not so much that of the public preacher or +reformer as that of the retiring but influential scholar and adviser. +Now, however, he had to decide whether, like Roussel and other of his +friends, he should strive to combine the new doctrines with a position +in the old church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome. +His mind was made up, and on the 4th of May he resigned his chaplaincy +at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont l'Eveque. Towards the end of the +same month he was arrested and suffered two short terms of imprisonment, +the charges against him being not strong enough to be pressed. He seems +to have gone next to Paris, staying perhaps with Etienne de la Forge, a +Protestant merchant who suffered for his faith in February 1535. To this +time belongs the story of the proposed meeting between Calvin and the +Spanish reformer Servetus. Calvin's movements at this time are difficult +to trace, but he visited both Orleans and Poitiers, and each visit +marked a stage in his development. + +The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and were +disseminating many wild and fanatical opinions among those who had +seceded from the Church of Rome. Among other notions which they had +imbibed was that of a sleep of the soul after death. To Calvin this +notion appeared so pernicious that he composed a treatise in refutation +of it, under the title of _Psychopannychia_. The preface to this +treatise is dated Orleans 1534, but it was not printed till 1542. In it +he chiefly dwells upon the evidence from Scripture in favour of the +belief that the soul retains its intelligent consciousness after its +separation from the body--passing by questions of philosophical +speculation, as tending on such a subject only to minister to an idle +curiosity. At Poitiers Calvin gathered round him a company of cultured +and gentle men whom in private intercourse he influenced considerably. +Here too in a grotto near the town he for the first time celebrated the +communion in the Evangelical Church of France, using a piece of the rock +as a table. + +The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time forward his +influence became supreme, and all who had accepted the reformed +doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and instruction, attracted +not only by his power as a teacher, but still more, perhaps because they +saw in him so full a development of the Christian life according to the +evangelical model. Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him "the most +Christian man of his time," and attributes to this his success as a +reformer. Certain it is that already he had become conspicuous as a +prophet of the new religion; his life was in danger, and he was obliged +to seek safety in flight. In company with his friend Louis du Tillet, +whom he had again gone to Angouleme to visit, he set out for Basel. On +their way they were robbed by one of their servants, and it was only by +borrowing ten crowns from their other servant that they were enabled to +get to Strassburg, and thence to Basel. Here Calvin was welcomed by the +band of scholars and theologians who had conspired to make that city the +Athens of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief +pastor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the aupices and +guidance of Sebastian Munster, Calvin now gave himself to the study of +Hebrew. + +Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protestants but +anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to break with the +Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his ambassador to assure these +princes that it was only against Anabaptists, and other parties who +called in question all civil magistracy, that his severities were +exercised. Calvin, indignant at the calumny which was thus cast upon the +reformed party in France, hastily prepared for the press his _Institutes +of the Christian Religion_, which he published "first that I might +vindicate from unjust affront my brethren whose death was precious in +the sight of the Lord, and, next, that some sorrow and anxiety should +move foreign peoples, since the same sufferings threatened many." The +work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it in Latin +that it might find access to the learned in all lands.[6] Soon after it +appeared he set about translating it into French, as he himself attests +in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at rest a question, at one +time much agitated, whether the book appeared first in French or in +Latin. The earliest French edition known is that of 1540, and this was +after the work had been much enlarged, and several Latin editions had +appeared. In its first form the work consisted of only six chapters, and +was intended merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrine. The +chapters follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching: (1) The Law, +(as in the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles' Creed) (3) Prayer, +(4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False Sacraments, (6) +Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil administration. The +closing chapters of the work are more polemical than the earlier ones. +His indebtedness to Luther is of course great, but his spiritual kinship +with Martin Bucer of Strassburg is even more marked. Something also he +owed to Scotus and other medieval schoolmen. The book appeared +anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in view +beyond furnishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted +Protestants, whom he saw cruelly cut to pieces by impious and perfidious +court parasites.[7] In this work, though produced when the author was +only twenty-six years of age, we find a complete outline of the +Calvinist theological system. In none of the later editions, nor in any +of his later works do we find reason to believe that he ever changed his +views on any essential point from what they were at the period of its +first publication. Such an instance of maturity of mind and of opinion +at so early an age would be remarkable under any circumstances; but in +Calvin's case it is rendered peculiarly so by the shortness of the time +which had elapsed since he gave himself to theological studies. It may +be doubted also if the history of literature presents us with another +instance of a book written at so early an age, which has exercised such +a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both of +contemporaries and of posterity. + +After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renee, duchess of +Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), which at that time afforded an +asylum to several learned and pious fugitives from persecution, Calvin +returned through Basel to France to arrange his affairs before finally +taking farewell of his native country. His intention was to settle at +Strassburg or Basel, and to devote himself to study. But being unable, +in consequence of the war between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach +Strassburg by the ordinary route, he with his younger brother Antoine +and his half-sister Marie journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making +for Basel. In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution to +pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by what he +calls the "formidable obtestation" of Guillaume Farel.[8] After many +struggles and no small suffering, this energetic spirit had succeeded in +planting the evangelical standard at Geneva; and anxious to secure the +aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated him on his arrival to +relinquish his design of going farther, and to devote himself to the +work in that city. Calvin at first declined, alleging as an excuse his +need of securing more time for personal improvement, but ultimately, +believing that he was divinely called to this task and that "God had +stretched forth His hand upon me from on high to arrest me," he +consented to remain at Geneva. He hurried to Basel, transacted some +business, and returned to Geneva in August 1536. He at once began to +expound the epistles of St Paul in the church of St Pierre, and after +about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with the +consent of the people, an office which he would not accept until it had +been repeatedly pressed upon him. His services seem to have been +rendered for some time gratuitously, for in February 1537 there is an +entry in the city registers to the effect that six crowns had been voted +to him, "since he has as yet hardly received anything." + +Calvin was in his twenty-eighth year when he was thus constrained to +settle at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his life, with the +exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post to which he was thus +called was not an easy one. Though the people of Geneva had cast off the +obedience of Rome, it was largely a political revolt against the duke of +Savoy, and they were still (says Beza) "but very imperfectly enlightened +in divine knowledge; they had as yet hardly emerged from the filth of +the papacy."[9] This laid them open to the incursions of those fanatical +teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the Reformation had called +forth, and who hung mischievously upon the rear of the reforming body. +To obviate the evils thence resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew +up a condensed statement of Christian doctrine consisting of twenty-one +articles. This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to +profess and swear to as the confession of their faith--a process which, +though not in accordance with modern notions of the best way of +establishing men in the faith, was gone through, Calvin tells us, "with +much satisfaction." As the people took this oath in the capacity of +_citizens_, we may see here the basis laid for that theocratic system +which subsequently became peculiarly characteristic of the Genevan +polity. Deeply convinced of the importance of education for the young, +Calvin and his coadjutors were solicitous to establish schools +throughout the city, and to enforce on parents the sending of their +children to them; and as he had no faith in education apart from +religious training, he drew up a catechism of Christian doctrine which +the children had to learn whilst they were receiving secular +instruction. Of the troubles which arose from fanatical teachers, the +chief proceeded from the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public +disputation was held on the 16th and 17th of March 1537, and so excited +the populace that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the +Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About the same time +also, the peace of Calvin and his friends was much disturbed and their +work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, another native of northern France, +who, though a man of loose principle and belief, had been appointed +chief pastor at Lausanne and was discrediting the good work done by +Pierre Viret in that city. Calvin went to Viret's aid and brought Caroli +before the commissioners of Bern on a charge of advocating prayers for +the dead as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a +counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and Arianism, +because they would not enforce the Athanasian creed, and had not used +the words "Trinity" and "Person" in the confession they had drawn up. It +was a struggle between the thoroughgoing humanistic reformer who drew +his creed solely from the "word of God" and the merely semi-Protestant +reformer who looked on the old creed as a priceless heritage. In a synod +held at Bern the matter was fully discussed, when a verdict was given in +favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli deposed from his office and +banished. He returned to France, rejoined the Roman communion and spent +the rest of his life in passing to and from the old faith and the new. +Thus ended an affair which seems to have occasioned Calvin much more +uneasiness than the character of his assailant, and the manifest +falsehood of the charge brought against him, would seem to justify. Two +brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled _De fugiendis impiorum sacris_, +the other _De sacerdotio papali abjiciendo_, were also published early +in this year. + +Hardly was the affair of Caroli settled, when new and severer trials +came upon the Genevan Reformers. The austere simplicity of the ritual +which Farel had introduced, and to which Calvin had conformed; the +strictness with which the ministers sought to enforce not only the laws +of morality, but certain sumptuary regulations respecting the dress and +mode of living of the citizens; and their determination in spiritual +matters and ecclesiastical ceremonies not to submit to the least +dictation from the civil power, led to violent dissensions. Amidst much +party strife Calvin perhaps showed more youthful impetuosity than +experienced skill. He and his colleagues refused to administer the +sacrament in the Bernese form, i.e. with unleavened bread, and on Easter +Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all because of the popular tumult. +For this they were banished from the city. They went first to Bern, and +soon after to Zurich, where a synod of the Swiss pastors had been +convened. Before this assembly they pleaded their cause, and stated what +were the points on which they were prepared to insist as needful for the +proper discipline of the church. They declared that they would yield in +the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ unleavened bread in the +eucharist, to use fonts in baptism, and to allow festival days, provided +the people might pursue their ordinary avocations after public service. +These Calvin regarded as matters of indifference, provided the +magistrates did not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them; +and he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped thereby to +meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose ritual was less simple +than that established by Farel at Geneva. But he and his colleagues +insisted, on the other hand that for the proper maintenance of +discipline, there should be a division of parishes--that +excommunications should be permitted, and should be under the power of +elders chosen by the council, in conjunction with the clergy--that +order should be observed in the admission of preachers--and that only +the clergy should officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It +was proposed also, as conducive to the welfare of the church, that the +sacrament of the Lord's Supper should be administered more frequently, +at least once every month, and that congregational singing of psalms +should be practised in the churches. On these terms the synod interceded +with the Genevese to restore their pastors; but through the opposition +of some of the Bernese (especially Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) +this was frustrated, and a second edict of banishment was the only +response. + +Calvin and Farel betook themselves, under these circumstances, to Basel, +where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neuchatel and Calvin to +Strassburg. At the latter place Calvin resided till the autumn of 1541, +occupying himself partly in literary exertions, partly as a preacher and +especially an organizer in the French church, and partly as a lecturer +on theology. These years were not the least valuable in his experience. +In 1539 he attended Charles V.'s conference on Christian reunion at +Frankfort as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year he +appeared at Hagenau and Worms, as the delegate from the city of +Strassburg. He was present also at the diet at Regensburg, where he +deepened his acquaintance with Melanchthon, and formed with him a +friendship which lasted through life. He also did something to relieve +the persecuted Protestants of France. It is to this period of his life +that we owe a revised and enlarged form of his _Institutes_, his +_Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_, and his _Tract on the Lord's +Supper_. Notwithstanding his manifold engagements, he found time to +attend to the tenderer affections; for it was during his residence at +Strassburg that he married, in August 1540, Idelette de Bure, the widow +of one Jean Stordeur of Liege, whom he had converted from Anabaptism. In +her Calvin found, to use his own words, "the excellent companion of his +life," a "precious help" to him amid his manifold labours and frequent +infirmities. She died in 1549, to the great grief of her husband, who +never ceased to mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the +28th of July 1542, lived only a few days. + +During Calvin's absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed in Geneva. +An attempt was made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547), bishop of +Carpentras, to take advantage of this so as to restore the papal +supremacy in that district; but this design Calvin, at the request of +the Bernese authorities, who had been consulted by those of Geneva, +completely frustrated, by writing such a reply to the letter which the +bishop had addressed to the Genevese, as constrained him to desist from +all further efforts. The letter had more than a local or temporary +reference. It was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole +Protestant position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that +was ever written. He seems also to have kept up his connexion with +Geneva by addressing letters of counsel and comfort to the faithful +there who continued to regard him with affection. It was whilst he was +still at Strassburg that there appeared at Geneva a translation of the +Bible into French, bearing Calvin's name, but in reality only revised +and corrected by him from the version of Olivetan. Meanwhile the way was +opening for his return. Those who had driven him from the city gradually +lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. After +much hesitation, for Strassburg had strong claims, he yielded and +returned to Geneva, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm +(September 13, 1541). He entered upon his work with a firm determination +to carry out those reforms which he had originally purposed, and to set +up in all its integrity that form of church polity which he had +carefully matured during his residence at Strassburg. He now became the +sole directive spirit in the church at Geneva. Farel was retained by the +Neuchatelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin's return, removed to +Lausanne. His duties were thus rendered exceedingly onerous, and his +labour became excessive. Besides preaching every day in each alternate +week, he taught theology three days in the week, attended weekly +meetings of his consistory, read the Scriptures once a week in the +congregation, carried on an extensive correspondence on a multiplicity +of subjects, prepared commentaries on the books of Scripture, and was +engaged repeatedly in controversy with the opponents of his opinions. "I +have not time," he writes to a friend, "to look out of my house at the +blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall forget what sort of +appearance it has. When I have settled my usual business, I have so many +letters to write, so many questions to answer, that many a night is +spent without any offering of sleep being brought to nature." + +It is only necessary here to sketch the leading events of Calvin's life +after his return to Geneva. He recodified the Genevan laws and +constitution, and was the leading spirit in the negotiations with Bern +that issued in the treaty of February 1544. Of the controversies in +which he embarked, one of the most important was that in which he +defended his doctrine concerning predestination and election. His first +antagonist on this head was Albert Pighius, a Romanist, who, resuming +the controversy between Erasmus and Luther on the freedom of the will, +violently attacked Calvin for the views he had expressed on that +subject. Calvin replied to him in a work published in 1543, in which he +defends his own opinions at length, both by general reasonings and by an +appeal to both Scripture and the Fathers, especially Augustine. So +potent were his reasonings that Pighius, though owing nothing to the +gentleness or courtesy of Calvin, was led to embrace his views. A still +more vexatious and protracted controversy on the same subject arose in +1551. Jerome Hermes Bolsec, a Carmelite friar, having renounced +Romanism, had fled from France to Veigy, a village near Geneva, where he +practised as a physician. Being a zealous opponent of predestinarian +views, he expressed his criticisms of Calvin's teaching on the subject +in one of the public conferences held each Friday. Calvin replied with +much vehemence, and brought the matter before the civil authorities. The +council were at a loss which course to take; not that they doubted which +of the disputants was right, for they all held by the views of Calvin, +but they were unable to determine to what extent and in which way Bolsec +should be punished for his heresy. The question was submitted to the +churches at Basel, Bern, Zurich and Neuchatel, but they also, to +Calvin's disappointment, were divided in their judgment, some +counselling severity, others gentle measures. In the end Bolsec was +banished from Geneva; he ultimately rejoined the Roman communion and in +1577 avenged himself by a particularly slanderous biography of Calvin. +Another painful controversy was that with Sebastien Castellio +(1515-1563), a teacher in the Genevan school and a scholar of real +distinction. He wished to enter the preaching ministry but was excluded +by Calvin's influence because he had criticized the inspiration of the +Song of Solomon and the Genevan interpretation of the clause "he +descended into hell." The bitterness thus aroused developed into +life-long enmity. During all this time also the less strict party in the +city and in the council did not cease to harry the reformer. + +But the most memorable of all the controversies in which Calvin was +engaged was that into which he was brought in 1553 with Michael Servetus +(q.v.). After many wanderings, and after having been condemned to death +for heresy at Vienne, whence he was fortunate enough to make his escape, +Servetus arrived in August 1553 at Geneva on his way to Naples. He was +recognized in church and soon after, at Calvin's instigation, arrested. +The charge of blasphemy was founded on certain statements in a book +published by him in 1553, entitled _Christianismi Restitutio_, in which +he animadverted on the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, and advanced +sentiments strongly savouring of Pantheism. The story of his trial is +told elsewhere (see art. SERVETUS), but it must be noted here that the +struggle was something more than a doctrinal one. The cause of Servetus +was taken up by Calvin's Genevan foes headed by Philibert Berthelier, +and became a test of the relative strength of the rival forces and of +the permanence of Calvin's control. That Calvin was actuated by personal +spite and animosity against Servetus himself may be open to discussion; +we have his own express declaration that, after Servetus was convicted, +he used no urgency that he should be put to death, and at their last +interview he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries, +and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault if all +the pious did not give him their hands.[10] There is the fact also that +Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which had been pronounced +against Servetus mitigated, death by burning being regarded by him as an +"atrocity," for which he sought to substitute death by the sword.[11] It +can be justly charged against Calvin in this matter that he took the +initiative in bringing on the trial of Servetus, that as his accuser he +prosecuted the suit against him with undue severity, and that he +approved the sentence which condemned Servetus to death. When, however, +it is remembered that the unanimous decision of the Swiss churches and +of the Swiss state governments was that Servetus deserved to die; that +the general voice of Christendom was in favour of this; that even such a +man as Melanchthon affirmed the justice of the sentence;[12] that an +eminent English divine of the next age should declare the process +against him "just and honourable,"[13] and that only a few voices here +and there were at the time raised against it, many will be ready to +accept the judgment of Coleridge, that the death of Servetus was not +"Calvin's guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of all European +Christendom."[14] + +Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing dispute +with the Lutherans respecting the Lord's Supper, which ended in the +separation of the evangelical party into the two great sections of +Lutherans and Reformed,--the former holding that in the eucharist the +body and blood of Christ are objectively and consubstantially present, +and so are actually partaken of by the communicants, and the latter that +there is only a virtual presence of the body and blood of Christ, and +consequently only a spiritual participation thereof through faith. In +addition to these controversies on points of faith, he was for many +years greatly disquieted, and sometimes even endangered, by the +opposition offered by the libertine party in Geneva to the +ecclesiastical discipline which he had established there. His system of +church polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member +of the state was also under the discipline of the church; and he +asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested +exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders. His +attempts to carry out these views brought him into collision both with +the authorities and with the populace,--the latter being not unnaturally +restive under the restraints imposed upon their liberty by the vigorous +system of church discipline, and the former being inclined to retain in +their own hands a portion of that power in things spiritual which Calvin +was bent on placing exclusively in the hands of the church rulers. His +dauntless courage, his perseverance, and his earnestness at length +prevailed, and he had the satisfaction, before he died, of seeing his +favourite system of church polity firmly established, not only at +Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, and of knowing that it had +been adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland. The +men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into almost every +country in Europe, and in varying degree these principles did much for +the cause of civil liberty.[15] Nor was it only in religious matters +that Calvin busied himself; nothing was indifferent to him that +concerned the welfare and good order of the state or the advantage of +its citizens. His work embraced everything; he was consulted on every +affair, great and small, that came before the council,--on questions of +law, police, economy, trade, and manufactures, no less than on questions +of doctrine and church polity. To him the city owed her trade in cloths +and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her citizens; +sanitary regulations were introduced by him which made Geneva the +admiration of all visitors; and in him she reverences the founder of her +university. This institution was in a sense Calvin's crowning work. It +added religious education to the evangelical preaching and the thorough +discipline already established, and so completed the reformer's ideal of +a Christian commonwealth. + +Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin found time to +write a number of works besides those provoked by the various +controversies in which he was engaged. The most numerous of these were +of an exegetical character. Including discourses taken down from his +lips by faithful auditors, we have from him expository comments or +homilies on nearly all the books of Scripture, written partly in Latin +and partly in French. Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern +idea of a progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration, and +tact in eliciting his author's meaning, his precision, condensation, and +concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the closeness +of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all unite to confer a +high value on his exegetical works. The series began with _Romans_ in +1540 and ended with _Joshua_ in 1564. In 1558-1559 also, though in very +ill health, he finally perfected the Institutes. + +The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave himself could +not but tell on his fragile constitution. Amid many sufferings, however, +and frequent attacks of sickness, he manfully pursued his course; nor +was it till his frail body, torn by many and painful diseases--fever, +asthma, stone, and gout, the fruits for the most part of his sedentary +habits and unceasing activity--had, as it were, fallen to pieces around +him, that his indomitable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early +part of the year 1564 his sufferings became so severe that it was +manifest his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On the 6th +of February of that year he preached his last sermon, having with great +difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He was several +times after this carried to church, but never again was able to take any +part in the service. With his usual disinterestedness he refused to +receive his stipend, now that he was no longer able to discharge the +duties of his office. In the midst of his sufferings, however, his zeal +and energy kept him in continual occupation; when expostulated with for +such unseasonable toil, he replied, "Would you that the Lord should find +me idle when He comes?" After he had retired from public labours he +lingered for some months, enduring the severest agony without a murmur, +and cheerfully attending to all the duties of a private kind which his +diseases left him strength to discharge. On the 25th of April he made +his will, on the 27th he received the Little Council, and on the 28th +the Genevan ministers, in his sick-room; on the 2nd of May he wrote his +last letter--to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neuchatel to +see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died quietly, in +the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the evening of the +27th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The next day he was +buried without pomp "in the common cemetery called Plain-palais" in a +spot not now to be identified. + +Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat pallid and +dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, bespoke the acumen of +his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple in his dress; he took +but little sleep, and was capable of extraordinary efforts of +intellectual toil. He had a most retentive memory and a very keen power +of observation. He spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with +great weight. He had many acquaintances but few close friends. His +private character was in harmony with his public reputation and +position. If somewhat severe and irritable, he was at the same time +scrupulously just, truthful, and steadfast; he never deserted a friend +or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on befitting occasions +he could be cheerful and even facetious among his intimates. "God gave +him," said the Little Council after his death, "a character of great +majesty." "I have been a witness of him for sixteen years," says Beza, +"and I think I am fully entitled to say that in this man there was +exhibited to all an example of the life and death of the Christian, +such as it will not be easy to depreciate, such as it will be difficult +to emulate." + + Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by earlier + reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar gifts of + learning, of logic and of style made him pre-eminently the theologian + of the new religion. The following may be regarded as his + characteristic tenets, though not all are peculiar to him. + + The dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty of + God, to know whom is the supreme end of human endeavour. God is made + known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose writers were "sure + and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit." To the Spirit speaking + therein the Spirit-illumined soul of man makes response. While God is + the source of all good, man as a sinner is guilty and corrupt. The + first man was made in the image and likeness of God, which not only + implies man's superiority to all other creatures, but indicates his + original purity, integrity and sanctity. From this state Adam fell, + and in his fall involved the whole human race descended from him. + Hence depravity and corruption, diffused through all parts of the + soul, attach to all men, and this first makes them obnoxious to the + anger of God, and then comes forth in works which the Scripture calls + works of the flesh (Gal. v. 19). Thus all are held vitiated and + perverted in all parts of their nature, and on account of such + corruption deservedly condemned before God, by whom nothing is + accepted save righteousness innocence, and purity. Nor is that a being + bound for another's offence; for when it is said that we through + Adam's sin have become obnoxious to the divine judgment, it is not to + be taken as if we, being ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the + fault of his offence, but that, we having been brought under a curse + through his transgression, he is said to have bound us. From him, + however, not only has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence + instilled from him resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. + Thus even infants, whilst they bring their own condemnation with them + from their mother's womb, are bound not by another's but by their own + fault. For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their + iniquity, they have the seed shut up in them; nay, their whole nature + is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful and + abominable to God (_Instit._ bk. ii, ch. i. sect. 8). + + To redeem man from this state of guilt, and to recover him from + corruption, the Son of God became incarnate, assuming man's nature + into union with His own, so that in Him were two natures in one + person. Thus incarnate He took on Him the offices of prophet, priest + and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto death, + followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He has perfected + His work and fulfilled all that was required in a redeemer of men, so + that it is truly affirmed that He has merited for man the grace of + salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17). But until a man is in some way really + united to Christ so as to partake of Him, the benefits of Christ's + work cannot be attained by him. Now it is by the secret and special + operation of the Holy Spirit that men are united to Christ and made + members of His body. Through faith, which is a firm and certain + cognition of the divine benevolence towards us founded on the truth of + the gracious promise in Christ, men are by the operation of the Spirit + united to Christ and are made partakers of His death and resurrection, + so that the old man is crucified with Him and they are raised to a new + life, a life of righteousness and holiness. Thus joined to Christ the + believer has life in Him and knows that he is saved, having the + witness of the Spirit that he is a child of God, and having the + promises, the certitude of which the Spirit had before impressed on + the mind, sealed by the same Spirit on the heart (bk. iii. ch. 33-36). + From faith proceeds repentance, which is the turning of our life to + God, proceeding from a sincere and earnest fear of God, and consisting + in the mortification of the flesh and the old man within us and a + vivification of the Spirit. Through faith also the believer receives + justification, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is + held by Him as righteous, the righteousness of Christ being imputed to + him, and faith being the instrument by which the man lays hold on + Christ, so that with His righteousness the man appears in God's sight + as righteous. This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined + from real personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification + come to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the two + blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be + disjoined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation he + receives from the operation and witness of the Holy Spirit; but this + again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and this + falls back on God's eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has + predestined some to eternal life while the rest of mankind are + predestined to condemnation and eternal death. Those whom God has + chosen to life He effectually calls to salvation, and they are kept by + Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end (bk. iii. + _passim_). The external means or aids by which God unites men into the + fellowship of Christ, and sustains and advances those who believe, are + the church and its ordinances, especially the sacraments. The church + universal is the multitude gathered from diverse nations, which though + divided by distance of time and place, agree in one common faith, and + it is bound by the tie of the same religion; and wherever the word of + God is sincerely preached, and the sacraments are duly administered, + according to Christ's institute, there beyond doubt is a church of + the living God (bk. iv. ch. 1, sect. 7-11). The permanent officers in + the church are pastors and teachers, to the former of whom it belongs + to preside over the discipline of the church, to administer the + sacraments, and to admonish and exhort the members; while the latter + occupy themselves with the exposition of Scripture, so that pure and + wholesome doctrine may be retained. With them are to be joined for the + government of the church certain pious, grave and holy men as a senate + in each church; and to others, as deacons, is to be entrusted the care + of the poor. The election of the officers in a church is to be with + the people, and those duly chosen and called are to be ordained by the + laying on of the hands of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The + sacraments are two--Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is the sign + of initiation whereby men are admitted into the society of the church + and, being grafted into Christ, are reckoned among the sons of God; it + serves both for the confirmation of faith and as a confession before + men. The Lord's Supper is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that + He is the life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed unto true and + blessed immortality. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood + whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, even as if it penetrated + into our bones and marrow, He in the Supper attests and seals; and + that not by a vain or empty sign set before us but there He puts forth + the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what He promises. In the + mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited to us by the symbols + of bread and wine; and so His body and blood, in which He fulfilled + all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness for us, are + presented. There is no such presence of Christ in the Supper as that + He is affixed to the bread or included in it or in any way + circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and substantial + communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which is exhibited to + believers under the said symbols of the Supper, is to be received, and + that not as perceived by the imagination only or mental intelligence, + but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life (bk. iv. ch. 15, + 17). + + The course of time has substantially modified many of these positions. + Even the churches which trace their descent from Calvin's work and + faith no longer hold in their entirety his views on the magistrate as + the preserver of church purity, the utter depravity of human nature, + the non-human character of the Bible, the dealing of God with man. But + his system had an immense value in the history of Christian thought. + It appealed to and evoked a high order of intelligence, and its + insistence on personal individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So + also its insistence on the chief end of man "to know and do the will + of God" made for the strenuous morality that helped to build up the + modern world. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in + Puritan England and in the New England states, but its influence was + and is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be + called Calvinist. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard edition of Calvin's works is that + undertaken by the Strassburg scholars, J.W. Bauin, E. Cunitz, E. + Reuss, P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last of + these contains an elaborate bibliography which was also published + separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published + in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, + 1843-1855); the _Institutes_ have often been translated. The early + lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions. Among + modern biographies are those by P. Henry, _Das Leben J. Calvins_ (3 + vols., Hamburg, 1835-1844; Eng. trans, by H. Stebbing, London and New + York, 1849); V. Audin, _Histoire de la vie, des ouvrages, et des + doctrines de Calvin_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841; Eng. trans, by J. McGill, + London, 1843 and 1850) unfairly antagonistic; T.H. Dyer, _Life of John + Calvin_ (London, 1850); E. Stahelin_, Joh. Calvin, Leben und + ausgewahlte Schriften_ (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F.W. Kampschulte, + _Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf_ (2 vols., 1869, + 1899, unfinished); Abel Lefranc, _La Jeunesse de Calvin_ (Paris, + 1888); E. Choisy, _La Theocratie a Geneve au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, + 1897); E. Doumergue, _Jean Calvin; les hommes et les choses de son + temps_ (5 vols., 1899-1908). See also A.M. Fairbairn, "Calvin and the + Reformed Church" in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ii. (1904); + P. Schaff's, _History of the Christian Church_, vol. vii. (1892), and + R. Stahelin's article in Hauck-Herzog's _Real-encyk. fur prot. + Theologie und Kirche._ Each of these contains a useful bibliography, + as also does the excellent life by Professor Williston Walker, _John + Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protestantism_, "Heroes of the + Reformation" series (1906). See also C.S. Horne in _Mansfield Coll. + Essays_ (1909). (W. L. A.; A. J. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The family name of Calvin seems to have been written + indifferently Cauvin, Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the + contemporary notices of Gerard and his family, in the capitular + registers of the cathedral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. + The anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this in its Latinized form + Alcuinus appears in two editions of his _Instltutio_ as that of the + author (Audin, _Vie de Calvin_, i. 520). The syndics of Geneva + address him in a letter written in 1540, and still preserved, as + "Docteur Caulvin." In his letters written in French he usually signs + himself "Jean Calvin." He affected the title of "Maitre," for what + reason is not known. + + [2] Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus + and Ignatius Loyola also studied here. + + [3] Calv. _Praef. ad Comment. in Psalmos._ + + [4] _Jo. Calvini Vita, sub init._ + + [5] _Epist. Ded., Comment in Ep. II. ad Corinthios praefix._ + + [6] This edition forms a small 8vo of 514 pages, and 6 pages of + index. It appeared at Basel from the press of Thomas Platter and + Balthasar Lasius in March 1536, and was published by Johann Oporin. + The dedicatory preface is dated 23rd August 1535. It is a masterpiece + of apologetic literature. See W. Walker, _John Calvin_, 132 f., and + for an outline of the contents of the treatise, ib. 137-149. + + [7] _Praef. ad Psalmos._ + + [8] _Ibid._ + + [9] Beza, _Vit. Calv. an. 1536._ + + [10] Fidelis Expositio Errorum Serveti, _sub init._ Calvini, _Opp_. + t. ix. + + [11] Calvin to Farel, 20th Aug. 1553. + + [12] Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam vestros magistratus + juste fecisse quod hominem blasphemum, re ordine judicata, + interfecerunt.--Melanchthon to Calvin, 14th Oct. 1554. + + [13] Field _On the Church_, bk. iii. c. 27, vol. i. p. 288 (ed. + Cambridge, 1847). + + [14] _Notes on English Divines_, vol. i. p. 49. See also _Table + Talk_, vol. ii. p. 282 (ed. 1835). + + [15] W. Walker, _John Calvin_, pp. 403-8. + + + + +CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, a body of Christians forming a church of the +Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only denomination in Wales +which is of purely Welsh origin. Its beginnings may be traced to the +labours of the Rev. Griffith Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, +Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a +system of circulating charity schools for the education of children. In +striking contrast to the general apathy of the clergy of the period, +Griffith Jones's zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his +powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence, many travelling +long distances in order to attend his ministry. There was thus a +considerable number of earnest people dispersed throughout the country +waiting for the rousing of the parish clergy. An impressive announcement +of the Easter Communion Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Davies, vicar of +Talgarth, on the 30th of March 1735, was the means of awakening Howell +Harris (1714-1773) of Trevecca, and he immediately began to hold +services in his own house. He was soon invited to do the same at the +houses of others, and ended by becoming a fiery itinerant preacher, +stirring to the depths every neighbourhood he visited. Griffith Jones, +preaching at Llanddewi Brefi, Cardiganshire--the place at which the +Welsh Patron Saint, David, first became famous--found Daniel Rowland +(1713-1790), curate of Llangeitho, in his audience, and his patronizing +attitude in listening drew from the preacher a personal supplication on +his behalf, in the middle of the discourse. Rowland was deeply moved, +and became an ardent apostle of the new movement. Naturally a fine +orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his eloquence, and his fame +spread abroad. Rowland and Harris had been at work fully eighteen months +before they met, at a service in Devynock church, in the upper part of +Breconshire. The acquaintance then formed lasted to the end of Harris's +life--an interval of ten years excepted. Harris had been sent to Oxford +in the autumn of 1735 to "cure him of his fanaticism," but he left in +the following February. Rowland had never been to a university, but, +like Harris, he had been well grounded in general knowledge. About 1739 +another prominent figure appeared. This was Howell Davies of +Pembrokeshire, whose ministry was modelled on that of his master, +Griffith Jones, but with rather more clatter in his thunder. + +In 1736, on returning home, Harris opened a school, Griffith Jones +supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up societies, in +accordance with the recommendations in Josiah Wedgwood's little book on +the subject; and these exercised a great influence on the religious life +of the people. By far the most notable of Harris's converts was William +Williams (1717-1791), Pant y Celyn, the great hymn-writer of Wales, who +while listening to the revivalist preaching on a tombstone in the +graveyard of Talgarth, heard the "voice of heaven," and was "apprehended +as by a warrant from on high." He was ordained deacon in the Church of +England, 1740, but Whitefield recommended him to leave his curacies and +go into the highways and hedges. On Wednesday and Thursday, January 5th +and 6th, 1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at +Wadford, near Caerphilly, Glam., in order to organize their societies. +George Whitefield was in the chair. Rowland, Williams and John +Powell--afterwards of Llanmartin--(clergymen), Harris, John Humphreys +and John Cennick (laymen) were present. Seven lay exhorters were also at +the meetings; they were questioned as to their spiritual experience and +allotted their several spheres; other matters pertaining to the new +conditions created by the revival were arranged. This is known as the +first Methodist Association--held eighteen months before Johm Wesley's +first conference (June 25th, 1744). Monthly meetings covering smaller +districts, were organized to consider local matters, the transactions of +which were to be reported to the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, +modified, or rejected. Exhorters were divided into two classes--public, +who were allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number of +societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or two +societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be part of the +established church, as Wedgwood's were, and every attempt at estranging +them therefrom was sharply reproved; but persecution made their position +anomalous. They did not accept the discipline of the Church of England, +so the plea of conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out +licenses, so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris's +ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals to ordain +him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from persecutors, were +the only things that prevented separation. + +A controversy on a doctrinal point--"Did God die on Calvary?"--raged for +some time, the principal disputants being Rowland and Harris; and in +1751 it ended in an open rupture, which threw the Connexion first into +confusion and then into a state of coma. The societies split up into +Harrisites and Rowlandites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 +that the breach was fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the +history of the Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just published a +little volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed the people. This +led the bishop of St David's to suspend Rowland's license, and Rowland +had to confine himself to a meeting-house at Llangeitho. Having been +turned out of other churches, he had leased a plot of land in 1759, +anticipating the final withdrawal of his license, in 1763, and a +spacious building was erected to which the people crowded from all parts +on Sacrament Sunday. Llangeitho became the Jerusalem of Wales; and +Rowland's popularity never waned until his physical powers gave way. A +notable event in the history of Welsh Methodism was the publication in +1770, of a 4to annotated Welsh Bible by the Rev. Peter Williams, a +forceful preacher, and an indefatigable worker, who had joined the +Methodists in 1746, after being driven from several curacies. It gave +birth to a new interest in the Scriptures, being the first definite +commentary in the language. A powerful revival broke out at Llangeitho +in the spring of 1780, and spread to the south, but not to the north of +Wales. The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult +for Methodism to benefit from these manifestations, until the advent of +the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, having spent five years in +Somersetshire as curate of several parishes, returned to his native land +to marry Sarah Jones of Bala. Failing to find employment in the +established church, he joined the Methodists in 1784. His circulating +charity schools and then his Sunday schools gradually made the North a +new country. In 1791 a revival began at Bala; and this, strange to say, +a few months after the Bala Association had been ruffled by the +proceedings which led to the expulsion of Peter Williams from the +Connexion, in order to prevent him from selling John Canne's Bible among +the Methodists, because of some Sabellian marginal notes. + +In 1790, the Bala Association passed "Rules regarding the proper mode of +conducting the Quarterly Association," drawn up by Charles; in 1801, +Charles and Thomas Jones of Mold, published (for the association) the +"Rules and Objects of the Private Societies among the People called +Methodists." About 1795, persecution led the Methodists to take the +first step towards separation from the Church of England. Heavy fines +made it impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to continue +without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act, and the +meeting-houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels. In a large +number of cases this had only been delayed by so constructing the houses +that they were used both as dwellings and as chapels at one and the same +time. Until 1811 the Calvinistic Methodists had no ministers ordained by +themselves; their enormous growth in numbers and the scarcity of +ministers to administer the Sacrament--only three in North Wales, two of +whom had joined only at the dawn of the century--made the question of +ordination a matter of urgency. The South Wales clergy who regularly +itinerated were dying out; the majority of those remaining itinerated +but irregularly, and were most of them against the change. The lay +element, with the help of Charles and a few other stalwarts, carried the +matter through--ordaining nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo +in August. In 1823, the _Confession of Faith_ was published; it is based +on the _Westminster Confession_ as "Calvinistically construed," and +contains 44 articles. The Connexion's _Constitutional Deed_ was formally +completed in 1826. + +Thomas Charles had tried to arrange for taking over Trevecca College +when the trustees of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion removed +their seminary to Cheshunt in 1791; but the Bala revival broke out just +at the time, and, when things grew quieter, other matters pressed for +attention. A college had been mooted in 1816, but the intended tutor +died suddenly, and the matter was for the time dropped. Candidates for +the Connexional ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until +1837, when Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) and David Charles (1812-1878) +opened a school for young men at Bala. North and South alike adopted it +as their college, the associations contributing a hundred guineas each +towards the education of their students. In 1842, the South Wales +Association opened a college at Trevecca, leaving Bala to the North; the +Rev. David Charles became principal of the former, and the Rev. Lewis +Edwards of the latter. After the death of Dr Lewis Edwards, Dr. T.C. +Edwards resigned the principalship of the University College at +Aberystwyth to become head of Bala (1891), now a purely theological +college, the students of which were sent to the university colleges for +their classical training. In 1905 Mr David Davies of Llandinam--one of +the leading laymen in the Connexion--offered a large building at +Aberystwyth as a gift to the denomination for the purpose of uniting +North and South in one theological college; but in the event of either +association declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take +possession, giving the association that should decline the option of +joining at a later time. The Association of the South accepted, and that +of the North declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into a +preparatory school on the lines of a similar institution set up at Bala +in 1891. + +The missionary collections of the denomination were given to the London +Missionary Society from 1798 to 1840, when a Connexional Society was +formed; and no better instances of missionary enterprise are known than +those of the Khasia and Jaintia Hills, and the Plains of Sylhet in N. +India. There has also been a mission in Brittany since 1842. + +The constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, "Hen Gorph," i.e. +the Old Body) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and Congregationalism; +each church manages its own affairs and reports (1) to the district +meeting, (2) to the monthly meeting, the nature of each report +determining its destination. The monthly meetings are made up of all the +officers of the churches comprised in each, and are split up into +districts for the purpose of a more local co-operation of the churches. +The monthly meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly Associations, of +which all officers are members. The Associations of North and South are +distinct institutions, deliberating and determining matters pertaining +to them in their separate quarterly gatherings. For the purpose of a +fuller co-operation in matters common to both, a general assembly +(meeting once a year) was established in 1864. This is a purely +deliberative conclave, worked by committees, and all its legislation has +to be confirmed by the two Associations before it can have any force or +be legal. The annual conference of the English churches of the +denomination has no legislative standing, and is meant for social and +spiritual intercourse and discussions. + +In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far from +being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical, and, in +general, distinctly cultured. The London degree largely figures on the +Connexional Diary; and now the Welsh degrees, in arts and divinity, are +being increasingly achieved. It is a remarkable fact that every Welsh +revival, since 1735, has broken out among the Calvinistic Methodists. +Those of 1735, 1762, 1780 and 1791 have been mentioned; those of 1817, +1832, 1859 and 1904-1905 were no less powerful, and their history is +interwoven with Calvinistic Methodism, the system of which is so +admirably adapted for the passing on of the torch. The ministerial +system is quite anomalous. It started in pure itineracy; the pastorate +came in very gradually, and is not yet in universal acceptance. The +authority of the pulpit of any individual church is in the hands of the +deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so many Sundays a year--from +twelve to forty, as the case may be--and they then fill the remainder +with any preacher they choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral work, +and receives his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his Sundays from +home he fills up at the request of deacons of other churches, and it is +a breach of Connexional etiquette for a minister to apply for +engagements, no matter how many unfilled Sundays he may have. Deacons +and preachers make engagements seven or eight years in advance. The +Connexion provides for English residents wherever required, and the +English ministers are oftener in their own pulpits than their Welsh +brethren. + +The Calvinistic Methodists form in some respects the strongest church in +Wales, and its forward movement, headed by Dr. John Pugh of Cardiff, has +brought thousands into its fold since its establishment in 1891. Its +Connexional Book Room, opened in 1891, yields an annual profit of from +L1600 to L2000, the profits being devoted to help the colleges and to +establish Sunday school libraries, etc. Its chapels in 1907 numbered +1641 (with accommodation for 488,080), manses 229; its churches[1] +numbered 1428, ministers 921, unordained preachers 318, deacons 6179; +its Sunday Schools 1731, teachers 27,895, scholars 193,460, communicants +189,164, total collections for religious purposes L300,912. The +statistics of the Indian Mission are equally good: communicants 8027, +adherents 26,787, missionaries 23, native ministers (ordained) 15, +preachers (not ordained) 60. + +The Calvinistic Methodists are intensely national in sentiment and +aspirations, beyond all suspicion loyalists. They take a great interest +in social, political and educational matters, and are prominent on +public bodies. They support the Eisteddfod as the promoter and inspirer +of arts, letters and music, and are conspicuous among the annual prize +winners. They thus form a living, democratic body, flexible and +progressive in its movements, yet with a sufficient proportion of +conservatism both in religion and theology to keep it sane and safe. + (D. E. J.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending + different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one + society or church. + + + + +CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German chronologer, was born of a peasant +family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the 21st of February 1556. By the +exercise of his musical talents he earned money enough for the start, at +Helmstadt, of an university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron +enabled him to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the +music-school at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same +capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the 24th of +November 1615, despite the offers successively made to him of +mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg. In his _Opus +Chronologicum_ (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he expounded a system based +on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. An ingenious, though ineffective, +proposal for the reform of the calendar was put forward in his _Elenchus +Calendarii Gregoriani_ (Frankfort, 1612); and he published a book on +music, _Melodiae condendae ratio_ (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading. + + For details see V. Schmuck's _Leichenrede_ (1615); J. Bertuch's + _Chronicon Portense_ (1739); F.W.E. Rost's _Oratio ad renovendam S. + Calvisii memoriam_ (1805); J G. Stallbaum's _Nachrichten uber die + Cantoren an der Thomasschule_ (1842); _Allgemeine Deutsche + Biographie_; Poggendorff's _Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch._ + + + + +CALVO, CARLOS (1824-1906), Argentine publicist and historian, was born +at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February 1824, and devoted himself to the +study of the law. In 1860 he was sent by the Paraguayan government on a +special mission to London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published +in 1863 his _Derecho international teorico y practice de Europay +America_, in two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French +version. The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern +authorities on the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition had +become enlarged to six volumes. Senor Calvo's next publications were of +a semi-historical character. Between 1862 and 1869 he published in +Spanish and French his great collection in fifteen volumes of the +treaties and other diplomatic acts of the South American republics, and +between 1864 and 1875 his _Annales historiques de la revolution de +l'Amerique latine_, in five volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders +at the Ghent congress of the _Institut de Droit International._ In the +following year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his +_Dictionnaire du droit international public et prive_ in that city. +Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris. + + + + +CALW or KALW, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the +Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains +a Protestant and a Roman Catholic Church, two schools, missionary +institution, and a fine public library. The industries include spinning +and weaving operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather +are also manufactured. The timber trade, chiefly with the Netherlands, +is important. The place is in favour as a health resort. + +The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages the town was +under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, whose possessions +finally passed to Wurttemberg in 1345. In 1634 the town was taken by the +Bavarians, and in 1692 by the French. + + + + +CALYDON ([Greek: Kalydon]), an ancient town of Aetolia, according to +Pliny, 7-1/2 Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was said to +have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have been the scene of +the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of the famous Calydonian +boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the fields; and to have taken part in +the Trojan war. In historical times it is first mentioned (391 B.C.) as +in the possession of the Achaeans, who retained it for twenty years, by +the assistance of the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the +attacks of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) it +was restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of Pompey it +was a town of importance; but Augustus removed its inhabitants to +Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate his victory at Actium (31 +B.C.). The walls of Calydon are almost certainly to be recognized in the +Kastro of Kurtaga. These comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large +gate and five smaller ones, and are situated on a hill on the right or +west bank of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town +probably indicate the position of the temple of Artemis Laphria, whose +gold and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together probably with +her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all kinds of beasts, wild +and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre and consumed. + + See W.M. Leake, _Travels in N. Greece_, i. p. 109, iii. pp. 533 sqq.; + W.J. Woodhouse, _Aetolia_, pp. 95 ssq. (E. Gr.) + + + + +CALYPSO, in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus, or Nereus), +queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When Odysseus was shipwrecked on +her shores, Calypso entertained the hero with great hospitality, and +prevailed on him to remain with her seven years. Odysseus was then +seized with a longing to return to his wife and home; Calypso's promise +of eternal youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by +Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of grief. +(Homer, _Odyssey_, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.) + + + + +CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, the first +European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to explore the West +African coast between Cape St Catherine (2 deg. S.) and Cape Cross (21 +deg. 50' S.) almost from the equator to Walfish Bay. When King John II. +of Portugal revived the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam +(about midsummer (?) 1482) to open up the African coast still further +beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps +in August 1482), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only +in fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was also ascended +for a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives. Cam +then coasted down along the present Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and +erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this +voyage, at Cape Santa Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in +13 deg. 26' S. He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April +1484, when John II. ennobled him, made him a _cavalleiro_ of his +household (he was already an _escudeiro_ or esquire in the same), and +granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and 14th of April 1484). +That Cam, on his second voyage of 1483-1486, was accompanied by Martin +Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very +doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected +two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first +at another "Monte Negro" in 15 deg. 41' S., the second at Cape Cross in +21 deg. 50', this last probably marking the end of his progress +southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 map of +Henricus Martellus Germanus), Cam died off Cape Cross; but Joao de +Barros and others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a +native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cam on his two +voyages have all been discovered _in situ_, and the inscriptions on two +of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 +respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross +padrao is now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile); +those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in +the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society. + + See Barros, _Decadas da Asia_, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy de + Pina, _Chronica d' el Rei D. Joao II._; Garcia de Resende, _Chronica_; + Luciano Cordeiro, "Diogo Cao" in _Boletim_ of the _Lisbon Geog. + Soc._, 1892; E.G. Ravenstein, "Voyages of Diogo Cao," &c., in _Geog. + Jnl._ vol. xvi. (1900); also _Geog. Jnl._ xxxi. (1908). (C. R. B.) + + + + +CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO (1824-1896), Spanish statesman and financier, +was born in Cadiz in 1824. The first part of his life was devoted to +mercantile and financial pursuits at Cadiz and then in Madrid, where he +managed the affairs of and liquidated a mercantile and industrial +society to the satisfaction and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he +became a captain in the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in +the Cortes for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards +elected ten times deputy, twice senator and life senator in 1877. +Camacho took a prominent part in all financial debates and committees, +was offered a seat in the Mon cabinet of 1864, and was appointed +under-secretary of state finances in 1866 under Canovas and O'Donnell. +After the revolution of 1868 he declined the post of minister of finance +offered by Marshal Serrano, but served in that capacity in 1872 and 1874 +in Sagasta's cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in +the Cortes among the dynastic Liberals with Sagasta as leader, and +became finance minister in 1881 at a critical moment when Spain had to +convert, reduce, and consolidate her treasury and other debts with a +view to resuming payment of coupons. Camacho drew up an excellent budget +and collected taxation with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years +later Sagasta again made him finance minister under the regency of Queen +Christina, but had to sacrifice him when public opinion very clearly +pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and his severity in +collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons unsuccessful as a +governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company. He then seceded from the +Liberals, and during the last years of his life he affected to vote with +the Conservatives, who made him governor of the Bank of Spain. He died +in Madrid on the 23rd of January 1896. (A. E. H.) + + + + +CAMALDULIANS, or CAMALDOLESE, a religious order founded by St Romuald. +Born of a noble family at Ravenna _c._ 950, he retired at the age of +twenty to the Benedictine monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe; but +being strongly drawn to the eremitical life, he went to live with a +hermit in the neighbourhood of Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here +a colony of hermits grew up around him and he became the superior. As +soon as they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to +another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, only +to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other colonies of +hermits or "deserts" as they were called. In this way during the course +of his life Romuald formed a great number of "deserts" throughout +central Italy. His chief foundation was at Camaldoli on the heights of +the Tuscan Apennines not far from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during +half the year. Romuald's idea was to reintroduce into the West the +primitive eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first +Egyptian and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the +oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain days +for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to food, +clothing, silence and general observance. Besides the hermits there were +lay brothers to help in carrying out the field work and rougher +occupations. St Romuald and the early Camaldolese exercised considerable +influence on the religious movements of their time; the emperors Otto +III. and Henry II. esteemed him highly and sought his advice on +religious questions. Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the +still heathen parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them +suffered martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five +of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary, but he was +unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. After his death +mitigations were gradually introduced into the rule and manner of life; +and in the monastery of St Michael in Murano, Venice, the life became +cenobitical. From that time to the present day there have always been +both eremitical and cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to +ordinary Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and +into Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a "desert," +the primitive observance of the institute being strictly maintained. +There are a few other "deserts," all in Italy, except one in Poland; and +there are about 90 hermits. The chief monastery of the cenobitical +Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less +than forty. Since the 11th century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at +present there are five nunneries with 150 nuns, all belonging to the +cenobitical branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white. + + See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max + Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896) i. S 29; and the art. + "Camaldulenser" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), and + Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.) + + + + +CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE (1710-1770), French dancer, of Spanish +descent, was born in Brussels on the 15th of April 1710. Her father, +Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis, earned a scanty living as violinist and +dancing-master, and from childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten +years of age she was given lessons by Mlle Francoise Prevost +(1680-1741), then the first dancer at the Paris Opera, and at once +obtained an engagement as _premiere danseuse_, first at Brussels and +then at Rouen. Under her grandmother's family name of Camargo she made +her Paris _debut_ in 1726, and at once became the rage. Every new +fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair was copied by all at +court; her shoemaker--she had a tiny foot--made his fortune. She had +many titled adorers whom she nearly ruined by her extravagances, among +others Louis de Bourbon, comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from +the stage from 1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight +ballets or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the +first ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the +regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by Nicolas +Lancret in the Wallace collection, London. + + + + +CAMARGUE (_Insula Camaria_), a thinly-populated region of southern +France contained wholly in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and +comprising the delta of the Rhone. The Camargue is a marshy plain of +alluvial formation enclosed between the two branches of the river, the +Grand Rhone to the east and the Petit Rhone to the west. Its average +elevation is from 6-1/2 to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30 +m. in length and an area of 290 sq. m., of which about a quarter +consists of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the +banks of the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by the +black bulls and white horses of the region and by large flocks of sheep, +or of marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated with salt. The +region is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes, bustards, partridge, and by +sea-birds of various kinds. The Etang de Vaccares, the largest of the +numerous lagoons and pools, covers about 23 sq. m.; it receives three +main canals constructed to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is +protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of the +rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of the +lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river-water is used for +irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The climate is characterized +by hard winters and scorching summers. Rain falls in torrents, but at +considerable intervals. The mistral, blowing from the north and +north-west, is the prevailing wind. The south-eastern portion of the +Camargue is known as the Ile du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the +west of the Petit Rhone goes by the name of Petite Camargue. + + + + +CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south coast, about +17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by Syracuse in 599 B.C., +but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for attempting to assert its +independence. Hippocrates of Gela received its territory from Syracuse +and restored the town in 492, but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the +Geloans, however, founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in +general hostile to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it +gave some slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the +Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its abandonment +by Dionysius's order, but in 258 fell into the hands of the Romans. Its +complete destruction dates from A.D. 853. The site of the ancient city +is among rapidly shifting sandhills, and the lack of stone in the +neighbourhood has led to its buildings being used as a quarry even by +the inhabitants of Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above +ground but a small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few +foundations of houses; portions of the city wall have been traced by +excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see J. +Schubring in _Philologus_, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in _Monumenti dei +Lincei_, ix. 201, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north lay the lake to +which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred, [Greek: mhae kinei +Kamarinan], when the citizens inquired as to the advisability of +draining it. + + + + +CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, duke of Parma (1753-1824), French +statesman, was born at Montpellier on the 18th of October 1753. He was +descended from a well-known family of the legal nobility (_noblesse de +la robe_). He was designed for the magistracy of his province; and in +1771, when for a time the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the +others, by the chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal +tribunal substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with +ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the court of +accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing the principles of +the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned by the _noblesse_ of the +province to draw up the _cahier_ (statement of principles and +grievances); and the _senechaussee_ of Montpellier elected him deputy to +the states-general of Versailles; but the election was annulled on a +technical point. Nevertheless in 1792 the new department of Herault, in +which Montpellier is situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the +Convention which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September +1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins and the +Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself mainly with the +legal and legislative work which went on almost without intermission +even during the Terror. The action of Cambaceres at the time of the +trial of Louis XVI. (December 25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was +characteristic of his habits of thought. At first he protested against +the erection of the Convention into a tribunal in these words: "The +people has chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as +judges." He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for +his defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with the +majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended that the +penalty should be postponed until the cessation of hostilities, and that +the sentence should then be ratified by the Convention or by some other +legislative body. It is therefore inexact to count him among the +regicides, as was done by the royalists after 1815. Early in 1793 he +became a member of the Committee of General Defence, but he did not take +part in the work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public +Safety, until the close of the year 1794. In the meantime he had done +much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly with Merlin +of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of the revolutionary +epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 he also used his tact and +eloquence on behalf of the restoration of the surviving Girondins to the +Convention, from which they had been driven by the _coup d'etat_ of the +31st of May 1793. In the course of the year 1795, as president of the +Committee of Public Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign +affairs, he was largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain. +Nevertheless, not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of +the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was entrusted +after the _coup d'etat_ of Vendemiaire 1795; but, as before, his powers +of judgment and of tactful debating soon carried him to the front in the +council of Five Hundred. The moderation of his views brought him into +opposition to the Directors after the _coup d'etat_ of Fructidor +(September 1797), and for a time he retired into private life. Owing, +however, to the influence of Sieyes, he became minister of justice in +July 1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieyes in their +enterprise of overthrowing the Directory (_coup d'etat_ of Brumaire +1799). + +After a short interval Cambaceres was, by the constitution of December +1799, appointed second consul of France--a position which he owed +largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the conviction which Sieyes +entertained of his value as a manipulator of public assemblies. It is +impossible here to describe in detail his relations to Napoleon, and the +part which he played in the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on +called the Code Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful +intervention of Cambaceres helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon +the consulship for life (August 1, 1802); but the second consul is known +to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, notably the +execution of the duc d'Enghien, the rupture with England, and the +proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1804). This last occurrence ended +his title of second consul; it was replaced by that of arch-chancellor +of the Empire. To him was decreed the presidence of the Senate in +perpetuity. He also became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808 +the title duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in +helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambaceres did the +state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to curb the +impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises so fatal as the +intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the invasion of Russia (1812) +proved to be. At the close of the campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph +Bonaparte the responsibility for some of the actions which zealous +Bonapartists have deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In +1815, during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at the +bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his master, he +felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time exiled from +France. A decree of 13th May 1818 restored him to his civil rights as a +citizen of France; but the last six years of his life he spent in +retirement. He was a member of the Academy till the 31st of March 1816, +when a decree of exclusion was passed. In demeanour he was quiet, +reserved and tactful, but when occasion called for it he proved himself +a brilliant orator. He was a celebrated _gourmet_, and his dinners were +utilized by Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft. + + See A. Aubriet, _Vie de Cambaceres_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1825). + (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +CAMBALUC, the name by which, under sundry modifications, the royal city +of the great khan in China became known to Europe during the middle +ages, that city being in fact the same that we now know as Peking. The +word itself represents the Mongol Khan-Balik, "the city of the khan," or +emperor, the title by which Peking continues, more or less, to be known +to the Mongols and other northern Asiatics. + +A city occupying approximately the same site had been the capital of one +of the principalities into which China was divided some centuries before +the Christian era; and during the reigns of the two Tatar dynasties that +immediately preceded the Mongols in northern China, viz. that of the +Khitans, and of the Kin or "Golden" khans, it had been one of their +royal residences. Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the +Khitan, and of Chung-tu, which it had from the Kin, it holds a +conspicuous place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter +dynasty. He captured it in 1215, but it was not till 1284 that it was +adopted as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol +steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position a few +hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu or Yenking, +where he founded the new city of Ta-tu ("great capital"), called by the +Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan-Balik; and from this time dates +the use of the latter name as applied to this site. + +The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud rampart, the +longer sides of which ran north and south. These were each about 5-1/3 +English m. in length, the shorter sides 3-3/4 m., so that the circuit was +upwards of 18 m. The palace of the khan, with its gardens and lake, +itself formed an inner enclosure fronting the south. There were eleven +city gates, viz. three on the south side, always the formal front with +the Tatars, and two on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide +and straight from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by +the palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan. + +Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the fall of the +Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming) which supplanted them +established their residence at Nan-king ("South Court"), but this proved +so inconvenient that Yunglo, the third sovereign of the dynasty, +reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it then, for the first time, the name of +Pe-king ("North Court"). This was the name in common use when the +Jesuits entered China towards the end of the 16th century, and began to +send home accurate information about China. But it is not so now; the +names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both signifying +"capital." The restoration of Cambaluc was commenced in 1409. The size +of the city was diminished by the retrenchment of nearly one-third at +the northern end, which brought the enceinte more nearly to a square +form. And this constitutes the modern (so-called) "Tatar city" of +Peking, the south front of which is identical with the south front of +the city of Kublai. The walls were completed in 1437. Population +gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of the +old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in 1544, +enclosed by a wall and called the "outer city." It is the same that is +usually called by Europeans "the Chinese city." The ruins of the +retrenched northern portion of Kublai's great rampart are still +prominent along their whole extent, so that there is no room for +question as to the position or true dimensions of the Cambaluc of the +middle ages; and it is most probable, indeed it is almost a necessity, +that the present palace stands on the lines of Kublai's palace. + +The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an +archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the +missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (d. 1330); but though some +successors were nominated it seems probable that no second metropolitan +ever actually occupied the seat. + +Maps of the 16th and 17th centuries often show Cambaluc in an imaginary +region to the north of China, a part of the misconception that has +prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is often in popular literature +written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow accented in verse _Cambalu_. But +this spelling originates in an accidental error in Ramusio's Italian +version, which was the chief channel through which Marco Polo's book was +popularly known. The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology +in calling it Cambaluc, which should be accented _Cambaluc_. + + + + +CAMBAY, a native state of India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. +It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225, showing a decrease of +16% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900. The estimated gross +revenue is L27,189; the tribute, L1460. In physical character Cambay is +entirely an alluvial plain. As a separate state it dates only from about +1730, the time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present +chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the governors of +Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law, Nizam Khan, governor +of Cambay, and established himself there. + +The town of CAMBAY had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It is supposed to +be the _Camanes_ of Ptolemy, and was formerly a very flourishing city, +the seat of an extensive trade, and celebrated for its manufactures of +silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but owing principally to the gradually +increasing difficulty of access by water, owing to the silting up of the +gulf, its commerce has long since fallen away, and the town has become +poor and dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a +channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The trade +is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is celebrated for +its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, of reputation +principally in China. The houses in many instances are built of stone (a +circumstance which indicates the former wealth of the city, as the +material had to be brought from a very considerable distance); and +remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in circumference, which formerly +surrounded the town, enclose four large reservoirs of good water and +three bazaars. To the south-east there are very extensive ruins of +subterranean temples and other buildings half-buried in the sand by +which the ancient town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the +Jains, and contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black, +the other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates, is +Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the emperor Akbar; +the black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. In 1780 Cambay was taken +by the army of General Goddard, was restored to the Mahrattas in 1783, +and was afterwards ceded to the British by the peshwa under the treaty +of 1803. It was provided with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the 11 +m. required to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda's line through Petlad. + + + + +CAMBAY, GULF OF, an inlet in the coast of India, in the Gujarat division +of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but is shallow and abounds in +shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed that the depth of water in this +gulf has been decreasing for more than two centuries past. The tides, +which are very high, run into it with amazing velocity, but at low water +the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of +the town of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the +channel by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the British +districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the railway from +Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay, has for some time past been +attracting the trade to itself. + + + + +CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _camera_, vault), in +architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and provided for the +depression or sagging, which it is liable to, before it has settled down +to its bearings. A "camber arch" is a slight rise given to the +straight-arch to correct an apparent sinking in the centre (see ARCH). + + + + +CAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), French operatic composer, was born in Paris +in 1628. He was a pupil of Chambonnieres. In 1655, after he had obtained +the post of organist at the church of St Honore, he married Marie du +Moustier. He was musical superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother +of Louis XIV., and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac. +His earlier works, the words of which were furnished by Pierre Perrin, +continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes till the death +of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin received a patent for the +founding of the _Academie Nationale de musique_, the germ of the Grand +Opera, and Cambert had a share in the administration until both he and +Perrin were discarded in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his +subsequent neglect, and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was +musical superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where +soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to Charles +II. One at least of his operas, _Pomone_, was performed in London under +his direction, but it did not suit the popular taste, and he is supposed +to have killed himself in London in 1677. His other principal operas +were _Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus_ and _Les Peines et les plaisirs +de l'amour_. + + + + +CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded +N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by Deptford and Lewisham, W. by +Lambeth, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop, +(1901) 259,339. Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the +derivation of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham +and Nunhead, and Dulwich (q.v.) with its park, picture-gallery and +schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are many good +houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and southward towards the high +ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park (72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and +Park (113 acres) are the largest of several public grounds, and +Camberwell Green was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside +the southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation, the Crystal +Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the Camberwell school of +arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a +university settlement, founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier +Trinity settlement. The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three +divisions, North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member: but is +not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the Dulwich division +extending to include Penge, outside the county of London. The borough +council consists of a mayor, ten aldermen, and sixty councillors. + + + + +CAMBIASI, LUCA (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly known as +Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also Cambiaso or Cangiagio), +was born at Moneglia in the Genoese state, the son of a painter named +Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to drawing at a very early age, imitating his +father, and developed great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of +fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's +_Metamorphoses_ on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in +conjunction with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of +execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friendship with +Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together, with so much +similarity of style that their works could hardly be told apart; from +this friend Cambiasi learned much in the way of perspective and +architecture. Luchetto's best artistic period lasted for twelve years +after his first successes; from that time he declined in power, though +not at once in reputation, owing to the agitations and vexations brought +upon him by a passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife +having died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and +children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for marrying +her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he accepted an invitation +from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial a series of frescoes which +had been begun by Castello, now deceased; and it is said that one +principal reason for his closing with this offer was that he hoped to +bring the royal influence to bear upon the pope, but in this again he +failed. Worn out with his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the +second year of his sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold +designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the +Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day with +pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting a head of a +laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh +changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The +artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty +equalling or transcending that even of Tintoret. He made a vast number +of drawings, and was also something of a sculptor, executing in this +branch of art a figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the +ablest artists of his day. In personal character, notwithstanding his +executive energy, he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His +son Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto. + + The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the church of + S. Giorgio--the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo Imperiali + Terralba, a Genoese suburb--a fresco of the "Rape of the Sabines"; in + S. Maria da Carignano--a "Pieta," containing his own portrait and + (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law. In the + Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise on the + vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture + he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to + that time, ever been given for a single work. + + + + +CAMBODIA[1] (called by the inhabitants _Sroc Khmer_ and by the French +_Cambodge_), a country of south-eastern Asia and a protectorate of +France, forming part of French Indo-China. + +_Geography_.--It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by Annam, S.E. and +S. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by Siam. Its area +is estimated at approximately 65,000 sq. m.; its population at +1,500,000, of whom some three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese, +Annamese, Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia +lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering this territory on +the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines south-west as +far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and resumes a southerly +course. The salient feature of Cambodian geography is the large lake +Tonle-Sap, in a depression 68 m. long from south-east to north-west and +15 m. wide. It is fed by several rivers and innumerable torrents, and +at flood-time serves as a reservoir for the Mekong, with which it is +connected by a channel some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and +joining the river at Pnom-Penh. In June the waters of the Mekong, +swollen by the rains and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a +height of 40 to 45 ft. and flow through the Bras du Lac towards the +lake, which then covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river +inundates the marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season +the current reverses and the depression empties so that the lake shrinks +to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. to a +maximum of 5 ft. Tonle-Sap probably represents the chief wealth of +Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over 30,000, most of whom +are Annamese; the fish, which are taken by means of large nets at the +end of the inundation, are either dried or fermented for the production +of the sauce known as _nuoc-mam_. The northern and western provinces of +Cambodia which fall outside the densely populated zone of inundation are +thinly peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly wooded +and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does not exceed 5000 +ft. The region to the east of the Mekong is traversed by spurs of the +mountains of Annam and by affluents of the Mekong, the most important of +these being the Se-khong and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into +the Mekong at Stung-treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing +population, fringe the west coast. + +_Climate, Fauna and Flora._--The climate of Cambodia, like that of +Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the monsoons. +During the north-east monsoon, from the middle of October to the middle +of April, dry weather prevails and the thermometer averages from 77 deg. +to 80 deg. F. During the south-west monsoon, from the middle of April to +the middle of October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies +between 85 deg. and 95 deg. The wild animals of Cambodia include the +elephant, which is also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and some +species of wild ox; also the tiger, panther, leopard and honey-bear. +Wild boars, monkeys and rats abound and are the chief enemies of the +cultivator. The crocodile is found in the Mekong, and there are many +varieties of reptiles, some of them venomous. The horse of Cambodia is +only from 11 to 12 hands in height, but is strong and capable of great +endurance; the buffalo is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in +large numbers. Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and +other valuable woods and gums are among the natural products. + +_People_.--The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity with their +Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The race is probably the +result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of Indo-China with the Aryan +and Mongolian invaders of the country. The men are taller and more +muscular than the Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and +inclined to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the +mouth large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown, +the hair black and, while in childhood the head is shaved with the +exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed so as +to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the langouti or loin-cloth, which +the men supplement with a short jacket, the women with a long scarf +draped round the figure or with a long clinging robe. Morose, +superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling, the Cambodians are at +the same time clean, fairly intelligent, proud and courageous. The wife +enjoys a respected position and divorce may be demanded by either party. +Polygamy is almost confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to +work, the Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them live on +the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts built upon piles or +floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is Buddhism, and involves great +respect towards the dead; the worship of spirits or local genii is also +wide-spread, and Brahmanism is still maintained at the court. Monks or +_bonzes_ are very numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach +the young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals and +the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of the +Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no hereditary +nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood-relationship--the +members of the royal family within the fifth degree (the _Brah-Vansa_) +those beyond the fifth degree (_Brah-Van_), and the _Bakou_, who, as +descendants of the ancient Brahmans, exercise certain official functions +at the court. These castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by +themselves, are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are +nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, and +are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the administration. +Under the native regime the common people attached themselves to one or +other of the mandarins, who in return granted them the protection of his +influence. Under French rule, which has modified the old usages in many +respects, local government of the Annamese type tends to supplant this +feudal system. Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897. + +Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal dialects of +south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and rich in +vowel-sounds. The king's language and the royal writing, and also +religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan origin and akin to +Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and complicated. The books +(manuscripts) are generally formed of palm-leaves upon which the +characters are traced by means of a style. + +_Industry and Commerce._--Iron, worked by the tribe of the Kouis, is +found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians show skill in working +gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats, fans and silk and cotton +fabrics, are also produced to some small extent, but fishing and the +cultivation of rice and in a minor degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton, +pepper, indigo, maize, tea and sugar are the only industries worthy of +the name. Factories exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of +cotton-seeds. The Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so +far as his own needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and +oxen are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which is +in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in commerce. + +Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China, Kampot, the +only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to coasting vessels. With +the exception of the highway from Pnom-Penh (q.v.) the capital, to +Kampot, the roads of Cambodia are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh +communicates regularly by the steamers of the "Messageries Fluviales" by +way of the Mekong with Saigon. + +_Administration_.--At the head of the government is the king (_raj_). +His successor is either nominated by himself, in which case he sometimes +abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the five chief mandarins +from among the Brah Vansa. The _upayuvraj (obbaioureach)_ or king who +has abdicated, the heir-presumptive (_uparaj, obbareach_) and the first +princess of the blood are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The +king is advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of +the class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about fifty +provinces administered by members of that body. France is represented by +a resident superior, who presides over the ministerial council and is +the real ruler of the country, and by residents exercising supervision +in the districts into which the country is split up for the purposes of +the French administration. In each residential district there is a +council, composed of natives and presided over by the resident, which +deliberates on questions affecting the district. The resident superior +is assisted by the protectorate council, consisting of heads of French +administrative departments (chief of the judicial service, of public +works. &c.) and one native "notable," and the royal orders must receive +its sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign policy, +public works, the customs and the exchequer are in French hands, while +the management of police, the collection of the direct taxes and the +administration of justice between natives remain with the native +government. A French tribunal alone is competent to settle disputes +where one of the parties is not a native. + +The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia for 1899 and +1904:-- + + Receipts. Expenditure. + 1899 L235,329 L188,654 + 1904 250,753 229,880 + +The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including the +poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which together +amounted to L172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of expenditure are the +civil list, comprising the personal allowance to the king and the royal +family (L46,018 in 1904), public works (L39,593) and government house +and residences (L29,977). + +_History_.--The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, are +conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between the +autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now represented by +the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading race from the +plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th century B.C., Chinese +chronicles, which are almost the only source for the history of Cambodia +till the 5th century A.D., mention a region called Fou-nan, in later +times appearing under the name of Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the +Menam, it extended eastwards to the Mekong and may be considered +approximately coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before +the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to +exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they introduced +Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hinduizing process became +more marked about the 5th century A.D., when, under S'rutavarman, the +Khmers as a nation rose into prominence. The name _Kambuja_, whence the +European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu _Kambu_, the name of +the mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been officially +adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country about this period. +At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of S'rutavarman ceased to rule +over the whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was divided +into two portions ruled over by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have +been re-established about the beginning of the 9th century, when with +Jayavarman III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of +Khmer greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monuments +were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see ANGKOR) was completed +under Yasovarman about A.D. 900. In the 10th century Buddhism, which had +existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival +Brahmanism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of +Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and +appears to have been carried out under the direction of the Brahman +Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the monarchs of this period. +The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern +Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later 15th century was +absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the 12th +century, in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. +War was also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and +the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have been the +immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. From the last decade +of the 13th century there dates a valuable description of Tchin-la[2] +written by a member of a Chinese embassy thereto. The same period +probably also witnessed the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of +Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been +subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of +the Menam. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of +which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the 14th +century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive and were able +repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn. These aggressions were +continued in the 15th century, in the course of which the capital was +finally abandoned by the Khmer kings, the ruin of the country being +hastened by internal revolts and by feuds between members of the royal +family. At the end of the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded +Angkor-Thorn as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During +that century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the +country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle +of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the +arrival of the French. At the beginning of the 17th century the Nguyen, +rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of +Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the 18th century, Cambodia, +governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a +field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of +the 18th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed +by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were concluded after a last and +indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a result of which Ang-Duong, +the protege of Siam, was placed on the throne at the capital of Oudong, +and the Annamese evacuated the country. In 1863, in order to counteract +Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagree was sent by Admiral la +Grandiere to the court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and +as a result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate +of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-Penh. In 1867 +a treaty between France and Siam was signed, whereby Siam renounced its +right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in +return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos +territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the +king, confirming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal +authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by it, its +provisions were not put in force till several years later. In 1904 the +territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese +provinces of Melupre and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the +latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 +exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By +the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right +bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded by his brother +Sisowath. + + See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); L. Moura, + _Le royaume de Cambodge_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883); A. Leclere, _Les + codes cambodgiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on + Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ + (Paris, 1873). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH + + [2] Translated by Abel Remusat, _Noveaux Melanges Asiatiques_ (1829). + + + + +CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman, was the son of a +wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In 1785 his father retired, +leaving the direction of the business to Pierre and his two brothers, +but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to politics, and was sent by his +fellow-citizens as deputy _suppleant_ to Versailles, where he was little +more than a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was +elected a member of the municipality, was one of the founders of the +Jacobin club in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he +drew up a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a +republic,--the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the +Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence, his +honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active member of the +committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the +treasury. Nothing could be more false than the common opinion that as a +financier his sole expedient was to multiply the emissions of +_assignats_. His remarkable speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a +convincing proof of his sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from +the clubs, and even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new +institutions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a law +passed sequestrating the possessions of the _emigres_, and demanded, +though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to French Guiana. +He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly. Re-elected to the +Convention, he opposed the pretensions of the Commune and the proposed +grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced +Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an +account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing of +military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, in spite of +the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred the hatred of +Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which +would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew +steadily. On the 15th of December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a +proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the +trial of Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or +postponement. He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public Safety he +worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On the 3rd of +February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800 millions of +_assignats_, for the expenses of the war. His courageous intervention in +favour of the Girondists on the and of June 1793 served Robespierre as a +pretext to prevent his re-election to the Committee of Public Safety. +But Cambon soon came to the conclusion that the security of France +depended upon the triumph of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to +accord his active co-operation to the second committee. He took an active +share in the various expedients of the government for stopping the +depreciation of the _assignats_. He was responsible, especially, for the +great operation known as the opening of the _Grand Livre_ (August 24), +which was designed to consolidate the public debt by cancelling the +stock issued under various conditions prior to the Revolution, and +issuing new stock of a uniform character, so that all fund-holders +should hold stock of the revolutionary government and thus be interested +in its stability. Each fund-holder was to be entered in the Great Book, +or register of the public debt, for the amount due to him every year. +The result of this measure was a rise in the face value of the +_assignats_ from 27% to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of +finance Cambon was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of +dictatorship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary +Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on the 8th +Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-revolutionary and an +aristocrat. Cambon's proud and vehement reply was the signal of the +resistance to Robespierre's tyranny and the prelude to his fall. Cambon +soon had reason to repent of that event, for he became one of those most +violently attacked by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets +and the journals of J.L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former +_Montagnard_. He was charged with being responsible for the discredit of +the _assignats_, and even accused of malversations. On the 21st of +February 1795 the project which he presented to withdraw four milliards +of _assignats_ from circulation, was rejected, and on the 3rd of April +he was excluded from the committee of finance. On the 16th Germinal, +Tallien procured a decree of accusation against him, but he was already +in safety, taking refuge probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not +seem to have remained in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial +some of the insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th +Brumaire of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to +return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near +Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow escape from +an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to find in Bonaparte the +saviour of the republic, but, deceived by the 18th Brumaire, he lived +throughout the whole of the empire in peaceful seclusion. During the +Hundred Days he was deputy for Herault in the chamber of +representatives, and pronounced himself strongly against the return of +the Bourbons, and for religious freedom. Under the Restoration the +"amnesty" law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he +withdrew to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died +on the 15th of February 1820. (R. A.*) + + See Bornarel, _Cambon_ (Paris). + + + + +CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist, was born on the 20th +of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private +secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years +of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as +prefect successively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), +Nord (1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being +nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became +French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890, +and in 1898 to London. He was decorated with the grand cross of the +Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. + +His brother, JULES MARTIN CAMBON (1845- ), was called to the bar in +1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service +in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the +Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see +Guyot, _L'oeuvre de M. Jules Cambon_, Paris, 1897), where he had served +in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at +Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of +peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United +States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin. + + + + +CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary division of +Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, 13 m. E.N.E. of +Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. It lies on the +northward slope of the central elevation of the county, and is in the +neighbourhood of some of the most productive tin and copper mines. These +and the manufacture of mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. +The parish church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient +stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art and +mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine, +the school attracting a large number of students. It was developed from +classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners' Association, and a three years' +course of instruction is provided. + +Camborne (_Cambron, Camron_) formed a portion of the extensive manor of +Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by the earl of +Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. Its +interests were economically insignificant until the beginning of the +18th century when the rich deposits of copper and tin began to be +vigorously worked at Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this +mine alone had produced ore worth L2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth +L5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other mines in +the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double that of 1830, six +times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of 1660. Camborne was the +scene of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the +engineer, born in the neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William +Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three +fairs on the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 25th of February +were granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been +transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the subject of +a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the 19th century it +has been held on Saturdays. + + + + +CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the main line of the +Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai is situated on the right +and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of which traverse the west of the +town) and at one extremity of the canal of St Quentin. The +fortifications with which it was formerly surrounded have been for the +most part demolished. The fosses have been filled up and the ramparts in +part levelled to make way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues +stretching out on all sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are +the huge square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the +chateau de Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the +13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a stone and +brick structure of the early 17th century. Handsome boulevards now skirt +the town, the streets of which are clean and well-ordered, and a large +public garden extends at the foot of the citadel, with a statue of +Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. The former cathedral of Cambrai +was destroyed after the Revolution. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame +is a church of the 19th century built on the site of the old abbey +church of St Sepulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of +Fenelon, archbishop from 1695 to 1715, by David d'Angers. The church of +St Gery (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a marble +rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place d'Armes, a large +square in the centre of the town, is bordered on the north by a handsome +hotel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt in the 19th century. The Tour +St Martin is an old church-tower of the 15th and 18th centuries +transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance +to the former archiepiscopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance +period. The present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral, +occupies the site of an old Benedictine convent. + +Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of +France. Its educational institutions include communal colleges, +ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and music. The library +has over 40,000 volumes and there is a museum of antiquities and objects +of art. The chief industry of Cambrai is the weaving of muslin +(_batiste_) and other fine fabrics (see CAMBRIC); wool-spinning and +weaving, bleaching and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the +manufacture of chicory, oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are +also large beet-sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in +cattle, grain, coal, hops, seed, &c. + +Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of _Camaracum_, which is mentioned +in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was the capital of the +Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, it was captured +and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the +Hungarians in 953. During the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries it was the +scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on +the one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately +effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained +possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, duke of +Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 16th century Charles +V. caused it to be fortified with a strong citadel, for the erection of +which the castles of Cavillers, Escaudoeuvres and many others were +demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which +assigned it to France, it frequently passed from hand to hand by capture +or treaty. In 1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League +of Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis +XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians in +1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is also called, the Ladies' +Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of +Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of +these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and +was raised in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till +the Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received the +title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in 1510 were +raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including the town +itself and its territory, called Cambresis. + + See E. Bouly, _Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambresis_ (Cambria, 1843). + + + + +CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western +Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land +round the Solway (now Cumberland and adjacent regions), and the former +came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were +sometimes interchanged by early medieval writers. + + + + +CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally employed to +designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks which possesses a +connected suite of fossils. The strata of this system rest upon the +Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the Ordovician system. Until the +fourth decade of the 19th century all stratified rocks older than the +Carboniferous had been grouped by geologists into a huge and indefinite +"Transition Series." In 1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison +began the herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of +rocks as it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England. +Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where the rocks +are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are comparatively +difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, began to work at the +upper end of the series where the stratigraphy is simple and the fossils +are abundant. Murchison naturally made the most of the fossils +collected, and was soon able to show that the transition series could be +recognized by them, just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to +themselves; as he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous +rocks further afield and continually lower in the series. This +fossil-bearing set of strata he first styled the "fossiliferous +greywacke series," changing it in 1835 to "Silurian system." + +In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name "Cambrian series" for the +older and lower members. Murchison published his Silurian system in +1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to include the barren slates +and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the Long Mynd. So far, the two +workers had been in agreement; but in his presidential address to the +Geological Society of London in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that +the Cambrian contained no fossils that differed from those of the Lower +Silurian. Whereupon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh +rocks with the assistance of J.W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in +1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the Upper +Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his _Siluria_, in which +he treated the Cambrian system as a mere local facies of the Silurian +system, and he included in the latter, under J. Barrande's term +"Primordial zone," all the lower rocks, although they had a distinctive +fauna. + +Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected from +similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of "Cambrian" +was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, it was taken to +apply only to a group of rocks without a characteristic fauna and +therefore impossible to recognize. Most of the Cambrian rocks were +coloured as Silurian on the British official geological maps. + +Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on the +British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of the +Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his Silurian system +downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick adhered to the original +grouping of his Cambrian system, and even proposed to limit the Silurian +to the Ludlow and Wenlock beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. +This attitude he maintained until the year of his death (1873), when +there appeared his introduction to Salter's _Catalogue of Cambrian and +Silurian Fossils._ + +It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was +necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was left for +the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove that the rocks +below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison did indeed possess a +characteristic fauna, and their work was confirmed by researches going +on in other countries. To-day the recognition of the earliest +fossil-bearing recks, below the Llandeilo formation of Murchison, as +belonging to the Cambrian system, and the threefold subdivision of the +system according to palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly +established. + +It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian as the +lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages being +Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use _Silurique_ to +cover the same period with the Cambrian as the lowest series, but these +differences of treatment are merely nominal. Jules Marcou and others +have used _Taconic_ (Taconian) as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C. +Lapworth proposed to apply the same term to the lowest subdivision +only; he had also used "Annelidian" in the same sense. These names are +of historical interest alone. + +_Cambrian Rocks._--The lithological characters of the Cambrian rocks +possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the globe. Muds, +sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant types. In Scotland, +North America and Canada important deposits of limestone occur and +subordinate limestones are found in the Cambrian of central Europe. + +In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the +United States, the rocks still retain their original horizontality of +deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the sands are still +incoherent; but in most parts of the world they bear abundant evidence +of the many movements and stresses to which they have been exposed +through so enormous a period of time. Thus, we find them more +frequently, folded, tilted and cleaved; the muds have become shales, +slates, phyllites or schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates +have become quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very +generally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more +recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized material +are not wanting. + +[Illustration: Distribution of Cambrian Rocks.] + +Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they form an +important feature and occur in considerable thickness; they are +represented by lavas of olivine-diabase and by contemporaneous tuffs +which are traversed by later granite and quartz felsite. In the Cambrian +of Brittany there are acid lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and +diorite appear in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada +igneous rocks have been observed. + +In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found full of +boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner that is +typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the Gaisa beds +near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These formations lie at the base of +the lowest Cambrian strata and may possibly be included in the +pre-Cambrian, though in Norway they are clearly resting upon a striated +floor of crystalline rocks. + +_Cambrian Life._--In a general survey of the life of this period, as it +is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are apparent: (1) +the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna and that of the present +day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage differs in no marked manner from +that of the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian periods; there is a +certain family likeness which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary +complexity and diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but +within certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian +strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks--if we leave out of +account the very few and very obscure organic remains hitherto recorded +from the pre-Cambrian--yet we appear to enter suddenly into the presence +of a world richly peopled with a suite of organisms already far advanced +in differentiation; the Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from +what must have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this +remote period are distant from the creatures of to-day. + +With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great classes of +animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple protozoa appear in the +form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges are represented by such forms as +_Archaeoscyphia_, Hexactinellid sponges by _Protospongia_; Graptolites +(_Dictyograptus (Dictyonema)_) come on in the higher parts of the +system. Medusa-like casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of +Scandinavia (_Medusina_) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama +(_Brooksella_). Corals, _Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus_, &c., lived in +the Cambrian seas along with starfishes (_Palaeasterina_), Cystideans, +_Protocystites, Trochocystites_ and possibly Crinoids, _Dendrocrinus_. +Annelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor +(_Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus_, &c.). Crustacea occupied an +extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as +_Hymenocaris_, and Ostracods like _Entomidella_; but by far the most +important in numbers and development were the Trilobites, now extinct, +but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the Cambrian period trilobites +had already attained their maximum size; some species of _Paradoxides_ +were nearly 2 ft. long, but in company with these monsters were tiny +forms like _Agnostus_ and _Microdiscus_. Many of the Cambrian trilobites +appear to have been blind, and they had not at this period developed +that flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later. + +Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-articulated forms +(_Obolus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis_, &c.); amongst the +articulate genera are _Kutorgina, Orthis, Khynchonella._ It is a +striking fact that certain of these non-articulate "lamp-shells" are +familiar inhabitants of our present seas. Each of the principal groups +of true mollusca was represented: Pelecypods (_Modioloides_); +Gasteropods (_Scenella, Pleurotomaria, Trochonema_); Pteropods +(_Hyohthellus, Hyolithes, Salleretta_); Cephalopods (_Orthoceras, +Cystoceras_). Of land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain +markings on slates and sandstones, such as the "fucoids" of Scandinavia +and Scotland, the _Phycoides_ of the Fichtelgebirge, _Eophyton_ and +other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be the casts of fucoid +plants; but it is by no means sure that many of them are not mere +inorganic imitative markings or the tracks or casts of worms. +_Oldhamia_, a delicate branching body, abundant in the Cambrian of the +south-east of Ireland, is probably a calcareous alga, but its precise +nature has not been satisfactorily determined. + +_Cambrian Stratigraphy._--Wherever the Cambrian strata have been +carefully studied it has now been found possible and convenient to +arrange them into three series, each of which is characterized by a +distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a Lower Cambrian with +_Olenellus_, a middle series with _Paradoxides_ and an Upper Cambrian +with _Olenus_. It is true that these fossils are not invariably present +in every occurrence of Cambrian strata, but this fact notwithstanding, +the threefold division holds with sufficient constancy. An uppermost +series lies above the _Olenus_ fauna in some areas; it is represented by +the Tremadoc beds in Britain or by the _Dictyonema_ beds or +_Euloma-Niobe_ fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: +(1) Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first +differentiated from the old "Transition Series"; (2) North America, on +account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the abundance and +perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, made classic by the great +labours of J. Barrande. + + _Great Britain and Ireland._--The table on p. 88 contains the names + that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata in + the areas of outcrop in Wales and England; at the same time it + indicates approximately their relative position in the system. + + In _Scotland_ the upper and middle series are represented by a thick + mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone (1500 ft.). In + the lower series are, in descending order, the "Serpulite grits" or + "Salterella beds," the "Fucoid beds" and the "Eriboll quartzite," + which is divided into an upper "Pipe rock" and lower "Basal + quartzite." + + The Cambrian rocks of _Ireland_, a great series of purple and green + shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded + sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh + rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in the + future to the overlying Ordovician. + + _North America._--On the North American continent, as in Europe, the + Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the lower or + "Georgian," with _Olenellus_ fauna; (2) the middle or "Acadian," with + _Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus_ fauna; (3) the upper or "Potsdam," + with _Olenus_ fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms for + Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland and Labrador + coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-west of those + points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain valley into Alabama, a + distance of some 2000 m.; and the rocks are brought up again on the + western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, western Montana and British + Columbia. The middle division covers approximately the same region as + the lower one, and in addition it is found in the states of Texas, + Oklahoma, and Arizona, in western Montana, and possibly in western + Wisconsin. The lower division, in addition to covering the areas + already indicated, spreads over the interior of the United States. + + _Bohemia_.--The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized by + J.F. Pompesk; to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian groups. + They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. The Cambrian + system is covered by his stages "B" and "C"; the former a barren + series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter a series of grey + and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, greywackes + and conglomerates. + + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | Midland and West of England. | + | | North Wales. | South Wales. +--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | | | | Shropshire. | Malvern Hills. | Nuneaton. | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Upper Cambrian,| Tremadoc slates | Tremadoc beds | Shineton shales | Bronsil shales, | Upper Stockingford | + | _Olenus_ fauna | (_Euloma-Niobe_ | | and shales with | gray (_Niobe_ | shale | + | | fauna) | | _Dictyonema_ | fauna) | (Merivaleshales) | + | | Lingula flags | Lingula flags | | Malvern black | | + | | | | | shales | | + | | | | | (White-leaved-oak | | + | | | | | shales) | | + | | (1) Dolgelly beds | | | | | + | | (2) Ffestinieg beds| | | | Middle Stockingford | + | | | | | | shales (Oldbury | + | | | | | | shales) | + | | (3) Maentwrog beds | | | | | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Middle Cambrian| Menevian beds | Menevian beds | | | | + | _Paradoxides_ | | | | | | + | fauna | | Solva group | Comley or Hollybush| Hollybush sandstone | Lower Stockingford | + | | | | sandstone with | | shales (Purley | + | | | | upper Comley | | shales) | + | | | | limestone | | | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + | Lower Cambrian | Harlech grits and | Caerfai group | Lower Comley | Hollybush sandstone | Upper Hartshill | + | _Olenellus_ | Llanberis slates | | limestone | with Malvern | quarzite. | + | fauna | | | | quarzite and | _Hyolithes_ shales | + | | | | | conglomerate at | and limestone | + | | | | | the base | | + | | | | Wrekin quarzite | | Middle and lower | + | | | | | | Hartshill quarzite | + | | | | | | and the quarzite of| + | | | | | | the Lickey Hills | + +----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ + + _Scandinavia_.--Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished clearly + on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found in a thin + series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing shales + play an important part. Limestones and shales with the _Euloma-Niobe_ + fauna come at the top. The upper series (_Olenus_) has been minutely + zoned by W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg and J.C. Moberg. In the middle + series (_Paradoxides_) three thin limestone bands have been + distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans-Kalk and the + Andrarums-Kalk. + + On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by the Roros + schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystalline + schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian rocks. + + _Baltic Province._--The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all + soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of + Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called "blue clay" + (really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a fucoidal + sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent of the Lower + Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an important break appears in + the system, for the _Paradoxides_ and _Olenus_ divisions are absent. + The upper members are the "Ungulite grit" and about 20 ft. of + Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been traced into Siberia (lat. + 71 deg.) and on the island of Vaigatch. + + _Central Europe._--Besides the Bohemian region previously mentioned, + Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of France, in + Spain and the Thuringer Wald. In the Ardennes the system is + represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and quartz + schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. A. + Dumont has arranged the whole series (_Terrain ardennais_) into three + systems, an upper "Salmien," a middle "Revinien" and a lower + "Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to unite the + two lower groups in one. + + _France_.---In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple + conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability upon + pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern Poitou. In the + Rennes basin limestones--often dolomitic--are associated with + quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones also occur in the + Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old lands of Languedoc, + equivalents of the two upper divisions of the Cambrian have been + recorded; and the uppermost members of the system appear in Herault. + Patches of Cambrian rocks are found in the Pyrenees. + + In _Spain_ slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than + 9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega, + thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian rocks + occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper Cambrian + strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal. + + In _Russian Poland_ is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and + shales; Some of the beds yield a _Paradoxides_ fauna. + + In the _Thuringer Wald_ are certain strata, presumably Cambrian since + the uppermost beds contain the _Euloma-Niobe_ fauna. + + _Sardinia_ contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cambrian + system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neobolus or + Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle subdivision. + The same group is probably represented in Corea and the Liao-tung by + the thick "Sinisian" formation of F. von Richthofen. + + In _South America_ upper Cambrian rocks have been recorded from north + Argentina. + + The Lower Cambrian has been found at various places in _South + Australia_; and in _Tasmania_ a thick series of strata appears to be + in part at least of Upper Cambrian age. + +_General Physical Conditions in the Cambrian Period._--The Cambrian +rocks previously described are all such as would result from deposition, +in comparatively shallow seas, of the products of degradation of land +surfaces by the ordinary agents of denudation. Evidences of shallow +water conditions are abundant; very frequently on the bedding surfaces +of sandstones and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and +pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, and +these records of the weather of this remote period are preserved as +sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our tidal reaches. +Ripple marks and current bedding further point, to the shallowness of +the water at the places where the rocks were made. + +No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses of the +sea--although the absence of well-developed eyes in the trilobites has +led some to assume that this condition was an indication that the +creatures lived in abyssal depths. + +At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of that period +must have been elevated into regions of fairly high ground; this we may +assume from the nature of the Cambrian deposits which are mainly the +product of the denudation of such ground. Over the land areas thus +formed, the seas in Cambrian time gradually spread, laying down first +the series known as Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the +land the wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits--in Europe, the middle +series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are usually +unconformable on older rocks. + +During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the crust may +have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake conditions. The common +occurrence of red strata has been cited in support of this view. + +Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free from extensive +volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in Brittany the earlier portions +of this period were marked by voluminous outpourings; a condition that +was feebly reflected in central and southern Europe. + +No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the climatic +peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red rocks may in some +cases suggest desert conditions; and there is good reason to suppose +that in what are now Norway and China a glacial cold prevailed early in +the period. + +Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian deposits, +which may generally be explained by the greater rapidity of deposition +in some areas than in others. Nothing could be more striking than the +difference between the thicknesses in western and eastern Europe; in +Brittany the deposits are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least +12,000 ft., in western England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern +Scotland 2000 ft., while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete +Cambrian succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North +America, the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous +regions on the west and on the east--reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter +and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British +Columbia)--while over the interior of the continent it is seldom more +than 1000 ft. thick. + +Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the Cambrian +period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was pointed out by +Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there appeared two marine +provinces--a northern one extending from Russia to the British Isles +through Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a southern one comprising +France, Bohemia, the Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that +some kind of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there +is a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and eastern +America; many fossils of this period are common to Britain, Sweden and +eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a north Atlantic basin +existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there was also a Pacific basin more +extensive than at present; this is borne out by the similarity between +the Cambrian faunas of China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author +postulates an Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, +Greenland and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the +present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between Australia and +India, where the faunas have much in common. + + REFERENCES.--The literature devoted to the Cambrian period is very + voluminous, important contributions having been made by A. Sedgwick, + Sir R.I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. Groom, J.W. Salter, J.E. + Marr, C.D. Walcott, G.F. Matthew, E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande, + F. Schmidt, W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg, S.L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson + and many others. A good general account of the period will be found in + Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with + references), and from an American point of view, in T.C. Chamberlin + and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American + sources). See also J.E. Marr, _The Classification of the Cambrian and + Silurian Rocks_, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of + publication); A. Geikie _Q.J. Geol. Sac._, 1891, xlvii., Ann. address, + p. 90; F. Frech, "Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des + Cambrium," _Compte Rendu. Congres Geol. Internal. 1897, + St-Petersbourg_ (1899); _Geological Literature added to the Geological + Society's Library_, published annually since 1893. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CAMBRIC, a word derived from _Kameryk_ or _Kamerijk_, the Flemish name +of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, France, where the cloth of +this name is said to have been first made. It was originally made of +fine linen. There is a record of a privy purse expenditure in 1530 for +cambric for Henry VIII.'s shirts. Cambric has been used for many years +in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine +underclothing; also for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The +yarns for this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads +and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. Embroidery +cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, said to be called +after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a kind of cambric +frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are largely copied in +cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, and in many cases cotton +alone, taking the place of the original flax line yarns. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. Under the Norman and early Plantagenet +kings of England the earldom of Cambridge was united with that of +Huntingdon, which was held among others by David I., king of Scotland, +as the husband of earl Waltheof's daughter, Matilda. As a separate +dignity the earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count +(afterwards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King +Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death) Edward created +his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cambridge, the title being +afterwards merged in that of duke of York, which was bestowed upon +Edmund in 1385. Edmund's elder son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who +succeeded his father as duke of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, +appears to have resigned the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in +this year his younger brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In +the following year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry +V., and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, +Richard, who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle +Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held by Richard, +and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, afterwards King Edward +IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the Yorkist dynasty. + +In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon James +Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created him earl of +Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor James, 3rd +marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In 1651 when William, 2nd +duke of Hamilton, died, his English title became extinct. + +Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of earl of +Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his brother Henry, duke +of Gloucester, only to become extinct on Henry's death in the following +year. In 1661 Charles, the infant son of James, duke of York, afterwards +King James II., was designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but +the child died before the necessary formalities were completed. However, +two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were actually +created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died in childhood. +After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 it was proposed to +grant an English title to George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, +who, after his grandmother, the electress Sophia, and his father, the +elector George Louis, was heir to the throne of England; and to give +effect to this proposal George Augustus was created marquess and duke of +Cambridge in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of +Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in favour +of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He and his son are +dealt with below. + +ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was born in London on +the 24th of February 1774. Having studied at the university of +Gottingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the Hanoverian and British +armies, and, in November 1801, was created earl of Tipperary and duke of +Cambridge, becoming a member of the privy council in the following year. +The duke is chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on +the conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to the +rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was appointed +viceroy. He held this position until the separation of Great Britain and +Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and moderation, appears to have +ruled the country with great success during a difficult period. +Returning to England the duke became very popular, and was active in +supporting many learned and benevolent societies. He died in London on +the 8th of July 1850. In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter +of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his +successor, George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick +William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide +(1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck. + +GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLES, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), was +born at Hanover on the 26th of March 1819. He was thus about two months +older than his cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the +line of succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover by +the Rev. J.R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November 1837, after he had +served for a short time in the Hanoverian army, the rank of colonel in +the British army was conferred upon him, and he was attached to the +staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in +Ireland with the 12th Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 +colonel of the 17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he +was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then promoted +major-general. In October 1846 he took command of the Limerick district, +and shortly afterwards of the Dublin district. In 1850 his father died, +and he succeeded to the dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry +in 1852, he held that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the +Crimean War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and +Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June of the same +year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was present at the battles +of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, and at the siege of Sevastopol. On +the 15th of July 1856 he was appointed general commanding-in-chief, on +the 9th of November 1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, +commander-in-chief. The long period during which he held the command of +the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War brought to light +great administrative defects, and led to a regrouping of the +departments, which, with the whole personnel of the army, were brought +under the authority of the secretary of state for war. The +constitutional changes involved did not, however, affect seriously the +organization of the military forces. Only in 1870, after the successes +of Prussia had created a profound impression, were drastic changes +introduced by Cardwell into the entire fabric of the army. The objects +of the reformers of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods +adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by the duke of +Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority of officers. Further +changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again the duke found much to +criticize. His opinions stand recorded in the voluminous evidence taken +by the numerous bodies appointed to inquire into the condition of the +army. They show a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations +as such, a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this +judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally supposed +is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout the period of +change, while protesting, the duke invariably accepted and loyally +endeavoured to carry out the measures on which the government decided. +In a memorandum addressed to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude +as follows:--"Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state +policy it is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, I +am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability." This attitude +he consistently maintained in all cases in which his training and +associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate changes the need +for which was not apparent to him. His judgment was especially +vindicated in the case of an ill-advised reduction of the artillery +carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under the order in council of February +1888, the whole responsibility for military duties of every kind was for +the first time centred upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out +by the Hartington commission in 1890, involved "an excessive +centralization" which "must necessarily tend to weaken the sense of +responsibility of the other heads of departments, and thus to diminish +their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose position entailed many +duties apart from those strictly appertaining to a commander-in-chief, +could not give personal attention to the vast range of matters for which +he was made nominally responsible. On the other hand, the +adjutant-general could act in his name, and the secretary of state could +obtain military advice from officials charged with no direct +responsibility. The effect was to place the duke in a false position in +the eyes of the army and of the country. If the administration of the +army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which violated +principles. His active control of its training during the whole period +of his command was less hampered, and more directly productive of good +results. + +Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge evinced a warm +interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great experience combined +with a retentive memory made him a master of detail. He was famous for +plain, and strong, language; but while quick to condemn deviations from +the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great precision +in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural kindliness made him +ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the older generation of soldiers, +he could not easily adapt himself to the new conditions, and in +dispensing patronage he was somewhat distrustful of originality, while +his position as a member of the royal family tended to narrow his scope +for selection. He was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations +of pure seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The +army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge it had a +commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly anxious amid +many difficulties to promote its well-being. The duke resigned the +commandership-in-chief on the 1st of November 1895, and was succeeded by +Lord Wolseley, the duties of the office being considerably modified. He +was at the same time gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces. +He was made ranger of Hyde Park and St James's Park in 1852, and of +Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military Academy in 1862, +and its president in 1870, and personal aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria +in 1882. He died on the 17th of March 1904 at Gloucester House, London. +The chief honours conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835; +G.C.M.G., 1845; G.C.B., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he was +president of Christ's hospital. The duke of Cambridge was married to +Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge after her marriage. +She died in 1890. + + See Rev. E. Sheppard, _George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir of his + Private Life_ (London, 1906); and Willoughby Verner, _Military Life of + the Duke of Cambridge_ (1905). + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802), English poet, was born in London on +the 14th of February 1717. He was educated at Eton and at St John's +College, Oxford. Leaving the university without taking a degree, he took +up residence at Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and +went to live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In +1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society of many +notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes many jesting +allusions to Cambridge in the character of newsmonger. He died at +Twickenham on the 17th of September 1802. His chief work is the +_Scribleriad_ (1751), a mock epic poem, the hero of which is the +Martinus Scriblerus of Pope, Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded +by a dissertation on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his +master. The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read by +literary people; but it never became popular, and the allusions, always +obscure, have little interest for the present-day reader. He made a +valuable contribution to history in his _Account of the War in +India...on the Coast of Coromandel from the year 1750 to 1760..._ +(1761). He had intended to write a history of the rise and progress of +British power in India, but this enterprise went no further than the +work just named, as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the +use of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan. + + _The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq., including several Pieces + never before published, with an Account of his Life and Character by + his Son, George Owen Cambridge_ (1803), includes, besides the + _Scribleriad_, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty + papers originally published in Edward Moore's paper called _The + World_. His poems are included in A. Chalmers's _English Poets_ + (1816). + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough, the seat of a +university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, 56 m. N. by +E. of London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the Great +Northern, London & North-Western and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379. +It lies in a flat plain at the southern border of the low Fen country, +at an elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part +of the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a tributary +of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To the south and west +the slight hills bordering the fenland rise gently. The parliamentary +borough of Cambridge returns one member. The municipal borough is under +a mayor, 12 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres. + + + History + +Cambridge University[1] shares with that of Oxford the first place among +such institutions in the British empire. It is the dominating factor in +the modern importance of the town, and it is therefore necessary to +outline the historical conditions which led to its establishment. The +geographical situation of Cambridge, in its present appearance +possessing little attraction or advantage, calls nevertheless for first +consideration. Cambridge, in fact, owed its growth to its position on a +natural line of communication between the east and the midlands of +England, flanked on the one hand by the deep forests which covered the +uplands, on the other by the unreclaimed fens, then desolate and in +great part impenetrable. The importance of this highway may be judged +from the number of early earthworks in the vicinity of Cambridge; and +the Castle Hill, at the north side of the present town (near the west +bank of the river), is perhaps a British work. Roman remains discovered +in the same locality give evidence of the existence of a small town or +village at the junction of roads; the name of _Camboritum_ is usually +attached to it, but without certainty. The modern name of Cambridge has +no connexion with this. The present form of the name has usually been +derived from a corruption of the original name Grantebrycge or +Grantabridge (Skeat); but Mr Arthur Gray points out that there is no +documentary evidence for this corruption in the shape of such probable +intermediate forms as Grantebrig or Crantebrig. On the other hand, he +brings evidence to show that the name Cantebrig, though not applied to +the whole town, was very early given to that quarter of it near the +Cante brig, i.e. the bridge over the Cante (the ward beyond the Great +Bridge was called "Parcelle of Cambridge" as late as 1340); in this +quarter, close to the bridge, Cambridge castle was built by the +Conqueror, and from the castle and the castle-quarter the name spread +within sixty years to the whole town, the similarity between the names +Grantebrig and Cantebrig playing some part in this extension (_The Dual +Origin of the Town of Cambridge_, p. 31). Granta is the earlier and +still an alternative name of the river Cam, this more common modern form +having been adopted in sympathy with the modern name of the town. +Cambridge had a further importance from its position at the head of +river navigation, and a charter of Henry I., in which the town is +already referred to as a borough, grants it exclusive rights as a +river-port, and regulates traffic and tolls. The wharves lay principally +along that part of the river where are now the celebrated "backs" of +some of the colleges, whose exquisite grounds slope down to the water. +The great Sturbridge or Stourbridge Fair at Barnwell, formerly one of +the most important in England, is a further illustration of the ancient +commercial importance of Cambridge; the oldest known charter concerning +it dates from the opening of the 13th century, though its initiation may +perhaps be placed a century before. + +Concerning the early municipal history of Cambridge little is known, but +at the time of the Domesday survey its citizens felt themselves strong +enough to protest against the exactions of the Norman sheriff, Roger +Picot; and the town had attained a considerable degree of importance +when, in 1068, William the Conqueror built a castle on the site known as +Castle Hill, and used it as a base of operations against Hereward the +Wake and the insurgents of the fenland. Cambridge, however, has +practically no further military history. From the 14th century onward +materials were taken from the castle by the builders of colleges, while +the gatehouse, the last surviving portion, was removed in 1842. + +The medieval spirit of emulation between the universities of Cambridge +and Oxford resulted in a series of remarkable fables to account for the +foundation of both. That of Cambridge was assigned to a Spanish prince, +Cantaber, in the 4321st year after the Creation. A charter from King +Arthur dated 531, and the transference of students from Cambridge to +Oxford by King Alfred, were also claimed as historical facts. The true +germ of the university is to be sought in the religious foundations in +the town. The earliest to be noticed is the Augustinian house of St +Giles, founded by Hugoline, wife of Roger Picot the sheriff, in 1092; +this was removed in 1112 to Barnwell, where the chapel dedicated to St +Andrew the Less is practically the sole remnant of its buildings. In +1224 the Franciscans came to Cambridge, and later in the same century a +number of other religious orders settled here, such as the Dominicans, +the Gilbertines and the Carmelites, who had before been established at +Newnham. Students were gradually attracted to these several religious +houses, and Cambridge was already recognized as a centre of learning +when, in 1231, Henry III. issued a writ for its governance as such, +among other provisions conferring certain disciplinary powers on the +bishop of Ely. It soon became evident that the influence of the +religious orders on those who came to them for instruction was too +narrow. This was recognized elsewhere, for it was in order to counteract +that influence that Walter de Merton drew up the statute of governance +for his foundation of Merton College, Oxford, a statute which was soon +afterwards used as a model by Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely, when, in +1281-1284 he founded the first Cambridge college, Peterhouse. + +The friction between town and university, due in the main to the +conflict of their jurisdictions, the tradition of which, as in the +sister university, died hard in the annual efforts of some +undergraduates to revive the "town and gown" riots, culminated during +the rebellion of Wat Tyler (1381) in an episode which is alone worthy of +record and may serve to illustrate the whole. This was an attack by the +rabble, instigated, it is said, by the more reputable townspeople, on +the colleges, several of which were sacked. The attack was ultimately +defeated by the courage and resource of Henry Spenser or Le Dispencer, +bishop of Norwich. The relations of the university of Cambridge with the +crown were never so intimate as those of Oxford. Henry III. fortified +the town with two gates, but these were burnt by the rebellious barons; +and in much later times the two first of the Stuart kings, and the two +first of the Georges, cultivated friendly personal relations with the +university. During the civil war the colleges even melted down their +plate for the war chest of King Charles; but Cambridge showed little of +the stubborn royalism of Oxford, and submitted to the Commonwealth +without serious resistance. + + + Colleges. + +The history of collegiate foundation in Cambridge after that of +Peterhouse may be followed through the ensuing description of the +colleges, but for ease of reference these are dealt with in alphabetical +order. The main street which traverses the town from south to north, +parallel to, and at a short distance from the river, is known +successively as Trumpington Street, King's Parade, Trinity Street, St +John's Street and Bridge Street. The majority of the colleges lie on +either side of this street, and chiefly between it and the river. Those +of St John's, Trinity, Trinity Hall, Clare, King's and Queens' present +the famous "backs" towards the river, which is crossed by a series of +picturesque bridges leading to the gardens and grounds on the opposite +bank. + +_Christ's College_ is not among the group indicated above; it stands +farther to the east, in St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1505 by +the Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII. It incorporated God's +House, which had been founded by William Bingham, a cleric of London, in +1439, had been removed when the site was required for part of King's +College, and had been refounded with the countenance of Henry VI. in +1448. This was a small house, but the Lady Margaret's endowment provided +for a master, twelve fellows and forty-seven scholars. Edward VI. added +another fellowship and three scholarships and the present number of +fellows is fifteen. There are certain exhibitions in election to which +preference is given to schools in the north of England--Giggleswick, +Kirkby Lonsdale, Skipton and Sedbergh. The buildings of Lady Margaret's +foundation were in great part faced in classical style in the 17th +century; a building east of the old quadrangle is also of this period, +and is ascribed to Inigo Jones. The rooms occupied by the foundress +herself are preserved, though in an altered condition, as are those of +the poet Milton, who was educated here, and with whom the college has +many associations. In the fine gardens is an ancient mulberry tree +believed to have been planted by him. Among illustrious names connected +with this college are John Leland the antiquary, Archdeacon Paley, +author of the _Evidences_, and Charles Darwin, while Henry More and +others of the school of Cambridge Platonists in the 17th century were +educated here. + +_Clare College_ lies close to the river, south of Trinity Hall. In 1326 +the university erected a hall, known as University Hall, to accommodate +a number of students, and in 1338 Elizabeth de Burgh, countess of +Clare, re-endowed the hall, which took the name of Clare Hall, and only +became known as college in 1856. There was a strong ecclesiastical +tendency in this foundation; six out of the twenty fellows were to be +priests when elected. The foundation now consists of a master and +fifteen fellows, besides scholars, of whom three receive emoluments from +the endowment of Lady Clare. The old college buildings were in great +part destroyed by fire in 1521; the present buildings date from 1638 to +1715, and are admirable examples of their period. They surround a very +beautiful quadrangle, and the back towards the river is also fine. +Unconfirmed tradition indicates the poet Chaucer as an _alumnus_ of this +college; other famous men associated with it were Hugh Latimer the +martyr, Ralph Cudworth, one of the "Platonists," and Archbishop +Tillotson. + +_Corpus Christi College_ (commonly called Corpus) stands on the east +side of Trumpington Street. The influence of medieval gilds in +Cambridge, the character of which was primarily religious, was +exceedingly strong. About the beginning of the 14th century there is +first mentioned the gild of St Mary, which was connected with Great St +Mary's church. The gild was at this time prosperous, but about 1350, +when the idea of the foundation of a college by the gilds was matured, +the fraternity of St Mary lacked the means to proceed save by +amalgamating with another gild, that of Corpus Christi. The age of this +institution, whose church was St Benedict's or St Bene't's, is not +known. By the two gilds, therefore, the "House of Scholars of Corpus +Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary" was founded in 1352, the foundation +being the only instance of its kind. In early times it was commonly +known as St Bene't's from the church connected with the Corpus gild +which stands over against the college, and served as its chapel for +nearly three centuries. The foundation consists of a master and twelve +fellows, with scholars of the old and later foundations. The ancient +small quadrangle remains, and is of historical rather than architectural +interest. The great quadrangle dates from 1823-1825. The library +contains the famous collection of MSS. bequeathed by Archbishop Matthew +Parker, _alumnus_ of the college, in the 16th century. + +_Downing College_ is in the southern part of the town, to the east of +Trumpington Street. Sir George Downing, baronet, of Gamlingay Park, who +died in 1749, left estates to various relations, who died without issue. +In this event, Downing's will provided for the foundation of a college, +but the heirs contested the will with the university, and in spite of a +decision against them in 1769, continued to hold the estates for many +years, so that it was not until 1800 that the charter for the college +was obtained. The foundation-stone was laid in 1807, and the two ranges +of buildings, in classical style, represent all that was completed of an +intended quadrangle. The foundation consists of a master, professors of +English law and of medicine, six fellows and six scholars. + +_Emmanuel College_ overlooks St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1584 +by Sir Walter Mildmay (_c_. 1520-1589), chancellor of the exchequer and +privy councillor under Queen Elizabeth. The foundation, considerably +enlarged from the original, consists of a master, sixteen fellows and +thirty scholars. There are further scholarships on other foundations +which are awarded by preference to pupils of Uppingham and other schools +in the midlands. Emmanuel was noted from the outset as a stronghold of +Puritanism; it is indeed recorded that Elizabeth rallied the founder on +his intention that this should be so. Mildmay assuredly had the welfare +of the church primarily at heart, and he attempted to provide against +the life residence of fellows, which he considered an unhealthy feature +in some colleges. The site of Emmanuel was previously occupied by a +Dominican friary, and some of its buildings were adapted to collegiate +uses. There is only a little of the earliest building remaining; the +greater part of the present college dates from the second half of the +18th century. The chapel, however, is by Sir Christopher Wren (1677). +Richard Holdsworth, Gresham professor, and William Sancroft, archbishop +of Canterbury, were masters of this college; Bishops Joseph Hall and +Thomas Percy were among its _alumni_, as was John Harvard, principal +founder of the great American college which bears his name. + +_Gonville and Caius College_ (commonly called Caius, pronounced Kees), +stands mainly on the west side of Trinity Street. It arose out of an +earlier foundation. In 1348 Edmund Gonvile or Gonevill founded the hall +of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which was commonly called +Gonville Hall, for the education of twenty scholars in dialectic and +other sciences, with endowment for a master and three fellows. This hall +stood on part of the present site of Corpus, but on the death of its +founder in 1351 it was moved to the north-west corner of the site of the +present Caius, by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of +Trinity Hall. The famous physician John Caius (q.v.), who was educated +at this small institution, later conceived the idea of refounding and +enlarging it, obtained a charter to do so in 1557, and became master of +the new foundation of Gonville and Caius College. The foundation +consists of a master and not less than twenty-two fellows, exclusive of +the provision under the will of William Henry Drosier (d. 1889), doctor +of medicine and fellow of the college, for the endowment of seven +additional fellowships. Since its refoundation by Caius, the college has +had a peculiar connexion with the study of medicine, while, besides many +eminent physicians, Sir Thomas Gresham, Judge Jeffreys, Robert Hare, +Jeremy Taylor, Henry Wharton and Lord Thurlow are among its noted names. +Three sides of the main quadrangle, Tree Court, including the frontage +towards Trinity Street, are modern (1870). The interior of this court is +picturesque, and the design of the smaller Caius Court was inspired by +Caius himself. He also designed the gates of Honour, Virtue and +Humility, of which the two first stand _in situ_; the gate of Honour is +a peculiarly good example of early Renaissance work. Caius is buried in +the chapel. + +_Jesus College_ lies apart from and to the north-east of the majority of +the colleges. It was founded in 1406 by John Alcock, bishop of Ely. The +site was previously occupied by a Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St +Radigund, which was already in existence in the first half of the 12th +century and was claimed by Alcock to have been founded from Ely, to the +bishops of which it certainly owed much. The name given to Alcock's +college was that of "the most Blessed Virgin Mary, St John the +Evangelist, and the glorious Virgin Saint Radigund," but it appears that +the founder himself intended the name to be Jesus College. He provided +for a master and six fellows, but the foundation now consists of a +master and sixteen fellows, with twenty scholars or more. There are +several further scholarships confined to the sons of clergymen of the +Church of England. Architecturally Jesus is one of the most interesting +colleges in Cambridge, for Alcock retained, and there still remains, a +considerable part of the old buildings of the nunnery. The most +important of these is the church, which Alcock, by removing most of the +nave and other portions, converted into the usual form of a college +chapel. The tower, however, is retained. The bulk of the building is an +admirable example of Early English work, but there are traces of Norman; +and Alcock added certain Perpendicular features. Of the rest of the +college buildings, the hall is Alcock's work, the brick gatehouse is a +fine structure of the close of the 15th century, while the cloister is a +little later, and stands on the site of the nuns' cloister. Another +court dates from the 17th and early 18th centuries, and there is a +considerable amount of modern building. The most famous name connected +with Jesus College is that of Cranmer. Among many others are Sir Thomas +Elyot, John Bale, John Pearson, bishop of Chester, Hugh Peters, Gilbert +Wakefield, Thomas Malthus, Laurence Sterne and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. + +_King's College_ has its fine frontage upon the western side of King's +Parade. It was founded by King Henry VI. in 1441. The first site was +small and circumscribed, and in 1443 the existing site was with +difficulty cleared of dwellings. The king designed a close connexion +between this college and his other foundation at Eton; he provided for a +provost and for seventy scholars, all of whom should be Etonians. In +1861 open scholarships were instituted, and the foundation now consists +of a provost, forty-six fellows and forty-eight scholars. Half the +scholarships are still appropriated to Eton. An administrative +arrangement peculiar to King's College is that by which the provost has +absolute authority within its walls, to the exclusion of officers of the +University. The chief architectural ornament of the college, and one of +the most notable in the town, is the magnificent Perpendicular chapel, +comparable with those of St George at Windsor and Henry VII. at +Westminster Abbey. The building was begun in 1446, and extended (apart +from the interior fittings) over nearly seventy years. Within, the most +splendid features are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout the +chapel, the noble range of stained-glass windows, which date for the +most part from the early part of the 16th century, and the wooden organ +screen, which, with part of the stalls, is of the time of Henry VIII. +The college services are celebrated for the beauty of their music. The +bulk of the other collegiate buildings are of the 18th century or +modern. The old court of King's College is occupied by the modern +university library, north of the chapel; the gateway, a good example +(1444), is preserved. John Frith the Martyr, Richard Croke, Giles +Fletcher, Richard Mulcaster, Sir William Temple, William Oughtred, the +poet Waller, and Horace Walpole and others of his family are among many +illustrious _alumni_ of the college. + +_Magdalene College_ (pronounced Maudlin) stands on the west bank of the +Cam, near the Great Bridge. In 1428 the Benedictines of Crowland Abbey +founded a home for student monks on this site, and in 1519 Edward, duke +of Buckingham, partly secularized this institution by founding +Buckingham College in connexion with it. After the dissolution of the +monastery, Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden, erected Magdalene in place of +the former house in 1542. The foundation consists of a master and seven +fellows, besides scholars. There are some valuable exhibitions +appropriated to Wisbech school. The appointment of the master is +peculiar, the office being in the gift of the occupant of Audley End, an +estate near Saffron Walden, Essex. Some parts of the original building +are preserved, but the most notable portion of the college is the +Pepysian library, dating _c_. 1700. It contains the very valuable +collection of books bequeathed by Samuel Pepys to the college, at which +he was a student. Buckingham College had Archbishop Cranmer as a +lecturer; Charles Kingsley and Charles Stewart Parnell were educated at +Magdalene. + +_Pembroke College_ stands to the east of Trumpington Street. It was +founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, widow of Aylmer de Valence, earl of +Pembroke. Henry VI. made notable benefactions to it. The foundation +consists of a master and thirteen fellows, and there are six +scholarships on the original foundation, besides others of later +institution. The older existing buildings are mainly of the 18th +century, but much of the original fabric was removed and rebuilt in +1874. The chapel is of the middle of the 17th century, and is ascribed +to Sir Christopher Wren. The poets Spenser and Gray, Nicholas Ridley the +martyr, Archbishop Whitgift and William Pitt were associated with this +college; and from the number of bishops whose names are associated with +it the college has obtained the style of _collegium episcopale_. + +_Peterhouse_ or St Peter's College is on the west side of Trumpington +Street, almost opposite Pembroke. It has already been indicated as the +oldest Cambridge college (1284). Hugh de Balsham, the founder, had +settled some secular scholars in the ancient Augustinian Hospital of St +John in 1280, but the experiment was not a success. Nor did he carry out +his full intentions as regards Peterhouse, the foundation of which +followed on the failure of the fusion of his scholars with the hospital; +but Simon Montagu, his successor in the bishopric of Ely, carried on his +work, and in 1344 gave the college a code of statutes in which the +influence of the Merton code is plainly visible. A master and fourteen +fellows formed the original foundation, but the present consists of a +master, and not less than eleven fellows and twenty-three scholars. The +hall retains some original work; it was first built out of a legacy from +the founder. The library building (_c_. 1590) is due to a legacy from Dr +Andrew Perne (master 1554-1580); and Dr Matthew Wren (master +1625-1634), uncle of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, directed +the building of the chapel and cloisters. The most famous name connected +with the college is that of Cardinal Beaufort. + +_Queens' College_ stands at the south of the riverside group, and one of +its ranges of buildings rises immediately from the river. A college of +St Bernard had been established in 1445 by Andrew Docket or Dokett, +rector of St Botolph's church, who had also been principal of a hostel, +or students' lodge, of St Bernard. He sought and obtained the patronage +of Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., who undertook the foundation of +a new house on another site in 1448, to bear the name of Queens'. Docket +became the first master. In 1465 Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward +IV., became the college's second foundress. The foundation consists of a +president and eleven fellows. The buildings are exceedingly picturesque. +The main quadrangle, of red brick, was completed very soon after the +foundation. The smaller cloister court, towards the river, retains +building of the same period, and the beautiful wooden gallery of the +president's lodge deserves notice. Another court is called Erasmus's; +the rooms which he is said to have occupied remain, and a walk in the +college garden across the river bears his name. + +_St Catharine's College_, on the west side of Trumpington Street, was +founded by Dr Robert Woodlark or Wodelarke, chancellor of the university +and (1452) provost of King's College. It was opened in 1473, but the +charter of incorporation dates from 1475. The foundation provided for a +master (Woodlark being the first) and three fellows; there are now six +fellows, and twenty-six scholars. The principal buildings, surrounding a +court on three sides, date mainly from a complete reconstruction of the +college at the close of the 17th century. + +_St John's College_, at the north of the riverside group of colleges, +was founded in 1511 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, also foundress of +Christ's College. It replaced the Hospital of St John, which dated from +the early years of the 13th century, and has been mentioned already in +connexion with Peterhouse. The Lady Margaret died before the college was +firmly established, and her designs were not carried out without many +difficulties, which were overcome chiefly by the exertions of John +Fisher, bishop of Rochester, one of her executors. Thirty-two +fellowships were endowed, but subsequent endowments allowed extension, +and the foundation now consists of a master, fifty-six fellows, sixty +scholars and nine sizars. A large number of exhibitions are appropriated +to special schools. Of the four courts of St John's, the easternmost is +the original, and has a very fine Tudor gateway of brick. The chapel is +modern (1863-1869), an ornate example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. +The second court, practically unaltered, dates from 1508-1602. In this +there is a beautiful Masters' gallery, panelled, with a richly-moulded +ceiling; it is now used as a combination room or fellows' common-room. +The third court, which contains the library (1624), backs on to the +river, and the fourth, which is on the opposite bank, was built _c_. +1830. A covered bridge connects the two, and is commonly called the +Bridge of Sighs from a certain resemblance to the bridge of that name at +Venice. Among the notable names connected with this college are Cecil, +Lord Burghley, Thomas Cartwright, Wentworth, earl of Strafford, Roger +Ascham, Richard Bentley, John Cleveland, the satirist, Thomas Baker, the +historian, Lord Palmerston, Professor Adams, Sir John Herschel, Bishop +Colenso, Dr Benjamin Kennedy, Dean Merivale, Horne Tooke, Samuel Parr +and William Wilberforce, and the poets Herrick (afterwards of Trinity +Hall) and Wordsworth. + +_Selwyn College_, standing west of the river (Sidgwick Avenue), was +founded in 1882 by public subscription in memory of George Augustus +Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand and afterwards of Lichfield, for the +purpose of giving university education with economy "combined," +according to the charter, "with Christian training, based upon the +principles of the Church of England." + +_Sidney Sussex College_ faces Sidney Street. It was founded under the +will (1588) of the Lady Frances Sidney, dowager countess of Sussex (d. +1589), and received its charter in 1596. The foundress provided for a +master, ten fellows and twenty scholars, but thirty-six scholarships +are now provided. The original buildings were of brick, but they were +plastered over and greatly altered by Wyatville about 1830. The Grey +Friars had occupied the site, and part of their buildings remained in +the chapel until 1777. A beautiful block of new buildings, with a +cloister, was erected in 1890. The most famous name associated with the +college is that of Oliver Cromwell, who was a fellow commoner, as also +was Thomas Fuller, author of the _Worthies of England_. + +_Trinity College_, the front of which is on Trinity Street, is the +largest collegiate foundation in Cambridge, and larger than any in +Oxford. It was founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. and absorbed several +earlier institutions--King's Hall (founded by Edward III. in 1336), St +Michael's or Michaelhouse (founded by Hervey de Stanton, chancellor of +the exchequer under Edward II., in 1323), Fyswick or Physick's Hostel, +belonging to Gonville Hall, and other hostels. Henry's original +foundation was for a master and sixty fellows and scholars, but Queen +Mary and other later benefactors enabled extensions to be made, and the +foundation now consists of a master (appointed by the crown), at least +sixty fellows, seventy-four scholars and sixteen sizars, with minor +scholars, chaplains librarian and the regius professors of Divinity, +Hebrew and Greek. Major scholarships are open to undergraduates, not +being of standing to take the degree of bachelor of arts, as well as to +non-members of the university under nineteen years of age, while minor +scholarships and exhibitions are open only to the latter. There are +valuable exhibitions appropriated to certain schools, of which the most +important are those confined to Westminster school. Trinity College is +entered from Trinity Street by the King's Gateway (1518-1535) preserved +from King's Hall, but subsequently altered. The principal or Great Court +is the largest in Cambridge and very fine. Its buildings are of +different dates. In the centre is a picturesque fountain, erected by +Thomas Neville, master (1593-1615), under whose direction much of the +building was carried out. The chapel on the north side of the court was +begun in the reign of Mary. The carved oak fittings within date from the +mastership of Richard Bentley (1700-1742). The organ is particularly +fine. A statue of Sir Isaac Newton by Roubiliac stands in the +antechapel, and Richard Porson and William Whewell are buried here. The +hall on the west of the court is Neville's work (1605), and very +beautiful. The second court is also his foundation and bears his name. +The library on the west side is the work of Sir Christopher Wren. Its +interior is excellent, and besides busts of some of the vast number of +famous men connected with Trinity, it contains a statue of Lord Byron by +the Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen. The New Court, Gothic in style, was +begun in 1823. The beautiful grounds and walks of the college extend +down to and beyond the river. The college has extended its buildings to +the opposite side of Trinity Street, where the two courts known as +Whewell's Hostel were built (c. 1860) at the charge of Dr William +Whewell during his mastership. The eminent _alumni_ of this great +college are too numerous to admit of selection. + +_Trinity Hall_, which lies near the river, south of Trinity, was founded +by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich, in 1350. On the site there had +been, for about twenty years before the foundation, a house of monastic +students from Ely. The present college is alone in preserving the term +Hall in its title. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen +fellows, and the study of law, which the founder had especially in mind, +is provided for by lectureships, and not less than three studentships +tenable by graduates of the college. The buildings are for the most part +modern or modernized, but the interior of the library well preserves its +character of the early part of the 17th century. + + + University buildings. + +Of the churches of Cambridge one has long been recognized as the church +of the university, namely Great St Mary's, which stands in the centre of +the town, between King's Parade and Market Hill. It is a fine +Perpendicular structure, founded in 1478; but the tower was not +completed until 1608. Some Decorated details are preserved from a former +building. The university preachers deliver their sermons in this +church, but it was formerly the meeting-place of the university for the +transaction of business, for learned disputations and for secular +festivals. The "Cambridge chimes" struck by the clock are famous, and a +curfew is rung each evening on the great bell. The Senate House, +standing opposite Great St Mary's, dates from 1730 and is classical in +style. The buildings of the university library, in the immediate +vicinity, enclose two quadrangles, and in part occupy the site of the +old court of King's College. One of the quadrangles was formerly +occupied by the schools or lecture rooms, but as the library grew it +usurped their place. Important modern additions date from 1842, 1864 and +1888. The facade of the old schools is an excellent work of 1758. The +library is one of those which is entitled to receive, under the +Copyright Act, a copy of every book published in the United Kingdom. The +Fitzwilliam Museum, a massive classical building, was begun in 1837 to +contain the bibliographical and art collection bequeathed by Richard, +Viscount Fitzwilliam, in 1816. The museum of archaeology (classical, +general and local, 1884), is connected with the Fitzwilliam Museum. The +Pitt Press (1833), housing the university printing establishment, was +begun out of the residue of a fund for erecting the statues of William +Pitt in Hanover Square, London, and Westminster Abbey. It stands near +Pembroke, Pitt's college. The Selwyn Divinity School (1879), opposite St +John's College, was built largely at the charge of Dr William Selwyn, +Lady Margaret professor of divinity. The museums and lecture rooms +(begun in 1863) are extensive buildings on each side of Downing Street. +Included in these are the museum of zoology, which had its origin in +collections made by Sir Busick Harwood, professor of anatomy in +1785-1814, and contains the collection of fishes made by Charles Darwin +in the ship "Beagle"; the medical school, botanical museum and +herbarium, mineralogical museum, engineering laboratory (1894), optical +and astronomical lecture room, chemical laboratory (1887), and the +Cavendish laboratory for physical research (1874), the gift of William +Cavendish, 7th duke of Devonshire and chancellor of the university. The +Sedgwick Geological Museum, opened by King Edward VII. in 1904, +commemorates Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian professor of geology, and +originated in the collections of Dr John Woodward (d. 1728). Adjoining +this building, in Downing Street is the law library, founded on a +bequest from Miss Rebecca Flower Squire (d. 1898) with the law school. +The observatory (1824) is on the outskirts of the town in Madingley +Road, and the botanic garden (founded 1762, and removed to its present +site in 1831) borders Trumpington Road. The club-rooms and debating hall +of the Cambridge Union Society are adjacent to the Holy Sepulchre +church. + +The non-collegiate students of the university (i.e. those who receive +the university education and possess the same status as collegiate +students without belonging to any college) have lecture and other rooms +and a library in Fitzwilliam Hall. This body was created in 1869. The +students reside in lodgings. There are two women's colleges--Girton, +established in 1873 on the north-western outskirts of the town, having +been previously opened at Hitchin in 1869, and Newnham (1875), +originally (1873) a hall of residence for students attending special +lectures for women. Among other educational establishments mention must +be made of the Leys school, founded in 1875 by prominent Wesleyans for +non-sectarian education, and the Perse School, an ancient foundation +remodelled in 1902. + + + Non-university buildings. + +Out of a number of ancient churches in Cambridge, two, besides Great St +Mary's, deserve special notice. In St Benedict's or Benet's, which has +been already mentioned in connexion with Corpus College, the tower is of +great interest, being the oldest surviving building in Cambridge, of +pre-Norman workmanship, having rude ornamentation on the exterior and +the tower arch within. The church of the Holy Sepulchre in Bridge Street +is one of the four ancient round churches in England. Its supposed date +is 1120-1140, but although it is doubtless to be associated with the +Knights Templars, the circumstances of its foundation are not known. +The chancel is practically a modern reconstruction, and an extensive +restoration, which has been adversely criticized, was applied by the +Cambridge Camden Society to the whole fabric in 1841. At several of the +villages neighbouring or suburban to Cambridge there are churches of +interest, as at Chesterton, Trumpington, Grantchester (where the name +indicates a Roman station, borne out by the discovery of remains), Fen +Ditton and Barnwell, near which is the Norman Sturbridge chapel. In +Cambridge itself there is a Norman house, much altered, which by a +tradition of unknown origin bears the name of the School of Pythagoras. + + + University constitution and administration. + +The university is a corporate body, including all the colleges. These, +however, are also corporations in themselves, and have their own +statutes, but they are further subject to the paramount laws of the +university. The university statutes of Queen Elizabeth were only +replaced in 1858. The statutes as revised by a commission in that year +were soon found to require emendation; in 1872 another commission was +appointed, and in 1882 new statutes received the approval of the queen +in council. The head of the university is the chancellor. He is a member +of the university, of high rank and position, elected by the senate. +Being generally non-resident, he delegates his administrative duties to +the vice-chancellor, who is the head of a college, and is elected for +one year by the senate. The principal executive officers under the +vice-chancellor are as follows. The two proctors have as their main duty +that of disciplinary officers over the members of the university _in +statu pupillari_. In each year two colleges nominate one proctor each, +according to a fixed rotation which gives the larger colleges a more +frequent choice than the smaller. The proctors are assisted by four +pro-proctors. The public orator is the spokesman of the senate upon such +public occasions as the conferring of honorary degrees. The librarian +has charge of the university library. The registrary, with his +assistant, records the proceedings of the senate, &c., and has charge of +documents. The university returns two members to parliament, elected by +the members of the senate. The chancellor and _sex viri_ (elected by the +senate) form a court for offences against the university statutes by +members not _in statu pupillari_. The chancellor and six heads of +colleges, appointed by the senate, form a court of discipline for +members _in statu pupillari_. + + + Senate. + +The senate in congregation is the legislative body. Those who have votes +in it are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of divinity, law, +medicine, science, letters and music, and masters of art, law, surgery +and music. The council of the senate, consisting of the chancellor, +vice-chancellor, four heads of colleges, four professors and eight other +members of the senate chosen by the vice-chancellor, brings all +proposals (called Graces) before the senate. The revenues of the +university are derived chiefly from fees at matriculation, for certain +examinations, and for degrees, from a tax upon all members of the +university, and from contributions by the colleges, together with the +profits of the University Press. A financial board, consisting of the +vice-chancellor _ex officio_ and certain elected members, administers +the finances of the university. There are boards for each of the various +faculties, and a General Board of Studies, with the vice-chancellor at +the head. There are university professors, readers or lecturers in a +large number of subjects. The oldest professorship is the Lady Margaret +professorship of divinity, instituted by the founders of Christ's and St +John's Colleges in 1502. In 1540 Henry VIII. founded the regius +professorships of divinity, civil law, physic, Hebrew and Greek. + + + College organization--undergraduates. + +The head of a college generally bears the title of master, as indicated +above in the account of the several colleges. It has also seen that the +foundation of each college includes a certain number of fellows and +scholars. The affairs of the college are managed by the head and the +fellows, or a committee of fellows. The scholars and other members _in +statu pupillari_ are generally termed collectively undergraduates. Those +who receive no emoluments (and therefore pay the full fees) are +technically called pensioners, and form the bulk of the undergraduates. +Another group of students receiving emoluments are termed sizars; the +primary object of sizarships is to open the university course to men of +limited means. The title of fellow-commoners belongs to wealthy students +who pay special fees and have the right of dining at the fellows' +tables. This class has virtually ceased to exist. As regards his work, +the undergraduate in college is under the intimate direction of his +tutor; the disciplinary officer in college is the dean. Besides the +foundation scholarships in each college there are generally certain +scholarships and exhibitions founded by private or special benefactions; +these are frequently awarded for the encouragement of specific branches +of study, or are confined wholly, or by preference, to students from +certain schools. + + + Residence and examinations. + +The total number of students is about 3000. The colleges cannot +accommodate this number, so that a student commonly spends some part of +his residence in lodgings, which are licensed by, and under the control +of, the university authorities. Such residence implies no sacrifice of +membership of a college. There are three terms--Michaelmas (October), +Lent and Easter (summer). They include together not less than 227 days, +though the actual period of residence for undergraduates is about 24 +weeks annually. Undergraduates usually begin residence in Michaelmas +term. An elementary examination or other evidence of qualification is +required for admission to a college. After nine terms' (three years') +residence an undergraduate can take the first degree, that of bachelor +of arts (B.A.). The examinations required for the ordinary B.A. degree +are--(1) Previous examination or Little-go (usually taken in the first +term of residence or at least in the first year), including classics, +mathematics and a gospel in Greek and Paley's _Evidences of +Christianity_, or an additional Greek or Latin classic and logic. (2) +General examination in classics and mathematics, with a portion of +English history, &c. (3) Special examination in a subject other than +classical or mathematical. Candidates for honours are required to pass +the Previous examination with certain additional subjects; they then +have only a "tripos" examination in one of the following +subjects--mathematics, classics, moral sciences, natural sciences, +theology, law, history, oriental languages, medieval and modern +languages, mechanical sciences, economics. The mathematical tripos is +divided into two parts, in the first of which, down to 1909, the +candidates were classed in the result as Wranglers, Senior Optimes and +Junior Optimes. There was also an individual order of merit, the most +proficient candidate being placed at the head of the list as Senior +Wrangler. But in 1906 a number of important reforms of this tripos were +proposed by the Mathematical Board, and among these the abolition of the +individual order of merit was recommended and passed by the senate. It +is not employed in any other tripos. The classical tripos is also in two +parts, to the second of which certain kindred subjects are added +(ancient philosophy, history, &c.). Individual order of merit is not +observed in either part, the candidates being grouped in classes. There +are a large number of university prizes and scholarships on special +foundations. Such are the Smith's prizes for mathematics and natural +philosophy, on the foundation (1768) of Robert Smith, master of Trinity, +awarded up to 1883 after examination, but since then for an essay on +some branch of each subject, and the Chancellor's medals, of which two +have been awarded annually in classics since the foundation of the +prizes in 1751 by Thomas Holles, duke of Newcastle. + + + Affiliated colleges. + +The university may adopt as affiliated colleges institutions in the +United Kingdom or in any part of the British empire which fulfil certain +conditions as to the education of adult students. Attendance at these +institutions is counted as equivalent to a certain period of residence +at Cambridge University in the event of a student wishing to pursue his +work here. There are over twenty such affiliated colleges. There are +also, in England, certain "affiliated centres." These are towns in which +there is no affiliated college, but students who have there attended a +course of education managed in connexion with the university by a +committee may enter the university with privileges similar to those +enjoyed by students from affiliated colleges. + + + May week. + +The principal social function of the university is the "May Week" at the +close of the Easter term. It actually takes place in June and lasts +longer than a week. There is a great influx of visitors into Cambridge +for this occasion. The first four days are occupied by the college +boat-races on the Cam, and on subsequent days there are college balls, +concerts, theatrical performances and other entertainments. On the +Tuesday after the races there is a Congregation, at which prize +exercises are recited, and usually, but not invariably, a number of +honorary degrees are conferred on eminent men by invitation. This final +period of the academic year is called Commencement, or in Latin _Comitia +Maxim_. + + AUTHORITIES.--For details of the administration of the university and + colleges, regulations as to studies, prizes, scholarships, &c., see + the annual _Cambridge University Calendar_ and _The Students' Handbook + to the University and Colleges of Cambridge_; see also R. Willis and + J.W. Clark, _Architectural History of the University of Cambridge_ (3 + vols., Cambridge, 1886); J. Bass Mullinger, _History of the University + of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to the Accession of Charles I._ + (2 vols., 1873-1884; third vol., 1909); and smaller _History of + Cambridge_, in Longman's "Epoch" Series (1888); J.W. Clark, + _Cambridge, Historical and Picturesque_ (London, 1890); T.D. Atkinson, + _Cambridge Described and Illustrated_, with introduction by J.W. Clark + (London, 1897); F.W. Maitland, _Township and Borough_ (Cambridge, + 1898); C.W. Stubbs, _Cambridge_, in "Mediaeval Towns" series (London, + 1905); Arthur Gray, _The Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge_ + (publications of the Cambridge Antiquarian Soc., new ser. No. I, + Cambridge, 1908); J.W. Clark, _Liber memorandorum ecclesie de + Bernewelle_ (Cambridge, 1907), with an introduction by F.W. Maitland. + For the individual colleges, see the series of _College Histories_, by + various authors (London, 1899 et seq.). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See also UNIVERSITIES. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Dorchester county, Maryland, +U.S.A., on the Choptank river, near Chesapeake Bay, about 60 m. S.E. of +Baltimore. Pop. (1890) 4192; (1900) 5747 (1958 being negroes); (1910) +6407. It is served by the Cambridge branch of the Philadelphia, +Baltimore & Washington railway (Pennsylvania railway), which connects +with the main line at Seaford, 30 m. distant, and with the Baltimore, +Chesapeake & Atlantic at Hurlock, 16 m. distant; and by steamers of the +Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway company. It is a business +centre for the prosperous farming region by which it is surrounded, and +is a shipping point for oysters and fish; among its manufactures are +canned fruits and vegetables, flour, hominy, phosphates, underwear and +lumber. Cambridge was founded in 1684, received its present name in +1686, and was chartered as a city in 1900. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and one of the county-seats of Middlesex county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Charles river, in the outskirts +of Boston, of which it is in effect a part, although under separate +government. Pop. (1880) 52,669; (1890) 70,028; (1900) 91,886; (1910 +census) 104,839. Of the total population in 1900, 30,446 were +foreign-born, including 11,235 Irish, 9613 English Canadians, 1944 +English, 1483 French Canadians and 1584 Swedish; and 54,200 were of +foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 24,961 of Irish +parentage, 9829 of English-Canadian parentage, 2587 of English +parentage, and 2288 of French-Canadian parentage. Cambridge is entered +directly by only one railway, the Boston & Maine. The township, now +practically built over by the city, contained originally several +separate villages, the names of which are still used as a convenience in +designating corresponding sections of the municipality: Old Cambridge, +North Cambridge, Cambridgeport and East Cambridge, the last two being +manufacturing and commercial districts. + +Old Cambridge is noted as the seat of Harvard University (q.v.) and as a +literary and scientific centre. Radcliffe College (1879), for women, +practically a part of Harvard; an Episcopal Theological School (1867), +and the New Church (Swedenborgian or New Jerusalem) Theological School +(1866) are other educational institutions of importance. To Cambridge +also, in 1908, was removed Andover Theological Seminary, a +Congregational institution chartered in 1807, opened in Andover, +Massachusetts, in 1808 (re-incorporated under separate trustees in +1907). This seminary is one of the oldest and most famous theological +institutions in the United States; it grew out of the theological +teaching previously given in Phillips Academy, and was founded by the +widow of Lt.-Governor Samuel Phillips, her son John Phillips and Samuel +Abbot (1732-1812). The instruction was strongly Calvinistic in the +earlier period, but the seminary has always been "equally open to +Protestants of every denomination." Very liberal aid is given to +students, and there is no charge for tuition. The _Bibliotheca Sacra_, +founded in 1843 by Edward Robinson and in 1844 taken over by Professors +Bela B. Edwards and Edwards A. Park, and the _Andover Review_ +(1884-1893), have been the organs of the seminary. In 1886 some of its +professors published _Progressive Orthodoxy_, a book which made a great +stir by its liberal tone, its opposition to supernaturalism and its +evident trend toward the methods of German "higher criticism." Legal +proceedings for the removal of five professors, after the publication of +this book, failed; and their successful defence helped to secure greater +freedom in thought and in instruction in American Presbyterian and +Congregational theological seminaries. The seminary is now affiliated +with Harvard University, though it remains independent and autonomous. + +Cambridge is a typical New England city, built up in detached +residences, with irregular streets pleasantly shaded, and a considerable +wealth of historic and literary associations. There are many reminders +of the long history of Harvard, and of the War of Independence. +Cambridge was the site of the camp of the first American army, at the +outbreak of the war, and from it went the detachment which intrenched on +Bunker's Hill. Here are the Apthorp House (built in 1760), in which +General Burgoyne and his officers were lodged as prisoners of war in +1777; the elm under which, according to tradition, Washington took +command of the Continental Army on the 3rd of July 1775; the old Vassall +or Craigie House (1759), where Washington lived in 1775-1776, and which +was later the home of Edward Everett, Joseph E. Worcester, Jared Sparks +and (1837-1882) Henry W. Longfellow. Elbridge Gerry lived and James +Russell Lowell was born, lived and died in "Elmwood" (built in 1767); +Oliver Wendell Holmes was born in Cambridge also; John Fiske, the +historian, lived here; and there are many other literary associations, +attractive and important for those interested in American letters. In Mt +Auburn Cemetery are buried many artists, poets, scholars and other men +and women of fame. Cambridge is one of the few American cities +possessing a crematorium (1900). The municipal water-works are +excellent. A handsome bridge joining Cambridgeport to Boston (cost about +$2,250,000) was opened late in 1906. Four other bridges span the Charles +river between the two cities. A dam between East Cambridge and Boston, +traversed by a roadway 150 ft. wide, was in the process of construction +in 1907; and an extension of the Boston subway into Cambridge to the +grounds of Harvard University, a distance of about 3 m., was projected. +The city government is administered almost entirely under the state +civil-service laws, Cambridge having been a leader in the adoption of +its provisions. A non-partisan association for political reform did +excellent work from 1890 to 1900, when it was superseded by a +non-partisan party. Since 1887 the city has declared yearly by +increasing majorities for prohibition of the liquor traffic. The high +schools enjoy a notable reputation. A handsome city hall (cost $235,000) +and public library (as well as a manual training school) were given to +the city by Frederick H. Rindge, a one-time resident, whose benefactions +to Cambridge aggregated in value $650,000. Cambridge has many +manufacturing establishments, and in 1905 the city's factory products +were valued at $42,407,064, an increase of 45.8% over their value in +1900. The principal manufactures are slaughtering and meat-packing +products, foundry and machine-shop products, rubber boots and shoes, +rubber belting and hose, printing and publishing products, carpentering, +pianos and organs, confectionery and furniture. Cambridge is one of the +chief publishing centres of the country. The tax valuation of property +in 1906 ($105,153,235) was more than $1000 per inhabitant. + +Cambridge is "one of the few American towns that may be said to have +owed their very name and existence to the pursuit of letters" (T.W. +Higginson). Its site was selected in 1630 by Governor Winthrop and +others as suitable for fortifications and defence, and it was intended +to make it the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; but as Boston's +peninsular position gave it the advantage in commerce and in defence +against the Indians, the plan fell through, although up to 1638 various +sessions of the general court and particular courts were held here. The +township records (published) are continuous since 1632. A direct tax for +the wooden "pallysadoe" about Cambridge led the township of Watertown in +1632 to make the first protest in America against taxation without +representation. The settlement was first known as the "New Towne," but +in 1638 was named Cambridge in honour of the English Cambridge, where +several score of the first immigrants to the colony were educated. The +oldest college in America (Harvard) was founded here in 1636. In 1639 +there was set up in Cambridge the first printing press of British North +America (Boston having none until 1676). Other notable dates in history +are 1637 and 1647, when general synods of New England churches met at +Cambridge to settle disputed doctrine and define orthodoxy; the +departure for Connecticut of Thomas Hooker's congregation in 1636; the +meeting of the convention that framed the present constitution of the +commonwealth, 1779-1780; the separation of the Congregationalists and +Unitarians of the first parish church, in 1829; and the grant of a city +charter in 1846. The original township of Cambridge was very large, and +there have been successively detached from it, Newton (1691), Lexington +(1713), Brighton (1837) and Arlington (1867). + + See Lucius R. Paige, _History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630-1877_ + (Boston, Mass., 1877); T.W. Higginson, _Old Cambridge_ (New York, + 1899); Arthur Gilman (ed.), _The Cambridge of Eighteen Hundred and + Ninety-Six_ (Cambridge, 1896); and _Historic Guide to Cambridge_ + (Cambridge, 1907.) + + + + +CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Guernsey county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on Wills Creek, about 75 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4361; +(1900) 8241, of whom 407 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,327. It is +served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and is +connected by an electric line with Byesville (pop. in 1910, 3156), about +7 m. S. Cambridge is built on a hill about 800 ft. above sea-level. +There is a public library. Coal, oil, natural gas, clay and iron are +found in the vicinity, and among the city's manufactures are iron, +steel, glass, furniture and pottery. The value of its factory products +in 1905 was $2,440,917. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works. Cambridge was first settled in 1798 by emigrants from the +island of Guernsey (whence the name of the county); was laid out as a +town in 1806; was incorporated as a village in 1837; and was chartered +as a city in 1893. + + + + +CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS, a school of philosophico-religious thinkers which +flourished mainly at Cambridge University in the second half of the 17th +century. The founder was Benjamin Whichcote and the chief members were +Ralph Cudworth, Richard Cumberland, Joseph Glanvill, Henry More and John +Norris (see separate articles). Other less important members were +Nathanael Culverwel (d. 1651?), Theophilus Gale (1628-1678), John +Pordage (1607-1681), George Rust (d. 1670), John Smith (1618-1652) and +John Worthington (1618-1671). They represented liberal thought at the +time and were generally known as Latitudinarians. Their views were due +to a reaction against three main tendencies in contemporary English +thought: the sacerdotalism of Laud and his followers, the obscurantist +sectaries and, most important of all, the doctrines of Hobbes. They +consist chiefly of a reconciliation between reason and religion, +resulting in a generally tolerant spirit. They tend always to mysticism +and the contemplation of things transcendental. In spite of inaccuracy +and the lack of critical capacity in dealing with their authorities both +ancient and modern, the Cambridge Platonists exercised a valuable +influence on English theology and thought in general. Their chief +contributions to thought were Cudworth's theory of the "plastic nature" +of God, More's elaborate mysticism, Norris's appreciation of +Malebranche, Glanvill's conception of scepticism as an aid to Faith, +and, in a less degree, the harmony of Faith and Reason elaborated by +Culverwel. The one doctrine on which they all combined to lay especial +emphasis was the absolute existence of right and wrong quite apart from +the theory of divine authority. Their chief authorities were Plato and +the Neo-platonists (between whom they made no adequate distinction), and +among modern philosophers, Descartes, Malebranche and Boehme. From these +sources they attempted to evolve a philosophy of religion, which would +not only refute the views of Hobbes, but would also free theology +finally from the errors of scholasticism, without plunging it in the +newer dangers of unfettered rationalism (see ETHICS). + + See Tulloch, _Rational Theology in England in the 17th Century_; + Hallam, _Literature of Europe_ (chap, on Philosophy from 1650 to + 1700); Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_; von Stein, _Sieben Bucher + zur Geschichte des Platonismus_ (1862), and works on individual + philosophers appended to biographies. + + + + +CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by +Lincolnshire, E. by Norfolk and Suffolk, S. by Essex and Hertfordshire, +and W. by Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire. The area +is 858.9 sq. m. The greater part of the county falls within the district +of the Fens, and is flat, elevated only a few feet above sea-level, and +intersected with innumerable drainage channels. The physical +characteristics of this district, and the history of its reclamation +from a marshy and in great part uninhabitable condition, fall for +consideration under the heading FENS. Except in the south of the county +the scenery of the flat land is hardly ever varied by rising ground or +wood, and owes the attraction it possesses rather to individuality than +to beauty. At the south-eastern and southern boundaries, and to the west +of Cambridge, bordering the valley of the Cam on the north, the land +rises in gentle undulations; but for the rest, such elevations as the +Gog Magog Hills, S.E. of Cambridge, and the gentle hillock on which the +city of Ely stands, are isolated and conspicuous from afar. The +principal rivers are the Ouse and its tributaries in the south and +centre, and the Nene in the north; the greater part of the waters of +both these rivers within Cambridgeshire flow in artificial channels, of +which those for the Ouse, two great parallel cuts between Earith and +Denver Sluice, in Norfolk, called the Bedford Rivers, form the most +remarkable feature in the drainage of the county. The old main channel +of the Ouse, from Ely downward to Denver (below which are tidal waters), +is filled chiefly by the waters of the Cam or Granta, which joins the +Ouse 3 m. above Ely, the Lark (which with its feeder, the Kennett, forms +the boundary of the county with Suffolk for a considerable distance) and +the Little Ouse, forming part of the boundary with Norfolk. + +_Geology_.--By its geological features, Cambridgeshire is divisible into +three well-marked regions; in the south and south-east are the low +uplands formed by the Chalk; north of this, but best developed in the +south-west, is a clay and greensand area; all the remaining portion is +alluvial Fenland. The general strike of the rocks is along a south-west +and north-east line, the dip is south-easterly. The oldest rock is the +Jurassic Oxford Clay, which appears as an irregular strip of elevated +flat ground reaching from Croxton by Conington and Fenny Drayton to +Willingham and Rampton. Eastward and northward it no doubt forms the +floor of the Fen country, and at Thorney and Whittlesea small patches +rise like islands, through the level fen alluvium. The Coralline Oolite, +with the Els worth or St Ives rock at the base, occurs as a small patch, +covered by Greensand, at Upware, whence many fossils have been obtained; +elsewhere its place is taken by the Ampthill Clays, which are passage +beds between the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. The latter clay lies in a +narrow strip by Papworth St Agnes, Oakington and Cottenham; a large +irregular outcrop surrounds Haddenham and Ely, and similar occurrences +are at March, Chatteris and Manea. Above the Kimmeridge Clay comes the +Lower Greensand, sandy for the greater part, but here and there +hardened into the condition known as "Carstone," which has been used as +an inferior building-stone. This formation is thickest in the +south-west; it extends from the border by Gamlingay, Cuxton and +Cottenham, and appears again in outliers at Upware, Ely and Haddenham. +The Gault forms a strip of flat ground, 4 to 6 m. wide, running roughly +parallel with the course of the river Cam, from Guilden Morden through +Cambridge to Soham; it is a stiff blue clay 200 ft. thick in the +south-west, but is thinner eastward. At the bottom of the chalk is the +Chalk Marl, 10 to 20 ft. thick, with a glauconitic and phosphatic +nodule-bearing layer at its base, known as the Cambridge Greensand. This +bed has been largely worked for the nodules and for cement; it contains +many fossils derived from the Gault below. Several outliers of Chalk +Marl lie upon the Gault west of the Cam. The Chalk comprises all the +main divisions of the formation, including the Totternhoe stone, +Melbourn rock and Chalk rock. Much glacial boulder clay covers all the +higher ground of the county; it is a stiff brownish clay with many chalk +fragments of travelled rocks. Near Ely there is a remarkable mass of +chalk, evidently transported by ice, resting on and surrounded by +boulder clay. Plateau gravel caps some of the chalk hills, and old river +gravels occur at lower levels with the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros and +other extinct mammals. The low-lying Fen beds are marly silt with +abundant peat beds and buried forests; at the bottom is a gravel layer +of marine origin. + +_Industries_.--The climate is as a whole healthy, the fens being so +carefully drained that diseases to which dwellers in marshy districts +are commonly liable are practically eliminated. The land is very +fertile, and although some decrease is generally apparent in the acreage +under grain crops, Cambridgeshire is one of the principal +grain-producing counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total +area is under cultivation, and an unusually small proportion is under +permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop, but large quantities +of barley and oats are also grown. Among green crops potatoes occupy a +large and increasing area. Dairy-farming is especially practised in the +south-west, where the district of the Cam valley has long been known as +the Dairies; and much butter and cheese are sent to the London markets. +Sheep are pastured extensively on the higher ground, but the number of +these and of cattle for the county as a whole is not large. Beans occupy +a considerable acreage, and fruit-growing and market-gardening are +important in many parts. There is no large manufacturing industry common +to the county in general; among minor trades brewing is carried on at +several places, and brick-making and lime-burning may also be mentioned. + +_Communications_.--The principal railway serving the county is the Great +Eastern, of which system numerous branch lines centre chiefly upon +Cambridge, Ely and March. Cambridge is also served by branches of the +Great Northern line from Hitchin, of the London & North-Western from +Bletchley and Bedford, and of the Midland from Kettering. A trunk line +connecting the eastern counties with the north and north-west of England +runs northward from March under the joint working of the Great Northern +and Great Eastern companies. The artificial waterways provide the county +with an extensive system of inland navigation; and a considerable +proportion of the industrial population is employed on these. In this +connexion the building of boats and barges is carried on at several +towns. + +_Population and Administration_.--The area of the ancient county is +549,723 acres, with a population in 1891 of 188,961, and in 1901 of +190,682. The ancient county includes the two administrative counties of +Cambridge in the south and the Isle of Ely in the north. The liberty of +the Isle of Ely was formerly of the independent nature of a county +palatine, but ceased to be so under acts of 1836 and 1837. Its area is +238,048 acres, and that of the administrative county of Cambridge +315,171 acres. Cambridgeshire contains seventeen hundreds. The municipal +boroughs are Cambridge, the county town (pop. 38,379), in the +administrative county of Cambridge, and Wisbech (9381) in the Isle of +Ely. The other urban districts are--in the administrative county of +Cambridge, Chesterton (9591), and in the Isle of Ely, Chatteris (4711), +Ely (7713), March (7565) and Whittlesey (3909). Among other considerable +towns Soham (4230) and Littleport (4181), both in the neighbourhood of +Ely, may be mentioned. The town of Newmarket, which, although wholly +within the administrative county of West Suffolk, is mainly in the +ancient county of Cambridgeshire, is famous for its race-meetings. The +county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at +Cambridge. Each administrative county has a court of quarter sessions, +and the two are divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The borough +of Cambridge has a separate court of quarter sessions, and this borough +and Wisbech have separate commissions of the peace. The university of +Cambridge exercises disciplinary jurisdiction over its members. There +are 168 entire civil parishes in the two administrative counties. +Cambridgeshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Ely and the +archdeaconries of Ely and Sudbury, but small portions are within the +dioceses of St Albans and Norwich. There are 194 ecclesiastical parishes +or districts wholly or in part within the county. The parliamentary +divisions are three, namely, Northern or Wisbech, Western or Chesterton, +and Eastern or Newmarket, each returning one member. The county also +contains the parliamentary borough of Cambridge, returning one member; +and the university of Cambridge returns two members. + +_History_.--The earliest English settlements in what is now +Cambridgeshire were made about the 6th century by bands of Engles, who +pushed their way up the Ouse and the Cam, and established themselves in +the fen-district, where they became known as the Gyrwas, the districts +corresponding to the modern counties of Huntingdonshire and +Cambridgeshire being distinguished as the lands of the North Gyrwas and +the South Gyrwas respectively. At this period the fen-district stretched +southward as far as Cambridge, and the essential unity which it +preserved is illustrated later by its inclusion under one sheriff, +chosen in successive years from Cambridgeshire proper, the Isle of Ely +and Huntingdonshire. In 656 numerous lands in the neighbourhood of +Wisbech were included in the endowment of the abbey of Peterborough, and +in the same century religious houses were established at Ely and +Thorney, both of which, however, were destroyed during the Danish +invasions of the 9th century. After the treaty of Wedmore the district +became part of the Danelaw. On the expulsion of the Danes by Edward in +the 10th century it was included in East Anglia, but in the 11th century +was again overrun by the Danes, who in the course of their devastations +burnt Cambridge. The first mention of the shire in the Saxon Chronicle +records the valiant resistance which it opposed to the invaders in 1010 +when the rest of East Anglia had taken ignominious flight. The +shire-system of East Anglia was in all probability not definitely +settled before the Conquest, but during the Danish occupation of the 9th +century the district possessed a certain military and political +organization round Cambridge, its chief town, whence probably originated +the constitution and demarcation of the later shire. At the time of the +Domesday Survey the county was divided as now, except that the Isle of +Ely, which then formed two hundreds having their meeting-place at +Witchford, is now divided into the four hundreds of Ely, Wisbech, North +Witchford and South Witchford, while Cambridge formed a hundred by +itself. The hundred of Flendish was then known as Flamingdike. +Cambridgeshire was formerly included in the diocese of Lincoln, until, +on the erection of Ely to a bishop's see in 1109, almost the whole +county was placed in that diocese. In 1291 the whole county, with the +exception of parishes in the deanery of Fordham and diocese of Norwich, +constituted the archdeaconry of Ely, comprising the deaneries of Ely, +Wisbech, Chesterton, Cambridge, Shingay, Bourn, Barton and Camps. The +Isle of Ely formerly constituted an independent franchise in which the +bishops exercised quasi-palatinate rights, and offences were held to be +committed against the bishop's peace. These privileges were considerably +abridged in the reign of Henry VIII., but the Isle still had separate +civil officers, appointed by the bishop, chief among whom were the +chief justice, chief bailiff, deputy bailiff and two coroners. The +bishop is still _custos rotulorum_ of the Isle. Cambridgeshire has +always been remarkable for its lack of county families, and for the +frequent changes in the ownership of estates. No Englishmen retained +lands of any importance after the Conquest, and at the time of the +Domesday Survey the chief lay proprietors were Alan, earl of Brittany, +whose descendants the Zouches retained estates in the county until the +15th century; Picot the sheriff, whose estates passed to the families of +Peverell and Peche; Aubrey de Vere, whose descendants retained their +estates till the 16th century; and Hardwinus de Scalariis, ancestor of +the Scales of Whaddon. + +From the time of Hereward's famous resistance to the Conqueror in the +fen-district, the Isle of Ely was intimately concerned with the great +political struggles of the country. It was defended against Stephen by +Bishop Nigellus of Ely, who fortified Ely and Aldreth, and the latter in +1144 was held for the empress Maud by Geoffrey de Mandeville. During the +struggles between John and his barons, Faukes de Breaute was made +governor of Cambridge Castle, which, however, surrendered to the barons +in the same year. The Isle of Ely was seized by the followers of Simon +de Montfort in 1266, but in 1267 was taken by Prince Edward. At the +Reformation period the county showed much sympathy with the Reformers, +and in 1642 the knights, gentry and commoners of Cambridgeshire +petitioned for the removal of all unwarrantable orders and dignities, +and the banishment of popish clergy. In the civil war of the 17th +century Cambridgeshire was one of the associated counties in which the +king had no visible party, though the university assisted him with +contributions of plate and money. + +Cambridgeshire has always been mainly an agricultural county. The +Domesday Survey mentions over ninety mills and numerous valuable +fisheries, especially eel-fisheries, and contains frequent references to +wheat, malt and honey. The county had a flourishing wool-industry in the +14th century, and became noted for its worsted cloths. The Black Death +of 1349 and the ravages committed during the Wars of the Roses were +followed by periods of severe depression, and in 1439 several +Cambridgeshire towns obtained a remission of taxation on the plea of +poverty. In the 16th century barley for malt was grown in large +quantities in the south, and the manufacture of willow-baskets was +carried on in the fen-districts. Saffron was extensively cultivated in +the 18th century, and paper was manufactured near Sturbridge. Sturbridge +fair was at this period reckoned the largest in Europe, the chief +articles of merchandise being wool, hops and leather; and the Newmarket +races and horse-trade were already famous. Large waste areas were +brought under cultivation in the 17th century through the drainage of +the fen-district, which was brought to completion about 1652 through the +labours of Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman. The coprolite industry was +very profitable for a short period from 1850 to 1880, and its decline +was accompanied by a general industrial and agricultural depression. +Cambridgeshire returned three members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 +the county returned two members, the borough of Cambridge two members, +and the city of Ely two members, this being the sole return for Ely. The +university was summoned to return members in 1300 and again in 1603, but +no returns are recorded before 1614, after which it continued to return +two members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned three +members. + +_Antiquities_.--In ecclesiastical architecture Cambridgeshire would be +rich only in the possession of the magnificent cathedral at Ely and the +round church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jesus College and King's College +chapels, and many other examples in Cambridge. But there are many fine +churches elsewhere. At Thorney, a small town in the north of the county, +which owes much in appearance to the 8th duke of Bedford (d. 1872), the +parish church is actually a portion of the church of an abbey said to +date originally from the 7th century, and refounded in 972 by Ethelwold, +bishop of Winchester, as a Benedictine monastery. The church is partly +fine Norman. Another Norman building of special interest is Sturbridge +chapel near Cambridge, which belonged to a lepers' hospital. To this +foundation King John granted a fair, which became, and continued until +the 18th century, one of the most important in England. It is still held +in September. At Swaffham Prior there are remains of two churches in one +churchyard, the tower of one being good Transitional Norman, while that +of the other is Perpendicular, the upper part octagonal. Among many +Early English examples the church of Cherry Hinton near Cambridge may be +mentioned. The churches of Trumpington and Bottisham are fine specimens +of the Decorated style; in the first is a famous brass to Sir Roger de +Trumpington (1289). As Perpendicular examples the tower and spire of St +Mary's, Whittlesey, and the rich wooden roof of Outwell church, may be +selected. Monastic remains are scanty. Excluding the town of Cambridge +there are no domestic buildings, either ancient or modern, of special +note, with the exception of Sawston Hall, in the south of the county, a +quadrangular mansion dated 1557-1584. + + AUTHORITIES.--See D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_, vol. ii. part + i. (London, 1808); C.C. Babington, _Ancient Cambridgeshire_ + (Cambridge, 1883); R. Bowes, _Catalogue of Books printed at or + relating to Cambridge_ (Cambridge, 1891 et seq.); E. Conybeare, + _History of Cambridgeshire_ (London, 1897); _Victoria County History, + Cambridgeshire_. + + + + +CAMBUSLANG, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is situated near the +Clyde, 4-1/2 m. S.E. of Glasgow (of which it is a residential suburb) by +the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891) 8323; (1901) 12,252. Its leading +industries include coal-mining, turkey-red dyeing and brick-making. It +contains one of the largest steel works in the United Kingdom. Among the +chief edifices are a public hall, institute and library. It was the +birthplace of John Claudius London (1783-1843), the landscape gardener +and writer on horticulture, whose _Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum_ +still ranks as an authority. + + + + +CAMBYSES (Pers. _Kambujiya_), the name borne by the father and the son +of Cyrus the Great. When Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 he was employed +in leading religious ceremonies (_Chronicle of Nabonidus_), and in the +cylinder which contains Cyrus's proclamation to the Babylonians his name +is joined to that of his father in the prayers to Marduk. On a tablet +dated from the first year of Cyrus, Cambyses is called king of Babel. +But his authority seems to have been quite ephemeral; it was only in +530, when Cyrus set out on his last expedition into the East, that he +associated Cambyses on the throne, and numerous Babylonian tablets of +this time are dated from the accession and the first year of Cambyses, +when Cyrus was "king of the countries" (i.e. of the world). After the +death of his father in the spring of 528 Cambyses became sole king. The +tablets dated from his reign in Babylonia go down to the end of his +eighth year, i.e. March 521 B.C.[1] Herodotus (iii. 66), who dates his +reign from the death of Cyrus, gives him seven years five months, i.e. +from 528 to the summer of 521. For these dates cf. Ed. Meyer, +_Forschungen zur alien Geschichte_, ii. 470 ff. + +The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek authors, come from +two different sources. The first, which forms the main part of the +account of Herodotus (iii. 2; 4; 10-37), is of Egyptian origin. Here +Cambyses is made the legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of Apries +(Herod, iii. 2, Dinon fr. 11, Polyaen. viii. 29), whose death he avenges +on the successor of the usurper Amasis. (In Herod, iii. 1 and Ctesias +_ap_. Athen. xiii. 560 D, this tradition is corrected by the Persians: +Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who sends him a daughter +of Apries instead of his own daughter, and by her Cambyses is induced to +begin the war.) His great crime is the killing of the Apis, for which he +is punished by madness, in which he commits many other crimes, kills his +brother and his sister, and at last loses his empire and dies from a +wound in the hip, at the same place where he had wounded the sacred +animal. Intermingled are some stories derived from the Greek +mercenaries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicarnassus, who +betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Persian tradition the crime of +Cambyses is the murder of his brother; he is further accused of +drunkenness, in which he commits many crimes, and thus accelerates his +ruin. These traditions are found in different passages of Herodotus, and +in a later form, but with some trustworthy detail about his household, +in the fragments of Ctesias. With the exception of Babylonian dated +tablets and some Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary +evidence about the reign of Cambyses but the short account of Darius in +the Behistun inscription. It is impossible from these sources to form a +correct picture of Cambyses' character; but it seems certain that he was +a wild despot and that he was led by drunkenness to many atrocious +deeds. + +It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered Asia, Cambyses +should undertake the conquest of Egypt, the only remaining independent +state of the Eastern world. Before he set out on his expedition he +killed his brother Bardiya (Smerdis), whom Cyrus had appointed governor +of the eastern provinces. The date is given by Darius, whereas the Greek +authors narrate the murder after the conquest of Egypt. The war took +place in 525, when Amasis had just been succeeded by his son +Psammetichus III. Cambyses had prepared for the march through the desert +by an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought a large supply of +water to the stations. King Amasis had hoped that Egypt would be able to +withstand the threatened Persian attack by an alliance with the Greeks. +But this hope failed; the Cyprian towns and the tyrant Polycrates of +Samos, who possessed a large fleet, now preferred to join the Persians, +and the commander of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus, went +over to them. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the Egyptians were +beaten, and shortly afterwards Memphis was taken. The captive king +Psammetichus was executed, having attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian +inscriptions show that Cambyses officially adopted the titles and the +costume of the Pharaohs, although we may very well believe that he did +not conceal his contempt for the customs and the religion of the +Egyptians. From Egypt Cambyses attempted the conquest of Ethiopia +(Cush), i.e. the kingdom of Napata and Meroe, the modern Nubia. But his +army was not able to cross the deserts; after heavy losses he was forced +to return. In an inscription from Napata (in the Berlin museum) the +Ethiopian king Nastesen relates that he had beaten the troops of +Kembasuden, i.e. Cambyses, and taken all his ships (H. Schafer, _Die +Aethiopische Konigsinschrift des Berliner Museums_, 1901). Another +expedition against the great oasis failed likewise, and the plan of +attacking Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians to +operate against their kindred. Meanwhile in Persia a usurper, the Magian +Gaumata, arose in the spring of 522, who pretended to be the murdered +Bardiya (Smerdis). He was acknowledged throughout Asia. Cambyses +attempted to march against him, but, seeing probably that success was +impossible, died by his own hand (March 521). This is the account of +Darius, which certainly must be preferred to the traditions of Herodotus +and Ctesias, which ascribe his death to an accident. According to +Herodotus (iii. 64) he died in the Syrian Ecbatana, i.e. Hamath; +Josephus (_Ant._ xi. 2. 2) names Damascus; Ctesias, Babylon, which is +absolutely impossible. + + See A. Lincke, _Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und Kunst des + Mittelalters_, in _Aegyptiaca: Festschrift fur Georg Ebers_ (Leipzig + 1897), pp. 41-61; also PERSIA: _Ancient History._ (Ed. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the much discussed tablet, which is said to date from his 11th + year, the writer had at first written "10th year of Cyrus," and then + corrected this date into "1st year of Cambyses"; see Strassmaier, + _Inschriften von Cambyses_, No. 97. + + + + +CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, 1ST EARL (1714-1794), lord chancellor of England, +was born in Kensington in 1714. He was a descendant of an old Devonshire +family of high standing, the third son of Sir John Pratt, chief-justice +of the king's bench in the reign of George I. He received his early +education at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. In 1734 he became a +fellow of his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of +B.A. Having adopted his father's profession, he had entered the Middle +Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the bar. He +practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling also the +western circuit. For some years his practice was so limited, and he +became so much discouraged, that he seriously thought of turning his +back on the law and entering the church. He listened, however, to the +advice of his friend Sir Robert Henley, a brother barrister, afterwards +known as Lord Chancellor Northington, and persevered, working on and +waiting for success. The first case which brought him prominently into +notice and gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government +prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen, for a libel on the +House of Commons. + +His speech for the defence contributed much to the verdict for the +defendant. In 1757, through the influence of William Pitt (afterwards +earl of Chatham), with whom he had formed an intimate friendship while +at Eton, he received the appointment of attorney-general. The same year +he entered the House of Commons as member for the borough of Downton in +Wiltshire. He sat in parliament four years, but did not distinguish +himself as a debater. His professional practice now largely increased. +One of the most noticeable incidents of his tenure of office as +attorney-general was the prosecution of Dr. J. Shebbeare (1709-1788), a +violent party writer of the day, for a libel against the government +contained in his notorious _Letters to the People of England_, which +were published in the years 1756-1758. As a proof of Pratt's moderation +in a period of passionate party warfare and frequent state trials, it is +noted that this was the only official prosecution for libel which he set +on foot. In January 1762 Pratt was raised to the bench as chief-justice +of the common pleas. He was at the same time knighted. Soon after his +elevation the nation was thrown into great excitement about the +prosecution of John Wilkes, and the question involved in it of the +legality of "general warrants." Chief-Justice Pratt pronounced, with +decisive and almost passionate energy, against their legality, thus +giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation and winning for himself +an extraordinary degree of popularity as one of the "maintainers of +English constitutional liberty." Honours fell thick upon him in the form +of addresses from the city of London and many large towns, and of +presentations of freedom from various corporate bodies. In July 1765 he +was raised to the peerage as Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in the +county of Kent; and in the following year he was removed from the court +of common pleas to take his seat as lord chancellor (July 30, 1766). +This seat he retained less than four years; for although he discharged +its duties in so efficient a manner that, with one exception, his +decisions were never reversed on appeal, he took up a position of such +uncompromising hostility to the governments of the day, the Grafton and +North administrations, on the greatest and most exciting matters, the +treatment of the American colonies and the proceedings against John +Wilkes, that the government had no choice but to require of him the +surrender of the great seal. He retired from the court of chancery in +January 1770, but he continued to take a warm interest in the political +affairs and discussions of the time. He continued steadfastly to oppose +the taxation of the American colonists, and signed, in 1778, the protest +of the Lords in favour of an address to the king on the subject of the +manifesto of the commissioners to America. In 1782 he was appointed +president of the council under the Rockingham administration, but +retired in the following year. Within a few months he was reinstated in +this office under the Pitt administration, and held it till his death. +Lord Camden was a strenuous opponent of Fox's India Bill, took an +animated part in the debates on important public matters till within two +years of his death, introduced in 1786 the scheme of a regency on +occasion of the king's insanity, and to the last zealously defended his +early views on the functions of juries, especially of their right to +decide on all questions of libel. He was raised to the dignity of an +earl in May 1786, and was at the same time created Viscount Bayham. Earl +Camden died in London on the 18th of April 1794. His remains were +interred in Seale church in Kent. + + + + +CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT, 2ND EARL and 1ST MARQUESS (1759-1840), only +son of the 1st earl, was born on the 11th of February 1750, and was +educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1780 he was chosen member of +parliament for Bath, and he obtained the lucrative position of teller of +the exchequer, an office which he kept until his death, although after +1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it. In the +ministry of William Pitt, Pratt was successively a lord of the admiralty +and a lord of the treasury; then, having succeeded his father in the +earldom in 1794, he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1795. +Disliked in Ireland as an opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation and as +the exponent of an unpopular policy, Camden's term of office was one of +commotion and alarm, culminating in the rebellion of 1798. Immediately +after the suppression of the rising he resigned, and in 1804 became +secretary for war and the colonies under Pitt, and in 1805 lord +president of the council. He was again lord president from 1807 to 1812, +after which date he remained for some time in the cabinet without +office. In 1812 he was created earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden. He +died on the 8th of October 1840, and was succeeded by his only son, +George Charles, 2nd marquess (1799-1866). The present marquess is his +descendant. Camden was chancellor of the university of Cambridge and a +knight of the Garter. + + + + +CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623), English antiquary and historian, was born +in London on the 2nd of May 1551. His father, Sampson Camden, a native +of Lichfield, had settled in London, and, as a painter, had become a +member of the company of painter-stainers. His mother, Elizabeth, +belonged to the old Cumberland family of Curwen. Young Camden received +his early education at Christ's Hospital and St Paul's school, and in +1566 went to Magdalen College, Oxford, probably as a servitor or +chorister. Failing to obtain a demyship at Magdalen he removed to +Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College, and later to Christ +Church, where he was supported by his friend, Dr Thomas Thornton, canon +of Christ Church. As a defender of the established religion he was soon +engaged in controversy, and his failure to secure a fellowship at All +Souls' College is attributed to the hostility of the Roman Catholics. In +1570 he supplicated in vain for the degree of B.A., and although a +renewed application was granted in 1573 it is doubtful if he ever took a +degree; and in 1571 he went to London and devoted himself to antiquarian +studies, for which he had already acquired a taste. + +Camden spent some time in travelling in various parts of England +collecting materials for his _Britannia_, a work which was first +published in 1586. Owing to his friendship with Dr Gabriel Goodman, dean +of Westminster, Camden was made second master of Westminster school in +1575; and when Dr Edward Grant resigned the headmastership in 1593 he +was appointed as his successor. The vacations which he enjoyed as a +schoolmaster left him time for study and travel, and during these years +he supervised the publication of three further editions of the +_Britannia_. Although a layman he was granted the prebend of Ilfracombe +in 1589, and in 1597 he resigned his position at Westminster on being +made Clarencieux king-at-arms, an appointment which caused some +ill-feeling, and the York herald, Ralph Brooke, led an attack on the +genealogical accuracy of the _Britannia_, and accused its author of +plagiarism. Camden replied to Brooke in an appendix to the fifth edition +of the _Britannia_, published in 1600, and his reputation came through +the ordeal untarnished. Having brought out an enlarged and improved +edition of the _Britannia_ in 1607, he began to work on a history of the +reign of Queen Elizabeth, to which he had been urged by Lord Burghley in +1597. The first part of this history dealing with the reign down to 1588 +was published in 1615 under the title _Annales rerum Anglicarum et +Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha_. With regard to this work some +controversy at once arose over the author's treatment of Mary, queen of +Scots. It was asserted that Camden altered his original narrative in +order to please James I., and, moreover, that the account which he is +said to have given to his friend, the French historian, Jacques de Thou, +differed substantially from his own. It seems doubtful if there is any +truth in either of these charges. The second part of this work, finished +in 1617, was published, after the author's death, at Leiden in 1625 and +in London in 1627. In 1622 Camden carried out a plan to found a history +lectureship at Oxford. He provided an endowment from some lands at +Bexley, and appointed as the first lecturer, his friend, Degory Wheare. +The present occupant of the position is known as the Camden professor of +ancient history. His concluding years were mainly spent at Chislehurst, +where he had taken up his residence in 1609, and in spite of recurring +illnesses he continued to work at material for the improvement of the +_Britannia_ and kindred subjects. He died at Chislehurst on the 9th of +November 1623, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument now +stands to his memory. + +The _Britannia_, the first edition of which is dedicated to Burghley, is +a survey of the British islands written in elegant Latin. It was first +translated into English in 1610, probably under the author's direction, +and other translations have subsequently appeared, the best of which is +an edition edited by Richard Gough and published in three volumes in +1789, and in four volumes in 1806. The _Annales_ has been translated +into French, and English translations appeared in 1635, 1675 and 1688. +The Latin version was published at Leiden in 1639 and 1677, and under +the editorship of T. Hearne at Oxford in 1717. In addition to these +works Camden compiled a Greek grammar, _Institutio Graecae Grammatices +Compendiaria_, which became very popular, and he published an edition of +the writings of Asser, Giraldus Cambrensis, Thomas Walsingham and +others, under the title, _Anglica, Hibernica, Normannica, Cambrica, a +veteribus scripta_, published at Frankfort in 1602, and again in 1603. +He also drew up a list of the epitaphs in Westminster Abbey, which was +issued as _Reges, Reginae, Nobiles et alii in ecclesia collegiata Beati +Petri Westmonasterii sepulti_. This was enlarged and published again in +1603 and 1606. In 1605 he published his _Remains concerning Britain_, a +book of collections from the _Britannia_, which quickly passed through +seven editions; and he wrote an official account of the trial of the +Gunpowder Plot conspirators as _Actio in Henricum Garnetum, Societatis +Jesuiticae in Anglia superiorem et caeteros_. + +Camden, who refused a knighthood, was a man of enormous industry, and +possessed a modest and friendly disposition. He had a large number of +influential friends, among whom were Archbishop Ussher, Sir Robert +Cotton, John Selden, the French jurist Brisson, and Isaac Casaubon. His +correspondence was published in London in 1691 by Dr Thomas Smith under +the title, _Vita Gulielmi Camdeni et Illustrium virorum ad G. Camdenum +Epistolae_. This-volume also contains his _Memorabilia de seipso_; his +notes of the reign of James I.; and other interesting matter. In 1838 +the Camden Society was founded in his honour, and much valuable work has +been done under its auspices. + + + + +CAMDEN, a city and the county-seat of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., +on the Delaware river, directly opposite Philadelphia, Pa. Pop. (1880) +41,659; (1890) 58,313; (1900) 75,935, of whom 10,097 were foreign-born +and 5576 were negroes; (1910) 94,538. It is a terminus of the Atlantic +City, the West Jersey & Sea Shore, and the Pennsylvania (Amboy division) +railways, and is also served by river and coasting steamboat lines. +Camden is practically a suburb of Philadelphia, with which it is +connected by ferries. It has several pleasant residential sections, and +among its public buildings are the city hall, the Camden county court +house, the post office, the free public library, the Cooper hospital and +the West Jersey homeopathic hospital. The high school has a thoroughly +equipped manual training department. The city owns and operates its +water-works system, and is an important manufacturing and ship-building +centre, among its manufactories being chemical works; asbestos, +wall-paper, oil-cloth and morocco-leather factories; woollen, worsted +and yarn mills; preserving factories; iron and steel mills; boot and +shoe factories; and ship-yards. In 1900 the total value of the city's +manufactured products was $20,451,874 (of which $17,969,954 was the +value of factory products, which in 1905 had increased 86.5% to +$33,587,273), several of the largest items being worsted goods +($2,090,991 in 1900, and $2,528,040 in 1905); leather, tanned, curried +and finished ($1,515,935 in 1900, and $6,364,928 in 1905); oil-cloth +($1,638,556 in 1900); pickles, preserves and sauces ($685,358 in 1900), +and wooden ships and boats ($409,500 in 1900, and $361,089 in 1905, when +the value of the iron and steel ship-building industry was $4,673,504). +The first settlers on the site of Camden came in 1679, but for a century +the settlement consisted of isolated farms and a small group of houses +about the ferry by which travellers from the east crossed to +Philadelphia. The early settlers were largely Quakers. About 1773 Jacob +Cooper laid out a town near the ferry, and gave it the name Camden in +honour of Lord Chancellor Camden, who had been one of the strongest +opponents of the Stamp Act. The settlement, however, was known variously +as "Pluckemin," "The Ferry" and "Cooper's Ferry" until about the time of +the War of 1812. Until 1828 it was administratively a part of the town +of Newton, Gloucester county, but in that year, with more than a +thousand inhabitants, it was chartered as a city under its present name. +During the British occupation of Philadelphia in the War of +Independence, a British force was stationed here, and Camden was the +scene of several skirmishes between the British troops and the New +Jersey irregular militia. Camden was the home of Walt Whitman from 1873 +until his death. + + + + +CAMDEN, a town and the county-seat of Kershaw county, South Carolina, +U.S.A., near the Wateree river, 33 m. N.E. of Columbia. Pop. (1890) +3533; (1900) 2441; this decrease was due to the separation from Camden +during the decade of its suburb "Kirkwood," re-annexed in 1905; (1910) +3569. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and +the Southern railways. Camden is situated about 100 ft. above the river, +which is navigable to this point. The town is a winter resort, chiefly +for Northerners. Cotton, grain and rice are produced in the vicinity, +and there are some manufactories, including cotton mills, a cotton-seed +oil mill and planing mills. Camden, first known as Pine Tree Hill, is +one of the oldest interior towns of the state, having been settled in +1758; in 1768 the present name was adopted in honour of Lord Chancellor +Camden. The town was first incorporated in 1791; its present charter +dates from 1890. For a year following the capture of Charleston by the +British in May 1780, during the War of Independence, Camden was the +centre of important military operations. It was occupied by the British +under Cornwallis in June 1780, was well fortified and was garrisoned by +a force under Lord Rawdon. On the 16th of August Gen. Horatio Gates, +with an American force of about 3600, including some Virginia militia +under Charles Porterfield (1750-1780) and Gen. Edward Stevens +(1745-1820), and North Carolina militia under Gen. Richard Caswell +(1729-1789), was defeated here by the British, about 2000 strong, under +Lord Cornwallis, who had joined Rawdon in anticipation of an attack by +Gates. Soon after the engagement began a large part of the Americans, +mostly North Carolina and Virginia militia, fled precipitately, carrying +Gates with them; but Baron De Kalb and the Maryland troops fought +bravely until overwhelmed by numbers, De Kalb himself being mortally +wounded. A monument was erected to his memory in 1825, Lafayette laying +the corner-stone. The British loss in killed, wounded and missing was +324; the American loss was about 800 or 900 killed and 1000 prisoners, +besides arms and baggage. On the 3rd of December Gates was superseded by +Gen. Nathanael Greene, who after Cornwallis had left the Carolinas, +advanced on Camden and arrived in the neighbourhood on the 19th of April +1781. Considering his force (about 1450) insufficient for an attack on +the fortifications, he withdrew a short distance north of Camden to an +advantageous position on Hobkirk's Hill, where on the 25th of April +Rawdon, with a force of only 950, took him somewhat by surprise and +drove him from the field. The casualties on each side were nearly equal: +American 271; British 258. On the 8th of May Rawdon evacuated the town, +after burning most of it. On the 24th of February 1865, during the Civil +War, a part of Gen. W.T. Sherman's army entered Camden and burned +stores of tobacco and cotton, and several buildings. (See AMERICAN WAR +OF INDEPENDENCE.) + + See also T.J. Kirkland and R.M. Kennedy, _Historic Camden_ (Columbia, + S.C., 1905). + + + + +CAMEL (from the Arabic _Djemal_ or the Heb. _Gamal_), the name of the +single-humped Arabian _Camelus dromedarius_, but also applied to the +two-humped central Asian _C. bactrianus_ and to the extinct relatives of +both. The characteristics of camels and their systematic position are +discussed under the headings TYLOPODA and ARTIODACTYLA. The two living +species are distinguishable at a glance. It may be mentioned that the +Bactrian camel, which is a shorter-legged and more ponderous animal than +the Arabian species, grows an enormously long and thick winter coat, +which is shed in blanket-like masses in spring. The Arabian camel, which +is used not only in the country from which it takes its name, but also +in North Africa and India, and has been introduced into Australia and +North America, is known only as a domesticated animal. On the other +hand, the Bactrian species, which is employed throughout a large tract +of central Asia in the domesticated condition, appears, according to +recent researches, to exist in the wild state in some of the central +Asian deserts. From the examination of specimens collected by Dr Sven +Hedin, Professor W. Leche shows that the wild Bactrian camel differs +from the domesticated breed of central Asia in the following external +characters: the humps are smaller; the long hair does not occupy nearly +so much of the body; the colour is much more rufous; and the ears and +muzzle are shorter. Many important differences are also recorded between +the skulls of the two animals, and it is especially noteworthy that the +last lower molar is smaller in the wild than in the tame race. In +connexion with this point it should be noticed that, unlike what occurs +in the yak, the wild animal is not larger than the tame one, although it +is incorrect to say that the former is decidedly the inferior of the +latter in point of stature. Dr Leche also institutes a comparison +between the skeletons of the wild and the tame Bactrian camel with the +remains of certain fossil Asiatic camels, namely, _Camelus knoblochi_ +from Sarepta, Russia, and _C. alutensis_ from the Aluta valley, Rumania. +This comparison leads to the important conclusion that the wild Bactrian +_Camelus bactrianus ferus_ comes much nearer to the fossil species than +it does to the domesticated breed, the resemblance being specially +noticeable in the absolutely and relatively small size of the last +molar. In view of these differences from the domesticated breed, and the +resemblance of the skull or lower jaw to that of the extinct European +species, it becomes practically impossible to regard the wild camels as +the offspring of animals that have escaped from captivity. + +On the latter hypothesis it has been generally assumed that the wild +camels are the descendants of droves of the domesticated breed which +escaped when certain central Asian cities were overwhelmed by +sand-storms. This theory, according to Professor Leche, is rendered +improbable by Dr Sven Hedin's observations on the habits and mode of +life of the wild camel. The habitat of the latter extends from the lower +course of the Keria river to the desert at the termination of that +river, and thence to the neighbourhood of the Achik, the ancient bed of +the Tarim river. These animals also occur in the desert district south +of the Tarim; but are most abundant in the deserts and mountains to the +southward of Kuruktagh, where there are a few brackish-water pools, and +are also common in the barren mountains between Kuruktagh and Choetagh. +Large herds have also been observed in the deserts near Altyntagh. The +capacity of camels for travelling long distances without water--owing to +special structural modifications in the stomach--is familiar to all. +That the Arabian species was one of the earliest animals to be +domesticated is evident from the record of Scripture, where six thousand +camels are said to have formed part of the wealth of the patriarch Job. +Camels also formed part of the present which Pharaoh gave to Abraham, +and it was to a company of Ishmaelites travelling from Gilead to Egypt +on camels, laden with spices, much as their Arabian descendants do at +the present day, that Joseph was sold by his brothers. + +The hump (or humps) varies in size according to the condition of the +animal, becoming small and flaccid after hard work and poor diet. + +During the rutting-season male camels become exceedingly savage and +dangerous, uttering a loud bubbling roar and engaging in fierce contests +with their fellows. The female carries her young for fully eleven +months, and produces only one calf at a time, which she suckles for a +year. Eight days after birth the young Arabian camel stands 3 ft. high, +but does not reach its full growth till its sixteenth or seventeenth +year; it lives from forty to fifty years. The flesh of the young camel +resembles veal, and is a favourite food of the Arabs, while camel's milk +forms an excellent and highly nutritious beverage, although it does not +furnish butter. The long hair is shorn every summer, and woven into a +variety of stuffs used by the Arab for clothing himself and his family, +and covering his tent. It was in raiment of camel's hair that John the +Baptist appeared as a preacher. The hair imported into Europe is chiefly +used in the manufacture of small brushes used by painters, while the +thick hide is formed into a very durable leather. The droppings are used +as fuel, and from the incinerated remains of these sal-ammoniac is +extracted, which was at one time largely exported from Egypt. + +The Bactrian camel is, if possible, of still more importance to many of +the central Asian Mongol races, supplying them alike with food and +raiment. It is, however, as "the ship of the desert," without which vast +tracts of the earth's surface could scarcely be explored, that the camel +is specially valuable. In its fourth year its training as a beast of +burden begins, when it is taught to kneel and to rise at a given signal, +and is gradually accustomed to bear increasing loads. These vary in +weight from 500 to 1000 lb., according to the variety of camel employed, +for of the Arabian camel there are almost as many breeds as there are of +the horse. When crossing a desert camels are expected to carry their +loads 25 m. a day for three days without drink, getting a supply of +water, however, on the fourth; but the fleeter breeds will carry their +rider and a bag of water 50 m. a day for five days without drinking. +When too heavily laden the camel refuses to rise, but on the march it is +exceedingly patient under its burden, only yielding beneath it to die. +Relieved from its load it does not, like other animals, seek the shade, +even when that is to be found, but prefers to kneel beside its burden in +the broad glare of the sun, seeming to luxuriate in the burning sand. +When overtaken by a dust-storm it falls on its knees, and stretching its +neck along the sand, closes its nostrils and remains thus motionless +till the atmosphere clears; and in this position it affords some shelter +to its driver, who, wrapping his face in his mantle, crouches behind his +beast. + +The food of the camel consists chiefly of the leaves of trees, shrubs +and dry hard vegetables, which it is enabled to tear down and masticate +by means of its powerful front teeth. As regards temperament, if, writes +Sir F. Palgrave, "docile means stupid, well and good; in such a case the +camel is the very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to +designate an animal that takes an interest in its rider so far as a +beast can, that in some way understands his intentions, or shares them +in a subordinate fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or +half-fellow-feeling with his master, like the horse or elephant, then I +say that the camel is by no means docile--very much the contrary. He +takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention whether he be on his back +or not, walks straight on when once set agoing, merely because he is too +stupid to turn aside, and then should some tempting thorn or green +branch allure him out of the path, continues to walk on in the new +direction simply because he is too dull to turn back into the right +road. In a word, he is from first to last an undomesticated and savage +animal rendered serviceable by stupidity alone, without much skill on +his master's part, or any co-operation on his own, save that of an +extreme passiveness. Neither attachment nor even habit impresses him; +never tame, though not wide-awake enough to be exactly wild." + +For extinct camels see TYLOPODA. (R. L.*) + + The Biblical expression (Matt. xix. 24, &c.), "it is easier for a + camel to go through a needle's eye," &c., is sometimes explained by + saying that the "needle's eye" means the small gate which is opened in + the great gate of a city, when the latter is closed for the night; but + recent criticism (e.g. Post in _Hastings' Dict._, under "Camel") + throws doubt on this explanation, and assumes that the more violent + hyperbole is intended. There is a various reading [Greek: Khamilos] + (cable) for [Greek: Khamaelos] (camel), but Cheyne, in the _Ency. + Biblica_, rejects this (see CABLE). + + + + +CAMELFORD, THOMAS PITT, 1ST BARON (1737-1793), English politician and +art patron, was a nephew of the 1st earl of Chatham. He sat in +parliament from 1761 till 1784, siding against his uncle and following +George Grenville, who was also a relative; and in 1784 he was raised to +the peerage. He dabbled in architecture and the arts generally, and was +a prominent figure in the artistic circles of his day. His son THOMAS +PITT, 2nd Baron Camelford (1775-1804), who succeeded him in 1793, had an +adventurous and misspent career in the navy, but is principally +remembered for his death in a duel with Mr Best on the 10th of March +1804, the title becoming extinct. + + + + +CAMELLIA, a genus or subgenus of evergreen trees or shrubs belonging to +the natural order Ternstroemiaceae, with thick dark shining leaves and +handsome white or rose-coloured flowers. The name _Camellia_ was given +by Linnaeus in honour of George Joseph Camellus or Kamel, a Moravian +Jesuit who travelled in Asia and wrote an account of the plants of the +Philippine Island, Luzon, which is included in the third volume of John +Ray's _Historia Plantarum_ (1704). Modern botanists are agreed that the +tea-plant, placed by Linnaeus in a separate genus, _Thea_, is too nearly +allied to _Camellia_ to admit of the two being regarded as distinct +genera. _Thea_ and _Camellia_ are therefore now considered to represent +one genus, which has been generally called _Camellia_, but more +correctly _Thea_, as this name was the earlier of the two. Under the +latter view _Camellia_ is regarded as a subgenus or section of _Thea_. +It contains about eight species, natives of India, China and Japan. Most +of the numerous cultivated forms are horticultural products of _C. +japonica_, a native of China and Japan, which was introduced into Europe +by Lord Petre in 1739. The wild plant has red flowers, recalling those +of the wild rose, but most of the cultivated forms are double. In the +variety _anemonaeflora_ nearly all the stamens have become transformed +into small petaloid structures which give the flower the appearance of a +double anemone. + +Another species, _C. reticulata_, a native of Hongkong, is also prized +for its handsome flowers, larger than those of _C. japonica_, which are +of a bright rose colour and as known in cultivation semi-double or +double. + +Both _C. sasanqua_ and _C. drupifera_, the former inhabiting Japan and +China, the latter Cochin-China and the mountains of India, are +oil-yielding plants. The oil of _C. sasanqua_ (of which sasankwa is the +native Japanese name) has an agreeable odour and is used for many +domestic purposes. It is obtained from the seeds by subjecting them to +pressure sufficient to reduce them to a coarse powder, and then boiling +and again pressing the crushed material. The leaves are also used in the +form of a decoction by the Japanese women for washing their hair; and in +a dried state they are mixed with tea on account of their pleasant +flavour. The oil of _C. drupifera_, which is closely allied to _C. +sasanqua_, is used medicinally in Cochin-China. The flowers of these two +species, unlike those of _C. japonica_ and _C. reticulata_, are +odoriferous. + +Camellias, though generally grown in the cool greenhouse, are hardy in +the south of England and the south-west of Scotland and Ireland. They +grow best in a rich compost of sandy peat and loam, and should not be +allowed to get too dry at the roots; a liberal supply of water is +especially necessary during the flowering period. The best +position--when grown out of doors--is one facing north or north-west, +with a wall or hedge behind for protection from cold winds. July is the +best time for planting; care must be taken that the roots are evenly +spread, not matted into a ball. + +The plants are propagated by layers or cuttings, and the single-flowered +ones also by seeds. Cuttings are taken in August and placed in sandy +peat or loam in a cold shaded frame. In the following spring those which +have struck are placed in a gentle heat, and in September or October the +rooted plants are potted off. Camellias are also propagated by grafting +or inarching in early spring on stocks of the common variety of _C. +japonica._ + +The scale insect sometimes attacks the camellia. To remove the white +scale, the plants are washed with a sponge and solution of soft soap as +soon as their growth is completed, and again before the buds begin to +swell. The brown scale may be got rid of by repeated washings with one +of the many insecticides, but it should be applied at a temperature of +90 deg. + + + + +CAMEO, a term of doubtful origin, applied in the first instance to +engraved work executed in relief on hard or precious stones. It is also +applied to imitations of such stones in glass, called "pastes," or on +the shells of molluscous animals. A cameo is therefore the converse of +an intaglio, which consists of an incised or sunk engraving in the same +class of materials. For the history of this branch of art, and for an +account of some of its most remarkable examples, see GEM. + +The origin of the word is doubtful and has been a matter of copious +controversy. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes its use in a Sarum +inventory of 1222, _"lapis unus cameu"_ and _"magnus camehu."_ The word +is in current use in the 13th century. Thus Matthew Paris, in his Life +of Abbot Leofric of St Albans, in the _Abbatum S. Albani Vitae_, says: +_"retentis quibusdam nobilibus lapidibus insculptis, quos camaeos +vulgariter appellamus."_ In variant forms the word has found its way +into most languages, e.g. Latin, _camahutus, camahelus, camaynus_; +Italian, _chammeo, chameo_; French, _camahieu, chemahou, camaut, +camaieu_. The following may be mentioned among the derivations that have +been proposed:--von Hammer: _camaut_, the hump of a camel; Littre and +others: _camateum_, an assumed Low Latin form from [Greek: kamateuein] +and [Greek: kamaton]; Chabouillet and Babelon: [Greek: keimaelia], +treasures, connecting the word in particular with the dispersion of +treasures from Constantinople, in 1204; King: Arabic _camea_, an amulet. + + For a bibliography of the question, see Babelon, _Cat. des Camees ... + de la Bibliotheque Nationale_, p. iv. + + + + +CAMERA (a Latin adaptation of Gr. [Greek: kamara], an arched chamber), +in law, a word applied at one time to the English judges' chambers in +Serjeants' Inn, as distinct from their bench in Westminster Hall. It was +afterwards applied to the judges' private room behind the court, and, +hence, in the phrase _in camera_, to cases heard in private, i.e. in +chambers. So far as criminal cases are concerned, the courts have no +power to hear them in private, nor have they any power to order adults +(men or women) out of court during the hearing. In civil proceedings at +common law, it may also be laid down that the public cannot be excluded +from the court; in _Malan_ v. _Young_, 1889, 6 T.L.R. 68, Mr Justice +Denman held that he had power to hear the case _in camera_, but he +afterwards stated that there was considerable doubt among the judges as +to the power to hear cases _in camera_, even by consent, and the case +was, by consent of the parties, finally proceeded with before the judge +_as arbitrator_. In the court of chancery it is the practice to hear in +private cases affecting wards of the court and lunatics, family disputes +(by consent), and cases where a public trial would defeat the object of +the action (_Andrew_ v. _Raeburn_, 1874, L.R. 9 Ch. 522). In an action +for infringement of a patent for a chemical process the defendant was +allowed to state a secret process _in camera (Badische Anilin und Soda +Fabrik_ v. _Gillman_, 1883, 24 Ch. D. 156). The Court of Appeal has +decided that it has power to sit in private; in _Mellor_ v. _Thompson_, +1885, 31 Ch. D. 55, it was stated that a public hearing would defeat the +object of the action, and render the respondent's success in the appeal +useless. In matrimonial causes, the divorce court, following the +practice of the ecclesiastical courts under the provisions of the +Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 22, hears suits for nullity of marriage +on physical grounds _in camera_, but not petitions for dissolution of +marriage, which must be heard in open court. It was also decided in +_Druce_ v. _Druce_, 1903, 19 T.L.R. 387, that, in cases for judicial +separation the court has jurisdiction to hear the case _in camera_, +where it is satisfied that justice cannot be done by hearing the case in +public. + + + + +CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument invented by Dr William Hyde +Wollaston for drawing in perspective. Closing one eye and looking +vertically downwards with the other through a slip of plain glass, e.g. +a microscope cover-glass, held close to the eye and inclined at an angle +of 45 deg. to the horizon, one can see the images of objects in front, +formed by reflection from the surface of the glass, and at the same +time one can also see through the transparent glass. The virtual images +of the objects appear projected on the surface of a sheet of paper +placed beneath the slip of glass, and their outline can be accurately +traced with a pencil. This is the simplest form of the camera lucida. +The image (see fig. 1) is, however, inverted and perverted, and it is +not very bright owing to the poor reflecting power of unsilvered glass. +The brightness of the image is sometimes increased by silvering the +glass; and on removing a small portion of the silver the observer can +see the image with part of the pupil while he sees the paper through the +unsilvered aperture with the remaining part. This form of the instrument +is often used in conjunction with the microscope, the mirror being +attached to the eye-piece and the tube of the microscope being placed +horizontally. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +About the beginning of the 19th century Dr Wollaston invented a simple +form of the camera lucida which gives bright and erect images. A +four-sided prism of glass is constructed having one angle of 90 deg., +the opposite angle of 135 deg., and the two remaining angles each of +67-1/2 deg. This is represented in cross-section and in position in +fig. 2. When the pupil of the eye is held half over the edge of the +prism a, one sees the image of the object with one half of the pupil and +the paper with the other half. The image is formed by successive total +reflection at the surfaces b c and a b. In the first place an inverted +image (first image) is formed in the face b c, and then an image of this +image is formed in a b, and it is the outline of this second image seen +projected on the paper that is traced by the pencil. It is desirable for +two reasons that the image should lie in the plane of the paper, and +this can be secured by placing a suitable lens between the object and +the prism. If the image does not lie in the plane of the paper, it is +impossible to see it and the pencil-point clearly at the same time. +Moreover, any slight movement of the head will cause the image to appear +to move relatively to the paper, and will render it difficult to obtain +an accurate drawing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Before the application of photography, the camera lucida was of +considerable importance to draughtsmen. The advantages claimed for it +were its cheapness, smallness and portability; that there was no +appreciable distortion, and that its field was much larger than that of +the camera obscura. It was used largely for copying, for reducing or for +enlarging existing drawings. It will readily be understood, for example, +that a copy will be half-size if the distance of the object from the +instrument is double the distance of the instrument from the copy. + (C. J. J.) + + + + +CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical apparatus consisting of a darkened chamber +(for which its name is the Latin rendering) at the top of which is +placed a box or lantern containing a convex lens and sloping mirror, or +a prism combining the lens and mirror. If we hold a common reading lens +(a magnifying lens) in front of a lamp or some other bright object and +at some distance from it, and if we hold a sheet of paper vertically at +a suitable distance behind the lens, we see depicted on the paper an +image of the lamp. This image is inverted and perverted. If now we place +a plane mirror (e.g. a lady's hand glass) behind the lens and inclined +at an angle of 45 deg. to the horizon so as to reflect the rays of light +vertically downwards, we can produce on a horizontal sheet of paper an +unperverted image of the bright object (fig. 1), i.e. the image has the +same appearance as the object and is not perverted as when the +reflection of a printed page is viewed in a mirror. This is the +principle of the camera obscura, which was extensively used in +sketching from nature before the introduction of photography, although +it is now scarcely to be seen except as an interesting side-show at +places of popular resort. The image formed on the paper may be traced +out by a pencil, and it will be noticed that in this case the image is +real--not virtual as in the case of the camera lucida. Generally the +mirror and lens are combined into a single piece of worked glass +represented in section in fig. 2. Rays from external objects are first +refracted at the convex surface _a b_, then totally reflected at the +plane surface _a c_, and finally refracted at the concave surface _b c_ +(fig. 2) so as to form an image on the sheet of paper _d e._The curved +surfaces take the place of the lens in fig. 1, and the plane surface +performs the function of the mirror. The prism _a b c_ is fixed at the +top of a small tent furnished with opaque curtains so as to prevent the +diffused daylight from overpowering the image on the paper, and in the +darkened tent the images of external objects are seen very distinctly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Quite recently, the camera obscura has come into use with submarine +vessels, the _periscope_ being simply a camera obscura under a new name. + (C. J. J.) + +_History_.--The invention of this instrument has generally been +ascribed, as in the ninth edition of this work, to the famous Neapolitan +savant of the 16th century, Giovanni Battista della Porta, but as a +matter of fact the principle of the simple camera obscura, or darkened +chamber with a small aperture in a window or shutter, was well known and +in practical use for observing eclipses long before his time. He was +anticipated in the improvements he claimed to have made in it, and all +he seems really to have done was to popularize it. The increasing +importance of the camera obscura as a photographic instrument makes it +desirable to bring together what is known of its early history, which is +far more extensive than is usually recognized. In southern climes, where +during the summer heat it is usual to close the rooms from the glare of +the sunshine outside, we may often see depicted on the walls vivid +inverted images of outside objects formed by the light reflected from +them passing through chinks or small apertures in doors or +window-shutters. From the opening passage of Euclid's _Optics_ (_c._ 300 +B.C.), which formed the foundation for some of the earlier middle age +treatises on geometrical perspective, it would appear that the above +phenomena of the simple darkened room were used by him to demonstrate +the rectilinear propagation of light by the passage of sunbeams or the +projection of the images of objects through small openings in windows, +&c. In the book known as Aristotle's _Problems_ (sect. xv. cap. 5) we +find the correlated problem of the image of the sun passing through a +quadrilateral aperture always appearing round, and he further notes the +lunated image of the eclipsed sun projected in the same way through the +interstices of foliage or lattice-work. + +There are, however, very few allusions to these phenomena in the later +classical Greek and Roman writers, and we find the first scientific +investigation of them in the great optical treatise of the Arabian +philosopher Alhazen (q.v.), who died at Cairo in A.D. 1038. He seems +to have been well acquainted with the projection of images of objects +through small apertures, and to have been the first to show that the +arrival of the image of an object at the concave surface of the common +nerve--or the retina--corresponds with the passage of light from an +object through an aperture in a darkened place, from which it falls upon +a surface facing the aperture. He also had some knowledge of the +properties of concave and convex lenses and mirrors in forming images. +Some two hundred years later, between A.D. 1266 and 1279, these problems +were taken up by three almost contemporaneous writers on optics, two of +whom, Roger Bacon and John Peckham, were Englishmen, and Vitello or +Witelo, a Pole. + +That Roger Bacon was acquainted with the principle of the camera obscura +is shown by his attempt at solving Aristotle's problem stated above, in +the treatise _De Speculis_, and also from his references to Alhazen's +experiments of the same kind, but although Dr John Freind, in his +_History of Physick_, has given him the credit of the invention on the +strength of a passage in the _Perspectiva_, there is nothing to show +that he constructed any instrument of the kind. His arrangement of +concave and plane mirrors, by which the realistic images of objects +inside the house or in the street could be rendered visible though +intangible, there alluded to, may apply to a camera on Cardan's +principle or to a method of aerial projection by means of concave +mirrors, which Bacon was quite familiar with, and indeed was known long +before his time. On the strength of similar arrangements of lenses and +mirrors the invention of the camera obscura has also been claimed for +Leonard Digges, the author of _Pantometria_ (1571), who is said to have +constructed a telescope from information given in a book of Bacon's +experiments. + +Archbishop Peckham, or Pisanus, in his _Perspectiva Communis_ (1279), +and Vitello, in his _Optics_ (1270), also attempted the solution of +Aristotle's problem, but unsuccessfully. Vitello's work is to a very +great extent based upon Alhazen and some of the earlier writers, and was +first published in 1535. A later edition was published, together with a +translation of Alhazen, by F. Risner in 1572. + +The first practical step towards the development of the camera obscura +seems to have been made by the famous painter and architect, Leon +Battista Alberti, in 1437, contemporaneously with the invention of +printing. It is not clear, however, whether his invention was a camera +obscura or a show box, but in a fragment of an anonymous biography of +him, published in Muratori's _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_ (xxv. 296), +quoted by Vasari, it is stated that he produced wonderfully painted +pictures, which were exhibited by him in some sort of small closed box +through a very small aperture, with great verisimilitude. These +demonstrations were of two kinds, one nocturnal, showing the moon and +bright stars, the other diurnal, for day scenes. This description seems +to refer to an arrangement of a transparent painting illuminated either +from the back or the front and the image projected through a hole on to +a white screen in a darkened room, as described by Porta (_Mag. Nat._ +xvii. cap. 7) and figured by A. Kircher (_Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae_), +who notes elsewhere that Porta had taken some arrangement of projecting +images from an Albertus, whom he distinguished from Albertus Magnus, and +who was probably L.B. Alberti, to whom Porta also refers, but not in +this connexion. + +G.B.I.T. Libri-Carucci dalla Sommaja (1803-1869), in his account of the +invention of the camera obscura in Italy (_Histoire des sciences +mathematiques en Italic_, iv. 303), makes no mention of Alberti, but +draws attention to an unpublished MS. of Leonardo da Vinci, which was +first noticed by Venturi in 1797, and has since been published in +facsimile in vol. ii. of J.G.F. Ravaisson-Mollien's reproductions of the +MSS. in the Institut de France at Paris (MS. _D_, fol. 8 _recto_). After +discussing the structure of the eye he gives an experiment in which the +appearance of the reversed images of outside objects on a piece of paper +held in front of a small hole in a darkened room, with their forms and +colours, is quite clearly described and explained with a diagram, as an +illustration of the phenomena of vision. Another similar passage is +quoted by Richter from folio 404b of the reproduction of the _Codice +Atlantico_, in Milan, published by the Italian government. These are +probably the earliest distinct accounts of the natural phenomena of the +camera obscura, but remained unpublished for some three centuries. +Leonardo also discussed the old Aristotelian problem of the rotundity of +the sun's image after passing through an angular aperture, but not so +successfully as Maurolycus. He has also given methods of measuring the +sun's distance by means of images thrown on screens through small +apertures. He was well acquainted with the use of magnifying glasses and +suggested a kind of telescope for viewing the moon, but does not seem to +have thought of applying a lens to the camera. + +The first published account of the simple camera obscura was discovered +by Libri in a translation of the _Architecture_ of Vitruvius, with +commentary by Cesare Caesariano, one of the architects of Milan +cathedral, published at Conio in 1521, shortly after the death of +Leonardo, and some twenty years before Porta was born. He describes an +experiment made by a Benedictine monk and architect, Dom Papnutio or +Panuce, of the same kind as Leonardo's but without the demonstration. + +About the same time Francesco Maurolico, or Maurolycus, the eminent +mathematician of Messina, in his _Theoremata de Lumine et Umbra_, +written in 1521, fully investigated the optical problems connected with +vision and the passage of rays of light through small apertures with and +without lenses, and made great advances in this direction over his +predecessors. He was the first correctly to solve Aristotle's problem, +stated above, and to apply it practically to solar observations in a +darkened room (_Cosmographia_, 1535). Erasmus Reinhold has described the +method in his edition of G. Purbach's _Theoricae Novae Planetarum_ +(1542), and probably got it from Maurolycus. He says it can also be +applied to terrestrial objects, though he only used it for the sun. His +pupil, Rainer Gemma-Frisius, used it for the observation of the solar +eclipse of January 1544 at Louvain, and fully described the methods he +adopted for making measurements and drawings of the eclipsed sun, in his +_De Radio Astronomico et Geometrico_ (1545). He says they can be used +for observation of the moon and stars and also for longitudes. The same +arrangement was used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, by M. Moestlin and his +pupil Kepler--the latter applying it in 1607 to the observation of a +transit of Mercury--also by Johann Fabricius, in 1611, for the first +observations of sun-spots. It is interesting to note this early +employment of the camera obscura in the field of astronomical research, +in which its latest achievements have been of such pre-eminent value. + +The addition of optical appliances to the simple dark chamber for the +purpose of seeing what was going on outside, was first described by +Girolamo Cardan in his _De Subtilitate_ (1550), as noted by Libri. The +sun shining, he fixed a round glass speculum (_orbem e vitro_) in a +window-shutter, and then closing it the images of outside objects would +be seen transmitted through the aperture on to the opposite wall, or +better, a white paper screen suitably placed. The account is not very +clear, but seems to imply the use of a concave mirror rather than a +lens, which might be suggested by the word _orbem_. He refers to +Maurolycus' work with concave specula. + +We now come to Giovanni Battista della Porta, whose account of the +camera obscura in the first edition of the _Magia Naturalis_, in four +books (1558, lib. iv. cap. 2), is very similar to Caesariano's--a +darkened room, a pyramidal aperture towards the sun, and a whitened wall +or white paper screens, but no lens. He discloses as a great secret the +use of a concave speculum in front of the aperture, to collect the rays +passing through it, when the images will be seen reversed, but by +prolonging them beyond the centre they would be seen larger and +unreversed. This is much the same as Cardan's method published eight +years earlier, but though more detailed is not very clear. He then notes +the application to portraiture and to painting by laying colours on the +projected images. Nothing is said about the use of a lens or of solar +observations. The second edition, in which he in the same words +discloses the use of a convex lens in the aperture as a secret he had +intended to keep, was not published till 1589, thirty-one years after +the first. In this interval the use of the lens was discovered and +clearly described by Daniello Barbaro, a Venetian noble, patriarch of +Aquileia, in his work _La Pratica della perspettiva_ (p. 192), published +in 1568, or twenty-one years before Porta's mention of it. The lens used +by Barbaro was an ordinary convex or old man's spectacle-glass; concave, +he says, will not do. He shows how the paper must be moved till it is +brought into the focus of the lens, the use of a diaphragm to make the +image clearer, and also the application of the method for drawing in +true perspective. That Barbaro was really the first to apply the lens to +the camera obscura is supported by Marius Bettinus in his _Apiaria_ +(1645), and by Kaspar Schott in his _Magia Universalis_ (1657), the +former taunting Porta with the appropriation. + +In an Italian translation of Euclid's _Optica_, with commentary, +Egnacio Danti (1573), after discussing the effects of plane, convex and +concave reflectors, fully describes the method of showing reversed +images passing through an aperture in a darkened room, and shows how, by +placing a mirror behind the aperture, unreversed images might be +obtained, both effects being illustrated by diagrams. F. Risner, who +died in 1580, also in his _Opticae_ (1606) very clearly explained the +reversal of the images of the simple camera obscura. He notes the +convenience of the method for solar observations and its previous use by +some of the observers already mentioned, as well as its advantages for +easily and accurately copying on an enlarged or reduced scale, +especially for chorographical or topographical documents. This is +probably the first notice of the application of the camera to +cartography and the reproduction of drawings, which is one of its +principal uses at the present time. In the _Diversarum Speculationum +Mathematicarum el Physicarum_ (1585), by the Venetian Giovanni Battista +Benedetti, there is a letter in which he discusses the simple camera +obscura and mentions the improvement some one had made in it by the use +of a double convex lens in the aperture; he also says that the images +could be made erect by reflection from any plane mirror. + +Thus the use of the camera and of the lens with it was well known before +Porta published his second edition of the _Magia Naturalis_ in 1589. In +this the description of the camera obscura is in lib. xvii. cap. 6. The +use of the convex lens, which is given as a great secret, in place of +the concave speculum of the first edition, is not so clearly described +as by Barbaro; the addition of the concave speculum is proposed for +making the images larger and clearer, and also for making them erect, +but no details are given. He describes some entertaining peep-show +arrangements, possibly similar to Alberti's, and indicates how the dark +chamber with a concave speculum can be used for observing eclipses. +There is no mention whatever of a portable box or construction beyond +the darkened room, nor is there in his later work, _De Refractione +Optices Parte_ (1593), in which he discusses the analogy between vision +and the simple dark room with an aperture, but incorrectly. Though +Porta's merits were undoubtedly great, he did not invent or improve the +camera obscura. His only novelty was the use of it as a peep-show; his +descriptions of it are vague, but being published in a book of general +reference, which became popular, he acquired credit for the invention. + +The first to take up the camera obscura after Porta was Kepler, who used +it in the old way for solar observations in 1600, and in his _Ad +Vitellionem Paralipomena_ (1604) discusses the early problems of the +passages of light through small apertures, and the rationale of the +simple dark chamber. He was the first to describe an instrument fitted +with a sight and paper screen for observing the diameters of the sun and +moon in a dark room. In his later book, _Dioptrice_ (1611), he fully +discusses refraction and the use of lenses, showing the action of the +double convex lens in the camera obscura, with the principles which +regulate its use and the reason of the reversal of the image. He also +demonstrates how enlarged images can be produced and projected on paper +by using a concave lens at a suitable distance behind the convex, as in +modern telephotographic lenses. He was the first to use the term _camera +obscura_, and in a letter from Sir H. Wotton written to Lord Bacon in +1620 we learn that Kepler had made himself a portable dark tent fitted +with a telescope lens and used for sketching landscapes. Further, he +extended the work of Maurolycus, and demonstrated the exact analogy +between the eye and the camera and the arrangement by which an inverted +image is produced on the retina. + +In 1609 the telescope came into use, and the danger of observing the sun +with it was soon discovered. In 1611 Johann Fabricius published his +observations of sun-spots and describes how he and his father fell back +upon the old method of projecting the sun's image in a darkened room, +finding that they could observe the spots just as well as with the +telescope. They do not seem to have used a lens, or thought of using the +telescope for projecting an enlarged imase on Kepler's principle. This +was done in 1612 by Christoph Schemer, who fully described his method +of solar observation in the _Rosa Ursina_ (1630), demonstrating very +clearly and practically the advantages and disadvantages of using the +camera, without a lens, with a single convex lens, and with a telescopic +combination of convex object-glass and concave enlarging lens, the last +arrangement being mounted with an adjustable screen or tablet on an +equatorial stand. Most of the earlier astronomical work was done in a +darkened room, but here we first find the dark chamber constructed of +wooden rods covered with cloth or paper, and used separately to screen +the observing-tablet. + +Various writers on optics in the 17th century discussed the principle of +the simple dark chamber alone and with single or compound lenses, among +them Jean Tarde (_Les Astres de Borbon_, 1623); Descartes, the pupil of +Kepler (_Dioptrique_, 1637); Bettinus (_Apiaria_, 1645); A. Kircher +(_Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae_, 1646); J. Hevelius (_Selenographia_, +1647); Schott (_Magia Universalis Naturae et Artis_, 1674); C.F.M. +Deschales (_Cursus, seu Mundus Mathematicus_, 1674); Z. Traber (_Nervus +Opticus_, 1675), but their accounts are generally more interesting +theoretically than as recording progress in the practical use and +development of the instrument. + +The earliest mention of the camera obscura in England is probably in +Francis Bacon's _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, but it is only as an +illustration of the projected images showing better on a white screen +than on a black one. Sir H. Wotton's letter of 1620, already noted, was +not published till 1651 (_Reliquiae Wottonianae_, p. 141), but in 1658 a +description of Kepler's portable tent camera for sketching, taken from +it, was published in a work called _Graphice, or the most excellent Art +of Painting_, but no mention is made of Kepler. In W. Oughtred's English +edition (1633) of the _Recreations mathematiques_ (1627) of Jean +Leurechon ("Henry van Etten") there is a quaint description, with +figures, of the simple dark chamber with aperture, and also of a sort of +tent with a lens in it and the projection on an inner wall of the face +of a man standing outside. The English translation of Porta's _Natural +Magick_ was published in 1658. + +Robert Boyle seems to have been the first to construct a box camera with +lens for viewing landscapes. It is mentioned in his essay _On the +Systematic or Cosmical Qualities of Things_ (ch. vi.), written about +1570, as having been made several years before and since imitated and +improved. It could be extended or shortened like a telescope. At one end +of it paper was stretched, and at the other a convex lens was fitted in +a hole, the image being viewed through an aperture at the top of the +box. Robert Hooke, who was some time Boyle's assistant, described +(_Phil. Trans._, 1668, 3, p. 741) a camera lucida on the principle of +the magic lantern, in which the images of illuminated and inverted +objects were projected on any desired scale by means of a broad convex +lens through an aperture into a room where they were viewed by the +spectators. If the objects could not be inverted, another lens was used +for erecting the images. From Hooke's _Posthumous Works_ (1705), p. 127, +we find that in one of the Cutlerian lectures on Light delivered in +1680, he illustrated the phenomena of vision by a darkened room, or +perspective box, of a peculiar pattern, the back part, with a concave +white screen at the end of it, being cylindrical and capable of being +moved in and out, while the fore part was conical, a double convex lens +being fixed in a hole in front. The image was viewed through a large +hole in the side. It was between 4 and 5 ft. long. + +Johann Zahn, in his _Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus_ (1685-1686), +described and figured two forms of portable box cameras with lenses. One +was a wooden box with a projecting tube in which a combination of a +concave with a convex lens was fitted, for throwing an enlarged image +upon the focusing screen, which in its proportions and application is +very similar to our modern telephotographic objectives. The image was +first thrown upon an inclined mirror and then reflected upwards to a +paper screen on the top of the box. In an earlier form the image is +thrown upon a vertical thin paper screen and viewed through a hole in +the back of the camera. There is a great deal of practical information +on lenses in connexion with the camera and other optical instruments, +and the book is valuable as a repertory of early practical optics, also +for the numerous references to and extracts from previous writers. An +improved edition was published in 1702. + +Most of the writers already noticed worked out the problems connected +with the projection of images in the camera obscura more by actual +practice than by calculation, but William Molyneux, of Dublin, seems to +have been the first to treat them mathematically in his _Dioptrica Nova_ +(1692), which was also the first work in English on the subject, and is +otherwise an interesting book. He has fully discussed the optical theory +of the dark chamber, with and without a lens, and its analogy to the +eye, also several optical problems relating to lenses of various forms +and their combinations for telescopic projection, rules for finding +foci, &c. He does not, however, mention the camera obscura as an +instrument in use, but in John Harris's _Lexicon Technicum_ (1704) we +find that the camera obscura with the arrangement called the "scioptric +ball," and known as _scioptricks_, was on sale in London, and after this +must have been in common use as a sketching instrument or as a show. + +Sir Isaac Newton, in his _Opticks_ (1704), explains the principle of the +camera obscura with single convex lens and its analogy with vision in +illustration of his seventh axiom, which aptly embodies the correct +solution of Aristotle's old problem. He also made great use of the +simple dark chamber for his optical experiments with prisms, &c. Joseph +Priestley (1772) mentions the application of the solar microscope, both +to the small and portable and the large camera obscura. Many patterns of +these two forms for sketching and for viewing surrounding scenes are +described in W.J.'s Gravesande's _Essai de perspective_ (1711), Robert +Smith's _Compleat System of Optics_ (1738), Joseph Harris's _Treatise on +Optics_ (1775), Charles Hutton's _Philosophical and Mathematical +Dictionary_, and other books on optics and physics of that period. The +camera obscura was first applied to photography (q.v.) probably about +1794, by Thomas Wedgwood. His experiments with Sir Humphrey Davy in +endeavouring to fix the images of natural objects as seen in the camera +were published in 1802 (_Journ. Roy. Inst._). (J. Wa.) + + + + +CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1500-1574), German classical scholar, was born at +Bamberg on the 12th of April 1500. His family name was Liebhard, but he +was generally called Kammermeister, previous members of his family +having held the office of chamberlain (_camerarius_) to the bishops of +Bamberg. He studied at Leipzig, Erfurt and Wittenberg, where he became +intimate with Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher of history and +Greek at the gymnasium, Nuremberg. In 1530 he was sent as deputy for +Nuremberg to the diet of Augsburg, where he rendered important +assistance to Melanchthon in drawing up the Confession of Augsburg. Five +years later he was commissioned by Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg to +reorganize the university of Tubingen; and in 1541 he rendered a similar +service at Leipzig, where the remainder of his life was chiefly spent. +He translated into Latin Herodotus, Demosthenes, Xenophon, Homer, +Theocritus, Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoretus, Nicephorus and other Greek +writers. He published upwards of 150 works, including a _Catalogue of +the Bishops of the Principal Sees_; _Greek Epistles_; _Accounts of his +Journeys_, in Latin verse; a Commentary on Plautus; a treatise on +Numismatics; _Euclid_ in Latin; and the Lives of Helius Eobanus Hessus, +George of Anhalt and Philip Melanchthon. His _Epistolae Familiares_ +(published after his death) are a valuable contribution to the history +of his time. He played an important part in the Reformation movement, +and his advice was frequently sought by leading men. In 1535 he entered +into a correspondence with Francis I. as to the possibility of a +reconciliation between the Catholic and Protestant creeds; and in 1568 +Maximilian II. sent for him to Vienna to consult him on the same +subject. He died at Leipzig on the 17th of April 1574. + + See article by A. Horawitz in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; C. + Bursian, _Die Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ + (1883); J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ (ed. 1908), ii. 266. + + + + +CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1534-1598), German botanist and physician, son of +the classical scholar of the same name, was born at Nuremberg on the 6th +of November 1534. After finishing his studies in Germany he visited +Italy, where he graduated as doctor of medicine. On his return he was +invited to reside at the courts of several princes, but preferred to +settle in his native town of Nuremberg, where he had a botanical garden +and formed extensive collections. He wrote a _Hortus Medicus_ (1588) and +several other works. He died at Nuremberg on the 11th of October 1598. + + + + +CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB (1665-1721), German botanist and physician, was +born at Tubingen on the 12th of February 1665, and became professor of +medicine and director of the botanical gardens at Tubingen in 1687. He +died at Tubingen on the 11th of September 1721. He is chiefly known for +his investigations on the reproductive organs of plants (_De sexu +plantarum epistola_, 1694). + + + + +CAMERINO (anc. _Camerinum_), a city and episcopal see (since 465, if not +sooner; Treia is now combined with it) of the Marches, Italy, in the +province of Macerata, 6 m. S. of the railway station of Castelraimondo +(to which there is an electric tramway) which is 24 m. W. of Macerata; +2148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 4005; of commune, 12,083. +The cathedral is modern, the older building having fallen in 1799; the +church of S. Venanzio suffered similarly, but preserves a portal of the +15th century. The citadel, perhaps constructed from the plans of +Leonardo da Vinci, dates from 1503. Camerino occupies the site of the +ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which (_Camertes Umbri_) became +allies of the Romans in 310 B.C. (at the time of the attack on the +Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest). On the other hand, the [Greek: +Kamertioi] referred to in the history of the year 295 B.C. are probably +the inhabitants of Clusium. Later it appears as a dependent autonomous +community with the _foedus aequum_ (Mommsen, _Rom. Staatsrecht_, iii. +664). Two cohorts of Camertes fought with distinction under Marius +against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of Catiline, +and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under the empire it was a +_municipium_. It belonged to ancient Umbria, but was on the borders of +Picenum. No ancient buildings are visible, the Roman level lying as much +as 30 ft. below the modern. + + See P. Savini, _Storia delta Citta di Camerino_ (2nd ed., Camerino, + 1895); M. Mariani, _Intorno agli antichi Camerti Umbri_ (Camerino, + 1900). (T. As.) + + + + +CAMERON, JOHN (1579-1623), Scottish theologian, was born at Glasgow +about 1579, and received his early education in his native city. After +having taught Greek in the university for twelve months, he removed to +Bordeaux, where he was soon appointed a regent in the college of +Bergerac. He did not remain long at Bordeaux, but accepted the offer of +a chair of philosophy at Sedan, where he passed two years. He then +returned to Bordeaux, and in the beginning of 1604 he was nominated one +of the students of divinity who were maintained at the expense of the +church, and who for the period of four years were at liberty to +prosecute their studies in any Protestant seminary. During this period +he acted as tutor to the two sons of Calignon, chancellor of Navarre. +They spent one year at Paris, and two at Geneva, whence they removed to +Heidelberg. In this university, on the 4th of April 1608, he gave a +public proof of his ability by maintaining a series of theses, _De +triplici Dei cum Homine Foedere_, which were printed among his works. +The same year he was recalled to Bordeaux, where he was appointed the +colleague of Dr Primrose; and when Francis Gomarus was removed to +Leiden, Cameron, in 1618, was appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, +the principal seminary of the French Protestants. + +In 1620 the progress of the civil troubles in France obliged Cameron to +seek refuge for himself and family in England. For a short time he read +private lectures on divinity in London; and in 1622 the king appointed +him principal of the university of Glasgow in the room of Robert Boyd, +who had been removed from his office in consequence of his adherence to +Presbyterianism. Cameron was prepared to accept Episcopacy, and was +cordially disliked for his adherence to the doctrine of passive +obedience. He resigned his office in less than a year. + +He returned to France, and lived at Saumur. After an interval of a year +he was appointed professor of divinity at Montauban. The country was +still torn by civil and religious dissensions; and Cameron excited the +indignation of the more strenuous adherents of his own party. He +withdrew to the neighbouring town of Moissac; but he soon returned to +Montauban, and a few days afterwards he died at the age of about +forty-six. Cameron left by his first wife several children, whose +maintenance was undertaken by the Protestant churches in France. All his +works were published after his death. + +His name has a distinct place in the development of Calvinistic theology +in Europe. He and his followers maintained that the will of man is +determined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of +men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses +into them; and that God does not move the will physically, but only +morally, by virtue of its dependence on the judgment of the mind. This +peculiar doctrine of grace and free-will was adopted by Amyraut, Cappel, +Bochart, Daille and others of the more learned among the Reformed +ministers, who dissented from Calvin's. The Cameronites (not to be +confused with the Scottish sect called Cameronians) are moderate +Calvinists, and approach to the opinion of the Arminians. They are also +called Universalists, as holding the universal reference of Christ's +death, and sometimes Amyraldists. The rigid adherents to the synod of +Dort accused them of Pelagianism, and even of Manichaeism, and the +controversy between the parties was carried on with great zeal; yet the +whole question between them was only, whether the will of man is +determined by the immediate action of God upon it, or by the +intervention of a knowledge which God impresses on the mind. + + + + +CAMERON, RICHARD (1648?-1680), founder of a Scottish religious sect of +Cameronians, which formed the nucleus of the regiment of this name in +the British army, was born at Falkland in the county of Fife. He was +educated at the village school, and his success was so great that, while +still a youth, he was appointed schoolmaster. In this situation he +became acquainted with some of the more enthusiastic field-preachers. +Persuaded by them he resigned his post and entered the family of Sir +Walter Scott of Harden as chaplain and tutor. Refusing to acknowledge +the Indulgence, he joined the ranks of the non-conforming ministers, and +incited the inhabitants of the southern counties of Scotland to protest +openly against the new edict. So formidable was the agitation that the +government pronounced illegal all armed assemblages for religious +purposes. Cameron took refuge in Holland, where he resided for some +time; but in the autumn of 1679 (probably) he returned to Scotland, and +once more made himself formidable to the government. Shortly after the +defeat of the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge in that year, Cameron was +slain in a skirmish at the Aird's, or Airs, Moss, fighting bravely at +the head of the few troops which he had been able to collect. His prayer +before going into battle became a tradition--"Lord spare the green and +take the ripe." After the accession of William III. the survivors were +amnestied, and the Cameronian regiment was formed from them. + + See Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iii. (1907); + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1897), _s.v._ "Cameronianer"; A. + Smellie, _Men of the Covenant_; Herkless, _Richard Cameron_; P. + Walker, _Six Saints of the Covenant._ + + + + +CAMERON, SIMON (1799-1889), American politician, was born in Lancaster +county, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of March 1799. Left an orphan at the +age of nine, he early entered journalism, and, in banking and railway +enterprises, accumulated a considerable fortune. He became influential +in Pennsylvania politics, and in 1845-1849 served in the United States +Senate, being elected by a combination of Democratic, Whig and +"American" votes to succeed James Buchanan. In 1854, having failed to +secure the nomination for senator from the "Know-Nothing" Party, which +he had recently joined, he became a leader of the "People's Party," as +the Republican Party was at first called in Pennsylvania. In 1857 he +was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican, despite a +Democratic majority in the state legislature, a fact that gave rise to +charges of bribery. His prominence as a candidate first for the +presidential and then for the vice-presidential nomination in the +Republican national convention of 1860 led to his being selected by +President Lincoln as secretary of war. His administration of this office +at a critical time was marked by his accustomed energy, but +unfortunately also by partiality in the letting of government contracts, +which brought about his resignation at Lincoln's request in January 1862 +and his subsequent censure by the House of Representatives. Lincoln sent +him as minister to Russia, but he returned in November 1862. He again +served in the Senate (after 1872, being chairman of the committee on +foreign relations) from 1867 until 1877, when he resigned to make room +for his son, whose election he dictated. Cameron was one of the ablest +political organizers the United States has ever known, and his long +undisputed control of Pennsylvania politics was one of the most striking +examples of "boss rule" in American history. The definition of an honest +politician as "one who when he is bought will stay bought" has been +attributed to him. He died on the 26th of June 1889. + +His son JAMES DONALD CAMERON (1833- ) was born at Middletown, +Pennsylvania, on the 14th of May 1833, graduated at Princeton in 1852, +became actively interested in his father's banking and railway +enterprises, and from 1863 to 1874 was president of the Northern Central +railway. Trained in the political school of his father, he developed +into an astute politician. From June 1876 to March 1877 he was secretary +of war in President Grant's cabinet. In the Republican national +convention of 1876 he took an influential part in preventing the +nomination of James G. Elaine, and later was one of those who directed +the policy of the Republicans in the struggle for the presidency between +Tilden and Hayes. From 1877 until 1897 he was a member of the United +States Senate, having been elected originally to succeed his father, who +resigned in order to create the vacancy. He was chairman of the +Republican national committee during the campaign of 1880. + + + + +CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT (1844-1894), English traveller in Central Africa, +was born at Radipole, near Weymouth, Dorsetshire, on the 1st of July +1844. He entered the navy in 1857, served in the Abyssinian campaign of +1868, and was employed for a considerable time in the suppression of the +East African slave trade. The experience thus obtained led to his being +selected to command an expedition sent by the Royal Geographical Society +in 1873, to succour Dr. Livingstone. He was also instructed to make +independent explorations, guided by Livingstone's advice. Soon after the +departure of the expedition from Zanzibar, Livingstone's servants were +met bearing the dead body of their master. Cameron's two European +companions turned back, but he continued his march and reached Ujiji, on +Lake Tanganyika, in February 1874, where he found and sent to England +Livingstone's papers. Cameron spent some time determining the true form +of the south part of the lake, and solved the question of its outlet by +the discovery of the Lukuga river. From Tanganyika he struck westward to +Nyangwe, the Arab town on the Lualaba previously visited by Livingstone. +This river Cameron rightly believed to be the main stream of the Congo, +and he endeavoured to procure canoes to follow it down. In this he was +unsuccessful, owing to his refusal to countenance slavery, and he +therefore turned south-west. After tracing the Congo-Zambezi watershed +for hundreds of miles he reached Bihe and finally arrived at the coast +on the 28th of November 1875, being the first European to cress +Equatorial Africa from sea to sea. His travels, which were published in +1877 under the title _Across Africa_, contain valuable suggestions for +the opening up of the continent, including the utilization of the great +lakes as a "Cape to Cairo" connexion. In recognition of his work he was +promoted to the rank of commander, made a Companion of the Bath and +given the gold medal of the Geographical Society. The remainder of +Cameron's life was chiefly devoted to projects for the commercial +development of Africa, and to writing tales for the young. He visited +the Euphrates valley in 1878-1879 in connexion with a proposed railway +to the Persian Gulf, and accompanied Sir Richard Burton in his West +African journey of 1882. At the Gold Coast Cameron surveyed the Tarkwa +region, and he was joint author with Burton of _To the Gold Coast for +Gold_ (1883). He was killed, near Leighton Buzzard, by a fall from +horseback when returning from hunting, on the 24th of March 1894. + + A second edition of _Across Africa_, with new matter and corrected + maps, appeared in 1885. A summary of Cameron's great journey, from his + own pen, appears in Dr Robert Brown's _The Story of Africa_, vol. ii. + pp. 266-279 (London, 1893). + + + + +CAMERON OF LOCHIEL, SIR EWEN (1629-1719), Scottish Highland chieftain, +was the eldest son of John Cameron and the grandson of Alan Cameron, the +head of the clan Cameron. Having lost his father in infancy he passed +part of his youth with the marquess of Argyll at Inveraray, leaving his +guardian about 1647 to take up his duties as chief of the clan Cameron, +a position in which he succeeded his grandfather. In 1653 Lochiel joined +the earl of Glencairn in his rising on behalf of Charles II., and after +the defeat of this attempt he served the Royalist cause by harassing +General Monk. In 1681 he was knighted by Charles II., and in July 1689 +he was with Viscount Dundee at Killiecrankie. He was too old to share +personally in the Jacobite rising of 1715, but his sympathies were with +the Stuarts, and his son led the Camerons at Sheriffmuir. Lochiel, who +died in February 1719, is called by Macaulay the "Ulysses of the +Highlands." He was a man of enormous strength and size, and one who met +him in 1716 says "he wrung some blood from the point of my fingers with +a grasp of his hand." An incident showing his strength and ferocity in +single combat is used by Sir Walter Scott in _The Lady of the Lake_ +(canto v.). Lochiel's son and successor, John, who was attainted for +sharing in the rebellion of 1715, died in Flanders in 1748. John's son +Donald, sometimes called "gentle Lochiel," joined Charles Edward, the +Young Pretender, in 1745, was wounded at Culloden, and escaped to +France, dying in the same year as his father. The 79th regiment, or +Cameron Highlanders, was raised from among the members of the clan in +1793 by Sir Alan Cameron (1753-1828). + + See _Memoirs of Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel_ (Bannatyne Club, 1842). + + + + +CAMERONIANS, the name given to that section of the Scottish Covenanters +(q.v.) who followed Richard Cameron (q.v.), and who were chiefly found +among those who signed the Sanquhar Declaration in 1680. Known also as +"Society Men," "Sanquharians" and "Hillmen," they became a separate +church after the religious settlement of 1690, taking the official title +of Reformed Presbyterians in 1743. Societies of Cameronians for the +maintenance of the Presbyterian form of worship were formed about 1681; +their testimony, "The Informatory Vindication," is dated 1687; and they +quickly became the most pronounced and active adherents of the +covenanting faith. Holding fast to the two covenants, the National +Covenant of 1580 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, they wished +to restore the ecclesiastical order which had existed between 1638 and +1649, and were dissatisfied with the moderate character of the religious +settlement of 1690. Refusing to take the oaths of allegiance to an +"uncovenanted" ruler, or to exercise any civil function, they passed +through a period of trial and found some difficulty in maintaining a +regular ministry; but in 1706 they were reinforced by some converts from +the established church. They objected strongly to the proposal for the +union of England and Scotland, and were suspected of abetting a rising +which took place in the west of Scotland in 1706; but there appears to +be no foundation for the statement that they intrigued with the +Jacobites, and they gave no trouble to the government either in 1715 or +in 1745. In 1712 they publicly renewed the covenants at Auchensauch Hill +in Lanarkshire, and in 1743 their first presbytery was constituted at +Braehead, while a presbytery was formed in North America in 1774. In +1863 the Cameronians, or Reformed Presbyterians, decided to inflict no +penalties upon those members who had taken the oaths, or had exercised +civil functions, and consequently a few congregations seceded. In 1876 +the general body of the Reformed Presbyterians united with the Free +Church of Scotland, leaving the few seceding congregations as the +representatives of the principles of the Cameronians. In the British +army the first battalion of the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) is +directly descended from the "Cameronian guard," which, composed of +Cameronians, was embodied by the convention parliament in 1689, and was +afterwards employed to restore order in the Highlands. + + See J.H. Burton, _History of Scotland_, vols. vii. and viii. + (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. iv. + (Edinburgh, 1907). + + + + +CAMEROON[1] (Ger. _Kamerun_), a German protectorate in West Africa, +bounded W. by the Atlantic, N.W. by British Nigeria, N. by Lake Chad, E. +and S. by French Congo, save for a short distance on the south where it +is conterminous with the Spanish Muni river settlement. + +[Illustration: CAMEROON] + +_Boundaries and Area._--The sea frontier extends from the Rio del Rey, +just where the great bend of the coast-line east to south begins, +forming the Bight of Biafra, to the Campo river, a distance of 200 m. +The north-western boundary, laid down in an agreement between Germany +and Great Britain on the 15th of November 1893, runs from the mouth of +the Rio del Rey to the "rapids" of the Cross river in 8 deg. 48' E. +Thence it is continued in a north-east line towards Yola, as far as the +confines of that town. The boundary is then deflected south so as to +leave Yola in British territory, turning north again to cross the Benue +river at a spot 3 m. west of where the Faro joins the Benue. From this +point the frontier goes north-east to the border of Lake Chad, 35 m. +east of the meridian of the town of Kuka. The southern shores of Lake +Chad for a distance of some 40 m. belong to the protectorate. The south +and east boundaries were laid down by agreements between Germany and +France on the 24th of December 1885, the 15th of March 1894 and the 18th +of April 1908. The south boundary runs in a fairly direct line from the +mouth of the Campo river to the river Dscha (or Ngoko), which it follows +to its confluence with the Sanga. The eastern boundary runs from the +Sanga irregularly north to 10 deg. N., where it approaches the British +frontier at Yola, so that at its narrowest part the protectorate is +little more than 50 m. across. From 10 deg. N. the frontier turns +eastwards to the Logone, thence going north-east to the Shari river, +which it follows to Lake Chad. The protectorate has an area of about +190,000 sq. m. Estimated population (1908) 3,500,000, of whom 1128 were +whites. + +_Origin of the Name._--The name Camaroes was first given by the +Portuguese discoverers of the 15th and 16th centuries to a large bay or +estuary, lying south-east of a great mountain close to the sea, met with +after passing the Niger delta. This estuary they called the Rio dos +Camaroes (the river of Prawns), from the abundance of the crustacea +found therein. The name Camaroes was also used to designate the +neighbouring mountains. The English usage until nearly the end of the +19th century was to confine the term "the Cameroons" to the mountain +range, and to speak of the estuary as the Cameroons river. Locally it +was often called "the Bay." On their acquisition of the country in 1884 +the Germans extended the use of the name in its Teutonic +form--Kamerun--to the whole protectorate. + +_Physical Features._--Cameroon forms the north-west corner of the great +Central African plateau. This becomes evident in its eastern section, +where are wide-spreading plains, which farther west assume an undulating +character, and gradually merge into a picturesque mountain range. This +range, running from north to south, is flanked by a parallel and lower +range in the west, with a wide valley between. In the north-west the +Upper Guinea mountains send their eastern spurs across the boundary, and +from a volcanic rift, which runs south-west to north-east, the Cameroon +peak towers up, its summit 13,370 ft. high. This mountain, whose +south-western base is washed by the Atlantic, is the highest point on +the western side of Africa, and it alone of the great mountains of the +continent lies close to the coast. From any vantage point, but +especially from the sea, it presents a magnificent spectacle, while some +30 m. westward rises Clarence peak, the culminating point of Fernando +Po. With an area, on an isolated base, of 700 to 800 sq. m., Cameroon +mountain has but two distinct peaks, Great Cameroon and Little Cameroon +(5820 ft.), which is from foot to top covered with dense forest. The +native designation of the highest peak is Mongo-ma-Loba, or the Mountain +of Thunder, and the whole upper region is usually called Mongo-mo-Ndemi, +or the Mountain of Greatness. On the principal summit there are a group +of craters. In 1909 the mountain was in eruption and huge streams of +lava were ejected. Inland the Chebchi and Mandara mountains indicate the +direction and extent of the rift. + +The mountains of the plateau sweep grandly round to the east on +reaching the eighth degree of N. lat. Here they give rise to a number of +small rivers, which collect in the rift and form the Benue, the great +eastern affluent of the Niger. This part of the protectorate is known as +Adamawa (q.v.). Farther north, beyond the Mandara mountains, the +country, here part of the ancient sultanate of Bornu, slopes to the +shores of Lake Chad, and has a general level of 800 to 1000 ft. The +greater part of Cameroon is thus a mountainous country, with, on the +coast, a strip of low land. In the south this is very narrow; it widens +towards the north savewhere the Cameroon peak reaches to the sea. + +At the foot of the Cameroon peak a number of estuaries cut deep bays +which form excellent harbours. The small rivers which empty into them +can be ascended for some miles by steam launches. The principal estuary, +which is over 20 m. wide, is called, as already noted, the Cameroon +river or bay. The term river is more particularly confined to a +ramification of the estuary which receives the waters of the Mungo river +(a considerable stream which flows south from the Cameroon mountains), +the Wuri, a river coming from the north-east, and various smaller +rivers. Under the shadow of Cameroon peak lies the bay of Ambas, with +the islands of Ndami (Ambas) and Mondola. It forms a tolerable harbour, +capable of receiving large vessels. + +Traversing the central portion of the country is a large river known in +its upper course as the Lom, and in its lower as the Sanaga, which +enters the ocean just to the south of the Cameroon estuary. Both the Lom +and the Nyong (a more southerly stream) rise in the central plateau, +from which they descend in splendid cascades, breaking through the +parallel coast range in rapids, which indicate the extent of their +navigability. The Lokunja and Kribi are smaller rivers with courses +parallel to and south of the Nyong. In the south-east of the colony the +streams--of which the chief are the Dscha and Bumba--are tributaries of +the Sanga, itself an affluent of the Congo (q.v.). About 100 m. of the +right bank of the Sanga, from the confluence of the Dscha upwards, are +in German territory. In the north the country drains into Lake Chad +through the Logone and Shari (q.v.). Including the headwaters of the +Benue the colony has four distinct river-systems, one connecting with +the Niger, another with the Congo, and a third with Lake Chad, the +fourth being the rivers which run direct to the sea. The Niger and Shari +systems communicate, with, at high water, but one obstruction to +navigation. The connecting link is a marshy lake named Tuburi. From it +issues the Kebbi (Mao Kebi) a tributary of the Benue, and through it +flows a tributary of the Logone, the chief affluent of the Shari. The +one obstruction in the waterway is a fall of 165 ft. in the Kebbi. + +_Geology._--The oldest rocks, forming the greater mass of the +hinterland, are gneisses, schists and granites of Archaean age. Along +the Benue river a sandstone (Benue sandstone) forms the banks to 14 deg. +E. Cretaceous rocks occur around the basalt platform of the Cameroon +mountain and generally along the coastal belt. Basalt and tuff, probably +of Tertiary age, form the great mass of the Cameroon mountain, also the +island of Fernando Po. Extensive areas in the interior, more especially +towards Lake Chad, are covered with black earth of alluvial or +lacustrine origin. + +_Climate._--The country lies wholly within the tropics and has a +characteristic tropical climate. In the interior four seasons can be +distinguished; a comparatively dry and a wet one alternating. July to +October are the coldest months, and also bring most rain, but there is +hardly a month without rain. On the coast the temperature is high all +the year round, but on the plateau it is cooler. Malarial fever is +frequent, and even the Africans, especially those coming from other +countries, suffer from it. The middle zone of the Cameroon mountain has, +however, a temperate climate and affords excellent sites for sanatoria. + +_Flora and Fauna._--The southern part of the low coast is chiefly grass +land, while the river mouths and arms of the bays are lined with +mangroves. The mountainous region is covered with primeval forest, in +which timber and valuable woods for cabinet-making are plentiful. Most +important are the _Elaeis guineensis, Sterculia acuminata_ and the wild +coffee tree. On Cameroon peak the forest ascends to 8000 ft.; above it +is grass land. Towards the east the forest gradually grows thinner, +assumes a park-like appearance, and finally disappears, wide grass +uplands taking its place. The country north of the Benue is rich and +well cultivated. Cotton and rubber are found in considerable quantities, +and fields of maize, corn, rice and sugarcane bear witness to the +fertility of the soil. + +Animals are plentiful, including the great pachyderms and carnivora. The +latter prey on the various kinds of antelopes which swarm on the grass +lands. Two kinds of buffaloes are found in the forests, which are the +home of the gorilla and chimpanzee. Large rodents, like the porcupine +and cane rat, are numerous. Of birds there are 316 species, and several +of venomous snakes. + +_Inhabitants._--The north of Cameroon is inhabited by Fula (q.v.) and +Hausa (q.v.) and allied tribes, the south by Bantu-speaking races. The +Fula came from the north and north-east, gradually driving the +Bantu-negroes before them. They brought horses and horned cattle, +unknown in these regions until then, and they founded well-organized +states, like that of Adamawa, now divided between Cameroon and the +British protectorate of Nigeria. In the vicinity of the rivers Benue, +Faro and Kebbi, the people, who are good agriculturists, raise cereals +and other crops, while on the plateaus stock-raising forms the chief +pursuit of the inhabitants. In this northern region villages are built +in the Sudanese zeriba style, surrounded with thorn fences; more +important places are enclosed by a well-built wall and strongly +fortified. Of martial disposition, the people often waged war with their +neighbours, and also amongst themselves until the pacification of the +hinterland by Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. + +The Bantu-negroes inhabit the country south of about 7 deg. N. Chief +among the tribes are the Dualla (q.v.), the Ba-kwiri (q.v.), the +Ba-Long, the Ba-Farami, the Wuri, the Abo and the Ba-Kundu. They build +square houses, are active traders and are ruled by independent chiefs, +having no political cohesion. Among the Dualla a curious system of drum +signals is noteworthy. In the coast towns are numbers of Krumen, who, +however, rarely settle permanently in the country. The Fula, as also +most of the Hausa, are Moslems, the other tribes are pagans. Missionary +societies, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, are represented in the +colony, and their schools are well attended, as are the schools +belonging to the government. In all the schools German is taught, but +pidgin-English is largely spoken at the coast towns. + +_Chief Towns._--Duala, the chief town in the protectorate, is situated +on the Cameroon estuary at the mouth of the Wuri river in 4 deg. 2' N. 9 +deg. 42' E. It consists of various trading stations and native towns +close to one another on the south bank of the river and known, before +the German occupation, as Cameroon, Bell town, Akwa town, &c. Hickory, +on the north side of the stream and the starting point of the railway to +the interior, is also part of Duala, which has a total population of +22,000, including about 170 Europeans. Duala is the headquarters of the +merchants and missionaries. The principal streets are wide and tree +lined, the sanitation is good. The government offices are placed in a +fine park in which are statues of Gustav Nachtigal and others. The port +is provided with a floating dock. The seat of government is Buea, a post +3000 ft. above the sea on the slopes of the Cameroon mountain. Victoria +is a flourishing town in Ambas Bay, founded by the British Baptist +missionaries expelled from Fernando Po in 1858 (see below). Batanga and +Campo are trading stations in the southern portion of the colony. On the +route from Duala to Lake Chad is the large commercial town of Ngaundere, +inhabited chiefly by Hausas and occupied by the Germans in 1901. Another +large town is Garua on the Benue river. Farther north and within 30 m. +of Lake Chad is Dikwa (Dikoa), in Bornu, the town chosen by Rabah (q.v.) +as his capital after his conquest of Bornu. Gulfei on the lower Shari +and Kusseri on the Logone are also towns of some note. Ngoko is a +trading station on the Dscha, in the south-east of the protectorate, +near the confluence of that river with the Sanga. + +_Products and Industry._--Cameroon is rich in natural products, one of +the most important being the oil-palm. Cocoa cultivation was introduced +by the Germans and proved remarkably successful. Rubber is collected +from the Landolphia and various species of Ficus. Palm-oil, palm +kernels, cocoa, copal, copra, Calabar beans, kola-nuts and ivory are the +principal exports. There are several kinds of finely-grained wood, +amongst which a very dark ebony is specially remarkable. Cotton, indigo +and various fibres of plants deserve notice. The natives grow several +kinds of bananas, yams and batatas, maize, pea-nuts, sugar-cane, sorghum +and pepper. Minerals have not been found in paying quantities. Iron is +smelted by the natives, who, especially amongst the Hausas, are very +clever smiths, and manufacture fine lances and arrow heads, knives and +swords, and also hoes. Dikwa is the centre of an important trade of +which the chief articles are coffee, sugar, velvet, silk and weapons, as +well as gold and silver objects brought by caravans from Tripoli. The +natives round the Cameroon estuary are clever carvers of wood, and make +highly ornamental figure heads for their canoes, which also sometimes +show very fine workmanship. In the interior the people use the +wild-growing cotton and fibres of plants to manufacture coarse drapery +and plait-work. Plantations founded by German industry are fairly +successful. Large reserves are set apart for the natives by government +when marking off the land granted to plantation companies. The +best-known of these companies, the _Sud-Kamerun_, holds a concession +over a large tract of country by the Sanga river, exporting its rubber, +ivory and other produce via the Congo. The principal imports are cotton +goods, spirits, building material, firearms, hardware and salt. The +annual value of the external trade in the period 1900-1905 averaged +about L800,000. In 1907 the value of the trade had increased to +L1,700,000. Some 70% of the import and export trade was with Germany, +the remainder being almost entirely with Great Britain. The percentage +of the trade with Germany was increasing, that with Britain decreasing. + +_Communications._--There is regular steamship communication with Europe +by German and British boats. On the rivers which run into the Cameroon +estuary small steam launches ply. The protectorate belongs to the Postal +Union, and is connected by cable with the British telegraph station at +Bonny in the Niger delta. + +An imperial guarantee of interest was obtained in 1905 for the +construction of a railway from Hickory to Bayong, a place 100 m. to the +north, the district traversed being fertile and populous. From Victoria +a line runs to Soppo (22 m.) near Buea and is continued thence +northward. Another line, sanctioned in 1908, runs S.E. from Duala to the +upper waters of the Nyong. In the neighbourhood of government stations +excellent roads have been built. The chief towns in the coast region are +connected by telegraph and telephone. + +_Government Revenue, &c._--The administration is under the direction of +a governor appointed by and responsible to the imperial authorities. The +governor is assisted by a chancellor and other officials and an advisory +council whose members are merchants resident in the protectorate. +Decrees having the force of law are issued by the imperial chancellor on +the advice of the governor. In Adamawa and German Bornu are various +Mahommedan sultanates controlled by residents stationed at Garua and +Kusseri. Revenue is raised chiefly by customs dues on spirits and +tobacco and a general 10% _ad valorem_ duty on most goods. A poll tax is +imposed on the natives. The local revenue (L131,000 in 1905) is +supplemented by an imperial grant, the protectorate in the first +twenty-one years of its existence never having raised sufficient revenue +to meet its expenditure, which in 1905 exceeded L230,000. Order is +maintained by a native force officered by Germans. + +_History._--Cameroon and the neighbouring coast were discovered by the +Portuguese navigator, Fernando Po, towards the close of the 15th +century. They were formerly regarded as within the Oil Rivers district, +sometimes spoken of as the Oil Coast. Trading settlements were +established by Europeans as early as the 17th century. The trade was +confined to the coast, the Dualla and other tribes being recognized +intermediaries between the coast "factories" and the tribes in the +interior, whither they allowed no strange trader to proceed. They took a +quantity of goods on trust, visited the tribes in the forest, and +bartered for ivory, rubber and other produce. This method of trade, +called the trust system, worked well, but when the country came under +the administration of Germany, the system broke down, as inland traders +were allowed to visit the coast. Before this happened the "kings" of the +chief trading stations--Akwa and Bell--were wealthy merchant princes. +From the beginning until near the end of the 19th century they were very +largely under British influence. In 1837 the king of Bimbia, a district +on the mainland on the north of the estuary, made over a large part of +the country round the bay to Great Britain. In 1845, at which time there +was a flourishing trade in slaves between Cameroon and America, the +Baptist Missionary Society made its first settlement on the mainland of +Africa, Alfred Saker (1814-1880) obtaining from the Akwa family the site +for a mission station. In 1848 another mission station was established +at Bimbia, the king agreeing to abolish human sacrifices at the funerals +of his great men. Into the Cameroon country Saker and his colleagues +introduced the elements of civilization, and with the help of British +men-of-war the oversea slave trade was finally stopped (_c._ 1875). The +struggles between the Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa families were also largely +composed. In 1858, on the expulsion of the Baptists from Fernando Po +(q.v.), Saker founded at Ambas Bay a colony of the freed negroes who +then left the island, the settlement being known as Victoria. Two years +after this event the first German factory was established in the estuary +by Messrs Woermann of Hamburg. In 1870 the station at Bimbia was given +up by the missionaries, but that at Akwa town continued to flourish, the +Dualla showing themselves eager to acquire education, while Saker +reduced their language to writing. He left Cameroon in 1876, the year +before George Grenfell, afterwards famous for his work on the Congo, +came to the country, where he remained three years. Like the earlier +missionaries he explored the adjacent districts, discovering the Sanaga +in its lower course. Although British influence was powerful and the +British consul for the Oil Rivers during this period exercised +considerable authority over the native chiefs, requests made by them--in +particular by the Dualla chiefs in 1882--for annexation by Great +Britain, were refused or neglected, with the result that when Germany +started on her quest to pick up unappropriated parts of the African +coast she was enabled to secure Cameroon. A treaty with King Bell was +negotiated by Dr Gustav Nachtigal, the signature of the king and the +other chiefs being obtained at midnight on the 15th of July 1884. Five +days later Mr E.H. Hewett, British consul, arrived with a mission to +annex the country to Great Britain.[2] Though too late to secure King +Bell's territory, Mr Hewett concluded treaties with all the neighbouring +chiefs, but the British government decided to recognize the German claim +not only to Bell town, but to the whole Cameroon region. Some of the +tribes, disappointed at not being taken over by Great Britain, refused +to acknowledge German sovereignty. Their villages were bombarded and +they were reduced to submission. The settlement of the English Baptists +at Victoria, Ambas Bay, was at first excluded from the German +protectorate, but in March 1887 an arrangement was made by which, while +the private rights of the missionaries were maintained, the sovereignty +of the settlement passed to Germany. The Baptist Society thereafter made +over its missions, both at Ambas Bay and in the estuary, to the Basel +Society. + +The extension of German influence in the interior was gradually +accomplished, though not without considerable bloodshed. That part of +Adamawa recognized as outside the British frontier was occupied in 1901 +after somewhat severe fighting. In 1902 the imperial troops first +penetrated into that part of Bornu reserved to Germany by agreements +with Great Britain and France. They found the country in the military +occupation of France. The French officers, who stated that their +presence was due to the measures rendered necessary by the ravages of +Rabah and his sons, withdrew their troops into French territory. The +shores of Lake Chad were first reached by a German military force on the +2nd of May 1902. In 1904 and again in 1905 there were native risings in +various parts of the protectorate. These disturbances were followed, +early in 1906, by the recall of the governor, Herr von Puttkamer, who +was called upon to answer charges of maladministration. He was succeeded +in 1907 by Dr T. Seitz. Collisions on the southern border of the +protectorate between French and German troops led in 1905-1906 to an +accurate survey of the south and east frontier regions and to a new +convention (1908) whereby for the straight lines marking the frontier in +former agreements natural features were largely substituted. Germany +gained a better outlet to the Sanga river. + +The ascent of the Cameroon mountain was first attempted by Joseph +Merrick of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1847; but it was not till +1861 that the summit was gained, when the ascent was made by Sir Richard +Burton, Gustav Mann, a noted botanist, and Senor Calvo. The +starting-point was Babundi, a place on the seashore west of the +mountain. From the south-east the summit was reached by Mary Kingsley in +1895. + + See Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897); Sir R. + Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_ (2 vols., London, + 1863); E.B. Underhill, _Alfred Saker ... A Biography_ (London, 1884); + Sir H.H. Johnston, _George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on the + Cameroons ..._ (London, 1908); Max Buchner, _Kamerun Skizzen und + Betrachtungen_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Passarge, _Adamaua_ (Berlin, 1895); + E. Zintgraph, _Nord-Kamerun_ (Berlin, 1895); F. Hutter, _Wanderungen + und Forschungen im Nord-Hinterland von Kamerun_ (Brunswick, 1902); F. + Bauer, _Die deutsche Niger-Benue-Tsadsee-Expedition_, 1902-1903 + (Berlin, 1904); C. Rene, _Kamerun und die deutsche Tsadsee Eisenbahn_ + (Berlin, 1905); O. Zimmermann, _Durch Busch und Steppe vom Campo bis + zum Schari, 1892-1902_ (Berlin, 1909); also British Foreign Office + Reports. For special study of particular sciences see F. Wohltmann, + _Der Plantagenbau in Kamerun und seine Zukunft_ (Berlin, 1896); F. + Plehn, _Die Kamerunkuste, Studien zur Klimatologie, Physiologie und + Pathologie in den Tropen_ (Berlin, 1898); E. Esch, F. Solger, M. + Oppenheim and 0. Jaekel, _Beitrage zur Geologie von Kamerun_ + (Stuttgart, 1904). For geology the following works may also be + consulted: Stromer von Reichenbach, _Geologie der deutschen + Schutzgebiete in Afrika_ (Berlin, 1896); A. von Koenen, "Uber + Fossilien der unteren Kreide am Ufer des Mungo in Kamerun," _Abh. k. + Wiss._, Gottingen, 1897; E. Cohen, "Lava vom Camerun-Gebirge," _Neues + Jahrb. f. Min._, 1887. (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This English form of the name, adopted in the 10th ed. of the + _Ency. Brit._, from the German, appears preferable both to the + un-English Kamerun and to the older and clumsy "the Cameroons." + + [2] On the 26th of July a French gunboat also entered the estuary on + a belated annexation mission. + + + + +CAMILING, a town of the province of Tarlac, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on the Camiling river, about 80 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 25,243. +In 1903 after the census had been taken, the adjacent towns of Santa +Ignacia (pop. 1911) and San Clemente (pop. 1822) were annexed to +Camiling. Its products are rice, Indian corn and sugar. Fine timber +grows in the vicinity. The principal language is Ilocano; Pangasinan, +too, is spoken. Being in an isolated position, very difficult of access +during the rainy season, Camiling has always been infested with thieves +and bands of outlaws, who come here for concealment. + + + + +CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, Roman soldier and statesman, of patrician +descent, censor in 403 B.C. He triumphed four times, was five times +dictator, and was honoured with the title of Second Founder of Rome. +When accused of having unfairly distributed the spoil taken at Veii, +which was captured by him after a ten years' siege, he went into +voluntary exile at Ardea. The real cause of complaint against him was no +doubt his patrician haughtiness and his triumphal entry into Rome in a +chariot drawn by white horses. Subsequently the Romans, when besieged in +the Capitol by the Gauls, created him dictator; he completely defeated +the enemy (but see BRENNUS and ROME: _History_, ii., "The Republic") and +drove them from Roman territory. He dissuaded the Romans, disheartened +by the devastation wrought by the Gauls, from migrating to Veii, and +induced them to rebuild the city. He afterwards fought successfully +against the Aequi, Volsci and Etruscans, and repelled a fresh invasion +of the Gauls in 367. Though patrician in sympathy, he saw the necessity +of making concessions to the plebeians and was instrumental in passing +the Licinian laws. He died of the plague in the eighty-first year of his +age (365). The story of Camillus is no doubt largely traditional. To +this element probably belongs the story of the schoolmaster who, when +Camillas was attacking Falerii (q.v.), attempted to betray the town by +bringing into his camp the sons of some of the principal inhabitants of +the place. Camillus, it is said, had him whipped back into the town by +his pupils, and the Faliscans were so affected by this generosity that +they at once surrendered. + + See Livy v. 10, vi. 4; Plutarch, _Camillus_. For the Gallic retreat, + see Polybius ii. 18; T. Mommsen, _Romische Forschungen_, ii. pp. + 113-152 (1879). + + + + +CAMILLUS and CAMILLA, in Roman antiquity, originally terms used for +freeborn children. Later, they were used to denote the attendants on +certain priests and priestesses, especially the flamen dialis and +flaminica and the curiones. It was necessary that they should be +freeborn and the children of parents still alive (Dion. Halic. ii. 21). +The name Camillus has been connected with the Cadmilus or Casmilus of +the Samothracian mysteries, identified with Hermes (see CABEIRI). + + + + +CAMISARDS (from _camisade_, obsolete Fr. for "a night attack," from the +Ital. _camiciata_, formed from _camicia_--Fr. _chemise_--a shirt, from +the fact of a shirt being worn over the armour in order to distinguish +friends from foes), the name given to the peasantry of the Cevennes who, +from 1702 to 1705 and for some years afterwards, carried on an organized +military resistance to the _dragonnades_, or conversion by torture, +death and confiscation of property, by which, in the Huguenot districts +of France, the revocation of the edict of Nantes was attempted to be +enforced. The Camisards were also called Barbets ("water-dogs," a term +also applied to the Waldenses), Vagabonds, Assemblers (_assemblee_ was +the name given to the meeting or conventicle of Huguenots), Fanatics and +the Children of God. They belonged to that romance-speaking people of +Gothic descent whose mystic imagination and independent character made +the south of France the most fertile nursing-ground of medieval heresy +(see CATHARS and ALBIGENSES). At the time of the Reformation the same +causes produced like results. Calvin was warmly welcomed when he +preached at Nimes; Montpellier became the chief centre for the +instruction of the Huguenot youth. It was, however, in the great +triangular plateau of mountain called the Cevennes that, among the small +farmers, the cloth and silk weavers and vine dressers, Protestantism was +most intense and universal. These people were (and still are) very poor, +but intelligent and pious, and of a character at once grave and fervent. +From the lists of Huguenots sent from Languedoc to the galleys (1684 to +1762), we gather that the common type of _physique_ is "belle taille, +cheveux bruns, visage ovale." The chief theatre of the revolt comprised +that region of the Cevennes bounded by the towns of Florac, +Pont-de-Montvert, Alais and Lasalle, thus embracing the southern portion +of the department of Lozere (the Bas-Gevaudan) and the neighbouring +district in the east of the department of Gard. + +In order to understand the War of the Cevennes it is necessary to recall +the persecutions which preceded and followed the revocation of the edict +of Nantes. It is also necessary to remember the extraordinary religious +movement which had for a great number of years agitated the Protestants +of France. Faced by the violation of that most solemn of treaties, a +treaty which had been declared perpetual and irrevocable by Henry IV., +Louis XIII. and even Louis XIV. himself, they could not, in the +enthusiasm of their faith, believe that such a crime would be left +unpunished. But being convinced that no human power could give them +liberty of conscience, they went to the Bible to find when their +deliverance would come. As far back as 1686 Pierre Jurieu published his +work _L'Accomplissement des propheties_, in which, speaking of the +Apocalypse, he predicted the end of the persecution and the fall of +Babylon--that is to say of Roman Catholicism--for 1689. The Revolution +in England seemed to provide a striking corroboration of his prophecies, +and the apocalyptic enthusiasm took so strong a hold on people's minds +that Bossuet felt compelled to refute Jurieu's arguments in his +_Apocalypse expliquee_, published in 1689. The _Lettres pastorales_ of +Jurieu (Rotterdam, 1686-1687), a series of brief tracts which were +secretly circulated in France, continued to narrate events and +prodigies in which the author saw the intervention of God, and thus +strengthened the courage of his adherents. This religious enthusiasm, +under the influence of Du Serre, was manifested for the first time in +the Dauphine. Du Serre, who was a pupil of Jurieu, communicated his +mystic faith to young children who were called the "petits prophetes," +the most famous of whom was a girl named "La belle Isabeau." Brought up +on the study of the prophets and the Apocalypse, these children went +from village to village quoting and requoting the most obscure and +terrible passages from these ancient prophecies (see ANTICHRIST). It is +necessary to remember that at this time the Protestants were without +ministers, all being in exile, and were thus deprived of all real +religious instruction. They listened with enthusiasm to this strange +preaching, and thousands of those who were called New Catholics were +seen to be giving up attendance at Mass. The movement advanced in +Languedoc with such rapidity that at one time there were more than three +hundred children shut up in the prisons of Uzes on the charge of +prophesying, and the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier, which was +entrusted with their examination, went so far in their ignorance as to +pronounce these irresponsible infants guilty of fanaticism. After the +peace of Ryswick, 1697, the fierceness of the persecution was redoubled +in the South. "I will show no mercy to the preachers," wrote the +terrible Baville, the so-called "king of Languedoc," and he kept his +word. The people of the Cevennes were in despair, for their loyalty to +the king had been remarkable. In 1683 on the 6th of September an +assembly composed of fifty pastors, sixty-four noblemen and thirty-four +notables, held at Colognac, had drawn up a statement of its unalterable +loyalty to Louis XIV. It is important to notice that the revolt of the +Cevennes was essentially a popular movement. Among its leaders there was +not a single nobleman, but only men of the people, a baker, a +blacksmith, some ex-soldiers; but by far the most extraordinary +characterisic is the presence, no longer of children, but of men and +women who declared themselves inspired, who fell into religious +ecstasies and roused in their comrades the most heroic bravery in battle +and at the stake. + +The assassination of the abbe du Chayla marks the beginning of the war +of the Cevennes. The abbe, a veteran Catholic missionary from Siam, had +been appointed inspector of missions in the Cevennes. There he +introduced the "squeezers" (which resembled the Scottish "boot"), and +his systematic and refined cruelty at last broke the patience of his +victims. His murder, on the 23rd of July 1702, at Pont de Monvert, was +the first blow in the war. It was planned by Esprit Seguier, who at once +began to carry out his idea of a general massacre of the Catholic +priests. He soon fell, and was succeeded by Laporte, an old soldier, +who, as his troop increased, assumed the title of "the Colonel of the +Children of God," and named his camp the "Camp of the Eternal." He used +to lead his followers to the fight, singing Clement Marot's grand +version of the 68th Psalm, "Que Dieu se montre seulement," to the music +of Goudimel. Besides Laporte, the forest-ranger Castanet, the +wool-carders Conderc and Mazel, the soldiers Catinat, Joany and Ravenel +were selected as captains--all men whom the _theomanie_ or prophetic +malady had visited. But the most important figures are those of Roland, +who afterwards issued the following extraordinary despatch to the +inhabitants of St Andre:--"Nous, comte et seigneur Roland, generalissime +des Protestants de France, nous ordonnons que vous ayez a congedier dans +trois jours tous les pretres et missionnaires qui sont chez vous, sous +peine d'etre brules tout vifs, vous et eux" (Court, i.p. 219); and Jean +Cavalier, the baker's boy, who, at the age of seventeen, commanded the +southern army of the Camisards, and who, after defeating successively +the comte de Broglie and three French marshals, Montrevel, Berwick and +Villars, made an honourable peace. (See CAVALIER, JEAN.) + +Cavalier for nearly two years continued to direct the war. Regular taxes +were raised, arsenals were formed in the great limestone caves of the +district, the Catholic churches and their decorations were burned and +the clergy driven away. Occasionally routed in regular engagements, the +Camisards, through their desperate valour and the rapidity of their +movements, were constantly successful in skirmishes, night attacks and +ambuscades. A force of 60,000 was now in the field against them; among +others, the Irish Brigade which had just returned from the persecutions +of the Waldenses. The rising was far from being general, and never +extended to more than three or four thousand men, but it was rendered +dangerous by the secret and even in many places the open support of the +people in general. On the other hand their knowledge of a mountainous +country clothed in forests and without roads, gave the insurgents an +enormous advantage over the royal troops. The rebellion was not finally +suppressed until Baville had constructed roads throughout this almost +savage country. + +Montrevel adopted a policy of extermination, and 466 villages were +burned in the Upper Cevennes alone, the population being for the most +part put to the sword. Pope Clement XI. assisted in this work by issuing +a bull against the "execrable race of the ancient Albigenses," and +promising remission of sins to the holy militia which was now formed +among the Catholic population, and was called the Florentines, Cadets of +the Cross or White Camisards. Villars, the victor of Hochstadt and +Friedlingen, saw that conciliation was necessary; he took advantage of +the feeling of horror with which the quiet Protestants of Nimes and +other towns now regarded the war, and published an amnesty. In May 1704 +a formal meeting between Cavalier and Villars took place at Nimes. The +result of the interview was that a document entitled _Tres humble +requete des reformes du Languedoc au Roi_ was despatched to the court. +The three leading requests for liberty of conscience and the right of +assembly outside walled towns, for the liberation of those sentenced to +prison or the galleys under the revocation, and for the restitution to +the emigrants of their property and civil rights, were all granted,--the +first on condition of no churches being built, and the third on +condition of an oath of allegiance being taken. The greater part of the +Camisard army under Roland, Ravenel and Joany would not accept the terms +which Cavalier had arranged. They insisted that the edict of Nantes must +be restored,--"_point de paix, que nous n'ayons nos temples_." They +continued the war till January 1705, by which time all their leaders +were either killed or dispersed. + +In 1709 Mazel and Claris, with the aid of two preaching women, Marie +Desubas and Elizabeth Catalon, made a serious effort to rekindle revolt +in the Vivarais. In 1711 all opposition and all signs of the reformed +religion had disappeared. On the 8th of March 1715, by medals and a +proclamation, Louis XIV. announced the entire extinction of heresy. + +What we know of the spiritual manifestations in the Cevennes (which much +resembled those of the Swedish Raestars of Smaland in 1844) is chiefly +derived from _Le Theatre sacre des Cevennes_, London, 1707, reprinted at +Paris in 1847; _A Cry From the Desert_, &c., by John Lacy, London, 1707; +_La Clef des propheties de M. Marion_, London, 1707; _Avertissements +prophetiques d'Elie Marion_, &c., London, 1707. About the date of these +publications the three prophets of the Cevennes, Marion, Durand-Fage and +Cavalier (a cousin of the famous Jean Cavalier) were in London and were +objects of lively curiosity. The consistory of the French church in the +Savoy sent a protest to the lord mayor against "cette secte impie et +extravagante" and the matter was tried at the Guildhall. Misson, author +of the _Theatre sacre_, declared in defence of the accused, that the +same spirit which had caused Balaam's ass to speak could speak through +the mouths of these prophets from the Cevennes. Marion and his two +friends Fatio, a member of the Royal Society of London, and Daude, a +leading savant, who acted as his secretaries, were condemned to the +pillory and to the stocks. Voltaire relates (_Siecle de Louis XIV._ c. +36) that Marion wished to prove his inspiration by attempting to raise a +dead body (Thomas Ernes) from St Paul's churchyard. He was at last +compelled to leave England.[1] + +The inspiration (of which there were four degrees, _avertissement, +souffle, prophetie, dons_) was sometimes communicated by a kiss at the +assembly. The patient, who had gone through several fasts three days in +length, became pale and fell insensible to the ground. Then came violent +agitations of the limbs and head, as Voltaire remarks, "quite according +to the ancient custom of all nations, and the rules of madness +transmitted from age to age." Finally the patient (who might be a little +child, a woman, a half-witted person) began to speak in the good French +of the Huguenot Bible words such as these: "Mes freres, amendez-vous, +faites penitence, la fin du monde approche; le jugement general sera +dans trois mois; repentez-vous du grand peche que vous avez commis +d'aller a la messe; c'est le Saint-Esprit qui parle par ma bouche" +(Brueys, _Histoire du fanatisme de notre temps_, Utrecht, 1737, vol. i. +p. 153). The discourse might go on for two hours; after which the +patient could only express himself in his native patois,--a Romance +idiom,--and had no recollection of his "ecstasy." All kinds of miracles +attended on the Camisards. Lights in the sky guided them to places of +safety, voices sang encouragement to them, shots and wounds were often +harmless. Those entranced fell from trees without hurting themselves; +they shed tears of blood; and they subsisted without food or speech for +nine days. The supernatural was part of their life. Much literature has +been devoted to the discussion of these marvels. The Catholics Flechier +(in his _Lettres choisies_) and Brueys consider them the product of +fasting and vanity, nourished on apocalyptic literature. The doctors +Bertrand (_Du magnetisme animal_, Paris, 1826) and Calmeil (_De la +folie_, Paris, 1845) speak of magnetism, hysteria and epilepsy, a +prophetic monomania based on belief in divine possession. The +Protestants especially emphasized the spirituality of the inspiration of +the Camisards; Peyral, _Histoire des pasteurs du desert_, ii. 280, +wrote: "Il fallait a cet effort gigantesque un ressort prodigieux, +l'enthousiasme ordinaire n'y eut pas suffi." Dubois, who has made a +careful study of the problem, says: "L'inspiration cevenole nous +apparait comme un phenomene purement spirituel." Conservative Catholics, +such as Hippolyte Blanc in his book on _L'inspiration des Camisards_ +(1859), regard the whole thing as the work of the devil. The publication +of J.F.K. Hecker's work, _Die Volkskrankheiten des Mittelalters_, made +it possible to consider the subject in its true relation. This was +translated into English in 1844 by B.G. Babington as _The Epidemics of +the Middle Ages_. + +Although the Camisards were guilty of great cruelties in the prosecution +of the war, there does not seem to be sufficient ground for the charge +made by Marshal de Villars: "Le plupart de leurs chefs ont leurs +demoiselles" (letter of 9th August 1704, in the _War Archives_, vol. +1797). Court replied to these unjust charges: "Their enemies have +accused them of leading a life of licence because there were women in +their camps. These were their wives, their daughters, their mothers, who +were there to prepare their food and to nurse the wounded" (_Histoire_, +vol. i. p. 71). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The works devoted to the history of the Camisards are + very numerous. Nevertheless there exists no work specifically devoted + to this extremely interesting period in French history, for in none of + the published works has proper use been made of the valuable documents + preserved in the archives of the ministry of war. Among the chief + works are:--Pere Louvreleuil (priest, former cure of St. Germain de + Calberte), _Histoire du fanatisme renouvele ou l'on raconte les + sacrileges, les maladies et les meurtres commis dans les Cevennes_ + (Toulouse, 1704); M. de Brueys, _Suite de l'histoire du fanatisme de + notre temps ou l'on voit les derniers troubles des Cevennes_ (Paris, + 1709); _Lettres choisies de M. Flechier eveque de Nimes avec une + relation des fanatiques du Vivarez_ (Paris, 1715); Madame de Merez de + l'Incarnation, _Memoires et journal tres fidele de ce qui s'est passe + le 11 de may 1703 jusqu'au 1 juin 1705 a Nimes touchant les + phanatiques_, published by E. de Barthelemy (Montpellier, 1874). These + works are written by Catholic writers immediately after the war of the + Cevennes, and, despite their partiality, include some valuable + documents. _Memoires du marquis de Guiscard_ (Delft, 1705); Maximilien + Misson, _Le Theatre sacre des Cevennes ou Recit de diverses merveilles + nouvellement operees dans cette partie de la province de Languedoc_ + (London, 1707); Misson, the author of the _Voyages en Italie_, which + met with such a great success, gave prominence to the facts relating + to the inspiration of the Camisards; the _Theatre_ also contains + important extracts from the works of Benoit, Brueys, Guiscard and + Boyer, and several original letters from Camisards; _Histoire des + Camisards, &c._ (London, 1740), the anonymous work of a distinguished + writer, which was eventually condemned by the parlement of Toulouse + to be torn up and burnt in 1759; Antoine Court, _Histoire des troubles + des Cevennes_ (3 vols., 1760), the best work of this period, compiled + from numerous manuscript references. The war of the Cevennes has been + treated in several English works, e.g. _A Compleat History of the + Cevennes, giving a Particular Account of the Situation, &c._, by a + doctor of civil law (London, 1703). This work includes a dedication to + the queen, an historical account of the people of the Cevennes, the + bull of Pope Clement against the Camisards, and the bishop of Nimes's + mandate publishing the bull, and a discourse on the obligations of the + English to help the Camisards, and a form of prayer used in the + Camisard assembly, printed in London in 1703 under the title + _Formulaire de prieres des Cevennois dans leurs assemblees. The + History of the Rise and Downfal of the Camisards, &c._ (London, 1709), + dealt with the prophets of the Cevennes in London, and is only an + abridged translation of Pere Louvreleuil's work. Among modern works + are, Ernest Moret, _Quinze ans du regne de Louis XIV_ (3 vols., 1859), + a work which gives a remarkable history of the war of the Cevennes; + _Les Insurges protestants sous Louis XIV._, studies and unedited + documents published by G. Frosterus (1868); _Memoires de Bonbonnoux_, + chief Camisard and pastor of the desert, published by Vielles (1883); + Bonnemere, _Histoire de la guerre des Camisards_ (1859). Two popular + works are--F. Puaux, _Histoire populaire de la guerre des Camisards_ + (1875); Anna E. Bray, _The Revolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes + with some Account of the Huguenots of the Seventeenth Century_ + (London, 1870). (F. Px.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This curious affair provoked a lengthy controversy, which is + described in "La Relation historique de ce qui s'est passe a Londres + au sujet des prophetes camisards" (_Republique des Lettres_, 1708), + in the study of M. Vesson, _Les Prophetes camisards a Londres_ + (1893), and also in the book _Les Prophetes cevenols_, ch. iii. + (1861) by Alfred Dubois. + + + + +CAMOENS [CAMOES], LUIS VAZ DE (1524-1580), the prince of Portuguese +poets, sprang from an illustrious and wealthy family of Galician origin, +whose seat, called the castle of Camoens, lay near Cape Finisterre. His +ancestor, the poet Vasco Pires de Camoens, followed the party of Peter +the Cruel of Castile against Henry II., and on the defeat of the former +had to take refuge along with other Galician nobles in Portugal, where +he founded the Portuguese family of his name. King Fernando received him +well, and gave him posts of honour and estates, and though the master of +Aviz sequestered some of these and Vasco lost others after the battle of +Aljubarrota, where he fought on the Spanish side, considerable +possessions still remained to him. Antao Vaz, the grandfather of Luis, +married one of the Algarve Gamas, so that Vasco da Gama and Camoens, the +discoverer of the sea route to India and the poet who immortalized the +voyage in his _Lusiads_, were kinsmen. Antao's eldest son Simao Vaz was +born in Coimbra at the close of the 15th century, and married Anna de Sa +e Macedo, who bore him an only son, Luis Vaz de Camoens; thus the poet, +like his father and grandfather, was a _cavalleiro fidalgo_, that is, an +untitled noble. + +Four cities dispute the honour of being his birthplace, though Lisbon +has the better title; and there is a like dispute about the year, which, +however, was almost certainly 1524. The poet spent his childhood in +Coimbra, where his father owned a property, and made his first studies +at the college of All Saints, designed for "honourable poor students," +and there contracted friendships with noblemen like D. Goncalo da +Silveira and his brother D. Alvaro, who were inmates of the nobles' +college of St Michael. These colleges were offshoots from and attached +to the Augustinian monastery of Santa Cruz, an important religious and +scholastic establishment, where the poet's uncle D. Bento de Camoens, a +virtuous and very learned man, was professed. The Renaissance, though +late in penetrating into Portugal, had by this time definitely +triumphed, and the university of Coimbra, after its reform in 1537 under +the auspices of King John III., boasted the best teachers drawn from +every country, among them George Buchanan. The possession of classical +culture was regarded as the mark of a gentleman; the colleges of Santa +Cruz required conversation within the walls to be in Greek or Latin, and +the university, when it absorbed the colleges, adopted the same rule. In +these surroundings, aided by a retentive memory, Camoens steeped himself +in the literature and mythology of the ancients, as his works show, and +he was thus able in after years to perfect the Portuguese language and +to enrich it with many neologisms of classical origin. It is fortunate, +however, for his country and his fame that he never followed the fashion +of writing in Latin; on the contrary, except for his Spanish poems, he +always employed his native tongue. After completing his grammar and +rhetoric the poet entered on his university course for the degree of +bachelor of arts, which lasted for three years, from 1539 to 1542, and +during this period he met Jorge de Montemayor, the author of _Diana_, +who was then studying music. He seems to have imbibed much of that +encyclopaedic instruction to which the humanists aspired, for his +writings show a very extensive reading, and his scientific knowledge and +faculty of observation compelled the admiration of the great Humboldt. +The thoroughness of his teaching is apparent when we remember that he +wrote his epic in the fortresses of Africa and Asia, far from books, and +yet gave proof of acquaintance with universal history, geography, +astronomy, Greek and Latin literature, and the modern poetry of Italy +and Spain. Much of the credit for this learning must be attributed to +the encouragement of D. Bento, now prior of Santa Cruz, who became +chancellor of the university the very year when Camoens entered it. +There is a tradition that this uncle destined him for the church and +caused him to study theology. The poet's knowledge of dogma and the +Bible, his friendly intercourse with the Lisbon Dominicans at the end of +his life, and the share he is said to have taken in their disputations, +make the hypothesis a likely one, but he made his own choice and +preferred a lay life. We have very little verse of his Coimbra time, but +it seems that he began in the Italian manner, following the new +classical school of Sa de Miranda (q.v.), and that, though attached to +the popular muse and well acquainted with the national songs and +romances, legends and lore, his poetry in the old style (_medida velha_) +is mostly of later date. An exception may perhaps be found in his _Auto_ +after the manner of Gil Vicente (q.v.), _The Amphitryons_, a Portuguese +adaptation from Plautus which was very well received. At the age of +eighteen Camoens left Coimbra, bidding adieu to the old city in verses +breathing the most tender _saudade_. Lisbon, which impressed Cervantes +so much as to draw from him a classic description in the novel _Persiles +y Sigismunda_, made an even greater impression on the youthful Camoens, +and the _Lusiads_ are full of eulogistic epithets on the city and the +Tagus. + +Arriving in 1543, it has been conjectured that he became tutor to D. +Antonio de Noronha, son of the great noble D. Francisco de Noronha, +count of Linhares, who had lately returned from a French embassy to his +palace at Xabregas. The poet's birth and talents admitted him to the +society of men like D. Constantine de Braganza, the duke of Aveiro, the +marquis of Cascaes, the count of Redondo, D. Manoel de Portugal and D. +Goncalo da Silveira, son of the count of Sortelha, who died a Christian +martyr in Monomotapa. At Xabregas Camoens must have met Francisco de +Moraes (q.v.), who had served as secretary to the count of Linhares on +his embassy, and there he probably read the MS. of _Palmeirim_; this +would explain the origin of two of his roundels which are clearly +founded on passages in the romance. Camoens had had a youthful love +affair in Coimbra, but on Good Friday of the year 1544 he experienced +the passion of his life. On that day in some Lisbon church he caught +sight of D. Catherina de Ataide (daughter of D. Antonio de Lima, high +chamberlain to the infant D. Duarte), who had recently become a +lady-in-waiting to the queen. This young girl, the Nathercia of his +after songs, counted then some thirteen years, and was destined to be +his Beatrice. To see more of her, he persuaded the count of Linhares to +introduce him to the court, where his poetical gifts and culture ensured +him a ready welcome, and his fifth idyll, addressed to his patron on +this occasion, paved the way for his entrance. Though inferior to his +later compositions, it excels in harmony any verse previously written in +Portuguese. At first his suit probably met with few difficulties, and if +Catherina's family regarded it seriously, their poverty, combined with +the fact that the poet came of a good stock and had the future in his +hands, may have prevented any real opposition. It was his own imprudence +that marred his fortunes, and his consciousness of this fact gave his +muse that moving expression, truth and _saudade_, which are lacking in +the somewhat artificial productions of the sentimental Petrarch. But +while Camoens gained protectors and admirers, his temperament and +conduct ensured him envious foes, and the secret of his love got out and +became the subject of gossip. All was not smooth with the lady, who +showed herself coy; now yielding to her heart, she was kind; and then +listening to her friends, who would have preferred a better match for +her, she repelled her lover. Jealousy then seized him, and sick of court +life for the moment, he gladly accompanied his patron to the latter's +country house; but once there he recognized that Lisbon was the centre +of attraction for him and that he could not be happy at a distance. His +verses at this time reveal his parlous condition. He oscillates between +joy and depression. He passes from tender regrets to violent outbursts, +which are followed by calm and peace, while expressions of passionate +love alternate with bold desires and lofty ambitions. It is clear that +there was an understanding between him and Catherina and that they +looked forward to a happy ending, and this encouraged him in his weary +waiting and his search for a lucrative post which would enable him to +approach her family and ask for her hand. From this period date the +greater part of his roundels and sonnets, some of the odes and nearly +all the eclogues. + +His fifth eclogue shows that he was seriously thinking of his patriotic +poem in 1544; and from the fourth it seems likely that the _Lusiads_ +were in course of composition, and that cantos 3 and 4 were practically +completed. He had by now established his fame and was known as the +Lusitanian Virgil, but presently he had a rude awakening from his dreams +of love and glory. He had shown his affection too openly, and some +infraction of court etiquette, about which the queen was strict, caused +the tongue of scandal to wag; perhaps it was an affair with one of +Catherina's brothers, even a duel, that led to the decree which exiled +him from Lisbon. + +Camoens's rashness, self-confidence and want of respect for the +authorities all contributed to the penalty, and the composition of the +play _El Rei Seleuco_ would aggravate his offence in the eyes of John +III. Produced in 1545 and derived from Plutarch, the plot was calculated +to draw attention to the relations between the king and his stepmother, +and to recall the action of D. Manoel in robbing his son John III. of +his intended bride. Camoens composed it for a wedding festivity in the +house of Estacio da Fonseca, and some of the verses refer so openly to +his passion, that if, as is likely, he spoke them himself, emphasizing +them with voice and gesture so as to publish his love to the world, this +new boldness, combined with the subject of the piece, must have rendered +his exile a certainty. All we know definitely, however, is that the +court was henceforth closed to him, and in 1546 he had to leave Lisbon, +the abode of his love and the scene of his triumph. Tradition says that +he went to the Ribatejo and spent seven or eight months with his +mother's relatives in or near Santarem, whence he poured out a number of +his finest poems, including his _Elegy of Exile_ and some magnificent +sonnets, which, in vigour of ideas and beauty of expression, exceeded +anything he had hitherto produced. Poets cannot live on bays, however, +and pressed by necessity he determined to become a soldier. + +One of his best modern biographers thinks that he petitioned the king +for liberty to commute his penalty into military service in Africa; but +whether this be so, or whether he merely went there to gain his spurs, +certain it is that in the autumn of 1547 he proceeded to Ceuta. For the +next two years, the usual period of service there, he lived the routine +life of a common soldier in this famous trade emporium and outpost-town, +and he lost his right eye in a skirmish with the Moroccans, though some +writers make the incident occur on the voyage across the straits when +his ship was attacked by Sallee rovers. Elegy ii. and a couple of odes +date from his stay in Ceuta. He is full of sadness and almost in +despair, but is saved from suicide by love and memory of the past. He +has intervals of calm and resignation, even of satirical humour, and +these become more frequent as the term of his exile draws near, and in +one of them he wrote his prose letter to a "Lisbon friend." The octaves +on the _Discontent of the World_, which breathe a philosophic equanimity +and lift the reader out of the tumult of daily life, go to show that his +restless heart had found peace at last and that he had accustomed +himself to solitude. + +In November 1549 the aged governor of Ceuta, D. Affonso de Noronha, was +summoned to court and created viceroy of India, and Camoens accompanied +him to Lisbon, intending to follow him to the East in the armada which +was due to sail in the spring of 1550. Reaching the capital in December, +the poet almost immediately enlisted, but when the time came for +departure he had changed his mind. His affection for Catherina and +dreams of literary glory detained him, and he lived on in the +expectation of obtaining a post on the strength of his services and +wound. But month after month passed by without result, and in his +disappointment he allied himself with a group of hot-blooded youths, +including the ex-friar Antonio Ribeiro, nicknamed "the Chiado", after +whom the main street of Lisbon takes its name, and endeavoured to forget +his troubles in their society. He took part in their extravagances and +gained the name of "Trinca-fortes" ("Crack-braves") from his bohemian +companions, while there were ladies who mocked at his disfigurement, +dubbing him "devil" and "eyeless face". In the course of his adventures +he had often to draw his sword, either as attacker or attacked, and he +boasted that he had seen the soles of the feet of many but none had seen +his. When the reply to his application came from the palace it was a +negative one, and he had now nothing further to expect. His stock of +money brought from Ceuta was certainly exhausted, and misery stared him +in the face, making him desperate. On the feast of Corpus Christi, the +16th of June 1552, he found two masked friends of his engaged in a +street fight near St Dominic's convent, and joining in the fray he +wounded one Goncalo Borges, a palace servant, with the result that he +was apprehended and lodged in gaol. This unprovoked attack upon a royal +servant on so holy a day constituted a serious offence and cost him +eight months' imprisonment. In a pathetic sonnet he describes his +terrible experiences, which made such an impression on him that years +afterwards he recurred to them in his great autobiographical Canzon 10. +When Borges' wound was completely healed, the poet's friends intervened +to assist him, and it was arranged that on his formally imploring pardon +Borges should grant it and desist from proceeding with the case. This +was effected on the 13th of February 1553, and on the 7th of March the +king, taking into consideration that Camoens was "a youth and poor and +decided to serve this year in India", confirmed the pardon. He had been +obliged to humble his pride and enlist again, but while he complained of +his troubles he recognized, in his frank, honest way, that his own +mistakes were in part the causes of them. + +After bidding good-bye to Catherina for the last time, Camoens set sail +on Palm Sunday, the 24th of March 1553, in the "S. Bento", the flagship +of a fleet of four vessels, under Fernao Alvares Cabral. His last words, +he says in a letter, were those of Scipio Africanus, "Ingrata patria, +non possidebis ossa mea". + +He relates some of his experiences on board and the events of the voyage +in various sonnets in Elegy iii. and in the _Lusiads_. In those days the +sailors navigated the ships, while the men-at-arms kept the day and +night watches, helped in the cleaning and, in case of necessity, at the +pumps, but the rank of Camoens doubtless saved him from manual work. He +had much time to himself in his six months' voyage and was able to lay +in a store of nautical knowledge, while tempestuous weather off the Cape +of Good Hope led him to conceive the dramatic episode of Adamastor +(_Lusiads_, canto 5). The "S. Bento", the best ship of the fleet, +weathered the Cape safely, and without touching at Mozambique, the +watering-place of ships bound for India, anchored at Goa in September. +It seems probable that the idea of the _Lusiads_ took further shape on +the voyage out, and that Camoens modified his plan; cantos 3 and 4 were +already written, but from an historical he now made it a maritime epic. +The discovery of India became the main theme, while the history of +Portugal was interlaced with it, and the poem ended with the espousals +between Portugal and the ocean, and a prophecy of the future greatness +of the fatherland. + +At the time of his arrival Goa boasted 100,000 inhabitants, and with its +magnificent harbour was the commercial capital of the west of India. The +first viceroy had been content with a sea dominion, but the great +Affonso de Albuquerque saw that this was not enough to secure the +supremacy of the Portuguese; recognizing the strategic value of Goa, he +seized it and made it the capital of a land empire, and built fortresses +in every important point through the East. Since his death a succession +of remarkable victories had made the flag of Portugal predominant, but +the enervating climate, the pleasures and the plunder of Asia, began to +tell on the conquerors. Corruption was rife from the governor downwards, +because the ruling ambition was to get rich and return home, and the +hero of one day was a pirate the next. After all, it was only human +nature, for a governorship lasted but three years and Portugal was far +away, so the saying went round--"They are installed the first year, they +rob the second, and then pack up in the third to sail away." Camoens was +well received at first, owing to his talents and bravery, and he found +the life cheap and merry, but having left his country with high ideals, +the injustice and demoralization of manners he found in India soon +disgusted him. He compared Goa to Babylon, and called it "the mother of +villains and the stepmother of honest men." + +His first military service in the East took place in November 1553, when +he went with a force led by the viceroy to chastise a petty king on the +Malabar coast. The expedition only lasted two or three months, and after +some trivial combats it returned to Goa. In February of the following +year Camoens accompanied the viceroy's son, D. Fernando de Menezes, who +led an armada to the mouth of the Red Sea and thence up the Arabian +coast to snap up hostile merchantmen and suppress piracy. Next the fleet +went on to Ormuz, as was the custom with these annual cruises, and then +to Bassora, where the poet helped to make some valuable prizes, and +wrote a sonnet--it was ever, with him, "in one hand the sword, in the +other the pen"! Returning to Goa in November he learnt of the deaths of +Prince John, and of his friend and pupil the young D. Antonio de +Noronha, and paid his tribute in a feeling sonnet and eclogue. In +February 1555 he sailed on another pirate hunt and spent six weary +months off Cape Guardafui, varied by a visit to Mombasa and by further +work on his epic, and only got back to Goa in the following September. +His experiences are recorded in the profound and sad 10th Canzon. + +Meanwhile Francisco Barreto, an honourable and generous man, had become +governor-general of India in the June of 1555, and, his appointment +being popular, a reign of festivities began in Golden Goa to welcome his +succession, in the course of which Camoens produced his _Filodemo_, a +dramatized novel written in his court days. The same occasion probably +gave birth to the _Disparates na India_ ("Follies of India"), and +certainly to the _Satyra do Torneio_ ("Satire of the Tourney"), which +confirmed the poet's reputation as a sayer of sharp things and gave +considerable umbrage to those whom the cap fitted. However, it was not +the enmities thus aroused but military duty which compelled him to quit +Goa once more in the spring of 1556. He had enlisted in Lisbon for five +years, the usual term, and in compliance with the orders of the governor +he sailed for the Moluccas in April and there fought and versified for +two years, though nearly all is guesswork at this period of his life. He +appears to have spent the time between September 1556 and February 1557 +in the island of Ternate, where he wrote Canzon 6, revealing a state of +moral depression similar to that of Canzon 10, and he perhaps visited +Banda and Amboina. In the following year he took part in the military +occupation of Macao, which the emperor of China had presented to the +Portuguese in return for their destruction of a pirate fleet which had +besieged Canton. The poet's five years' term of service was now over, +and he remained at Macao many months waiting for a ship to carry him +back to India. He had made some profit out of the _Merci de Viagem_, +granted by the governor Barreto to free him from the poverty in which he +habitually lived, and he spent his money royally. At the same time he +continued his epic, working in the grotto which still bears his name. + +All seemed to be going smoothly with him until suddenly his fortunes +took a serious turn for the worse. As the result of an intrigue the +captain of the yearly ship from China to India, who acted as governor of +Macao during his stay in port, imprisoned Camoens, and took him on +board with a view of bringing him to trial in India. The ship, however, +was wrecked in October 1559 at the mouth of the Mekong river, and the +poet had to save his life and his _Lusiads_ by swimming to shore, and +though he preserved the six or seven finished cantos of the poem, he +lost everything else. While wandering about on the Cambodian coast +awaiting the monsoon and a vessel to take him to Malacca, he composed +those magnificent stanzas "By the Waters of Babylon," called by Lope de +Vega "the pearl of all poetry," in which he recalls the happy days of +his youth, sighs for Lisbon (Sion) and his love, and mourns his long +exile from home. He got somehow to Malacca, and after a short stay there +reached Goa, still as prisoner, in June 1561. He was straightway lodged +in gaol, where he heard for the first time of the death of Catherina, +and he poured out his grief in the great sonnet, _Alma Minha Gentil_. +The viceroy, D. Constantius de Braganca, had recently returned from +Jafanapatam, bringing as prize a tooth of Buddha, and Camoens approached +him with a splendid epistle in twenty octaves, after the manner of +Horace's ode to Augustus. It failed, however, to hasten the +consideration of his case, but in September the Conde de Redondo, a good +friend, came into office and immediately ordered his release from +prison. His troubles were not yet at an end, however, for one Miguel +Rodriguez Coutinho, a well-known soldier and citizen of Goa who lent +money at usurious rates, thought the opportunity a good one to obtain +repayment of a debt, and had Camoens lodged once more in gaol. As soon +as he came out the poet composed a burlesque roundel satirizing his +persecutor under the nickname of Fios Seccos ("dry threads"). + +Though very poor he now led an easier, even a pleasant life for a time. +He was able to see his friends D. Vasco de Ataide, D. Francisco de +Almeida, Heitor da Silveira, Joao Lopes Leitao and Francisco de Mello, +all men of family and note. One day he invited them to a banquet, at +which, instead of the usual dishes, each guest was served with a set of +witty verses, and after these had been read out and chaff had gone +round, the food came and they formed a merry party. The poet used his +interest with the viceroy to recommend to him the naturalist Garcia da +Orta, whose _Colloquies_ on the simples and drugs of the East, the first +product of the press in India, appeared in April 1563 with an ode by +Camoens. His life for the next three years is almost a blank, but we +know that he was hard at work finishing his epic, assisted by the advice +of the historian Diogo do Couto, who became its commentator, and further +that the new viceroy, his friend D. Antao de Noronha, nominated him to a +reversion of the factory of Chaul, which, however, never fell into +possession. It is clear from his writings that fourteen years in the +East had told on Camoens. His best friends were dead or scattered, and +he was overwhelmed with _saudade_. His sole ambition was to go home and +print his poem, but he had no money to pay his passage. In September +1567, however, Pedro Barreto was named captain of Mozambique, and +insisted on the poet accompanying him to Sofala, at the same time +lending him two hundred cruzades. It was part of the way home, so +Camoens accepted, but after they reached Mozambique Barreto called in +this money, and his debtor, being unable to pay, was detained there for +two whole years. Here Diogo do Couto found him "so poor that he ate at +the cost of friends, and in order that he might embark for the Kingdom +we friends collected for him the clothes he needed and some gave him to +eat, and that winter he finished perfecting the _Lusiads_ for the press +and wrote much in a book he was making, which he called _Parnaso of Luiz +de Camoes_, a book of much learning, doctrine and philosophy, which was +stolen from him." Thanks to Couto and others, Camoens was able to +liquidate his debt and set sail in November 1569 in the "Santa Clara," +and he reached Portugal on the 7th of April 1570, after an absence of +seventeen years. + +The only wealth he brought with him from India was the MS. of his great +poem, a _"Tesoro del Luso"_ in the words of Cervantes. Moreover, he +returned at an unfortunate moment--one of pest and famine. The great +plague which had killed a quarter, or, as some say, half of the +population of the capital, was declining, but a rigid quarantine +prevailed, and the ship had to lie off Cascaes until the sanitary +authorities allowed her to enter the Tagus. Camoens was welcomed by his +mother, whom he found "very old and very poor"--his father had died at +Goa about 1555--and after a visit to Catherina's tomb, which inspired +the poignant sonnet 337, he set about obtaining the royal licence to +print the _Lusiads_. This was dated the 24th of September 1571 and gave +him a ten years' copyright, and as soon as the book appeared some +friendly and influential hand, perhaps D. Manoel de Portugal, perhaps D. +Francisca de Aragao for whom he had rhymed in the happy days of his +youth, presented the national epic to King Sebastian. Shortly +afterwards, on the 28th of July 1572, the king gave the poet a pension +of fifteen milreis for the term of three years, as a reward for his +services in India and for his poem. It was relatively a considerable +sum, seeing that he had no great military record, and it seems even +generous when we remember that Magellan had only received twelve, and +had left Portugal because King Manoel would not give him a slight +increase. Many functionaries with families had less to live on, and +Camoens's subsistence was secure for the time being, and he could afford +an attendant, so that the legend of the slave Antonio may well be true. +Moreover, he was in the enjoyment of the fame his poem brought him. +Philip II. is said to have read and admired it, and the powerful +minister, Pedro de Alcacova Carneiro, echoed the general opinion when he +remarked that it had only one defect, in not being short enough to learn +by heart or long enough to have no ending. Tributes came from abroad +too. Tasso wrote and sent Camoens a sonnet in his praise, Fernando de +Herrera celebrated him, and the year 1580 saw the publication of two +Spanish versions, one at Alcala, the other at Salamanca. His pension +lapsed in 1575, but on the 2nd of August it was renewed for a further +term; owing, however, to a mistake of the treasury officials, Camoens +drew nothing for about a year and a half and fell into dire distress. +This explains the story of Ruy da Camara, who had engaged him to +translate the penitential psalms, and not receiving the version, called +on the poet, who said in excuse that he had no spirit for such work now +that he wanted for everything, and that his slave had asked him for a +penny for fuel and he could not give it. + +On the 2nd of June 1578, just before his start for the expedition to +Africa which cost him his life and Portugal her independence, King +Sebastian had renewed the poet's pension for a further period. Though +Camoens had neither the health nor the means to accompany the splendid +train of nobles and courtiers who followed the last crusading monarch to +his doom, he began an epic to celebrate the enterprise, but burnt it +when he heard the news of the battle of Alcacer. Instead, he mourned the +death of his royal benefactor in a magnificent sonnet, and in Elegy x. +reproached the cowardly soldiery who contributed to the rout. On the +31st of January 1580 the cardinal king Henry died, and, foreseeing the +Spanish invasion, Camoens wrote in March to his old friend D. Francisco +de Almeida: "All will see that I so loved my country that I was content +not only to die in her but with her." A great plague had been raging in +Lisbon since the previous year, and the poet, who lay ill in his poor +cottage in the rua de Santa Anna, depressed by the calamities of his +country, fell a victim to it. He was removed to a hospital and there +passed away, unmarried and the last of his line, on the 10th of June +1580. A Carmelite, Frei Jose Indio, attended him in his last moments and +received the only recognition Camoens could give, his copy of the +_Lusiads_. He wrote afterwards: "What more grievous thing than to see so +great a genius thus unfortunate. I saw him die in a hospital in Lisbon, +without a sheet to cover him, after having triumphed in the East Indies +and sailed 5000 leagues by sea." The house of Vimioso supplied the +winding-sheet, and Camoens was buried with other victims of the plague +in a common grave in the cemetery of Santa Anna. Years later D. Goncalo +Coutinho erected in the church of that invocation an _in memoriam_ slab +of marble with an inscription, and subsequently epitaphs were added by +other admirers, but the earthquake of 1755 damaged the building, and all +traces of these last acts of homage to genius have disappeared. The +third centenary of the poet's death was made the occasion of a national +apotheosis, and on the 8th of June 1880 some remains, piously believed +to be his, were borne with those of Vasco da Gama to the national +pantheon, the Jeronymos at Belem. + +The masterpiece of Camoens, the _Lusiads_, is the _epos_ of discovery. +It is written in hendecasyllabic _ottava rima_, and is divided into ten +cantos containing in all 1102 stanzas. Its argument is briefly as +follows. After an exordium proposing the subject, invoking the Tagus +muses and addressing King Sebastian, Vasco da Gama's ships are shown +sailing up the East African coast on their way to India. At a council of +the gods the fate of the fleet is discussed, and Bacchus promises to +thwart the voyage, while Venus and Mars favour the navigators. They +arrive at Mozambique, where the governor endeavours to destroy them by +stratagem, and, this failing, Bacchus tries other plots against them at +Quiloa and Mombasa which are foiled by Venus. In answer to her appeal, +Jupiter foretells the glorious feats of the Portuguese in the East, and +sends Mercury to direct the voyagers to Melinde, where they are +hospitably received and get a pilot to guide them to India. The local +ruler visits the fleet and asks Gama about his country and its history, +and in response the latter gives an account of the origin of the kingdom +of Portugal, its kings and principal achievements, ending with the +incidents of the voyage out. This recital occupies cantos 3, 4 and 5, +and includes some of the most admired and most powerful episodes in the +poem, e.g. those of Ignez de Castro, King Manoel's dream of the rivers +Ganges and Indus, the speech of the old man of Belem and the apparition +of Adamastor off the Cape of Good Hope. Canto 6 describes the crossing +of the Indian Ocean from Melinde to Calicut and a fresh hostile attempt +on the part of Bacchus. He descends to Neptune's palace, and at a +council of the sea-gods it is resolved to order Aeolus to loose the +winds against the Portuguese, but the tempest is quelled by Venus and +her nymphs in answer to Gama's prayer, and the morning light reveals the +Ghats of India. Just before the storm, occurs the night scene in which +Velloso entertains his shipmates with the story of the Twelve of +England, another of the famous episodes. Canto 7 is taken up with the +arrival at Calicut, a description of the country and the details of +Gama's reception by the raja. The governor of the city visits the fleet +and inquires about the pictures on their banners, whereupon Paulo da +Gama, Vasco's brother, tells him of the deeds of the early Portuguese +kings. Meanwhile Bacchus, not to be baulked, appears to a priest in the +guise of Mahomet, and stirs up the Moslems against the Christian +adventurers, with the result that the raja charges Gama with being a +leader of convicts and pirates. To this the captain makes a spirited +reply and gets his despatch, but he has new snares to avoid and further +difficulties to overcome before he is finally able to set sail on the +return voyage. Pitying their toils, Venus determines to give the +voyagers repose and pleasure on their way home, and directs their course +to an enchanted island, which is described in canto 9, in the longest +and perhaps the most beautiful episode in the poem. On landing they are +received by the goddess and her nymphs, and general joy ensues, +heightened by banquets and amorous play. In a prophetic song, the siren +tells of the exploits of the Portuguese viceroys, governors and captains +in India until the time of D John de Castro, after which Tethys ascends +a mountain with Gama, shows him the spheres after the system of Ptolemy +and the globe of Asia and Africa, and describes the Indian life of St +Thomas the apostle. Finally the navigators quit the island and reach +Lisbon, and an epilogue contains a patriotic exhortation to King +Sebastian and visions of glory, which ended so disastrously at the +battle of Alcacer. + +Though the influence of Camoens on Portuguese has been exaggerated, it +was very considerable, and he so far fixed the written language that at +the present day it is commonly and not inaccurately called "the language +of Camoens." The _Lusiads_ is the most successful modern epic cast in +the ancient mould, and it has done much to preserve the corporate life +of the Portuguese people and to keep alive the spirit of nationality in +times of adversity like the "Spanish Captivity" and the Napoleonic +invasion. Even now it forms a powerful bond between the mother-country +and her potentially mighty daughter-nation across the Atlantic, the +United States of Brazil. The men of the Renaissance saw nothing +incongruous in that mixture of paganism and Christianity which is found +in the _Lusiads_ as in Ariosto, though some modern critics, like +Voltaire, consider it a grave artistic defect in the poem. The fact that +the _Lusiads_ is written in a little-known language, and its intensely +national and almost exclusively historical character, undoubtedly +militate against a right estimate of its value, now that Portugal, once +a world power, has long ceased to hold the East in fee or to guide the +destinies of Europe. But though political changes may and do react on +literary appreciations, the _Lusiads_ remains none the less a great +poem, breathing the purest religious fervour, love of country and spirit +of chivalry, with splendid imaginative and descriptive passages full of +the truest and deepest poetry. The structure is Virgilian, but the whole +conception is the author's own, while the style is natural and noble, +the diction nearly always correct and elegant, and the verse, as a rule, +sonorous and full of harmony. + +In addition to his epic, Camoens wrote sonnets, canzons, odes, sextines, +eclogues, elegies, octaves, roundels, letters and comedies. The roundels +include _cartas, motes, voltas, cantigas, trovas, pastorals_ and +_endechas_. In the opinion of many competent judges Camoens only attains +his true stature in his lyrics; and a score of his sonnets, two or three +of the canzons, eclogues and elegies, and the Babylonian roundels will +bear comparison with any composition of the same kind that other +literatures can show. Referring to the _Lusiads_, A. von Humboldt calls +Camoens a "great maritime painter," but in his best lyrics he is a +thinker as well as a poet, and when free from the trammels of the epic +and inherited respect for classical traditions, he reveals a personality +so virile and deep, a philosophy so broad and human, a vision so wide, +and a form and style so nearly perfect, as not only to make him the +foremost of Peninsular bards but to entitle him to a place in that small +company of universal poets of the first rank. + +The oldest and most authentic portrait of Camoens appeared in 1624 with +his life, by Manoel Severim de Faria. It is a kitcat and shows the poet +in armour wearing a laurel crown; his right hand holds a pen, his left +rests on a copy of the _Lusiads_, while a shield above shows the family +arms, a dragon rising from between rocks. The likeness exhibits a Gothic +or northern type, and the tradition of his red beard and blue eyes +confirms it. Except for an ode, sonnet and elegy, all Camoens's lyrics +were published posthumously. + + AUTHORITIES.--The most modern and most critical biographies are those + of Dr Theophilo Braga, _Camoes, epoca e Vide_ (Oporto, 1907), and of + Dr Wilhelm Storck, _Luis de Camoes Leben_ (Paderborn, 1890), while the + most satisfactory edition of the complete works is due to the Visconde + de Juromenha (6 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1869), though it contains some + spurious matter. While rejecting without good reason many of the + traditions accepted by Juromenha in his life of the poet, Storck + embroiders on his own account, and Braga must be preferred to him. Two + volumes of Innocencio da Silva's _Diccionario Bibliographico + Portuguez_ (14 and 15) are entirely devoted to Camoens and Camoniana, + the second of them dealing fully with the tercentenary celebrations. + Among modern Portuguese studies of the national epic the most + important are perhaps _Camoes e a Renascenca em Portugal_, by Oliveira + Martins, and _Camoes e o Sentimento Nacional_, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, + 1891). The latter volume contains useful information on the various + editions of Camoens, with an account of the texts and remarks on his + plagiarists. Very few poets have been so often translated, and a list + and estimate of the English translations of the _Lusiads_ from the + time of Sir Richard Fanshawe (1655) downwards, will be found in Sir + Richard Burton's _Camoens: His Life and His Lusiads_, which, + notwithstanding some errors, is a most informing book, and the result + of a curious similarity of temperament and experience between master + and disciple. Burton translated the _Lusiads_ (2 vols., London, 1880) + and the _Lyricks_ (sonnets, canzons, odes and sextines; 2 vols., + London, 1884), and left a version of all the minor works in MS. The + accurate and readable version of the epic by Mr J.J. Aubertin, with + the Portuguese text opposite, has gone through two editions (2nd ed., + 2 vols., London, 1884), and there is a version of seventy of the + sonnets, accompanied by the Portuguese text, by the same author + (London, 1881). (E. Pr.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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